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+Project Gutenberg's The Conquest of Canada (Vol. 1 of 2), by George Warburton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Conquest of Canada (Vol. 1 of 2)
+
+Author: George Warburton
+
+Release Date: April 21, 2008 [EBook #25119]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONQUEST OF CANADA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Graeme Mackreth and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+CONQUEST OF CANADA.
+
+BY
+
+THE AUTHOR OF "HOCHELAGA."
+
+
+IN TWO VOLUMES.
+
+VOL. 1.
+
+NEW YORK:
+HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+82 CLIFF STREET.
+1850.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+England and France started in a fair race for the magnificent prize of
+supremacy in America. The advantages and difficulties of each were much
+alike, but the systems by which they improved those advantages and met
+those difficulties were essentially different. New France was colonized
+by a government, New England by a people. In Canada the men of
+intellect, influence, and wealth were only the agents of the mother
+country; they fulfilled, it is true, their colonial duties with zeal and
+ability, but they ever looked to France for honor and approbation, and
+longed for a return to her shores as their best reward. They were in the
+colony, but not of it. They strove vigorously to repel invasion, to
+improve agriculture, and to encourage commerce, for the sake of France,
+but not for Canada.
+
+The mass of the population of New France were descended from settlers
+sent out within a short time after the first occupation of the country,
+and who were not selected for any peculiar qualifications. They were not
+led to emigrate from the spirit of adventure, disappointed ambition, or
+political discontent; by far the larger proportion left their native
+country under the pressure of extreme want or in blind obedience to the
+will of their superiors. They were then established in points best
+suited to the interests of France, not those best suited to their own.
+The physical condition of the humbler emigrant, however, became better
+than that of his countrymen in the Old World; the fertile soil repaid
+his labor with competence; independence fostered self-reliance, and the
+unchecked range of forest and prairie inspired him with thoughts of
+freedom. But all these elevating tendencies were fatally counteracted by
+the blighting influence of feudal organization. Restrictions,
+humiliating as well as injurious, pressed upon the person and property
+of the Canadian. Every avenue to wealth and influence was closed to him
+and thrown open to the children of Old France. He saw whole tracts of
+the magnificent country lavished upon the favorites and military
+followers of the court, and, through corrupt or capricious influences,
+the privilege of exclusive trade granted for the aggrandizement of
+strangers at his expense.
+
+France founded a state in Canada. She established a feudal and
+ecclesiastical frame-work for the young nation, and into that
+Procrustean bed the growth of population and the proportions of society
+were forced. The state fixed governments at Montreal, Three Rivers, and
+Quebec; there towns arose. She divided the rich banks of the St.
+Lawrence and of the Richelieu into seigneuries; there population spread.
+She placed posts on the lakes and rivers of the Far West; there the
+fur-traders congregated. She divided the land into dioceses and
+parishes, and appointed bishops and curates; a portion of all produce of
+the soil was exacted for their support. She sent out the people at her
+own cost, and acknowledged no shadow of popular rights. She organized
+the inhabitants by an unsparing conscription, and placed over them
+officers either from the Old Country or from the favored class of
+seigneurs. She grasped a monopoly of every valuable production of the
+country, and yet forced upon it her own manufactures to the exclusion of
+all others. She squandered her resources and treasures on the colony,
+but violated all principles of justice in a vain endeavor to make that
+colony a source of wealth. She sent out the ablest and best of her
+officers to govern on the falsest and worst of systems. Her energy
+absorbed all individual energy; her perpetual and minute interference
+aspired to shape and direct all will and motive of her subjects. The
+state was every thing, the people nothing. Finally, when the power of
+the state was broken by a foreign foe, there remained no power of the
+people to supply its place. On the day that the French armies ceased to
+resist, Canada was a peaceful province of British America.
+
+A few years after the French crown had founded a state in Canada, a
+handful of Puritan refugees founded a people in New England. They bore
+with them from the mother country little beside a bitter hatred of the
+existing government, and a stern resolve to perish or be free. One small
+vessel--the Mayflower--held them, their wives, their children, and their
+scanty stores. So ignorant were they of the country of their adoption,
+that they sought its shores in the depth of winter, when nothing but a
+snowy desert met their sight. Dire hardships assailed them; many
+sickened and died, but those who lived still strove bravely. And bitter
+was their trial; the scowling sky above their heads, the frozen earth
+under their feet, and sorest of all, deep in their strong hearts the
+unacknowledged love of that venerable land which they had abandoned
+forever.
+
+But brighter times soon came; the snowy desert changed into a fair scene
+of life and vegetation. The woods rang with the cheerful sound of the
+ax; the fields were tilled hopefully, the harvest gathered gratefully.
+Other vessels arrived bearing more settlers, men, for the most part,
+like those who had first landed. Their numbers swelled to hundreds,
+thousands, tens of thousands. They formed themselves into a community;
+they decreed laws, stern and quaint, but suited to their condition. They
+had neither rich nor poor; they admitted of no superiority save in their
+own gloomy estimate of merit; they persecuted all forms of faith
+different from that which they themselves held, and yet they would have
+died rather than suffer the religious interference of others. Far from
+seeking or accepting aid from the government of England, they patiently
+tolerated their nominal dependence only because they were virtually
+independent. For protection against the savage; for relief in pestilence
+or famine; for help to plenty and prosperity, they trusted alone to God
+in heaven, and to their own right hand on earth.
+
+Such, in the main, were the ancestors of the men of New England, and, in
+spite of all subsequent admixture, such, in the main, were they
+themselves. In the other British colonies also, hampered though they
+were by charters, and proprietary rights, and alloyed by a Babel
+congregation of French Huguenots, Dutch, Swedes, Quakers, Nobles,
+Roundheads, Canadians, rogues, zealots, infidels, enthusiasts, and
+felons, a general prosperity had created individual self-reliance, and
+self-reliance had engendered the desire of self-government. Each colony
+contained a separate vitality within itself. They commenced under a
+variety of systems; more or less practicable, more or less liberal, and
+more or less dependent on the parent state. But the spirit of
+adventure, the disaffection, and the disappointed ambition which had so
+rapidly recruited their population, gave a general bias to their
+political feelings which no arbitrary authority could restrain, and no
+institutions counteract. They were less intolerant and morose, but at
+the same time, also, less industrious and moral than their Puritan
+neighbors. Like them, however, they resented all interference from
+England as far as they dared, and constantly strove for the acquisition
+or retention of popular rights.
+
+The British colonists, left at first, in a great measure, to themselves,
+settled on the most fertile lands, built their towns upon the most
+convenient harbors, directed their industry to the most profitable
+commerce, raised the most valuable productions. The trading spirit of
+the mother country became almost a passion when transferred to the New
+World. Enterprise and industry were stimulated to incredible activity by
+brilliant success and ample reward. As wealth and the means of
+subsistence increased, so multiplied the population. Early marriages
+were universal; a numerous family was the riches of the parent.
+Thousands of immigrants, also, from year to year swelled the living
+flood that poured over the wilderness. In a century and a half the
+inhabitants of British America exceeded nearly twenty-fold the people of
+New France. The relative superiority of the first over the last was even
+greater in wealth and resources than in population. The merchant navy of
+the English colonies was already larger than that of many European
+nations, and known in almost every port in the world where men bought
+and sold. New France had none.
+
+The French colonies were founded and fostered by the state, with the
+real object of extending the dominion, increasing the power, and
+illustrating the glory of France. The ostensible object of settlement,
+at least that holding the most prominent place in all Acts and Charters,
+was to extend the true religion, and to minister to the glory of God.
+From the earliest time the ecclesiastical establishments of Canada were
+formed on a scale suited to these professed views. Not only was ample
+provision made for the spiritual wants of the European population, but
+the labors of many earnest and devoted men were directed to the
+enlightenment of the heathen Indians. At first the Church and the civil
+government leaned upon each other for mutual support and assistance, but
+after a time, when neither of these powers found themselves troubled
+with popular opposition, their union grew less intimate; their interests
+differed, jealousies ensued, and finally they became antagonistic orders
+in the community. The mass of the people, more devout than intelligent,
+sympathized with the priesthood; this sympathy did not, however,
+interfere with unqualified submission to the government.
+
+The Canadians were trained to implicit obedience to their rulers,
+spiritual and temporal: these rulers ventured not to imperil their
+absolute authority by educating their vassals. It is true there were a
+few seminaries and schools under the zealous administration of the
+Jesuits; but even that instruction was unattainable by the general
+population; those who walked in the moonlight which such reflected rays
+afforded, were not likely to become troublesome as sectarians or
+politicians. Much credit for sincerity can not be given to those who
+professed to promote the education of the people, when no
+printing-press was ever permitted in Canada during the government of
+France.
+
+Canada, unprovoked by Dissent, was altogether free from the stain of
+religious persecution: hopelessly fettered in the chains of metropolitan
+power, she was also undisturbed by political agitation. But this calm
+was more the stillness of stagnation than the tranquillity of content.
+Without a press, without any semblance of popular representation, there
+hardly remained other alternatives than tame submission or open mutiny.
+By hereditary habit and superstition the Canadians were trained to the
+first, and by weakness and want of energy they were incapacitated for
+the last.
+
+Although the original charter of New England asserted the king's
+supremacy in matters of religion, a full understanding existed that on
+this head ample latitude should be allowed; ample latitude was
+accordingly taken. She set up a system of faith of her own, and enforced
+conformity. But the same spirit that had excited the colonists to
+dissent from the Church of England, and to sacrifice home and friends in
+the cause, soon raised up among them a host of dissenters from their own
+stern and peculiar creed. Their clergy had sacrificed much for
+conscience' sake, and were generally "faithful, watchful, painful,
+serving their flock daily with prayers and tears," some among them,
+also, men of high European repute. They had often, however, the
+mortification of seeing their congregations crowding to hear the ravings
+of any knave or enthusiast who broached a new doctrine. Most of these
+mischievous fanatics were given the advantage of that interest and
+sympathy which a cruel and unnecessary persecution invariably excites.
+All this time freedom of individual judgment was the watch-word of the
+persecutors. There is no doubt that strong measures were necessary to
+curb the furious and profane absurdities of many of the seceders, who
+were the very outcasts of religion. On considering the criminal laws of
+the time, it would also appear that not a few of the outcasts of
+society, also, had found their way to New England. The code of
+Massachusetts contained the description of the most extraordinary
+collection of crimes that ever defaced a statute-book, and the various
+punishments allotted to each.
+
+In one grand point the pre-eminent merit of the Puritans must be
+acknowledged: they strove earnestly and conscientiously for what they
+held to be the truth. For this they endured with unshaken constancy, and
+persecuted with unremitting zeal.
+
+The suicidal policy of the Stuarts had, for a time, driven all the
+upholders of civil liberty into the ranks of sectarianism. The advocates
+of the extremes of religious and political opinion flocked to America,
+the furthest point from kings and prelates that they could conveniently
+reach. Ingrafted on the stubborn temper of the Englishman, and planted
+in the genial soil of the West, the love of this civil and religious
+liberty grew up with a vigor that time only served to strengthen; that
+the might of armies vainly strove to overcome. Thus, ultimately, the
+persecution under the Stuarts was the most powerful cause ever yet
+employed toward the liberation of man in his path through earth to
+heaven.
+
+For many years England generally refrained from interference with her
+American colonies in matters of local government or in religion. They
+taxed themselves, made their own laws, and enjoyed religious freedom in
+their own way. In one state only, in Virginia, was the Church of England
+established, and even there it was accorded very little help by the
+temporal authority: in a short time it ceased to receive the support of
+a majority of the settlers, and rapidly decayed. On one point, however,
+the mother country claimed and exacted the obedience of the colonists to
+the imperial law. In her commercial code she would not permit the
+slightest relaxation in their favor, whatever the peculiar circumstances
+of their condition might be. This short-sighted and unjust restriction
+was borne, partly because it could not be resisted, and partly because
+at that early time the practical evil was but lightly felt. Although the
+principle of representation was seldom specified in the earlier
+charters, the colonists in all cases assumed it as a matter of right:
+they held that their privileges as Englishmen accompanied them wherever
+they went, and this was generally admitted as a principle of colonial
+policy.
+
+In the seventeenth century England adopted the system of transportation
+to the American colonies. The felons were, however, too limited in
+numbers to make any serious inroad upon the morals or tranquillity of
+the settlers. Many of the convicts were men sentenced for political
+crimes, but free from any social taint; the laboring population,
+therefore, did not regard them with contempt, nor shrink from their
+society. It may be held, therefore, that this partial and peculiar
+system of transportation introduced no distinct element into the
+constitution of the American nation.
+
+The British colonization in the New World differed essentially from any
+before attempted by the nations of modern Europe, and has led to
+results of immeasurable importance to mankind. Even the magnificent
+empire of India sinks into insignificance, in its bearings upon the
+general interests of the world, by comparison with the Anglo-Saxon
+empire in America. The success of each, however, is unexampled in
+history.
+
+In the great military and mercantile colony of the East an enormous
+native population is ruled by a dominant race, whose number amounts to
+less than a four-thousandth part of its own, but whose superiority in
+war and civil government is at present so decided as to reduce any
+efforts of opposition to the mere outbursts of hopeless petulance. In
+that golden land, however, even the Anglo-Saxon race can not increase
+and multiply; the children of English parents degenerate or perish under
+its fatal sun. No permanent settlement or infusion of blood takes place.
+Neither have we effected any serious change in the manners or customs of
+the East Indians; on the other hand, we have rather assimilated ours to
+theirs. We tolerate their various religions, and we learn their
+language; but in neither faith nor speech have they approached one
+tittle toward us. We have raised there no gigantic monument of power
+either in pride or for utility; no temples, canals, or roads remain to
+remind posterity of our conquest and dominion. Were the English rule
+over India suddenly cast off, in a single generation the tradition of
+our Eastern empire would appear a splendid but baseless dream, that of
+our administration an allegory, of our victories a romance.
+
+In the great social colonies of the West, the very essence of vitality
+is their close resemblance to the parent state. Many of the coarser
+inherited elements of strength have been increased. Industry and
+adventure have been stimulated to an unexampled extent by the natural
+advantages of the country, and free institutions have been developed
+almost to license by general prosperity and the absence of external
+danger. Their stability, in some one form or another, is undoubted: it
+rests on the broadest possible basis--on the universal will of the
+nation. Our vast empire in India rests only on the narrow basis of the
+superiority of a handful of Englishmen: should any untoward fate shake
+the Atlas strength that bears the burden, the superincumbent mass must
+fall in ruins to the earth. With far better cause may England glory in
+the land of her revolted children than in that of her patient slaves:
+the prosperous cities and busy sea-ports of America are prouder
+memorials of her race than the servile splendor of Calcutta or the
+ruined ramparts of Seringapatam. In the earlier periods the British
+colonies were only the reflection of Britain; in later days their light
+has served to illumine the political darkness of the European Continent.
+The attractive example of American democracy proved the most important
+cause that has acted upon European society since the Reformation.
+
+Toward the close of George II.'s reign England had reached the lowest
+point of national degradation recorded in her history. The disasters of
+her fleets and armies abroad were the natural fruits of almost universal
+corruption at home. The admirals and generals, chosen by a German king
+and a subservient ministry, proved worthy of the mode of their
+selection. An obsequious Parliament served but to give the apparent
+sanction of the people to the selfish and despotic measures of the
+crown. Many of the best blood and of the highest chivalry of the land
+still held loyal devotion to the exiled Stuarts, while the mass of the
+nation, disgusted by the sordid and unpatriotic acts of the existing
+dynasty, regarded it with sentiments of dislike but little removed from
+positive hostility. A sullen discontent paralyzed the vigor of England,
+obstructed her councils, and blunted her sword. In the cabinets of
+Europe, among the colonists of America, and the millions of the East
+alike, her once glorious name had sunk almost to a by-word of reproach.
+But "the darkest hour is just before the dawn:" a new disaster, more
+humiliating, and more inexcusable than any which had preceded, at length
+goaded the passive indignation of the British people into irresistible
+action. The spirit that animated the men who spoke at Runnymede, and
+those who fought on Marston Moor, was not dead, but sleeping. The free
+institutions which wisdom had devised, time hallowed, and blood sealed,
+were evaded, but not overthrown. The nation arose as one man, and with a
+peaceful but stern determination, demanded that these things should
+cease. Then, for "the hour," the hand of the All Wise supplied "the
+man." The light of Pitt's genius, the fire of his patriotism, like the
+dawn of an unclouded morning, soon chased away the chilly night which
+had so long darkened over the fortunes of his country.
+
+But not even the genius of the great minister, aided as it was by the
+awakened spirit of the British people, would have sufficed to rend
+Canada from France without the concurrent action of many and various
+causes: the principal of these was, doubtless, the extraordinary growth
+of our American settlements. When the first French colonists founded
+their military and ecclesiastical establishments at Quebec, upheld by
+the favor and strengthened by the arms of the mother country, they
+regarded with little uneasiness the unaided efforts of their English
+rivals in the South. But these dangerous neighbors rose with wonderful
+rapidity from few to many, from weak to powerful. The cloud, which had
+appeared no greater than "a man's hand" on the political horizon, spread
+rapidly wider and wider, above and below, till at length from out its
+threatening gloom the storm burst forth which swept away the flag of
+France.
+
+As a military event, the conquest of Canada was a matter of little or no
+permanent importance: it can only rank as one among the numerous scenes
+of blood that give an intense but morbid interest to our national
+annals. The surrender of Niagara and Quebec were but the acknowledgment
+or final symbol of the victory of English over French colonization. For
+three years the admirable skill of Montcalm and the valor of his troops
+deferred the inevitable catastrophe of the colony: then the destiny was
+accomplished. France had for that time played out her part in the
+history of the New World; during one hundred and fifty years her
+threatening power had served to retain the English colonies in
+interested loyalty to protecting England. Notwithstanding the immense
+material superiority of the British Americans, the fleets and armies of
+the mother country were indispensable to break the barrier raised up
+against them by the union, skill, and courage of the French.
+
+Montcalm's far-sighted wisdom suggested consolation even in his defeat
+and death. In a remarkable and almost prophetic letter, which he
+addressed to M. de Berryer during the siege of Quebec, he foretells
+that the British power in America shall be broken by success, and that
+when the dread of France ceases to exist, the colonists will no longer
+submit to European control. One generation had not passed away when his
+prediction was fully accomplished. England, by the conquest of Canada,
+breathed the breath of life into the huge Frankenstein of the American
+republic.
+
+The rough schooling of French hostility was necessary for the
+development of those qualities among the British colonists which enabled
+them finally to break the bonds of pupilage and stand alone. Some degree
+of united action had been effected among the several and
+widely-different states; the local governments had learned how to raise
+and support armies, and to consider military movements. On many
+occasions the provincial militia had borne themselves with distinguished
+bravery in the field; several of their officers had gained honorable
+repute; already the name of WASHINGTON called a flush of pride upon each
+American cheek. The stirring events of the contest with Canada had
+brought men of ability and patriotism into the strong light of active
+life, and the eyes of their countrymen sought their guidance in trusting
+confidence. Through the instrumentality of such men as these the
+American Revolution was shaped into the dignity of a national movement,
+and preserved from the threatening evils of an insane democracy.
+
+The consequences of the Canadian war furnished the cause of the quarrel
+which led to the separation of the great colonies from the mother
+country. England had incurred enormous debt in the contest; her people
+groaned under taxation, and the wealthy Americans had contributed in
+but a very small proportion to the cost of victories by which they were
+the principal gainers. The British Parliament devised an unhappy
+expedient to remedy this evil: it assumed the right of taxing the
+unrepresented colonies, and taxed them accordingly. Vain was the
+prophetic eloquence of Lord Chatham; vain were the just and earnest
+remonstrances of the best and wisest among the colonists: the time was
+come. Then followed years of stubborn and unyielding strife; the blood
+of the same race gave sterner determination to the quarrel. The balance
+of success hung equally. Once again France appeared upon the stage in
+the Western world, and La Fayette revenged the fall of Montcalm.
+
+However we may regret the cause and conduct of the Revolutionary war, we
+can hardly regret its result. The catastrophe was inevitable: the folly
+or wisdom of British statesmen could only have accelerated or deferred
+it. The child had outlived the years of pupilage; the interests of the
+old and the young required a separate household. But we must ever mourn
+the mode of separation: a bitterness was left that three quarters of a
+century has hardly yet removed; and a dark page remains in our annals,
+that tells of a contest begun in injustice, conducted with mingled
+weakness and severity, and ended in defeat. The cause of human freedom,
+perhaps for ages, depended upon the issue of the quarrel. Even the
+patriot minister merged the apparent interests of England in the
+interests of mankind. By the light of Lord Chatham's wisdom we may read
+the disastrous history of that fatal war, with a resigned and tempered
+sorrow for the glorious inheritance rent away from us forever.
+
+The reaction of the New World upon the Old may be distinctly traced
+through the past and the present, but human wisdom may not estimate its
+influence on the future. The lessons of freedom learned by the French
+army while aiding the revolted colonies against England were not
+forgotten. On their return to their native country, they spread abroad
+tidings that the new people of America had gained a treasure richer a
+thousand-fold than those which had gilded the triumphs of Cortes or
+Pizarro--the inestimable prize of liberty. Then the down-trampled
+millions of France arose, and with avaricious haste strove for a like
+treasure. They won a specious imitation, so soiled and stained, however,
+that many of the wisest among them could not at once detect its nature.
+They played with the coarse bawble for a time, then lost it in a sea of
+blood.
+
+Doubtless the tempest that broke upon France had long been gathering.
+The rays that emanated from such false suns as Voltaire and Rousseau had
+already drawn up a moral miasma from the swamps of sensual ignorance:
+under the shade of a worthless government these noxious mists collected
+into the clouds from whence the desolating storm of the Revolution
+burst. It was, however, the example of popular success in the New World,
+and the republican training of a portion of the French army during the
+American contest, that finally accelerated the course of events. A
+generation before the "Declaration of Independence" the struggle between
+the rival systems of Canada and New England had been watched by thinking
+men in Europe with deep interest, and the importance to mankind of its
+issue was fully felt. While France mourned the defeat of her armies and
+the loss of her magnificent colony, the keen-sighted philosopher of
+Ferney gave a banquet to celebrate the British triumph at Quebec, not as
+the triumph of England over France, but as that of freedom over
+despotism.[1]
+
+The overthrow of French by British power in America was not the effect
+of mere military superiority. The balance of general success and glory
+in the field is no more than shared with the conquered people. The
+morbid national vanity, which finds no delight but in the triumphs of
+the sword, will shrink from the study of this checkered story. The
+narrative of disastrous defeat and doubtful advantage must be endured
+before we arrive at that of the brilliant victory which crowned our arms
+with final success. We read with painful surprise of the rout and ruin
+of regular British regiments by a crowd of Indian savages, and of the
+bloody repulse of the most numerous army that had yet assembled round
+our standards in America before a few weak French battalions and an
+unfinished parapet.
+
+For the first few years our prosecution of the Canadian war was marked
+by a weakness little short of imbecility. The conduct of the troops was
+indifferent, the tactics of the generals bad, and the schemes of the
+minister worse. The coarse but powerful wit of Smollett and Fielding,
+and the keen sarcasms of "Chrysal," convey to us no very exalted idea of
+the composition of the British army in those days. The service had sunk
+into contempt. The withering influence of a corrupt patronage had
+demoralized the officers; successive defeats, incurred through the
+inefficiency of courtly generals, had depressed the spirit of the
+soldiery, and, were it not for the proof shown upon the bloody fields
+of La Feldt and Fontenoy, we might almost suppose that English manhood
+had become an empty name.
+
+Many of the battalions shipped off to take part in the American contest
+were hasty levies without organization or discipline: the colonel, a man
+of influence, with or without other qualifications, as the case might
+be; the officers, his neighbors and dependents. These armed mobs found
+themselves suddenly landed in a country, the natural difficulty of which
+would of itself have proved a formidable obstacle, even though
+unenhanced by the presence of an active and vigilant enemy. At the same
+time, there devolved upon them the duties and the responsibilities of
+regular troops. A due consideration of these circumstances tends to
+diminish the surprise which a comparison of their achievements with
+those recorded in our later military annals might create.
+
+Very different were the ranks of the American army from the magnificent
+regiments whose banners now bear the crowded records of Peninsular and
+Indian victory; who, within the recollection of living men, have stood
+as conquerors upon every hostile land, yet never once permitted a
+stranger to tread on England's sacred soil but as a prisoner, fugitive,
+or friend. In Cairo and Copenhagen; in Lisbon, Madrid, and Paris; in the
+ancient metropolis of China; in the capital of the young American
+republic, the British flag has been hailed as the symbol of a triumphant
+power or of a generous deliverance. Well may we cherish an honest pride
+in the prowess and military virtue of our soldiers, loyal alike to the
+crown and to the people; facing in battle, with unshaken courage, the
+deadly shot and sweeping charge, and, with a still loftier valor,
+enduring, in times of domestic troubles, the gibes and injuries of
+their misguided countrymen.
+
+In the stirring interest excited by the progress and rivalry of our
+kindred races in America, the sad and solemn subject of the Indian
+people is almost forgotten. The mysterious decree of Providence which
+has swept them away may not be judged by human wisdom. Their existence
+will soon be of the past. They have left no permanent impression on the
+constitution of the great nation which now spreads over their country.
+No trace of their blood, language, or manners may be found among their
+haughty successors. As certainly as their magnificent forests fell
+before the advancing tide of civilization, they fell also. Neither the
+kindness nor the cruelty of the white man arrested or hastened their
+inevitable fate. They withered alike under the Upas-shade of European
+protection and before the deadly storm of European hostility. As the
+snow in spring they melted away, stained, tainted, trampled down.
+
+The closing scene of French dominion in Canada was marked by
+circumstances of deep and peculiar interest. The pages of romance can
+furnish no more striking episode than the battle of Quebec. The skill
+and daring of the plan which brought on the combat, and the success and
+fortune of its execution, are unparalleled. There a broad, open plain,
+offering no advantages to either party, was the field of fight. The
+contending armies were nearly equal in military strength, if not in
+numbers. The chiefs of each were men already of honorable fame. France
+trusted firmly in the wise and chivalrous Montcalm; England trusted
+hopefully in the young and heroic Wolfe. The magnificent stronghold
+which was staked upon the issue of the strife stood close at hand. For
+miles and miles around, the prospect extended over as fair a land as
+ever rejoiced the sight of man; mountain and valley, forest and waters,
+city and solitude, grouped together in forms of almost ideal beauty.
+
+The strife was brief, but deadly. The September sun rose upon two
+gallant armies arrayed in unbroken pride, and noon of the same day saw
+the ground where they had stood strewn with the dying and the dead.
+Hundreds of the veterans of France had fallen in the ranks, from which
+they disdained to fly; the scene of his ruin faded fast from Montcalm's
+darkening sight, but the proud consciousness of having done his duty
+deprived defeat and death of their severest sting. Not more than a
+musket-shot away lay Wolfe; the heart that but an hour before had
+throbbed with great and generous impulse, now still forever. On the face
+of the dead there rested a triumphant smile, which the last agony had
+not overcast; a light of unfailing hope, that the shadows of the grave
+could not darken.
+
+The portion of history here recorded is no fragment. Within a period
+comparatively brief, we see the birth, the growth, and the catastrophe
+of a nation. The flag of France is erected at Quebec by a handful of
+hardy adventurers; a century and a half has passed, and that flag is
+lowered to a foreign foe before the sorrowing eyes of a Canadian people.
+This example is complete as that presented in the life of an individual:
+we see the natural sequence of events; the education and the character,
+the motive and the action, the error and the punishment. Through the
+following records may be clearly traced combinations of causes, remote,
+and even apparently opposed, uniting in one result, and also the
+surprising fertility of one great cause in producing many different
+results.
+
+Were we to read the records of history by the light of the understanding
+instead of by the fire of the passions, the study could be productive
+only of unmixed good; their examples and warnings would afford us
+constant guidance in the paths of public and private virtue. The narrow
+and unreasonable notion of exclusive national merit can not survive a
+fair glance over the vast map of time and space which history lays
+before us. We may not avert our eyes from those dark spots upon the
+annals of our beloved land where acts of violence and injustice stand
+recorded against her, nor may we suffer the blaze of military renown to
+dazzle our judgment. Victory may bring glory to the arms, while it
+brings shame to the councils of a people; for the triumphs of war are
+those of the general and the soldier; increase of honor, wisdom, and
+prosperity are the triumphs of the nation.
+
+The citizens of Rome placed the images of their ancestors in the
+vestibule, to recall the virtues of the dead, and to stimulate the
+emulation of the living. We also should fix our thoughts upon the
+examples which history presents, not in a vain spirit of selfish
+nationality, but in earnest reverence for the great and good of all
+countries, and a contempt for the false, and mean, and cruel even of our
+own.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: See Appendix, No. I. (see Vol II)]
+
+
+
+
+THE CONQUEST OF CANADA.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+
+The philosophers of remote antiquity acquired the important knowledge of
+the earth's spherical form; to their bold genius we are indebted for the
+outline of the geographical system now universally adopted. With a
+vigorous conception, but imperfect execution, they traced out the scheme
+of denoting localities by longitude and latitude: according to their
+teaching, the imaginary equatorial line, encompassing the earth, was
+divided into hours and degrees.
+
+Even at that distant period hardy adventurers had penetrated far away
+into the land of the rising sun, and many a wondrous tale was told of
+that mysterious empire, where one third of our fellow-men still stand
+apart from the brotherhood of nations. Among the various and astounding
+exaggerations induced by the vanity of the narrators, and the ignorance
+of their audience, none was more ready than that of distance. The
+journey, the labor of a life; each league of travel a new scene; the day
+crowded with incident, the night a dream of terror or admiration. Then,
+as the fickle will of the wanderer suggested, as the difficulties or
+encouragement of nature, and the hostility or aid of man impelled, the
+devious course bent to the north or south, was hastened, hindered, or
+retraced.
+
+By such vague and shadowy measurement as the speculations of these
+wanderers supplied, the sages of the past traced out the ideal limits of
+the dry land which, at the word of God, appeared from out the gathering
+together of the waters.[2]
+
+The most eminent geographer before the time of Ptolemy places the
+confines of Seres--the China of to-day--at nearly two thirds of the
+distance round the world, from the first meridian.[3] Ptolemy reduces
+the proportion to one half. Allowing for the supposed vast extent of
+this unknown country to the eastward, it was evident that its remotest
+shores approached our Western World. But, beyond the Pillars of
+Hercules, the dark and stormy waters of the Atlantic[5] forbade
+adventure. The giant minds of those days saw, even through the mists of
+ignorance and error, that the readiest course to reach this distant land
+must lie toward the setting sun, across the western ocean.[6] From over
+this vast watery solitude no traveler had ever brought back the story of
+his wanderings. The dim light of traditionary memory gave no guiding
+ray, the faint voice of rumor breathed not its mysterious secrets. Then
+poetic imagination filled the void; vast islands were conjured up out of
+the deep, covered with unheard-of luxuriance of vegetation, rich in
+mines of incalculable value, populous with a race of conquering
+warriors. But this magnificent vision was only created to be destroyed;
+a violent earthquake rent asunder in a day and a night the foundations
+of Atlantis, and the waters of the Western Ocean swept over the ruins of
+this once mighty empire.[7] In after ages we are told, that some
+Phoenician vessels, impelled by a strong east wind, were driven for
+thirty days across the Atlantic: there they found a part of the sea
+where the surface was covered with rushes and sea-weed, somewhat
+resembling a vast inundated meadow.[8] The voyagers ascribed these
+strange appearances to some cause connected with the submerged Atlantis,
+and even in later years they were held by many as confirmation of
+Plato's marvelous story.[9]
+
+In the Carthaginian annals is found the mention of a fertile and
+beautiful island of the distant Atlantic. Many adventurous men of that
+maritime people were attracted thither by the delightful climate and the
+riches of the soil; it was deemed of such value and importance that they
+proposed to transfer the seat of their republic to its shores in case of
+any irreparable disaster at home. But at length the Senate, fearing the
+evils of a divided state, denounced the distant colony, and decreed the
+punishment of death to those who sought it for a home. If there be any
+truth in this ancient tale, it is probable that one of the Canary
+Islands was its subject.[10]
+
+Although the New World in the West was unknown to the ancients, there is
+no doubt that they entertained a suspicion of its existence;[11] the
+romance of Plato--the prophecy of Seneca, were but the offsprings of
+this vague idea. Many writers tell us it was conjectured that, by
+sailing from the coast of Spain, the eastern shores of India might be
+reached;[13] the length of the voyage, or the wonders that might lie in
+its course, imagination alone could measure or describe. Whatever might
+have been the suspicion or belief[14] of ancient time, we may feel
+assured that none then ventured to seek these distant lands, nor have we
+reason to suppose that any of the civilized European races gave
+inhabitants to the New World before the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+To the barbarous hordes of Northeastern Asia America must have long been
+known as the land where many of their wanderers found a home. It is not
+surprising that from them no information was obtained; but it is strange
+that the bold and adventurous Northmen should have visited it nearly
+five hundred years before the great Genoese, and have suffered their
+wonderful discovery to remain hidden from the world, and to become
+almost forgotten among themselves.[15]
+
+In the year 1001 the Icelanders touched upon the American coast, and for
+nearly two centuries subsequent visits were repeatedly made by them and
+the Norwegians, for the purpose of commerce or for the gratification of
+curiosity. Biorn Heriolson, an Icelander, was the first discoverer:
+steering for Greenland, he was driven to the south by tempestuous and
+unfavorable winds, and saw different parts of America, without, however,
+touching at any of them. Attracted by the report of this voyage, Leif,
+son of Eric, the discoverer of Greenland, fitted out a vessel to pursue
+the same adventure. He passed the coast visited by Biorn, and steered
+southwest till he reached a strait between a large island and the main
+land. Finding the country fertile and pleasant, he passed the winter
+near this place, and gave it the name of Vinland,[16] from the wild vine
+which grew there in great abundance.[17] The winter days were longer in
+this new country than in Greenland, and the weather was more temperate.
+
+Leif returned to Greenland in the spring; his brother Thorvald succeeded
+him, and remained two winters in Vinland exploring much of the coast and
+country.[19] In the course of the third summer the natives, now called
+Esquimaux, were first seen; on account of their diminutive stature the
+adventurers gave them the name of _Skrælingar_.[20] These poor savages,
+irritated by an act of barbarous cruelty, attacked the Northmen with
+darts and arrows, and Thorvald fell a victim to their vengeance. A
+wealthy Icelander, named Thorfinn, established a regular colony in
+Vinland soon after this event; the settlers increased rapidly in
+numbers, and traded with the natives for furs and skins to great
+advantage. After three years the adventurers returned to Iceland
+enriched by the expedition, and reported favorably upon the new country.
+Little is known of this settlement after Thorfinn's departure till early
+in the twelfth century, when a bishop of Greenland[21] went there to
+promulgate the Christian faith among the colonists; beyond that time
+scarcely a notice of its existence occurs, and the name and situation of
+the ancient Vinland soon passed away from the knowledge of man. Whether
+the adventurous colonists ever returned, or became blended with the
+natives,[22] or perished by their hands, no record remains to tell.[23]
+
+Discoveries such as these by the ancient Scandinavians--fruitless to the
+world and almost buried in oblivion--can not dim the glory of that
+transcendant genius to whom we owe the knowledge of a New World.
+
+The claim of the Welsh to the first discovery of America seems to rest
+upon no better original authority than that of Meridith-ap-Rees, a bard
+who died in the year 1477. His verses only relate that Prince Madoc,
+wearied with dissensions at home, searched the ocean for a new kingdom.
+The tale of this adventurer's voyages and colonization was written one
+hundred years subsequent to the early Spanish discoveries, and seems to
+be merely a fanciful completion of his history: he probably perished in
+the unknown seas. It is certain that neither the ancient principality
+nor the world reaped any benefit from these alleged discoveries.[24]
+
+In the middle of the thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth
+centuries, the Venetian Marco Polo[25] and the Englishman Mandeville[26]
+awakened the curiosity of Europe with respect to the remote parts of the
+earth. Wise and discerning men selected the more valuable portions of
+their observations; ideas were enlarged, and a desire for more perfect
+information excited a thirst for discovery. While this spirit was
+gaining strength in Europe, the wonderful powers of the magnet were
+revealed to the Western World.[27] The invention of the mariner's
+compass aided and extended navigation more than all the experience and
+adventure of preceding ages: the light of the stars, the guidance of the
+sea-coast, were no longer necessary; trusting to the mysterious powers
+of his new friend, the sailor steered out fearlessly into the ocean,
+through the bewildering mists or the darkness of night.
+
+The Spaniards were the first to profit by the bolder spirit and improved
+science of navigation. About the beginning of the fourteenth century,
+they were led to the accidental discovery of the Canary Islands,[28] and
+made repeated voyages thither, plundering the wretched inhabitants, and
+carrying them off as slaves.[29] Pope Clement VI. conferred these
+countries as a kingdom upon Louis de la Cerda, of the royal race of
+Castile; he, however, was powerless to avail himself of the gift, and it
+passed to the stronger hand of John de Bethancourt, a Norman baron.[30]
+The countrymen of this bold adventurer explored the seas far to the
+south of the Canary Islands, and acquired some knowledge of the coast of
+Africa.
+
+The glory of leading the career of systematic exploration belongs to the
+Portuguese:[31] their attempts were not only attended with considerable
+success, but gave encouragement and energy to those efforts that were
+crowned by the discovery of a world: among them the great Genoese was
+trained, and their steps in advance matured the idea, and aided the
+execution of his design. The nations of Europe had now begun to cast
+aside the errors and prejudices of their ancestors. The works of the
+ancient Greeks and Romans were eagerly searched for information, and
+former discoveries brought to light.[32] The science of the Arabians was
+introduced and cultivated by the Moors and Jews, and geometry,
+astronomy, and geography were studied as essential to the art of
+navigation.
+
+In the year 1412, the Portuguese doubled Cape Non, the limit of ancient
+enterprise. For upward of seventy years afterward they pursued their
+explorations, with more or less of vigor and success, along the African
+coast, and among the adjacent islands. By intercourse with the people of
+these countries they gradually acquired some knowledge of lands yet
+unvisited. Experience proved that the torrid zone was not closed to the
+enterprise of man.[33] They found that the form of the continent
+contracted as it stretched southward, and that it tended toward the
+east. Then they brought to mind the accounts of the ancient Phoenician
+voyagers round Africa,[34] long deemed fabulous, and the hope arose that
+they might pursue the same career, and win for themselves the
+magnificent prize of Indian commerce. In the year 1486 the adventurous
+Bartholomew Diaz[35] first reached the Cape of Good Hope; soon afterward
+the information gained by Pedro de Covilham, in his overland journey,
+confirmed the consequent sanguine expectations of success. The attention
+of Europe was now fully aroused, and the progress of the Portuguese was
+watched with admiration and suspense. But during this interval, while
+all eyes were turned with anxious interest toward the East, a little
+bark, leaky and tempest-tossed, sought shelter in the Tagus.[36] It had
+come from the Far West--over that stormy sea where, from the creation
+until then, had brooded an impenetrable mystery. It bore the richest
+freight[37] that ever lay upon the bosom of the deep--the tidings of a
+New World.[38]
+
+It would be but tedious to repeat here all the well-known story of
+Christopher Columbus;[39] his early dangers and adventures, his
+numerous voyages, his industry, acquirements, and speculations, and how
+at length the great idea arose in his mind, and matured itself into a
+conviction; then how conviction led to action, checked and interrupted,
+but not weakened, by the doubts of pedantic ignorance,[40] and the
+treachery,[41] coolness, or contempt of courts. On Friday,[42] the 3d
+of August, 1492, a squadron of three small, crazy ships, bearing ninety
+men, sailed from the port of Palos, in Andalusia. Columbus, the
+commander and pilot, was deeply impressed with sentiments of religion;
+and, as the spread of Christianity was one great object of the
+expedition, he and his followers before their departure had implored the
+blessing of Heaven[43] upon the voyage, from which they might never
+return.
+
+They steered at first for the Canaries, over a well-known course; but on
+the 6th of September they sailed from Gomera, the most distant of those
+islands, and, leaving the usual track of navigation, stretched westward
+into the unknown sea. And still ever westward for six-and-thirty days
+they bent their course through the dreary desert of waters; terrified by
+the changeless wind that wafted them hour after hour further into the
+awful solitude, and seemed to forbid the prospect of return; bewildered
+by the altered hours of day and night, and more than all by the
+mysterious variation of their only guide, for the magnetic needle no
+longer pointed to the pole.[44] Then strange appearances in the sea
+aroused new fears: vast quantities of weeds covered the surface,
+retarding the motion of the vessels; the sailors imagined that they had
+reached the utmost boundary of the navigable ocean, and that they were
+rushing blindly into the rocks and quicksands of some submerged
+continent.
+
+The master mind turned all these strange novelties into omens of
+success. The changeless wind was the favoring breath of the Omnipotent;
+the day lengthened as they followed the sun's course; an ingenious
+fiction explained the inconstancy of the needle; the vast fields of
+sea-weed bespoke a neighboring shore; and the flight of unknown
+birds[45] was hailed with happy promise. But as time passed on, and
+brought no fulfillment of their hopes, the spirits of the timid began to
+fail; the flattering appearances of land had repeatedly deceived them;
+they were now very far beyond the limit of any former voyage. From the
+timid and ignorant these doubts spread upward, and by degrees the
+contagion extended from ship to ship: secret murmurs rose to
+conspiracies, complaints, and mutiny. They affirmed that they had
+already performed their duty in so long pursuing an unknown and hopeless
+course, and that they would no more follow a desperate adventurer to
+destruction. Some even proposed to cast their leader into the sea.
+
+The menaces and persuasions that had so often enabled Columbus to
+overcome the turbulence and fears of his followers now ceased to be of
+any avail. He gave way to an irresistible necessity, and promised that
+he would return to Spain, if unsuccessful in their search for three days
+more. To this brief delay the mutineers consented. The signs of land now
+brought almost certainty to the mind of the great leader. The
+sounding-line brought up such soil as is only found near the shore:
+birds were seen of a kind supposed never to venture on a long flight. A
+piece of newly-cut cane floated past, and a branch of a tree bearing
+fresh berries was taken up by the sailors. The clouds around the setting
+sun wore a new aspect, and the breeze became warm and variable. On the
+evening of the 11th of October every sail was furled, and strict watch
+kept, lest the ships might drift ashore during the night.
+
+On board the admiral's vessel all hands were invariably assembled for
+the evening hymn; on this occasion a public prayer for success was
+added, and with those holy sounds Columbus hailed the appearance of that
+small, shifting light,[46] which crowned with certainty his
+long-cherished hope,[47] turned his faith into realization,[48] and
+stamped his name forever upon the memory of man.[49]
+
+It was by accident only that England had been deprived of the glory of
+these great discoveries. Columbus, when repulsed by the courts of
+Portugal and Spain, sent his brother Bartholomew to London,[50] to lay
+his projects before Henry VII., and seek assistance for their execution.
+The king, although the most penurious of European princes, saw the vast
+advantage of the offer, and at once invited the great Genoese to his
+court. Bartholomew was, however, captured by pirates on his return
+voyage, and detained till too late, for in the mean while Isabella of
+Castile had adopted the project of Columbus, and supplied the means for
+the expedition.
+
+Henry VII. was not discouraged by this disappointment: two years after
+the discoveries of Columbus became known in England, the king entered
+into an arrangement with John Cabot, an adventurous Venetian merchant,
+resident at Bristol, and, on the 5th of March, 1495, granted him letters
+patent for conquest and discovery. Henry stipulated that one fifth of
+the gains in this enterprise was to be retained for the crown, and that
+the vessels engaged in it should return to the port of Bristol. On the
+24th of June, 1497, Cabot discovered the coast of Labrador, and gave it
+the name of _Primavista_. This was, without doubt, the first visit of
+Europeans to the Continent of North America,[51] since the time of the
+Scandinavian voyages. A large island lay opposite to this shore: from
+the vast quantity of fish frequenting the neighboring waters, the
+sailors called it _Bacallaos_.[53] Cabot gave this country the name of
+St. John's, having landed there on St. John's day. Newfoundland has long
+since superseded both appellations. John Cabot returned to England in
+August of the same year, and was knighted and otherwise rewarded by the
+king; he survived but a very short time in the enjoyment of his fame,
+and his son Sebastian Cabot, although only twenty-three years of age,
+succeeded him in the command of an expedition destined to seek a
+northwest passage to the South Seas.
+
+Sebastian Cabot sailed in the summer of 1498: he soon reached
+Newfoundland, and thence proceeded north as far as the fifty-eighth
+degree. Having failed in discovering the hoped-for passage, he returned
+toward the south, examining the coast as far as the southern boundary of
+Maryland, and perhaps Virginia. After a long interval, the enterprising
+mariner again, in 1517, sailed for America, and entered the bay[54]
+which, a century afterward, received the name of Hudson. If prior
+discovery confer a right of possession, there is no doubt that the whole
+eastern coast of the North American Continent may be justly claimed by
+the English race.[55]
+
+Gaspar Cortereal was the next voyager in the succession of discoverers:
+he had been brought up in the household of the King of Portugal, but
+nourished an ardent spirit of enterprise and thirst for glory, despite
+the enervating influences of a court. He sailed early in the year 1500,
+and pursued the track of John Cabot as far as the northern point of
+Newfoundland; to him is due the discovery of the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence,[56] and he also pushed on northward, by the coast of
+Labrador,[57] almost to the entrance of Hudson's Bay. The adventurer
+returned to Lisbon in October of the same year. This expedition was
+undertaken more for mercantile advantage than for the advancement of
+knowledge; timber and slaves seem to have been the objects; no less than
+fifty-seven of the natives were brought back to Portugal, and doomed to
+bondage. These unhappy savages proved so robust and useful, that great
+benefits were anticipated from trading on their servitude;[58] the
+dreary and distant land of their birth, covered with snow for half the
+year, was despised by the Portuguese, whose thoughts and hopes were ever
+turned to the fertile plains, the sunny skies, and the inexhaustible
+treasures of the East.[59]
+
+But disaster and destruction soon fell upon these bold and merciless
+adventurers. In a second voyage, the ensuing year, Cortereal and all his
+followers were lost at sea: when some time had elapsed without tidings
+of their fate, his brother sailed to seek them; but he too, probably,
+perished in the stormy waters of the North Atlantic, for none of them
+were ever heard of more. The King of Portugal, feeling a deep interest
+in these brothers, fitted out three armed vessels and sent them to the
+northwest. Inquiries were made along the wild shores which Cortereal had
+first explored, without trace or tidings being found of the bold
+mariner, and the ocean was searched for many months, but the deep still
+keeps it secret.
+
+Florida was discovered in 1512 by Ponce de Leon, one of the most eminent
+among the followers of Columbus. The Indians had told him wonderful
+tales of a fountain called Bimini, in an island of these seas; the
+fountain possessed the power, they said, of restoring instantly youth
+and vigor to those who bathed in its waters. He sailed for months in
+search of this miraculous spring, landing at every point, entering each
+port, however shallow or dangerous, still ever hoping; but in the weak
+and presumptuous effort to grasp at a new life, he wasted away his
+strength and energy, and prematurely brought on those ills of age he had
+vainly hoped to shun. Nevertheless, this wild adventure bore its
+wholesome fruits, for Ponce de Leon then first brought to the notice of
+Europe that beautiful land which, from its wonderful fertility and the
+splendor of its flowers, obtained the name of Florida.[60]
+
+The first attempt made by the French to share in the advantages of these
+discoveries was in the year 1504. Some Basque and Breton fishermen at
+that time began to ply their calling on the Great Bank of Newfoundland,
+and along the adjacent shores. From them the Island of Cape Breton
+received its name. In 1506, Jean Denys, a man of Harfleur, drew a map of
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Two years afterward, a pilot of Dieppe, named
+Thomas Aubert, excited great curiosity in France by bringing over some
+of the savage natives from the New World: there is no record whence they
+were taken, but it is supposed from Cape Breton. The reports borne back
+to France by these hardy fishermen and adventurers were not such as to
+raise sanguine hopes of riches from the bleak northern regions they had
+visited: no teeming fertility or genial climate tempted the settler, no
+mines of gold or silver excited the avarice of the soldier;[61] and for
+many years the French altogether neglected to profit by their
+discoveries.
+
+In the mean time, Pope Alexander VI. issued a bull bestowing the whole
+of the New World upon the kings of Spain and Portugal.[62] Neither
+England nor France allowed the right of conferring this magnificent and
+undefined gift; it did not throw the slightest obstacle in the path of
+British enterprise and discovery, and the high-spirited Francis I. of
+France refused to acknowledge the papal decree.[63]
+
+In the year 1523, Francis I. fitted out a squadron of four ships to
+pursue discovery[64] in the west; the command was intrusted to Giovanni
+Verazzano, of Florence, a navigator of great skill and experience, then
+residing in France: he was about thirty-eight years of age, nobly born,
+and liberally educated; the causes that induced him to leave his own
+country and take service in France are not known. It has often been
+remarked as strange that three Italians should have directed the
+discoveries of Spain, England, and France, and thus become the
+instruments of dividing the dominions of the New World among alien
+powers, while their own classic land reaped neither glory nor advantage
+from the genius and courage of her sons. Of this first voyage the only
+record remaining is a letter from Verazzano to Francis I., dated 8th of
+July, 1524, merely stating that he had returned in safety to Dieppe.
+
+At the beginning of the following year Verazzano fitted out and armed a
+vessel called the Dauphine, manned with a crew of thirty hands, and
+provisioned for eight months. He first directed his course to Madeira;
+having reached that island in safety, he left it on the 17th of January
+and steered for the west. After a narrow escape from the violence of a
+tempest, and having proceeded for about nine hundred leagues, a long,
+low line of coast rose to view, never before seen by ancient or modern
+navigators. This country appeared thickly peopled by a vigorous race, of
+tall stature and athletic form; fearing to risk a landing at first with
+his weak force, the adventurer contented himself with admiring at a
+distance the grandeur and beauty of the scenery, and enjoying the
+delightful mildness of the climate. From this place he followed the
+coast for about fifty leagues to the south, without discovering any
+harbor or inlet where he might shelter his vessel; he then retraced his
+course and steered to the north. After some time Verazzano ventured to
+send a small boat on shore to examine the country more closely: numbers
+of savages came to the water's edge to meet the strangers, and gazed on
+them with mingled feelings of surprise, admiration, joy, and fear. He
+again resumed his northward course, till, driven by want of water, he
+armed the small boat and sent it once more toward the land to seek a
+supply; the waves and surf, however, were so great that it could not
+reach the shore. The natives assembled on the beach, by their signs and
+gestures, eagerly invited the French to approach: one young sailor, a
+bold swimmer, threw himself into the water, bearing some presents for
+the savages, but his heart failed him on a nearer approach, and he
+turned to regain the boat; his strength was exhausted, however, and a
+heavy sea washed him, almost insensible, up upon the beach. The Indians
+treated him with great kindness, and, when he had sufficiently
+recovered, sent him back in safety to the ship.[65]
+
+Verazzano pursued his examination of the coast with untiring zeal, narrowly
+searching every inlet for a passage through to the westward, until he
+reached the great island known to the Breton fishermen--Newfoundland. In
+this important voyage he surveyed more than two thousand miles of coast,
+nearly all that of the present United States, and a great portion of
+British North America.
+
+A short time after Verazzano's return to Europe, he fitted out another
+expedition, with the sanction of Francis I., for the establishment of a
+colony in the newly-discovered countries. Nothing certain is known of
+the fate of this enterprise, but the bold navigator returned to France
+no more; the dread inspired by his supposed fate[66] deterred the French
+king and people from any further adventure across the Atlantic during
+many succeeding years. In later times it has come to light that
+Verazzano was alive thirteen years after this period:[67] those best
+informed on the subject are of opinion that the enterprise fell to the
+ground in consequence of Francis I. having been captured by the Emperor
+Charles V., and that the adventurer withdrew himself from the service of
+France, having lost his patron's support.
+
+The year after the failure of Verazzano's last enterprise, 1525, Stefano
+Gomez sailed from Spain for Cuba and Florida; thence he steered
+northward in search of the long-hoped-for passage to India, till he
+reached Cape Race, on the south-eastern extremity of Newfoundland. The
+further details of his voyage remain unknown, but there is reason to
+suppose that he entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and traded upon its
+shores. An ancient Castilian tradition existed that the Spaniards
+visited these coasts before the French, and having perceived no
+appearance of mines or riches, they exclaimed frequently, "Aca
+nada;"[68] the natives caught up the sound, and when other Europeans
+arrived, repeated it to them. The strangers concluded that these words
+were a designation, and from that time this magnificent country bore the
+name of CANADA.[70]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: "La sphéricité de la terre étant reconnue, l'ètendue de la
+terre habitée en longitude déterminé, en même temps la largeur de
+l'Atlantique entre les côtes occidentales d'Europe et d'Afrique et les
+côtes orientales d'Asie par différens degrés de latitude. Eratosthène
+(Strabo, ii., p. 87, Cas.) évalue la circonférence de l'équateur à
+252,000 stades, et la largeur de la _chlamyde_ du Cap Sacrè (Cap Saint
+Vincent) à l'extrémité de la grande ceinture de Taurus, près de Thinæ à
+70,000 stades. En prolongeant la distance vers le sud est jusque au cap
+des Coliaques qui, d'après les idées de Strabon sur la configuration de
+l'Asie, représente notre Cap Comorin, et avance plus à l'est que la côte
+de Thinæ, la combinaison des données d'Eratosthène offre 74,600 et même
+78,000 stades. Or, en réduisant, par la différence de latitude, le
+périmètre equatorial au parallèle de Rhodes, des portes Caspiennes et de
+Thinæ c'est à dire, au parallèle de 36° 0' et non de 36° 21', on trouve
+203,872 stades, et pour largeur de la terre habitée, par le parallèle de
+Rhodes, 67,500 stades. Strabon dit par conséquence avec justesse, dans
+le fameux passage où il semble prédire l'existence du Nouveau Continent,
+en parlant de deux terres habitées dans la même zone tempérée boréale
+que les terres occupent plus du tiers de la circonférence du parallèle
+qui passe par Thinæ. Par cette supposition la distance de l'Ibèrie aux
+Indes est au delà de 236° à peu près 240°. Ou peut être surpris de voir
+que le résultat le plus ancien est aussi le plus exact de tous ceux que
+nous trouvons en descendant d'Eratosthène par Posidonius aux temps de
+Marin de Tyr et de Ptolémée. La terre habitée offre effectivement,
+d'après nos connaissances actuelles, entre les 36° et 37° 130 degrés
+d'étendue en longitude; il y a par conséquent des côtes de la Chine au
+Cap Sacré à travers l'océan de l'est à l'ouest 230 degrés. L'accord que
+je nommerai accidentel de cette vraie distance et de l'évaluation
+d'Eratosthène atteint done dix degrés en longitude. Posidonius
+'soupçonne (c'est l'expression de Strabon, lib. ii., p. 102, Cas.), que
+la longueur de la terre habitée laquelle est, selon lui, d'environ
+70,000 stades, doit former la moitié du cercle entier sur lequel le
+mesure se prend, et qu' ainsi à partir de l'extrémité occidentale de
+cette même terre habitée, en naviguant avec un vent d'est continuel
+l'espace de 70,000 autres stades, ou arriverait dans l'Inde."--Humboldt's
+_Géographie du Nouveau Continent_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "La longueur de la terre habitée comprise entre les
+méridiens des îles Fortunées et de Sera étoit, d'après Marin de Tyr
+(Ptol., Geogr., lib. i., cap. 11) de 15 heures ou de 225°. C'étoit
+avancer les côtes de la Chine jusqu'au méridien des îles Sandwich, et
+réduire l'espace à parcourir des îles Canaries aux côtes orientales de
+l'Asie à 135°, erreur de 86° en longitude. La grande extension de
+23-1/2° que les anciens donnoient à la mer Caspienne, contribuoit
+également beaucoup à augmenter la largeur de l'Asie. Ptolémée a laisse
+intacte, dans l'évaluation de la terre habitée, selon Posidonius, la
+distance des îles Fortunées au passage de l'Euphrate à Hiérapolis. Les
+reductions de Ptolémée ne portent que sur les distances de l'Euphrate à
+_la Tour de Pierre_ et de cette tour à la métropole des Seres. Les 225°
+de Marin de Tyr deviennent, selon l'Almagest (lib. ii., p. 1) 180°,
+selon la Géographie de Ptolémée (lib. i., p. 12) 177-1/4°. Les côtes des
+Sinæ[4] reculent donc du méridien des îles Sandwich vers celui des
+Carolines orientales, et l'espace à parcourir par mer en longitude
+n'étoit plus de 135°, mais de 180° à 182-3/4°. Il étoit dans les
+intérêts de Christophe Colomb de préférer de beaucoup les calculs de
+Marin de Tyr à ceux de Ptolémée et a force de conjectures Colomb
+parvient à restreindre l'espace de l'Océan qui lui restait à traverser
+des îles du cap Vert au Cathay de l'Asie orientale à 128°" (_Vida del
+Almirante_).--Humboldt's _Géographie du Nouveau Continent_, vol. ii., p.
+364.]
+
+[Footnote 4: In opposition to the opinion of Malte Brun and M. de
+Josselin, Mr. Hugh Murray is considered to have satisfactorily proved
+the correctness of Ptolemy's assertion that the Seres or Sinæ are
+identical with the Chinese.--See _Trans. of the Royal Society of
+Edinburgh_, vol. viii., p. 171.]
+
+[Footnote 5: That the vast waters of the Atlantic were regarded with
+"awe and wonder, seeming to bound the world as with a chaos," needs no
+greater proof than the description given of it by Xerif al Edrizi, an
+eminent Arabian writer, whose countrymen were the boldest navigators of
+the Middle Ages, and possessed all that was then known of geography.
+"The ocean," he observes, "encircles the ultimate bounds of the
+inhabited earth, and all beyond it is unknown. No one has been able to
+verify any thing concerning it, on account of its difficult and perilous
+navigation, its great obscurity, its profound depth, and frequent
+tempests; through fear of its mighty fishes and its haughty winds; yet
+there are many islands in it, some peopled, others uninhabited. There is
+no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters; or if any have done
+so, they have merely kept along its coasts, fearful of departing from
+them. The waves of this ocean, though they roll as high as mountains,
+yet maintain themselves without breaking; for if they broke it would be
+impossible for ship to plow them."--_Description of Spain_, by Xerif al
+Edrizi: Condé's Spanish translation. Madrid, 1799.--Quoted by Washington
+Irving.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Aristotle, Strabo, Pliny, and Seneca arrived at this
+conclusion. The idea, however, of an intervening continent never appears
+to have suggested itself.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 7: In the Atlantic Ocean, over against the Pillars of
+Hercules, lay an island larger than Asia and Africa taken together, and
+in its vicinity were other islands. The ocean in which these islands
+were situated was surrounded on every side by main-land; and the
+Mediterranean, compared with it, resembled a mere harbor or narrow
+entrance. Nine thousand years before the time of Plato this island of
+Atlantis was both thickly settled and very powerful. Its sway extended
+over Africa as far as Egypt, and over Europe as far as the Tyrrhenian
+Sea. The further progress of its conquests, however, was checked by the
+Athenians, who, partly with the other Greeks, partly by themselves,
+succeeded in defeating these powerful invaders, the natives of Atlantis.
+After this a violent earthquake, which lasted for the space of a day and
+a night, and was accompanied with inundations of the sea, caused the
+islands to sink; and for a long period subsequent to this, the sea in
+that quarter was impassable by reason of the slime and shoals.--Plato,
+_Tim._, 24-29, 296; _Crit._, 108-110, 39, 43. The learned Gessner is of
+opinion that the Isle of Ceres, spoken of in a poem of very high
+antiquity, attributed to Orpheus, was a fragment of Atlantis. Kircher,
+in his "Mundus Subterraneus," and Beckman, in his "History of Islands,"
+suppose the Atlantis to have been an island extending from the Canaries
+to the Azores; that it was really ingulfed in one of the convulsions of
+the globe, and that those small islands are mere fragments of it.
+Gosselin, in his able research into the voyages of the ancients,
+supposes the Atlantis of Plato to have been nothing more nor less than
+one of the nearest of the Canaries, viz, Fortaventura or Lancerote.
+Carli and many others find America in the Atlantis, and adduce many
+plausible arguments in support of their assertion.--Carli, _Letters
+Amer._; Fr. transl., ii., 180. M. Bailly, in his "Letters sur
+l'Atlantide de Platon," maintains the existence of the Atlantides, and
+their island Atlantis, by the authorities of Homer, Sanchoniathon, and
+Diodorus Siculus, in addition to that of Plato. Manheim maintains very
+strenuously that Plato's Atlantis is Sweden and Norway. M. Bailly, after
+citing many ancient testimonies, which concur in placing this famous
+isle in the north, quotes that of Plutarch, who confirms these
+testimonies by a circumstantial description of the Isle of Ogygia, or
+the Atlantis, which he represents as situated in the north of Europe.
+The following is the theory of Buffon: after citing the passage relating
+to the Atlantis, from Plato's "Timæus," he adds, "This ancient tradition
+is not devoid of probability. The lands swallowed up by the waters were,
+perhaps, those which united Ireland to the Azores, and the Azores to the
+Continent of America; for in Ireland there are the same fossils, the
+same shells, and the same sea bodies as appear in America, and some of
+them are found in no other part of Europe."--Buffon's _Nat. Hist._, by
+Smellie, vol. i., p. 507.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The first authentic description of the Mar di Sargasso of
+Aristotle is due to Columbus. It spreads out between the nineteenth and
+thirty-fourth degrees of north latitude. Its chief axis lies about seven
+degrees to the westward of the Island of Corvo. The smaller bank, on the
+other hand, lies between the Bermudas and Bahamas. The winds and partial
+currents in different years slightly affect the position and extent of
+these Atlantic "sea-weed meadows." No other sea in either hemisphere
+displays a similar extent of surface covered by plants collected in this
+way. These meadows of the ocean present the wonderful spectacle of a
+collection of plants covering a space nearly seven times as large as
+France.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 9: See Appendix, No. II. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 10: See Aristotle, _De Mirab. Auscult._, cap. lxxxiv., 84, p.
+836, Bekk. This work, "A Collection of Wonderful Narratives," is
+attributed to Aristotle; the real compiler is unknown. According to
+Humboldt, it seems to have been written before the first Punic
+war.--Diodorus of Sicily, vol. xix. Aristotle attributes the discovery
+of the island to the Carthaginians; Diodorus to the Phoenicians. The
+occurrence is said to have taken place in the earliest times of the
+Tyrrhenian dominion of the sea, during the contest between the
+Tyrrhenian Pelasgi and the Phoenicians. The Island of the Seven Cities
+(see Appendix, No. II.) was identified with the island mentioned by
+Aristotle as having been discovered by the Carthaginians, and was
+inserted in the early maps under the name of Antilla. Paul Toscanelli,
+the celebrated physician of Florence, thus writes to Columbus: "From the
+Island of Antilia, which you call the Seven Cities, and of which you
+have some knowledge," &c. In the Middle Ages conjectures were
+religiously inscribed upon the maps, as is proved by Antilia, St.
+Borondon (see Appendix), the Hand of Satan, Green Island, Maida Island,
+and the exact form of vast southern regions. Humboldt refers the name of
+Antilia so far back as the fourteenth century. The earliest date given
+by Ferdinand Columbus is 1436. "Beyond the Azores, but at no great
+distance toward the west, occurs the Ysola de Antilia, which we may
+conclude, even allowing the date of the map to be genuine (in the
+library of St. Mark, at Venice, date 1436), to be a mere gratuitous or
+theoretic supposition, and to have received that strange name because
+the obvious and natural idea of antipodes has been anathematized by
+Catholic ignorance." He elsewhere says that "some Portuguese
+cosmographers have inserted the island described by Aristotle in maps
+under the name of Antilia."--_Hist. of the Discovery of America_, by Don
+Ferdinand Columbus, in Ker, vol. iii., p. 3-29.
+
+The origin of the name Antilla, or Antilia, is still a matter of
+conjecture. Humboldt attributes to a "littérateur distingué" the
+solution of the enigma, from a passage in Aristotle's "De Mundo," which
+speaks of the probable existence of unknown lands opposite to the mass
+of continents which we inhabit. These countries, be they small or great,
+whose shores are opposed to ours, were marked out by the word
+_porthornoi_, which in the Middle Ages was translated by _antinsulæ_.
+Humboldt says that this translation is totally incorrect; however, the
+idea of the "littérateur distingué" is evidently the same as Ferdinand
+Columbus's. The following is the hypothesis favored by Humboldt:
+"Peut-être même le nom d'Antilia qui paraît pour la première fois sur
+une carte Vénitienne de 1436 n'est il qu'une forme Portuguaise donnée à
+un nom géographique des Arabes. L'étymologie que hasarde M. Buace me
+paraît très ingénieuse.... La syllabe initiale me paraît la corruption
+de l'article Arabe. D'al Tinnin et d'Al tin on aura fait peu à peu
+Antinna et Antilla, comme par un déplacement analogue de consonnes, les
+Espagnols ont fait de crocodilo, corcodilo et cocodrilo. Le Dragon est
+_al Tin_, et l'Antilia est peut-être, l'île des dragons
+marins."--Humboldt's _Ex. Crit._, vol. ii., 211.
+
+Oviedo applies the relation of Aristotle to the Hesperian Islands, and
+asserts that they were the "India" discovered by Columbus. "Perchè egli
+(Colombo) conobbe come era in effetto che queste terre che egli ben
+ritrovava scritte, erano del tutto uscite dalla memoria degli uomin; e
+io per me non dubito che si sapissero, e possedessero anticamente dalli
+Rè de Spagna: e voglio qui dire quello che Aristotele in questo caso ne
+scrisse, &c.... io tengo che queste Indie siano quelle autiche e famose
+Isole Hesperide cosè dette da Hespero 12 Re di Spagna. Or come la Spagna
+e l'Italia tolsero il nome da Hespero 12 Re di Spagna cosi anco da
+questo istesso ex torsero queste isole Hesperidi, che noi diciamo, _onde
+senza_ alcun dubbio si de tenere, che in quel tempe questo isole sotto
+la signoria della Spagna stessero, e sotto un medesmo Re, che fu (come
+Beroso dice) 1658 anni prima che il nostro Salvatore nascesse. E perchè
+al presente siamo nel 1535 della salute nostra, ne segue che siano ora
+tre milo e cento novantatre anni che la Spagna e'l suo Re Hespero
+signoreggiavano queste Indie o Isole Hesperidi. E come cosa sua par che
+abbia la divina giustizia voluto ritornargliele."--_Hist. Gen. dell'
+Indie de Gonzalo Fernando d'Oviedo_, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 80.]
+
+[Footnote 11: "It is very possible that in the same temperate zone, and
+almost in the same latitude as Thinæ (or Athens?), where it crosses the
+Atlantic Ocean, there are inhabited worlds, distinct from that in which
+we dwell."[12]--Strabo, lib. i., p. 65, and lib. ii., p. 118. It is
+surprising that this expression never attracted the attention of the
+Spanish authors, who, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, were
+searching every where in classical literature with the expectation of
+finding some traces of acquaintance with the New World.]
+
+[Footnote 12: "The idea of such a locality in a continuation of the long
+axis of the Mediterranean was connected with a grand view of the earth
+by Eratosthenes (generally and extensively known among the ancients),
+according to which the entire ancient continent, in its widest expanse
+from west to east, in the parallel of about thirty-six degrees, presents
+an almost unbroken line of elevation."--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 13: "D'Anville a dit avec esprit que la plus grande des
+erreurs dans la géographie de Ptolémée a conduit les hommes à la plus
+grande découverte de terres nouvelles c'est, à dire la supposition que
+l'Asie s'étendait vers l'est, au delà du 180 degré de longitude."
+
+Both Strabo and Aristotle speak of "the same sea bathing opposite
+shores," Strabo, lib. i., p. 103; lib. ii., p. 162. Aristotle, _De
+Cælo_, lib. ii., cap. 14, p. 297. The possibility of navigating from the
+extremity of Europe to the eastern shores of Asia is clearly asserted by
+the Stagirite, and in the two celebrated passages of Strabo. Aristotle
+does not suppose the distance to be very great, and draws an ingenious
+argument in favor of his supposition from the geography of animals.
+Strabo sees no obstacle to passing from Iberia to India, except the
+immense extent of the Atlantic Ocean. It is to be remembered that
+Strabo, as well as Eratosthenes, extend the appellation of Atlantic Sea
+to every part of the ocean.--Humboldt's _Géog. du Nouveau Continent_.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See Appendix, No. III. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 15: "Au milieu de tant de discussions acerbes qu'une curieuse
+malignité et le goût d'une fausse érudition classique firent naître sur
+le mérite de Christophe Colomb, parmi ses contemporains, personne n'a
+pensé aux navigations des Normands comme précurseurs des Génois. Cette
+idée ne se presenta que soixante quatre ans après la mort du grand
+homme. On savait par ces propres récits 'qu'il étoit allé à Thulé' mais
+alors ce voyage vers le nord ne fit naître aucun soupçon sur la
+priorité, de la découverte.... Le mérite d'avoir reconnu la première
+découverte de l'Amérique septentrionale par les Normands appartient
+indubitablement au géographe Ortelius, qui annonça cette opinion des
+l'année 1570. 'Christophe Colomb, dit Ortelius, a seulement mis le
+Nouveau Monde en rapport durable de commerce et d'utilité avec l'Europe'
+(_Theatr. Orbis Terr._, on p. 5, 6). Ce jugement est beaucoup trop
+séverè."--Humboldt's _Géog. du Nouveau Continent_.]
+
+[Footnote 16: "Biorn first saw land in the Island of Nantucket, one
+degree south of Boston, then in New Scotland, and lastly in
+Newfoundland."--Carl Christian Rafn, _Antiquitates Americanæ_, 1845, p.
+4, 421; Humboldt's _Cosmos_.
+
+"The country called 'the good Vinland' (Vinland it goda) by Leif,
+included the shore between Boston and New York, and therefore parts of
+the present states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut,
+between the parallels of latitude of Civita, Vecchia and Terracina,
+where, however, the average temperature of the year is between 46° and
+52° (Fahr.). This was the chief settlement of the Normans. Their active
+and enterprising spirit is proved by the circumstance that, after they
+had settled in the south as far as 41° 30' north latitude, they erected
+three pillars to mark out the boundaries near the eastern coast of
+Baffin's Bay, in the latitude of 72° 55', upon one of the Women Islands
+northwest of the present most northern Danish colony of Upernavik. The
+Runic inscription upon the stone, discovered in the autumn of 1824,
+contains, according to Rask and Finn Magnusen, the date of the year
+1135. From this eastern coast of Baffin's Bay, the colonists visited,
+with great regularity, on account of the fishery, Lancaster Sound and a
+part of Barrow's Straits, and this occurred more than six centuries
+before the bold undertakings of Parry and Ross. The locality of the
+fishery is very accurately described; and Greenland priests, from the
+diocese of Gardar, conducted the first voyage of discovery in 1266.
+These northwestern summer stations were called the Kroksjardar, heathen
+countries. Mention was early made of the Siberian wood, which was then
+collected, as well as of the numerous whales, seals, walrus, and polar
+bears."--Rafn, _Antiq. Amer._, p. 20, 274, 415-418, quoted by Humboldt.]
+
+[Footnote 17: One of the objections brought forward by Robertson against
+the Norman discovery of America is, that the wild vine has never since
+been found so far north as Labrador; but modern travelers have
+ascertained that a species of wild vine grows even as far north as the
+shores of Hudson's Bay.[18] Since Robertson's time, however, the
+locality of the first Norman settlement has been moved further south,
+and into latitudes where the best species of wild vines are abundant.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Sir A. Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland, 1812. Preliminary
+Dissertation by Dr Holland, p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Rafn, _Antiq. Amer._]
+
+[Footnote 20: The Esquimaux were at that time spread much further south
+than they are at present.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 268.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Eric Upsi, a native of Iceland, and the first Greenland
+bishop, undertook to go to Vinland as a Christian missionary in 1121.]
+
+[Footnote 22: "The learned Grotius founds an argument for the
+colonization of America by the Norwegians on the similarity between the
+names of Norway and La Norimbègue, a district bordering on New
+England."--Grotius, _De Origine Gentium Americanarum_, in quarto, 1642.
+See, also, the Controversy between Grotius and Jean de Laët.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Accurate information respecting the former intercourse of
+the Northmen with the Continent of America reaches only as far as the
+middle of the fourteenth century. In the year 1349 a ship was sent from
+Greenland to Markland (New Scotland) to collect timber and other
+necessaries. Upon their return from Markland, the ship was overtaken by
+storms, and compelled to land at Straumfjord, in the west of Iceland.
+This is the last account of the "Norman America," preserved for us in
+the ancient Scandinavian writings. The settlements upon the west coast
+of Greenland, which were in a very flourishing condition until the
+middle of the fourteenth century, gradually declined, from the fatal
+influence of monopoly of trade, by the invasion of the Esquimaux, by the
+black death which depopulated the north from the year 1347 to 1351, and
+also by the arrival of a hostile fleet, from what country is not known.
+
+By means of the critical and most praiseworthy efforts of Christian
+Rafn, and the Royal Society for Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, the
+traditions and ancient accounts of the voyage of the Normans to
+Helluland (Newfoundland), to Markland (the mouth of the River St.
+Lawrence at Nova Scotia), and at Winland (Massachusetts), have been
+separately printed and satisfactorily commented upon. The length of the
+voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the rising and
+setting of the sun, are accurately laid down. The principal sources of
+information are the historical narrations of Erik the Red, Thorfinn
+Karlsefne, and Snorre Thorbrandson, probably written in Greenland
+itself, as early as the twelfth century, partly by descendants of the
+settlers born in Winland.--Rafn, _Antiq. Amer._, p. 7, 14, 16. The care
+with which the tables of their pedigrees was kept was so great, that the
+table of the family of Thorfinn Karlsefne, whose son, Snorre
+Thorbrandson, was born in America, was kept from the year 1007 to 1811.
+
+The name of the colonized countries is found in the ancient national
+songs of the natives of the Färöe Islands.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol.
+ii., p. 268-452.]
+
+[Footnote 24: See Appendix, No. IV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 25: See Appendix, No. V. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 26: See Appendix, No. VI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 27: See Appendix, No. VII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 28: The numerous data which have come down to us from
+antiquity, and an acute examination of the local relations, especially
+the great vicinity of the settlements upon the African coast, which
+incontestably existed, lead me to believe that Phoenicians,
+Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, and probably even the Etruscans, were
+acquainted with the group of the Canary Islands.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_,
+vol. ii., p. 414.
+
+"Porro occidentalis navigatio, quantum etiam famâ assequi Plinius
+potuit, tantum ad Fortunatas Insulas cursum protendit, earumque
+præcipuam à multitudine canum Canariam vocatam refert."--Acosta, _De
+Natura Novi Orbis_, lib. i., cap. ii.
+
+Respecting the probability of the Semitic origin of the name of the
+Canary Islands, Pliny, in his Latinizing etymological notions,
+considered them to be _Dog Islands_! (Vide Credner's Biblical
+Representation of Paradise, in Illgen's Journal for Historical Theology,
+1836, vol. vi., p. 166-186.)--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 414.
+
+The most fundamental, and, in a literary point of view, the most complete
+account of the Canary Islands, that was written in ancient times, down to
+the Middle Ages, was collected in a work of Joachim José da Costa de
+Macedo, with the title "Memoria cem que se pretende provar que os Arabes
+não connecerão as Canarias autes dos Portuguesques, 1844." (See, also,
+Viera y Clavigo, _Notic. de la Hist. de Canaria_.)--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 29: See Appendix, No. VIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 30: "Jean de Bethancourt knew that before the expedition of
+Alvaro Beccara, that is to say, before the end of the fourteenth
+century, Norman adventurers had penetrated as far as Sierra Leone (lat.
+8° 30'), and he sought to follow their traces. Before the Portuguese,
+however, no European nation appears to have crossed the
+equator."--Humboldt.
+
+"Les Normands et les Arabes sont les seules nations qui, jusqu'au
+commencement du douzième siècle, aient partagé la gloire des grandes
+expéditions maritimes, le goût des aventures étranges, la passion du
+pillage et des conquêtes éphémères. Les Normands ont occupé
+successivement l'Islande et la Neustrie, ravagé les sanctuaires de
+l'Italie, ravagé la Pouille sur les Grecs, inscrit leurs caractères
+runiques jusque sur les flancs d'un des lions que Morosini enleva au
+Pirée d'Athènes pour en orner l'arsenal de Venise."--Humboldt's _Géog.
+du Nouveau Continent_, vol. ii., p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 31: "No nation," says Southey, "has ever accomplished such
+great things in proportion to its means as the Portuguese." Its early
+maritime history does, indeed, present a striking picture of enterprise
+and restless energy, but the annals of Europe afford no similar instance
+of rapid degeneracy. There was an age when less than forty thousand
+armed Portuguese kept the whole coasts of the ocean in awe, from Morocco
+to China; when one hundred and fifty sovereign princes paid tribute to
+the treasury of Lisbon. But in all their enterprises they aimed at
+conquest, and not at colonization. The government at home exercised
+little control over the arms of its piratical mariners; the mother
+country derived no benefit from their achievements. To the age of
+conquest succeeded one of effeminacy and corruption.--Merivale's
+_Lectures on Colonization_, vol. i., p. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 32: See Appendix, No. IX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 33: The zones were imaginary bands or circles in the heavens,
+producing an effect of climate on corresponding belts on the globe of
+the earth. The frigid zones, between the polar circles and the poles,
+were considered uninhabitable and unnavigable, on account of the extreme
+cold. The torrid zone, lying beneath the track of the sun, or rather the
+central part of it, immediately about the equator, was considered
+uninhabitable, unproductive, and impassable, on account of the excessive
+heat. The temperate zones, lying between the torrid and the frigid
+zones, were supposed to be the only parts of the globe suited to the
+purposes of life. Parmenides, according to Strabo, was the inventor of
+this theory of the five zones. Aristotle supported the same doctrine. He
+believed that there was habitable earth in the southern hemisphere, but
+that it was forever divided from the part of the world already known by
+the impassable zone of scorching heat at the equator. (Aristot., Met.,
+ii., cap. v.) Pliny supported the opinion of Aristotle concerning the
+burning zones. (Pliny, lib. i., cap. lxvi.) Strabo (lib. ii.), in
+mentioning this theory, gives it likewise his support; and others of the
+ancient philosophers, as well as the poets, might be cited, to show the
+general prevalence of the belief.--Cicero, _Somnium Scipionis_, cap.
+vi.; Geminus, cap. xiii., p. 31; ap. Petavii Opus de Doctr. Tempor. in
+quo Uranologium sive Systemata var. Auctorum. Amst., 1705, vol. iii.]
+
+[Footnote 34: See Appendix, No. X. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 35: Barros, Dec. I., lib. iii., cap. iv., p. 190, says
+distinctly, "Bartholomeu Diaz, e os de sua compantica per causa dos
+perigos, e tormentas, que em o dobrar delle passáram che puyeram nome
+Tormentoso." The merit of the first circumnavigation, therefore, does
+not belong to Vasco de Gama, as is generally supposed. Diaz was at the
+Cape in May, 1487, and, therefore, almost at the same time that Pedro de
+Covilham and Alonzo de Payva of Barcelona commenced their expedition. As
+early as December, 1487, Diaz himself brought to Portugal the account of
+his important discovery. The mission of Pedro Covilham and Alonzo de
+Payva, in 1487, was set on foot by King John II., in order to search for
+"the African priest Johannes." Believing the accounts which he had
+obtained from Indian and Arabian pilots in Calicut, Goa, Aden, as well
+as in Sofala, on the eastern coast of Africa, Covilham informed King
+John II., by means of two Jews from Cairo, that if the Portuguese were
+to continue their voyages of discovery upon the western coast in a
+southerly direction, they would come to the end of Africa, whence a
+voyage to the _Island of the Moon_, to Zanzibar, and the gold country of
+Sofala, would be very easy. Accounts of the Indian and Arabian trading
+stations upon the east coast of Africa, and of the form of the southern
+extremity of the Continent, may have extended to Venice, through Egypt,
+Abyssinia, and Arabia. The triangular form of Africa was actually
+delineated upon the map of Sanuto, made in 1306, and discovered in the
+"Portulano della Mediceo-Laurenziana," by Count Baldelli in 1351, and
+also in the chart of the world by Fra Mauro.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol.
+ii., p. 290, 461.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Faria y Sousa complains that "the admiral entered Lisbon
+with a vain-glorious exultation, in order to make Portugal feel, by
+displaying the tokens of his discovery, how much she had erred in not
+acceding to his propositions."--_Europa Portuguesa_, t. ii., p. 402,
+403.
+
+Ruy de Pina asserts that King John was much importuned to kill Columbus
+on the spot, since, with his death, the prosecution of the undertaking,
+as far as the sovereigns of Castile were concerned, would cease, from
+want of a suitable person to take charge of it; but the king had too
+much magnanimity to adopt the iniquitous measure proposed.--Vasconcellos,
+_Vida del Rie Don Juan II._, lib. vi,; Garcia de Resende, _Vide da Dom
+Joam II._; Las Casas, _Hist. Ind._, lib. i., cap. lxxiv.; MS. quoted
+by Prescott.]
+
+[Footnote 37: See Appendix, No. XI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 38: "A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo Mumto dió Colon," was the
+inscription on the costly monument that was raised over the remains of
+Columbus in the Carthusian Monastery of La Cuevas at Seville. "The like
+of which," says his son Ferdinand, with as much truth as simplicity,
+"was never recorded of any man in ancient or modern times."--_Hist. del
+Almirante_, cap. cviii.
+
+His ashes were finally removed to Cuba, where they now repose in the
+Cathedral church of its capital.--Navarrete, _Coleccion de Viages_, tom.
+ii.
+
+"E dandogli il titol di Don volsero che egli aggiungesse presso all'armè
+di casa sua quattro altre, cioè quelle del Regno de Castiglio di Leon, e
+il Mar Oceano con tutte l'isole e quattro anchore per dimostrare
+l'ufficio d'Almirante, con un motto d'intorno che dicea, 'Per Castiglia
+e per Leon, Nuovo Mundo trovo Colon.'"--Ramusio, _Discorio_, tom. iii.
+
+The heir of Columbus was always to bear the arms of the admiral, to seal
+with them, and in his signature never to use any other title than simply
+"the Admiral."]
+
+[Footnote 39: See Appendix, No. XII. (see Vol II)--In the Middle Ages
+the prevalent opinion was that the sea covered but one seventh of the
+surface of the globe; an opinion which Cardinal d'Ailly (Imago Mundi,
+cap. viii.) founded on the apocryphal fourth book of Ezra. Columbus, who
+always derived much of his cosmological knowledge from the cardinal's
+work, was much interested in upholding this idea of the smallness of the
+sea, to which the misunderstood expression of "the ocean-stream"
+contributed not a little. He was also accustomed to cite Aristotle, and
+Seneca, and St. Augustine, in confirmation of this opinion.--Humboldt's
+_Examen Critique de l'Hist. de la Géographie_, tom. i., p. 186.]
+
+[Footnote 40: See, especially, the details of the conference held at
+Salamanca (the great seat of learning in Spain), given in the fourth
+chapter of Washington Irving's "Columbus." One of the objections
+advanced was, that, admitting the earth to be spherical, and should a
+ship succeed in reaching in this way the extremity of India, she could
+never get back again; for the rotundity of the globe would present a
+kind of mountain, up which it would be impossible for her to sail with
+the most favorable wind.--_Hist. del Almirante_, cap. ii.; _Hist. de
+Chiapa por Remesel_, lib. ii., cap. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Columbus was required by King John II., of Portugal, to
+furnish a detailed plan of his proposed voyages, with the charts and
+other documents according to which he proposed to shape his course, for
+the alleged purpose of having them examined by the royal counselors. He
+readily complied; but while he remained in anxious suspense as to the
+decision of the council, a caravel was secretly dispatched with
+instructions to pursue the route designated in the papers of Columbus.
+This voyage had the ostensible pretext of carrying provisions to the
+Cape de Verde Islands; the private instructions given were carried into
+effect when the caravel departed thence. It stood westward for several
+days; but then the weather grew stormy, and the pilots having no zeal to
+stimulate them, and seeing nothing but an immeasurable waste of wild,
+trembling waves still extending before them, lost all courage to
+proceed. They put back to the Cape de Verde Islands, and thence to
+Lisbon, excusing their own want of resolution by ridiculing the project
+of Columbus. On discovering this act of treachery, Columbus instantly
+quitted Portugal.--_Hist. del Almirante_, cap. viii.; Herrera, Dec. I.,
+lib. i., cap. vii.; Munoz, _Hist. del Nuevo Mundo_, lib. ii.--Quoted by
+Prescott.]
+
+[Footnote 42: "Le Vendredi n'étant pas regardé dans la Chrétienté comme
+un jour de bon augure pour le commencement d'une entreprise, les
+historiens du 17[me] siècle, qui gémissaient déjà sur les maux dont,
+selon eux, l'Europe a été accablé par la découverte de l'Amérique, on
+fait remarque que Colomb est parti pour la première expédition
+_vendredi_, 3 août 1492, et que la première terre d'Amérique a été
+découverte _vendredi_ 12 Octobre de la même année. La réformation du
+calendrier appliquée au journal de Colomb, qui indique toujours à la
+fois, les jours de la semaine et la date du mois, feroit disparoître le
+pronostic du jour fatal."--Humboldt's _Géog. du Nouveau Continent_, vol.
+iii., p. 160.]
+
+[Footnote 43: His first landing in the New World partook of the same
+character as his departure from the Old.
+
+"Christoforo Colombo--primo con una bandiera nella quale era figurato il
+nostro Signore Jesu Christo in croce, saltô in terra, e quella piantò, e
+poi tutti gli alti smontarono, e inginocchiati baciarono la terra, tre
+volti piangendo di allegrezza. Di poi Colombo alzate le mani al cielo
+lagrimando disse, Signor Dio Eterno, Signore omnipotente, tu creasti il
+cielo, e la terra, e il mare con la tua santa parola, sia benedetto e
+glorificato il nome tuo, sia ringraziata la tua Maestà, la quale si è
+degnata per mano d' uno umil suo servo far ch' el suo santo nome sia
+conosciuto e divulgato in questa altra parte del mondo."--Pietro
+Martire, _Dell' Indie Occidentali_, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 2; Oviedo,
+_Hist. Gen. dell' India_.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Columbus not only has, incontestably, the merit of first
+discovering the line where there is no declination of the needle, but
+also of first inducing a study of terrestrial magnetism in Europe, by
+his observations concerning the increasing declination as he sailed in a
+westerly direction from that line. It had been already easily recognized
+in the Mediterranean, and in all places where, in the twelfth century,
+the declination was as much as eight or ten degrees, even though their
+instruments were so imperfect that the ends of a magnetic needle did not
+point exactly to the geographical north or south. It is improbable that
+the Arabs or Crusaders drew attention to the fact of the compass
+pointing to the northeast and northwest in different parts of the world,
+as to a phenomenon which had long been known. The merit which belongs to
+Columbus is, not for the first observance of the existence of the
+declination, which is given, for example, upon the map of Andrew Bianca,
+in 1436, but for the remark which he made on the 13th of September,
+1492, that about two degrees and a half to the east of the Island of
+Corvo the magnetic variation changed, and that it passed over from
+northeast to northwest. This discovery of a magnetic line without any
+variation indicates a remarkable epoch in nautical astronomy. It was
+celebrated with just praise by Oviedo, Casas, and Herrera. If with Livio
+Sanuto we ascribe it to the renowned mariner Sebastian Cabot, we forget
+that his first voyage, which was undertaken at the expense of some
+merchants of Bristol, and which was crowned with success by his touching
+the main-land of America, falls five years later than the first
+expedition of Columbus.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 318; Las
+Casas, _Hist. Ind._, lib. i., cap. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 45: "In sailing toward the West India Islands birds are often
+seen at the distance of two hundred leagues from the nearest
+coast."--Sloane's _Nat. Hist. of Jamaica_, vol. i., p. 30.
+
+Captain Cook says, "No one yet knows to what distance any of the Oceanic
+birds go to sea; for my own part, I do not believe that there is any one
+of the whole tribe that can be relied on in pointing out the vicinity of
+land."--_Voyage toward the South Pole_, vol. i., p. 275.
+
+The Portuguese, however, only keeping along the African coast and
+watching the flight of birds with attention, concluded that they did not
+venture to fly far from land. Columbus adopted this erroneous opinion
+from his early instructors in navigation.]
+
+[Footnote 46: "Puesto que el amirante a los diez de la noche viò lumbre
+... y era como una candelilla de cera que se alzaba y levantaba, lo cual
+a pocos pareciera ser indicio de tierra. Pero el amirante tuvò por
+cierto estar junto a la tierra. Por lo qual quando dijeron la 'Salve'
+que acostumbran decir y cantar a su manera todos los marineros, y de
+hallan todos, vogo y amonestòlos el amirante que hiciesen buena guarda
+al castillo de proa, y mirasen bien por la tierra."--_Diar. de Colon.
+Prem. Viag. 11 de Oct._]
+
+[Footnote 47: "Let those who are disposed to faint under difficulties,
+in the prosecution of any great and worthy undertaking, remember that
+eighteen years elapsed after the time that Columbus conceived his
+enterprise before he was enabled to carry it into effect; that most of
+that time was passed in almost hopeless solicitation, amid poverty,
+neglect, and taunting ridicule; that the prime of his life had wasted
+away in the struggle, and that, when his perseverance was finally
+crowned with success, he was about in his fifty-sixth year. This example
+should encourage the enterprising never to despair."--Washington
+Irving's _Life of Columbus_, vol. i., p. 174.]
+
+[Footnote 48: "While Columbus lay on a sick-bed by the River Belem, he
+was addressed in a dream by an unknown voice, distinctly uttering these
+words: 'Maravillósamente Dios hizo sonar tu nombre en la tierra; de los
+atamientos de la Mar Oceana, que estaban cerradas con cadenas tan
+fuertes, te dió las llaves.' (Letter to the Catholic monarch, July 7th,
+1503.)"--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 49: See Appendix, No. XIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 50: "The application to King Henry VII. was not made until
+1488, as would appear from the inscription on a map which Bartholomew
+presented to the king. Las Casas intimates, from letters and writings of
+Bartholomew Columbus, in his possession, that the latter accompanied
+Bartholomew Diaz in his voyage from Lisbon, in 1486, along the coast of
+Africa, in the course of which he discovered the Cape of Good
+Hope."--Las Casas, _Hist. Ind._, lib. i., cap. vii.]
+
+[Footnote 51: "The American Continent was first discovered under the
+auspices of the English, and the coast of the United States by a native
+of England (Sebastian Cabot told me that he was born in
+Bristowe)."--_History of the Travayles in the East and West Indies_, by
+R. Eden and R. Willes, 1577. fol. 267. Posterity hardly remembered that
+they[52] (the Cabots) had reached the American Continent nearly four
+months before Columbus, on his third voyage, came in sight of the
+main-land.--Bancroft's _Hist. of the United States_, vol. i., p. 11.
+Charlevoix's "Histoire de la Nouvelle France," and the "Fastes
+Chronologiques," endeavor to discredit the discoveries of John and
+Sebastian Cabot, but the testimonies of cotemporary authors are
+decisive. Unfortunately, no journal or relation remains of the voyages
+of the Cabots to North America, but several authors have handed down
+accounts of them, which they received from the lips of Sebastian Cabot
+himself. See Hakluyt, iii., 27; Galearius Butrigarius, in Ramusio, tom.
+ii.; Ramusio, Preface to tom. iii.; Peter Martyr ab Angleria, Dec. III.,
+cap. vi.; Gomara, _Gen. Hist. of the West Indies_, b. ii., c. vi. In
+Fabian's Chronicle, the writer asserts that he saw, in the sixteenth
+year of Henry VII., two out of three men who had been brought from
+"Newfound Island" two years before. The grant made by Edward VI. to
+Sebastian Cabot of a pension equal to £1000 per annum of our money,
+attests that "the good and acceptable service" for which it was
+conferred was of a very important nature. The words of the grant are
+handed down to us by Hakluyt, vol. iii., p. 31.--See _Life of Henry
+VII._, by Lord Bacon; Bacon's _Works_, vol. iii., p. 356, 357.]
+
+[Footnote 52: "The only immediate fruit of Cabot's first enterprise is
+said to have been the importation from America of the first turkeys ever
+seen in Europe. Why this bird received the name it enjoys in England has
+never been satisfactorily explained. By the French it was called 'Coq
+d'Inde,' on account of its American original, America being then
+generally termed Western India."--Graham's _Hist. of the United States_,
+vol. i., p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Baccalaos was the name given by the natives to the codfish
+with which these waters abounded. Pietro Martire, who calls Sebastian
+Cabot his "dear and familiar friend," speaks of Newfoundland as
+Baccalaos; also, Lopez de Gomara and Ramusio.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Mr. Bancroft pronounces this "fact to be indisputable,"
+though he acknowledges that "the testimony respecting this expedition is
+confused and difficult of explanation." Sebastian Cabot wrote "A
+Discourse of Navigation," in which the entrance of the strait leading
+into Hudson's Bay was laid down with great precision "on a card, drawn
+by his own hand."--Ortelius, _Map of America in Theatrum Orbis
+Terrarum_; Eden and Willis, p. 223; Sir H. Gilbert, in Hakluyt, vol.
+iii., p. 49, 50; Bancroft, vol. i., p. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 55: The learned and ingenious author of the "Memoirs of
+Sebastian Cabot" has brought forward strong arguments against the
+discovery of the Continent of America by Jean Vas Cortereal in
+1494.--Humboldt's _Géog. du Nouveau Continent_, vol. i., p. 279; vol.
+ii., p. 25.
+
+"The discoverer of the territory of our country was one of the most
+extraordinary men of his age. There is deep cause for regret that time
+has spared so few memorials of his career. He gave England a continent,
+and no one knows his burial-place."--Bancroft, vol. i., p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Ramusio, vol. iii., p. 417. This discovery is also
+attributed to Jacques Cartier, who entered the gulf on the 10th of
+August, 1535, and gave it the name of the saint whose festival was
+celebrated on that day.--Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 57: In an old map published in 1508, the Labrador coast is
+called Terra Corterealis.]
+
+[Footnote 58: It has been conjectured that the name Terra de Laborador
+was given to this coast by the Portuguese slave merchants, on account of
+the admirable qualities of the natives as laborers.--_Picture of
+Quebec_.]
+
+[Footnote 59: It was an idea entertained by Columbus, that, as he
+extended his discoveries to climates more and more under the torrid
+influence of the sun, he should find the productions of nature
+sublimated by its rays to more perfect and precious qualities. He was
+strengthened in this belief by a letter written to him, at the command
+of the queen, by one Jayme Ferrer, an eminent and learned lapidary, who,
+in the course of his trading for precious stones and metals, had been in
+the Levant and in various parts of the East; had conversed with the
+merchants of the remote parts of Asia and Africa, and the natives of
+India, Arabia, and Ethiopia, and was considered deeply versed in
+geography generally, but especially in the nature of those countries
+from whence the valuable merchandise in which he dealt was procured. In
+this letter Ferrer assured Columbus that, according to his experience,
+the rarest objects of commerce, such as gold, precious stones, drugs,
+and spices, were chiefly to be found in the regions about the
+equinoctial line, where the inhabitants were black, or darkly colored,
+and that until the admiral should arrive among people of such
+complexions, he did not think he would find those articles in great
+abundance.--Navarrete, _Coleccion_, tom. ii., Document 68.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Ramusio, vol. iii., p. 347; Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 36;
+see Osorio, History of the Portuguese, b. i.; Barrow's Voyages, p.
+37-48; Herrera, Dec. 1., lib. vii., cap. ix.; Ensayo Chronologico para
+la Historia general de la Florida. En Madrid, 1723.--Quoted by Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 61: "Les demandes ordinaires qu'on nous fait sont, 'Y a-t-il
+des trésors? Y a-t-il de l'or et de l'argent?' Et personne ne demande,
+'Ces peuples là sont il disposés à entendre la doctrine Chrétienne?' Et
+quant aux mines, il y en a vraiment, mais il les faut fouiller avec
+industrie, labeur et patience. La plus belle mine que je sache, c'est du
+bled et du vin, avec la nourriture du bestial; qui a de ceci, il a de
+l'argent, et des mines, nous n'en vivons point."--Marc l'Escarbot.]
+
+[Footnote 62: This bold stretch of papal authority, so often ridiculed
+as chimerical and absurd, was in a measure justified by the event, since
+it did, in fact, determine the principle on which the vast extent of
+unappropriated empire in the eastern and western hemispheres was
+ultimately divided between two petty states of Europe. Alexander had not
+even the excuse that he thought he was disposing of uncultivated and
+uninhabited regions, since he specifies in his donation both towns and
+castles: "Civitates et castra in perpetuum tenore præsentium donamus."]
+
+[Footnote 63: "What," said Francis I., "shall the kings of Spain and
+Portugal divide all America between them, without suffering me to take a
+share as their brother? I would fain see the article in Adam's will that
+bequeaths that vast inheritance to them."--_Encyclopedia_, vol. iv., p.
+695.]
+
+[Footnote 64: "In the latter years of his life, Francis, by a strict
+economy of the public money, repaired the evils of his early
+extravagance, while, at the same time, he was enabled to spare
+sufficient for carrying on the magnificent public institutions he had
+undertaken, and for forwarding the progress of discovery, of the fine
+arts, and of literature."--Bacon's _Life and Times of Francis I._, p.
+399-401.]
+
+[Footnote 65: See Appendix, No. XIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 66: "Navigò anche lungo la detta terra l'anno 1524 un gran
+capitano del Re Christianissimo Francesco, detto Giovanni da Verazzano,
+Fiorentino, e scorse tutta la costa fino alla Florida, come per una sua
+lettera scritta al detto Re, particolarmente si vedià la qual sola
+abbiamo potuto avere perciocchè l'altre si sono smarrite nelli travagli
+della povera città di Fiorenza e nell' ultimo viaggio che esso fece,
+avendo voluto smontar in terra con alcuni compagni, furono tutti morti
+da quei popoli, e in presentia di colóro che erano rimasi nelle navi,
+furono arrostiti e mangeati." (Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 416.) The Baron La
+Houtan and La Potherie give the same account of Verazzano's end; they
+are not, however, very trustworthy authorities. Le Beau repeats the same
+story; but Charlevoix's words are, "Je ne trouve aucun fondement à ce
+que quelques uns ont publié, qu'ayant mis pied à terre dans un endroit
+où il voulait bâtir un fort, les sauvages se jetèrent sur lui, le
+massacrèrent avec tous ses gens et le mangèrent." A Spanish historian
+has asserted, contrary to all probability, that Verazzano was taken by
+the Spaniards, and hung as a pirate.--D. Andrès Gonzalez de Barcia,
+_Ensayo Chronologico para la Historia della Florida_.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Tiraboschi, _Storia della Literatura Italiana_, vol. vii.,
+p. 261, 262.--Quoted in the _Picture of Quebec_, to which valuable work
+J.C. Fisher, Esq., president of the Literary and Historical Society of
+Quebec, largely contributed.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Signifying "here is nothing." The insatiable thirst of the
+Spanish discoverers for gold is justified by the greatest of all
+discoverers, the disinterested Columbus himself, on high religious
+principles. When acquainting their Castilian majesties with the
+abundance of gold[69] to be procured in the newly-found countries, he
+thus speaks, "El oro es excelentisimo, del oro se hace tesoro; y con el
+quien lo tiene hace quanto quiere en el mundo, y elega a que echa las
+animas al paraiso." (Navarrete, _Coleccion de los Viages_, vol. i., p.
+309.) A passage which the modern editor of his papers affirms to be in
+conformity with many texts of Scripture.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The historian Herrera, writing in the light of experience,
+makes use of the strong expression, that "mines were a lure devised by
+the evil spirit to draw the Spaniards on to destruction." "L'Espagne,"
+says Montesquieu, "a fait comme ce roi insensé, qui demanda que tout ce
+qu'il toucheroit se convertit en or, et qui fut obligé de revenir aux
+Dieux, pour les prier de finir sa misère."--_Esprit des Loix_, lib.
+xxi., cap. 22.
+
+"Les mines du Pérou et du Mexique ne valoient pas même pour l'Espagne ce
+qu'elle auroit tire du son propre fonds en los cultivant. Avec tant de
+trésors Philippe II. fit banqueroute."--Millot. "Pâturage et labourage,"
+said the wise Sully, "valent mieux que tout l'or du Pérou."]
+
+[Footnote 70: Father Hennepin asserts that the Spaniards were the first
+discoverers of Canada, and that, finding nothing there to gratify their
+extensive desires for gold, they bestowed upon it the appellation of El
+Capo di Nada, "Cape Nothing," whence, by corruption, its present
+name.--_Nouvelle Description d'un très grand pays situé dans l'Amérique
+entre le Nouveau Mexique et la Mer Glaciale, depuis l'an_ 1667 _jusqu'
+en_ 1670. _Par le Père Louis Hennepin, Missionaire Recollet à Utrecht_,
+1697.
+
+La Potherie gives the same derivation. _Histoire de l'Amérique
+Septentrionale par M. de Bacqueville de la Potherie, à Paris_, 1722. The
+opinion expressed in a note of Charlevoix (Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France, vol. i., p. 13), is that deserving most credit. "D'autres
+dérivent ce nom du mot Iroquois 'Kannata,' qui se prononce Cannada, et
+signifie un amas de cabanes." This derivation would reconcile the
+different assertions of the early discoverers, some of whom give the
+name of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Lawrence; others, equally
+worthy of credit, confine it to a small district in the neighborhood of
+Stadacona (now Quebec). _Seconda Relatione di Jacques Cartier_, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442, 447. "Questo popolo (di Hochelaga) non
+partendo mai del lore paese, ne essendo vagabondi, come quelli di Canada
+e di Saguenay benchè dette di Canada sieno lor suggetti con otte o nove
+altri villaggi posti sopra detto fiume." Father du Creux, who arrived in
+Canada about the year 1625, in his "Historia Canadensis," gives the name
+of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Lawrence, confessing, however,
+his ignorance of the etymology: "Porro de Etymologiâ vocis Canada nihil
+satis certè potui comperire; priscam quidem esse, constat ex eo, quod
+illam ante annos prope sexaginta passim usurpari audiebam puer."
+
+Duponçeau, in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of
+Philadelphia, founds his conjecture of the Indian origin of the name of
+Canada upon the fact that, in the translation of the Gospel of St.
+Matthew into the Mohawk tongue, made by Brandt, the Indian chief, the
+word Canada is always used to signify a village. The mistake of the
+early discoverers, in taking the name of a part for that of the whole,
+is very pardonable in persons ignorant of the Indian language. It is
+highly improbable that at the period of its discovery the name of Canada
+was extended over this immense country. The migratory habits of the
+aborigines are alone conclusive against it. They distinguished
+themselves by their different tribes, not by the country over which they
+hunted and rode at will. They more probably gave names to localities
+than adopted their own from any fixed place of residence. The Iroquois
+and the Ottawas conferred their appellations on the rivers that ran
+through their hunting grounds, and the Huron tribe gave theirs to the
+vast lake now bearing their name. It has, however, never been pretended
+that any Indian tribe bore the name of Canada, and the natural
+conclusion therefore is, that the word "Canada" was a mere local
+appellation, without reference to the country; that each tribe had their
+own "Canada," or collection of huts, which shifted its position
+according to their migrations.
+
+Dr. Douglas, in his "American History," pretends that Canada derives its
+name from Monsieur Kane or Cane, whom he advances to have been the first
+adventurer in the River St. Lawrence.--Knox's _Historical Journal_, vol.
+i., p. 303.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+
+In the year 1534, Philip Chabot, admiral of France, urged the king to
+establish a colony in the New World,[71] by representing to him in
+glowing colors the great riches and power derived by the Spaniards from
+their transatlantic possessions. Francis I., alive to the importance of
+the design, soon agreed to carry it out. JACQUES CARTIER, an experienced
+navigator of St. Malo, was recommended by the admiral to be intrusted
+with the expedition, and was approved of by the king. On the 20th of
+April, 1534, Cartier sailed from St. Malo with two ships of only sixty
+tons burden each, and one hundred and twenty men for their crews:[72] he
+directed his course westward, inclining rather to the north; the winds
+proved so favorable, that on the twentieth day of the voyage he made
+Cape Bonavista, in Newfoundland. But the harbors of that dreary country
+were still locked up in the winter's ice, forbidding the approach of
+shipping: he then bent to the southeast, and at length found anchorage
+at St. Catharine, six degrees lower in latitude. Having remained here
+ten days, he again turned to the north, and on the 21st of May reached
+Bird Island, fourteen leagues from the coast.
+
+Jacques Cartier examined all the northern shores of Newfoundland,
+without having ascertained that it was an island, and then passed
+southward through the Straits of Belleisle. The country appeared every
+where the same bleak and inhospitable wilderness;[73] but the harbors
+were numerous, convenient, and abounding in fish. He describes the
+natives as well-proportioned men, wearing their hair tied up over their
+heads like bundles of hay, quaintly interlaced with birds' feathers.[74]
+Changing his course still more to the south, he then traversed the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence, approached the main-land, and on the 9th of July
+entered a deep bay; from the intense heat experienced there, he named it
+the "Baye de Chaleurs." The beauty of the country, and the kindness and
+hospitality of his reception, alike charmed him; he carried on a little
+trade with the friendly savages, exchanging European goods for their
+furs and provisions.
+
+Leaving this bay, Jacques Cartier visited a considerable extent of the
+gulf coast; on the 24th of July he erected a cross thirty feet high,
+with a shield bearing the fleurs-de-lys of France, on the shore of Gaspé
+Bay.[75] Having thus taken possession[76] of the country for his king in
+the usual manner of those days, he sailed, the 25th of July, on his
+homeward voyage: at this place two of the natives were seized by
+stratagem, carried on board the ships, and borne away to France. Cartier
+coasted along the northern shores of the Gulf till the 15th of August,
+and even entered the mouth of the River St. Lawrence, but the weather
+becoming stormy, he determined to delay his departure no longer: he
+passed again through the Straits of Belleisle, and arrived at St. Malo
+on the 5th of September, 1534, contented with his success, and full of
+hope for the future.
+
+Jacques Cartier was received with the consideration due to the
+importance of his report. The court at once perceived the advantage of
+an establishment in this part of America, and resolved to take steps for
+its foundation. Charles de Moncy, Sieur de la Mailleraye, vice-admiral
+of France, was the most active patron of the undertaking; through his
+influence Cartier obtained a more effective force, and a new commission,
+with ampler powers than before. When the preparations for the voyage
+were completed, the adventurers all assembled in the Cathedral of St.
+Malo, on Whitsunday, 1535, by the command of their pious leader; the
+bishop then gave them a solemn benediction, with all the imposing
+ceremonials of the Romish Church.
+
+On the 19th of May Jacques Cartier embarked, and started on his voyage
+with fair wind and weather. The fleet consisted of three small ships,
+the largest being only one hundred and twenty tons burden. Many
+adventurers and young men of good family accompanied the expedition as
+volunteers. On the morrow the wind became adverse, and rose to a storm;
+the heavens lowered over the tempestuous sea; for more than a month the
+utmost skill of the mariners could only enable them to keep their ships
+afloat, while tossed about at the mercy of the waves. The little fleet
+was dispersed on the 25th of June: each vessel then made for the coast
+of Newfoundland as it best might. The general's vessel, as that of
+Cartier was called, was the first to gain the land, on the 7th of July,
+and there awaited her consorts; but they did not arrive till the 26th of
+the month. Having taken in supplies of fuel and water, they sailed in
+company to explore the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A violent storm arose on
+the 1st of August, forcing them to seek shelter. They happily found a
+port on the north shore, at the entrance of the Great River, where,
+though difficult of access, there was a safe anchorage. Jacques Cartier
+called it St. Nicolas, and it is now almost the only place still bearing
+the name he gave. They left their harbor on the 7th, coasting westward
+along the north shore, and on the 10th came to a gulf filled with
+numerous and beautiful islands.[77] Cartier gave this gulf the name of
+St. Lawrence, having discovered it on that saint's festival day.[78]
+
+On the 15th of August they reached a long, rocky island toward the
+south, which Cartier named L'Isle de l'Assumption, now called
+Anticosti.[79] Thence they continued their course, examining carefully
+both shores of the Great River,[80] and occasionally holding
+communication with the inhabitants, till, on the 1st of September, they
+entered the mouth of the deep and gloomy Saguenay. The entrance of this
+great tributary was all they had leisure to survey; but the huge rocks,
+dense forests, and vast body of water, forming a scene of somber
+magnificence such as had never before met their view, inspired them with
+an exalted idea of the country they had discovered. Still passing to the
+southwest up the St. Lawrence, on the 6th they reached an island
+abounding in delicious filberts, and on that account named by the
+voyagers Isle aux Coudres. Cartier, being now so far advanced into an
+unknown country, looked out anxiously for a port where his vessels might
+winter in safety. He pursued his voyage till he came upon another
+island, of great extent, fertility, and beauty, covered with woods and
+thick, clustering vines. This he named Isle de Bacchus:[81] it is now
+called Orleans. On the 7th of September, Donnacona, the chief of the
+country,[82] came with twelve canoes filled by his train, to hold
+converse with the strangers, whose ships lay at anchor between the
+island and the north shore of the Great River. The Indian chief
+approached the smallest of the ships with only two canoes, fearful of
+causing alarm, and began an oration, accompanied with strange and
+uncouth gestures. After a time he conversed with the Indians who had
+been seized on the former voyage, and now acted as interpreters. He
+heard from them of their wonderful visit to the great nation over the
+salt lake, of the wisdom and power of the white men, and of the kind
+treatment they had received among the strangers. Donnacona appeared
+moved with deep respect and admiration; he took Jacques Cartier's arm
+and placed it gently over his own bended neck, in token of confidence
+and regard. The admiral cordially returned these friendly
+demonstrations. He entered the Indian's canoe, and presented bread and
+wine, which they ate and drank together. They then parted in all amity.
+
+After this happy interview, Jacques Cartier, with his boats, pushed up
+the north shore against the stream, till he reached a spot where a
+little river flowed into a "goodly and pleasant sound," forming a
+convenient haven.[83] He moored his vessels here for the winter on the
+16th of September, and gave the name of St. Croix to the stream, in
+honor of the day on which he first entered its waters; Donnacona,
+accompanied by a train of five hundred Indians, came to welcome his
+arrival with generous friendship. In the angle formed by the tributary
+stream and the Great River, stood the town of Stadacona, the
+dwelling-place of the chief; thence an irregular slope ascended to a
+lofty height of table-land: from this eminence a bold headland frowned
+over the St. Lawrence, forming a rocky wall three hundred feet in
+height. The waters of the Great River--here narrowed to less than a mile
+in breath--rolled deeply and rapidly past into the broad basin beyond.
+When the white men first stood on the summit of this bold headland,
+above their port of shelter, most of the country was fresh from the hand
+of the Creator; save the three small barks lying at the mouth of the
+stream, and the Indian village, no sign of human habitation met their
+view. Far as the eye could reach, the dark forest spread; over hill and
+valley, mountain and plain; up to the craggy peaks, down to the blue
+water's edge; along the gentle slopes of the rich Isle of Bacchus, and
+even from projecting rocks, and in fissures of the lofty precipice, the
+deep green mantle of the summer foliage hung its graceful folds. In the
+dim distance, north, south, east, and west, where mountain rose above
+mountain in tumultuous variety of outline, it was still the same; one
+vast leafy vail concealed the virgin face of Nature from the stranger's
+sight. On the eminence commanding this scene of wild but magnificent
+beauty, a prosperous city now stands; the patient industry of man has
+felled that dense forest, tree by tree, for miles and miles around, and
+where it stood, rich fields rejoice the eye; the once silent waters of
+the Great River below now surge against hundreds of stately ships;
+commerce has enriched this spot, art adorned it; a memory of glory
+endears it to every British heart. But the name QUEBEC[85] still remains
+unchanged; as the savage first pronounced it to the white stranger, it
+stands to-day among the proudest records of our country's story.
+
+The chief Donnacona and the French continued in friendly intercourse,
+day by day exchanging good offices and tokens of regard. But Jacques
+Cartier was eager for further discoveries; the two Indian interpreters
+told him that a city of much larger size than Stadacona lay further up
+the river, the capital of a great country; it was called in the native
+tongue Hochelaga; thither he resolved to find his way. The Indians
+endeavored vainly to dissuade their dangerous guests from this
+expedition; they represented the distance, the lateness of the season,
+the danger of the great lakes and rapid currents; at length they had
+recourse to a kind of masquerade or pantomime, to represent the perils
+of the voyage, and the ferocity of the tribes inhabiting that distant
+land. The interpreters earnestly strove to dissuade Jacques Cartier from
+proceeding on his enterprise, and one of them refused to accompany him.
+The brave Frenchman would not hearken to such dissuasions, and treated
+with equal contempt the verbal and pantomimic warnings of the alleged
+difficulties. As a precautionary measure to impress the savages with an
+exalted idea of his power as a friend or foe, he caused twelve cannon
+loaded with bullets to be fired in their presence against a wood; amazed
+and terrified at the noise, and the effects of this discharge, they
+fled, howling and shrieking, away.
+
+Jacques Cartier sailed for Hochelaga on the 19th of September; he took
+with him the Hermerillon, one of his smallest ships, the pinnace, and
+two long-boats, bearing thirty-five armed men, with their provisions and
+ammunition. The two larger vessels and their crews were left in the
+harbor of St. Croix, protected by poles and stakes driven into the water
+so as to form a barricade. The voyage presented few of the threatened
+difficulties; the country on both sides of the Great River was rich and
+varied, covered with stately timber, and abounding in vines. The natives
+were every where friendly and hospitable; all that they possessed was
+freely offered to the strangers. At a place called Hochelai, the chief
+of the district visited the French, and showed much friendship and
+confidence, presenting Jacques Cartier with a girl seven years of age,
+one of his own children.
+
+On the 29th, the expedition was stopped in Lake St. Pierre by the
+shallows, not having hit upon the right channel. Jacques Cartier took
+the resolution of leaving his larger vessels behind and proceeding with
+his two boats; he met with no further interruption, and at length
+reached Hochelaga on the 2d of October, accompanied by De Pontbriand, De
+la Pommeraye, and De Gozelle, three of his volunteers. The natives
+welcomed him with every demonstration of joy and hospitality; above a
+thousand people, of all ages and sexes, come forth to meet the
+strangers, greeting them with affectionate kindness. Jacques Cartier, in
+return for their generous reception, bestowed presents of tin, beads,
+and other bawbles upon all the women, and gave some knives to the men.
+He returned to pass the night in the boats, while the savages made great
+fires on the shore, and danced merrily all night long. The place where
+the French first landed was probably about eleven miles from the city
+of Hochelaga, below the rapid of St. Mary.
+
+On the day after his arrival Jacques Cartier proceeded to the town; his
+volunteers and some others of his followers accompanied him, arrayed in
+full dress; three of the natives undertook to guide them on their way.
+The road was well beaten, and bore evidence of having been much
+frequented: the country through which it passed was exceedingly rich and
+fertile. Hochelaga stood in the midst of great fields of Indian corn; it
+was of a circular form, containing about fifty large huts, each fifty
+paces long and from fourteen to fifteen wide, all built in the shape of
+tunnels, formed of wood, and covered with birch bark; the dwellings were
+divided into several rooms, surrounding an open court in the center,
+where the fires burned. Three rows of palisades encircled the town, with
+only one entrance; above the gate, and over the whole length of the
+outer ring of defense, there was a gallery, approached by flights of
+steps, and plentifully provided with stones and other missiles to resist
+attack. This was a place of considerable importance, even in those
+remote days, as the capital of a great extent of country, and as having
+eight or ten villages subject to its sway.
+
+The inhabitants spoke the language of the great Huron nation, and were
+more advanced in civilization than any of their neighbors: unlike other
+tribes, they cultivated the ground and remained stationary. The French
+were well received by the people of Hochelaga; they made presents, the
+Indians gave fêtes; their fire-arms, trumpets, and other warlike
+equipments filled the minds of their simple hosts with wonder and
+admiration, and their beards and clothing excited a curiosity which the
+difficulties of an unknown language prevented from being satisfied. So
+great was the veneration for the white men, that the chief of the town,
+and many of the maimed, sick, and infirm, came to Jacques Cartier,
+entreating him, by expressive signs, to cure their ills. The pious
+Frenchman disclaimed any supernatural power, but he read aloud part of
+the Gospel of St. John, made the sign of the cross over the sufferers,
+and presented them with chaplets and other holy symbols; he then prayed
+earnestly that the poor savages might be freed from the night of
+ignorance and infidelity. The Indians regarded these acts and words with
+deep gratitude and respectful admiration.
+
+Three miles from Hochelaga, there was a lofty hill, well tilled and very
+fertile;[86] thither Jacques Cartier bent his way, after having examined
+the town. From the summit he saw the river and the country for thirty
+leagues around, a scene of singular beauty. To this hill he gave the
+name of Mont Royal; since extended to the large and fertile island on
+which it stands, and to the city below. Time has now swept away every
+trace of Hochelaga; on its site the modern capital of Canada has arisen;
+fifty thousand people of European race, and stately buildings of carved
+stone, replace the simple Indians and the huts of the ancient town.
+
+Jacques Cartier, having made his observations, returned to the boats,
+attended by a great concourse; when any of his men appeared fatigued
+with their journey, the kind Indians carried them on their shoulders.
+This short stay of the French seemed to sadden and displease these
+hospitable people, and on the departure of the boats they followed their
+course for some distance along the banks of the river. On the 4th of
+October Jacques Cartier reached the shallows, where the pinnace had been
+left; he resumed his course the following day, and arrived at St. Croix
+on the 11th of the same month.
+
+The men who had remained at St. Croix had busied themselves during their
+leader's absence in strengthening their position, so as to secure it
+against surprise, a wise precaution under any circumstances among a
+savage people, but especially in the neighborhood of a populous town,
+the residence of a chief whose friendship they could not but distrust,
+in spite of his apparent hospitality.
+
+The day after Jacques Cartier's arrival, Donnacona came to bid him
+welcome, and entreated him to visit Stadacona. He accepted the
+invitation, and proceeded with his volunteers and fifty sailors to the
+village, about three miles from where the ships lay. As they journeyed
+on, they observed that the houses were well provided and stored for the
+coming winter, and the country tilled in a manner showing that the
+inhabitants were not ignorant of agriculture; thus they formed, on the
+whole, a favorable impression of the docility and intelligence of the
+Indians during this expedition.
+
+When the awful and unexpected severity of the winter set in, the French
+were unprovided with necessary clothing and proper provisions; the
+scurvy attacked them, and by the month of March twenty-five were dead,
+and nearly all were infected; the remainder would probably have also
+perished; but when Jacques Cartier was himself attacked with the
+dreadful disease, the Indians revealed to him the secret of its cure:
+this was the decoction of the leaf and bark of a certain tree, which
+proved so excellent a remedy that in a few days all were restored to
+health.[87]
+
+Jacques Cartier, on the 21st of April, was first led to suspect the
+friendship of the natives from seeing a number of strong and active
+young men make their appearance in the neighboring town; these were
+probably the warriors of the tribe, who had just then returned from the
+hunting grounds, where they had passed the winter, but there is now no
+reason to suppose that their presence indicated any hostility. However,
+Jacques Cartier, fearing treachery, determined to anticipate it. He had
+already arranged to depart for France. On the 3d of May he seized the
+chief, the interpreters, and two other Indians, to present them to
+Francis I.: as some amends for this cruel and flagrant violation of
+hospitality, he treated his prisoners with great kindness; they soon
+became satisfied with their fate. On the 6th of May he made sail for
+Europe, and, after having encountered some difficulties and delays,
+arrived safely at St. Malo the 8th of July, 1536.
+
+The result of Jacques Cartier's expedition was not encouraging to the
+spirit of enterprise in France; no mines had been discovered,[88] no
+rare and valuable productions found.[89] The miserable state to which
+the adventurers had been reduced by the rigorous climate and loathsome
+diseases, the privations they had endured, the poverty of their
+condition, were sufficient to cool the ardor of those who might
+otherwise have wished to follow up their discoveries. But, happily for
+the cause of civilization, some of those powerful in France judged more
+favorably of Jacques Cartier's reports, and were not to be disheartened
+by the unsuccessful issue of one undertaking; the dominion over such a
+vast extent of country, with fertile soil and healthy climate, inhabited
+by a docile and hospitable people, was too great an object to be lightly
+abandoned. The presence of Donnacona, the Indian chief, tended to keep
+alive an interest in the land whence he had come; as soon as he could
+render himself intelligible in the French language, he confirmed all
+that had been said of the salubrity, beauty, and richness of his native
+country. The pious Jacques Cartier most of all strove to impress upon
+the king the glory and merit of extending the blessed knowledge of a
+Savior to the dark and hopeless heathens of the West; a deed well worthy
+of the prince who bore the title of Most Christian King and Eldest Son
+of the Church.
+
+Jean François de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a gentleman of Picardy, was
+the most earnest and energetic of those who desired to colonize the
+lands discovered by Jacques Cartier; he bore a high reputation in his
+own province, and was favored by the friendship of the king. With these
+advantages he found little difficulty in obtaining a commission to
+command an expedition to North America; the title and authority of
+lieutenant general and viceroy was conferred upon him; his rule to
+extend over Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay, Newfoundland, Belle Isle,
+Carpon, Labrador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos, with the delegated
+rights and powers of the crown. This patent was dated the 15th of
+January, 1540. Jacques Cartier was named second in command. The orders
+to the leaders of the expedition enjoined them to discover more than had
+been hitherto accomplished, and, if possible, to reach the country of
+Saguenay, where, from some reports of the Indians, they still hoped to
+find mines of gold and silver. The port of St. Malo was again chosen for
+the fitting out of the expedition: the king furnished a sum of money to
+defray the expenses.[90]
+
+Jacques Cartier exerted himself vigorously in preparing the little fleet
+for the voyage, and awaited the arrival of his chief with the necessary
+arms, stores, and ammunition; Roberval was meanwhile engaged at Honfleur
+in fitting out two other vessels at his own cost, and being urged to
+hasten by the king, he gave his lieutenant orders to start at once, with
+full authority to act as if he himself were present. He also promised to
+follow from Honfleur with all the required supplies. Jacques Cartier
+sailed on the 23d of May, 1541, having provisioned his fleet for two
+years. Storms and adverse winds dispersed the ships for some time, but
+in about a month they all met again on the coast of Newfoundland, where
+they hoped Roberval would join them. They awaited his coming for some
+weeks, but at length proceeded without him to the St. Lawrence; on the
+23d of August they reached their old station near the magnificent
+headland of Quebec.
+
+Donnacona's successor as chief of the Indians at Stadacona came in state
+to welcome the French on their return, and to inquire after his absent
+countrymen. They told him of the chief's death, but concealed the fate
+of the other Indians, stating that they were enjoying great honor and
+happiness in France, and would not return to their own country. The
+savages displayed no symptoms of anger, surprise, or distrust at this
+news; their countenances exhibited the same impassive calm, their
+manners the same quiet dignity as ever; but from that hour their hearts
+were changed; hatred and hostility took the place of admiration and
+respect, and a sad foreboding of their approaching destruction darkened
+their simple minds. Henceforth the French were hindered and molested by
+the inhabitants of Stadacona to such an extent that it was deemed
+advisable to seek another settlement for the winter. Jacques Cartier
+chose his new position at the mouth of a small river three leagues
+higher on the St. Lawrence;[91] here he laid up some of his vessels
+under the protection of two forts, one on a level with the water, the
+other on the summit of an overhanging cliff; these strongholds
+communicated with each other by steps cut in the solid rock; he gave the
+name of Charlesbourg Royal to this new station. The two remaining
+vessels of the fleet he sent back to France with letters to the king,
+stating that Roberval had not yet arrived.
+
+Under the impression that the country of the Saguenay, the land of
+fabled wealth, could be reached by pursuing the line of the St.
+Lawrence, Jacques Cartier set forth to explore the rapids above
+Hochelaga on the 7th of September, 1541. The season being so far
+advanced, he only undertook this expedition with a view to being better
+acquainted with the route, and to being provided with all necessary
+preparations for a more extensive exploration in the spring. In passing
+up the Great River he renewed acquaintance with the friendly and
+hospitable chief of Hochelai, and there left two boys under charge of
+the Indians to learn the language. On the 11th he reached the sault or
+rapids above Hochelaga, where the progress of the boats was arrested by
+the force of the stream; he then landed and made his way to the second
+rapid. The natives gave him to understand that above the next sault
+there lay a great lake; Cartier, having obtained this information,
+returned to where he had left the boats; about four hundred Indians had
+assembled and met him with demonstrations of friendship; he received
+their good offices and made them presents in return, but still regarded
+them with distrust on account of their unusual numbers. Having gained
+as much information as he could, he set out on his return to
+Charlesbourg Royal, his winter-quarters. The chief was absent when
+Jacques Cartier stopped at Hochelai on descending the river; he had gone
+to Stadacona to hold counsel with the natives of that district for the
+destruction of the white men. On arriving at Charlesbourg Royal, Jacques
+Cartier found confirmation of his suspicions against the Indians; they
+now avoided the French, and never approached the ships with their usual
+offerings of fish and other provisions; a great number of men had also
+assembled at Stadacona. He accordingly made every possible preparation
+for defense in the forts, and took due precautions against a surprise.
+There are no records extant of the events of this winter in Canada, but
+it is probable that no serious encounter took place with the natives;
+the French, however, must have suffered severely from the confinement
+rendered necessary by their perilous position, as well as from want of
+the provisions and supplies which the bitter climate made requisite.
+
+Roberval, though high-minded and enterprising, failed in his engagements
+with Jacques Cartier: he did not follow his adventurous lieutenant with
+the necessary and promised supplies till the spring of the succeeding
+year. On the 16th of April, 1542, he at length sailed from Rochelle with
+three large vessels, equipped principally at the royal cost. Two hundred
+persons accompanied him, some of them being gentlemen of condition,
+others men and women purposing to become settlers in the New World. Jean
+Alphonse, an experienced navigator of Saintonge, by birth a Portuguese,
+was pilot of the expedition. After a very tedious voyage, they entered
+the Road of St. John's, Newfoundland, on the 8th of June, where they
+found no fewer than seventeen vessels engaged in the inexhaustible
+fisheries of those waters.
+
+While Roberval indulged in a brief repose at this place, the unwelcome
+appearance of Jacques Cartier filled him with disappointment and
+surprise. The lieutenant gave the hostility of the savages and the
+weakness of his force as reasons for having abandoned the settlement
+where he had passed the winter. He still, however, spoke favorably of
+the richness and fertility of the country, and gladdened the eyes of
+the adventurers by the sight of a substance that resembled gold ore, and
+crystals that they fancied were diamonds, found on the bold headland of
+Quebec. But, despite these flattering reports and promising specimens,
+Jacques Cartier and his followers could not be induced, by entreaties or
+persuasions, to return. The hardships and dangers of the last terrible
+winter were too fresh in memory, and too keenly felt, to be again
+braved. They deemed their portion of the contract already complete, and
+the love of their native land overcame the spirit of adventure, which
+had been weakened, if not quenched, by recent disappointment and
+suffering. To avoid the chance of an open rupture with Roberval, the
+lieutenant silently weighed anchor during the night, and made all sail
+for France. This inglorious withdrawal from the enterprise paralyzed
+Roberval's power, and deferred the permanent settlement of Canada for
+generations then unborn. Jacques Cartier died soon after his return to
+Europe.[92] Having sacrificed his fortune in the pursuit of discovery,
+his heirs were granted an exclusive privilege of trade to Canada for
+twelve years, in consideration of his sacrifices for the public good;
+but this gift was revoked four months after it was bestowed.
+
+Roberval determined to proceed on his expedition, although deprived of
+the powerful assistance and valuable experience of his lieutenant. He
+sailed from Newfoundland for Canada, and reached Cap Rouge, the place
+where Jacques Cartier had wintered, before the end of June, 1542. He
+immediately fortified himself there, as the situation best adapted for
+defense against hostility, and for commanding the navigation of the
+Great River. Very little is known of Roberval's proceedings during the
+remainder of that year and the following winter. The natives do not
+appear to have molested the new settlers; but no progress whatever was
+made toward a permanent establishment. During the intense cold, the
+scurvy caused fearful mischief among the French; no fewer than fifty
+perished from that dreadful malady during the winter. Demoralized by
+misery and idleness, the little colony became turbulent and lawless, and
+Roberval was obliged to resort to extreme severity of punishment before
+quiet and discipline were re-established.
+
+Toward the close of April the ice broke up, and released the French from
+their weary and painful captivity. On the 5th of June, 1543, Roberval
+set forth from Cap Rouge to explore the province of Saguenay, leaving
+thirty men and an officer to protect their winter-quarters: this
+expedition produced no results, and was attended with the loss of one of
+the boats and eight men. In the mean time the pilot, Jean Alphonse, was
+dispatched to examine the coasts north of Newfoundland, in hopes of
+discovering a passage to the East Indies; he reached the fifty-second
+degree of latitude, and then abandoned the enterprise; on returning to
+Europe, he published a narrative of Roberval's expedition and his own
+voyage, with a tolerably accurate description of the River St. Lawrence,
+and its navigation upward from the Gulf. Roberval reached France in
+1543; the war between Francis I. and the Emperor Charles V. for some
+years occupied his ardent spirit, and supplied him with new occasions
+for distinction, till the death of the king, his patron and friend, in
+1547. In the year 1549 he collected some adventurous men, and,
+accompanied by his brave brother, Achille, sailed once again for Canada;
+but none of this gallant band were ever heard of more. Thus, for many a
+year, were swallowed up in the stormy Atlantic all the bright hopes of
+founding a new nation in America:[93] since these daring men had failed,
+none others might expect to be successful.
+
+In the reign of Henry II., attention was directed toward Brazil;
+splendid accounts of its wealth and fertility were brought home by some
+French navigators who had visited that distant land. The Admiral Gaspard
+de Coligni was the first to press upon the king the importance of
+obtaining a footing in South America, and dividing the magnificent prize
+with the Portuguese monarch. This celebrated man was convinced that an
+extensive system of colonization was necessary for the glory and
+tranquillity of France. He purposed that the settlement in the New World
+should be founded exclusively by persons holding that Reformed faith to
+which he was so deeply attached, and thus would be provided a refuge for
+those driven from France by religious proscription and persecution. It
+is believed that Coligni's magnificent scheme comprehended the
+possession of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, gradually colonizing
+the banks of these great rivers into the depths of the Continent, till
+the whole of North America, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of
+Mexico, should be hemmed in by this gigantic line of French outposts.
+However, the first proposition was to establish a colony on the coast of
+Brazil; the king approved the project, and Durand de Villegagnon,
+vice-admiral of Brittany, was selected to command in 1555; the
+expedition, however, entirely failed, owing to religious differences.
+
+Under the reigns of Francis II. and Charles IX., while France was
+convulsed with civil war, America seemed altogether forgotten. But
+Coligni availed himself of a brief interval of calm to turn attention
+once more to the Western World. He this time bethought himself of that
+country to which Ponce de Leon had given the name of Florida, from the
+exuberant productions of the soil and the beauty of the scenery and
+climate. The River Mississippi[94] had been discovered by Ferdinand de
+Soto,[95] about the time of Jacques Cartier's last voyage, 1543;
+consequently, the Spaniards had this additional claim upon the
+territory, which, they affirmed, they had visited in 1512, twelve years
+before the date of Verazzano's voyage in 1524. However, the claims and
+rights of the different European nations upon the American Continent
+were not then of sufficient strength to prevent each state from pursuing
+its own views of occupation. Coligni obtained permission from Charles
+IX. to attempt the establishment of a colony in Florida,[96] about the
+year 1562. The king was the more readily induced to approve of this
+enterprise, as he hoped that it would occupy the turbulent spirits of
+the Huguenots, many of them his bitter enemies, and elements of discord
+in his dominions. On the 18th of February, 1562, Jean de Ribaut, a
+zealous Protestant, sailed from Dieppe with two vessels and a picked
+crew; many volunteers, including some gentlemen of condition, followed
+his fortunes. He landed on the coast of Florida, near St. Mary's River,
+where he established a settlement and built a fort. Two years afterward
+Coligni sent out a re-enforcement, under the command of René de
+Laudonnière; this was the only portion of the admiral's great scheme
+ever carried into effect: when he fell, in the awful massacre of Saint
+Bartholomew, his magnificent project was abandoned. (1568.) After six
+years of fierce struggle with the Spaniards, the survivors of this
+little colony returned to France.[97]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 71: Hist. de la Nouvelle France, par le Père Charlevoix, de la
+Compagnie de Jésus, vol. i., p. 11; Fastes Chronologiques, 1534.]
+
+[Footnote 72: Prima Relatione de Jacques Cartier della Terra Nouva,
+detta la Nouva Francia, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 435.]
+
+[Footnote 73: "Se la terra fosse cosi buono; come vi sono buoni porti,
+sarebbe un gran bene, ma ella non si debba chiamar Terra Nouva, anzi
+sassi e grebani salvatichi, e proprij luoghi da fiere, per ciò che in
+tutto l'isola di Tramontana--[translated by Hakluyt "the northern part
+of the island"]--io non vidi tanta terra che se ne potesse coricar un
+carro, e vi smontai in parecchi luoghi, e all' isola di Bianco Sabbione
+non v'è altro che musco, e piccioli spini dispersi, secchi, e morti, e
+in somma io penso che questa sia la terra che Iddio dette a Caino."--J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 436.
+
+The journal of the first two voyages of Cartier is preserved almost
+entire in the "Histoire de la Nouvelle France," by L'Escarbot; there is
+an Italian translation in the third volume of Ramusio. They are written
+in the third person, and it does not appear that he was himself the
+author.]
+
+[Footnote 74: "Sono uomini d'assai bella vita e grandezza ma indomiti e
+salvatichi: portano i capelli in cuna legati e stretti a guisa d'un
+pugno di fieno rivolto, mettendone in mezzo un legnetto, o altra cosa in
+vece di chiodo, e vi legano insieme certe penne d'uccelli."--J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 436.]
+
+[Footnote 75: De Laët., vol. i., p. 58.]
+
+[Footnote 76: This was ingeniously represented to the natives as a
+religious ceremony, and, as such, excited nothing but the "grandissima
+ammirazione" of the natives present; it was, however, differently
+understood by their chief. "Ma essendo noi ritornati allé nostra navi,
+venne il Capitano lor vestito d'im pella vecchia d'orso negro in una
+barca con tre suoi figliuoli, e ci fece un lungo sermone mostrandaci
+detta croce e facendo il segno della croce con due dita poi ci mostrava
+la terra tutta intorno di noi come s'avesse voluto dice che tutta era
+sua, e che noi non dovevamo piantar detta croce senza sua licenza."--J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 439.]
+
+[Footnote 77: "Trovavamo un molto bello e gran golfo pieno d'isole e
+buone entrate e passaggi, verso qual vento si possa fare."--J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 441.]
+
+[Footnote 78: "Carthier donna au golphe le nom de St. Laurent, ou plutôt
+il le donna à une baye qui est entre l'isle d'Anticoste et la côte
+septentrionale, d'où ce nom s'est étendu à tout le golphe dont cette
+baye fait partie."--_Hist. de la Nouvelle France_, tom. i., p. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 79: "Des sauvages l'appelloient Natiscotec, le nom d'Anticosti
+paraît lui avoir été donné par les Anglais."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p.
+16. This island is one hundred and twenty-five miles long, and in its
+widest part thirty miles, dividing the River St. Lawrence into two
+channels. Throughout its whole extent it has neither bay nor harbor
+sufficiently safe to shelter ships. It is uncultivated, being generally
+of an unprofitable soil, upon which any attempted improvements have met
+with very unpromising results. Since the year 1809, establishments have
+been formed on the island for the relief of shipwrecked persons; two men
+reside there, at two different stations, all the year round, furnished
+with provisions for the use of those who may have the misfortune to need
+them. Boards are placed in different parts describing the distance and
+direction to these friendly spots; instances of the most flagrant
+inattention have, however, occurred, which were attended with the most
+distressing and fatal consequences."--Bonchette, vol. i., p. 169.
+
+"At present the whole island might be purchased for a few hundred
+pounds. It belongs to some gentlemen in Quebec; and you might, for a
+very small sum, become one of the greatest land-owners in the world, and
+a Canadian _seigneur_ into the bargain."--Grey's _Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 80: This is the first discovery of the River St. Lawrence,
+called by the natives the River Hochelaga, or the River of Canada.
+Jacques Cartier accurately determined the breadth of its mouth ninety
+miles across. Cape Rosier, a small distance to the north of the point of
+Gaspé, is properly the place which marks the opening of the gigantic
+river. "V'è tra le terre d'ostro e quelle di tramontana la distantia di
+trenta leghe in circa, e più di dugento braccia di fondo. Ci dissero
+anche i detti salvatichi e certificarono quivi essere il cammino e
+principio del gran fiume di Hochelaga e strada di Canada."--J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442.
+
+J. Cartier always afterward speaks of the St. Lawrence as the River of
+Hochelaga, or Canada. Charlevoix says, "Parceque le fleuve qu'on
+appelloit auparavant la Rivière de Canada se décharge dans le Golphe de
+St. Laurent, il a insensiblement pris le nom de Fleuve de St. Laurent,
+qu'il porte aujourd'hui (1720)."]
+
+[Footnote 81: "Lorsque Jacques Carthier découvrit cette île, il la
+trouva toute remplie de vignes, et la nomma l'Île de Bacchus. Ce
+navigateur était Bréton, après lui sont venus des Normands qui ont
+arraché les vignes et à Bacchus ont substituté Pomone et Cérès. En effet
+elle produit de bon froment et d'excellent fruits."--_Journal
+Historique_, lettre ii., p. 102.
+
+Charlevoix also mentions that, when he visited the islands in 1720, the
+inhabitants were famed for their skill in sorcery, and were supposed to
+hold intercourse with the devil!
+
+The Isle of Orleans was, in 1676, created an earldom, by the title of
+St. Laurent, which, however, has long been extinct. The first Comte de
+St. Laurent was of the name of Berthelot.--Charlevoix, vol. v., p. 99.]
+
+[Footnote 82: "Il signor de Canada (chiamato Donnacona per nome, ma per
+signore il chiamano Agouhanna)."--J. Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p.
+442. Agouhanna signified chief or lord.
+
+Here, says Jacques Cartier, begins the country of Canada. "Il settimo
+giorno di detto mese la vigilia della Madonna, dopo udita la messa ci
+partimmo dall' isola de' nocellari per andar all'insu di detta fiume, e
+arrivamo a quattordici isole distanti dall' isola de Nocellari intorno
+setto in otto leghe, e quivi è il principio della provincia, e terra di
+Canada."--J. Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The writer of these pages adds the testimony of an
+eye-witness to the opinion of the ingenious author of the "Picture of
+Quebec," as to the localities here described. The old writers, even
+Charlevoix himself, have asserted that the "Port St. Croix was at the
+entrance of the river now called Jacques Cartier, which flows into the
+St. Lawrence about fifteen miles above Quebec." Charlevoix, indeed,
+mentions that "Champlain prétend que cette rivière est celle de St.
+Charles, mais," he adds, "il se trompe," &c. However, the localities are
+still unchanged; though three centuries have since elapsed, the
+description of Jacques Cartier is easily recognized at the present day,
+and marks out the mouth of the little River St. Charles[84] as the first
+winter station of the Europeans in Canada. The following are J.
+Cartier's words: "Per cercar luogo e porto sicuro da metter le navé, e
+andammo al contrario per detto fiume intorno di dieci leghe costezziando
+detta isola (di Bacchus) e in capo di quella trovammo un gorgo d'acqua
+bello e ameno ("the beautiful basin of Quebec," as it is called in the
+"Picture of Quebec")--nel quel luogo e un picciol fiume e porto, dove
+per il flusso è alta l'acqua intorno a tre braccia, ne parve questo
+luogo comodo per metter le nostre navi, per il che quivi le mettemmo in
+sicuro, e lo chiamammo Santa Croce, percio che nel detto giorno v' eramo
+giunti.... Alla riva e lito di quell' isola di Bacchus verso ponente v'è
+un goejo d'acque molto bello e dilettevole, e convenientemente da
+mettere navilij, dove è uno stretto del detto fiume molto corrente e
+profondo ma non e lungo più d'un terzo di lega intorno, per traverso del
+quale vi è una terra tutta di colline di buona altezza ... quive è la
+stanza e la terra di Donnacona, e chiamasi il luogo Stadacona ... sotto
+la qual alta terra verso tramontana è il fiume e porto di Santa Croce,
+nel qual luogo e porto siamo stati dalli 15 di Settembre fino alli 16 di
+Maggio 1536, nel qual luogo le navi rimasero in secco." The "one place"
+in the River St. Lawrence, "deep and swift running," means, of course,
+that part directly opposite the Lower Town, and no doubt it appeared, by
+comparison, "very narrow" to those who had hitherto seen the noble river
+only in its grandest forms. The town of Stadacona stood on that part of
+Quebec which is now covered by the suburbs of St. Roch, with part of
+those of St. John, looking toward the St. Charles. The area, or ground
+adjoining, is thus described by Cartier, as it appeared three centuries
+ago: "terra Tanta buona, quanto sia possibile di vedere, e è molto
+fertile, piena di bellissimi arbori della sorte di quelli di Francia,
+come sarebbeno quercie, olmi, frassinè, najare, nassi, cedri, vigne,
+specie bianchi, i quali producono il frutto cosi grosso come susinè
+damaschini, e di molte altre specie d'arbori, sotto de quali vi nasce e
+cresce cosi bel canapo come quel di Francia, e nondimeno vi nasce senza
+semenza, e senza opera umana o lavoro alcuno."--Jacques Cartier, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 443, 449, 450.
+
+The exact spot in the River St. Charles where the French passed the
+winter is supposed, on good authority, to have been the site of the old
+bridge, called Dorchester Bridge, where there is a ford at low water,
+close to the Marine Hospital. That it was on the east bank, not far from
+the residence of Charles Smith, Esq., is evident from the river having
+been frequently crossed by the natives coming from Stadacona to visit
+the French.--_Picture of Quebec_, p. 43-46; 1834.]
+
+[Footnote 84: It received this name, according to La Potherie, in
+compliment to Charles des Boües, grand vicar of Pontoise, founder of the
+first mission of Recollets in New France. The River St. Charles was
+called Coubal Coubat by the natives, from its windings and
+meanderings.--Smith's _Canada_, vol. i., p. 104.]
+
+[Footnote 85: "Quebec en langue Algonquine signifie _retrécissement_.
+Les Abenaquis dont la langue est une dialecte Algonquine, le nomment
+Quelibec, qui veut dire _ce qui est ferme_, parceque de l'entrée de la
+petite rivière de la Chaudière par où ces sauvages venaient à Quebec, le
+port de Quebec ne paroit qu'une grande barge."--Charlevoix, vol. i., p.
+50.
+
+"Trouvant un lieu le plus étroit de la rivière que les habitans du pays
+nomment Québec;" "la pointe de Québec, ainsi appellée des
+sauvages."--Champlain, vol. i., p. 115, 124.
+
+Others give a Norman derivation for the word: it is said that Quebec was
+so called after Caudebec, on the Seine.
+
+La Potherie's words are: "On tient que les Normands qui étoient avec J.
+Cartier à sa première découverte, apercevant en bout de l'isle
+d'Orléans, un cap fort élevé, s'écrièrent 'Quel bec!' et qu' à la suite
+du tems la nom de Quebec lui est reste. Je ne suis point garant de cette
+étymologie." Mr. Hawkins terms this "a derivation entirely illusory and
+improbable," and asserts that the word is of Norman origin. He gives an
+engraving of a seal belonging to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk,
+dated in the 7th of Henry V., or A.D. 1420. The legend or motto is,
+"Sigillum Willielmi de la Pole, Comitis Suffolckiæ, Domine de Hamburg et
+de Quebec." Suffolk was impeached by the Commons of England in 1450, and
+one of the charges brought against him was, his unbounded influence in
+Normandy, where he lived and ruled like an independent prince; it is
+not, therefore, improbable that he enjoyed the French title of Quebec in
+addition to his English honors.
+
+The Indian name Stadacona had perished before the time of Champlain,
+owing, probably, to the migration of the principal tribe and the
+succession of others. The inhabitants of Hochelaga, we are told by
+Jacques Cartier, were the only people in the surrounding neighborhood
+who were not migratory.]
+
+[Footnote 86: "In mezzo di quelle campagne, è posta la terra d'Hochelaga
+appresso e congiunta con una montagna coltivata tutta attorno e molto
+fertile, sopra la qual si vede molto lontano. Noi la chiamammo il Monto
+Regal.... Parecchi uomini e donne ci vennero a condur e menar sopra la
+montagna, qui dinanzi detta, la qual chiamammo Monte Regal, distante da
+detto luogo poco manco d'un miglio, sopra la quale essendo noi, vedemmo
+e avemmo notitia di più di trenta leghe attorno di quella, e verso la
+parte di tramontana si vede una continuazione di montagne, li quali
+corrono avante e ponente, e altra tante verso il mezzo giorno, fra le
+quali montagna è la terra, più bella che sia possibile a veder."--J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 447, 448.
+
+"Cartier donna le nom de Mont Royal à la montagne au pied de laquelle
+étoit la bourgade de Hochelaga. Il découvrit de là une grande étendue de
+pays dont la vue le charma, et avec raison, car il en est peu au monde
+de plus beau et de meilleur."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 87: "This tree is supposed to have been the spruce fir, _Pinus
+Canadensis_. It is called 'Ameda' by the natives. Spruce-beer is known
+to be a powerful anti-scorbutic."--Champlain. part i., p. 124.
+
+Charlevoix calls the tree _Epinette Blanche_.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Any information given by the natives as to the existence
+of mines was vague and unsatisfactory, "Poscia ci mostrarono con segni,
+che passate dette tre cadute si poteva navigar per detto fiume il spazio
+di tre lune: noi pensammo che quello sia il fiume che passa per il passe
+di Saguenay, e senza che li facessimo dimanda presero la catena del
+subiotto del capitano che era d'argento, e il manico del pugnale di uno
+de nostre compagni marinari, qual era d'ottone giallo quanto l'oro, e ci
+mostrarono che quello veniva di sopra di detto fiume ... Il capitan
+mostro loro del rame rosso, qual chiamano _Caignetadze_ dimostrandoli
+con segni voltandosi verso detto paese li dimandava se veniva da quelle
+parti, e eglino cominciarono a crollar il capo, volendo dir no, ma ben
+ne significarono che veniva da _Saguenay_.
+
+"Più ci hanno detto e fatto intendere, che in quel paese di _Saguenay_
+sono genti vestite di drappi come noi, ... e che hanno gran quantità
+d'oro e rame rosso ... e che gli nomini e donne di quella terra sono
+vestite di pelli come loro, noi li dimandammo se ci è oro e rame rosso,
+ci risposero di si. Io penso che questo luogo sia verso la Florida per
+quanto ho potuto intendere dalli loro segni e indicij."--J. Cartier, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 448-450.]
+
+[Footnote 89: The only valuable the natives seemed to have in their
+possession was a substance called _esurgny_, white as snow, of which
+they made beads and wore them about their necks. This they looked upon
+as the most precious gift they could bestow on the white men. The mode
+in which it was prepared is said by Cartier to be the following: When
+any one was adjudged to death for a crime, or when their enemies are
+taken in war, having first slain the person, they make long gashes over
+the whole of the body, and sink it to the bottom of the river in a
+certain place, where the esurgny abounds. After remaining ten or twelve
+hours, the body is drawn up and the esurgny or _cornibotz_ is found in
+the gashes. These necklaces of beads the French found had the power to
+stop bleeding at the nose. It is supposed that in the above account the
+French misunderstood the natives or were imposed upon by them; and there
+is no doubt that the "valuable substance" described by Cartier was the
+Indian wampum.]
+
+[Footnote 90: See Appendix, No. XIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 91: The precise spot on which the upper fort of Jacques
+Cartier was built, afterward enlarged by Roberval, has been fixed by an
+ingenious gentleman at Quebec at the top of Cape Rouge Height, a short
+distance from the handsome villa of Mr. Atkinson. A few months ago, Mr.
+Atkinson's workmen, in leveling the lawn in front of the house, and
+close to the point of Cape Rouge Height, found beneath the surface some
+loose stones which had apparently been the foundation of some building
+or fortification. Among these stones were found several iron balls of
+different sizes, adapted to the caliber of the ship guns used at the
+period of Jacques Cartier's and Roberval's visit. Upon the whole, the
+evidence of the presence of the French at Cape Rouge may be considered
+as conclusive. Nor is there any good reason to doubt that Roberval took
+up his quarters in the part which Jacques Cartier had left.--_Picture of
+Quebec_, p. 62-469.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Jacques Cartier was born at St. Malo about 1500. The day
+of his birth can not be discovered, nor the time and place of his death.
+Most probably he finished his useful life at St. Malo; for we find,
+under the date of the 29th of November, 1549, that the celebrated
+navigator with his wife, Catharine des Granges, founded an obit in the
+Cathedral of St. Malo, assigning the sum of four francs for that
+purpose. The mortuary registers of St. Malo make no mention of his
+death, nor is there any tradition on the subject.]
+
+[Footnote 93: The name of America was first given to the New World in
+1507. "L'opinion anciennement émise et encore très répandue que Vespuce,
+dans l'exercice de son emploi de Piloto mayor, et chargé de corriger les
+cartes hydrographiques de 1508 à 1512, ait profité de sa position pour
+appeler de son nom le Nouveau Monde, n'a aucun fondement. La
+dénomination d'Amérique a été proposée loin de Seville, en Lorraine, en
+1507, une année avant la création de l'office d'un Piloto mayor de
+Indias. Les Mappe Mondes qui portent le nom d'Amérique n'ont paru que 8
+our 10 ans après la mort de Vespuce, et dans des pays sur lequels ni lui
+ni ses parents n'exerçaient aucune influence. Il est probable que
+Vespuce n'a jamais su quelle dangereuse gloire on lui préparoit à Saint
+Dié, dans un petit endroit, situé au pied des Vosges, et dont
+vraisembablement le nom même lui étoit inconnu. Jusqu' à l'époque de sa
+mort, le mot Amérique, employé comme dénomination d'un continent ne
+s'est trouve imprimé que dans deux seuls ouvrages, dans la Cosmographiæ
+Introductio de Martin Waldseemüller, et dans le Globus Mundi (Argentor,
+1509). On n'a jusqu'ici aucun rapport direct de Waldseemüller
+imprimateur de Saint Dié, avec le navigateur Florentin."--Humboldt's
+_Geogr. du Nouveau Continent_, vol. v., p. 206.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Nomoesi-Sipu, _Fish River_, Moesisip by corruption. This
+river is called Cucagna by Garcilasso.]
+
+[Footnote 95: For the romantic details of Ferdinand de Soto's perilous
+enterprise, see Vega Garcilasso de Florida del Ynca, b. i., ch. iii.,
+iv.; Herrera, Dec. VI., b. vii., ch. ix.; Purchas, 4, 1532; "Purchas,
+his Pilgrimage," otherwise called "Hackluytus Posthumus;" a voluminous
+compilation by a chaplain of Archbishop Abbot's, designed to comprise
+whatever had been related concerning the religion of all nations, from
+the earliest times.--Miss Aikin's _Charles I._, vol. i., p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 96: "La colonie Française établie sous Charles IX. comprenoit
+la partie méridionnale de la Caroline Angloise, la Nouvelle Georgie,
+d'aujourd'hui (1740) San Matteo, appellé par Laudonnière Caroline en
+l'honneur du roi Charles, St. Augustin, et tout ce que les Espagnols ont
+sur cette côte jusqu'au Cap François, n'a jamais été appellée autrement
+que la Floride Française, ou la Nouvelle France, ou la France
+Occidentale."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 383.]
+
+[Footnote 97: See Appendix, Nos. XV., XVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+
+Little or no effort was made to colonize any part of Canada for nearly
+fifty years after the loss of Roberval; but the Huguenots of France did
+not forget that hope of a refuge from religious persecution which their
+great leader, Coligni, had excited in their breasts. Several of the
+leaders of subsequent expeditions of trade and discovery to Canada and
+Acadia were Calvinists, until 1627, when Champlain, zealous for the
+Romish faith, procured a decree forbidding the free exercise of the
+Reformed religion in French America.
+
+Although the French seemed to have renounced all plan of settlement in
+America by the evacuation of Florida, the fishermen of Normandy and
+Brittany still plied their calling on the Great Bank and along the
+stormy shores of Newfoundland, and up the Gulf and River of St.
+Lawrence. By degrees they began to trade with the natives, and soon the
+greater gains and easier life of this new pursuit transformed many of
+these hardy sailors into merchants.
+
+When, after fifty years of civil strife, the strong and wise sway of
+Henry IV. restored rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery
+again arose. The Marquis de la Roche, a Breton gentleman, obtained from
+the king, in 1598, a patent granting the same powers that Roberval had
+possessed. He speedily armed a vessel, and sailed for Nova Scotia in the
+same year, accompanied by a skillful Norman pilot named Chedotel. He
+first reached Sable Island, where he left forty miserable wretches,
+convicts drawn from the prisons of France, till he might discover some
+favorable situation for the intended settlement, and make a survey of
+the neighboring coasts. When La Roche ever reached the Continent of
+America remains unknown; but he certainly returned to France, leaving
+the unhappy prisoners upon Sable Island to a fate more dreadful than
+even the dungeons or galleys of France could threaten. After seven years
+of dire suffering, twelve of these unfortunates were found alive, an
+expedition having been tardily sent to seek them by the king. When they
+arrived in France, they became objects of great curiosity; in
+consideration of such unheard-of suffering, their former crimes were
+pardoned, a sum of money was given to each, and the valuable furs
+collected during their dreary imprisonment, but fraudulently seized by
+the captain of the ship in which they were brought home, were allowed to
+their use. In the mean time, the Marquis de la Roche, who had so cruelly
+abandoned these men to their fate, harassed by lawsuits, overwhelmed
+with vexations, and ruined in fortune by the failure of his expedition,
+died miserably of a broken heart.
+
+The misfortunes and ruin of the Marquis de la Roche did not stifle the
+spirit of commercial enterprise which the success of the fur trade had
+excited. Private adventurers, unprotected by any especial privilege,
+began to barter for the rich peltries of the Canadian hunters. (1600.) A
+wealthy merchant of St. Malo, named Pontgravé, was the boldest and most
+successful of these traders; he made several voyages to Tadoussac, at
+the mouth of the Saguenay, bringing back each time a rich cargo of rare
+and valuable furs. He saw that this commerce would open to him a field
+of vast wealth, could he succeed in obtaining an exclusive privilege to
+enjoy its advantages, and managed to induce Chauvin, a captain in the
+navy, to apply to the king for powers such as De la Roche had possessed:
+the application was successful, a patent was granted to Chauvin, and
+Pontgravé admitted to partnership. (1602.) It was, however, in vain that
+they attempted to establish a trading post at Tadoussac:[98] after
+having made two voyages thither without realizing their sanguine
+expectations of gain, Chauvin died while once more preparing to try his
+fortune.
+
+At this time the great object of colonization was completely forgotten
+in the eager pursuit of the fur trade, till De Chatte, the governor of
+Dieppe, who succeeded to the privileges of Chauvin, founded a company of
+merchants at Rouen, for the further development of the resources of
+Canada. (1603.) An armament was fitted out under the command of the
+experienced Pontgravé; he was commissioned by the king to make further
+discoveries in the St. Lawrence, and to establish a settlement upon some
+suitable position on the coast. Samuel de Champlain, a captain in the
+navy, accepted a command in this expedition at the request of De
+Chatte; he was a native of Saintonge, and had lately returned to France
+from the West Indies, where he had gained a high name for boldness and
+skill. Under the direction of this wise and energetic man the first
+successful efforts were made to found a permanent settlement in the
+magnificent province of Canada, and the stain of the errors and
+disasters of more than seventy years was at length wiped away.
+
+Pontgravé and Champlain sailed for the St. Lawrence in 1603. They
+remained a short time at Tadoussac, where they left their ships; then,
+trusting themselves to a small, open boat, with only five sailors, they
+boldly pushed up the Great River to the sault St. Louis, where Jacques
+Cartier had reached many years before. By this time Hochelaga, the
+ancient Indian city, had, from some unknown cause, sunk into such
+insignificance that the adventurers did not even notice it, nor deem it
+worthy of a visit; but they anchored for a time under the shade of the
+magnificent headland of Quebec. On the return of the expedition to
+France, Champlain found, to his deep regret, that De Chatte, the worthy
+and powerful patron of the undertaking, had died during his absence.
+Pierre du Guast, sieur de Monts, had succeeded to the powers and
+privileges of the deceased, with even a more extensive commission.
+
+De Monts was a Calvinist, and had obtained from the king the freedom of
+religious faith for himself and his followers in America, but under the
+engagement that the Roman Catholic worship should be established among
+the natives. Even his opponents admitted the honesty and patriotism of
+his character,[99] and bore witness to his courage and ability; he was,
+nevertheless, unsuccessful; many of those under his command failed in
+their duty, and the jealousy excited by his exclusive privileges and
+obnoxious doctrines[100] involved him in ruinous embarrassments.
+
+The trading company established by De Chatte was continued and increased
+by his successor. With this additional aid De Monts was enabled to fit
+out a more complete armament than had ever hitherto been engaged in
+Canadian commerce. He sailed from Havre on the 7th of March, 1604, with
+four vessels. Of these, two under his immediate command were destined
+for Acadia. Champlain, Poutrincourt, and many other volunteers, embarked
+their fortunes with him, purposing to cast their future lot in the New
+World. A third vessel was dispatched under Pontgravé to the Strait of
+Canso, to protect the exclusive trading privileges of the company. The
+fourth steered for Tadoussac, to barter for the rich furs brought by the
+Indian hunters from the dreary wilds of the Saguenay.
+
+On the 6th of May De Monts reached a harbor on the coast of Acadia,
+where he seized and confiscated an English vessel, in vindication of his
+exclusive privileges. Thence he sailed to the Island of St. Croix, where
+he landed his people, and established himself for the winter. In the
+spring of 1605 he hastened to leave this settlement, where the want of
+wood and fresh water, and the terrible ravages of the scurvy, had
+disheartened and diminished the number of his followers. In the mean
+time Champlain had discovered and named Port Royal, now Annapolis, a
+situation which presented many natural advantages. De Monts removed the
+establishment thither, and erected a fort, appointing Pontgravé to its
+command. Soon afterward he bestowed Port Royal and a large extent of the
+neighboring country upon De Poutrincourt, and the grant was ultimately
+confirmed by letters patent from the king. This was the first concession
+of land made in North America since its discovery.
+
+When De Monts returned to France in 1605, he found that enemies had been
+busily and successfully at work in destroying his influence at court.
+Complaints of the injustice of his exclusive privileges poured in from
+all the ports in the kingdom. It was urged that he had interfered with
+and thwarted the fisheries, under the pretense of securing the sole
+right of trading with the Indian hunters. These statements were
+hearkened to by the king, and all the Sieur's privileges were revoked.
+De Monts bore up bravely against this disaster. He entered into a new
+engagement with De Poutrincourt, who had followed him to France, and
+dispatched a vessel from Rochelle on the 13th of May to succor the
+colony in Acadia. The voyage was unusually protracted, and the settlers
+at Port Royal, at length reduced to great extremities, feared that they
+had been abandoned to their fate. The wise and energetic Pontgravé did
+all that man could do to reassure them; but, finally, their supplies
+being completely exhausted, he was constrained to yield to the general
+wish, and embark his people for France. He had scarcely sailed, however,
+when he heard of the arrival of Poutrincourt and the long-desired
+supplies. He then immediately returned to Port Royal, where he found his
+chief already landed. Under able and judicious management,[101] the
+colony increased and prospered until 1614, when it was attacked and
+broken up by Sir Samuel Argall with a Virginian force.[102]
+
+The enemies of De Monts did not relax in their efforts till he was
+deprived of his high commission. A very insufficient indemnity was
+granted for the great expenses he had incurred. Still he was not
+disheartened: in the following year, 1607, he obtained a renewal of his
+privileges for one year, on condition that he should plant a colony upon
+the banks of the St. Lawrence. The trading company did not lose
+confidence in their principal, although his courtly influence had been
+destroyed; but their object was confined to the prosecution of the
+lucrative commerce in furs, for which reason they ceased to interest
+themselves in Acadia, and turned their thoughts to the Great River of
+Canada, where they hoped to find a better field for their undertaking.
+They equipped two ships at Honfleur, under the command of Champlain and
+Pontgravé, to establish the fur trade at Tadoussac. De Monts remained in
+France, vainly endeavoring to obtain an extension of his patent. Despite
+his disappointments, he fitted out some vessels in the spring of 1608,
+with the assistance of the company, and dispatched them to the River
+St. Lawrence on the 13th of April, under the same command as before.
+
+Champlain reached Tadoussac on the 3d of June; his views were far more
+extended than those of a mere merchant; even honest fame for himself,
+and increase of glory and power for his country, were, in his eyes,
+objects subordinate to the extension of the Catholic faith. After a
+brief stay, he ascended the Great River, examining the shore with minute
+care, to seek the most fitting place where the first foundation of
+French empire might be laid. On the 3d of July he reached QUEBEC, where,
+nearly three quarters of a century before, Jacques Cartier had passed
+the winter. This magnificent position was at once chosen by Champlain as
+the site of the future capital of Canada: centuries of experience have
+proved the wisdom of the selection; admirably situated for purposes of
+war or commerce, and completely commanding the navigation of the Great
+River, it stands the center of a scene of beauty that can nowhere be
+surpassed.
+
+On the bold headland overlooking the waters of the basin, he commenced
+his work by felling the trees, and rooting up the wild vines and tangled
+underwood from the virgin soil. Some rude huts were speedily erected for
+shelter; spots around them were cultivated to test the fertility of the
+land: this labor was repaid by abundant production. The first permanent
+work undertaken in the new settlement was the erection of a solid
+building as a magazine for their provisions. A temporary barrack on the
+highest point of the position, for the officers and men, was
+subsequently constructed. These preparations occupied the remainder of
+the summer. The first snow fell on the 18th of November, but only
+remained on the ground for two days: in December it again returned, and
+the face of nature was covered till the end of April, 1609. From the
+time of Jacques Cartier to the establishment of Champlain, and even to
+the present day, there has been no very decided amelioration of the
+severity of the climate; indeed, some of the earliest records notice
+seasons milder than many of modern days.
+
+The town of Stadacona, like its prouder neighbor of Hochelaga, seems to
+have dwindled into insignificance since the time when it had been an
+object of such interest and suspicion to Jacques Cartier. Some Indians
+still lived in huts around Quebec, but in a state of poverty and
+destitution, very different from the condition of their ancestors.
+During the winter of 1608, they suffered dire extremities of famine;
+several came over from the southern shores of the river, miserably
+reduced by starvation, and scarcely able to drag along their feeble
+limbs, to seek aid from the strangers. Champlain relieved their
+necessities and treated them with politic kindness. The French suffered
+severely from the scurvy during the first winter of their residence.
+
+On the 18th of April, 1609, Champlain, accompanied by two Frenchmen,
+ascended the Great River with a war party of Canadian Indians. After a
+time, turning southward up a tributary stream, he came to the shores of
+a large and beautiful lake, abounding with fish; the shores and
+neighboring forests sheltered, in their undisturbed solitude, countless
+deer and other animals of the chase. To this splendid sheet of water he
+gave his own name, which it still bears. To the south and west rose huge
+snow-capped mountains, and in the fertile valleys below dwelt numbers of
+the fierce and hostile Iroquois. Champlain and his savage allies pushed
+on to the furthest extremity of the lake, descended a rapid, and entered
+another smaller sheet of water, afterward named St. Sacrement. On the
+shore they encountered two hundred of the Iroquois warriors; a battle
+ensued; the skill and the astonishing weapons of the white men soon gave
+their Canadian allies a complete victory. Many prisoners were taken,
+and, in spite of Champlain's remonstrances, put to death with horrible
+and protracted tortures. The brave Frenchman returned to Quebec, and
+sailed for Europe in September, leaving Captain Pierre Chauvin, an
+experienced officer, in charge of the infant settlement. Henry IV.
+received Champlain with favor, and called him to an interview at
+Fontainebleau:[103] the king listened attentively to the report of the
+new colony, expressing great satisfaction at its successful foundation
+and favorable promise. But the energetic De Monts, to whom so much of
+this success was due, could find no courtly aid: the renewal of his
+privilege was refused, and its duration had already expired. By the
+assistance of the Merchant Company, he fitted out two vessels in the
+spring of 1610, under the tried command of Champlain and Pontgravé: the
+first was destined for Quebec, with some artisans, settlers, and
+necessary supplies for the colony; the second was commissioned to carry
+on the fur trade at Tadoussac. Champlain sailed from Honfleur on the 8th
+of April, and reached the mouth of the Saguenay in eighteen days, a
+passage which even all the modern improvements in navigation have rarely
+enabled any one to surpass in rapidity. He soon hastened on to Quebec,
+where, to his great joy, he found the colonists contented and
+prosperous; the virgin soil had abundantly repaid the labors of
+cultivation, and the natives had in no wise molested their dangerous
+visitors. He joined the neighboring tribes of Algonquin and Montagnez
+Indians, during the summer, in an expedition against the Iroquois.
+Having penetrated the woody country beyond Sorel for some distance, they
+came upon a place where their enemies were intrenched; this they took,
+after a bloody resistance. Champlain and another Frenchman were slightly
+wounded in the encounter.
+
+In 1612 Champlain found it necessary to revisit France; some powerful
+patron was wanted to forward the interests of the colony, and to provide
+the supplies and resources required for its extension. The Count de
+Soissons readily entered into his views, and delegated to him the
+authority of viceroy, which had been conferred upon the count.[104]
+Soissons died soon after, and the Prince of Condé became his successor.
+Champlain was wisely continued in the command he had so long and ably
+held, but was delayed in France for some time by difficulties on the
+subject of commerce with the merchants of St. Malo.
+
+Champlain sailed again from St. Malo on the 6th of March, 1613, in a
+vessel commanded by Pontgravé, and anchored before Quebec on the 7th of
+May. He found the state of affairs at the settlement so satisfactory
+that his continued presence was unnecessary; he therefore proceeded at
+once to Montreal, and, after a short stay at that island, explored for
+some distance the course of the Ottawa, which there pours its vast flood
+into the main stream of the St. Lawrence. The white men were filled with
+wonder and admiration at the magnitude of this great tributary, the
+richness and beauty of its shores, the broad lakes and deep rapids, and
+the eternal forests, clothing mountain, plain, and valley for countless
+leagues around. As they proceeded they found no diminution in the volume
+of water; and when they inquired of the wandering Indian for its source,
+he pointed to the northwest, and indicated that it lay in the unknown
+solitudes of ice and snow, to which his people had never reached. After
+this expedition Champlain returned with his companion Pontgravé to St.
+Malo, where they arrived in the end of August.
+
+Having engaged some wealthy merchants of St. Malo, Rouen, and Rochelle
+in an association for the support of the colony, through the assistance
+of the Prince of Condé, viceroy of New France, he obtained letters
+patent of incorporation for the company (1614). The temporal welfare of
+the settlement being thus placed upon a secure basis, Champlain, who was
+a zealous Catholic, next devoted himself to obtain spiritual aid. By his
+entreaties four Recollets were prevailed upon to undertake the mission.
+These were the first[105] ministers of religion settled in Canada. They
+reached Quebec in the beginning of April, 1615, accompanied by
+Champlain, who, however, at once proceeded to Montreal.
+
+On arriving at this island, he found the Huron and other allied tribes
+again preparing for an expedition against the Iroquois. With a view of
+gaining the friendship of the savages, and of acquiring a knowledge of
+the country, he injudiciously offered himself to join a quarrel in which
+he was in no wise concerned. The father Joseph Le Caron accompanied him,
+in the view of preparing the way for religious instruction, by making
+himself acquainted with the habits and language of the Indians.
+Champlain was appointed chief by the allies, but his savage followers
+rendered slight obedience to this authority. The expedition proved very
+disastrous: the Iroquois were strongly intrenched, and protected by a
+quantity of felled trees; their resistance proved successful; Champlain
+was wounded, and the allies were forced to retreat with shame and with
+heavy loss.
+
+The respect of the Indians for the French was much diminished by this
+untoward failure; they refused to furnish Champlain with a promised
+guide to conduct him to Quebec, and he was obliged to pass the winter
+among them as an unwilling guest. He, however, made the best use of his
+time; he visited many of the principal Huron and Algonquin towns, even
+those as distant as Lake Nipissing, and succeeded in reconciling several
+neighboring nations. At the opening of the navigation, he gained over
+some of the Indians to his cause, and, finding that another expedition
+against the Iroquois was in preparation, embarked secretly and arrived
+at Quebec on the 11th of July, 1616, when he found that he and the
+father Joseph were supposed to have been dead long since. They both
+sailed for France soon after their return from among the Hurons.
+
+In the following year, a signal service was rendered to the colony by a
+worthy priest named Duplessys: he had been engaged for some time at
+Three Rivers in the instruction of the savages, and had happily so far
+gained their esteem, that some of his pupils informed him of a
+conspiracy among all the neighboring Indian tribes for the utter
+destruction of the French; eight hundred chiefs and warriors had
+assembled to arrange the plan of action. Duplessys contrived, with
+consummate ability, to gain over some of the principal Indians to make
+advances toward a reconciliation with the white men, and, by degrees,
+succeeded in arranging a treaty, and in causing two chiefs to be given
+up as hostages for its observance.
+
+For several years Champlain was constantly obliged to visit France for
+the purpose of urging on the tardily provided aids for the colony. The
+court would not interest itself in the affairs of New France since a
+company had undertaken their conduct, and the merchants, always limited
+in their views to mere commercial objects, cared but little for the fate
+of the settlers so long as their warehouses were stored with the
+valuable furs brought by the Indian hunters. These difficulties would
+doubtless have smothered the infant nation in its cradle, had it not
+been for the untiring zeal and constancy of its great founder. At every
+step he met with new trials from the indifference, caprice, or
+contradiction of his associates, but, with his eye steadily fixed upon
+the future, he devoted his fortune and the energies of his life to the
+cause, and rose superior to every obstacle.
+
+In 1620, the Prince of Condé sold the vice-royalty of New France to his
+brother-in-law, the Marshal de Montmorenci, for eleven thousand crowns.
+The marshal wisely continued Champlain as lieutenant governor, and
+intrusted the management of colonial affairs in France to M. Dolu, a
+gentleman of known zeal and probity. Champlain being hopeful that these
+changes would favorably affect Canada, resolved now to establish his
+family permanently in that country. Taking them with him, he sailed from
+France in the above-named year, and arrived at Quebec in the end of May.
+In passing by Tadoussac, he found that some adventurers of Rochelle had
+opened a trade with the savages, in violation of the company's
+privileges, and had given the fatal example of furnishing the hunters
+with fire-arms in exchange for their peltries.
+
+A great danger menaced the colony in the year 1621. The Iroquois sent
+three large parties of warriors to attack the French settlements. This
+savage tribe feared that if the white men obtained a footing in the
+country, their alliance with the Hurons and Algonquins, of which the
+effects had already been felt, might render them too powerful. The first
+division marched upon Sault St. Louis, where a few Frenchmen were
+established. Happily, there was warning of their approach; the
+defenders, aided by some Indian allies, repulsed them with much loss,
+and took several prisoners. The Iroquois had, however, seized Father
+Guillaume Poulain, one of the Recollets, in their retreat; they tied him
+to a stake, and were about to burn him alive, when they were persuaded
+to exchange the good priest for one of their own chiefs, who had fallen
+into the hands of the French. Another party of these fierce marauders
+dropped down the river to Quebec in a fleet of thirty canoes, and
+suddenly invested the Convent of the Recollets, where a small fort had
+been erected; they did not venture to attack this little stronghold, but
+fell upon some Huron villages near at hand, and massacred the helpless
+inhabitants with frightful cruelty; they then retreated as suddenly as
+they had come. Alarmed by this ferocious attack, which weakness and the
+want of sufficient supplies prevented him from avenging, Champlain sent
+Father Georges le Brebeuf as an agent, to represent to the king the
+deplorable condition of the colony, from the criminal neglect of the
+company. The appeal was successful; the company was suppressed, and the
+exclusive privilege transferred to Guillaume and Emeric de Caen, uncle
+and nephew.
+
+The king himself wrote to his worthy subject Champlain, expressing high
+approval of his eminent services, and exhorting him to continue in the
+same career. This high commendation served much to strengthen his hands
+in the exercise of his difficult authority. He was embarrassed by
+constant disputes between the servants of the suppressed company, and
+those who acted for the De Caens; religious differences also served to
+embitter these dissensions, as the new authorities were zealous
+Huguenots.
+
+This year Champlain discovered that his ancient allies, the Hurons,
+purposed to detach themselves from his friendship, and unite with the
+Iroquois for his destruction. To avert this danger, he sent among them
+Father Joseph la Caron and two other priests, who appear to have
+succeeded in their mission of reconciliation. The year after, he erected
+a stone fort[108] at Quebec for the defense of the settlement, which
+then only numbered fifty souls of all ages and sexes. As soon as the
+defenses were finished, Champlain departed for France with his family,
+to press for aid from the government for the distressed colony.
+
+On his arrival, he found that Henri de Levi, duke de Ventadour, had
+purchased the vice-royalty of New France from the Marshal de
+Montmorenci, his uncle, with the view of promoting the spiritual welfare
+of Canada, and the general conversion of the heathen Indians to the
+Christian faith. He had himself long retired from the strife and
+troubles of the world, and entered into holy orders. Being altogether
+under the influence of the Jesuits, he considered them as the means
+given by heaven for the accomplishment of his views. The pious and
+exemplary Father Lallemant, with four other priests and laymen of the
+Order of Jesus, undertook the mission, and sailed for Canada in 1625.
+They were received without jealousy by their predecessors of the
+Recollets, and admitted under their roof on their first arrival.[109]
+The following year three other Jesuit fathers reached Quebec in a little
+vessel provided by themselves; many artisans accompanied them. By the
+aid of this re-enforcement, the new settlement soon assumed the
+appearance of a town.
+
+The Huguenot De Caens used their powerful influence to foment the
+religious disputes now raging in the infant settlement;[110] they were
+also far more interested in the profitable pursuit of the fur trade than
+in promoting the progress of colonization; for these reasons, the
+Cardinal de Richelieu judged that their rule was injurious to the
+prosperity of the country; he revoked their privileges, and caused the
+formation of a numerous company of wealthy and upright men; to this he
+transferred the charge of the colony. This body was chartered under the
+name of "The Company of One Hundred Associates:"[111] their capital was
+100,000 crowns; their privileges as follows: To be proprietors of
+Canada; to govern in peace and war; to enjoy the whole trade for
+fifteen years (except the cod and whale fishery), and the fur trade in
+perpetuity; untaxed imports and exports. The king gave them two ships of
+300 tons burden each, and raised twelve of the principal members to the
+rank of nobility. The company, on their part, undertook to introduce 200
+or 300 settlers during the year 1628, and 16,000 more before 1643,
+providing them with all necessaries for three years, and settling them
+afterward on a sufficient extent of cleared land for their future
+support. The articles of this agreement were signed by the Cardinal de
+Richelieu on the 19th of April, 1627, and subsequently approved by the
+king.
+
+At this time the Indians were a constant terror to the settlers in
+Canada: several Frenchmen had been assassinated by the ruthless savages,
+and their countrymen were too feeble in numbers to demand the punishment
+of the murderers. Conscious of their strength, the natives became daily
+more insolent; no white man could venture beyond the settlement without
+incurring great danger. Building languished, and much of the cleared
+land remained uncultivated. Such was the disastrous state of the colony.
+
+The commencement of the company's government was marked by heavy
+misfortune. The first vessels sent by them to America fell into the
+hands of the English, at the sudden breaking out of hostilities. In
+1628, Sir David Kertk, a French Calvinist refugee in the British
+service, reached Tadoussac with a squadron, burned the fur houses of the
+free traders, and did other damage; thence he sent to Quebec, summoning
+Champlain to surrender. The brave governor consulted with Pontgravé and
+the inhabitants; they came to the resolution of attempting a defense,
+although reduced to great extremities, and sent Kertk such a spirited
+answer that he, ignorant of their weakness, did not advance upon the
+town. He, however, captured a convoy under the charge of De Roquemont,
+with several families on board, and a large supply of provisions for the
+settlement. This expedition against Canada was said to have been planned
+and instigated by De Caen, from a spirit of vengeance against those who
+had succeeded to his lost privileges.
+
+In July, 1629, Lewis and Thomas, brothers of Sir David Kertk, appeared
+with an armament before Quebec. As soon as the fleet had anchored, a
+white flag with a summons to capitulate was sent ashore. This time the
+assailants were well informed of the defenders' distress, but offered
+generous terms if Champlain would at once surrender the fort. He, having
+no means of resistance, was fain to submit. The English took possession
+the following day, and treated the inhabitants with such good faith and
+humanity, that none of them left the country. Lewis Kertk remained in
+command at Quebec; Champlain proceeded with Thomas to Tadoussac, where
+they met the admiral, Sir David, with the remainder of the fleet. In
+September they sailed for England, and Champlain was sent on to France,
+according to treaty.[112]
+
+When the French received the news of the loss of Canada, opinion was
+much divided as to the wisdom of seeking to regain the captured
+settlement.[113] Some thought its possession of little value in
+proportion to the expense it caused, while others deemed that the fur
+trade and fisheries were of great importance to the commerce of France,
+as well as a useful nursery for experienced seamen. Champlain strongly
+urged the government not to give up a country where they had already
+overcome the principal difficulties of settlement, and where, through
+their means, the light of religion was dawning upon the darkness of
+heathen ignorance. His solicitations were successful, and Canada was
+restored to France at the same time with Acadia and Cape Breton, by the
+treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye[114] (1632). At this period the fort of
+Quebec, surrounded by a score of hastily-built dwellings and barracks,
+some poor huts on the island of Montreal, the like at Three Rivers and
+Tadoussac, and a few fishermen's log-houses elsewhere on the banks of
+the St. Lawrence, were the only fruits of the discoveries of Verazzano,
+Jacques Cartier, Roberval, and Champlain, the great outlay of La Roche
+and De Monts, and the toils and sufferings of their followers, for
+nearly a century.[115]
+
+By the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye the company were restored to all
+their rights and privileges, and obtained compensation for the losses
+they had sustained, but it was some time before the English could be
+effectually excluded from the trade which they had established with the
+Indians during their brief possession of the country. In 1633 Champlain
+was reappointed governor of New France, and on his departure for the
+colony took with him many respectable settlers: several Protestants were
+anxious to join him; this, however, was not permitted. Two Jesuits,
+Fathers de Brebeuf and Enemond Masse, accompanied the governor: they
+purposed to devote themselves to the conversion of the Indians to
+Christianity, and to the education of the youth of the colony. The
+Recollets had made but little progress in proselytism; as yet, very few
+of the natives had been baptized, nor were the Jesuits at first[116]
+much more successful: these persevering men were, however, not to be
+disheartened by difficulties, and they were supported by the hope that
+when they became better acquainted with the language and manners of
+their pupils, their instructions would yield a richer harvest.[117]
+
+As New France advanced in population and prosperity, the sentiments of
+religion became strengthened among the settlers. On the first arrival of
+the Jesuits, Rénè Rohault, the eldest son of the Marquis de Gamache, and
+himself one of the order, adopted the idea of founding a college at
+Quebec for the education of youth and the conversion of the Indians, and
+offered 6000 crowns of gold as a donation to forward the object. The
+capture of the settlement by the English had, for a time, interrupted
+the execution of this plan; but Rohault at length succeeded in laying
+the foundation of the building in December, 1635, to the great joy of
+the French colonists.
+
+In the same month, to the deep regret of all good men, death deprived
+his country of the brave, high-minded, and wise Champlain. He was buried
+in the city of which he was the founder, where, to this day, he is
+fondly and gratefully remembered among the just and good. Gifted with
+high ability, upright, active, and chivalrous, he was, at the same time,
+eminent for his Christian zeal and humble piety. "The salvation of one
+soul," he often said, "is of more value than the conquest of an empire."
+To him belongs the glory of planting Christianity and civilization among
+the snows of those northern forests; during his life, indeed, a feeble
+germ, but, sheltered by his vigorous arm--nursed by his tender care--the
+root struck deep. Little more than two centuries have passed since the
+faithful servant went to rest upon the field of his noble toils. And now
+a million and a half of Christian people dwell in peace and plenty upon
+that magnificent territory, which his zeal and wisdom first redeemed
+from the desolation of the wilderness.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 98: "Parceque les relations et les voyageurs parloient
+beaucoup de Tadoussac, les Géographes ont supposé que e'était une ville,
+mais il n'y a jamais eu qu'une maison Française, et quelques cabannes de
+sauvages, qui y venoient au tems de la traité, et qui emportoient
+ensuite leurs cabannes; comme on fait les loges d'une foire. Il est vrai
+que ce port a été lontems l'abord de toutes les nations sauvages du
+nord et de l'est; que les François s'y rendoient des que la navigation
+étoit libre; soil de France, soil du Canada; que les missionnaires
+profitoient de l'occasion, et y venoient négocier pour le ciel.... Au
+reste Tadoussac est un bon port, et on m'a assuré que vingt cinq
+vaisseaux de guerre y pouvoient être à l'abri de tous les vents, que
+l'ancrage y est sur, et que l'entrée en est facile."--Charlevoix, tom.
+v., p. 96, 1721.
+
+"Tadoussac, one hundred and forty miles below Quebec, is a post
+belonging to the Hudson Bay Company, and is the residence of one of its
+partners and an agent. They alone are allowed to trade with the Indians
+in the interior. At Tadoussac is a Roman Catholic chapel, a store and
+warehouse, and some eight or ten dwellings. Here is erected a
+flag-staff, surrounded by several pieces of cannon, on an eminence
+elevated about fifty feet, and overlooking the inner warehouse, where is
+a sufficient depth of water to float the largest vessels. This place was
+early settled by the French, who are said to have here erected the first
+dwelling built of stone and mortar in Canada, and the remains of it are
+still to be seen. The view is exceedingly picturesque from this point.
+The southern shore of the St. Lawrence may be traced, even with the
+naked eye, for many a league; the undulating line of snow-white cottages
+stretching far away to the east and west; while the scene is rendered
+gay and animated by the frequent passage of the merchant vessel plowing
+its way toward the port of Quebec, or hurrying upon the descending tide
+to the Gulf; while, from the summit of the hill upon which Tadoussac
+stands, the sublime and impressive scenery of the Saguenay rises to
+view."--_Picturesque Tourist_, p. 267 (New York, 1844).]
+
+[Footnote 99: "The colony that was sent to Canada this year was among
+the number of those things that had not my approbation; there was no
+kind of riches to be expected from all those countries of the New World
+which are beyond the fortieth degree of latitude. His majesty gave the
+conduct of this expedition to the Sieur de Monts."--_Memoirs of Sully_,
+b. xvi., p. 241, English translation.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The pious Romanist, Champlain, thus details the
+inconveniences caused by the different creeds of the Frenchmen composing
+the expedition of De Monts: "Il se trouva quelque chose à redire en
+cette entreprise, qui est en ce que deux religions contraires ne font
+jamais un grand fruit pour la gloire de Dieu parmi les infidèles que
+l'on veut convertir. J'ai vu le ministre et notre curé s'entre battre à
+coups de poing, sur le différend de la religion. Je ne sçais pas qui
+étoit le plus vaillant et qui donnoit le meilleur coup, mas je sçais
+très bien que le ministre se plaignoit quelquefois au Sieur de Monts
+d'avoir été battue, et vuidoit en cette façon les points de
+controversie. Je vous laisse à penser si cela étoit beau à voir; les
+sauvages étoient tantôt d'une partie, tantôt d'une autre, et les
+François mêlés selon leurs diverses croyances, disoit pis que pendre de
+l'une et de l'autre religion, quoique le Sieur de Monts y apportât la
+paix le plus qu'il pouvoit."--_Voyages de la Nouvelle France
+Occidentale, dite Canada, faits par le Sieur de Champlain à Paris_,
+1632.]
+
+[Footnote 101: De Poutrincourt had been accompanied, in his last voyage
+from France, by Marc Lescarbot, well known as one of the best historians
+of the early French colonists. His memoirs and himself are thus
+described by Charlevoix: "Un avocat de Paris, nommé Marc L'Escarbot,
+homme d'esprit et fort attaché à M. de Poutrincourt, avoit eu la
+curiosité de voir le Nouveau Monde. Il animoit les uns, il piequoit les
+autres d'honneur, il se faisoit aimer de tous, et ne s'épargnoit
+lui-même en rien. Il inventoit tous les jours quelque chose de nouveau
+pour l'utilité publique, et jamais on ne comprit mieux de quelle
+ressource peut être dans un nouvel établissement, un esprit cultivé par
+l'étude.... C'est à cet avocat, que nous sommes redevable des meilleurs
+mémoires que nous ayons de ce qui s'est passé sous ses yeux. On y voit
+un auteur exact, judicieux, et un homme, qui eut été aussi capable
+d'établir une colonie que d'en écrire une histoire." (Charlevoix, vol.
+i., p. 185.) The title of L'Escarbot's work is "Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France, par Marc L'Escarbot, Avocat en Parlement, témoin oculaire d'une
+partie des choses y récitées: à Paris, 1609."]
+
+[Footnote 102: "Argall se fondait sur une concession de Jacques I., qui
+avait permis à ses sujets de s'etablir jusqu'au quarante cinq degrés, et
+il crut pouvoir profiter de la foiblesse des Français pour les traitre
+en usurpateurs.... Si Poutrincourt avoit été dans son fort avec trente
+hommes bien armés, Argall n'auroit pas même eu l'assurance de l'attaquer
+... en deux heures de tems le fen consuma tout ce que les Français
+possedoient dans une colonie où l'on avait déjà depensé plus de cent
+mille écus.... Celui qui y perdit davantage, fut M. de Poutrincourt qui,
+depuis ce tems là ne songea plus a l'Amérique. Il rentra dans le
+service, où il s'était déjà par plusieurs belles actions et mourut au
+lit d'honneur."--Jean de Laët.
+
+In 1621, James I. conferred Acadia upon Sir William Alexander, who gave
+it the name of Nova Scotia. At the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, in
+1632, it was restored to the French; again taken by the English, it was
+again restored to France by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. In 1710, when
+Acadia was taken by General Nicholson, the English perceived its
+importance for their commerce. They obtained its formal and final
+cession at the treaty of Utrecht, 1713.]
+
+[Footnote 103: "It was at this time that the name of New France was
+first given to Canada."--Charlevoix. tom. i., p. 232.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Champlain, part i., p. 231; Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 236.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Seven or eight years before the arrival of the PP.
+Recollets at Quebec, Roman Catholic missionaries had found their way to
+Nova Scotia. They were Jesuits. It was remarkable that Henry IV., whose
+life had been twice attempted by the Jesuits,[106] should have earnestly
+urged their establishment in America. When Port Royal was ceded to
+Poutrincourt by De Monts, the king intimated to him that it was time to
+think of the conversion of the savages, and that it was _his desire_
+that the Jesuits should be employed in this work. Charlevoix
+acknowledges that De Poutrincourt was "un fort honnête homme, et
+sincèrement attaché à la religion Catholique"--nevertheless, his
+prejudices against Jesuits were so strong, that "il étoit bien résolu de
+ne les point mene au Port Royal." On various pretexts he evaded obeying
+the royal commands, and when, the year after, the Jesuits were sent out
+to him, at the expense of Madame de Gruercheville, and by the orders of
+the queen's mother, he rendered their stay at Port Royal as
+uncomfortable as was consistent with his noble and generous character,
+vigilantly guarding against their acquiring any dangerous influence. His
+former prejudices could not have been lessened by the assassination of
+Henry IV.[107] The two Jesuits selected by P. Cotton, Henry IV.'s
+confessor, for missionary labors in Acadia, were P. Pierre Biast and P.
+Enemond Masse. They were taken prisoners at the time of Argall's descent
+on Acadia, 1614, and conveyed to England.--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 189,
+216.]
+
+[Footnote 106: By Barrière in 1593; by Jean Châtel in 1594. He finally
+perished by the hand of Ravaillac, in 1610. See Sully's Memoirs, b. vi.,
+vii.; Cayet, Chron. Noven., b.v.; Père de Chalons, tom. iii., p. 245,
+quoted by Sully.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Henri s' était montré bienveillant pour les Jésuites,
+encore que les parlemens et tous ceux qui tenoient, á la magistrature
+ressentoient plus de prévention contre ces religieux que les Hugonots
+eux-mêmes.... Henri IV. fit abattre la pyramide qui avait été élevée en
+mémoire de l' attentat de Jean Châtel contre lui, parce que l'
+inscription qu' elle portait inculpait les Jésuites d'avoir excité à cet
+assassinat.--Sismondi: _Histoire des Français_. See De Thou, tom. ix.,
+p. 696, 704; tom. x., p. 26 à 30.]
+
+[Footnote 108: When Champlain first laid the foundations of the fort in
+1623, to which he gave the name of St. Louis, it is evident that he was
+actuated by views, not of a political, but a commercial character. When
+Montmagny rebuilt the fort in 1635, it covered about four acres of
+ground, and formed nearly a parallelogram. Of these works only a few
+vestiges remain, except the eastern wall, which is kept in solid
+repair.--Bonchette.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 247.]
+
+[Footnote 110: "Ce fut Guillaume de Caën qui les conduisit (les
+Jésuites) à Quebec. Il avoit donné sa parole au Duc de Ventadour qu'il
+ne laisseroit les Jésuites manquer du rien; cependant, des qu'ils furent
+débarqués, il leur déclara que, si les PP. Recollets ne vouloient pas
+les recevoir et les loger chez eux, ils n'avoient point d'autre parti à
+prendre que retourner en France. Ils s'aperçurent même bientôt qu'on
+avoit travaillé a prévénir contre eux les habitans de Quebec, en leur
+mettant entre les mains les écrits les plus injurieux, que les
+Calvinistes de France avoient publiés contre leur compagnie. Mais leur
+présence eut bientôt effacé tous ces préjugés."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p.
+248.]
+
+[Footnote 111: Charlevoix highly extols this brilliant conception of the
+Cardinal de Richelieu, "et ne craint point d'avancer que la Nouvelle
+France seroit aujourd'hui la plus puissante colonie de l'Amérique, si
+l'execution avoit répondue à la beauté du projet, et si les membres de
+ce grand corps eussent profité des dispositions favorables du souverain
+et de son ministre à leur égard."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 250;
+_Mémoires des Commissaires_, vol. i., p. 346.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Champlain's proposals of capitulation (Smith's Canada,
+vol. i., p. 22) sufficiently prove that, down to 1629, France had
+scarcely any permanent footing in the country. By stipulating for the
+removal of "all the French" in Quebec, Champlain seems to consider that
+the whole province was virtually lost to France, and "the single
+vessel," which was to furnish the means of removal, reduces "all the
+French" in Quebec to a very small number.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 273.]
+
+[Footnote 115: "L'île au Cap Bréton (c'étoit bien peu de choses que
+l'établissement que nous avions alors dans cette île) le fort de Quebec
+environné de quelques méchantes maisons et de quelques baraques, deux ou
+trois cabanes dans l'Île de Montreal, autant peut-être à Tadoussac, et
+en quelques autres endroits sur le fleuve St. Laurent, pour la commodité
+de la pêché et de la Traité, un commencement d'habitation aux Trois
+Rivières et les rivières de Port Royal, voilà en quoi consistoit la
+Nouvelle France et tout le fruit des découvertes de Verazzani, de Jaques
+Cartier, de M. de Roberval, de Champlain, des grandes dépenses de
+Marquis de la Roche, et de M. de Monts et de l'industrie d'un grand
+nombre de Français qui auroient pu y faire un grand établissement, s'ils
+eussent été bien conduits."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 274.]
+
+[Footnote 116: See Appendix, No. XVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 117: The Jesuits always retained the superior position they
+held from the first among the Roman Catholic missionaries of Canada.
+There is a well-known Canadian proverb, "Pour faire un Recollet il faut
+une hachette, pour un Prêtre un ciseau, mais pour un Jésuite il faut un
+pinceau." See Appendix, No. XVII., (see Vol II) for Professor Kalm's
+account of these three classes.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+
+Having followed the course of discovery and settlement in New France up
+to the death of the man who stamped the first permanent impression upon
+that country, it is now time to review its character and condition at
+the period when it became the abode of a civilized people. Champlain's
+deputed commission of governor gave him authority over all that France
+possessed or claimed on the continent and islands of North America;
+Newfoundland, Isle Royale, and Acadia, were each portions of this vast
+but vague territory; and those unknown, boundless solitudes of ice and
+snow, lying toward the frozen north, whose very existence was a
+speculation, were also, by the shadowy right of a European king, added
+to his wide dominion. Of that portion, however, called Canada, it is
+more especially the present subject to treat.
+
+Canada is a vast plain, irregular in elevation and feature, forming a
+valley between two ranges of high land; one of these ranges divides it,
+to the north, from the dreary territories of Hudson's Bay; the other, to
+the south, from the republic of the United States and the British
+province of New Brunswick. None of the hills rise to any great height;
+with one exception, Man's Hill, in the State of Maine, 2000 feet is
+their greatest altitude above the sea. The elevated districts are,
+however, of very great extent, broken, rugged, and rocky, clothed with
+dense forests, intersected with rapid torrents, and varied with
+innumerable lakes. The great plain of Canada narrows to a mere strip of
+low land by the side of the St. Lawrence, as it approaches the eastern
+extremity. From Quebec to the gulf on the north side, and toward Gaspé
+on the south, the grim range of mountains reaches almost to the water's
+edge; westward of that city the plain expands, gradually widening into a
+district of great beauty and fertility; again, westward of Montreal, the
+level country becomes far wider and very rich, including the broad and
+valuable flats that lie along the lower waters of the Ottawa. The rocky,
+elevated shores of Lake Huron bound this vast valley to the west; the
+same mountain range extends along the northern shore of Lake Superior;
+beyond lie great tracts of fertile soil, where man's industrious hand
+has not yet been applied.
+
+Canada may be described as lying between the meridians of 57° 50' and
+90° west; from the mouth of the Esquimaux River on the confines of
+Labrador, to the entrance of the stream connecting the waters of Lake
+Superior and the Rainy Lake, bordering on Prince Rupert's Land. The
+parallels of 42° and 52° inclose this country to the south and north.
+The greatest length is about 1300 miles, the breadth 700. A space of
+348,000 square miles is inclosed within these limits.
+
+The great lakes in Canada give a character to that country distinct from
+any other in the Old World or the New. They are very numerous; some far
+exceed all inland waters elsewhere in depth and extent; they feed,
+without apparent diminution, the great river St. Lawrence; the tempest
+plows their surface into billows that rival those of the Atlantic,[118]
+and they contain more than half of all the fresh water upon the surface
+of the globe.[119]
+
+Superior[120] is the largest and most elevated of these lakes: it is
+crescent-shaped, convex to the north; to the southeast and southwest its
+extremities are narrow points: the length through the curve is 360
+geographical miles, the breadth in the widest part 140, the
+circumference 1500. The surface of this vast sheet of fresh water is 627
+feet above the level of the Atlantic; from various indications upon the
+shores, there is good reason to conclude that at some remote period it
+was forty or fifty feet higher. The depth of Lake Superior varies much
+in different parts, but is generally very great; at the deepest it is
+probably 1200 feet. The waters are miraculously pure and transparent;
+many fathoms down, the eye can distinctly trace the rock and shingle of
+the bottom, and follow the quick movements of the numerous and beautiful
+fish inhabiting these crystal depths. No tides vary the stillness of
+this inland sea, but when a strong prevailing wind sweeps over the
+surface, the waves are lashed to fury, and the waters, driven by its
+force, crowd up against the leeward shore. When in the spring the warm
+sun melts the mountain snows, and each little tributary becomes an
+impetuous torrent pouring into this great basin, the level of the
+surface rises many feet. Although no river of any magnitude helps to
+supply Lake Superior, a vast number of small streams fall in from among
+clefts and glens along the rugged shores;[121] there are also many large
+islands; one, Isle Royale, is more than forty miles in length. In some
+places lofty hills[122] rise abruptly from the water's edge; in others
+there are intervals of lower lands for sixty or seventy miles, but every
+where stands the primeval forest, clothing height and hollow alike. At
+the south-eastern extremity of this lake, St. Mary's Channel carries the
+superabundant waters for nearly forty miles, till they fall into Lake
+Huron; about midway between, they rush tumultuously down a steep
+descent, with a tremendous roar, through shattered masses of rock,
+filling the pure air above with clouds of snowy foam.
+
+Lake Huron is the next in succession and the second in magnitude of
+these inland seas. The outline is very irregular, to the north and east
+formed by the Canadian territory, to the southwest by that of the United
+States. From where the Channel of St. Mary enters this lake to the
+furthest extremity is 240 miles, the greatest breadth is 220, the
+circumference about 1000; the surface is only 32 feet lower than that of
+Superior; in depth and in pure transparency the waters of this lake are
+not surpassed by its great neighbor. Parallel to the north shore runs a
+long, narrow peninsula called Cabot Head, which, together with a chain
+of islands, shuts in the upper waters so as almost to form a separate
+and distinct lake. The Great Manitoulin Island, the largest of this
+chain, is seventy-five miles in length. In the Indian tongue the name
+denotes it the abode of the Great Spirit,[123] and the simple savages
+regard these woody shores with reverential awe.
+
+To the north and west of Lake Huron the shores are generally rugged and
+precipitous; abrupt heights of from 30 to 100 feet rise from the water's
+edge, formed of clay, huge stones, steep rocks, and wooded acclivities;
+further inland, the peaks of the Cloche Mountains ascend to a
+considerable height. To the east, nature presents a milder aspect; a
+plain of great extent and richness stretches away toward the St.
+Lawrence. Many streams pour their flood into this lake; the principal
+are the Maitland, Severn, Moon, and French Rivers; they are broad and
+deep, but their sources lie at no great distance. By far the largest
+supply of water comes from the vast basin of Lake Superior, through the
+Channel of St. Mary. Near the northwestern extremity of Huron, a narrow
+strait[124] connects it with Lake Michigan in the United States; there
+is a slight difference of level between these two great sheets of water,
+and a current constantly sets into the southern basin: this lake is also
+remarkable for its depth and transparency.[125]
+
+At the southern extremity of Lake Huron, its overflow pours through a
+river about thirty miles in length into a small lake; both lake and
+river bear the name of St. Clair.[126] Thence the waters flow on,
+through the broad but shallow stream of the Detroit, until they fall
+into Lake Erie thirty miles below; on either side, the banks and
+neighboring districts are rich in beauty and abundantly fertile.
+
+Lake Erie is shallow and dangerous, the anchorage is bad, the harbors
+few and inconvenient. Long, low promontories project for a considerable
+distance from the main land, and embarrass the navigation; but the
+coasts, both on the Canadian and American side, are very fertile.[127]
+Lake Erie is about 265 miles long, and 63 wide at its greatest breadth;
+the circumference is calculated at 658 miles; its surface lies 30 feet
+below the level of Lake Huron.[128] The length of the lake stretches
+northeast, almost the same direction as the line of the River St.
+Lawrence.
+
+The Niagara River flows from the northeastern extremity of Lake Erie to
+Lake Ontario in a course of 33 miles, with a fall of not less than 334
+feet. About twenty miles below Lake Erie is the grandest sight that
+nature has laid before the human eye--the Falls of Niagara. A stream
+three quarters of a mile wide, deep and rapid, plunges over a rocky
+ledge 150 feet in height; about two thirds of the distance across from
+the Canadian side stands Goat Island, covered with stately timber: four
+times as great a body of water precipitates itself over the northern or
+Horse-shoe Fall as that which flows over the American portion. Above the
+cataract the river becomes very rapid and tumultuous in several places,
+particularly at the Ferry of Black Rock, where it rushes past at the
+rate of seven miles an hour; within the last mile there is a tremendous
+indraught to the Falls. The shores on both sides of the Niagara River
+are of unsurpassed natural fertility, but there is little scenic beauty
+around to divert attention from the one object. The simplicity of this
+wonder adds to the force of its impression: no other sight over the wide
+world so fills the mind with awe and admiration. Description may convey
+an idea of the height and breadth[129]--the vast body of
+water[130]--the profound abyss--the dark whirlpools--the sheets of
+foam[131]--the plumy column of spray[132] rising up against the sky--the
+dull, deep sound that throbs through the earth, and fills the air for
+miles and miles with its unchanging voice[133]--but of the magnitude of
+this idea, and the impression, stamped upon the senses by the reality,
+it is vain to speak to those who have not stood beside Niagara.
+
+Tho descent of the land from the shores of Lake Erie to those of Ontario
+is general and gradual,[134] and there is no feature in the
+neighborhood of the Falls to mark its locality. From the Erie boundary
+the river flows smoothly through a level but elevated plain, branching
+round one large and some smaller islands. Although the deep, tremulous
+sound of Niagara tells of its vicinity, there is no unusual appearance
+till within about a mile, when the waters begin to ripple and hasten on;
+a little further it dashes down a magnificent rapid, then again becomes
+tranquil and glassy, but glides past with astonishing swiftness. There
+are numberless points whence the fall of this great river may be well
+seen: the best is Table Rock, at the top of the cataract; the most
+wonderful is the recess between the falling flood and the cliff over
+which it leaps.
+
+For some length below Niagara the waters are violently agitated;
+however, at the distance of half a mile, a ferry plies across in safety.
+The high banks on both sides of the river extend to Queenston and
+Lewiston, eight miles lower, confining the waters to a channel of no
+more than a quarter of a mile in breadth, between steep and lofty
+cliffs; midway is the whirlpool,[135] where the current rushes
+furiously round within encircling heights. Below Queenston the river
+again rolls along a smooth stream, between level and cultivated banks,
+till it pours its waters into Lake Ontario.
+
+Ontario is the last[136] and the most easterly of the chain of
+lakes.[137] The greatest length is 172 miles; at the widest it measures
+59 miles across; the circumference is 467 miles, and the surface is 334
+feet below the level of Lake Erie. The depth of Ontario varies very much
+along the coast, being seldom more than from three to 50 fathoms; and in
+the center, a plummet, with 300 fathoms of line, has been tried in vain
+for soundings. A sort of gravel, small pieces of limestone, worn round
+and smooth by the action of water, covers the shores, lying in long
+ridges sometimes miles in extent. The waters, like those of the other
+great lakes, are very pure and beautiful, except where the shallows
+along the margin are stirred up by violent winds: for a few days in June
+a yellow, unwholesome scum covers the surface at the edge every year.
+There is a strange phenomenon connected with Ontario, unaccounted for by
+scientific speculation; each seventh year, from some inscrutable cause,
+the waters reach to an unusual height, and again subside, mysteriously
+as they arose. The beautiful illusion of the mirage spreads its dreamy
+enchantment over the surface of Ontario in the summer calms, mixing
+islands, clouds, and waters in strange confusion.[138]
+
+The outline of the shores is much diversified: to the northeast lie low
+lands and swampy marshes; to the north and northeast extends a bold
+range of elevated grounds; southward the coast becomes again flat for
+some distance inland, till it rises into the ridge of heights that marks
+the position of Niagara. The country bordering the lake is generally
+rich and productive, and was originally covered with forest. A ridge of
+lofty land runs from the beautiful Bay of Quinté, on the northwest of
+the lake, westward along the shore, at a distance of nine or more miles:
+from these heights innumerable streams flow into Ontario on one side,
+and into the lakes and rivers of the back country on the other. At
+Toronto the ridge recedes to the distance of twenty-four miles northeast
+from the lake, separating the tributary waters of Lakes Huron and
+Ontario; thence merging in the Burlington Heights, it continues along
+the southwest side from four to eight miles distant from the shore to
+the high grounds about Niagara.
+
+Besides the great stream of Niagara, many rivers flow into Ontario both
+on the Canadian and American sides. The bays and harbors are also very
+numerous, affording great facilities for navigation and commerce: in
+this respect the northern shore is the most favored--the Bays of Quinté
+and Burlington are especially remarkable for their extent and
+security.[139]
+
+The northeast end of Lake Ontario, where its waters pour into the St.
+Lawrence, is a scene of striking beauty;[140] numerous wooded islands,
+in endless variety of form and extent, divide the entrance of the Great
+River[141] into a labyrinth of tortuous channels, for twelve miles in
+breadth from shore to shore: this width gradually decreases as the
+stream flows on to Prescot, fifty miles below; a short distance beyond
+that town the rapids commence,[142] and thence to Montreal the
+navigation is interrupted for vessels of burden; boats, rafts, and small
+steamers, however, constantly descend these tumultuous waters, and not
+unfrequently are lost in the dangerous attempt. The most beautiful and
+formidable of these rapids is called the Cedars, from the rich groves of
+that fragrant tree covering numerous and intricate islands, which
+distort the rushing stream into narrow and perilous channels: the water
+is not more than ten feet deep in some places, and flows at the rate of
+twelve miles an hour. The river there widens into Lake St. Francis, and
+again into Lake St. Louis, which drains a large branch of the Ottawa at
+its south-western extremity. The water of this great tributary is
+remarkably clear and of a bright emerald color; that of the St. Lawrence
+at this junction is muddy, from having passed over deep beds of marl for
+several miles above its entrance to Lake St. Louis: for some distance
+down the lake the different streams can be plainly distinguished from
+each other. From the confluence of the first branches above Montreal
+these two great rivers seem bewildered among the numerous and beautiful
+islands, and, hurrying past in strong rapids, only find rest again in
+the broad, deep waters many miles below.
+
+The furthest sources of the Ottawa River are unknown.[143] It rises to
+importance at the outlet from Lake Temiscaming, 350 miles west of its
+junction with the St. Lawrence.[144] Beyond the Falls and Portage des
+Allumettes, 110 miles above Hull, this stream has been little explored.
+There it is divided into two channels by a large island fifteen miles
+long: the southernmost of these expands into the width of four or five
+miles, and communicates by a branch of the river with the Mud and Musk
+Rat Lakes. Twelve miles further south the river again forms two
+branches, including an extensive and beautiful island twenty miles in
+length; numerous rapids and cascades diversify this wild but lovely
+scene; thence to the foot of the Chenaux, wooded islands in picturesque
+variety deck the bosom of the stream, and the bright blue waters here
+wind their way for three miles through a channel of pure white marble.
+Nature has bestowed abundant fertility as well as beauty upon this
+favored district. The Gatineau River joins the Ottawa near Hull, after a
+course of great length. This stream is navigated by canoes for more than
+300 miles, traversing an immense valley of rich soil and picturesque
+scenery.
+
+At the foot of the Chenaux the magnificent Lake des Chats opens to
+view, in length about fifteen miles; the shores are strangely indented,
+and numbers of wooded islands stud the surface of the clear waters. At
+the foot of the lake there are falls and rapids;[145] thence to Lake
+Chaudière, a distance of six miles, the channel narrows, but expands
+again to form that beautiful and extensive basin. Rapids again succeed,
+and continue to the Chaudière Falls. The boiling pool into which these
+waters descend is of great depth: the sounding-line does not reach the
+bottom at the length of 300 feet. It is supposed that the main body of
+the river flows by a subterraneous passage, and rises again half a mile
+lower down. Below the Chaudière Falls the navigation is uninterrupted to
+Grenville, sixty miles distant. The current is scarcely perceptible; the
+banks are low, and generally over-flowed in the spring; but the varying
+breadth of the river, the numerous islands, the magnificent forests, and
+the crystal purity of the waters, lend a charm to the somewhat
+monotonous beauty of the scene. At Grenville commences the Long Sault, a
+swift and dangerous rapid, which continues with intervals till it falls
+into the still Lake of the Two Mountains. Below the heights from whence
+this sheet of water derives its name, the well-known Rapids of St.
+Anne's discharge the main stream into the waters of the St.
+Lawrence.[146]
+
+Below the island of Montreal the St. Lawrence continues, in varying
+breadth and considerable depth, to Sorel, where it is joined by the
+Richelieu River from the south; thence opens the expanse of Lake St.
+Peter, shallow and uninteresting; after twenty-five miles the Great
+River contracts again, receives in its course the waters of the St.
+Maurice, and other large streams; and 180 miles below Montreal the vast
+flood pours through the narrow channel that lies under the shadow of
+Quebec.[147] Below this strait lies a deep basin, nearly four miles
+wide, formed by the head of the Island of Orleans: the main channel
+continues by the south shore. It would be wearisome to tell of all the
+numerous and beautiful islands that deck the bosom of the St. Lawrence
+from Quebec to the Gulf. The river gradually expands till it reaches a
+considerable breadth at the mouth of the Saguenay. There is a dark shade
+for many miles below where this great tributary pours its gloomy flood
+into the pure waters of the St. Lawrence: 120 miles westward it flows
+from a large, circular sheet of water, called Lake St. John; but the
+furthest sources lie in the unknown regions of the west and north. For
+about half its course, from the lake to Tadoussac at the mouth, the
+banks are rich and fertile; but thence cliffs rise abruptly out of the
+water to a lofty height--sometimes 2000 feet--and two or three miles
+apart. The depth of the Saguenay is very great, and the surrounding
+scenery is of a magnificent but desolate character.
+
+Below the entrance of the Saguenay the St. Lawrence increases to twenty
+miles across, at the Bay of Seven Islands to seventy, at the head of the
+large and unexplored island of Anticosti to ninety, and at the point
+where it may be said to enter the Gulf between Gaspé and the Labrador
+coast, reaches the enormous breadth of 120 miles. In mid-channel both
+coasts can be seen; the mountains on the north shore rise to a great
+height in a continuous range, their peaks capped with eternal snows.
+
+Having traced this vast chain of water communication from its remotest
+links, it is now time to speak of the magnificent territory which it
+opens to the commerce and enterprise of civilized man.
+
+Upper or Western Canada[148] is marked off from the eastern province by
+the natural boundary of the Ottawa or Grand River. It consists almost
+throughout of one uniform plain. In all those districts hitherto settled
+or explored, there is scarcely a single eminence that can be called a
+hill, although traversed by two wide ridges, rising above the usual
+level of the country. The greater of these elevations passes through
+nearly the whole extent of the province from southeast to northwest,
+separating the waters falling into the St. Lawrence and the great lakes
+from those tributary to the Ottawa: the highest point is forty miles
+north of Kingston, being also the most elevated level on that
+magnificent modern work, the Rideau Canal;[149] it is 290 feet above the
+Ottawa at Bytown, and 160 feet higher than the surface of Lake Ontario.
+Toward these waters the plain descends at the gradient of about four
+feet in the mile; this declivity is imperceptible to the eye, and is
+varied by gently undulating slopes and inequalities. Beyond the broad,
+rich valley lying to the north of this elevation there is a rocky and
+mountainous country; still farther north are seen snow-covered peaks of
+a great but unknown height; thence to the pole extends the dreary region
+of the Hudson Bay territory.
+
+The lesser elevation begins near the eastern extremity of Ontario, and
+runs almost parallel with the shores of the lake to a point about
+twenty-four miles northwest from Toronto, where it separates the streams
+flowing into Lakes Huron and Ontario: it then passes southeast between
+Lakes Erie and Ontario, and terminates on the Genesee in the United
+States. This has a more perceptible elevation than the southern ridge,
+and in some places rises into bold heights.
+
+The only portion of the vast plain of Western Canada surveyed or
+effectually explored is included by a line drawn from the eastern coast
+of Lake Huron to the Ottawa River, and the northern shores of the great
+chain of lake and river; this is, however, nearly as large as the whole
+of England.
+
+The natural features of Lower or Eastern Canada are unsurpassed by those
+of any other country in grace and variety: rivers, lakes, mountains,
+forests, prairies, and cataracts are grouped together in endless
+combinations of beauty and magnificence. The eastern districts,
+beginning with the bold sea-coast and broad waters of the St. Lawrence,
+are high, mountainous, and clothed with dark forests on both sides, down
+to the very margin of the river. To the north, a lofty and rugged range
+of heights runs parallel with the shore as far westward as Quebec;
+thence it bends west and southwest to the banks of the Ottawa. To the
+south, the elevated ridge, where it reaches within sixty miles of
+Quebec, turns from the parallel of the St. Lawrence southwest and south
+into the United States; this ridge, known by the name of the Alleganies,
+rises abruptly out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence at Percé, between the
+Baye de Chaleur and Gaspé Cape, and is more distant from the Great River
+than that upon the northern shore. Where the Alleganies enter the United
+States they divide the plains of the Atlantic coast from the basin of
+the Ohio; their greatest height is about 4000 feet above the level of
+the sea.
+
+The Valley of the St. Lawrence, lying between these two ranges of
+heights, is marked by great diversities of hill, plain, and valley. Both
+from the north and south numerous rivers pour their tributary flood into
+the great waters of Canada; of those eastward of the Saguenay little is
+known beyond their entrance; they flow through cliffs of light-colored
+sand, rocky, wooded knolls, or, in some places, deep, swampy moss-beds
+nearly three feet in depth. From the Saguenay to Quebec the mountain
+ridge along the shore of the St. Lawrence is unbroken, save where
+streams find their way to the Great River, but beyond this coast-border
+the country is in some places level, in others undulating, with hills of
+moderate height, and well-watered valleys. From Quebec westward to the
+St. Maurice, which joins the St. Lawrence at Three Rivers, the land
+rises in a gentle ascent from the banks of the Great River, and presents
+a rich tract of fertile plains and slopes: in the distance, a lofty
+chain of mountains protects this favored district from the bitter
+northern blast. Along the north bank of the St. Lawrence, from the St.
+Maurice, the country toward the Ottawa is slightly elevated into table
+ridges, with occasional abrupt declivities and some extensive plains. In
+this portion of Canada are included the islands of Montreal, Jesus, and
+Perrot, formed by the various branches of the Great River and the
+Ottawa, where their waters unite. Montreal is the largest and most
+fertile of these islands; its length is thirty-two miles and breadth
+ten; the general shape is triangular. Isle Jesus is twenty-one miles by
+six in extent, and also very rich; there are, besides, several other
+smaller islands of considerable fertility. Isle Perrot is poor and
+sandy. The remote country to the north of the Ottawa is but little
+known.
+
+On the south shore of the St. Lawrence, the peninsula of Gaspé is the
+most eastern district; this large tract of country has been very little
+explored: so far as it has been examined, it is uneven, mountainous, and
+intersected with deep ravines; but the forests, rivers, and lakes are
+very fine, and the valleys fertile. The sea-beach is low and hard,[150]
+answering the purposes of a road; at the Cape of Gaspé, however, there
+are some bold and lofty cliffs. Behind the beach the land rises into
+high, round hills, well wooded; sheltered from the Gaspé district to the
+Chaudière River, the country is not so stern as on the northern side of
+the St. Lawrence; though somewhat hilly, it abounds in large and fertile
+valleys. The immediate shores of the river are flat; thence irregular
+ridges arise, till they reach an elevated table-land fifteen or twenty
+miles from the beach. From the Chaudière River westward extends that
+rich and valuable country now known by the name of the Eastern
+Townships. At the mouth of the Chaudière the banks of the St. Lawrence
+are bold and lofty, but they gradually lower to the westward till they
+sink into the flats of Baye du Febre, and form the marshy shores of Lake
+St. Peter, whence a rich plain extends to a great distance. This
+district contains several high, isolated mountains, and is abundantly
+watered by lakes and rivers. To the south lies the territory of the
+United States.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 118: "The sea (if it may be so termed) on Lake Ontario is so
+high during a sharp gale, that it was at first thought the smaller class
+steamboats could not live on it; and on Lake Superior, the waves almost
+rival those of the far-famed Cape of Storms, while the ground-swell,
+owing to the comparative shallowness, or little specific gravity of the
+fresh water, is such as to make the oldest sailor sick. Whether the
+water in the lowest depths of Lakes Superior and Ontario be salt or
+fresh, we can not ascertain; for the greater density of the former may
+keep it always below, or there may be a communication with the
+fathomless abysses of the ocean."--Montgomery Martin, p. 181.]
+
+[Footnote 119: "Beyond Lake Superior, stretching into the vast interior
+of North America, we find first a long chain of little lakes connected
+by narrow channels, and which, combined, form what in the early
+narratives and even treaties is called Long Lake. Next occur, still
+connected by the same channel, the larger expanses of Lake La Pluie and
+Lake of the Woods. Another channel of about 100 miles connects this last
+with the Winnipeg Lake, whose length from north to south is almost equal
+to the Superior; but in a few parts only it attains the breadth of 50
+miles. The whole of this wonderful series of lakes, separated by such
+small intervals, may almost be considered as forming one inland sea.
+There is nothing parallel to this in the rest of the globe. The Tzad,
+the great interior sea of Africa, does not equal the Ontario. The
+Caspian, indeed, is considerably greater than any of these lakes, almost
+equal to the whole united; but the Caspian forms the final receptacle of
+many great rivers, among which the Volga is of the first magnitude. But
+the northern waters, after forming this magnificent chain of lakes, are
+not yet exhausted, but issue forth from the last of them, to form one of
+the noblest river channels either in the old or new continent."--_History
+of Discoveries and Travels in North America_, by H. Murray, Esq.,
+vol. ii., p. 458.]
+
+[Footnote 120: "Lake Superior is called, also, Keetcheegahmi and
+Missisawgaiegon. It is remarkable, that while every other large lake is
+fed by rivers of the first order, this, the most capacious on the
+surface of the globe, does not receive a third or even fourth rate
+stream; the St. Louis, the most considerable, not having a course of
+more than 150 miles. But, whatever deficiency there may be in point of
+magnitude, it is compensated by the vast number which pour in their
+copious floods from the surrounding heights. The dense covering of wood
+and the long continuance of frost must also, in this region, greatly
+diminish the quantity drawn off by evaporation."--Bouchette, vol. i., p.
+127, 128. Darby's _View of the United States_ (1828), p. 200.]
+
+[Footnote 121: "The _Pictured_ Rocks (so called from their appearance)
+are situated on the south side of the lake, toward the east end, and are
+really quite a natural curiosity; they form a perpendicular wall 300
+feet high, extending about twelve miles, with numerous projections and
+indentations in every variety of form, and vast caverns, in which the
+entering waves make a tremendous sound. The Pictured Rocks of Lake
+Superior have been described as 'surprising groups of overhanging
+precipices, towering walls, caverns, waterfalls, and prostrate ruins,
+which are mingled in the most wonderful disorder, and burst upon the
+view in ever-varying and pleasing succession.' Among the more remarkable
+objects are the Cascade La Portaille and the Doric Arch. The Cascade
+consists of a considerable stream precipitated from a height of 70 feet
+by a single leap into the lake, and projected to such a distance that a
+boat may pass beneath the fall and the rock perfectly dry. The Doric
+Arch has all the appearance of a work of art, and consists of an
+isolated mass of sandstone, with four pillars supporting an entablature
+of stone, covered with soil, and a beautiful grove of pine and spruce
+trees, some of which are 60 feet in height."--Montgomery Martin's
+_History of Canada_, vol. i., p. 211.]
+
+[Footnote 122: "The Thunder Mountain is one of the most appalling
+objects of the kind that I have ever seen, being a bleak rock, about
+twelve hundred feet above the level of the lake, with a perpendicular
+face of its full height toward the west; the Indians have a
+superstition, which one can hardly repeat without becoming giddy, that
+any person who may scale the eminence, and turn round on the brink of
+its fearful wall, will live forever."--Simpson, vol. i., p. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 123: "The Indian appellation of 'Sacred Isles' first occurs at
+Lake Huron, and thence westward is met with in Superior, Michigan, and
+the vast and numerous lakes of the interior. Those who have been in
+Asia, and have turned their attention to the subject, will recognize the
+resemblance in sound between the North American Indian and the Tartar
+names."--Montgomery Martin's _History of Canada_, vol. i., p. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 124: "The remarkable post of Michillimackinack is a beautiful
+island or great rock, planted in the strait of the same name, which
+forms the connection between Lakes Huron and Michigan. The meaning of
+the Indian word Michillimackinack is _Great Turtle_. The island is
+crowned with a cap 300 feet above the surrounding waters, on the top of
+which is a fortification. If Quebec is the Gibraltar of North America,
+Mackinaw (the vulgar appellation for this fort) is only second in its
+physical character, and in its susceptibilities of improvement as a
+military post. It is also a must important position for the facilities
+it affords in the fur trade between New York and the Northwest."--Mr.
+Colton's _American Lakes_, vol. i., p. 92.
+
+The value of canals and steam navigation may be judged of from the fact
+that, in 1812, the news of the declaration of war against Great Britain
+by the United States did not reach the post of Michillimackinack (1107
+miles from Quebec) in a shorter time than two months; the same place is
+now within the distance of ten days' journey from the Atlantic.]
+
+[Footnote 125: "So clear are the waters of these lakes, that a white
+napkin, tied to a lead, and sunk thirty fathoms beneath a smooth
+surface, may be seen as distinctly as when immersed three
+feet."--Colton. vol. i., p. 93.]
+
+[Footnote 126: "The St. Clair (according to Dr. Bigsby) is the only
+river of discharge for Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, which cover
+a surface of thirty-eight and a half million of acres, and are fed by
+numerous large rivers. Other able observers are of opinion that the
+Missouri and the Mississippi receive some of the waters of Superior and
+Michigan. Many persons think that a subterraneous communication exists
+between all the great lakes, as is surmised to be the case between the
+Mediterranean and the Euxine."--Montgomery Martin.]
+
+[Footnote 127: "The Lake Erie is justly dignified by the illustrious
+name of Conti, for assuredly it is the finest lake upon earth. Its
+circumference extends to 230 leagues; but it affords every where such a
+charming prospect, that its banks are decked with oak-trees, elms,
+chestnut-trees, walnut-trees, apple-trees, plum-trees, and vines, which
+bear their fine clusters up to the very top of the trees, upon a sort of
+ground that lies as smooth as one's hand. Such ornaments as these are
+sufficient to give rise to the most agreeable idea of a landscape in the
+world."--La Hontan, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 343 (1683).
+
+"Le nom que le Lac Erié porte est celui d'une nation de la langue
+Huronne, qui était établie sur ses bords et que les Iroquois ont
+entièrement détruite. Erié veut dire Chat, et les Eriés sont nommés dans
+quelques relations la nation du Chat. Ce nom vient apparemment de la
+quantité de ces animaux qu'on trouve dans le pays. Quelqes cartes
+modernes ont donné au Lac Erié le nom de Conti, mais ce nom n'a pas fait
+fortune, non plus que ceux de Condé, de Tracy, et d'Orléans, donnés au
+Lac Huron, au Lac Supérieur, et au Lac Michigan."--Charlevoix, tom. v.,
+p, 374 (1721).]
+
+[Footnote 128: "In extreme depth Lake Erie varies from forty to
+forty-five fathoms, with a rocky bottom. Lakes Superior and Huron have a
+stiff, clayey bottom, mixed with shells. Lake Erie reported to be the
+only one of the series in which any current is perceptible. The fact, if
+it is one, is usually ascribed to its shallowness; but the vast volume
+of its outlet--the Niagara River--with its strong current, is a much
+more probable cause than the small depth of its water, which may be far
+more appropriately adduced as the reason why the navigation is
+obstructed by ice much more than either of the other great lakes. As
+connected with trade and navigation, this lake is the most important of
+all the great chain, not only because it is bordered by older
+settlements than any of them except Ontario, but still more because from
+its position it concentrates the trade of the vast West. The Kingston
+Herald notices a most extraordinary occurrence on Lake Erie during a
+late storm (1836). A channel was made by the violence of the tempest
+through Long Point, N. Foreland, 300 yards wide, and from 11 to 15 feet
+deep. It had been in contemplation to cut a canal at this very spot, the
+expenses of which were estimated at £12,000. The York Courier confirms
+this extraordinary intelligence, stating that the storm made a breach
+through the point near the main land, converted the peninsula into an
+island, and actually made a canal 400 yards wide, and eight or ten feet
+deep, almost at the very point where the proposed canal was to be cut,
+and rendered nothing else now necessary in order to secure a safe
+channel for the vessels, and a good harbor on both sides, than the
+construction of a pier on the west side, to prevent the channel being
+filled up with sand."--Montgomery Martin.]
+
+[Footnote 129: "The Horse-shoe Cataract on the British side is the
+largest of the Falls. The curvatures have been geometrically computed at
+700 yards, and its altitude, taken with a plumb-line from the surface of
+the Table Rock, 149 feet; the American fall, narrowed by Goat Island,
+does not exceed 375 yards in curvilinear length (the whole irregular
+semicircle is nearly three quarters of a mile), its perpendicular height
+being 162 feet, or 13 feet higher than the top of the Great Fall, adding
+57 feet for the fall. The rapids thus give only a total of 219 feet,
+which is less than many other falls; but their magnificence consists in
+the volume of the water precipitated over them, which has been computed
+at 2400 millions of tons per day, 102 millions per hour! A calculation
+made at Queenston, below the Falls, is as follows: The river is here
+half a mile broad; it averages 25 feet deep; current three miles an
+hour; in one hour it will discharge a current of water three miles long,
+half a mile wide, and twenty-five feet deep, containing 1,111,400,000
+cubic feet, being 18,524,000 cubic feet, or 113,510,000 gallons of water
+each minute."--Montgomery Martin's _History of Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 130: "The total area of the four great lakes which pour forth
+their waters to the ocean over the Falls of Niagara is estimated at
+100,000 square miles."--Montgomery Martin.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Colonel Bouchette observes, that, according to the
+altitude of the sun, and the situation of the spectator, a distinct and
+bright iris is soon amid the revolving columns of mist that soar from
+the foaming chasm, and shroud the broad front of the gigantic flood.
+Both arches of the bow are seldom entirely elicited, but the interior
+segment is perfect, and its prismatic hues are extremely glowing and
+vivid. The fragments of a plurality of rainbows are sometimes to be seen
+in various parts of the misty curtain.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Symptoms of the Falls are discerned from a vast distance.
+From Buffalo, twenty miles off, two small fleecy specks are distinctly
+seen, appearing and disappearing at intervals. These are the clouds of
+spray arising from the Falls; it is even asserted that they have been
+seen from Lake Erie, a distance of fifty-four miles.--Weld, p. 374.]
+
+[Footnote 133: The sound of the Falls appears to have been heard at the
+distance of twenty or even forty miles: but these effects depend much on
+the direction of the wind, and the tranquil or disturbed state of the
+atmosphere. Mr. Weld mentions having approached the Falls within half a
+mile without hearing any sound, while the spray was but just
+discernible.--Weld, p. 374.]
+
+[Footnote 134: "The shores of Lake Erie, though flat, are elevated about
+400 feet above those of Lake Ontario. The descent takes place in the
+short interval between the two lakes traversed by the Niagara Channel.
+This descent is partly gradual, producing only a succession of rapids.
+It is at Queenston, about seven miles below the present site of the
+Falls, that a range of hills marks the descent to the Ontario level.
+Volney conceives it certain that this must have been the place down
+which the river originally fell, and that the continued and violent
+action of its waves must have gradually worn away the rocks beneath
+them, and in the course of ages carried the Fall back to its present
+position, from which it continues gradually receding. Mr. Howison
+confirms the statement, that, in the memory of persons now living in
+Upper Canada, a considerable change has been observed. The whole course
+of the river downward to Queenston is through a deep dell, bordered by
+broken and perpendicular steeps, rudely overhung by trees and shrubs,
+and the opposite strata of which correspond, affording thus the
+strongest presumption that it is a channel hewn out by the river
+itself."--H. Murray's _Historical Description of America_, vol. ii., p.
+466.
+
+"It is now considered that there is clear geological proof that the Fall
+once existed at Queenston. The 710,000 tons of water which each minute
+pour over the precipice of the Niagara, are estimated to carry away a
+foot of the cliff every year; therefore we must suppose a period of
+20,000 years occupied in the recession of the cataract to its present
+site."--Lyell's _Geology_.]
+
+[Footnote 135: "The mouth of the whirlpool is more than 1000 feet wide,
+and in length about 2000. Mr. Howison, in his sketches of Upper Canada,
+says that the current of the river has formed a circular excavation in
+the high and perpendicular banks, resembling a bay. The current, which
+is extremely rapid, whenever it reaches the upper point of this bay,
+forsakes the direct channel, and sweeps wildly round the sides of it;
+when, having made this extraordinary circuit, it regains its proper
+course, and rushes with perturbed velocity between two perpendicular
+precipices, which are not more than 400 feet asunder. The surface of the
+whirlpool is in a state of continual agitation. The water boils, mantles
+up, and wreaths in a manner that proves its fearful depth, and the
+confinement it suffers; the trees that come within the sphere of the
+current are swept along with a quivering, zigzag motion, which it is
+difficult to describe. This singular body of water must be several
+hundred feel deep, and has not hitherto been frozen over, although in
+spring the broken ice that descends from Lake Erie descends in such
+quantities upon its surface, and becomes so closely wedged together,
+that it resists the current, and remains till warm weather breaks it up.
+The whirlpool is one of the greatest natural curiosities in the Upper
+Province, and its formation can not be rationally accounted
+for."--Martin's _History of Canada_, p. 139.]
+
+[Footnote 136: "This inland sea, though the smallest of the great chain
+with which it is connected, is of such extent, that vessels in crossing
+it lose sight of land, and must steer their way by the compass; and the
+swell is often equal to that of the ocean. During the winter, the
+northeast part of Ontario, from the Bay of Quinté to Sacket's Harbor, is
+frozen across; but the wider part of the lake is frozen only to a short
+distance from the shore. Lake Erie is frozen still less; the northern
+parts of Huron and Michigan more; and Superior is said to be frozen to a
+distance of seventy miles from its coasts. The navigation of Ontario
+closes in October; ice-boats are sometimes used when the ice is _glare_
+(smooth). One, mentioned by Lieutenant de Roos, was twenty-three feet in
+length, resting on three skates of iron, one attached to each end of a
+strong cross-bar, fixed under the fore-feet, the remaining one to the
+stern, from the bottom of the rudder; the mast and sail those of a
+common boat: when brought into play on the ice, she could sail (if it
+may be so termed) with fearful rapidity, nearly twenty-three miles an
+hour. One has been known to cross from Toronto to Fort George or
+Niagara, a distance of forty miles, in little more than three quarters
+of an hour; but, in addition to her speed before the wind, she is also
+capable of beating well up to windward, requiring, however, an
+experienced hand to manage her, in consequence of her extreme
+sensibility of the rudder during her quick motion."--Martin's _History
+of Canada_.
+
+"The great earthquake that destroyed Lisbon happened on the 1st of
+November, 1755, and on Lake Ontario strong agitations of the water were
+observed from the month of October, 1755."--_Lettera Rarissima data
+nelle Indie nella Isola di Jamaica a 7 Julio del_ 1503 (Bassano, 1810,
+p. 29).
+
+"From some submarine center in the Atlantic, this earthquake spread one
+enormous convulsion over an area of 700,000 square miles, agitating, by
+a single impulse, the lakes of Scotland and Sweden, and the islands of
+the West Indian Sea. Not, however, by a simultaneous shock, for the
+element of time comes in with the distance of undulation; and, together
+with this, another complexity of action in the transmission of
+earthquake movements through the sea, arising from the different rate of
+progression at different depths. In the fact that the wave of the Lisbon
+earthquake reached Plymouth at the rate of 2.1 miles per minute, and
+Barbadoes at 7.3 miles per minute, there is illustration of the law that
+the velocity of a wave is proportional to the square root of its depth,
+and becomes a substitute for the sounding line in fixing the mean
+proportional depth of different parts of this great ocean."--Humboldt.]
+
+[Footnote 137: "There are two lakes in Lower Canada, Matapediac and
+Memphremagog. The former is about 16 miles long, and three broad in its
+greatest breadth, about 21 miles distant from the St. Lawrence River, in
+the county of Rimouski; amid the islands that separate the waters
+running into the St. Lawrence from those that run to the Bay of
+Chaleurs, it is navigable for rafts of all kinds of timber, with which
+the banks of the noble River Matapediac are thickly covered.
+Memphremagog Lake, in the county of Stanstead, stretching its south
+extremity into the State of Vermont, is of a semi-circular shape, 30
+miles long, and very narrow. It empties itself into the fine river St.
+Francis, by means of the River Magog, which runs through Lake
+Scaswaninepus. The Memphremagog Lake is said to be navigable for ships
+of 500 tons burden."--Martin's _History of Canada_, p. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 138: "It is worthy of remark, that the great lakes of Upper
+Canada are liable to the formation of the Prester or water-spout, and
+that several instances are recorded of the occurrence of that truly
+extraordinary phenomenon, the theory of which, however, is well known.
+Whether electricity be a cause or a consequence of this formidable
+meteor, appears, nevertheless, to be a question of some doubt among
+natural philosophers; Gassendi being disposed to favor the former
+opinion, while Cavallo espouses the latter."--Bouchette's _Topographical
+and Statistical Description of Upper and Lower Canada_, vol. i., p.
+346.]
+
+[Footnote 139: "The most considerable harbors on the English side are
+Toronto (York, the former name, has recently been changed to the Indian
+name of the place, Toronto) and Kingston. Toronto is situated near the
+head of Lake Ontario, on the north side of an excellent harbor or
+elliptical basin, of an area of eight or nine miles, formed by a long,
+low, sandy peninsula or island, stretching from the land east of the
+town to Gibraltar Point, abreast of a good fort. The town of Toronto, at
+that period York, was twice captured by the Americans, in April and
+August, 1813, owing to its defenseless state, and a large ship of war on
+the stocks burned. The Americans would not now find its capture such an
+easy task. Little more than forty years ago, the site whereon Toronto
+now stands, and the whole country to the north and west of it, was a
+perfect wilderness; the land is now fast clearing--thickly settled by a
+robust and industrious European-descended population, blessed with
+health and competence, and on all sides indicating the rapid progress of
+civilization. The other British town of importance on this shore is
+Kingston, formerly Cataraqui or Frontenac, distant from Toronto 184
+miles, and from Montreal 180 miles. It is, next to Quebec and Halifax,
+the strongest British post in America, and, next to Quebec and Montreal,
+the first in commercial importance. It is advantageously situated on the
+north bank of Lake Ontario, at the head of the River St. Lawrence, and
+is separated from Points Frederic and Henry by a bay, which extends a
+considerable distance to the northwest beyond the town, where it
+receives the water of a river flowing from the interior. Point Frederic
+is a long, narrow peninsula, extending about half a mile into the lake,
+distant from Kingston about three quarters of a mile on the opposite
+side of its bay. This peninsula forms the west side of a narrow and deep
+inlet called Navy Bay, from its being our chief naval dépôt on Lake
+Ontario."--Martin's _History of Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 140: "The channel of the St. Lawrence is here so spacious that
+it is called the Lake of the Thousand Islands. The vast number implied
+in this name was considered a vague exaggeration, till the commissioners
+employed in fixing the boundary with the United States actually counted
+them, and found that they amounted to 1692. They are of every imaginable
+size, shape, and appearance; some barely visible, others covering
+fifteen acres; but, in general, their broken outline presents the most
+picturesque combinations of wood and rock. The navigator, in steering
+through them, sees an ever-changing scene: sometimes he is inclosed in a
+narrow channel; then he discovers before him twelve openings, like so
+many noble rivers; and, soon after, a spacious lake seems to surround
+him on every side."--Bouchette, vol. i., p. 156; Howison's _Sketches of
+Canada_, p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 141: "The St. Lawrence traverses the whole extent of Lower
+Canada, as the lakes every where border and inclose Upper Canada. There
+is a difficulty in tracing its origin, or, at least, which of the
+tributaries of Lake Superior is to be called the St. Lawrence. The
+strongest claim seems to be made by the series of channels which connect
+all the great upper lakes, though, strictly speaking, till after the
+Ontario, there is nothing which can very properly be called a river.
+There are only a number of short canals connecting the different lakes,
+or, rather, separating one immense lake into a number of great branches.
+It seems an interesting question how this northern center of the
+continent, at the precise latitude of about 50°, should pour forth so
+immense and overwhelming a mass of waters; for through a great part of
+its extent it is quite a dead flat, though the Winnepeg, indeed, draws
+some tributaries from the Rocky Mountains. The thick forests with which
+the surface is covered, the slender evaporation which takes place during
+the long continuance of cold, and, at the same time, the thorough
+melting of the snows by the strong summer heat, seem to be the chief
+sources of this profuse and superabundant moisture."--H. Murray's
+_Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in North America_, vol.
+ii., p. 459, 1829.]
+
+[Footnote 142: "The statements laid before Parliament thus enumerate and
+describe the five rapids of the St. Lawrence, which are impassable by
+steam, and occur between Montreal and Kingston, a distance, by the St.
+Lawrence River, of 171 miles, and by the Rideau Canal, 267 miles. The
+rapids vary in rapidity, intricacy, depth and width of channel, and in
+extent, from half a mile to nine miles. The Cedar Rapid, twenty-four
+miles from La Chine, is nine miles long, very intricate, running from
+nine to twelve miles an hour, and in some places only from nine to ten
+feet water in the channel. The Coteau du Lac Rapid, six miles above the
+former, is two miles long, equally intricate in channel, and in some
+places only sixteen feet wide. Long Sault, forty-five miles above the
+preceding, is nine or ten miles long, with generally the same depth of
+water throughout. It is intersected by several islands, through whose
+channels the water rushes with great velocity, so that boats are carried
+through it, or on it, at the rate of twenty-seven miles an hour; at the
+foot of the rapid the water takes a sudden leap over a slight precipice,
+whence its name. From the Long Sault to Prescot is forty-one miles shoal
+water, running from six to eight miles an hour, and impassable by
+steamboats. Then the Rapid du Plas, half a mile long, and Rapid Galoose,
+one and half a mile long, intervene."]
+
+[Footnote 143: "According to Mr. M'Gregor (_Brit. Amer._, vol. ii., p.
+525), the Ottawa, or Grand River, is said to have its source near the
+Rocky Mountains, and to traverse in its windings a distance of 2500
+miles. The more sober statement of Bouchette attributes to the Ottawa a
+course of about 450 miles before joining the St. Lawrence."--Bouchette,
+vol. i., p. 187.
+
+"A tremendous scene is presented at the eastern part of Lake St. Louis,
+where the St. Lawrence and its grand tributary, the Ottawa, rush down at
+once and meet in dreadful conflict. The swell is then equal to that
+produced by a high gale in the British Channel, and the breakers so
+numerous, that all the skill of the boatmen is required to steer their
+way. The Canadian boatmen, however, are among the most active and hardy
+races in the world, and they have boats expressly constructed for the
+navigation of these perilous channels. The largest of these, called, it
+is not known why, the Durham boat, is used both here and in the rapids
+of the Mohawk. It is long, shallow, and nearly flat-bottomed. The chief
+instrument of steerage is a pole ten feet long, shod with iron, and
+crossed at short intervals with small bars of wood like the feet of a
+ladder. The men place themselves at the bow, two on each side, thrust
+their poles into the channel, and grasping successively the wooden bars,
+work their way toward the stern, thus pushing on the vessel in that
+direction. At other times, by the brisk and vigorous use of the oar,
+they catch and dash through the most favorable lines of current. In this
+exhausting struggle, however, it is needful to have frequent pauses for
+rest, and in the most difficult passages there are certain positions
+fixed for this purpose, which the Canadians call _pipes_."--H. Murray's
+_Hist. Descr. of America_, vol. ii., p. 473.]
+
+[Footnote 144: "From the sea to Montreal, this superb river is called
+the St. Lawrence; from thence to Kingston, in Upper Canada, the
+Cataraqui or Iroquois; between Lakes Ontario and Erie, the Niagara;
+between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, the Detroit; between Lakes St. Clair
+and Huron, the St. Clair; and between Lakes Huron and Superior, the
+distance is called the Narrows, or Falls of St. Mary. The St. Lawrence
+discharges to the ocean annually about 4,277,880 millions of tons of
+fresh water, of which 2,112,120 millions of tons may be reckoned melted
+snow; the quantity discharged before the thaw comes on, being 4512
+millions of tons per day for 240 days, and the quantity after the thaw
+begins, being 25,560 millions per day for 125 days, the depths and
+velocity when in and out of flood being duly considered: hence a ton of
+water being nearly equal to 55 cubic yards of pure snow, the St.
+Lawrence frees a country of more than 2000 miles square, covered to the
+depth of three feet. The embouchure of this first-class stream is that
+part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence where the island of Anticosti divides
+the mouth of the river into two branches. According to Mr. M'Taggart, a
+shrewd and humorous writer, the solid contents in cubic feet of the St.
+Lawrence, embracing Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario,
+is estimated at 1,547,792,360,000 cubic feet, and the superficial area
+being 72,930 square miles, the water therein would form a cubic column
+of nearly 22 miles on each side!"--Montgomery Martin's _History of
+Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 145: "Kinnel Lodge, the residence of the celebrated Highland
+chieftain M'Nab, is romantically situated on the south bank of the lake,
+about five miles above the head of the Chats Rapids, which are three
+miles long, and pass amid a labyrinth of varied islands, until the
+waters of the Ottawa are suddenly precipitated over the Falls of the
+Chats, which, to the number of fifteen or sixteen, form a curved line
+across the river, regularly divided by woody islands, the falls being in
+depth from sixteen to twenty feet."--M. Martin's _History of Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 146: See Appendix, No. XIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 147: "At Quebec, the River St. Lawrence narrows to 1314 yards;
+yet the navigation is completely unobstructed, while there is formed
+near the city a capacious harbor. About twenty-one miles lower, its
+waters, beginning to mingle with those of the sea, acquire a saline
+taste, which increases till, at Kamauraska, seventy-five miles nearer
+its mouth, they become completely salt. Yet custom, with somewhat
+doubtful propriety, considers the river as continued down to the island
+of Anticosti, and bounded by Cape Rosier on the southern, and Mingau
+settlement on the northern shore."--Bouchette's _Top. and Stat. Descr.
+of Canada_, vol. i., p. 164-169.]
+
+[Footnote 148: See Appendix, No. XX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 149: "The Falls of the Rideau are about fifty feet in height
+and 300 in breadth, being, at the time we saw them, more magnificent
+than usual, by reason of the high state of the waters. It is from their
+resemblance to a curtain that they are distinguished by the name of
+Rideau, and they also give this name to the river that feeds them, which
+again lends the same appellation to the canal that connects the Ottawa
+with Lake Ontario."--Simpson, vol. i., p. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Modern alluvial accumulations are rapidly increasing on
+some points of this coast, owing to the enormous mass of fresh water,
+charged with earthy matter, that here mingles with the sea. The surface
+of the water at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, where the depth is 100
+fathoms, is stated by Bayfield to be turbid from this cause: yet that
+this discoloration is superficial is evident, for in the wake of a ship
+moving through the turbid surface, the clear blue waters of the sea are
+seen below.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+
+Upon the surface of Canada are found manifest indications of that
+tremendous deluge, the effects of which are so plainly visible in the
+Old World. Huge bowlder stones[151] abound in almost every part of the
+province; sometimes they are seen rounded, piled in high heaps on
+extensive horizontal beds of limestone, swept together by the force of
+some vast flood. Masses of various kinds of shells lie in great
+quantities in hollows and valleys, some of them hundreds of feet above
+the level of Lake Ontario. Near to great rivers, and often where now no
+waters are at hand, undulations of rocks are seen like those found in
+the beds of rapids where the channels are waved. These have evidently,
+at some remote period, been the courses of floods now no longer
+existing. On the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence detached bowlder
+stones appear, some of enormous size, many tons in weight; they must
+have come from a great distance, for nowhere in that region is there any
+rock of similar material. In the upper strata of the country are
+abundant fossil remains of distinct animal existences now unknown; they
+are blended with the limestone in which they lie.
+
+It seems certain that the whole of Canada has been violently convulsed
+by some effort of nature since the floods of the deluge passed away; the
+mountains are abrupt and irregular in outline, and in some places cleft
+with immense chasms; the rivers also show singular contortions. North of
+Quebec and in St. Paul's Bay are many traces of volcanic eruptions, and
+vast masses of alluvial rocks, bearing marks of vitrification,
+frequently appear on the surface of the earth. There is, besides, strong
+evidence that the American Continent has lain for unknown ages beneath
+the great deep, or that it is of later formation than Europe or Asia.
+
+As far as it has been explored, the general geological structure of
+Canada exhibits a granite country, with some calcareous rocks of a soft
+texture in horizontal strata. The lower islands in the St. Lawrence are
+merely inequalities of the vast granite strata which occasionally stand
+above the level of the waters; the whole neighboring country appears as
+if the Great River had at one time covered it. The banks of the St.
+Lawrence are in many places formed of a schistus substance in a decaying
+state, but still granite is every where found in strata, inclined, but
+never parallel to the horizon. In the Gaspé District, many beautiful
+quartz, and a great variety of cornelians, agates, copals, and jaspers
+have been found, and traces of coal have also been observed.[152]
+
+The north shore of the St. Lawrence, from thirty miles below Quebec
+eastward, and along the coast of Labrador, is generally of the primitive
+formations. Except in the marshes and swamps, rocks obtrude upon the
+surface in all quarters; in many places, deep fissures of from six
+inches to two feet wide are seen bearing witness to volcanic violence;
+the Indians describe some of these rents as several miles long, and
+forty or fifty deep; when covered with the thick underwood, they are, at
+times, very dangerous to the traveler. These chasms are probably owing
+to some great subterranean action; there is a manuscript in the Jesuits'
+College at Quebec which records the occurrence of an earthquake on the
+5th of February, 1663, at about half past 5 P.M., felt through the whole
+extent of Canada: trees in the forests were torn up and dashed against
+each other with inconceivable violence; mountains were raised from their
+foundations and thrown into valleys, leaving awful chasms behind; from
+the openings issued dense clouds of smoke, dust, and sand; many rivers
+disappeared, others were diverted from their course, and the great St.
+Lawrence became suddenly white as far down as the mouth of the Saguenay.
+The first shock lasted for more than half an hour, but the greatest
+violence was only for fifteen minutes. At Tadoussac, a shower of
+volcanic ashes descended upon the rivers, agitating the waters like a
+tempest. This tremendous earthquake extended simultaneously over
+180,000 square miles of country, and lasted for nearly six months almost
+without intermission.[153]
+
+In the neighborhood of Quebec, a dark clay slate generally appears, and
+forms the bed of the St. Lawrence as far as Lake Ontario, and even at
+Niagara; bowlders and other large masses of rock, however, of various
+kinds, occur in detached portions at many different places. The great
+elevated ridge of broken country running toward the Ottawa River, at the
+distance of from fifty to one hundred miles from the north shore of Lake
+Ontario, and the course of the St. Lawrence, is rich in silver, lead,
+copper, and iron. On the north shore of the Saguenay, the rugged
+mountains abound in iron to such an extent as to influence the mariner's
+compass. The iron mines of St. Maurice[154] have been long known, and
+found abundantly productive of an admirable metal, inferior to none in
+the world; it is remarkably pliant and malleable, and little subject to
+oxydation. In 1667, Colbert sent M. de la Potardière, an experienced
+mineralogist, to examine these mines; he reported the iron very
+abundant, and of excellent quality, but it was not till 1737 that the
+forges were established by the French: they failed to pay the expenses
+of the speculation; the superintendent and fourteen clerks, however,
+gained fortunes by the losses of their employers.
+
+There is no doubt that immense mineral resources remain undiscovered
+among the rocky solitudes of Lower Canada. Marble of excellent quality,
+and endless variety of color, is found in different parts of the
+country, and limestone is almost universal. Labrador produces a
+beautiful and well-known spar of rich and brilliant tints, ultra-marine,
+greenish yellow, red, and some of a fine pearly gray.
+
+In Upper Canada, the country north of Lake Ontario is generally
+characterized by a limestone subsoil resting on granite. The rocks about
+Kingston are usually a very compact limestone, of a bluish-gray color,
+having a slight silicious admixture, increasing as the depth increases,
+with occasional intrusions of quartz or hornstone. The limestone strata
+are horizontal, with the greatest dip when nearest to the elder rock on
+which it rests; their thickness, like the depths of the soil, varies
+from a few feet to a few inches: in these formations many minerals are
+observed; genuine granite is seldom or never found.
+
+West of Lake Ontario, the chasm at the Falls of Niagara shows the strata
+of the country to be limestone, next slate, and lowest sandstone.
+Limestone and sandstone compose the secondary formations of a large
+portion of Canada, and of nearly all that vast extent of country in the
+United States drained by the Mississippi. At Niagara the interposing
+structure of slate is nearly forty feet thick, and fragile, like shale
+crumbling away from under the limestone, thus strengthening the opinion
+that there has been for many ages a continual retrocession of the Great
+Falls. Around Lake St. Clair, masses of granite, mica slate, and quartz
+are found in abundance. The level shores of Lake Huron offer little
+geological variety; secondary limestone, filled with the usual reliquiæ,
+is the general structure of the coast, but detached blocks of granite
+and other primitive rocks are occasionally found: this district appears
+poor in minerals. The waters of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior have
+evidently, at some remote period, formed one vast sheet, which probably
+burst its bounds by a sudden action of nature, and subsided into the
+present divisions, all lower than the former general level: the
+separating ridges of these waters are but slightly elevated; great
+masses of rock and huge bowlders of granite are found rolled at least
+100 miles from their original situations, and immense alluvial beds of
+fresh-water shells, apparently formed since the deluge, but when the
+waters were still of a vast depth and extent, are found in the east of
+Lake Huron.
+
+Little or nothing is known of the dreary solitudes beyond Lake Superior;
+enormous muddy ponds and marshes are succeeded by open, dry, sandy
+plains; then forests of hemlock and spruce arise, again swamp, bog,
+windfalls, and stagnant water succeed; in the course of many miles there
+may not be one dry spot found for a resting-place. The cold is intense
+in this desolate region; in winter spirits freeze into a consistency
+like honey; and even in the height of summer the thermometer only shows
+thirty-six degrees at sunrise. Part of the north and east shore of this
+greatest of the lakes present old formations--sienite, stratified
+greenstone, more or less chloritic, and alternating five times with vast
+beds of granite--the general direction east, with a north or
+perpendicular dip. Great quantities of the older shell limestone are
+found strewn in rolled masses on the beach. Amygdaloid occupies also a
+very large tract to the north, mingled with porphyries, conglomerates,
+and various other substances. From Thunder Mountain westward, trappose
+greenstone is the prevailing rock: it gives rise to some strange
+pilastered precipices near Fort William. Copper[155] abounds in this
+region to an extent, perhaps, unsurpassed any where in the world. At the
+Coppermine River, three hundred miles from the Sault de St. Marie, this
+metal, in a pure state, nearly covers the face of a serpentine rock, and
+is also found within the stone in solid masses. Iron is abundant in many
+parts of Upper Canada; at Charlotteville, eight miles from Lake Erie,
+the metal produced is of a very fine quality. The Marmora Iron Works,
+about thirty-two miles north of the Bay of Quinté, on the River Trent,
+are situated on an extensive white rocky flat, apparently the bed of
+some dried-up river; the ore is found on the surface, and is very rich,
+yielding ninety-two per cent.: the necessary assistants, lime and fuel,
+abound close at hand. Various other minerals have also been found there;
+among the rest, small specimens of a metal like silver.
+
+There are many strong mineral springs in different parts of Canada; the
+most remarkable of these is the Burning Spring above Niagara; its waters
+are black, hot and bubbling, and emit, during the summer, a gas that
+burns with a pure bright flame; this sulphureted hydrogen is used to
+light a neighboring mill. Salt springs are also numerous; gypsum is
+obtained in large quantities, with pipe and potter's clay; yellow ocher
+sometimes occurs; and there are many kinds of valuable building stones.
+It is gathered from the Indians that there are incipient volcanoes in
+several parts of these regions, particularly toward the Chippewa hunting
+grounds.
+
+The soil of Lower Canada is generally fertile; about Quebec it is light
+and sandy in some parts, in others it is a mixture of loam and clay.
+Above the Richelieu Rapids, where the great valley of the St. Lawrence
+begins to widen, the low lands consist of a light and loose dark earth,
+with ten or twelve inches of depth, lying on a stratum of cold clay, all
+apparently of alluvial formation. Along the banks of the Ottawa there is
+a great extent of rich alluvial soil; each year develops large districts
+of fertile land, before unknown. The soils of Upper Canada are various;
+brown clay and loam, intermixed with marl, predominates, particularly in
+the rich district between the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa: north of
+Ontario it is more clayey and extremely fertile. A rich black mold
+prevails in the district between Lakes Ontario and Erie. There is in
+this upper country an almost total absence of stone or gravel for
+building and other common purposes. So great is the fertility of the
+soil in Canada, that fifty bushels of wheat an acre are frequently
+produced, even where the stumps of trees still occupy a considerable
+portion of the ground: near Toronto one hundred bushels of wheat have
+been grown upon a single acre, and in some districts the land has
+yielded rich crops of that grain for twenty successive years, without
+being manured.
+
+The quality of the soil in wild lands may be known by the timber growing
+upon it. Hard-wood trees, those that shed their leaves during winter,
+show the best indication, such as maple, bass-wood, elm, black walnut,
+hickory, butternut, iron-wood, hemlock, and a giant species of nettle.
+A mixture of beech is good, but where it stands alone the soil is
+generally light. Oak is uncertain as an indication, being found on
+various bottoms. Soft or evergreen wood, such as pine, fir, larch, and
+others of the species, are considered decisive of a very light soil. The
+larch or tamarack on wide, flat plains, indicates sand upon a substratum
+of marly clay, which the French Canadians hold in high estimation. It
+is, however, right to add, that some very respectable authorities
+dispute that the nature of the timber can be fully relied on as a guide
+to the value of the land. The variety of trees found in the Canadian
+forest is astonishing, and it is supposed that many kinds still remain
+unknown. Of all these, none is more beautiful and useful than the maple;
+its brilliant foliage, changing with each season of the year, is the
+richest ornament of the forest. The timber is valuable for many
+purposes, and from the sap might be produced an immense quantity of
+excellent sugar. A great deal is at present made, but, like all the
+other resources of this magnificent country, it is very partially turned
+to the use of man: the sap of the maple is valuable also for
+distillation.
+
+There is a considerable variety of climate in Canada, from the
+northeast, chilled by the winds of the Atlantic,[156] to the southwest,
+five degrees lower, and approaching the center of the continent; the
+neighborhood of ranges of bare and rugged mountains,[157] has also a
+marked effect upon the temperature of different localities. However, in
+all parts the winters are very severe, while the heat of summer is
+little inferior to that of the tropics. But, on the whole, the clear
+blue sky, unobscured by fog or mist, and the pure elastic air, bespeak
+the salubrity of these provinces in all seasons.
+
+In Lower Canada the extreme severity of the winter is, in a measure,
+caused by the vicinity of the range of lofty and rugged mountains, as
+well as by its more northern position. The fall of snow commences in
+November, but seldom remains long on the ground till December; in that
+month constantly successive falls of snow rapidly cover the whole
+surface of the country. Toward the end of December the heavy clouds
+disperse, and the rude storm is followed by a perfect calm; the air
+becomes pure and frosty, and the skies of a clear and beautiful azure.
+The River St. Lawrence[158] is frozen over every winter from Montreal to
+the Richelieu Rapids, but from thence to Quebec only once in about five
+years; at other times, however, enormous fields and masses of ice drift
+up and down with the changing tides, increasing or diminishing with the
+severity or mildness of the weather; where the Island of Orleans divides
+the Great River into two branches, the northern channel is narrow and
+less acted upon by tides; here these huge frozen masses are forced
+together by the winds and waters, and form an enormous bridge from shore
+to shore. The greatest degree of cold prevails toward the end of
+January, for a few days occasionally so intense that the human frame can
+scarcely endure exposure to it for any length of time. When winter has
+set in nearly every bird disappears, and few wild animals are any longer
+to be seen; some, like the bear, remain torpid, others change their
+color to a snowy white, and are rarely observed. Rocks of the softer
+kinds are often rent asunder, as if with the explosion of gunpowder, by
+the irresistible expansive power of the frost.[159] Dogs become mad
+from the severity of the cold, and polished iron or other metal, when
+exposed in the air for a little time, _burns_ the hand at the touch as
+if it were red hot.[160] During the still nights of intense frost the
+woods send forth a creaking sound, like the noise of chopping with
+thousands of hatchets. Sometimes a brief thaw occurs in the middle of
+winter, when a very extraordinary effect, called by the Canadians _ver
+glas_, is occasionally produced upon the bare trees: they are covered
+with an incrustation of pure ice from the stem to the extremities of the
+smallest branches; the slight frost of the night freezes the moisture
+that covered the bark during the day; the branches become at last unable
+to bear their icy burden, and when a strong wind arises, the destruction
+among trees of all kinds is immense. When the sun shines upon the forest
+covered with this brilliant incrustation, the effect is indescribably
+beautiful.
+
+The months of March and April are usually very hot, and the power of the
+sun's rays is heightened by the reflection of the ice and snows. Toward
+the end of April or the beginning of May, the dreary winter covering has
+altogether disappeared; birds of various kinds return from their wintery
+exile; the ice accumulated in the great lakes and streams that are
+tributary to the St. Lawrence breaks up with a tremendous noise, and
+rushes down in vast quantities toward the ocean, till again the tides of
+the Gulf drive them back. Sometimes the Great River is blocked up from
+shore to shore with these frozen masses; the contending currents force
+them together with terrible violence, and pile them over each other in
+various fantastic forms. The navigation of the river is not fairly
+practicable till all these have disappeared, which is generally about
+the 10th of May.
+
+When the young summer fairly sets in, nothing can be more charming than
+the climate--during the day bright and genial, with the air still pure
+and clear; the transition from bare brown fields and woods to verdure
+and rich green foliage is so rapid, that its progress is almost
+perceptible. Spring has scarcely begun before summer usurps its place,
+and the earth, awakened from nature's long, wintery sleep, gives forth
+her increase with astonishing bounty. This delightful season is usually
+ushered in by moderate rains, and a considerable rise in the meridian
+heat; but the nights are still cool and refreshing. In June, July, and
+August, the heat becomes great, and for some days intense; the roads and
+rocks at noon are so hot as to be painful to the touch, and the direct
+rays of the sun possess almost tropical power; but the night brings
+reinvigorating coolness, and the breezes of the morning are fresh and
+tempered as in our own favored land. September is usually a delightful
+month, although at times oppressively sultry. The autumn or fall rivals
+the spring in healthy and moderate warmth, and is the most agreeable of
+the seasons. The night-frosts destroy the innumerable venomous flies
+that have infested the air through the hot season, and, by their action
+on the various foliage of the forest, bestow an inconceivable richness
+of coloring to the landscape.
+
+During the summer there is a great quantity of electric fluid in the
+atmosphere, but storms of thunder and lightning are not of very frequent
+occurrence. When they do take place, their violence is sometimes
+tremendous, and serious damage often occurs. These outbursts, however,
+usually produce a favorable effect upon the weather and temperature.
+
+The most remarkable meteoric phenomenon that has occurred in Canada
+since the country became inhabited by civilized man, was first seen in
+October, 1785, and again in July, 1814. At noonday a pitchy darkness, of
+a dismal and sinister character, completely obscured the light of the
+sun, continuing for about ten minutes at a time, and being frequently
+repeated during the afternoon. In the interval between each mysterious
+eclipse dense masses of black clouds, streaked with yellow, drove
+athwart the darkened sky, with fitful gusts of wind; thunder,
+lightning, black rain, and showers of ashes added to the terrors of the
+scene; and, when the sun appeared, its color was a bright red. The
+Indians ascribe this wonderful phenomenon to a vast volcano in the
+unknown regions of Labrador. The testimony of M. Gagnon gives
+corroboration to this idea. In December, 1791, when at St. Paul's Bay,
+in the Saguenay country, he saw the flames of an immense volcano,
+mingled with black smoke, rising to a great height in the air. Several
+violent shocks, as of an earthquake, accompanied this strange
+appearance.
+
+The prevailing winds of Lower Canada are the northeast, northwest, and
+southwest, and these exercise considerable influence on the temperature
+of the atmosphere and the state of the weather. The southwest wind, the
+most prevalent, is generally moderate, accompanied by clear, bright
+skies; the northeast and east wind bring rain in summer, and snow in
+winter, from the dreary regions of Labrador; and the northwest blast is
+keen and dry, from its passage over the vast frozen solitudes that lie
+between the Rocky Mountains[161] and Hudson's Bay. Winds from the north,
+south, or west are seldom felt: the currents of the neighboring air are
+often affected by the direction of the tidal streams, which act as far
+as 400 miles from the mouth of the Great River.
+
+The effect of a long continuance of snow upon the earth is favorable to
+vegetation; were the surface exposed to the intense severity of wintery
+frosts, unprotected by this ample covering, the ground could not regain
+a proper degree of heat, even under a Canadian sun, before the autumn
+frosts had again chilled the energies of nature. The natural heat of the
+earth is about 42°; the surface waters freeze at 32°, and thus present a
+non-conducting incrustation to the keen atmosphere; then the snow
+becomes a warm garment till the April sun softens the air above; the
+latent heat of the earth begins to be developed; the snow melts, and
+penetrates the ground through every pore, rendering friable the stiffest
+soil. For a month or more before the visible termination of the
+Canadian winter, vegetation is in active progress on the surface of the
+earth, even under snow several feet thick.
+
+In Upper Canada the climate does not present such extremes of heat and
+cold as in the Lower Province. In the Newcastle District, between
+latitude 44° and 45°, the winter is little more severe than in England,
+and the warmth of summer is tempered by a cool and refreshing southwest
+breeze, which blows throughout the day from over the waters of the great
+lakes. In spring and autumn the southwest wind brings with it frequent
+rains; the northwest wind prevails in winter, and is dry, cold, and
+elastic; the south-eastern breezes are generally accompanied by thaw and
+rain: from the west, south, or north, the wind rarely blows. The most
+sudden changes of weather consequent upon varying winds are observed
+from the northwest, when the air becomes pure and cool; thunder storms
+generally clear away with this wind: the heaviest falls of snow, and the
+most continued rains, come with the eastern breezes.
+
+The great lakes are never frozen in their centers, but a strong border
+of thick ice extends for some distance from the shore: in severe
+weather, a beautiful evaporation in various fantastic shapes ascends
+from the vast surfaces of these inland seas, forming cloudy columns and
+pyramids to a great height in the air: this is caused by the water being
+of a higher temperature than the atmosphere above. The chain of shallow
+lakes from Lake Simco toward the midland district are rarely frozen over
+more than an inch in thickness till about Christmas, and are free from
+ice again by the end of March. The earth in Upper Canada is seldom froze
+more than twelve or eighteen inches deep, and the general covering of
+the snow is about a foot and a half in thickness.
+
+In Canada the Indian summer is perhaps the most delightful period of the
+year. During most of November the weather is mild and serene; a soft,
+dry haze pervades the air, thickening toward the horizon; in the
+evenings the sun sets in a rich crimson flush, and the temperature is
+mild and genial: the birds avail themselves of the Indian summer for
+their migration. A phenomenon called the "tertian intervals" has excited
+much interest, and is still unexplained: at the end of the third day
+the greatest intensity of frost is always remittent, and succeeded by
+several days of mild weather. The climate is so dry that metals rarely
+are rusted by exposure to the air. This absence of humidity prevents the
+extremes of heat and cold from being so powerful here in their effect
+upon the sensations of the human frame as in other countries.
+
+The Aurora Borealis, or northern lights,[162] appear with great
+brilliancy in the clear Canadian sky, especially during the winter
+nights. Starting from behind the distant horizon, they race up through
+the vault of heaven, spreading over all space one moment, shrinking to a
+quivering streak the next, shooting out again where least expected, then
+vanishing into darkness deeper than before; now they seem like vast
+floating banners of variegated flame, then as crescents, again as
+majestic columns of light, ever changing in form and color. It is said
+that a rustling sound like that of silk accompanies this beautiful
+appearance.
+
+The climate of Canada has undergone a slight change since the discovery
+of the country; especially from the year 1818, an amelioration has been
+perceptible, partly owing to the motion of the magnetic poles, and
+partly to the gradual cultivation and clearing of the country. The
+winters are somewhat shorter and milder, and less snow falls than of
+old; the summers are also hotter.[163] The felling of the forests, the
+draining of the morasses, partial though it may still be, together with
+the increasing population, have naturally some effect. The thick
+foliage, which before interposed its shade between the sun and the
+earth, intercepting the genial warmth from the lower atmosphere, has now
+been removed in many extensive tracts of country: the cultivated soil
+imbibes the heat, and returns it to the surrounding air in warm and
+humid vapors. The exhalations arising from a much increased amount of
+animal life, together with the burning of so many combustibles, are not
+altogether without their influence in softening the severity of the
+climate.[164]
+
+Canada abounds in an immense and beautiful variety of trees[165] and
+shrubs. Among the timber trees, the oak, pine, fir, elm, ash, birch,
+walnut, beech, maple, chestnut, cedar, and aspen, are the principal. Of
+fruit-trees and shrubs there are walnut, chestnut, apple, pear, cherry,
+plum, elder, vines,[166] hazel, hickory, sumach, juniper, hornbeam,
+thorn, laurel, whortleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, raspberry,
+blackberry, blueberry, sloe, and others; strawberries of an excellent
+flavor are luxuriantly scattered over every part of the country.
+Innumerable varieties of useful and beautiful herbs and grasses enrich
+the forests, whose virtues and peculiarities are as yet but little known
+to Europeans.[167] In many places, pine-trees grow to the height of 120
+feet and upward, and are from nine to ten feet in circumference.[170]
+Of this and of the fir species there are many varieties, some of them
+valuable from their production of pitch, tar, and turpentine. The
+American oak[171] is quicker in its growth and less durable than that of
+England; one species, however, called the live oak, grown in the warmer
+parts of the continent, is said to be equal, if not superior, to any in
+Europe for ship-building. The white oak is the best found in the
+Canadian settlements, and is in high repute. Another description is
+called the scrubby oak--it resembles the British gnarled oak, and is
+remarkably hard and durable. The birch[173] tribe is very numerous: the
+bark is much used by the Indians in making canoes,[174] baskets, and
+roofings; the wood is of a useful quality, and the sap, when extracted
+in the spring, produces by fermentation a pleasant but weak wine. The
+maple[175] is one of the most variable and beautiful of all the forest
+trees, and is adopted as the emblem of Canadian nationality.
+
+Two plants, formerly of great importance in these counties, are now
+almost extirpated, or little noticed as articles of commerce--ginseng[176]
+and capillaire. The first was found in great abundance by the French in
+their earlier settlement of the colony, and large quantities were exported
+to Europe, from whence it was forwarded to China. The high value it then
+possessed in that distant market induced the Canadians to collect the roots
+prematurely; and the Indians also gathered them wherever they could be
+found; consequently, this useful production was soon exhausted, and is now
+rarely seen. The capillaire[177] is now either become rare or neglected
+for other objects; a small quantity is, however, still exported. In the
+woods there is a vast variety of wild plants and flowers, many of them very
+beautiful. The sweet garlic especially deserves notice: two large
+pale-green leaves arise from the root; between them stands the delicate
+stem, about a foot in height, bearing a cluster of graceful flowers,
+resembling blue-bells in shape and color. The wild turnip is also very
+beautiful. There are, besides, many valuable herbs and roots, which the
+Indians use for various purposes. The reindeer moss[178] often serves
+for support and refreshment to the exhausted hunter; when boiled down
+into a liquid, it is very nourishing; and an herb called Indian tea
+produces a pleasant and wholesome draught, with a rich aromatic flavor.
+Wild oats and rice[179] are found in some of the marshy lands. The soil
+and climate are also favorable to the production of hops and a mild
+tobacco, much esteemed for the manufacture of snuff. Hemp[180] and flax
+are both indigenous in America. Father Hennepin, in the seventeenth
+century, found the former growing wild in the country of the Illinois;
+and Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in his travels to the western coast, met
+with flax in the interior, where no European was ever known to have been
+before. The Indian hemp[181] is seen in abundance upon the Canadian
+soil, particularly in light and sandy places; the bark is so strong that
+the natives use it for bow-strings; the pod bears a substance that
+rivals down in softness and elasticity; the culture is easy; the root,
+penetrating deep into the earth, survives the frosts of winter, and
+shoots out fresh stalks every spring. When five or six years old it
+attains the greatest perfection. It may be added that in these favored
+provinces all European plants, fruits, vegetables, grain,[182] legumes,
+and every other production of the earth required for the subsistence or
+luxury of man, yield their increase even more abundantly than in the old
+continents.
+
+The animals originally belonging to America appear to be of an inferior
+race--neither so robust, fierce, or numerous as those of the other
+continents: some are peculiar to the New World; but there is reason to
+suppose that several species have become utterly extinct, and the spread
+of cultivation, and increase of the human race rapidly extirpate many of
+those that still remain. America gives birth to no creature of equal
+bulk to the elephant and rhinoceros, or of equal strength and ferocity
+to the lion and tiger. The particular qualities in the climate, stinting
+the growth and enfeebling the spirit of the native animals, have also
+proved injurious to such as have been transported to the Canadas by
+their present European inhabitants. The soil, as well as temperature, of
+the country seems to be rather unfavorable to the development of
+strength and perfection in the animal creation.[183] The general quality
+of the natural grasses covering those boundless pastures is not good or
+sufficiently nutritious.[184]
+
+The native animals of Canada are the buffalo, bison, and musk bull,
+belonging to the ox kind. The buffalo is still found in herds of
+immense numbers upon the prairies of the remote western country, where
+they have wandered from the hated neighborhood of civilized man: the
+skin[185] is invaluable to the Canadians as a protection from the keen
+wintery air, and is abundantly supplied to them by the hunters of the
+Hudson's Bay Company.[186] This animal is about the size of an ox, with
+the head disproportionably large; he is of a lighter color, less
+ferocious aspect, and inferior strength to those of the Old World. Both
+the bison and musk ox are varieties of the domestic cow, with a covering
+of shaggy hair; they possess considerable strength and activity. There
+are different descriptions of deer: the black and gray moose or elk, the
+caribou or reindeer,[187] the stag[188] and fallow deer.[189] The moose
+deer[190] is the largest wild animal of the continent; it is often seen
+upward of ten feet high, and weighing twelve hundred weight; though
+savage in aspect, the creature is generally timid and inoffensive even
+when attacked by the hunter, and, like the sheep, may be easily
+domesticated: the flesh and skin are both of some value.
+
+The black and brown bear[191] is found in various parts of America, but
+chiefly in the northwest: some few are seen in the forests to the north
+of Quebec. This animal chooses for his lurking-place the hollow trunk of
+an old tree, which he prepares with sticks and branches, and a coating
+of warm moss; on the approach of the cold season he retires to his lair,
+and sleeps through the long winter till the return of spring enables him
+again to seek his prey. The bear is rather shy than fierce, but very
+powerful and dangerous when driven to extremities; he displays a strong
+degree of instinct, and is very dexterous and cunning in procuring food:
+the flesh is considered a delicacy, and the skin highly prized for
+beauty and warmth. Foxes[192] are numerous; they are of various colors
+and very cunning. Hares[193] are abundant, and turn white in winter like
+those of Norway. The wolverine or carcajou is called by the hunters
+beaver-eater, and somewhat resembles a badger; the skin is soft and
+handsome. A species of porcupine or urchin is found to the northward,
+and supplies the Indians with quills about four inches long, which, when
+dyed, are worked into showy ornaments. Squirrels[194] and various other
+small quadrupeds with fine furs are abundant in the forests. The animals
+of the cat kind are the cougar or American lion, the loup-cervier, the
+catamount, and the manguay or lynx.
+
+Beavers[195] are numerous in North America; these amphibious animals are
+about two feet nine inches in length, with very short fore feet and
+divided toes, while the hinder are membranous, and adapted for swimming;
+the body is covered with a soft, glossy, and valuable fur; the tail is
+oval, scaly, destitute of hair, and about a foot long. These industrious
+creatures dam up considerable streams, and construct dwellings of many
+compartments, to protect them from the rigor of the climate, as well as
+from their numerous enemies; their winter food, consisting of poplar
+logs, pieces of willows, alder, and fragments of other trees, is
+collected in autumn, and sunk in the water near the habitation. The
+beaver exhibits an extraordinary degree of instinct, and may be easily
+tamed; when caught or surprised by the approach of an enemy, it gives
+warning to its companions by striking the water with the flat of its
+tail. The musk rat and otter resemble the beaver in some of their
+habits, but are inferior in ingenuity, and of less value to the hunter.
+
+The walrus has now disappeared from the frequented waters of the Gulf of
+St. Lawrence, but is still found on the northern coasts of Labrador; in
+shape he somewhat resembles the seal, but is of much greater size,
+sometimes weighing 4000 pounds; when protecting their young, or when
+wounded, they are dangerous from their immense tusks; when out of the
+water, however, they are very helpless.
+
+Nearly all these wild animals are pursued by the Indians, and the
+hunters of the Hudson's Bay Company,[196] for their skins; they are
+consequently growing rarer, and their haunts become more remote each
+succeeding year: probably, at no distant time, they will be altogether
+extinct.
+
+The birds of Canada differ little from those of the same names in
+Europe, but the severe climate is generally uncongenial to them. There
+are eagles, vultures, hawks, falcons, kites, owls, ravens, crows, rooks,
+jays, magpies, daws, cuckoos, woodpeckers, hoopers, creepers,
+humming-birds, thrushes, blackbirds, linnets, finches, sparrows,
+fly-catchers, pigeons, turkeys, ducks, geese, swans, grouse, ptarmigans,
+snipes, quails, and many others. The plumage of the American birds is
+very brilliant; but the sweet voices that fill the European woods with
+melody are never heard. Many of the birds of Lower Canada are migratory;
+the water-fowl seek the cooler north during the heat of summer, and
+other species fly to the south to shun the wintery frosts. In the milder
+latitudes of Upper Canada, birds are more numerous. They are known by
+the same names as those of corresponding species in England, but differ
+from them to some extent in plumage and character.
+
+In Lower Canada the reptiles are few and innocuous, and even these are
+not met with in the cultivated parts of the country. In the Upper
+Province, however, they are more numerous; some species are very
+dangerous, others harmless and exquisitely beautiful. Two kinds of
+rattlesnakes[197] are found here: one of a deep brown and yellow color,
+and seldom more than thirty inches in length; it frequents marshes and
+low meadows, and is very dangerous to cattle, often fastening its fangs
+upon their lips while grazing. The other is a bright greenish yellow
+clouded with brown, and twice the size of the former. These reptiles are
+thicker in proportion to their length than any others; the rattle is at
+the end of the tail, and consists of a number of dry, horny shells
+inclosed within each other. When wounded or enraged, the skin of the
+rattlesnake assumes a variety of beautiful colors; the flesh is white as
+that of the most delicate fish, and is esteemed a great luxury by the
+Indians. Cold weather weakens or destroys their poisonous qualities. In
+the spring, when they issue from their place of winter concealment, they
+are harmless till they have got to water, and at that time emit a
+sickening smell so as to injure those who hunt them. In some of the
+remoter districts they are still numerous, but in the long-settled parts
+of the country they are now rarely or never seen.
+
+Several varieties of lizards and frogs abound; the latter make an
+astonishing noise in marshy places during the summer evening by their
+harsh croaking. The land crab is found on the northern shore of Lake
+Erie. A small tortoise, called a terrapin,[198] is taken in some rivers,
+creeks, and swampy grounds, and is used as an article of food. Seals
+have been occasionally seen on the islands in Lake Ontario.
+
+Insects[199] are very numerous and various, some of them both
+troublesome and mischievous: locusts or grasshoppers have been known to
+cause great destruction to the vegetable world. Musquitoes and
+sand-flies infest the woods, and the neighborhood of water, in
+incredible numbers, during the hot weather. There are many moths and
+butterflies resembling those seen in England. The beautiful fire-fly is
+very common in Canada, their phosphorescent light shining with wonderful
+brightness through the shady forests in the summer nights.
+
+The lakes and rivers of Upper Canada abound in splendid fish of almost
+every variety known in England, and others peculiar to the country:
+sturgeon of 100 lbs. weight are frequently taken, and a giant species of
+pike, called the maskenongi, of more than 60 lbs. The trout of the upper
+lakes almost rivals the sturgeon in size, but not in flavor. The
+delicious white-fish, somewhat resembling a shad, is very plentiful, as
+is also the black bass, which is highly prized. A fresh-water herring
+abounds in great shoals, but is inferior in delicacy to the
+corresponding species of the salt seas. Salmon are numerous in Lake
+Ontario, but above the Falls of Niagara they are never seen.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 151: "The neighborhood of Quebec, as well as Canada in
+general, is much characterized by bowlders, and the size and position of
+some of them is very striking. There are two crowning the height which
+overlooks the domain farm at Beauport, whose collective weight is little
+short, by computation, of forty tons. The Heights of Abraham also are,
+or rather were, crowded with them; and it should never be forgotten that
+it was upon one of these hoary symbols, the debâcles of the deluge, as
+they are supposed to be, that the immortal and mortal parts of two
+heroes separated from each other. It has often occurred to us, that one
+of the most suitable monuments to the memory of Wolfe and Montcalm might
+have been erected with these masses, in the form of a pyramid or pile of
+shot, instead of burying them, as in many instances has been done, in
+order to clear the ground."--_Picture of Quebec_, p. 456.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Gray says, in 1809, that "no coal has ever yet been found
+in Canada, probably because it has never been thought worth searching
+after. It is supposed that coal exists in the neighborhood of Quebec; at
+any rate, there can be no doubt that it exists in great abundance in the
+island of Cape Breton, which may one day become the Newcastle of
+Canada."--P. 287.
+
+"No idea can be formed of the importance of the American coal seams
+until we reflect on the prodigious area over which they are continuous.
+The elliptical area occupied by the Pittsburg seam is 225 miles in its
+largest diameter, while its maximum breadth is about 100 miles, its
+superficial extent being about 14,000 square miles.
+
+"The Apalachian coal-field extends for a distance of 720 miles from
+northeast to southwest, its greatest width being about 180 miles.
+
+"The Illinois coal-field is not much inferior in dimensions to the whole
+of England."--Lyell's _America_, vol. ii., p. 31.
+
+"It was the first time I had seen the true coal in America, and I was
+much struck with its surprising analogy in mineral and fossil characters
+to that of Europe; ... the whole series resting on a coarse grit and
+conglomerate, containing quartz pebbles, very like our millstone grit,
+and often called by the Americans, as well as the English miners, the
+'Farewell Rock,' because, when they have reached it in their borings,
+they take leave of all valuable fuel."--_Ibid._, vol. i., p. 61.]
+
+[Footnote 153: See Appendix, No. XXI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 154: Professor Kalm visited the iron-works of St. Maurice in
+1748, eleven or twelve years after their first establishment. "The
+iron-work, which is the only one in the country, lies three miles to the
+west of Trois Rivières. Here are two great forges, besides two lesser
+ones to each of the great ones, and under the same roof with them. The
+bellows were made of wood, and every thing else as in the Swedish
+forges. The ore is got two and a half miles from the iron-works, and is
+carried thither on sledges. It is a kind of moor-ore (Tophus Tubalcaini:
+_Linn. Syst. Nat._, lib. iii., p. 187, note 5), which lies in veins
+within six inches or a foot from the surface of the ground. Each vein is
+from six to eighteen inches deep, and below it is a white sand. The
+veins are surrounded with this sand on both sides, and covered at the
+top with a thin mold. The ore is pretty rich, and lies in loose lumps in
+the veins of the size of two fists, though there are a few which are
+near eighteen inches thick. These lumps are full of holes which are
+filled with ocher. The ore is so soft that it may be crushed between the
+fingers. They make use of a gray limestone, which is broke in the
+neighborhood, for promoting the fusibility of the ore; to that purpose
+they likewise employ a clay marl, which is found near this place.
+Charcoals are to be had in great abundance here, because the country
+round this place is covered with wood which has never been stirred. The
+charcoals from evergreen trees, that is, from the fir kind, are best for
+the forge, but those of deciduous trees are best for the smelting-oven.
+The iron which is here made was to me described as soft, pliable, and
+tough, and is said to have the quality of not being attacked by rust so
+easily as other iron. This iron-work was first founded in 1737 by
+private persons, who afterward ceded it to the king; they cast cannon
+and mortars here of different sizes, iron stoves, which are in use all
+over Canada, kettles, &c. They have likewise tried to make steel here,
+but can not bring it to any great perfection, because they are
+unacquainted with the best method of preparing it. Here are many
+officers and overseers, who have very good houses built on purpose for
+them. It is agreed on all hands that the resources of the iron-work do
+not pay the expenses which the king must every year be at in maintaining
+it. They lay the fault on the bad state of population, and say that the
+few inhabitants in the country have enough to do with agriculture, and
+that it therefore costs great trouble and large sums to get a sufficient
+number of workmen. But, however plausible this may appear, yet it is
+surprising that the king should be a loser in carrying on this work, for
+the ore is easily broken, being near the iron-work, and very fusible.
+The iron is good; and this is, moreover, the only iron-work in the
+country, from which every body must supply himself with tools, and what
+other iron he wants. But the officers and servants belonging to the
+iron-work appear to be in very affluent circumstances. A river runs down
+from the iron-work into the River St. Lawrence, by which all the iron
+can be sent in boats throughout the country at a low rate."--Kalin in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 631.
+
+"M. Dantic, after a number of experiments to class the different kinds
+of iron, discovered that the iron of Styria was the best, and that the
+iron of North America, of Danemara in Sweden, of Spain, Bayonne,
+Roussillon, Foix, Berri, Thierache in Sweden, the communes of France,
+and Siberia, was the next class."--Abbé Raynal, vol. iii., p. 268.
+
+Weld and Heriot mention that the bank of iron ore at the forges of St.
+Maurice was nearly exhausted in their time; new veins, however, have
+been since discovered.
+
+Charlevoix says, in 1720: "Il est certain que ces mines de fer, que
+l'oeil perçant de M. Colbert et la vigilance de M. Talon avoit fait
+découvrir, après avoir presqú entièrement disparu pendant plus de
+soixante dix ans, viennent d'être retrouvées par les soins de ceux qui
+occupent aujourd'hui leur place."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 166.]
+
+[Footnote 155: Henry and others speak of a rock of pure copper, from
+which the former out off 100 lbs. weight. W. Schoolcraft examined the
+remainder of the mass in 1820, and found it of irregular shape; in its
+greatest length three feet eight inches, greatest breadth three feet
+four inches, making about eleven cubic feet, and containing, of metallic
+matter, about 2200 lbs.; but there were many marks of chisels and axes
+upon it, as if a great deal had been carried off. The surface of the
+block, unlike most metals which have suffered a long exposure to the
+atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy.--Martin's _History of
+Canada_, p. 175.
+
+Weld mentions having seen in the possession of a gentleman at Niagara a
+lump of copper, of several ounces weight, apparently as pure as if it
+had passed through the fire, which had been struck off with a chisel
+from a piece equally pure, growing on one of the islands in Lake
+Superior. Rich veins of copper are visible in almost all the rocks on
+these islands near the shore; and copper ore, resembling copperas, is
+likewise found in deep beds near the water.--Weld, p. 346.
+
+In Charlevoix's time (1720), "on trouvoit sur les bords du Lac Supérieur
+et autour de certains isles, de grosses pièces de cuivre qui sont
+l'objet de cette superstition des sauvages; ils les regardent avec
+vénération comme un présent des Dieux qui habitent sous les eaux; ils en
+ramassent les plus petits fragmens et les conservent avec soin, mais ils
+n'en font aucune usage. J'ai connu un de nos frères lequel étoit orfévre
+de son métier, et qui, pendant qu'il étoit dans la mission du Sault
+Sainte Marie, en étoit allé chercher là, et en avoit fait des
+chandeliers, des croix, et des encensoirs, car ce cuivre est souvent
+presque tout pur."--Tom. v., p. 415.
+
+Kalm says that the copper found is so pure that it does not require
+melting over again, but is fit for working immediately.--Kalm in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 691 (1748).
+
+"Before saying good-by to Lake Superior, let me add, that since the date
+of my visit, the barren rocks which we passed have become an object of
+intense interest, promising to rival, in point of mineral wealth, the
+Altai chain and the Uralian Mountains. Iron had long been known to
+abound on the northern shore, two mines having been at one time worked
+and abandoned, chiefly on account of temporary obstacles, which the
+gradual advance of agriculture and civilization was sure to remove; and,
+more recently, the southern shore, though of a much less favorable
+character in that respect, was found to possess rich veins of copper and
+silver. Under these circumstances, various enterprising persons in
+Canada have prosecuted investigations which appear to have
+satisfactorily proved that, in addition to their iron, the forbidding
+wastes of the northern shore contain inexhaustible treasures, both of
+the precious and of the useful metals, of gold and of silver, of copper
+and tin, and already have associations been formed to reap the teeming
+harvest."--Sir G. Simpson's _Journey round the World_, vol. i., p. 35
+(1841).
+
+The following extract is from a Quebec newspaper, bearing date 25th
+June, 1848:
+
+"THE COPPER REGION: SINGULAR DISCOVERY.--A correspondent of the Buffalo
+Express, writing under date June 14, from Ontonagon, Lake Superior,
+says:
+
+"'Mr. Knapp, of the Vulcan Mining Company, has lately made some very
+singular discoveries here in working one of the veins which he lately
+found. He worked into an old cave which has been excavated centuries
+ago. This led them to look for other works of the same sort, and they
+have found a number of sinks in the earth which they have traced a long
+distance. By digging into those sinks they find them to have been made
+by the hand of man. It appears that the ancient miners went on a
+different principle from what they do at the present time. The greatest
+depth yet found in these holes is thirty feet: after getting down to a
+certain depth, they drifted along the vein, making an open cut. These
+cuts have been filled nearly to a level by the accumulation of soil; and
+we find trees of the largest growth standing in this gutter, and also
+find that trees of a very large growth have grown up and died, and
+decayed many years since; in the same places there are now standing
+trees of over three hundred years' growth. Last week they dug down into
+a new place, and about twelve feet below the surface found a mass of
+copper that will weigh from eight to ten tons. This mass was buried in
+ashes, and it appears they could not handle it, and had no means of
+cutting it, and probably built fire to melt or separate the rock from
+it, which might be done by heating, and then dashing on cold water. This
+piece of copper is as pure and clean as a new cent; the upper surface
+has been pounded clear and smooth. It appears that this mass of copper
+was taken from the bottom of a shaft, at the depth of about thirty feet.
+In sinking this shaft from where the mass now lies, they followed the
+course of the vein, which pitches considerably: this enabled them to
+raise it as far as the hole came up with a slant. At the bottom of a
+shaft they found skids of black oak, from eight to twelve inches in
+diameter: these sticks were charred through, as if burned: they found
+large wooden wedges in the same situation. In this shaft they found a
+miner's gad and a narrow chisel made of copper. I do not know whether
+these copper tools are tempered or not, but their make displays good
+workmanship. They have taken out more than a ton of cobble-stones, which
+have been used as mallets. These stones were nearly round, with a score
+cut around the tenter, and look as if this score was cut for the purpose
+of putting a withe round for a handle. The Chippewa Indians all say that
+this work was never done by Indians. This discovery will lead to a new
+method of finding veins in this country, and may be of great benefit to
+some. I suppose they will keep finding new wonders for some time yet, as
+it is but a short time since they first found the old mine. There is
+copper here in abundance, and I think people will begin to dig it in a
+few years. Mr. Knapp has found considerable silver during the past
+winter.'"]
+
+[Footnote 156: Acosta is the first philosopher who endeavored to account
+for the different degrees of heat in the Old and New Continents by the
+agency of the winds which blow in each, (_Hist. Moral._, lib. ii. and
+iii.) M. de Buffon adopted the same theory, and illustrated it with many
+new observations. "The prevailing winds, both in Upper and Lower Canada,
+are the northeast, northwest, and southwest, which all have a
+considerable influence on the temperature of the atmosphere and the
+state of the weather. The southwest wind is the most prevalent, but it
+is generally moderate, and accompanied by clear skies; and the northeast
+and easterly winds usually bring with them continued rain in summer, and
+snow in winter; the northwest is remarkable for its dryness and
+elasticity, and, from its gathering an intense degree of frigor as it
+sweeps over the frozen plains and ice-bound hills in that quarter of the
+continent, invariably brings with it a perceptible degree of cold. Winds
+from due north, south, or west are not frequent. At Quebec, the
+direction of the wind often changes with the tide, which is felt for
+nearly sixty miles higher up the stream of the St. Lawrence."--Bonchette,
+vol. i., p. 343.
+
+"The northwest wind is uncommonly dry, and brings with it fresh
+animation and vigor to every living thing. Although this wind is so very
+piercing in winter, yet the people never complain so much of cold as
+when the northeast wind blows. The northeast wind is also cold, but it
+renders the air raw and damp. That from the southeast is damp, but warm.
+Rain or snow usually falls when the wind comes from any point toward the
+east. The northwest wind, from coming over such an immense tract of
+land, must necessarily be dry; and, coming from regions eternally
+covered with mounds of snow and ice, it must also be cold. The northeast
+wind, from traversing the frozen seas, must be cold likewise; but, from
+passing over such a large portion of the watery main afterward, it
+brings damp and moisture with it. All those from the northeast are damp,
+and loaded with vapors from the same cause. Southerly winds, from
+crossing the warm regions between the tropics, are attended with heats;
+and the southwest wind, from passing, like the northwest, over a great
+extent of land, is dry at the same time."--Weld's _Travels in America_,
+4th ed., p. 184.
+
+Kalm says, p. 748, that he was assured that "the northeast wind, when it
+is very violent in winter, pierces through walls of a moderate
+thickness, so that the whole wall on the inside of the house is covered
+with snow, or a thick hoar frost. The wind damages severely the houses
+that are built of stone, so that the owners are frequently obliged to
+repair them on the northeast side. In summer the north wind is generally
+attended with rain."--Kalm in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 651.]
+
+[Footnote 157: "Many of these mountains are very high. During my stay in
+Canada, I asked many people who have traveled much in North America
+whether they ever met with mountains so high that the snow never melts
+on them in summer, to which they always answered in the negative. They
+say that the snow sometimes stays on the highest, viz., on some of those
+between Canada and the English colonies during a part of the summer, but
+that it melts as soon as the great heat begins."--Kalm, p. 671.]
+
+[Footnote 158: "It is worthy of remark, and not a little surprising,
+that so large a river as the St. Lawrence, in latitude 47°, should be
+shut up with ice as soon, and continue as long shut up, as the
+comparatively small river, the Neva, in latitude 60°."--Gray's _Canada_,
+p. 320.]
+
+[Footnote 159: "The following curious experiments were made some years
+ago at Quebec, by Major Williams, of the Artillery. Iron shells of
+different sizes, from the thirteen-inch shell to the cohorn of four
+inches diameter, were nearly filled with water, and an iron plug was
+driven in at the fuse-hole by a sledge-hammer. It was found, however,
+that the plug could never be driven so firmly into the fuse-hole as to
+resist the expanding ice, which pushed it out with great force and
+velocity, and a bolt or cylinder of ice immediately shot up from the
+hole; but when a plug was used that had springs which would expand and
+lay hold of the inside of the cavity, so that it could not possibly be
+pushed out, the force of expansion split the shell. The amazing force of
+expansion is also shown from the distance to which these iron plugs are
+thrown out of the fuse-hole. A plug of two pounds and a half weight was
+thrown no less than 415 feet from the shell; the fuse axis was at an
+angle of 45°; the thermometer showed 51° below the freezing point. Here
+you see ice and gunpowder performing the same operations. That similar
+effects should proceed from such dissimilar causes is very
+extraordinary."--Gray's _Canada_, p. 309.]
+
+[Footnote 160: See Appendix, No. XXII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 161: "These mountains were known to the French missionaries by
+the name of Montagnes des Pierres Brillantes."--Chateaubriand.]
+
+[Footnote 162: See Appendix, No. XXIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 163: See Appendix, No. XXIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 164: See Appendix, No. XXV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 165: "In Europe, in Asia, in Africa, and even in South
+America, the primeval trees, however much their magnitude may arrest
+admiration, do not grow in the promiscuous style that prevails in the
+general character of the North American woods. Many varieties of the
+pine, intermingled with birch, maple, beech, oak, and numerous other
+tribes, branch luxuriantly over the banks of lakes and rivers, extend in
+stately grandeur along the plains, and stretch proudly up to the very
+summits of the mountains. It is impossible to exaggerate the autumnal
+beauty of these forests; nothing under heaven can be compared to its
+effulgent grandeur. Two or three frosty nights in the decline of autumn
+transform the boundless verdure of a whole empire into every possible
+tint of brilliant scarlet, rich violet, every shade of blue and brown,
+vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexorable fir tribes
+alone maintain their eternal somber green. All others, in mountains or
+in villages, burst into the most glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit
+the most splendid and most enchanting panorama on earth."--M'Gregor, p.
+79, 80.
+
+Mr. Weld says, "The varied hues of the trees at this season of the year
+(autumn) can hardly be imagined by those who never have had an
+opportunity of observing them; and, indeed, as others have often
+remarked before, were a painter to attempt to color a picture from them,
+it would be condemned in Europe as totally different from any thing that
+ever existed in nature."--Weld, p. 510.
+
+"I can only compare the brightness of the faded leaves, scarlet, purple,
+and yellow, to that of tulips."--Lyell's _America_, vol. i., p. 107.]
+
+[Footnote 166: See Appendix, No. XXVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 167: "One of the most striking features in the vegetation of
+Canada is the number of species belonging to the _genera_ Solidago,
+Aster, Quercus, and Pinus. It is also distinguished for the many plants
+contained in the Orders, or natural families--Grossulaceæ, Onograceæ,
+Hypericaceæ, Aceraceæ, Betulaceæ, Juglandaceæ, and Vacciniaceæ; and for
+the presence of the peculiar families--Podophyllæ, Sarraceniaceæ, and
+Hydrophyllaceæ. There is, on the contrary, the climate being considered,
+a remarkable paucity of Cruciferæ and Umbelliferæ, and, what is most
+extraordinary, a total absence of the genus Erica (heath),[168] which
+covers so many thousands of acres in corresponding latitudes in Europe.
+Mrs. Butler mentions, in her Journal, 'that some poor Scotch peasants,
+about to emigrate to Canada, took away with them some roots of the
+"bonny blooming heather," in hopes of making this beloved adorner of
+their native mountains the cheerer of their exile. The heather, however,
+refused to grow in the Canadian soil. The person who told me this said
+that the circumstance had been related to him by Sir Walter Scott, whose
+sympathy with the disappointment of these poor children of the romantic
+heather-land betrayed itself even in tears.'
+
+"Canada is not rich in roses; only three species occur throughout the
+two provinces. Among the Ribes and the Ericaceæ, however, are found many
+of the most beautiful ornaments of the English garden: Andromedas,
+Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and Kalmias belong to the latter order. The
+Azalea was thus described by one of the earlier European botanical
+travelers. Professor Kalm[169] (in 1748): 'the Mayflowers, as the Swedes
+call them, were plentiful in the woods wherever I went to-day,
+especially on a dry soil, or one that is somewhat moist. The Swedes have
+given them this name because they are in full blossom in May. Some of
+the Swedes and the Dutch call them "Pinxter Bloem" (Whitsunday flowers),
+as they are in blossom about Whitsuntide. The English call them wild
+honeysuckles, and at a distance they really have a resemblance to the
+honeysuckle or lonicera. Dr. Linnæus and other botanists call it an
+Azalea (Azalea Nudiflora, _Linn. Spec. Plant._, p. 214.) Its flowers
+were now open, and added a new ornament to the woods, being little
+inferior to the flowers of the honey-suckle and hedysarum. They sit in a
+circle round the stem's extremity, and have either a dark red or lively
+red color; but by standing some time, the sun bleaches them, and at last
+they get a whitish hue. The height of the bush is not always alike. Some
+were as tall as a full-grown man, and taller; others were but low, and
+some were not above a palm from the ground; yet they were all full of
+flowers. They have some smell, but I can not say it is very pleasant.
+However, the beauty of the color entitles them to a place in every
+flower garden.'"--_Travels in North America_, by Professor Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 557.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Seven hours' journey above the sources of the Bow River,
+Sir George Simpson mentions meeting with "an unexpected reminiscence of
+my own native hills, in the shape of a plant which appeared to me to be
+the very heather of the mountains of Scotland; and I might well regard
+the reminiscence as unexpected, inasmuch as in all my wanderings, of
+more than twenty years, I had never found any thing of the kind in North
+America. As I took a considerable degree of interest in the question of
+the supposed identity, I carried away two specimens, which, however,
+proved, on a minute comparison, to differ from the genuine staple of the
+brown heaths of the 'Land o' Cakes.'"--Vol. i., p. 120.
+
+"We missed, also, the small 'crimson-tipped daisy' on the green lawns,
+and were told that they have been often cultivated with care, but are
+found to wither when exposed to the dry air and bright sun of this
+climate. When weeds so common with us can not be reared here, we cease
+to wonder at the dissimilarity of the native Flora of the New World.
+Yet, wherever the aboriginal forests are cleared, we see orchards,
+gardens, and arable lands filled with the same fruit-trees, the same
+grain and vegetables, as in Europe, so bountifully has Nature provided
+that the plants most useful to man should be capable, like himself, of
+becoming cosmopolites."--Lyell's _Travels in North America_, vol. i., p.
+5.]
+
+[Footnote 169: The Kalmias were so named by Linnæus in honor of
+Professor Kalm, a favorite pupil of the great botanist.]
+
+[Footnote 170: See Appendix, No. XXVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 171: The oak from the dense forests of Canada, into which the
+sun's rays never penetrate, is more porous, more abundant in sap, and
+more prone to the dry rot than the oak grown in any other country.
+Canadian timber has increased in value since the causes of its former
+rapid decay have been more fully understood. Mr. Nathaniel Gould asserts
+that the wane of the moon is now universally considered the best season
+for felling timber, both in the United States and in Canada. The
+Americans contract for their ship timber to be felled or girdled between
+the 20th of October and the 12th of February. Dry rot being probably
+caused by the natural moisture or sap being left in the wood, the less
+there is in the tree when cut, the longer it will keep sound. As regards
+the Canadian oak, it is stated by Mr. M'Taggart (the engineer, who so
+ably distinguished himself while in the colony), that it is not so
+durable as that of the British, the fiber not being so compact and
+strong; it grows in extensive groves near the banks of large lakes and
+rivers, sometimes found growing to 50 feet in length by 2 feet 6 inches;
+its specific gravity is greater than water, and therefore, when floated
+down in rafts, it is rendered buoyant with cross bars of pine. It is
+easily squared with the hatchet, and answers well for ship-building and
+heavy work; will endure the seasons for about fifteen years,[172] and
+does not decay in England so soon as in Canada.--Montgomery Martin's
+_Canada_, p. 257; Gray's _Canada_, p. 207.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Kalm says, in 1748, "They were now building several ships
+below Quebec for the king's account. However, before my departure, an
+order arrived from France prohibiting the further building of ships of
+war, because they had found that the ships built of American oak do not
+last so long as those of European oak. Near Quebec is found very little
+oak, and what grows there is not fit for use, being very small;
+therefore they are obliged to fetch their oak timber from those parts of
+Canada which border upon New England. But all the North American oaks
+have the quality of lasting longer, and withstanding putrefaction
+better, the further north they grow."--Kalm, p. 663.]
+
+[Footnote 173: The most useful American plants in the small order
+Betulaceæ are the birches, of which Canada contains six species. The
+most celebrated is Betula Papyracea, the canoe birch, so called from the
+use made of the bark in the construction of the Indian boats. It extends
+from the shore of the Hudson in New York to a considerable range of
+country northward of Canada. The bark is obtained with facility in large
+pieces, and is sewed together with the tough and slender roots of the
+pine-tree. La Hontan relates a characteristic story respecting the birch
+bark: "I remember I have seen, in a certain library in France, a
+manuscript of the Gospel of St. Matthew, written in Greek upon this sort
+of bark; and which is yet more surprising, I was there told that it had
+been written above a thousand years; and, at the same time, I dare swear
+that it was the genuine birch bark of New France, which, in all
+appearance, was not then discovered."--La Hontan, in Pinkerton, vol.
+xiii., p. 361.
+
+Mr. Weld says that "the bark resembles in some degree that of the
+cork-tree, but it is of a closer grain, and also much more pliable, for
+it admits of being rolled up the same as a piece of cloth. The Indians
+of this part of the country always carry large rolls of it in their
+canoes when they go on a hunting party, for the purpose of making
+temporary huts. The bark is spread on small poles over their heads, and
+fastened with strips of elm bark, which is remarkably tough, to stakes,
+so as to form walls on the sides."--Weld, p. 311.]
+
+[Footnote 174: See Appendix, No. XXVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 175: See Appendix, No. XXIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 176: The ginseng belongs to the small order Araliaceæ. The
+botanical name is Panax quinquefolium: it was called Aureliana
+Canadensis by Lafitau, who was the first to bring it from Canada to
+France.--(Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 309, fig. 13.) It was discovered in
+the forests of Canada in 1718. It is herbaceous, scarcely a foot and a
+half in height, and toward the upper part of the stem arise three
+quinate-digitate leaves, from the center of which springs the flower
+stalk. The root is fusiform and fleshy, and is the part most valued. We
+are informed that among the Chinese many volumes have been written upon
+its virtues; and that, besides the name already mentioned, it is known
+by several others, expressive of the high estimation in which it is
+universally held throughout the Celestial Empire: two of these
+appellations are, 'the pure spirit of the earth,' and 'the plant that
+gives immortality.' An ounce of ginseng bears the surprising price of
+seven or eight ounces of silver at Pekin. When the French botanists in
+Canada first saw a figure of it, they remembered to have seen a similar
+plant in this country. They were confirmed in their conjecture by
+considering that several settlements in Canada lie under the same
+latitude with those parts of Chinese Tartary and China where the true
+ginseng grows wild. They succeeded in their attempt, and found the same
+ginseng wild and abundant in several parts of North America, both in
+French and English plantations, in plain parts of the woods. It is fond
+of shade, and of a deep, rich mold, and of land which is neither wet nor
+high. It is not every where very common, for sometimes one may search
+the woods for the space of several miles without finding a single plant
+of it; but in those spots where it grows it is always found in great
+abundance. It flowers in May and June, and its berries are ripe at the
+end of August. The trade which is carried on with it here is very brisk,
+for they gather great quantities of it, and send them to France, from
+whence they are brought to China, and sold there to great advantage. The
+Indians in the neighborhood of Montreal were so taken up with the
+business of collecting ginseng, that the French farmers were not able
+during that time to hire a single Indian, as they commonly do, to help
+them in the harvest. The ginseng formerly grew in abundance round
+Montreal, but at present there is not a single plant of it to be found,
+so effectually have they been rooted out. This obliged the Indians this
+summer to go far within the English boundaries to collect these roots.
+After the Indians have sold the fresh roots to the merchants, the latter
+must take a great deal of pains with them. They are spread on the floor
+to dry, which commonly requires two months and upward, according as the
+season is wet or dry. During that time they must be turned once or twice
+every day, lest they should putrefy or molder. The roots prepared by the
+Chinese are almost transparent, and look like horn in the inside; and
+the roots which are fit for use are heavy and compact in the inside. No
+one has ever discovered the Chinese method of preparing it. It is
+thought, among other preparations, they dip the roots in a decoction of
+the leaves of ginseng. Kalm wrote thus of the ginseng in 1749 (Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 639). Mr. Heriot mentions that "one article of
+commerce the Canadians had, by their own imprudence, rendered altogether
+unprofitable. From the time that Canada ginseng had been imported to
+Canton, and its quality pronounced equal to that of Corea or Tartary, a
+pound of this plant, which before sold in Quebec for twenty pence,
+became, when its value was once ascertained, worth one pound and
+tenpence sterling. The export of this article amounted in 1752 to
+£20,000 sterling. But the Canadians, eager suddenly to enrich
+themselves, reaped this plant in May when it should not have been
+gathered until September, and dried it in ovens when its moisture should
+have been gradually evaporated in the shade. This fatal mistake, arising
+from cupidity, and in some measure from ignorance, ruined the sale of
+their ginseng among the only people on earth who are partial to its use,
+and at an early period cut off from the colony a new branch of trade,
+which, under proper regulations, might have been essentially
+productive."--Heriot's _Travels through the Canadas_, p. 99, 1807.
+
+"Mountainous woods in Tartary are mentioned as the place where the
+ginseng is produced in the greatest abundance. In 1709, the emperor
+ordered an army of ten thousand men to collect all the ginseng they
+could find, and each person was to give him two ounces of the best,
+while for the remainder payment was to be made in silver, weight for
+weight. It was in the same year that Father Jartoux, a Jesuit missionary
+in China, prepared a figure and accurate description of the plant, in
+which he bears testimony to the beneficial effects of the root. He tried
+it in many instances himself, and always with the same result,
+especially when exhausted with fatigue. His pulse was increased, his
+appetite improved, and his whole frame invigorated. Judging from the
+accounts before us, we should say that the Chinese were extravagant in
+their ideas of the virtues of this herb; but that it is undoubtedly a
+cordial stimulant, to be compared, perhaps, in some degree, with the
+aromatic root of Meum athamanticum, so much esteemed by the Scottish
+Highlanders. It has nevertheless disappeared from our Materia
+Medica."--Murray's _Canada_, vol. iii., p. 308. Charlevoix, tom. vi., p.
+24.
+
+"Ginseng a véritablement la vertu de soutenir, de fortifier, et de
+rappeller les forces épuisées."--Lafitau, tom. ii., p. 142.]
+
+[Footnote 177: In La Hontan's time (1683), he speaks of "maiden-hair"
+being as common in the forests of Canada as fern in those of France, and
+is esteemed beyond that of other countries, insomuch that the
+inhabitants of Quebec prepare great quantities of its syrup, which they
+send to Paris, Nantes, Rouen, and several other cities of France.
+Charlevoix gives a figure of the maiden-hair (tom. iv., p. 301), under
+the name of Adiantum Americanum.--"Cette plante a la racine fort petite,
+et enveloppée de fibres noires, fort déliées; sa tige est d'un pourpre
+foncé, et s'élève en quelques endroits à trois ou quatre pieds de haut;
+il en sort des branches, qui se courbent en tous sens. Les feuilles sont
+plus larges que celles de notre Capillaire de France, d'un beau verd
+d'un côté, et de l'autre, semées de petits points obscurs; nulle part
+ailleurs cette plante n'est si haute ni si vive, qu'en Canada. Elle n'a
+aucune odeur tandis qu'elle est sur pied, mais quand elle a été
+renfermée, elle répand une odeur de violette, qui embaume. Sa qualité
+est aussi beaucoup au-dessus de tous les autres capillaires."
+
+The Herba capillaris is the Adiantum pedatum of Linnæus (Sp. Pl., p.
+1557). Cornutus, in his _Canadens. Plant. Historia_, p. 7, calls it
+Adiantum Americanum, and gives a figure of it, p. 6. Kalm says that "it
+grows in all the British colonies of America, and likewise in the
+southern parts of Canada, but I never found it near Quebec. It grows in
+the woods in shady places, and in a good soil. Several people in Albany
+and Canada assured me that its leaves were very much used instead of tea
+in consumptions, coughs, and all kinds of pectoral diseases. This they
+have learned from the Indians, who have made use of it for these
+purposes from time immemorial. This American maiden-hair is reckoned
+preferable in surgery to that which we have in Europe, and therefore
+they send a great quantity of it to France every year. Commonly the
+price at Quebec is between five and fifteen sols a pound. The Indians
+went into the woods about this time (August), and traveled far above
+Montreal in quest of this plant."--Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p.
+641.]
+
+[Footnote 178: "This moss is called by the Canadian voyageurs, _Tripe de
+Roche_; it belongs to the order Gyrophara. They who have perused the
+affecting narrative of the sufferings of Captain Franklin and his
+gallant party, on their return from their first journey to the Arctic
+Sea, will remember that it was on _Tripe de Roche_ that they depended,
+under God, for their very existence. 'We looked,' says Captain Franklin,
+'with humble confidence to the Great Author and giver of all good, for a
+continuance of the support which had been hitherto always supplied to us
+at our greatest need,' and he was not disappointed."--Murray's _Canada_,
+vol. iii., p. 330. "Parmi les sauvages errans, et qui ne cultivent point
+du tout la terre, lorsque la chasse et la pêche leur manquent, leur
+unique ressource est une espèce de mousse, qui croît sur certains
+rochers, et que nos Français ont nommée Tripe de Roche; rien n'est plus
+insipide que ce mets, lequel n'a pas même beaucoup de substance, c'est
+bien là être réduit au pur nécessaire pour ne pas mourir de
+faim."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 179: See Appendix, No. XXX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 180: See Appendix, No. XXXI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 181: "The Swedes gave the name of Indian hemp to Apocynum
+cannabinum, because the Indians apply it to the same purposes as the
+Europeans do hemp; for the stalk may be divided into filaments, and is
+easily prepared. This plant grows in abundance in old corn grounds, in
+woods, on hills, and on high glades. The Indians make ropes of this
+Apocynum, which the Swedes buy, and employ them as bridles, and for
+nets. These ropes are stronger, and kept longer in water than such as
+were made of common hemp. The Swedes commonly got fourteen yards of
+these ropes for one piece of bread. On my journey through the country of
+the Iroquois, I saw the women employed in manufacturing this hemp. The
+plant is perennial, which renders the annual planting of it altogether
+unnecessary. Out of the root and stalk of this plant, when it is fresh,
+comes a white, milky juice, which is somewhat poisonous. Sometimes the
+fishing tackle of the Indian consists entirely of this hemp."--Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol xiii., p. 544.]
+
+[Footnote 182: See Appendix, No. XXXII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 183: Buffon, Hist. Nat., tom. ix., p. 13, 203; Acosta, Hist.,
+lib. iv., cap. xxxiv.; Pisonis Hist., p. 6; Herrera, Dec. IV., lib. iv.,
+cap. i.; lib. x., cap. xiii.]
+
+[Footnote 184: Canada has not the fine natural pastures of Ireland,
+England, Holland, and other countries enjoying a cool, moist, and
+equable climate. Artificial grasses, now a most valuable branch of
+British husbandry, are peculiarly important in Canada, where so large a
+quantity of hay should be stored for winter use. They are also most
+useful in preparing the soil for grain crops, but have the disadvantage
+of requiring to stand the severe winter, so trying to all except annual
+plants. Clover, which is supposed to yield three times the produce of
+natural grass, grows luxuriantly; but in the second year its roots are
+often found to have been destroyed by frost. For this reason, it is
+necessary to have recourse to the species named Timothy, which is
+extremely hardy, and will set at defiance even a Canadian
+winter.--Talbot, vol. i., p. 301, Gould, p. 67.]
+
+[Footnote 185: "In the western parts of Lower Canada, and throughout
+Upper Canada, where it is customary for travelers to carry their own
+bedding with them, these skins are very generally made use of for the
+purpose of sleeping upon. For upward of two months we scarcely ever had
+any other bed than one of the skins spread on the floor and a blanket to
+each person. The skins are dressed by the Indians with the hair on, and
+they are rendered by a peculiar process as pliable as cloth. When the
+buffalo is killed in the beginning of the winter, at which time he is
+fenced against the cold, the hair resembles very much that of a black
+bear; it is then long, straight, and of a blackish color; but when the
+animal is killed in the summer, the hair is short and curly, and of a
+light brown color, owing to its being scorched by the rays of the
+sun."--Weld, p. 313.]
+
+[Footnote 186: Charlevoix says, "que la peau, quoique très forte,
+devient souple et moëlleuse comme le meilleur chamois. Les sauvages en
+font des boucliers, qui sont très légers, et que les bals de fusil ne
+perçent pas aisément."--Tom. v., p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 187: The height of the domesticated reindeer is about three
+feet; of the wild ones, four. It lives to the age of sixteen years. The
+reindeer is a native of the northern regions only. In America it does
+not extend further south than Canada. The Indians often kill numbers for
+the sake of their tongue only; at other times they separate the flesh
+from the bones, and preserve it by drying it in the smoke. The fat they
+sell to the English, who use it for frying instead of butter. The skins,
+also, are an article of extensive commerce with the English.--Rees's
+_Cyclopædia_, art. Cervus Tarandus.
+
+Charlevoix says that the Canadian _caribou_ differs in nothing from the
+_Renne_ of Buffon except in the color of its skin, which is brown or
+reddish.--Tom. v., p. 191. La Hontan calls the _caribou_ a species of
+wild ass; and Charlevoix says that its form resembles that of the ass,
+but that it at least equals the stag in agility.]
+
+[Footnote 188: Pennant is persuaded that the stag is not a native of
+America, and considers the deer known in that country by the name of
+stag as a distinct species. The American stag is the Cervus Canadensis
+of Erxleben. The Americans hunt and shoot those animals not so much for
+the sake of the flesh as of the fat, which serves as tallow in making
+candles, and the skins, which they dispose of to the Hudson's Bay
+Company. They are caught principally in the inland parts, near the
+vicinity of the lakes.--Rees's _Cyclopædia_, art. Cervus Elaphus.
+
+Charlevoix says that "le Cerf en Canada est absolument le même qu'en
+France, peut être communément un peu plus grand."--Tom. v., p. 189.]
+
+[Footnote 189: The fallow deer in America have been introduced there
+from Europe; for the animal called the American fallow is of a very
+different kind, and is peculiar to the New Continent. This, the _Cervus_
+Virginianus, inhabits all the provinces south of Canada.--Rees's
+_Cyclopædia_, art. Cervus Virginianus.]
+
+[Footnote 190: See Appendix, No. XXXIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 191: See Appendix, No. XXXIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 192: See Appendix, No. XXXV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 193: See Appendix, No. XXXVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 194: See Appendix, No. XXXVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 195: See Appendix, No. XXXVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 196: See Appendix, No. XXXIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 197: See Appendix, No. XL. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 198: "While we were roaming along the shore of Lake Ontario we
+caught a species of tortoise (testudo picta), which was a gayly-colored
+shell, and I carried it a day's journey in the carriage, and then turned
+it out, to see whether, as I was told, it would know its way back to
+Lake Ontario. I am bound to admit that its instinct on this occasion did
+not fail, for it made directly for a ravine, in the bottom of which was
+a stream that would lead it in time to the Genesee River, and this would
+carry it to its native lake if it escaped destruction at the Falls below
+Rochester, where the celebrated diver, Sam Patch, perished, after he had
+succeeded in throwing himself with impunity down several other great
+waterfalls. There is a fresh-water tortoise in Europe (Terrapena
+Europea) found in Hungary, Prussia, and Silesia, as far north as
+latitude 50° to 52°. It also occurs near Bordeaux, and in the north of
+Italy, 44° and 45° north latitude, which precisely corresponds with the
+latitude of Lake Ontario."--Lyell's _Travels in North America_, vol. i.,
+p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 199: "To the Malacodermous division belongs the remarkable
+genus Lampyris, which contains the insects commonly called glow-worms.
+The substance from which the luminous property results has been the
+subject of frequent experiment and observation. It is obviously under
+the control of the animal, which, when approached, may frequently be
+observed to diminish or put out its light. The only species with which
+we are acquainted in British America is Lampyris corusca. It occurs in
+Canada, and has been taken at least as far north as latitude 54°. It was
+originally described by Simmons as a native of Finland and Russia, on
+the authority of Uddman, but has not since been found there."--Murray,
+vol. iii., p. 277.
+
+"We saw numerous yellow butterflies, very like a British species.
+Sometimes forty of them clustering on a small spot resembled a plot of
+primroses, and as they rose altogether, and flew off slowly on every
+side, it was like the play of a beautiful fountain."--Lyell's _America_,
+vol. i., p. 25.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+
+Perhaps the saddest chapter in the history of the sons of Adam is
+furnished by the Red Man of America. His origin is unknown; no records
+tell the tale of his ancient deeds. A foundling in the human family,
+discovered by his stronger brethren wandering wild through the forests
+and over the prairies of the western desert, no fraternal welcome
+greeted this lost child of nature; no soothing voice of affection fell
+upon his ear; no gentle kindness wooed him from his savage isolation.
+The hand of irresistible power was stretched out, not to raise him from
+his low estate and lead him into the brotherhood of civilized man, but
+to thrust him away with cruel and unjust disdain.
+
+Little more than three centuries and a half have elapsed since the
+Indian first gazed with terror and admiration upon the white strangers,
+and already three fourths of his inheritance are rent away, and three
+fourths of his race have vanished from the earth; while the sad remnant,
+few and feeble, faint and weary, "are fast traveling to the shades of
+their fathers, toward the setting sun."[200] Year by year they wither
+away; to them the close breath of civilized man is more destructive than
+the deadliest blight.[202] The arts and appliances which the accumulated
+ingenuity of ages has provided to aid the labor and enhance the
+enjoyments of others, have been but a curse to these children of the
+wilderness. That blessed light which shines to the miserable of this
+world through the vista of the "shadowy valley," cheering the fainting
+spirit with the earnest of a glorious future, sheds but a few dim and
+distorted rays upon the outskirts of the Red Man's forest land.
+
+All the relations of Europeans to the Indian have been alike fatal to
+him, whether of peace or war; as tyrants or suppliants; as conquerors
+armed with unknown weapons of destruction; as the insidious purchasers
+of his hunting-grounds, betraying him into an accursed thirst for the
+deadly fire-water; as the greedy gold-seekers, crushing his feeble frame
+under the hated labors of the mine; as shipwrecked and hungry wanderers,
+while receiving his simple alms, marking the fertility and
+defenselessness of his lands; as sick men enjoying his hospitality,
+and, at the same time, imparting that terrible disease[203] which has
+swept off whole nations; as woodmen in his forest, and intrusive tillers
+of his ground, scaring away to the far West those animals of the chase
+given by the Great Spirit for his food: there is to him a terrible
+monotony of result. In the delicious islands of the Caribbean Sea, and
+in the stern and magnificent regions of the northeast, scarcely now
+remains a mound, or stone, or trace even of tradition, to point out the
+place where any among the departed millions sleep.
+
+The discovery of the American Indians brought to light not only a new
+race, but also a totally new condition of men. The rudest form of human
+society known in the Old World was far advanced beyond that of the
+mysterious children of the West, in arts, knowledge, and government.
+Even among the simplest European and Asiatic nations the principle of
+individual possession was established; the beasts of the field were
+domesticated to supply the food and aid the labors of man, and large
+bodies of people were united under the sway of hereditary chiefs. But
+the Red Man roamed over the vast forests and prairies of his
+undiscovered continent, accompanied by few of his fellows, unassisted by
+beasts of burden,[204] and trusting alone to his skill and fortune in
+the chase for a support. The first European visitors to the New World
+were filled with such astonishment at the appearance and complexion of
+the Red Man, that they hastily concluded he belonged to a different
+species from themselves. As the native nations became better known,
+their warriors, statesmen, and orators commanded the admiration of the
+strangers. Especially in the northern people, every savage virtue was
+conspicuous; they were gentle in peace, but terrible in war; of a proud
+and noble bearing, honest, faithful, and hospitable, loving order though
+without laws, and animated by the strongest and most devoted loyalty to
+their tribe. At the same time, while willingly recording their high and
+admirable qualities, pity for the devoted race must not blind us to
+their ferocious and degrading vices.
+
+It was not until the end of the seventeenth century that the manners and
+characteristics of this strange race attracted to any considerable
+degree the attention of philosophers and theorists; a chasm in human
+history then seemed about to be filled. Eager to throw light upon the
+subject, but too impatient to inquire into the facts necessary for the
+formation of opinions, the conclusions formed were often unjust to the
+native dignity of the Red Indian,[205] and have been proved erroneous by
+subsequent and more perfect information. On the other hand, one of the
+most gifted but dangerous of modern philosophers would exalt these
+untutored children of nature to a higher degree of honor and excellence
+than civilization and knowledge can confer. He deemed that the elevation
+and independence of mind, resulting from the rude simplicity of savage
+life, is sought in vain among the members of refined and organized
+societies.[206]
+
+Every thing tended to render inquiry into the state of the rude tribes
+of America difficult and obscure. In the generality of cases they
+presented characteristics of a native simplicity, elsewhere unknown; and
+even in the more favored districts, where a degree of civilization
+appeared, it had assumed a form and direction totally different from
+that of the Old World.[207]
+
+The origin of this mysterious people has been the subject of an immense
+variety of speculations, and has involved the question, whether all men
+are the sons of Adam, or whether the distinctions of the human race were
+owing to the several sources from whence its members sprung? The skeptic
+supposition that each portion of the globe gave its own original type of
+man to the human family at once solves the difficulty of American
+population; but as both Christianity and philosophy alike forbid
+acceptance of this view,[208] it becomes necessary to consider the
+relative probabilities in favor of the other different theories which
+enthusiasm, ingenuity, and research have contributed to lay before the
+world.
+
+Without referring to the most sacred and ancient of authorities, we may
+find existing natural evidence abundantly sufficient to establish the
+belief of the common descent of our race. There are not in the human
+form differences such as distinguish separate species of the brute
+creation. All races of men are nearly of like stature and size, varying
+only by the accidents of climate and food favorable or adverse to their
+full development. The number, shape, and uses of limbs and extremities
+are alike, and internal construction is invariably the same. These are
+circumstances the least acted upon by situation and temperature, and
+therefore the surest tests of a particular species. Color is the most
+obvious and the principal indication of difference in the human
+families, and is evidently influenced to a great extent by the action of
+the sun,[209] as the swarthy cheek of the harvest laborer will witness.
+Under the equator we find the jet black of the negro; then the
+olive-colored Moors of the southern shores of the Mediterranean; again,
+the bronzed face of the Spaniard and Italian; next, the Frenchman,
+darker than those who dwell under the temperate skies of England; and,
+last, the bleached and pallid visages of the north. Along the arctic
+circle, indeed, a dusky tint again appears: that, however, may be fairly
+attributed to the scorching power of the sun, constantly over the
+horizon, through the brief and fiery summer. The natives remain
+generally in the open air during this time, fishing, or in the chase;
+and the effect of exposure stamps them with a complexion which even the
+long-continued snows can not remove. In the rigorous winter season, the
+people of those dreary countries pass most of their time in wretched
+huts or subterranean dwellings, where they heap up large fires to warm
+their shivering limbs. The smoke has no proper vent in these
+ill-constructed abodes; it fills the confined air, and tends to darken
+the complexions of those constantly exposed to its influence.
+
+The difference of color in the human race is doubtless influenced by
+many causes, modifying the effect of position with regard to the
+tropics. The great elevation of a particular district, its proximity to
+the sea, the shades of a vast forest, the exhalations from extensive
+marshes, all tend to diminish materially the power of a southern
+sun.[210] On the other hand, intensity of heat is aggravated by the
+neighborhood of arid and sandy deserts, or rocky tracts. The action of
+long-continued heat creates a more permanent effect than the mere
+darkening of the outer skin: it alters the character of those subtile
+juices that display their color through the almost transparent
+covering.[211] We see that, from a constitutional peculiarity in
+individuals, the painful variety of the albino is sometimes produced in
+the hottest countries. Certain internal diseases, and different
+medicines, change the beautiful bloom of the young and healthy into
+repulsive and unnatural tints. A peculiar secretion of the carbon
+abounding in the human frame produces the jet black of the negro's skin,
+and enables him to bear without inconvenience the terrible sultriness of
+his native land.[212] The dark races, inferior in animal and
+intellectual powers to the white man, are yet nearly free from the
+deformities he so often exhibits, perhaps on account of a less
+susceptible and delicate structure. The Caucasian or European races,
+born and matured under a temperate climate, manifestly enjoy the highest
+gifts of man. Wherever they come in contact with their colored brother,
+he ultimately yields to the irresistible superiority, and becomes,
+according to the caprice of their haughty will, the victim, the
+dependent, or the slave.[213]
+
+There are other characteristics different from, but generally combined
+with color, which are influenced by constitutional varieties. The hair
+usually harmonizes with the complexion, and, like it, shows the
+influence of climate. In cold countries, the natural covering of every
+animal becomes rich and soft; the plentiful locks and manly beard of the
+European show a marked contrast to the coarse and scanty hair of the
+inhabitants of tropical countries. The development of mental power and
+refined habits of life have also a strong but slow effect upon the
+outward form.[214] Certain African nations of a higher intelligence and
+civilization than their rude neighbors, show much less of the
+peculiarities of the negro features. The refined Hindoo displays a
+delicate form and expression under his dark complexion. The black color
+and the negro features are accidentally not necessarily connected, and
+it seems to require both climate and inferiority of intellect to unite
+them in the same race.
+
+When circumstances of climate or situation have effected peculiar
+appearances in a nation or tribe, the results will long survive the
+causes when people are removed to widely-different latitudes: a dark
+color is not easily effaced, even under the influence of moderate
+temperature and heightened civilization. For these reasons, there appear
+many cases where the complexion of the inhabitants and the climate of
+the country do not correspond, but the original characteristics will be
+found undergoing the process of gradual change, ultimately adapting
+themselves to their new country and situation.[215] The marked and
+peculiar countenances of the once "chosen people" vary, in color at
+least, wherever they are seen over the world, although uninfluenced by
+any admixture of alien blood. In England the children of Israel and the
+descendant of the Saxon are alike of a fair complexion, and on the banks
+of the Nile the Jew and the Egyptian show the same swarthy hue.[216]
+
+At first sight this American race would appear to offer evidence against
+the supposed influence of climate upon color, as one general form and
+complexion prevail in all latitudes of the New World, from the tropics
+to the frozen regions of the north. Great varieties, however, exist in
+the shade of the red or copper[217] color of the Indians. There are two
+extremes of complexion among mankind--those of the northern European and
+the African negro; between these there is a series of shades, that of
+the American Indian being about midway. The structure of the New World,
+and the circumstances of its inhabitants, may account for the generally
+equal color of their skin. The western Indian never becomes black, even
+when dwelling directly under the equator. He lives among stupendous
+mountain ranges, where cool breezes from the snowy heights sweep
+through the valleys and over the plains below. The vast rivers springing
+from under those lofty peaks inundate a great extent of country, and
+turn it into swamps, whence perpetual exhalations arise and lower the
+temperature. There are no fiery deserts to heat the passing wind and
+reflect the rays of the sun; a continual forest, with luxuriant foliage,
+and a dense underwood, spreads a pleasant shade over the surface of the
+earth. America, under the same latitudes, especially on the eastern
+coast, is every where colder than the Old World. The nearest approach to
+a black complexion is seen in the people of Brazil, a country
+comparatively low, and immediately under the equator. The inhabitants of
+the lofty Mexican table-land are also very dark, and on those arid
+plains the sun pours down its scorching rays upon a surface almost
+devoid of sheltering vegetation.
+
+The habits of savage life, and the constant exposure to the elements,
+seem sufficient to cause a dark tint upon the human skin even in the
+temperate regions of America, where the cold is far greater than in the
+same latitude in Europe. The inhabitants of those immense countries are
+badly clothed, imperfectly defended against the weather, miserably
+housed; wandering in war or in the chase, exposed for weeks at a time to
+the mercy of the elements, they soon darken into the indelible red or
+copper color of their race. On the northwest coasts, about latitude 50°,
+in Nootka Sound, and a number of other smaller bays, dwell a people more
+numerous and better provided with food and shelter than their eastern
+neighbors. They are free from a great part of the toils and hardships of
+the hunter, and from the vicissitudes of the season. When cleansed from
+their filthy and fantastic painting, it appears that their complexion
+and features resemble those of the European.[218]
+
+Modern discoveries have to a great extent dispelled the mystery of the
+Indian origin, and proved the fallacy of the numerous and ingenious
+theories formerly advanced with so much pertinacity and zeal. Since the
+northwest coasts of America and the northeast of Asia have been
+explored, little difficulty remains on this subject. The two continents
+approach so nearly in that direction that they are almost within sight
+of each other, and small boats can safely pass the narrow strait. Ten
+degrees further south, the Aleutian and Fox Islands[219] form a
+continuous chain between Kamtschatka and the peninsula of Alaska, in
+such a manner as to leave the passage across a matter of no difficulty.
+The rude and hardy Tschutchi, inhabiting the northeast of Asia,
+frequently sail from one continent to the other.[220] From the remotest
+antiquity, this ignorant people possessed the wonderful secret of the
+existence of a world hidden from the wisest and most adventurous of
+civilized nations. They were unconscious of the value of their vast
+discovery; they passed over a stormy strait from one frozen shore to
+another, as stern and desolate as that they had left behind, and knew
+not that they had crossed one of the great boundaries of earth. When
+they first entered upon the wilderness of America, probably the most
+adventurous pushed down toward the genial regions of the south, and so
+through the long ages of the past the stream of population flowed slowly
+on, wave by wave, to the remotest limits of the east and south. The
+Indians resemble the people of northeastern Asia in form and feature
+more than any other of the human race. Their population is most dense
+along the districts nearest to Asia; and among the Mexicans, whose
+records of the past deserve credence, there is a constant tradition that
+their Aztec and Toultec chiefs came from the northwest. Every where but
+to the north, America is surrounded with a vast ocean unbroken by any
+chain of islands that could connect it with the Old World. Most
+probably no living man ever crossed this immense barrier before the time
+of Columbus. It is certain that in no part of America have any authentic
+traces been found of European civilization; the civilization of America,
+such as it was, arose, as it flourished, in the fertile plains of
+Mexico[221] and in the delightful valleys of Peru;[222] there, where the
+bounty of nature supplied an abundance of the necessaries of life, the
+population rapidly multiplied, and the arts became objects of
+cultivation.
+
+There is something almost mysterious in the total difference between
+the languages of the Old and New World.[223] All the tongues of
+civilized nations spring from a few original roots, somewhat analogous
+to each other; but it would seem that, among wandering tribes, dispersed
+over a vast extent of country, carrying on but little intercourse, and
+having no written record or traditionary recital to preserve any fixed
+standard, language undergoes a complete change in the course of ages.
+The great varieties of tongues in America, and their dissimilarity to
+each other, tend to confirm this supposition.
+
+In various parts of America, remains are found which place beyond a
+doubt the ancient existence of a people more numerous, powerful, and
+civilized than the present race of Indians; but the indications of this
+departed people are not such as to bespeak their having been of very
+remote antiquity: the ruined cities of Central America, concealed by the
+forest growth of centuries, and the huge mounds of earth[224] in the
+Valley of the Mississippi and upon the table-lands of Mexico, their
+dwellings and mausoleums, although long swept over by the storm of
+savage conquest, afford no proofs of their having existed very far back
+into those dark ages when the New World was unknown to Europe. The
+history of these past races of men will probably forever remain a sealed
+book, but there is no doubt that a great population once covered those
+rich countries which the first English visitors found the wild
+hunting-grounds for a few savage tribes.[225] Probably the existing race
+of Red Men were the conquerors and exterminators of the feeble but
+civilized aboriginal nations, and as soon as they possessed the land
+they split into separate and hostile communities, waging perpetual war
+with each other so as constantly to diminish their numbers.
+
+Far up the Mississippi and the Missouri the exploration of the country
+brings to light incontestable proofs of the existence of the mysterious
+aboriginal race: wells artificially walled, and various other structures
+for convenience or defense, are frequently seen; ornaments of silver,
+copper, and even brass are found, together with various articles of
+pottery and sculptured stone; sepulchers filled with vast numbers of
+human bones have often been discovered, and human bodies in a state of
+preservation are sometimes exhumed. On one of these the hair was yellow
+or sandy, and it is well known that an unvarying characteristic of the
+present red race is the lank black hair. A splendid robe of a kind of
+linen, made apparently from nettle fibers, and interwoven with the
+beautiful feathers of the wild turkey, encircled this long-buried mummy.
+The number and the magnitude of the mounds bear evidence that the
+concurrent labors of a vast assembly of men were employed in their
+construction.[226]
+
+In the progress of early discovery and settlement, striking views were
+presented of savage life among the Red Men inhabiting the Atlantic
+coast; but later researches along the banks of the Mississippi and its
+tributaries, and by the great Canadian lakes, exhibited this people
+under a still more remarkable aspect. The most prominent among the
+natives of the interior for power, policy, and courage, were the
+Iroquois or Five Nations.[227] Their territory extended westward from
+Lake Champlain, to the farthest extremity of Ontario, along the southern
+banks of the St. Lawrence, and of the Great Lake. Although formed by the
+alliance of five independent tribes, they always presented a united
+front to their foes, whether in defense or aggression. Their enemies,
+the Algonquins, held an extensive domain on the northern bank of the St.
+Lawrence; these last were at one time the masters of all that portion of
+America, and were the most polished and mildest in manners of the
+northern tribes. They depended altogether for subsistence on the produce
+of the chase, and disdained those among their neighbors who attempted
+the cultivation of the soil. The Hurons[228] were a numerous nation,
+generally allied with the Algonquins, inhabiting the immense and
+fertile territory extending westward to the Great Lake, from which they
+take their name: they occupied themselves with a rude husbandry, which
+the fertile soil of the west repaid, by affording them an abundant
+subsistence; but they were more effeminate and luxurious than their
+neighbors, and inferior in savage virtue and independence. The
+above-named nations were those principally connected with the events of
+Canadian history.
+
+Man is less affected by climate in his bodily development than any other
+animal; his frame is at the same time so hardy and flexible, that he
+thrives and increases in every variety of temperature and situation,
+from the tropic to the pole; nevertheless, in extremes such as these,
+his complexion, size, and vigor usually undergo considerable
+modifications.[229] Among the Red Men of America, however, there is a
+remarkable similarity of countenance, form, manners, and habits, in
+every part of the continent. No other race can show people speaking
+different languages, inhabiting widely different climates, and
+subsisting on different food, who are so wonderfully alike.[231] There
+are, indeed, varieties of stature, strength, intellect, and self-respect
+to be found among them; but the savage of the frozen north, and the
+Indian of the tropics, have the same stamp of person, and the same
+instincts.[232] There is a language of signs common to all, conveying
+similar ideas, and providing a means of mutual intelligence to every Red
+Man from north to south.
+
+The North American Indians are generally of a fair height and
+proportion. Deformities or personal defects[233] are rare among them;
+and they are never seen to fall into corpulency. Their features,
+naturally pleasing and regular, are often distorted by absurd attempts
+to improve their beauty, or render their appearance more terrible. They
+have high cheek bones, sharp and rather aquiline noses, and good teeth.
+Their skin is generally described as red or copper-colored, approaching
+to the tint of cinnamon bark, a complexion peculiar to the inhabitants
+of the New World. The hair of the Americans, like that of their
+Mongolian ancestors, is coarse, black, thin, but strong, and growing to
+a great length. Many tribes of both these races remove it from every
+part of the head except the crown, where a small tuft is left, and
+cherished with care. It is a universal habit among the tribes of the New
+World to eradicate every symptom of beard: hence the early travelers
+were led to conclude that the smoothness of their faces resulted from a
+natural deficiency. One reason for the adoption of this strange custom
+was to enable them to paint themselves with greater ease. Among old men,
+who have become indifferent to their appearance, the beard is again seen
+to a small extent.[234]
+
+On the continent, especially toward the north, the natives were of
+robust and vigorous constitution. Their sole employment was the chase of
+the numerous wild animals of the forest and prairies: from their
+continual activity, their frame acquired firmness and strength;[235] but
+in the islands, where game was rare, and the earth supplied
+spontaneously an abundant subsistence, the Indians were comparatively
+feeble, being neither inured to the exertions of the chase nor the
+labors of cultivation. Generally, the Americans were more remarkable for
+agility than strength, and are said to have been more like beasts of
+prey than animals formed for labor. Toil was hateful, and even
+destructive to them; they broke down and perished under tasks that would
+not have wearied a European. Experience proves that the physical
+strength of civilized man exceeds that of the savage.[236] Hand to hand
+in war, in wrestling, leaping, and even in running for a short distance,
+this superiority usually appears. In a long journey, however, the
+endurance of the Indian has no parallel among Europeans. A Red Man has
+been known to travel nearly eighty miles between sunrise and sunset,
+without apparent fatigue. He performs a long journey, bearing a heavy
+burden, and indulging in no refreshment or repose; an enemy can not
+escape his persevering pursuit, even when mounted on a strong horse.
+
+It has been already observed that the Americans are rarely or never
+deformed, or defective in their senses, while in their wild state, but
+in those districts where the restraints of law are felt, an
+extraordinary number of blind, deaf, dwarfs, and cripples, are observed.
+The terrible custom among the savage tribes of destroying those
+children who do not promise a vigorous growth, accounts for this
+apparent anomaly. Infancy is so long and helpless that it weighs as a
+heavy burden upon a wandering people; food is scanty and uncertain of
+supply, hunters and their families must range over extensive countries,
+and often remove from place to place. Judging that children of feeble or
+defective formation are not likely to survive the hardships of this
+errant life, they destroy all such unpromising offspring,[237] or desert
+them to a slower and more dreadful fate. The lot of all is so hard that
+few born with any great constitutional defect could long survive, and
+arrive at maturity.
+
+In the simplicity of savage life, where labor does not oppress, nor
+luxury enervate the human frame, and where harassing cares are unknown,
+we are led to expect that disease and suffering should be comparatively
+rare, and that the functions of nature should not reach the close of
+their gradual decay till an extreme old age. The decrepit and shriveled
+forms of many American Indians would seem to indicate that they had long
+passed the ordinary time of life. But it is difficult or impossible to
+ascertain their exact age, as the art of counting is generally unknown
+among them, and they are strangely forgetful and indifferent to the
+past. Their longevity, however, varies considerably, according to
+differences of climate and habits of life. These children of nature are
+naturally free from many of the diseases afflicting civilized nations;
+they have not even names in their language to distinguish such ills, the
+offspring of a luxury to them unknown. The diseases of the savage,
+however, though few, are violent and fatal; the severe hardships of his
+mode of life produce maladies of a dangerous description. From
+improvidence they are often reduced for a considerable time to a state
+bordering on starvation. When successful in the chase, or in the seasons
+when earth supplies her bounty, they indulge in enormous excesses. These
+extremes of want and abundance prove equally pernicious, for, although
+habit and necessity enable them at the time to tolerate such sudden
+transitions, the constitution is ultimately injured: disorders arising
+from these causes strike down numbers in the prime and vigor of youth,
+and are so common that they appear the necessary consequences of their
+mode of life. The Indian is likewise peculiarly subject to consumption,
+pleurisy, asthma, and paralysis, engendered by the fatigues and
+hardships of the chase and war, and constant exposure to extremes of
+heat and cold. Experience supports the conclusion that the average life
+is greater among people in an advanced condition of society than among
+those in a state of nature; among savages, all are affected by
+circumstances of over-exertion, privation, and excess, but in civilized
+societies the diseases of luxury only affect the few.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 200: "Driven by the European populations toward the northwest
+of North America,[201] the savage tribes are returning, by a singular
+destiny, to expire on the same shore where they landed, in unknown ages,
+to take possession of America. In the Iroquois language, the Indians
+gave themselves the appellation of _Men of Always_ (Ongoueonoue); these
+_men of always_ have passed away, and the stranger will soon have left
+to the lawful heirs of a whole world nothing but the mold of their
+graves."--Chateaubriand's _Travels in America_ (Eng. trans.), vol. ii.,
+p. 93.]
+
+[Footnote 201: De Tocqueville calculated that along the borders of the
+United States, from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico, extending a
+distance of more than 1200 miles, as the bird flies, the whites advance
+every year at a mean rate of seventeen miles; and he truly observes that
+there is a grandeur and solemnity in this gradual and continuous march
+of the European race toward the Rocky Mountains. He compares it to "a
+deluge of men rising, unabatedly, and daily driven onward by the hand of
+God."--_Democracy in America_, vol. ii., cap. x., §4; Lyell, vol. ii.,
+p. 77.]
+
+[Footnote 202: See Appendix, No. XLI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 203: See Appendix, No. XLII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 204: "Generally speaking, the American races of mankind were
+characterized by a want of domestic animals, and this had considerable
+influence on their domestic life." (_Cosmos_, note, vol. ii., p. 481.)
+Contrasting the Bedouin with the Red Indian, Volney observes, "the
+American savage is, on the contrary, a hunter and a butcher, who has had
+daily occasion to kill and slay, and in every animal has beheld nothing
+but a fugitive prey, which he must be quick to seize. He has thus
+acquired a roaming, wasteful, and ferocious disposition; has become an
+animal of the same kind with the wolf and tiger; has united in bands or
+troops, but not into organized societies."]
+
+[Footnote 205: On ne prit pas d'abord les Américains pour des hommes,
+mais pour des orang-otangs, pour des grands singes, qu'on pouvoit
+détruire sans remords et sans reproche. Un pape fit une Bulle originale
+dans laquelle il déclara qu' ayant envie de fonder des Evêchés dans les
+plus riches contrées de l'Amérique, il plaisoit à lui et au Saint Esprit
+de reconnoitre les Américains pour des hommes véritables; de sorte que,
+sans cette décision d'une Italien, les habitans du Nouveau Monde
+seroient encore maintenant, aux yeux des fidèles, une race d'animaux
+équivoques.... Qui auroit cru que malgré cette sentence de Rome, on eut
+agité violemment au conseil de Lima, 1583, si les Américains avoient
+assez d'esprit pour être admis aux sacrements de l'Eglise. Plusieurs
+évêques persistèrent à les leur refuser pendant que les Jésuites
+faisoient communier tous les jours leurs Indiens esclaves au Paraquai,
+afin de les accoûtumer, disoient-ils, à la discipline, et pour les
+détourner de l'horrible coutume de se nourrir de chair humain.--_Récherches
+Philosophiques sur les Américains_, De Pauw, tom. i., p. 35.]
+
+[Footnote 206: Rousseau, opposed by Buffon, Volney, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 207: "Notwithstanding the striking analogies existing between the
+nations of the New Continent and the Tartar tribes who have adopted the
+religion of Bouddah, I think I discover in the mythology of the Americans,
+in the style of their paintings, in their languages, and especially in
+their external conformation, the descendants of a race of men, which, early
+separated from the rest of mankind, has followed for a lengthened series of
+years a peculiar road in the unfolding of its intellectual faculties, and
+in its tendency toward civilization."--Humboldt's _Ancient Inhabitants of
+America_, vol. i., p. 200.
+
+"It can not be doubted that the greater part of the nations of America
+belong to a race of men who, isolated ever since the infancy of the
+world from the rest of mankind, exhibit in the nature and diversity of
+language, in their features, and the conformation of their skull,
+incontestable proofs of an early and complete civilization."--_Ibid._,
+vol. i., p. 250.
+
+On the American races in general, Humboldt refers to the beautiful work
+of Samuel George Morton, _Craniæ Americanæ_, 1839, p. 62-86; and an
+account of the skulls brought by Pentland from the Highlands of
+Titicaca, in the '_Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science_,'
+vol. v., p. 475, 1834; also, Alcide d'Orbigny, _L'Homme Américain
+considéré sous ses Rapports Physiol. et Mor._, p. 221, 1839; and,
+further, the work, so full of delicate ethnographical observations, of
+Prinz Maximilian of Wied, _Reise in das Innere von Nordamerika_, 1839.]
+
+[Footnote 208: "With regard to their origin, I have no doubt,
+independent of theological considerations, but that it is the same with
+ours. The resemblance of the North American savages to the Oriental
+Tartars renders it probable that they originally sprang from the same
+stock."--Buffon, Eng. trans., vol. iii., p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 209: "The Ethiopians," sings the old tragedian, Theodectes of
+Phaselis, "are dyed by the near sun-god in his course with a dark and
+sooty luster; the sun's heat crisps and dries up their hair." The
+expeditions of Alexander, which were so influential in exciting ideas of
+the physical cosmography, first fanned the dispute on the uncertain
+influence of climate upon races of men. Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. i., p.
+386. Volney, p. 506, and Oldmixon, vol. i., p. 286, assert that the
+savages are born white, and in their infancy continue so. An intelligent
+Indian said to Volney, "Why should there be any difference of color
+between us and them? (some Spaniards who had been bronzed in America).
+In them, as in us, it is the work of _the father of colors_, the sun,
+that burns us. You whites yourselves compare the skin of your faces with
+that of your bodies." This brought to my remembrance that, on my return
+from Turkey, when I quitted the turban, half my forehead above the
+eyebrows was almost like bronze, while the other half next the hair was
+as white as paper. If, as natural philosophy demonstrates, there be no
+color but what originates from light, it is evident that the different
+complexions of people are owing entirely to the various modifications of
+this fluid with other elements that act on our skin, and even compose
+its substance. Sooner or later it will be proved that the blackness of
+the African has no other source.--P. 408.
+
+"Vespuce décrit les indigènes du Nouveau Continent dans sa première
+lettre comme des hommes à face large et à physionomie _tartare_, dont la
+couleur rougeâtre n'étoit due qu'à l'habitude de ne pas être vêtus. Il
+revient à cette même opinion en examinant les Brésiliens." (Canovai, p.
+87, 90.) "Leur teint, dit il, est rougeâtre, ce qui vient de leur nudité
+absolue et de l'ardeur du soleil auquel ils sont constamment exposés.
+Cette erreur a été partagée par un des voyageurs modernes les plus
+spirituels, mais des plus systématiques, par Volney." (_Essai Politique
+sur la Mexique._) Humboldt's _Géog. du Nouv. Continent_, vol. v., p.
+25.]
+
+[Footnote 210: On the influence of humidity much stress has been laid by
+M. D'Orbigny and Sir R. Schomburgh, each of whom has made the remark as
+the result of personal and independent observation on the inhabitants of
+the New World, that people who live under the damp shade of dense and
+lofty forests are comparatively fair.]
+
+[Footnote 211: See Appendix, No. XLI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 212: Mr. Jarrold asserts that the negro becomes the most
+perfect specimen of the human species, in consequence of his possessing
+the coarsest and most impassive integument.--_Anthropologia._]
+
+[Footnote 213: See Appendix, No. XLII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 214: "It is intellectual culture which contributes most to
+diversify the features. Barbarous nations have rather a physiognomy of
+tribe or horde than one peculiar to such or such an individual. The
+savage and civilized man are like those animals of the same species,
+several of which rove in the forest, while others connected with us
+share in the benefits and evils that accompany civilization. The
+varieties of form and color are frequent only in domestic animals. How
+great is the difference with respect to mobility of feature and variety
+of physiognomy between dogs again become savage in the New World, and
+those whose slightest caprices are indulged in the houses of the
+opulent. Both in men and animals the emotions of the soul are reflected
+in the features; and the features acquire the habit of mobility in
+proportion as the emotions of the mind are more frequent, more varied,
+and more durable. In every condition of man, it is not the energy or the
+transient burst of the passions which give expression to the features;
+it is rather that sensibility of the soul which brings us continually
+into contact with the external world, multiplies our sufferings and our
+pleasures, and reacts at once on the physiognomy, the manners, and the
+language. If the variety and mobility of the features embellish the
+domain of animated nature, we must admit also that both increase by
+civilization without being produced by it alone. In the great family of
+nations, no other race unites these advantages to a higher degree than
+that of Caucasus or the European. It must be admitted that this
+insensibility of the features is not peculiar to every race of men of a
+very dark complexion: it is much less apparent in the African than in
+the natives of America."--Humboldt's _Personal Narrative_, vol. iii., p.
+230.]
+
+[Footnote 215: Tacitus, in his speculations on the peopling of Britain,
+distinguishes very beautifully between what may belong to the ultimate
+influences of the country, and what may pertain to an old, unalterable
+type in the immigrated race. "Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerunt,
+indigenæ an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus
+corporis varii, atque ex eo argumenta; namque rutilæ Caledoniam
+habitantium comæ, magni artus Germanicam originem adseverant. Silurum
+colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania,
+Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes occupâsse fidem faciunt: proximi
+Gallis et similes sunt, seu durante originis vi; seu, procurrentibus in
+divisa terris, positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit."--_Agricola_,
+cap. ii.
+
+"No ancient author has so clearly stated the two forms of reasoning by
+which we still explain in our days the differences of color and figure
+among neighboring nations as Tacitus. He makes a just distinction
+between the influence of climate and hereditary dispositions, and, like
+a philosopher persuaded of our profound ignorance of the origin of
+things, leaves the question undecided."--Humboldt's _Personal
+Narrative_.]
+
+[Footnote 216: See Smith on _The Variety of Complexion of the Human
+Species_.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Mr. Lawrence's precise definition is "an obscure orange
+or rusty-iron color, not unlike the bark of the cinnamon-tree." Among
+the early discoverers, Vespucius applies to them the epithet
+"rougeâtre." Verazzano says, "sono di color berrettini e non molto dalli
+Saracini differenti."]
+
+[Footnote 218: Cook's Narrative calls their color an _effete_ white,
+like that of the southern nations of Europe. Meares expressly says that
+some of the females, when cleaned, were found to have the fair
+complexions of Europe.
+
+Somewhat further north, at Cloak Bay, in lat. 54° 10', Humboldt remarks,
+that "in the midst of copper-colored Indians, with small, long eyes,
+there is a tribe with large eyes, European features, and a skin less
+dark than that of our peasantry."--_New Spain_, vol. i., p. 145.
+
+Humboldt considers this as the strongest argument of an original
+diversity of race which has remained unaffected by climate.]
+
+[Footnote 219: See Appendix. No. XLV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 220: Cochrane's _Pedestrian Journey_.]
+
+[Footnote 221: Prescott remarks, that the progress made by the Mexicans
+in astronomy, and especially the fact of their having a general board
+for education and the fine arts, proves more in favor of their
+advancement than the noble architectural monuments which they and their
+kindred tribes erected. "Architecture," he observes, "is a sensual
+gratification, and addresses itself to the eye; it is the form in which
+the resources of a semi-civilized people are most likely to be
+lavished."--_Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 155; Lyell's _America_,
+vol. i., p. 115.]
+
+[Footnote 222: Dans les régions anciennement agricoles de l'Amérique
+méridionale les conquérans Européens n'ont fait que suivre les traces
+d'une culture indigène. Les Indiens sont restés attachés au sol qu'ils
+ont défriché depuis des siècles. Le Mexique seul compte un million sept
+cent mille indigènes de race pure, dont le nonbre augmente avec la même
+rapidité que celui des autres castes. Au Mexique, à Guatemala, à Quito,
+au Pérou, à Bolivia, la physionomie du pays, à l'exception de quelques
+grandes villes, est essentiellement Indienne; dans les campagnes la
+varieté des langues s'est conservée avec les moeurs, le costume et les
+habitudes de la vie domestiqne. Il n'y a de plus que des troupeaux de
+vaches et de brebis, quelques céreales nouvelles et les cérémonies d'une
+culte qui se mêlé à d'antiques superstitions locales. Il faut avoir vécu
+dans les hautes plaines de l'Amérique Espagnole ou dans la conféderation
+Anglo-Américain pour sentir vivement combien ce contraste entre des
+peuples chasseurs et des peuples agricoles, entre des pays longtemps
+barbares ou des pays offrant d'anciennes institutions politiques et une
+législation indigène très developpée, a facilité ou entravé la conquête,
+influé sur les formes des premiers établissement européens, conservé
+même de nos jours aux différentes parties de l'Amérique indépendante, un
+caractère ineffaçable. Déjà le père Joseph Acosta qui a étudié sur les
+lieux mêmes les suites du grand drame sanguinaire de la conquête a bien
+saisi ces différences frappantes de civilisation progressive et
+d'absence entière d'ordre social qu'offrait le nouveau-monde à l'époque
+de Christopher Colomb, ou peu de tems après la colonisation par les
+Espagnols.--_Hist. Nat. y Moral._ lib. vi., cap. ii.; Humboldt's
+_Géographie du Nouveau Continent_, tom. i., p. 130.]
+
+[Footnote 223: See Appendix, No. XLVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 224: "In both Americas it is a matter of inquiry what was the
+intention of the natives when they raised so many artificial hills,
+several of which appear to have served neither as mounds, nor
+watch-towers, nor the base of a temple. A custom established in Eastern
+Asia may throw some light on this important question. Two thousand three
+hundred years before our era, sacrifices were offered in China to the
+Supreme Being, Chan-Ty, on four great mountains called the Four Yo. The
+sovereigns, finding it inconvenient to go thither in person, caused
+eminences representing these mountains to be erected by the hands of men
+near their habitations."--_Voyage of Lord Macartney_, vol. i., p. 58;
+Hager, _Monument of Yu_, p. 10, 1802.]
+
+[Footnote 225: Mr. Flint asserts, "that the greatest population clearly
+has been in those positions where the most dense future population will
+be."--P. 166.]
+
+[Footnote 226: "The bones of animals and snakes have sometimes been
+found mixed with human bones in these tumuli, and out of one near
+Cincinnati were dug two large marine shells, one of which was the
+_Cassis cornulus_ of the Asiatic islands, the other the _Fulgur
+perversus_ of the coast of Georgia and East Florida; and this is an
+additional argument used in favor of the alleged intercourse existing
+anciently between the Indians of this part of North America and the
+inhabitants of Asia, and between them and those of the Atlantic. Many
+circumstances still existing give probability to the popular belief that
+the American Indians had their origin in Asia. In their persons, color,
+and reserved disposition, they have a strong resemblance to the Malays
+of the Oriental Archipelago--that is to say, to some of the Tartar
+tribes of Upper Asia; and it is a remarkable circumstance, that, like
+those, they shave the head, leaving only a single lock of hair. The
+picture language of the Mexicans, as corresponding with the ancient
+picture language of China, and the quipos of Peru with the knotted and
+party-colored cords which the Chinese history informs us were in use in
+the early period of the empire, may also be adduced as corroborative
+evidence. The high cheek bones and the elongated eye of the two people,
+besides other personal resemblances, suggest the probability of a common
+origin."--_Quarterly Review_, No. LVII., p. 13.
+
+"The Iroquois and Hurons made hieroglyphic paintings on wood, which bear
+a striking resemblance to those of the Mexicans."--Lafitau, vol. ii., p.
+43, 225; La Houtan, p. 193.
+
+"A long struggle between two religious sects, the Brahmans and the
+Buddhists, terminated by the emigration of the Chamans to Thibet.
+Mongolia, China, and Japan. If tribes of the Tartar race have passed
+over to the northwest coast of America, and thence to the south and the
+east, toward the banks of Gila, and those of the Missouri, as
+etymological researches serve to indicate, we should be less surprised
+at finding among the semi-barbarous nations of the New Continent idols
+and monuments of architecture, a hieroglyphical writing, and exact
+knowledge of the duration of the year, and traditions respecting the
+first state of the world, recalling to our minds the arts, the sciences,
+and religious opinions of the Asiatic nations."--Humboldt's
+_Researches_.
+
+In his description of a Mexican painting, Humboldt observes, "The slave
+on the left is like the figure of those saints which we see frequently
+in Hindoo paintings, and which the navigator Roblet found on the
+northwest coast of America, among the hieroglyphical paintings of the
+natives of Cox's Channel."--Merchant's _Voyage_, vol. i., p. 312.
+
+"It is probably by philosophical and antiquarian researches in Tartary
+that the history of those civilized nations of North America, of whose
+great works only the wreck remains, will alone be elucidated."--See
+Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. iii., chap. xxii.; and
+Stephens's _Central America_, vol. i., p. 96; vol. ii., chap, xxvi., p.
+186, 357, 413, 433. See Appendix, No. XLVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 227: "The five nations were the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the
+Cayugas, the Onondagas, and the Senecas. The Dutch called them Maquas,
+the French Iroquois; their appellation at home was the Mingoes, and
+sometimes the Aganuschion, or United People."--Governor Clinton's
+_Discourse before New York Historical Society_, 1811.
+
+The Iroquois have often, among Europeans, been termed the Romans of the
+West. "Le nom d'Iroquois est purement françois, et a été forme du terme
+_Hiro_, qui signifie, _J'ai dit_, par lequel ces sauvages finissent tout
+leur discours, comme les Latins faisaient autrefois par leur _Dixi_; et
+_de Koué_, qui est un cri, tantôt de tristesse, lorsqu' on le prononce
+en traînant, et tantôt de joie, lorsqu'on le prononce plus court. Leur
+nom propre est Agonnonsionni, qui veut dire, _Faiseurs de Cabannes_;
+parcequ'ils les bâtissent beaucoup plus solides, que la plupart des
+autres sauvages."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 421.
+
+Lafitau gives the Iroquois the same name of Agonnonsionni; they used to
+say of themselves that the five nations of which they were composed
+formed but one "Cabane."]
+
+[Footnote 228: "Le Père Brebeuf comptoit environ trente mille âmes de
+vrais Hurons, distribués en vingt villages de la nation. Il y avoit
+outre cela, douze nations sédentaires et nombreuses, qui parloient leur
+langue. La plupart de ces nations ne subsistent plus, les Iroquois ces
+ont detruites. Les vrais Hurons sont réduits aujourd'hui à la petite
+mission de Lorette, qui est près de Quebec, où l'on voit le
+Christianisme fleurir avec l'édification de tous les Français, à la
+nation des Tionnontatès qui sont établis au Détroit, et à une autre
+nation qui s'est refugiée à la Carolina."--Charlevoix, 1721.
+
+"The Tionnontatès mentioned above now bear the name of Wyandots, and are
+a striking exception to the degeneracy which usually attends the
+intercourse of Indians with Europeans. The Wyandots have all the energy
+of the savage warrior, with the intelligence and docility of civilized
+troops. They are Christians, and remarkable for orderly and inoffensive
+conduct; but as enemies, they are among the most dreadful of their race.
+They were all mounted (in the war of 1812-13), fearless, active,
+enterprising; to contend with them in the forest was hopeless, and to
+avoid their pursuit, impossible.
+
+"It is worthy of remark, that the Wyandots are the only part of the
+Huron nation who ever joined in alliance with the English. The mass of
+the Hurons were always the faithful friends of the French during the
+times of the early settlement of Canada."--_Quarterly Review_.]
+
+[Footnote 229: The extremes of heat and cold are as unfavorable to
+intellectual as to physical superiority,[230] a fact which may be easily
+traced throughout the vast and varied extent of the two Americas. "As
+far as the parallel of 53°, the temperature of the northwest coast of
+America is milder than that of the eastern coasts: we are led to expect,
+therefore, that civilization had anciently made some progress in this
+climate, and even in higher latitudes. Even in our own times, we
+perceive that in the 59th degree of latitude, in Cox's Channel and
+Norfolk Sound, the natives have a decided taste for hieroglyphical
+paintings on wood."--Humboldt _on the Ancient Inhabitants of America_.
+
+It has been ascertained that this western coast is populous, and the
+race somewhat superior to the other Indians in arts and
+civilization.--Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 297-303; Venegas's _California_,
+Part ii., §ii.
+
+"From the happy coincidence of various circumstances, man raises himself
+to a certain degree of cultivation, even in climates the least favorable
+to the development of organized beings. Near the polar circle, in
+Iceland, in the twelfth century, we know the Scandinavians cultivated
+literature and the arts with more success than the inhabitants of
+Denmark and Prussia."--Humboldt.]
+
+[Footnote 230: The most temperate climate lies between the 40th and 50th
+degree of latitude, and it produces the most handsome and beautiful
+people. It is from this climate that the ideas of the genuine color of
+mankind and of the various degrees of beauty ought to be derived. The
+two extremes are equally remote from truth and from beauty. The
+civilized countries situated under this zone are Georgia, Circassia, the
+Ukraine, Turkey in Europe, Hungary, the south of Germany, Italy,
+Switzerland, France, and the northern parts of Spain. The natives of
+these territories are the most handsome and most beautiful people in the
+world.--Buffon, English trans., vol. iii., p. 205.]
+
+[Footnote 231: Mr. Flint says. "I have inspected the northern, middle,
+and southern Indians for a length of ten years; my opportunities of
+observation have, therefore, been considerable, and I do not undertake
+to form a judgment of their character without, at least, having seen
+much of it. I have been forcibly struck by a general resemblance in
+their countenance, make, conformation, manners, and habits. I believe
+that no race of men can show people who speak different languages,
+inhabit different climes, and subsist on different food, and who are yet
+so wonderfully alike."--(1831.)
+
+Don Antonio Ulloa, who had extensive opportunities of forming an opinion
+on the natives of both the continents of America, asserts that "If we
+have seen one American, we may be said to have seen all, their color and
+make are so nearly the same."--_Notic. Americanas_, p. 308. See,
+likewise, Garcia, _Origin de los Indios_, p. 55-242; Torquemada,
+_Monarch. Indiana_, vol. ii., p. 571.
+
+"If we except the northern regions, where we find men similar to the
+Laplanders, all the rest of America is peopled with inhabitants among
+whom there is little or no diversity. This great uniformity among the
+natives of America seems to proceed from their living all in the same
+manner. All the Americans were, or still are, savages; the Mexicans and
+Peruvians were so recently polished that they ought not to be regarded
+as an exception. Whatever, therefore, was the origin of those savages,
+it seems to have been common to the whole. All the Americans have sprung
+from the same source, and have preserved, with little variation, the
+characters of their race; for they have all continued in a savage state,
+and have followed nearly the same mode of life. Their climates are not
+so unequal with regard to heat and cold as those of the ancient
+continent, and their establishment in America has been too recent to
+allow those causes which produce varieties sufficient time to operate so
+as to render their effects conspicuous."--Buffon, Eng. trans., vol.
+iii., p. 188.]
+
+[Footnote 232: See Appendix, No. XLVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 233: See Appendix, No. XLIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 234: There would never have been any difference of opinion
+between physiologists, as to the existence of the beard among the
+Americans, if they had paid attention to what the first historians of
+the conquest of their country have said on this subject; for example,
+Pigafetta, in 1519, in his Journal preserved in the Ambrosian library at
+Milan, and published (in 1800) by Amoretti, p. 18.--Benzoni, _Hist. del
+Mundo Nuovo_, p. 35, 1572; Bembo, _Hist. Venet._, p. 86, 1557;
+Humboldt's _Personal Narrative_, vol. iii., p. 235.
+
+"The Indians have no beard, because they use certain receipts to
+extirpate it, which they will not communicate."--Oldmixon, vol. i., p.
+286.
+
+"Experience has made known that these receipts were little shells which
+they used as tweezers; since they have become acquainted with metals,
+they have invented an instrument consisting of a piece of brass wire
+rolled round a piece of wood the size of the finger, so as to form a
+special spring; this grasps the hairs within its turns, and pulls out
+several at once. No wonder if this practice, continued for several
+generations, should enfeeble the roots of the beard. Did the practice of
+eradicating the beard, originate from the design of depriving the enemy
+of such a dangerous hold on the face? This seems to me probable."--Volney,
+p. 412.]
+
+[Footnote 235: When the statue of Apollo Belvedere was shown to Benjamin
+West on his first arrival at Rome, he exclaimed, "It is a model from a
+young North American Indian."--_Ancient America._]
+
+[Footnote 236: "It is a notorious fact, that every European who has
+embraced the savage life has become stronger and better inured to every
+excess than the savages themselves. The superiority of the people of
+Virginia and Kentucky over them has been confirmed, not only in troop
+opposed to troop, but man to man, in all their wars."--Volney, p. 417.]
+
+[Footnote 237: Yet infanticide is condemned among the Red Indians both
+by their theology and their feelings. Dr. Richardson relates that those
+tribes who hold the idea that "the souls of the departed have to
+scramble up a great mountain, at whose top they receive the reward of
+their good or bad deeds, declare that women who have been guilty of
+infanticide never reach the top of this mountain at all. They are
+compelled instead to travel around the scenes of their crimes with
+branches of trees tied to their legs. The melancholy sounds which are
+heard in the still summer evenings, and which the ignorance of the white
+people looks upon as the screams of the goat-suckers, are really,
+according to my informant, the moanings of these unhappy
+beings"--Franklin's _Journey to the Polar Seas_, p. 77, 78.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+
+The Indian is endowed with a far greater acuteness of sense than the
+European. Despite the dazzling brightness of the long-continued snows,
+and the injurious action of the smoke of burning wood to which he is
+constantly exposed, he possesses extraordinary quickness of sight. He
+can also hear and distinguish the faintest sounds, alike through the
+gentle rustling of the forest leaves and in the roar of the storm; his
+power of smell is so delicate that he scents fire long before it becomes
+visible. By some peculiar instinct the Indian steers through the
+trackless forests, over the vast prairies, and even across wide sheets
+of water with unerring certainty. Under the gloomiest and most obscure
+sky, he can follow the course of the sun[238] as if directed by a
+compass. These powers would seem innate in this mysterious race; they
+can scarcely be the fruit of observation or practice, for children who
+have never left their native village can direct their course through
+pathless solitudes as accurately as the experienced hunter.
+
+In the early stages of social progress, when the life of man is rude and
+simple, the reason is little exercised, and his wants and wishes are
+limited within narrow bounds; consequently, his intellect is feebly
+developed, and his emotions are few but concentrated. These conditions
+were generally observable among the rudest tribes of the American
+Indians.
+
+There are, however, some very striking peculiarities in the intellectual
+character of the Red Men. Without any aid from letters or education,
+some of the lower mental faculties are developed in a remarkable degree.
+As orators, strategists, and politicians, they have frequently exhibited
+very great power.[240] They are constantly engaged in dangerous and
+difficult enterprises, where ingenuity and presence of mind are
+essential for their preservation. They are vigorous in the thought which
+is allied to action, but altogether incapable of speculation, deduction,
+or research. The ideas and attention of a savage are confined to the
+objects relating to his subsistence, safety, or indulgence: every thing
+else escapes his observation or excites little interest in his mind.
+Many tribes appear to make no arrangement for the future; neither care
+nor forethought prevents them from blindly following a present impulse,
+regardless of its consequences.
+
+The natives of North America were divided into a number of small
+communities; in the relation of these to each other, war or negotiation
+was constantly carried on; revolutions, conquests, and alliances
+frequently occurred among them. To raise the power of his tribe, and to
+weaken or destroy that of his enemy, was the great aim of every Indian.
+For these objects schemes were profoundly laid, and deeds of daring
+valor achieved: the refinements of diplomacy were employed, and plans
+arranged with the most accurate calculation. These peculiar
+circumstances also developed the power of oratory to an extraordinary
+degree.[241] Upon all occasions of importance, speeches were delivered
+with eloquence, and heard with deep attention. When danger threatened,
+or opportunity of aggrandizement or revenge offered itself, a council of
+the tribe was called, where those most venerable from age and
+illustrious for wisdom deliberated for the public good. The composition
+of the Indian orator is studied and elaborate; the language is vigorous,
+and, at the same time, highly imaginative; all ideas are expressed by
+figures addressed to the senses; the sun and stars, mountains and
+rivers, lakes and forests, hatchets of war and pipes of peace, fire and
+water, are employed as illustrations of his subject with almost Oriental
+art and richness. His eloquence is unassisted by action or varied
+intonation, but his earnestness excites the sympathy of the audience,
+and his persuasion sinks into their hearts.[242]
+
+The want of any written or hieroglyphic records of the past among the
+Northern Indians was, to some extent, supplied by the accurate memories
+of their old men; they were able to repeat speeches of four or five
+hours' duration, and delivered many years before, without error or even
+hesitation, and to hand them down from generation to generation with
+equal accuracy, their recollection being only assisted by small pieces
+of wood corresponding to the different subjects of discourse. On great
+and solemn occasions, belts of wampum were used as aid to recollection
+whenever a conference was held with a neighboring tribe, or a treaty or
+compact is negotiated. One of these belts, differing in some respects
+from any other hitherto used, was made for the occasion; each person who
+speaks holds this in his hand by turns, and all he says is recorded in
+the "living books" of the by-standers' memory in connection with the
+belt. When the conference ends, this memorial is deposited in the hands
+of the principal chief. As soon as any important treaty is ratified, a
+broad wampum belt of unusual splendor is given by each contracting party
+to the other, and these tokens are deposited among the other belts, that
+form, as it were, the archives of the nation. At stated intervals they
+are reproduced before the people, and the events which they commemorate
+are circumstantially recalled. Certain of the Indian women are intrusted
+with the care of these belts: it is their duty to relate to the children
+of the tribe the circumstances of each treaty or conference, and thus is
+kept alive the remembrance of every important event.
+
+On the matters falling within his limited comprehension, the Indian
+often displays a correct and solid judgment; he pursues his object
+without hesitation or diversion. He is quickly perceptive of simple
+facts or ideas, but any artificial combination, or mechanical
+contrivance he is slow to comprehend, especially as he considers every
+thing beneath his notice which is not necessary to his advantage or
+enjoyment. It is very difficult to engage him in any labor of a purely
+mental character, but he often displays vivacity and ardor in matters
+that interest him, and is frequently quick and happy in repartee.[243]
+
+The Red Man is usually characterized by a certain savage elevation of
+soul and calm self-possession, that all the aid of religion and
+philosophy can not enable his civilized brethren to surpass. Master of
+his emotions, the expression of his countenance rarely alters for a
+moment even under the most severe and sudden trials. The prisoner,
+uncertain as to the fate that may befall him, preparing for his dreadful
+death, or racked by agonizing tortures, still raises his unfaltering
+voice in the death song, and turns a fearless front toward his
+tormentors.[245]
+
+The art of numbering was unknown in some American tribes, and even among
+the most advanced it was very imperfect; the savage had no property to
+estimate, no coins to count, no variety of ideas to enumerate. Many
+nations could not reckon above three, and had no words in their language
+to distinguish a greater number; some proceeded as far as ten, others to
+twenty; when they desired to convey an idea of a larger amount, they
+pointed to the hair of the head, or declared that it could not be
+counted. Computation is a mystery to all rude nations; when, however,
+they acquire the knowledge of a number of objects, and find the
+necessity of combining or dividing them, their acquaintance with
+arithmetic increases; the state of this art is therefore, to a
+considerable extent, a criterion of their degree of progress. The wise
+and politic Iroquois had advanced the farthest, but even they had not
+got beyond one thousand; the smaller tribes seldom reached above ten.
+
+The first ideas are suggested to the mind of man by the senses: the
+Indian acquires no other. The objects around him are all important; if
+they be available for his present purposes, they attract his attention,
+otherwise they excite no curiosity: he neither combines nor arranges
+them, nor does he examine the operations of his own mind upon them; he
+has no abstract or universal ideas, and his reasoning powers are
+generally employed upon matters merely obvious to the senses. In the
+languages of the ruder tribes there were no words to express any thing
+that is not material, such as faith, time, imagination, and the like.
+When the mind of the savage is not occupied with matters relating to his
+animal existence, it is altogether inactive. In the islands, and upon
+the exuberant plains of the south, where little exertion of ingenuity
+was required to obtain the necessaries of life, the rational faculties
+were frequently dormant, and the countenance remained vacant and
+inexpressive. Even the superior races of the north loiter away their
+time in thoughtless indolence, when not engaged in war or the chase,
+deeming other objects unworthy of their consideration. Where reason is
+so limited in a field for exertion, the mind can hardly acquire any
+considerable degree of vigor or enlargement. In civilized life men are
+urged to activity and perseverance by a desire to gratify numerous
+artificial wants; but the necessities of the Indian are few, and
+provided for by nature almost spontaneously. He detests labor, and will
+sometimes sit for whole days together without uttering a word or
+changing his posture. Neither the hope of reward nor the prospect of
+future want can overcome this inveterate indolence.
+
+Among the northern tribes, however, dwelling under a rigorous climate,
+some efforts are employed, and some precautions taken, to procure
+subsistence; but the necessary industry is even there looked upon as a
+degradation: the greater part of the labor is performed by women, and
+man will only stoop to those portions of the work which he considers
+least ignominious. This industry, so oppressive to one half of the
+community, is very partial, and directed by a limited foresight. During
+one part of the year they depend upon fishing for a subsistence, during
+another upon the chase, and the produce of the ground is their resource
+for the third. Regardless of the warnings of experience, they neglect to
+apportion provision for their wants, or can so little restrain their
+appetites, that, from imprudence or extravagance, they often are exposed
+to the miseries of famine like their ruder neighbors. Their sufferings
+are soon forgotten, and the horrors of one year seem to teach no lesson
+of providence for the next.
+
+The Indians, for the most part, are very well acquainted with the
+geography of their own country. When questioned as to the situation of
+any particular place, they will trace out on the ground with a stick, if
+opportunity offer, a tolerably accurate map of the locality indicated.
+They will show the course of the rivers, and, by pointing toward the
+sun, explain the bearings of their rude sketch. There have been recorded
+some most remarkable instances of the accuracy with which they can
+travel toward a strange place, even when its description had only been
+received through the traditions of several generations, and they could
+have possessed no personal knowledge whatever of the surrounding
+country.
+
+The religion of the natives of America can not but be regarded with an
+interest far deeper than the gratification of mere curiosity. The forms
+of faith, the rites, the ideas of immortality; the belief in future
+reward, in future punishment; the recognition of an invisible Power,
+infinitely surpassing that of the warrior or the chief; the dim
+traditions of a first parent, and a general deluge--all these, among a
+race so long isolated from the rest of the human family, distinct in
+language, habits, form, and mind, and displaying, when societies began
+to exist, a civilization utterly dissimilar from any before known,
+afford subject for earnest thought and anxious inquiry. Those who in the
+earlier times of American discovery supplied information on these
+points, were generally little qualified for the task. Priests and
+missionaries alone had leisure or inclination to pursue the subject;
+and their minds were often so preoccupied with their own peculiar
+doctrines, that they accommodated to them all that fell under their
+observation, and explained it by analogies which had no existence but in
+their own zealous imaginations. They seldom attempted to consider what
+they saw or heard in relation to the rude notions of the savages
+themselves. From a faint or fancied similarity of peculiar Indian
+superstitions to certain articles of Christian faith, some missionaries
+imagined they had discovered traces of an acquaintance with the divine
+mysteries of salvation: they concluded that the savage possessed a
+knowledge of the doctrine of the Trinity,[247] of the Incarnation, of
+the sacrifice of a Saviour, and of sacraments, from their own
+interpretation of certain expressions and ceremonies.[248] But little
+confidence can be placed in any evidence derived from such sources.
+
+The earlier travelers in the interior of the New World received the
+impression that the Indians had no religious belief; they saw neither
+priests, temples, idols, nor sacrifices among any of the various and
+numerous tribes. A further knowledge of this strange people disproved
+the hastily-formed opinion, and showed that their whole life and all
+their actions were influenced by a belief in the spiritual world.[249]
+It is now known that the American Indians were pre-eminent among savage
+nations for the superior purity of their religious faith,[250] and,
+indeed, over even the boasted elegance of poetical mythology. From the
+reports of all those worthy of credence, who have lived intimately among
+these children of the forest, it is certain that they firmly believe in
+the power and unity of the Most High God, and in an immortality of
+happiness or misery. They worship the Great Spirit, the Giver of life,
+and attribute to him the creation of the world, and the government of
+all things with infinite love, wisdom, and power. Of the origin of their
+religion they are altogether ignorant. In general they believe that,
+after the world was created and supplied with animal life by the Great
+Spirit, he formed the first red man and woman, who were very large of
+stature, and lived to an extreme old age; that he often held council
+with his creatures, gave them laws and instructed them, but that the red
+children became rebels against their Great Father, and he then withdrew
+himself in sorrowful anger from among them, and left them to the
+vexations of the Bad Spirit. But still this merciful Father, from afar
+off, where he may be seen no more, showers down upon them all the
+blessings they enjoy. The Indians are truly filial and sincere in their
+devotions; they pray for what they need, and return hearty thanks for
+such mercies as they have enjoyed.[251] They supplicate him to bestow
+courage and skill upon them in the battle; the endurance which enables
+them to mock the cruel tortures of their enemies is attributed to his
+aid; their preparation for war is a long-continued religious ceremony;
+their march is supposed to be under omnipotent guidance, and their
+expeditions in the chase are held to be not unworthy of divine
+superintendence. They reject all idea of chance on the fortune of war,
+and believe firmly that every result is the decision of a Superior
+Power.[252] Although this elevated conception of the One God[253] is
+deeply impressed upon the Indian's mind, it is tainted with some of the
+alloy which ever must characterize the uninspired faith. Those who have
+inquired into the religious opinions of the uneducated and laborious
+classes of men, even in the most enlightened and civilized communities,
+find that their system of belief is derived from instruction, and not
+from instinct or the results of their own examination: in savage life
+it is vain to expect that men should reason accurately, from cause to
+effect, and form a just idea of the Creator from the creation. The
+Indian combines the idea of the Great Spirit with others of a less
+perfect nature. The word used by him to indicate this Sovereign Being
+does not convey the notion of an immaterial nature; it signifies with
+him some one possessed of lofty and mysterious powers, and in this sense
+may be applied to men and even to animals.
+
+To the first inquirers into the religious faith of the native Americans,
+the subject of their mythology presented very great difficulties and
+complications; those Indians who attempted to explain it to Europeans
+had themselves no distinct or fixed opinions. Each man put forward
+peculiar notions, and was constantly changing them, without attempting
+to reconcile his self-contradictions.
+
+Some of the southern tribes, who were more settled in their religious
+faith, exhibited a remarkable degree of bigotry and spiritual pride.
+They called the Europeans "men of the accursed speech," while they
+styled themselves "the beloved of the Great Spirit." The Canadian and
+other northern nations, however, were less intolerant, and at any time
+easily induced to profess the recantation of their heathen errors for
+some small advantage. Among these latter, the hare was deemed to possess
+some mystic superiority over the rest of the animal creation; it was
+even raised to be an object of worship, and the Great Hare was
+confounded in their minds with the Great Spirit. The Algonquins believed
+in a Water God, who opposes himself to the benevolent designs of the
+Great Spirit; it is strange that the name of the Great Tiger should be
+given to this Deity, as the country does not produce such an animal, and
+from this it appears probable that the tradition of his existence had
+come from elsewhere. They have also a third Deity, who presides over
+their winter season. The gods of the Indians have bodies like the sons
+of men, and subsist in like manner with them, but are free from the
+pains and cares of mortality; the term "spirit" among them only
+signifies a being of a superior and more excellent nature than man.
+However, they believe in the omnipresence of their deities, and invoke
+their aid in all times and places.
+
+Besides the Great Spirit and the lesser deities above mentioned, every
+Indian has his own Manitou, Okki, or guardian power; this divinity's
+presence is represented by some portable object, often of the most
+insignificant nature, such as the head, beak, or claw of a bird, the
+hoof of a deer or cow. No youth can be received among the brotherhood of
+warriors till he has placed himself, in due form, under the care of this
+familiar. The ceremony is deemed of great importance: several days of
+strict fasting are always observed in preparation for the important
+event, and the youth's dreams are carefully noted during this period.
+While under these circumstances, some object usually makes a deep
+impression upon his mind; this is then chosen for his Manitou or
+guardian spirit, and a specimen, of it is procured. He is next placed
+for some time in a large vapor bath, and having undergone the process of
+being steamed, is laid on the ground, and the figure of the Manitou is
+pricked on his breast with needles of fish-bone dipped in vermilion; the
+intervals between the scars are then rubbed with gunpowder, so as to
+produce a mixture of red and blue. When this operation is performed, he
+cries aloud to the Great Spirit, invoking aid, and praying to be
+received as a warrior.
+
+The Indian submits with resignation to the chastening will of the Great
+Spirit. When overtaken by any disaster, he diligently examines himself
+to discover what omission of observance or duty has called down the
+punishment, and endeavors to atone for past neglect by increased
+devotion. But if the Manitou be deemed to have shown want of ability or
+inclination to defend him, he upbraids the guardian power with
+bitterness and contempt, and threatens to seek a more effectual
+protector. If the Manitou continue useless, this threat is fulfilled.
+Fasting and dreaming are again resorted to in the same manner as before,
+and the vision of another Manitou is obtained. The former representation
+is then, as much as possible, effaced, and the figure of the
+newly-adopted amulet painted in its place. All the veneration and
+confidence forfeited by the first Manitou is now transferred to the
+successor.[254]
+
+It is also part of the Indian's religious belief that there are inferior
+spirits to rule over the elements, under the control of the Supreme
+Power, he being so great that he must, like their chiefs, have
+attendants to execute his behests. These inferior spirits see what
+passes on earth, and report it to their Great Ruler: the Indian,
+trusting to their good offices, invokes those spirits of the air in
+times of peril, and endeavors to propitiate them by throwing tobacco or
+other simple offerings to the winds or upon the waters. But, amid all
+these corrupt and ignorant superstitions, the One Spirit, the Creator
+and Ruler of the World, is the great object of the Red Man's adoration.
+On him they rest their hopes; to him they address their daily prayers,
+and render their solemn sacrifice.
+
+The worship of the Indians, although frequently in private, is generally
+little regulated either by ceremonies or stated periodical devotions.
+But there are, at times, great occasions, when the whole tribe assembles
+for the purpose,[255] such as in declaring war or proclaiming peace, or
+when visited by storms or earthquakes. Their great feasts all partake of
+a religious character; every thing provided must be consumed by the
+assembly, as being consecrated to the Great Spirit. The Ottawas seem to
+have had a more complicated mythology than any other tribe: they held a
+regular festival in honor of the sun; and, while rendering thanks for
+past benefit, prayed that it might be continued to the future. They have
+also been observed to erect an idol in their village, and offer it
+sacrifice: this ceremony was, however, very rare. Many Western tribes
+visit the spring whence they have been supplied with water during the
+winter, at the breaking up of the ice, and there offer up their grateful
+worship to the Great Spirit for having preserved them in health and
+safety, and having supplied their wants. This pious homage is performed
+with much ceremony and devotion.
+
+Among this rude people, who were at one time supposed to have been
+without any religion, habitual piety may be considered the most
+remarkable characteristic: every action of their lives is connected with
+some acknowledgment of a Superior Power. Many have imagined that the
+severe fasts sometimes endured by the Indians were only for the purpose
+of accustoming themselves to support hunger; but all the circumstances
+connected with these voluntary privations leave no doubt that they were
+solemn religious exercises. Dreams and visions during these fasts were
+looked upon as oracular, and respected as the revelations of Heaven. The
+Indian frequently propitiates the favor of the inferior spirits by vows;
+when for some time unsuccessful in the chase, or suffering from want in
+long journeys, he promises the genius of the spot to bestow upon one of
+his chiefs, in its honor, a portion of the first fruits of his
+success;[256] if the chief be too distant to receive the gift, it is
+burned in sacrifice.
+
+The belief of the Indian in a future state, although deeply cherished
+and sincere, can scarcely be regarded as a defined idea of the
+immortality of the soul.[257] There is little spiritual or exalted in
+his conception. When he attempts to form a distinct notion of the
+spirit, he is blinded by his senses; he calls it the shadow or image of
+his body, but its acts and enjoyments are all the same as those of its
+earthly existence. He only pictures to himself a continuation of present
+pleasures. His Heaven is a delightful country, far away beyond the
+unknown Western seas, where the skies are ever bright and serene, the
+air genial, the spring eternal, and the forests abounding in game; no
+war, disease, or torture are known in that happy land; the sufferings of
+life are endured no more, and its sweetest pleasures are perpetuated and
+increased; his wife is tender and obedient, his children dutiful and
+affectionate. In this country of eternal happiness, the Indian hopes to
+be again received into the favor of the Great Spirit, and to rejoice in
+his glorious presence.[258] But in his simple mind there is a deep and
+enduring conviction that admission to this delightful country of souls
+can only be attained by good and noble actions in this mortal life. For
+the bad men there is a fate terribly different--endless afflictions,
+want, and misery; a land of hideous desolation; barren, parched, and
+dreary hunting-grounds, the abode of evil and malignant spirits, whose
+office is to torture, whose pleasure is to enhance the misery of the
+condemned. It is also almost universally believed that the Great Spirit
+manifests his wrath or his favor to the evil and the good in their
+journey to the land of souls. After death the Indian believes that he is
+supplied with a canoe; and if he has been a virtuous warrior, or
+otherwise worthy, he is guided across the vast deep to a haven of
+eternal happiness and peace by the hand of the Great Spirit; but if his
+life be stained with cowardice, vice, or negligence of duty, he is
+abandoned to the malignity of evil genii, driven about by storms and
+darkness over that unknown sea, and at length cast ashore on the barren
+land, where everlasting torments are his portion.[259]
+
+The Indians generally believe in the existence of a Spirit of Evil, and
+occasionally pray to him in deprecation of his wrath. They do not doubt
+his inferiority to the Great Spirit, but they believe that he has the
+power to inflict torments and punishments upon the human race, and that
+he has a malignant delight in its exercise.
+
+The souls of the lower animals are also held by the Red Man to be
+immortal: he recognizes a certain portion of understanding in them, and
+each creature is supposed to possess a guardian spirit peculiar to
+itself. He only claims a superiority in degree of intelligence and power
+over the beasts of the field, Man is but the king of animals. In the
+world of souls are to be found the shades of every thing that breathes
+the breath of life. However, he takes little pains to arrange or develop
+these strange ideas. The enlightened heathen philosophers of antiquity
+were not more successful.
+
+To penetrate the mysteries of the future has always been a favorite
+object of superstition,[260] and has been attempted by a countless
+variety of means. The Indian trusts to his dreams for this revelation,
+and invariably holds them sacred. Before he engages in any important
+undertaking, particularly in war, diplomacy, or the chase, the dreams of
+his principal chiefs are carefully watched and examined; by their
+interpretation his conduct is guided. In this manner the fate of a whole
+nation has often been decided by the chance visions of a single man. The
+Indian considers that dreams are the mode by which the Great Spirit
+condescends to hold converse with man; thence arises his deep veneration
+for the omens and warnings they may shadow forth.[261]
+
+Many other superstitions, besides those of prognostics from dreams, are
+cherished among the Indians. Each remarkable natural feature, such as a
+great cataract, a lake, or a difficult and dangerous pass, possesses a
+spirit of the spot, whose favor they are fain to propitiate by votive
+offerings: skins, bones, pieces of metal, and dead dogs are hung up in
+the neighborhood, and dedicated to its honor. Supposed visions of ghosts
+are sometimes, but rarely, spoken of: it is, however, generally believed
+that the souls of the dead continue for some time to hover round the
+earthly remains: dreading, therefore, that the spirits of those they
+have tortured watch near them to seek opportunity of vengeance, they
+beat the air violently with rods, and raise frightful cries to scare the
+shadowy enemy away.
+
+Among some of the Indian tribes, an old man performed the duty of a
+priest at their religious festivals; he broke the bread and cast it in
+the fire, dedicated the different offerings, and officiated in the
+sacrifice. It was also his calling to declare the omens from dreams and
+other signs, as the warnings of Heaven. These religious duties of the
+priest were totally distinct from the office of the juggler, or
+"medicine-man," although some observers have confounded them together.
+There were also vestals in many nations of the continent who were
+supposed to supply by their touch a precious medicinal efficacy to
+certain roots and simples.
+
+The "medicine-men," or jugglers, undertook the cure of diseases, the
+interpretation of omens, the exorcising of evil spirits, and magic in
+all its branches. They were men of great consideration in the tribe, and
+were called in and regularly paid as physicians; but this position could
+only be attained by undergoing certain ordeals, which were looked upon
+as a compact with the spirits of the air. The process of the vapor bath
+was first endured; severe fasting followed, accompanied by constant
+shouting, singing, beating a sort of drum, and smoking. After these
+preliminaries the jugglers were installed by extravagant ceremonies,
+performed with furious excitement and agitation. They possessed,
+doubtless, some real knowledge of the healing art; and in external
+wounds or injuries, the causes of which are obvious, they applied
+powerful simples, chiefly vegetable, with considerable skill. With
+decoctions from ginseng, sassafras, hedisaron, and a tall shrub called
+bellis, they have been known to perform remarkable cures in cases of
+wounds and ulcers. They scarified the seat of inflammation or rheumatic
+pain skillfully with sharp-pointed bones, and accomplished the cupping
+process by the use of gourd shells as substitutes for glasses. For all
+internal complaints, their favorite specific was the vapor bath, which
+they formed with much ingenuity from their rude materials. This was
+doubtless a very efficient remedy, but they attached to it a
+supernatural influence, and employed it in the ceremonies of solemn
+preparation for great councils.
+
+All cases of disease, when the cause could not be discovered, were
+attributed to the influence of malignant spirits. To meet these, the
+medicine-man, or juggler, invested himself with his mysterious
+character, and endeavored to exorcise the demon by a great variety of
+ceremonies, a mixture of delusion and imposture. For this purpose, he
+arrayed himself in a strange and fanciful dress, and on his first
+arrival began to sing and dance round the sufferer, invoking the
+spirits with loud cries. When exhausted with these exertions, he
+attributed the hidden cause of the malady to the first unusual idea that
+suggested itself to his mind, and in the confidence of his supposed
+inspiration, proclaimed the necessary cure. The juggler usually
+contrived to avoid the responsibility of failure by ordering a remedy
+impossible of attainment when the patient was not likely to recover. The
+Iroquois believed that every ailment was a desire of the soul, and, when
+death followed, it was from the desire not having been accomplished.
+
+Among many of the Indian tribes, the barbarous custom of putting to
+death those who were thought past recovery, existed, and still exists.
+Others abandoned these unfortunates to perish of hunger and thirst, or
+under the jaws of the wild beasts of the forest. Some nations put to
+death all infants who had lost their mother, or buried them alive in her
+grave, under the impression that no other woman could rear them, and
+that they must perish by hunger. But the dreadful custom of deserting
+the aged and emaciated among the wandering tribes is universal.[262]
+When these miserable creatures become incapable of walking or riding,
+and there is no means of carrying them, they themselves uniformly insist
+upon being abandoned to their fate, saying that they are old and of no
+further use--they left their fathers in the same manner--they wish to
+die, and their children must not mourn for them. A small fire and a few
+pieces of wood, a scanty supply of meat, and perhaps a buffalo skin, are
+left as the old man's sole resources. When in a few months the wandering
+tribe may revisit the spot where he was deserted, a skull and a few
+scattered bones will be all that the wolves and vultures have left as
+tokens of his dreadful fate.
+
+The Indian father and mother display great tenderness for their
+children,[263] even to the weakness of unlimited indulgence; this
+affection, however, appears to be merely instinctive, for they use no
+exertion whatever to lead their offspring to the paths of virtue.
+Children, on their part, show very little filial affection, and
+frequently treat their parents, especially their father, with indignity
+and violence. This vicious characteristic is strongly exemplified in the
+horrible custom above described.
+
+When the Indian believes that his death is at hand, his conduct is
+usually stoical and dignified. If he still retain the power of speech,
+he harangues those who surround him in a funeral oration, advising and
+encouraging his children, and bidding them and all his friends farewell.
+During this time, the relations of the dying man slay all the dogs they
+can catch, trusting that the souls of these animals will give notice of
+the approaching departure of the warrior for the world of spirits; they
+then take leave of him, wish him a happy voyage, and cheer him with the
+hope that his children will prove worthy of his name. When the last
+moment arrives, all the kindred break into loud lamentations, till some
+one high in consideration desires them to cease. For weeks afterward,
+however, these cries of grief are daily renewed at sunrise and sunset.
+In three days after death the funeral takes place, and the neighbors are
+invited to a feast of all the provisions that can be procured, which
+must be all consumed. The relations of the deceased do not join in the
+banquet; they cut off their hair, cover their heads, blacken their
+faces, and for a long time deny themselves every amusement.[264]
+
+The deceased is buried with his arms and ornaments, and a supply of
+provisions for his long journey; the face is painted, and the body
+arrayed in the richest robes that can be obtained; it is then laid in
+the grave in an upright posture, and skins are carefully placed around,
+that it may not touch the earth. At stated intervals of eight, ten, or
+twelve years, the Indians celebrate the singular ceremony of the
+Festival of the Dead; till this has been performed, the souls of the
+deceased are supposed still to hover round their earthly remains. At
+this solemn festival, the people march in procession to the
+burial-ground, open the tombs, and continue for a time gazing on the
+moldering relics in mournful silence. Then, while the women raise a loud
+wailing, the bones of the dead are carefully collected, wrapped in fresh
+and valuable robes, and conveyed to the family cabin.[265] A feast is
+then held for several days, with dances, games, and prize combats. The
+relics are next carried to the council-house of the nation, where they
+are publicly displayed, with the presents destined to be interred with
+them. Sometimes the remains are even carried on bearers from village to
+village. At length they are laid in a deep pit, lined with rich furs;
+tears and lamentations are again renewed, and for some time fresh
+provisions are daily laid, by this simple people, upon the graves of
+their departed friends.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 238: "At night the savages direct their course by the polar
+star; they call it the _motionless star_. It is a curious coincidence
+that the constellation of the Bear should be called by the savages the
+Bear. This is certainly a very ancient name among them, and given long
+before any Europeans visited the country. They turn into ridicule the
+large imaginary tail which astronomers have given to an animal that has
+scarcely any such appendage, and they call the three stars that compose
+the tail of the Bear, three hunters who are in pursuit of it. The second
+of these stars has a very small one very close to it. This, they say, is
+the kettle of the second hunter, who is the bearer of the baggage and
+the provision belonging to all three.[239] The savages also call the
+Pleiades 'the Dancers,' and Hygin tells us that they were thus called by
+the ancients, because they seem, from the arrangement of their stars, to
+be engaged in a circular dance."--Lafitau, vol. ii., p. 236. Hygin.,
+lib. ii., art. Taurus.]
+
+[Footnote 239: "Even at the present time" (1720), Lafitau writes, "these
+three stars are called in Italy, _i tre cavalli_"--the three knights--on
+the celestial globe of Caronelli.]
+
+[Footnote 240: See Appendix, No. L. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 241: Charlevoix says that the eloquence of the savages was
+such as the Greeks admired in the barbarians, "strong, stern,
+sententious, pointed, perfectly undisguised."
+
+Decanesora's oratory was greatly admired by the most cultivated among
+the English: his bust was said to resemble that of Cicero. The
+celebrated address of Logan is too well known to be cited here. Mr.
+Jefferson says of it, "I may challenge the whole orations of Demosthenes
+and Cicero, and of any other more eminent orator, if Europe has
+furnished more eminent, to produce a single passage superior to the
+speech of Logan." An American statesman and scholar, scarcely less
+illustrious than the former, has expressed his readiness to subscribe to
+this eulogium.--Clinton's _Historical Discourse_, 1811.]
+
+[Footnote 242: Catlin gives the following account of a native preacher,
+known by the name of the Shawnee Prophet: "I soon learned that he was a
+very devoted Christian, regularly holding meetings in his tribe on the
+Sabbath, preaching to them, and exhorting them to a belief in the
+Christian religion, and to an abandonment of the fatal habit of
+whisky-drinking. I went on the Sabbath to hear this eloquent man preach,
+when he had his people assembled in the woods; and although I could not
+understand his language, I was surprised and pleased with the natural
+case, and emphasis, and gesticulation which carried their own evidence
+of the eloquence of his sermon. I was singularly struck with the noble
+efforts of this champion of the mere remnant of a poisoned race, so
+strenuously laboring to rescue the remainder of his people from the
+deadly bane that has been brought among them by enlightened Christians.
+It is quite certain that his exemplary endeavors have completely
+abolished the practice of drinking whisky in his tribe."--Catlin, vol.
+ii., p. 98.]
+
+[Footnote 243: "Whatever may be the estimate of the Indian character in
+other respects, it is with me an undoubting conviction, that they are by
+nature a shrewd and intelligent race of men, in no wise, as regards
+combination of thought or quickness of apprehension, inferior to
+uneducated white men. This inference I deduce from having instructed
+Indian children.[244] I draw it from having seen the men and women in
+all situations calculated to try and call forth their capacities. When
+they examine any of our inventions, steamboats, steam-mills, and cotton
+factories, for instance; when they contemplate any of our institutions
+in operation, by some quick analysis or process of reasoning, they seem
+immediately to comprehend the principle or the object. No spectacle
+affords them more delight than a large and orderly school. They scorn
+instinctively to comprehend, at least they explained to me that they
+felt, the advantages which this order of things gave our children over
+theirs."--Flint's _Ten Years in the Valley of the Mississippi_, 1831.
+
+Mr. Flint, an experienced and intelligent observer, takes so dark a view
+of the moral character of the Red Indian that his favorable opinion of
+their mental faculties may be looked upon as probably accurate, though
+differing strongly from that more generally held. On the other side of
+the question, among the early writers may be cited M. Bouguer, _Voyage
+au Pérou_, p. 102; _Voyage d'Ulloa_, tom. i., p. 335-337. "They seem to
+live in a perpetual infancy," is the striking expression of De la
+Condamine, _Voyage de la Riv. Amazon_, p. 52, 53. Chauvelon, _Voyage à
+la Martinique_, p. 44, 50. P. Venegas, _Hist. de la Californie_.]
+
+[Footnote 244: All those who have expressed an opinion on the subject
+seem to agree that _children_ of most native races are fully, or more
+than a match, for those of Europeans, in aptitude for intellectual
+acquirement. Indeed, it appears to be a singular law of Nature, that
+there is less precocity in the European race than almost any other. In
+those races in which we seem to have reason for believing that the
+intellectual organization is lower, perception is quicker, and maturity
+earlier.--Merivale _On Colonization_, vol. ii., p. 197.]
+
+[Footnote 245: "Thus, on the whole, it may be said that the virtues of
+the savages are reducible to intrepid courage in danger, unshaken
+firmness amid tortures, contempt of pain and death, and patience under
+all the anxieties and distresses of life. No doubt these are useful
+qualities, but they are all confined to the individual, all selfish, and
+without any benefit to the society. Farther, they are proofs of a life
+truly wretched, and a social state so depraved or null, that a man,
+neither finding nor hoping any succor or assistance from it, is obliged
+to wrap himself up in despair, and endeavor to harden himself against
+the strokes of fate. Still it may be urged that these men, in their
+leisure hours, laugh, sing, play, and live without care for the past as
+well as for the future. Will you then deny that they are happier than
+we? Man is such a pitiable and variable creature, and habits have such a
+potent sway over him, that in the most disastrous situations he always
+finds some posture that gives him ease, something that consoles him,
+and, by comparison with past suffering, appears to him well-being and
+happiness; but if to laugh, sing, or play constitute bliss, it must
+likewise be granted that soldiers are perfectly happy beings, since
+there are no men more careless or more gay in dangers or on the eve of
+battle. It must be granted, too, that during the Revolution, in the most
+fatal of our jails, the Conciergerie, the prisoners were very happy,
+since they were, in general, more careless and gay than their keepers,
+or than those who only feared the same fate. The anxieties of those who
+were at large were as numerous as the enjoyments they wished to
+preserve; they who were in the other prisons felt but one, that of
+preserving their lives. In the Conciergerie, where a man was condemned
+in expectation or in reality, he had no longer any care; on the
+contrary, every moment of life was an acquisition, the gain of a good
+that was considered as lost. Such is nearly the situation of a soldier
+in war, and such is really that of the savage throughout the whole
+course of his life. If this be happiness, wretched indeed must be the
+country where it is an object of envy. In pursuing my investigation, I
+do not find that I am led to more advantageous ideas of the liberty of
+the savage; on the contrary, I sees in him only the slave of his wants,
+and of the freaks of a sterile and parsimonious nature. Food he has not
+at hand; rest is not at his command; he must run, weary himself, endure
+hunger and thirst, heat and cold, and all the inclemency of the elements
+and seasons; and as the ignorance in which he was born and bred gives
+him or leaves him a multitude of false and irrational ideas and
+superstitious prejudices, he is likewise the slave of a number of errors
+and passions, from which civilized man is exempted by the science and
+knowledge of every kind that an improved state of society has
+produced."--Volney's _Travels in the United States_, p. 467.
+
+"Their impassible fortitude and endurance of suffering are, after all,
+in my mind, the result of a greater degree of physical insensibility. It
+has been told me, and I believe it, that in amputation and other
+surgical operations, their nerves do not shrink, do not show the same
+tendency to spasm with those of the whites. When the savage, to explain
+his insensibility to cold, called upon the white man to recollect how
+little his own face was affected by it, in consequence of its constant
+exposure, he added, 'My body is all face.'[246] This increasing
+insensibility, transmitted from generation to generation, finally
+becomes inwrought with the whole web of animal nature, and the body of
+the savage seems to have little more sensibility than the hoofs of
+horses."--Flint's _Ten Years in the Valley of the Mississippi_. See,
+also, Ulloa's _Notic. Amer._, p. 313.
+
+Charlevoix quotes a passage from Cicero to the effect that "l'habitude
+au travail donne de la facilité à supporter la douleur."--2 _Tusc._,
+25.]
+
+[Footnote 246: Delicacy of skin is observed to be in proportion to
+civilization among nations, in proportion to degrees of refinement among
+individuals.--Sharon Turner.]
+
+[Footnote 247: Conical stones, wrapped up in 100 goat skins, were the
+idols preserved in the temple of the Natchez. Many authors assert that
+the Amazons and many Eastern people had nothing in their temples but
+these pyramidal stones, which represented to them the Divinity....
+"Peut-être aussi vouloient ils (les fondateurs des Pyramides) figurer en
+même tems la Divinité, et ce qui leur restoit d'idées du mystère de la
+Sainte Trinité, dans les trois faces de ces pyramides. Du moins est ce
+ainsi qu'aux Indes un Brame paroissoit concevoir les choses et
+s'expliquer d'après les anciennes. 'Il faut,' disoit il, 'se réprésenter
+Dieu et ses trois noms différents qui répondent à ces trois principaux
+attributs, à peu près sous l'idée de ces Pyramides triangulaires qu'on
+voit élevées devant la poste de quelques temples."--_Lettre du Père
+Bouchet à M. Huet, Evêque d'Avranches._ Three logs are always employed
+to keep up the fire in the Natchez temple.--Lafitau, vol. i., p. 167.
+
+Extract from a dialogue between John Wesley and the Chickasaw Indians:
+
+"_Wesley._ Do you believe there is One above who is over all things?
+
+"_Answer._ We believe there are four beloved things above--the clouds,
+the sun, the clear sky, and He that lives in the clear sky.
+
+"_Wesley._ Do you believe there is but One who lives in the clear sky?
+
+"_Answer._ We believe there are two with Him, three in all."--Wesley's
+_Journal_, No. 1., p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 248: See Stephens's "Incidents of Travel in Central America,"
+vol. ii., p. 346.
+
+"Les croix qui ont tant excité la curiosité des conquistadores à
+Coqumel, à Yucatan, et dans d'autres contrées de l'Amérique ne sont pas
+'des contes de moines,' et méritent, comme tout ce qui a rapport au
+culte des peuples indigènes du Nouveau Continent, un examen plus
+sérieux. Je me sers du mot culte, car un relief conservé dans les ruines
+de Palenque, de Guatemala, et dont je possède une copie, ne me paraît
+laisser ancun doute qu'une figure symbolique en forme de croix étoit un
+objet d'adoration. Il faut faire observer cependant qu'à cette croix
+manque le prolongement supérieur, et qu'elle forme plutôt la lettre
+_tau_. Des idées qui n'ont ancun rapport avec le Christianisme ont pu
+être symboliquement attachées à cet emblême Egyptien d'Hermès, si
+célébre parmi les Chrétiens depuis la destruction du temple de Sérapis à
+Alexandrie sous Théodose le Grand. (Rufinus, _Hist. Eccles._, lib. ii.,
+cap. xxix., p. 294; Zozomenes, _Eccl. Hist._, lib. iii., cap. xv.) Un
+bâton terminé par une croix se voit dans la main d'Astarté sur les
+monnaies de Sidon au 3me siècle avant notre ère. En Scandinavie, un
+signe de l'alphabet _runique_ figurait le _marteau de Thor_, très
+semblable à la croix du relief de Palenque. On marquoit de cette _rune_,
+dans les tems payens, les objets qu'on vouloit sanctifier." (Voyez
+l'excellent Traité de M. Guillaume Grimm. _Ueber Deutsche Runen_, p.
+242.)--Humboldt, _Géographie de Nouveau Continent_, vol. ii., p. 356.
+
+"Laët avoue qu' Herrera parle d'une espèce de baptême, et de confession
+usitée dans Yucatan et dans les isles voisines, mais il ajoute qu'il est
+bien plus naturel d'attribuer toutes ces marques équivoques de
+Christianisme qu'on a cru apercevoir en plusieurs provinces du Nouveau
+Monde au démon qui a toujours affecté de contrefaire le culte du vrai
+Dieu." Charlevoix adds, "Cette remarque est de tous les bons auteurs qui
+out parle de la religion des peuples nouvellement découverts, et fondée
+sur l'autorité des pères de l'Eglise."--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 249: See Appendix, No. LI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 250: "The most sensual, degraded, and least intellectual
+tribes of Northern Asia and America have purer notions of a Spiritual
+Deity than were possessed of old by the worshipers of Jupiter and Juno
+under Pericles."--_Progression by Antagonism._ This, according to Lord
+Lindsay's theory, is to be accounted for by the absence of imagination,
+these nations being only governed by Sense and Spirit, to the exclusion
+of intellect in either of its manifestations, Imagination, or
+Reason.--P. 21, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 251: "At the breaking up of the winter," says Hunter, "after
+having supplied ourselves with such things as were necessary and the
+situation afforded, all our party visited the spring from which we had
+procured our supplies of water, and there offered up our orisons to the
+Great Spirit for having preserved us in health and safety, and for
+having supplied all our wants. This is the constant practice of the
+Osages, Kansas, and many other nations of Indians on breaking up their
+encampments, and is by no means an unimportant ceremony." The habitual
+piety of the Indian mind is remarked by Heckewelder, and strongly
+insisted upon by Hunter, and it is satisfactorily proved by the whole
+tenor of his descriptions, where he throws himself back, as it were,
+into the feelings peculiar to Indian life. And, indeed, after hearing at
+a council the broken fragments of an Indian harangue, however
+imperfectly rendered by an ignorant interpreter, or reading the few
+specimens of Indian oratory which have been preserved by translation, no
+one can fail to remark a perpetual and earnest reference to the power
+and goodness of the Deity. "Brothers! we all belong to one family; we
+are all children of the Great Spirit," was the commencement of
+Tecumthé's harangue to the Osages; and he afterward tells them: "When
+the white men first set foot on our grounds, they were hungry; they had
+no places on which to spread their blankets or to kindle their fires.
+They were feeble; they could do nothing for themselves. Our fathers
+commiserated their distress, and shared freely with them whatever the
+Great Spirit has given to his red children."--_Quarterly Review._]
+
+[Footnote 252: On the remarkable occasion on which our forces were
+compelled, in 1813, to evacuate the Michigan territory, Tecumthé, in the
+name of his nation, refused to consent to retreat; he closed his denial
+with these words: "Our lives are in the hand of the Great Spirit: He
+gave the lands which we possess to our fathers; if it be his will, our
+bones shall whiten upon them, but we will never quit them." An old
+Oneida chief, who was blind from years, observed to Heckewelder, "I am
+an aged hemlock; the winds of one hundred years have whistled through my
+branches; I am dead at the top. Why I yet live, the great, good Spirit
+only knows." This venerable father of the forest lived long enough to be
+converted to Christianity.--_Quarterly Review._]
+
+[Footnote 253: A Huron woman under the instruction of a missionary, who
+detailed to her the perfections of God, exclaimed, in a species of
+ecstasy, "I understand, I understand; and I always felt convinced that
+our Areskoui was exactly such a one as the God you have described to
+me."--Lafitau, tom. i., p. 127. The Great Spirit was named Areskoui
+among the Huron, Agriskoné among the Iroquois, Manitou among the
+Algonquins.]
+
+[Footnote 254: See Appendix, No. LII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 255: Every spring the Arkansas go in a body to some retired
+place, and there turn up a large space of land, which they do with the
+drums beating all the while. After this they call it the _Desart_, or
+the Field of the Spirit, and thither they go when they are in their
+enthusiastic fits, and there wait for inspiration from their pretended
+deity. In the mean while, as they do this every year, it proves of no
+small advantage to them, for by this means they turn up all their land
+by degrees, and it becomes abundantly more fruitful.--Tonti.]
+
+[Footnote 256: Lafitau asserts that the first beast killed by a young
+hunter was always offered in sacrifice.--Vol. i., p. 515. See Catlin's
+description of the sacrifices and ceremonies practiced when the first
+fruits of corn are ripe.--Catlin, vol. i., p. 189.]
+
+[Footnote 257: Peter Martyr speaks of the general opinion among the
+early discoverers that the Indians believed in a species of immortality.
+"They confess the soul to be immortal; having put off the bodily
+clothing, they imagine it goeth forth to the woods and the mountains,
+and that it liveth there perpetually in caves; nor do they exempt it
+from eating or drinking, but that it should be fed there. The answering
+voices heard from caves and hollows, which the Latines call echoes, they
+suppose to be the souls of the departed wandering through those
+places."--Peter Martyr, Decad. VIII., cap. ix., M. Lock's translation,
+1612.]
+
+[Footnote 258: "Une jeune sauvagesse voyant sa soeur mourante, par la
+quantité de ciguë qui elle avoit pris dans un dépit, et déterminé à ne
+faire aucun remède pour se garantir de la mort, pleuroit à chaudes
+larmes, et s'efforçoit de la toucher par les liens du sang, et de
+l'amitié qui les unissoit ensemble. Elle lui disoit sans cesse, 'C'en
+est donc fait; in veux que nous ne nous retrouvions jamais plus, et que
+nous ne nous revoyions jamais?' Le missionnaire, frappé de ces paroles,
+lui en demanda la raison. 'Il me semble,' dit-il, 'que vous avez un pays
+des âmes, où vous devez tous vous reünir à vos ancêtres; pourquoi donc
+est ce que tu parles ainsi à la soeur?' 'Il est vrai,' reprit-elle, 'que
+nous allons tous au pays des âmes; mais les mechants, et ceux en
+particulier, qui se sont dêtruits eux-mêmes par un mort violente, y
+portent la peine de leur crime; ils y sont séparés des autres, et n'ont
+point de communication avec eux: c'est là le sujet de mes
+peines.'"--Lafitau, tom. i., p. 404. See Appendix, LII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 259: Hunter gives the following view of the Indian mythology,
+while describing his own and his companions' first sight of the Pacific
+Ocean: "Here the surprise and astonishment of our whole party was
+indescribably great. The unbounded view of waters, the incessant and
+tremendous dashing of the waves along the shore, accompanied with a
+noise resembling the roar of loud and distant thunder, filled our minds
+with the most sublime and awful sensation, and fixed on them as
+immutable truths the tradition we had received from our old men, that
+the great waters divide the residence of the Great Spirit from the
+temporary abodes of his red children. We have contemplated in silent
+dread the immense difficulties over which we should be obliged to
+triumph after death before we could arrive at those delightful
+hunting-grounds, which are unalterably destined for such only as do
+good, and love the Great Spirit. We looked in vain for the stranded and
+shattered canoes of those who had done wickedly; we could see none, and
+were led to hope they were few in number. We offered up our devotions,
+or, I might say, our minds were serious, and our devotions continued all
+the time we were in this country, for we had ever been taught to believe
+that the Great Spirit resided on the western side of the Rocky
+Mountains; and this idea continued throughout the journey,
+notwithstanding the more specific boundary assigned to Him by our
+traditionary dogmas."--_Memoirs of a Captivity among the North American
+Indians from Childhood to the Age of Nineteen_. By John D. Hunter, p.
+69. 1824.--See Appendix, No. LIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 260: See Appendix, No. LIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 261: See Appendix, No. LV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 262: See Appendix, No. LVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 263: "While I remained among the Indians, a couple, whose tent
+was adjacent to mine, lost a son of four years of age. The parents were
+so much affected at the death of their child, that they observed the
+usual testimonies of grief with such extreme rigor as through the weight
+of sorrow and loss of blood to occasion the loss of the father. The
+woman, who had hitherto been inconsolable, no sooner saw her husband
+expire than she dried up her tears, and appeared cheerful and resigned.
+I took an opportunity of asking her the reason of so extraordinary a
+transition, when she informed me that her child was so young it would
+have been unable to support itself in the world of spirits, and both she
+and her husband were apprehensive that its situation would be far from
+happy. No sooner, however, did she behold her husband depart for the
+same place, who not only loved the child with the tenderest affection,
+but was a good hunter, and would be able to provide plentifully for its
+support, than she ceased to mourn. She said she had now no reason to
+continue her tears, as the child on whom she doted was under the care
+and protection of a fond father, and she had now only one wish remaining
+ungratified, that of herself being with them."--Carver.]
+
+[Footnote 264: Captain Franklin says of the Chippewyans, "No article is
+spared by these unhappy men when a near relative dies; their clothes and
+tents are cut to pieces, their guns broken, and every other weapon
+rendered useless if some person do not remove these articles from their
+sight."
+
+"When the French missionaries asked the Indians why they deprived
+themselves of their most necessary articles in favor of the dead, they
+answered, 'that it was not only to evidence their love for their
+departed relatives, but that they might avoid the sight of objects
+which, having been used by them, would continually renew their grief.'
+The same delicacy of feeling, so inconsistent with the coarseness of the
+Red Man's nature, was manifested in their custom of never uttering the
+names of the dead; and if these names were borne by any of the other
+members of the family, they laid them aside during the whole of their
+mourning. And it was esteemed the greatest insult that could be offered
+to say to any one, 'Your father is dead, your mother is
+dead.'"--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 109.]
+
+[Footnote 265: Père Brebeuf, _Relation de la Nouvelle France_;
+Charlevoix; Lafitau. Catlin describes the same ceremonies.
+
+It has been often said that the care taken by the Indians for the
+deceased corpses of their ancestors was in consequence of a universally
+received tradition that these corpses were to rise again to immortal
+life.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+
+In the warmer and milder climates of America, none of the rude tribes
+were clothed; for them there was little need of defense against the
+weather, and their extreme indolence indisposed them to any exertion not
+absolutely necessary for their subsistence. Others were satisfied with a
+very slight covering, but all delighted in ornaments. They dressed their
+hair in different forms, stained their skins, and fastened bits of gold,
+or shells, or bright pebbles in their noses and cheeks. They also
+frequently endeavored to alter their natural form and feature; as soon
+as an infant was born, it was subjected to some cruel process of
+compression, by which the bones of the skull while still soft, were
+squeezed into the shape of a cone, or flattened, or otherwise
+distorted.[266] But in all efforts to adorn or alter their persons, the
+great object was to inspire terror and respect. The warrior was
+indifferent to the admiration of woman, whom he enslaved and despised,
+and it was only for war or the council that he assumed his choicest
+ornaments, and painted himself with unusual care. The decorations of the
+women were few and simple; all those that were precious and splendid
+were reserved for their haughty lords. In several tribes, the wives had
+to devote much of their time to adorning their husbands, and could
+bestow little attention upon themselves. The different nations remaining
+unclothed show considerable sagacity in anointing themselves in such a
+manner as to provide against the heat and moisture of the climate. Soot,
+the juices of herbs having a green, yellow, or vermilion tint, mixed
+with oil and grease, are lavishly employed upon their skin to adorn it
+and render it impervious. By this practice profuse perspiration is
+checked, and a defense is afforded against the innumerable and
+tormenting insects that abound every where in America.[268] Black and
+red are the favorite colors for painting the face. In war, black is
+profusely laid on, the other colors being only used to heighten its
+effect, and give a terrible expression to the countenance.[269] The
+breast, arms, and legs of the Indian are tattooed with sharp needles or
+pointed bones, the colors being carefully rubbed in. His Manitou, and
+the animal chosen as the symbol of his tribe, are first painted, then
+all his most remarkable exploits, and the enemies he has slain or
+scalped, so that his body displays a pictorial history of his life.[270]
+
+In the severe climate of the north the Indian's dress is somewhat more
+ample. Instead of shoes he wears a strip of soft leather wrapped round
+the foot, called the moccasin. Upward to the middle of the thigh, a
+piece of leather or cloth, fitting closely, serves instead of pantaloons
+and stockings: it is usually sewed on to the limb, and is never removed.
+Two aprons, each about a foot square, are fastened to a girdle round the
+waist, and hang before and behind. This is their permanent dress. On
+occasions of ceremony, however, and in cold weather, they also wear a
+short shirt, and over all a loose robe, closed or held together in
+front. Now, an English blanket is generally used for this garment; but,
+before the produce of European art was known among them, the skins of
+wild animals furnished all their covering. The chiefs usually wear a
+sort of breast-plate, covered with shells, pebbles, and pieces of
+glittering metal. Those who communicate with Europeans display beads,
+rings, bracelets, and other gauds instead. The ear, too, is cumbrously
+ornamented with showy pendents, and the tuft of hair on the crown of the
+head is interwoven with feathers, the wings of birds, shells, and many
+fantastic ornaments. Sometimes the Indian warrior wears buffalo
+horns,[271] reduced in size and polished, on his head: this, however, is
+a distinction only for those renowned in war or in the council. The
+dress of the women varies but little from that of the men, except in
+being more simple. They wear their hair long and flowing, and richly
+ornamented, whenever they can procure the means.
+
+The dwellings of the Indians usually receive much less attention than
+their personal appearance. Even among tribes comparatively far advanced
+in civilization, the structure of their houses or cabans was very rude
+and simple. They were generally wretched huts, of an oblong or circular
+form, and sometimes so low that it was always necessary to preserve a
+sitting or lying posture while under their shelter. There were no
+windows; a large hole in the center of the roof allowed the smoke to
+escape; and a sort of curtain of birch bark occupied the place of the
+door. These dwellings are sometimes 100 feet long, when they accommodate
+several families. Four cabans generally form a quadrangle, each open to
+the inside, with the fire in the center common to all. The numerous and
+powerful tribes formerly inhabiting Canada and its borders usually dwelt
+in huts of a very rude description. In their expeditions, both for war
+and the chase, the Indians erect temporary cabans in a remarkably short
+space of time. A few poles, raised in the shape of a cone, and covered
+with birch bark, form the roof, and the tops of pine branches make a
+fragrant bed. In winter the snow is cleared out of the place where the
+caban is to be raised, and shaped into walls, which form a shelter from
+the wind. The permanent dwellings were usually grouped in villages,
+surrounded with double and even triple rows of palisades, interlaced
+with branches of trees, so as to form a compact barrier, and offering a
+considerable difficulty to an assailing foe.
+
+The furniture in these huts was very scanty. The use of metal being
+unknown, the pots or vessels for boiling their food were made of coarse
+earthen-ware, or of soft stone hollowed out with a hatchet. In some
+cases they were made of wood, and the water was boiled by throwing in a
+number of heated stones.
+
+The Indian displays some skill in the construction of canoes, and they
+are admirably adapted for his purpose. They are usually made of the bark
+of a single tree, strengthened by ribs of strong wood. These light and
+buoyant skiffs float safely on stormy or rapid waters under the
+practiced guidance of the Indian, and can with ease be borne on his
+shoulder from one river or lake to another. Canoes formed out of the
+trunk of a large tree are also sometimes used, especially in winter, for
+the purpose of crossing rivers when there is floating ice, their great
+strength rendering them capable of enduring the collision with the
+floating masses, to which they are liable.
+
+Even among the rudest Indian tribes a regular union between man and wife
+was universal, although not attended with ceremonials. The marriage
+contract is a matter of purchase. The man buys his wife of her parents;
+not with money, for its value is unknown, but with some useful and
+precious article, such as a robe of bear or other handsome skin, a
+horse, a rifle, powder and shot. When the Indian has made the bargain
+with his wife's parents, he takes her home to his caban, and from that
+time she becomes his slave. There are several singular modes of
+courtship among some of the tribes, but generally much reserve and
+consideration are exhibited.[272] In many respects, however, the morals
+and manners of the Indians are such as might be expected in communities
+where the precepts of Christianity are unknown, and where even the
+artificial light of civilization is wanting. There are occasionally
+instances of a divorce being resorted to from mere caprice; but,
+usually, the marriage tie is regarded as a perpetual covenant. As the
+wife toils incessantly, and procures a great part of the subsistence,
+she is considered too valuable a servant to be lightly lost. Among the
+chiefs of the tribes to the west and south, polygamy is general, and the
+number of these wife-servants constitute the principal wealth; but among
+the northern nations this plurality is very rarely possessed. The Indian
+is seldom seen to bestow the slightest mark of tenderness upon his wife
+or children: he, however, exerts himself to the utmost for their
+welfare, and will sacrifice his life to avenge their wrongs. His
+indomitable pride prompts him to assume an apparent apathy, and to
+control every emotion of affection, suffering, or sorrow.
+
+Parents perform few duties toward their children beyond procuring their
+daily bread. The father is by turns occupied in war and the chase, or
+sunk in total indolence, while the mother is oppressed by the toils of
+her laborious bondage, and has but little time to devote to her maternal
+cares. The infant is fastened to a board, cushioned with soft moss, by
+thongs of leather, and is generally hung on the branch of a tree, or, in
+traveling, carried on the mother's back.[273] When able to move, it is
+freed from this confinement, and allowed to make its way about as it
+pleases. It soon reaches some neighboring lake or river, and sports
+itself in the water all day long. As the child advances in years it
+enjoys perfect independence; it is rarely or never reproved or
+chastised. The youths are early led to emulate the deeds of their
+fathers; they practice with the bow, and other weapons suited to a
+warrior's use; and, as manhood approaches, they gradually assume the
+dignified gravity of the elders. In some tribes the young men must pass
+through a dreadful ordeal when they arrive at the age of manhood, which
+is supposed to prepare them for the endurance of all future sufferings,
+and enables the chiefs to judge of their courage, and to select the
+bravest among them to lead in difficult enterprises.
+
+During four days previous to this terrible torture the candidates
+observe a strict fast, and are denied all sleep. When the appointed day
+arrives, certain strange ceremonies of an allegorical description are
+performed, in which all the inhabitants of the village take part. The
+candidates then repair to a large caban, where the chiefs and elders of
+the tribe are assembled to witness the ordeal. The torture commences by
+driving splints of wood through the flesh of the back and breasts of the
+victim: he is next hoisted off the ground by ropes attached to these
+splints, and suspended by the quivering flesh, while the tormentors
+twist the hanging body slowly round, thus exquisitely enhancing the
+agony, till a death-faint comes to the relief of the candidate: he is
+then lowered to the ground and left to the care of the Great Spirit.
+When he recovers animation, he rises and proceeds on his hands and feet
+to another part of the caban: he there lays the little finger of the
+left hand upon a buffalo skull, as a sacrifice to the Great Spirit, and
+another Indian chops it off. The fore-finger is also frequently offered
+up in the same manner: this mutilation does not interfere with the use
+of the bow, the only weapon for which the left hand is required. Other
+cruel tortures are inflicted for some time, and at length the wretched
+victim, reeling and staggering from the intensity of his suffering,
+reaches his own dwelling, where he is placed under the care of his
+friends. Some of the famous warriors of the tribe pass through this
+horrible ordeal repeatedly, and the oftener it is endured, the greater
+is their estimation among their people. No bandages are applied to the
+wounds thus inflicted, nor is any attention paid to their cure; but,
+from the extreme exhaustion and debility caused by want of sustenance
+and sleep, circulation is checked, and sensibility diminished; the
+bleeding and inflammation are very slight, and the results are seldom
+injurious.
+
+The native tribes are engaged in almost perpetual hostility against each
+other. War is the great occupation of savage life, the measure of merit,
+the high road of ambition, and the source of its intensest
+joy--revenge.[274] In war the Indian character presents the darkest
+aspect; the finer and gentler qualities are vailed or dormant, and a
+fiendish ferocity assumes full sway. It is waged to exterminate, not to
+reduce. The enemy is assailed with treachery, and, if conquered, treated
+with revolting cruelty. The glory and excitement of war are dear to the
+Indian, but when the first drop of blood is shed, revenge is dearer
+still. He thirsts to offer up the life of an enemy to appease the
+departed spirit of a slaughtered friend. Thus each contest generates
+another even more embittered than itself. The extension or defense of
+the hunting-grounds is often a primary cause of hostility among the
+native nations, and the increase of the power of their tribe by
+incorporating with them such of the vanquished as they may spare from a
+cruel death is another frequent motive. The savage pines and chafes in
+long-continued peace, and the prudence of the aged can with difficulty
+restrain the fierce impetuosity of the young. Individual quarrels and a
+thirst for fame often lead a single savage to invade a hostile territory
+against the counsels of his tribe; but, when war is determined by the
+general voice, more enlarged views, and a desire of aggrandizement guide
+the proceedings.
+
+As soon as the determination of declaring war is formed, he who is
+chosen by the nation as the chief enters on a course of solemn
+preparation, entreating the aid and guidance of the Great Spirit. As a
+signal of the approaching strife, he marches three times round his
+winter dwelling, bearing a large blood-red flag, variegated with deep
+tints of black. When this terrible emblem is seen, the young warriors
+crowd around to hearken to the words of their chief. He then addresses
+them in a strain of impassioned, but rude and ferocious eloquence,
+calling upon them to follow him to glory and revenge. When he concludes
+his oration, he throws a wampum belt on the ground, which is
+respectfully lifted up by some warrior of high renown, who is judged
+worthy of being second in command. The chief now paints himself black,
+and commences a strict fast, only tasting a decoction of consecrated
+herbs to assist his dreams, which are strictly noted and interpreted by
+the elders. He then washes off the black paint. A huge fire is lighted
+in a public place in the village, and the great war-caldron set to boil:
+each warrior throws something into this vessel, and the allies who are
+to join the expedition also send offerings for the same purpose. Lastly,
+the sacred dog is sacrificed to the God of War, and boiled in the
+caldron to form the chief dish at a festival, to which only the warriors
+and men great in council are admitted.
+
+During these ceremonies the elders watch the omens with deep anxiety,
+and if the promise be favorable, they prepare for immediate departure.
+The chief then paints himself in bright and varied colors, to render his
+appearance terrible, and sings his war song, announcing the nature of
+the projected enterprise. His example is followed by all the warriors,
+who join a war-dance, while they proclaim with a loud voice the glory of
+their former deeds, and their determination to destroy their enemies.
+Each Indian now seizes his arms: the bow and quiver hang over the left
+shoulder, the tomahawk from the left hand, and the scalping-knife[275]
+is stuck in the girdle. A distinguished chief is appointed to take
+charge of the Manitous or guardian powers of each warrior; they are
+collected, carefully placed in a box, and accompany the expedition as
+the ark of safety. Meanwhile the women incite the warriors to vengeance,
+and eagerly demand captives for the torture, to appease the spirits of
+their slaughtered relatives, or sometimes, indeed, to supply their
+place. When the war party are prepared to start, the chief addresses his
+followers in a short harangue; they then commence the march, singing,
+and shouting the terrible war-whoop. The women proceed with the
+expedition for some distance; and when they must return, exchange
+endearing names with their husbands and relations, and express ardent
+wishes for victory. Some little gift of affection is usually exchanged
+at parting.
+
+Before striking the first blow the Indians make open declaration of war.
+A herald, painted black, is sent, bearing a red tomahawk, on one side of
+which are inscribed figures representing the causes of hostilities. He
+reaches the enemy's principal village at midnight, throws down the
+tomahawk in some conspicuous place, and disappears silently. When once
+warning is thus given, every stratagem that cunning can suggest is
+employed for the enemy's destruction.
+
+As long as the expedition continues in friendly countries, the warriors
+wander about in small parties for the convenience of hunting, still,
+however, keeping up communication by means of sounds imitating the cries
+of birds and beasts. None ever fail to appear at the appointed place of
+meeting upon the frontier, where they again hold high festival, and
+consult the omens of their dreams. When they enter the hostile territory
+a close array is observed, and a deep silence reigns. They creep on all
+fours, walk through water, or upon the stumps of trees, to avoid leaving
+any trace of their route. To conceal their numbers they sometimes march
+in a long single file, each stepping on the foot-print of the man before
+him. They sometimes even wear the hoofs of the buffalo or the paws of
+the bear, and run for miles in a winding course to imitate the track of
+those animals. Every effort is made to surprise the foe, and they
+frequently lure him to destruction by imitating from the depths of the
+forest the cries of animals of the chase.
+
+If the expedition meet with no straggling party of the enemy, it
+advances with cautious stealth toward some principal village; the
+warriors creep on their hands and feet through the deep woods, and often
+even paint themselves the color of dried leaves to avoid being perceived
+by their intended victims. On approaching the doomed hamlet, they
+examine it carefully, but rapidly, from some tree-top or elevated
+ground, and again conceal themselves till nightfall in the thickest
+covert. Strange to say, these subtle warriors neglect altogether the
+security of sentinels, and are satisfied with searching the surrounding
+neighborhood for hidden foes; if none be discovered, they sleep in
+confidence, even when hostile forces are not far off. They weakly trust
+to the protecting power of their Manitous. When they have succeeded in
+reaching the village, and concealing themselves unobserved, they wait
+silently, keeping close watch till the hour before dawn, when the
+inhabitants are in the deepest sleep. Then crawling noiselessly, like
+snakes, through the grass and underwood, till they are upon the foe, the
+chief raises a shrill cry, and the massacre begins. Discharging a shower
+of arrows, they finish the deadly work with the club and tomahawk. The
+great object, however, of the conquerors is to take the enemy alive, and
+reserve him to grace their triumph and rejoice their eyes by his
+torture. When resistance is attempted, this is often impossible, and an
+instant death saves the victim from the far greater horrors of captivity
+and protracted torment. When an enemy is struck down, the victor places
+his foot upon the neck of the dead or dying man, and with a horrible
+celerity and skill tears off the bleeding scalp.[276] This trophy is
+ever preserved with jealous care by the Indian warriors.
+
+After any great success the war party always return to their villages,
+more eager to celebrate the victory than to improve its advantages.
+Their women and old men await their return in longing expectation. The
+fate of the war is announced from afar off by well-known signs; the bad
+tidings are first told. A herald advances to the front of the returning
+party, and sounds a death-whoop for each of their warriors who has
+fallen in the fray. Then, after a little time, the tale of victory is
+told, and the number of prisoners and of the slain declared. All
+lamentations are soon hushed, and congratulations and rejoicing succeed.
+During the retreat, if the war party be not hard pressed by the enemy,
+prisoners are treated with some degree of humanity, but are very closely
+guarded. When the expedition has returned to the village, the old men,
+women, and children form themselves into two lines; the prisoners are
+compelled to pass between them, and are cruelly bruised with sticks and
+stones, but not vitally injured by their tormentors.
+
+A council is usually held to decide the fate of the prisoners: the
+alternatives are, to be adopted into the conquering nation, and received
+as brothers, or to be put to death in the most horrible torments, thus
+either to supply the place of warriors fallen in battle, or to appease
+the spirits of the departed by their miserable end. The older warriors
+among the captives usually meet the hardest fate; the younger are most
+frequently adopted by the women, their wounds are cured, and they are
+thenceforth received in every respect as if they belonged to the tribe.
+The adopted prisoners go out to war against their former countrymen,
+and the new tie is held even more binding than the old.
+
+The veteran warrior, whose tattooed skin bears record of slaughtered
+enemies, meets with no mercy: his face is painted, his head crowned with
+flowers as if for a festival, black moccasins are put upon his feet, and
+a flaming torch is placed above him as the signal of condemnation. The
+women take the lead in the diabolical tortures to which he is subjected,
+and rage around their victim with horrible cries. He is, however,
+allowed a brief interval to sing his death-song, and he often continues
+it even through the whole of the terrible ordeal. He boasts of his great
+deeds, insults his tormentors, laughing at their feeble efforts, exults
+in the vengeance that his nation will take for his death, and pours
+forth insulting reproaches and threats. The song is then taken up by the
+woman to whose particular revenge he has been devoted. She calls upon
+the spirit of her husband or son to come and witness the sufferings of
+his foe. After tortures too various and horrible to be particularized,
+some kind wound closes the scene in death, and the victim's scalp is
+lodged among the trophies of the tribe. To endure with unshaken
+fortitude[277] is the greatest triumph of an Indian warrior, and the
+highest confusion to his enemies, but often the proud spirit breaks
+under the pangs that rack the quivering flesh, and shouts of intolerable
+agony reward the demoniac ingenuity of the tormentors.
+
+Many early writers considered that the charge of cannibalism[278]
+against the Indians was well founded: doubtless, in moments of fury,
+portions of an enemy's flesh have been rent off and eaten. To devour a
+foeman's heart is held by them to be an exquisite vengeance. They have
+been known to drink draughts of human blood, and, in circumstances of
+scarcity, they do not hesitate to eat their captives. It is certain that
+all the terms used by them in describing the torture of prisoners relate
+to this horrible practice; yet, as they are so figurative in every
+expression, these may simply mean the fullest gratification of revenge.
+The evidence upon this point is obscure and contradictory; the Indian
+can not be altogether acquitted or found guilty of this foul imputation.
+
+The brief peace that affords respite amid the continual wars of the
+Indian tribes is scarcely more than a truce. Nevertheless, it is
+concluded with considerable form and ceremony. The first advance toward
+a cessation of hostilities is usually made through the chief of a
+neutral power. The nation proposing the first overture dispatches some
+men of note as embassadors, accompanied by an orator, to contract the
+negotiation. They bear with them the calumet[279] of peace as the
+symbol of their purpose, and a certain number of wampum belts[280] to
+note the objects and conditions of the negotiation. The orator explains
+the meaning of the belts to the hostile chiefs, and if the proposition
+be received, the opposite party accept the proffered symbols, and the
+next day present others of a similar import. The calumet is then
+solemnly smoked, and the burial of a war hatchet for each party and for
+each ally concludes the treaty. The negotiations consist more in
+presents, speeches, and ceremonies, than in any demands upon each other;
+there is no property to provide tribute, and the victors rarely or never
+require the formal cession of any of the hunting-grounds of the
+vanquished. The unrestrained passions of individuals, and the satiety of
+long continued peace, intolerable to the Indian, soon again lead to the
+renewal of hostility.
+
+The successful hunter ranks next to the brave warrior in the estimation
+of the savage. Before starting on his grand expeditions, he prepares
+himself by a course of fasting, dreaming, and religious observances, as
+if for war. He hunts with astonishing dexterity and skill, and regards
+this pursuit rather as an object of adventure and glory than as an
+industrious occupation.
+
+With regard to cultivation and the useful arts, the Indians are in the
+very infancy of progress.[283] Their villages are usually not less than
+eighteen miles apart, and are surrounded by a narrow circle of
+imperfectly-cleared land, slightly turned up with a hoe, or scraped with
+pointed sticks,[284] scarcely interrupting the continuous expanse of
+the forest. They are only acquainted with the rudest sorts of clay
+manufactures, and the use of the metals (except by European
+introduction) is altogether unknown.[285] Their women, however, display
+considerable skill in weaving fine mats, in staining the hair of
+animals, and working it into brilliant colored embroideries. The wampum
+belts are made with great care and some taste. The calumet is also
+elaborately carved and ornamented; and the painting and tattooing of
+their bodies sometimes presents well-executed and highly descriptive
+pictures and hieroglyphics. They construct light and elegant baskets
+from the swamp cane, and are very skillful in making bows and arrows;
+some tribes, indeed, were so rude as not to have attained even to the
+use of this primitive weapon, and the sling was by no means generally
+known.
+
+Most of the American nations are without any fixed form of government
+whatever. The complete independence of every man is fully recognized. He
+may do what he pleases of good or evil, useful or destructive, no
+constituted power interferes to thwart his will. If he even take away
+the life of another, the by-standers do not interpose. The kindred of
+the slain, however, will make any sacrifice for vengeance. And yet, in
+the communities of these children of nature there usually reigns a
+wonderful tranquillity. A deadly hostility exists between the different
+tribes, but among the members comprising each the strictest union
+exists. The honor and prosperity of his nation is the leading object of
+the Indian. This national feeling forms a link to draw him closely to
+his neighbor, and he rarely or never uses violence or evil speech
+against a countryman. Where there is scarcely such a thing as individual
+property, government and justice are necessarily very much simplified.
+There exists almost a community of goods. No man wants while another has
+enough and to spare. Their generosity knows no bounds. Whole tribes,
+when ruined by disasters in war, find unlimited hospitality among their
+neighbors; habitations and hunting-grounds are allotted to them, and
+they are received in every respect as if they were members of the nation
+that protects them.
+
+As there is generally no wealth or hereditary distinction among this
+people, the sole claim to eminence is founded on such personal qualities
+as can only be conspicuous in war, council, or the chase. During times
+of tranquillity and inaction all superiority ceases. Every man is
+clothed and fares alike. Relations of patronage and dependence are
+unknown. All are free and equal, and they perish rather than submit to
+control or endure correction. During war, indeed, or in the chase, they
+render a sort of obedience to those who excel in character and conduct,
+but at other times no form of government whatever exists. The names of
+magistrate and subject are not in their language. If the elders
+interpose between man and man, it is to advise, not to decide. Authority
+is only tolerated in foreign, not in domestic affairs.
+
+Music and dancing express the emotions of the Indian's mind. He has his
+songs of war and death, and particular moments of his life are appointed
+for their recital. His great deeds and the vengeance he has inflicted
+upon his enemies are his subjects; the language and music express his
+passions rudely but forcibly. The dance[286] is still more important:
+it is the grand celebration at every festival, and alternately the
+exponent of their triumph, anger, or devotion. It is usually pantomimic,
+and highly descriptive of the subject to which it is appropriate.
+
+The Indians are immoderately fond of play as a means of excitement and
+agitation. While gaming, they, who are usually so taciturn and
+indifferent, become loquacious and eager. Their guns, arms, and all that
+they possess are freely staked, and at times where all else is lost,
+they will trust even their personal safety to the hazard of the
+die.[287] The most barbarous of the tribes have unhappily succeeded in
+inventing some species of intoxicating liquor: that from the root of the
+maize was in general use; it is not disagreeable to the taste, and is
+very powerful. When the accursed fire-water is placed before the
+Indians, none can resist the temptation. The wisest, best, and bravest
+succumb alike to this odious temptation: and when their unrestrained
+passions are excited by drinking, they are at times guilty of enormous
+outrages, and the scenes of their festivities often become stained with
+kindred blood. The women are not permitted to partake of this fatal
+pleasure; their duty is to serve the guests, and take care of their
+husbands and friends when overpowered by the debauch. This exclusion
+from a favorite enjoyment is evidence of the contempt in which females
+are held among the Indians.
+
+In the present day, he who would study the character and habits of these
+children of Nature must travel far away beyond the Rocky Mountains,
+where the murrain of perverted civilization has not yet spread. There he
+may still find the virtues and vices of the savage, and lead among those
+wild tribes that fascinating life of liberty which few have ever been
+known to abandon willingly for the restraints and luxuries of
+civilization and refinement.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 266: "The custom of squeezing and flattening the head is still
+strictly adhered to among the Chinooks. The people bearing the name of
+Flat Heads are very numerous, but very few among them actually practice
+the custom. Among the Chinooks it is almost universal. The process is
+thus effected: The child is placed on a thick plank, to which it is
+lashed with thongs to a position from which it can not escape, and the
+back of the head supported by a sort of pillow made of moss or
+rabbit-skins, with an inclined piece resting on the forehead of the
+child. This is every day drawn down a little tighter by means of a cord,
+which holds it in its place, until at length it touches the nose, thus
+forming a straight line from the crown of the head to the end of the
+nose. This process is seemingly a cruel one, though I doubt whether it
+causes much pain, as it is done in earliest infancy, while the bones are
+soft and cartilaginous, and easily pressed into this distorted shape by
+forcing the occipital up and the frontal down, so that the skull at the
+top in profile will show a breadth of not more than an inch and a half
+or two inches, when in a front view it exhibits a great expansion on the
+sides, making it at the top nearly the width of one and a half natural
+heads. By this remarkable operation the brain is singularly changed from
+its natural state, but in all probability not in the least diminished or
+injured in its natural functions. This belief is drawn from the
+testimony of many credible witnesses who have closely scrutinized them,
+and ascertained that those who have the head flattened are in no way
+inferior in intellectual powers to those whose heads are in their
+natural shapes. This strange custom existed precisely the same until
+recently among the Choctaws and Chickasaws, who occupied a large part of
+the states of Mississippi and Alabama, where they have laid their bones,
+and hundreds of their skulls have been procured, bearing marks of a
+similar treatment, with similar results."--Catlin's _American Indians_,
+vol. ii., p. 112.
+
+With respect to the origin of this singular custom, Humboldt is inclined
+to think that it may be traced from the natural inclination of each race
+to look upon their own personal peculiarities as the standard of beauty.
+He observes that the pointed form of the heads is very striking in the
+Mexican drawings, and continues thus: "If we examine osteologically the
+skulls of the natives of America, we see that there is no race on the
+globe in which the frontal bone is more flattened or which have less
+forehead.[267] (Blumenbach, _Decas Quinta Craniorum_, tab. xlvi., p. 14,
+1808.) This extraordinary flattening exists among people of the
+copper-colored race, who have never been acquainted with the custom of
+producing artificial deformities, as is proved by the skulls of Mexican,
+Peruvian, and Aztec Indians, which M. Bonpland and myself brought to
+Europe, and several of which are deposited in the Museum of Natural
+History at Paris. The negroes prefer the thickest and most prominent
+lips, the Calmucks perceive the line of beauty in turned-up noses. M.
+Cuvier observes (_Leçons d'Anatomie Comparée_, tom. ii., p. 6) that the
+Grecian artists, in the statues of heroes, raised the facial line from
+85° to 100°, or beyond the natural form. I am led to think that the
+barbarous custom, among certain savage tribes in America, of squeezing
+the heads of children between two planks, arises from the idea that
+beauty consists in this extraordinary compression of the bone by which
+Nature has characterized the American race. It is no doubt from
+following this standard of beauty that even the Aztec people, who never
+disfigured the heads of their children, have represented their heroes
+and principal divinities with heads much flatter than any of the Caribs
+I saw on the Lower Orinoco."--Humboldt's _Researches on the Ancient
+Inhabitants of America_.]
+
+[Footnote 267: "L'anatomie comparée en offre une autre confirmation dans
+la proportion constante du volume des lobes cérébrales avec le degré
+d'intelligence des animaux."--Cuvier's _Report to the Institute on
+Flouren's Experiments in 1822_.]
+
+[Footnote 268: "Ces huiles leur sont absolument nécessaires, et ils sont
+mangés de vermine quand elles leur manquent."--Lafitau, tom. i., p. 59.
+
+It is supposed by Volney that the fatal effects of the small-pox among
+the Indians are to be attributed to the obstacle that a skin thus
+hardened opposes to the eruption.--P. 416. In the most detailed account
+given of the ravages of this disease, Catlin particularly mentions that
+no eruption was visible in any of the bodies of the dead. Forster, the
+English translator of Professor Kalm's _Travels in America_, held the
+same opinion as Volney.
+
+"When the Kalmucks in the Russian dominions get the small-pox, it has
+been observed that very few escape. Of this, I believe, no other reason
+can be alleged than that the small-pox is always dangerous, either when
+the open pores of the skin are too numerous, which is caused by opening
+them in a warm-water bath, or when they are too much closed, which is
+the case with all the nations that are dirty and greasy. All the
+American Indians rub their body with oils; the Kalmucks rub their bodies
+and their fur coats with grease; the Hottentots are also, I believe,
+patterns of filthiness: this shuts up all the pores, hinders
+perspiration entirely, and makes the small-pox always fatal among these
+nations."--_Note_ by the translator of Kalm, p. 532.
+
+"The ravages which the small-pox made this year (1750) among their
+Mohawk friends was a source of deep concern to these revered
+philanthropists. These people having been accustomed from early
+childhood to anoint themselves with bear's grease, to repel the
+innumerable tribes of noxious insects in summer, and to exclude the
+extreme cold ill winter, their pores are so completely shut up that the
+small-pox does not rise upon them, nor have they much chance of recovery
+from any acute disorder."--_Memoirs of an American Lady_, vol. i., p.
+322.]
+
+[Footnote 269: M. de Tracy, when governor of Canada, was told by his
+Indian allies that, with his good-humored face, he would never inspire
+the enemy with any degree of awe. They besought him to place himself
+under their brush, when they would soon make him such that his very
+aspect would strike terror.--Creuxius, _Nova Francia_, p. 62;
+Charlevoix, tom, vi., p. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 270: St. Isidore of Seville, and Solinus, give a similar
+description of the manner of painting the body in use among the Picts.
+"The operator delineates the figures with little points made by the
+prick of a needle, and into those he insinuates the juice of some native
+plants, that their nobility, thus written, as it were, upon every limb
+of their body, might distinguish them from ordinary men by the number of
+the figures they were decorated with."--Isidor., _Origin_, lib. xix.,
+cap. xxiii.; Solin., _De Magnâ Britanniâ_, cap. xxv.]
+
+[Footnote 271: "These horns are made of about a third part of the horn
+of a buffalo bull, the horn having been split from end to end, and a
+third part of it taken, and shaved thin and light, and highly polished.
+They are attached to the top or the head-dress on each side, in the same
+place as they rise and stand on the head of a buffalo, rising out of a
+mat of ermine skins and tails, which hangs over the top of the
+head-dress somewhat in the form that the large and profuse locks of hair
+hang and fall over the head of a buffalo bull. This custom is one which
+belongs to all northeastern tribes, and is no doubt of very ancient
+origin, having purely a classic meaning. No one wears the head-dress
+surmounted with horns except the dignitaries who are very high in
+authority, and whose exceeding valor, worth, and power is admitted by
+all the nation. This head-dress is used only on certain occasions, and
+they are very seldom: when foreign chiefs, Indian agents, or other
+important personages visit a tribe, or at war parades. Sometimes, when a
+chief sees fit to send a war party to battle, he decorates his head with
+this symbol of power, to stimulate his men, and throws himself into the
+foremost of the battle, inviting the enemy to concentrate his shafts
+upon them. The horns upon these head-dresses are but loosely attached at
+the bottom, so that they easily fall backward or forward; and by an
+ingenious motion of the head, which is so slight as to be almost
+imperceptible, they are made to balance to and fro, and sometimes one
+backward and the other forward like a horse's ears, giving a vast deal
+of expression and force of character to the appearance of the chief who
+is wearing them. This is a remarkable instance, like hundreds of others,
+of a striking similarity to Jewish customs, to the kerns (or _keren_, in
+Hebrew), the horns worn by the Abyssinian chiefs and Hebrews as a symbol
+of power and command--worn at great parades and celebrations of
+victories."--Catlin, vol. i., p. 104.]
+
+[Footnote 272: "When a young Indian becomes attached to a female, he
+does not frequent the lodge of her parents, or visit her elsewhere,
+oftener, perhaps, than he would provided no such attachment existed.
+Were he to pursue an opposite course before he had acquired either the
+reputation of a warrior or a hunter, and suffer his attachment to be
+known or suspected by any personal attention, he would become the
+derision of the warriors and the contempt of the squaws. On meeting,
+however, she is the first, excepting the elderly people, who engages his
+respectful and kind inquiries; after which, no conversation passes
+between them, except it be with the language of the eyes, which, even
+among savages, is eloquent, and appears to be well understood. The next
+indication of serious intentions on the part of the young hunter is the
+assumption of more industrious habits. He rises by daybreak, and, with
+his gun or bow, visits the woods and prairies, in search of the most
+rare and esteemed game. He endeavors to acquire the character of an
+expert and industrious hunter, and, whenever success has crowned his
+efforts, never fails to send the parents of the object of his affections
+some of the choicest he has procured. His mother is generally the
+bearer, and she is sure to tell from what source it comes, and to dilate
+largely on the merits and excellences of her son. The girl, on her part,
+exercises all her skill in preparing it for food, and when it is cooked,
+frequently sends some of the most delicious pieces, accompanied by other
+small presents, such as nuts, moccasins, &c., to her lover. These
+negotiations are usually carried on by the mothers of the respective
+parties, who consider them confidential, and seldom divulge even to the
+remaining parents, except one or both of the candidates should be the
+offspring of a chief, when a deviation from this practice is exacted,
+and generally observed. After an Indian has acquired the reputation of a
+warrior, expert hunter, or swift runner, he has little need of minor
+qualifications, or of much address or formality in forming his
+matrimonial views. The young squaws sometimes discover their attachment
+to those they love by some act of tender regard, but more frequently
+through the kind offices of some confidante or friend. Such overtures
+generally succeed: but should they fail, it is by no means considered
+disgraceful, or in the least disadvantageous to the female; on the
+contrary, should the object of her affections have distinguished himself
+especially in battle, she is the more esteemed on account of the
+judgment she displayed in her partiality for a respectable and brave
+warrior."--Hunter, p. 235-237.]
+
+[Footnote 273: See Appendix, No. LVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 274: "They firmly believe that the spirits of those who are
+killed by the enemy without equal revenge of blood, find no rest, and at
+night haunt the houses of the tribe to which they belonged; but when
+that kindred duty of retaliation is justly executed, they immediately
+get ease and power to fly away."--Adair's _Account of the American
+Indians._]
+
+[Footnote 275: "The modern scalping-knife is of civilized manufacture
+made expressly for Indian use, and carried into the Indian country by
+thousands and tens of thousands, and sold at an enormous price. In the
+native simplicity of the Indian, he shapes out his rude hatchet from a
+piece of stone, heads his arrows and spears with flints, and his knife
+is a sharpened bone or the edge of a broken silex. His untutored mind
+has not been ingenious enough to design or execute any thing so savage
+or destructive as these civilized refinements on Indian barbarity. The
+scalping-knife, in a beautiful scabbard which is carried under the belt,
+is generally used in all Indian countries where knives have been
+introduced. It is the size and shape of a butcher's knife with one edge,
+manufactured at Sheffield perhaps for sixpence, and sold to the poor
+Indians in these wild regions for a horse. If I should ever cross the
+Atlantic, with my collection, a curious enigma would be solved for the
+English people who may inquire for a scalping-knife, when they find that
+every one in my collection (and hear, also, that nearly every one that
+is to be seen in the Indian country, to the Rocky Mountains and the
+Pacific Ocean) bears on its blade, the impress of G.R."--Catlin's
+_American Indians_, vol. i., p. 236.]
+
+[Footnote 276: See Appendix, No. LVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 277: The savage Cantabrians and the first inhabitants of Spain
+sang songs of triumph as they were led to death and while they hung on
+the cross. Strabo mentions this as a mark of their ferocity and
+barbarism.--Strabo, lib. iii., p. 114.]
+
+[Footnote 278: The American word "cannibal," of a somewhat doubtful
+signification, is probably derived from the language of Hayti or that of
+Porto Rico. It has passed into the languages of Europe, since the end of
+the fifteenth century, as synonymous with that of Anthropophagi, "Edaces
+humanarum carnium novi heluones Anthropophagi, Caribes, alias Canibales
+appellati," says Peter Martyr of Anghiera, in the third decade of his
+_Oceanics_, dedicated to Pope Leo X. "We were assured by all the
+missionaries whom we had an opportunity of consulting, that the
+Caribbees are perhaps the least anthropophagous nation of the New
+Continent. We may conceive that the fury and despair with which the
+unhappy Caribbees defended themselves against the Spaniards when, in
+1704, a royal decree declared them slaves, may have contributed to the
+reputation they have acquired of ferocity. The licendiado Rodrigo de
+Figuera was appointed by the court in 1520 to decide which of the tribes
+of South America might be regarded as of Caribbee race, or as
+_Cannibals_, and which were Guatiaos, that is, Indians of peace, and
+friends of the Castilians. Every nation that could be accused of having
+devoured a prisoner after a battle was arbitrarily declared of Caribbee
+race. All the tribes designated by Figuera as Caribbees wore condemned
+to slavery, and might at will be sold or exterminated in
+war."--Humboldt's _Personal Narrative_, vol. vi., p. 35.
+
+Charlevoix and Lafitau speak of the cannibalism of the North American
+Indians as a generally acknowledged fact: Lafitau mentions the Abenaquis
+as the only tribe who held it in detestation.--Lafitau, vol. ii., p.
+307.]
+
+[Footnote 279: "On ne peut guères douter que les sauvages en faisant
+fumer dans le calumet ceux dont ils recherchent l'alliance ou le
+commerce, n'ayent intention de prendre le soleil pour témoin et en
+quelque façon pour garant de leurs traités, car ils ne manquent jamais
+de pousser la fumée vers cette astre: ... Fumer donc dans la même pipe,
+en signe d'alliance, est la même chose que de boire dans la même coupe,
+comme il s'est de tout tems pratiqué dans plusieurs nations."--Charlevoix,
+tom. v., p. 313.
+
+Calumet in general signifies a pipe, being a Norman word, derived from
+_chalumeau_. The savages do not understand this word, for it was
+introduced into Canada by the Normans when they first settled there, and
+has still continued in use among the French planters. The calumet, or
+pipe, is called in the Iroquois language _ganondaoe_, and by the other
+savage natives, _poagau_.
+
+Embassadors were never safe among any of the savage tribes who do not
+smoke the calumet.--Lafitau, vol. ii., p. 313. At the time of the early
+French writers on Indian customs, the calumet, since almost universally
+in use, was only known among the tribes inhabiting Louisiana, who in
+many respects were more advanced in civilization than those of the cold
+northern regions.]
+
+[Footnote 280: Wampum is the Indian name of ornaments manufactured by
+the Indians from vari-colored shells[281] which they get on the shore of
+the fresh-water streams, and file or cut into bits of half an inch, or
+an inch in length, and perforate, giving them the shape of pieces of
+broken pipe-stems, which they string on deer's sinews, or weave them
+ingeniously into war-belts for the waist. The wampum is evidently meant
+in the description of the _esurgny_ or _cornibolz_, given by Verazzano
+in Ramusio, which has so much puzzled translators and commentators.
+Lafitau and Charlevoix both describe it under the name of _porcelaine_.
+
+"La porcelaine dont nous parlons ici, est bien différente de ces
+ouvrages de porcelaine qu'on apporte de la Chine ou du Japan[282] dont
+la matière est une terre beluttée et préparée. Celle ci est tirée de
+certains coquillages de mer, connues en générale sous le nom de
+porcelaines--celles dont nos sauvages se servent sont canelées, et
+semblable pour leur figure aux coquilles de St. Jacques. Il y a de
+porcelaine de deux sortes, l'une est blanche, et c'est la plus commune.
+L'autre est d'un violet obscur; plus elle tire sur le noir plus elle est
+estimée. La porcelaine qui sert pour les affaires d'état est toute
+travaillée au petits cylindres de la longueur d'un quart de pouce et
+gros à proportion. On les distribue en deux manières, en branches et en
+colliers. Les branches sont composées de cylindres enfilés sans ordre, à
+la suite les uns des autres comme des grains de chapelet. La porcelaine
+en est ordinairement toute blanche, et on ne s'en sert que pour des
+affaires d'une legère conséquence. Les colliers sont de larges
+ceintures, où les petits cylindres blancs et pourpre sont disposés par
+rangs et assujettès par de petites bandelettes de cuir, dont on fait un
+tissu assez propre. Leur longeur, leur largueur et les grains de couleur
+se proportionnent à l'importance de l'affaire. Les colliers communs et
+ordinaires sont de onze rangs de cent quatre-vingt grains chacun. Le
+fisc, ou le tresor public consiste principalement en ces sortes de
+colliers.... Les sauvages n'ont rien de plus précieux que leur
+Porcelaine: ce sont leurs bijoux, leurs pierreries. Ils en comptent
+jusqu' aux grains, et cela leur tient lieu de toute richesse."--Lafitau,
+1720.
+
+Catlin writes thus in 1842: "Among the numerous tribes who have formerly
+inhabited the Atlantic coast, wampum has been invariably manufactured
+and highly valued as a circulating medium (instead of coins, of which
+the Indians have no knowledge), so many strings, or so many hands'
+breadth, being the fixed value of a horse, a gun, a robe, &c. It is a
+remarkable fact, that after I passed the Mississippi I saw but very
+little wampum used, and on ascending the Missouri, I do not recollect to
+have seen it worn at all by the Upper Missouri Indians, although the
+same materials for its manufacture are found in abundance in those
+regions. Below the Lions and along the whole of our western frontier,
+the different tribes are found loaded and beautifully ornamented with
+it, which they can now afford to do, for they consider it of little
+value, as the fur traders have ingeniously introduced an imitation of
+it, manufactured by steam or otherwise, of porcelain or some composition
+closely resembling it, with which they have flooded the whole Indian
+country, and sold at so reduced a price as to cheapen, and consequently
+destroy, the value and meaning of the original wampum, a string of which
+can now but very rarely be found in any part of the country."--Catlin,
+vol. i., p. 223.]
+
+[Footnote 281: "Among the numerous shells which are found on the
+sea-shore, there are some which by the English here are called clams,
+and which bear some resemblance to the human ear. They have a
+considerable thickness, and are chiefly white, excepting the pointed
+end, which both within and without hath a blue color, between purple and
+violet. The shells contain a large animal, which is eaten both by
+Indians and Europeans. The shells of these clams are used by the Indians
+as money, and make what they call their wampum; they likewise serve
+their women for an ornament when they intend to appear in full dress.
+These wampums are properly made of the purple part of the shells, which
+the Indians value more than the white parts. A traveler who goes to
+trade with the Indians, and is well stocked with them, may become a
+considerable gainer, but if he take gold coin or bullion he will
+undoubtedly be a loser; for the Indians who live farther up the country
+put little or no value on the metals which we reckon so precious, as I
+have frequently observed in the course of my travels. The Indians
+formerly made their own wampums, though not without a great deal of
+trouble; but at present the Europeans employ themselves in that way, and
+get considerable profit by it."--Kalm in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 455.]
+
+[Footnote 282: "Marsden et la Comte Baldelli ont rappellé, dans leur
+savans commentaires du Milione de Marco Polo, que c'est la nom de la
+coquille du genere Cypræa à dos bombé (porcellanor, de porcello, en
+latin porcellus, pourcelaine du père Trigault) qui a donné lieu à la
+dénomination de _porcelaine_ par laquelle les peuples occidentaux ont
+désigné les _Vasa Sinica_. Marco Polo se sert du mot porcellane, et pour
+les coquilles _karis_, ou _couries_, employées comme monnaie dans
+l'Inde, et pour la poterie fine de la Chine. ... La blancheur lustrée de
+plusieurs espèces de la famille des Buccinoides, appellées de
+pourcelaines au moine âge, a sans doute suffi pour faire donner aux
+beaux vases céramiques de la Chine une dénomination analogue. Ces
+coquilles ne sont pas entrées dans la composition de la
+porcelaine."--Humboldt, _Géog. du Nouveau Continent_, tom, v., p. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 283: "Avant d'avoir l'usage des moulins, ils brisaient leurs
+grains dans les piles, ou des mortiers de bois, avec des pilons de même
+matière. Hésiode nous donne la mesure de la pile et du pilon des
+anciens, et de nos sauvages, dans ces paroles, 'Coupez moi une pile de
+trois pieds de haut, et un pilon de la longueur de trois coudées.'
+(Hesiod, _Opera et Dies_, lib. v., 411; Servius in lib. ix., Æneid.
+Init.) Caton met aussi la pile et le pilon, au nombre des meubles
+rustiques de son temps. Les Pisons prirent leur nom de cette manière de
+piler le bled."--Lafitau.]
+
+[Footnote 284: "Il leur suffit d'un morceau de bois recourbé de trois
+doigts de largeur, attaché à un long mouche qui leur sert à sarcler la
+terre, et à la remuer legèrement."--Lafitau, tom. ii., p. 76.
+
+Catlin says that the tribe of Mandans raise a great deal of corn. This
+is all done by the women, who make their hoes of the shoulder-blades of
+the buffalo or elk, and dig the ground over instead of plowing it, which
+is consequently done with a vast deal of labor.--Vol. i., p. 121.]
+
+[Footnote 285: "Nothing so distinctly marks the uncivilized condition of
+the North American Indian as his total ignorance of the art of
+metallurgy. Forged iron has been in use among the inhabitants of our
+hemisphere from time immemorial; for, though the process employed for
+obtaining the malleability of a metal in its malleable state is very
+complicated, yet M. de Marian has clearly proved that the several eras
+at which writers have pretended to fix the discovery are entirely
+fabulous."--_Lettres sur la Chine._
+
+Consequently the weapons of brass and other instruments of metal found
+in the dikes of Upper Canada, Florida, &c., are among the strongest
+indications of the superiority of those ancient races of America who
+have now entirely passed away.
+
+"Know, then," says Cotton Mather, "that these doleful creatures are the
+veriest ruins of mankind. They live in a country full of metals, but the
+Indians were never owners of so much as a knife till we came among them.
+Their name for an Englishman was 'knife-man.'"]
+
+[Footnote 286: Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 233; Charlevoix.
+
+"The dances of the Red Indians form a singular and important feature
+throughout the customs of the aborigines of the New World. In these are
+typified, by signs well understood by the initiated, and, as it were, by
+hieroglyphic action, their historical events, their projected enterprises,
+their hunting, their ambuscades, and their battles, resembling in some
+respects the Pyrrhic dances of the ancients."--Washington Irving's
+_Columbus_, vol. ii., p. 122.
+
+"In the province of Pasto, on the ridge of the Cordillera, I have seen
+masked Indians, armed with rattles, performing savage dances around the
+altar, while a Franciscan monk elevated the host."--Humboldt's _Nouveau
+Espagne_, vol. i., p. 411.
+
+See, also, Lafitau's Moeurs _des Sauvages Amériquains comparés aux
+moeurs des premiers temps_, tom. i., p. 526. He refers to Plutarch, _in
+Lycurgo_, for an account of similar Spartan dances.]
+
+[Footnote 287: Charlevoix; Lafitau; Boucher, _Histoire du Canada_.
+
+"The players prepare for their ruin by religious observances; they fast,
+they watch, they pray."--Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 240. See Appendix,
+No. LIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+
+While the French were busied in establishing themselves upon the banks
+of the St. Lawrence, their ancient rivals steadily progressed in the
+occupation of the Atlantic coasts of North America.
+
+Generally speaking, the oldest colonies of England were founded by
+private adventurers, at their own expense and risk. In most cases, the
+soil of the new settlements was granted to powerful individuals or
+companies of merchants, and by them made over in detail to the actual
+emigrants for certain considerations. Where, however, as often occurred,
+the emigrants had settled prior to the grant, or were in a condition to
+disregard it, they divided the land according to their own interests and
+convenience. These unrecognized proprietors prospered more rapidly than
+those who were trammeled by engagements with non-resident authorities.
+The right of government, as well as the nominal possession of the soil,
+was usually granted in the first instance, and the new colonies were
+connected with the crown of Great Britain by little more than a formal
+recognition of sovereignty. But the disputes invariably arising between
+the nominal proprietors and the actual settlers speedily caused, in most
+cases, a dissolution of the proprietary government, and threw the
+colonies one by one under royal authority.
+
+The system then usually adopted was to place the colony under the rule
+of an English governor, assisted by an upper House of Parliament, or
+Council, appointed by himself, and a Lower House, possessing the power
+of taxation, elected by the people. All laws, however, enacted by these
+local authorities were subject to the approbation of the British crown.
+This was the outline of colonial constitutions in every North American
+settlement, except in those established under peculiar charters. The
+habit of self-government bore its fruit of sturdy independence and
+self-reliance among our transatlantic brethren, and the prospect of
+political privileges offered a special temptation to the English
+emigrant to embark his fortunes in the New World. At their commencement
+trade was free in all, and religion in most of the new colonies; and it
+was only by slow degrees that their fiscal regulations were brought
+under the subordination of the mother country.
+
+Although a general sketch of British colonization in North America is
+essential to the illustration of Canadian history, it is unnecessary to
+detail more than a few of the leading features of its nature and
+progress, and of the causes which placed its interests in almost
+perpetual antagonism with those of French settlement. This subject is
+rendered not a little obscure and complicated by the contradictory
+claims and statements of proprietors, merchant adventurers, and
+settlers; the separation of provinces; the abandonment of old, and the
+foundation of new settlements.[288]
+
+Sir Humphrey Gilbert,[289] of Compton, in Devonshire, formed the first
+plan of British colonization in America. Queen Elizabeth, who then wore
+the crown, willingly granted a patent conveying most ample gifts and
+powers to her worthy and distinguished subject. He was given forever all
+such "heathen and barbarous countries" as he might discover, with
+absolute authority therein, both by sea and land. Only homage, and a
+fifth part of the gold and silver that might be obtained, was reserved
+for the crown.
+
+The first expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert failed in the very
+commencement. The adventurers were unfortunately selected; many deserted
+the cause, and others engaged in disastrous quarrels among themselves.
+The chief was ultimately obliged to set out with only a few of his own
+tried friends.[290] He encountered very adverse weather, and was driven
+back with the loss of a ship and one of his trustiest companions[291]
+(1580). This disaster was a severe blow to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, as most
+of his property was embarked in the undertaking. However, with unshaken
+determination, and aided by Sir George Peckham, Sir Walter Raleigh,[292]
+and other distinguished men, he again equipped an expedition, and put to
+sea in the year 1583.
+
+The force with which this bold adventurer undertook to gain possession
+of a new continent was miserably small. The largest vessel was but of
+200 tons burden: the Delight, in which he himself sailed, was only 120
+tons, and the three others composing the little fleet were even much
+smaller. The crew and adventurers numbered altogether 260 men, most of
+them tradesmen, mechanics, and refiners of metal. There was such
+difficulty in completing even this small equipment, that some captured
+pirates were taken into the service.
+
+The expedition sailed from Concert Bay on the 11th of May, 1583. Three
+days afterward, the Raleigh,[293] the largest ship of the fleet, put
+back to land, under the plea that a violent sickness had broken out on
+board, but, in reality, from the indisposition of the crew to risk the
+enterprise. The loss of this vessel was a heavy discouragement to the
+brave leaders. After many delays and difficulties from the weather and
+the misconduct of his followers, Sir Humphrey Gilbert reached the shores
+of Newfoundland, where he found thirty-six vessels engaged in the
+fisheries. He, in virtue of his royal patent, immediately assumed
+authority over them, demanding and obtaining all the supplies of which
+he stood in need: he also proclaimed his own and the queen's possession
+of the country. Soon, however, becoming sensible that this rocky and
+dreary wilderness offered little prospect of wealth, he proceeded with
+three vessels, and a crew diminished by sickness and desertion, to the
+American coast. Owing to his imprudence in approaching the foggy and
+dangerous shore too closely, the largest vessel[294] struck, and went to
+pieces. The captain and many of the crew were lost; some of the
+remainder reached Newfoundland in an open boat, after having endured
+great hardships.
+
+Sir Humphrey Gilbert altogether failed in reaching any part of the main
+land of America. The weather became very bad, the winter approached, and
+provisions began to fail: there was no alternative but to return, and
+with bitter regret and disappointment he adopted that course. The two
+remaining vessels proceeded in safety as far as the meridian of the
+Azores; there, however, a terrible tempest assailed them. On the
+afternoon of the 9th of September the smaller of the two boats was
+observed to labor dangerously. Sir Humphrey Gilbert stood upon her deck,
+holding a book in his hand, encouraging the crew. "We are as near to
+heaven by sea as by land," he called out to those on board the other
+vessel, as it drifted past just before nightfall. Darkness soon
+concealed his little bark from sight; but for hours one small light was
+seen to rise and fall, and plunge about among the furious waves. Shortly
+after midnight it suddenly disappeared, and with it all trace of the
+brave chief and his crew. One maimed and storm-tossed ship returned to
+England of that armament which so short a time before had been sent
+forth to take possession of a New World.[295]
+
+The English nation was not diverted from the pursuit of colonial
+aggrandizement by even this disastrous failure. The queen, however, was
+more ready to assist by grants and patents than by pecuniary supplies.
+Many plausible schemes of settlement were put forward; but the
+difficulty of obtaining sufficient means of carrying them into effect,
+prevented their being adopted. At length the illustrious Sir Walter
+Raleigh undertook the task of colonization at his own sole charge, and
+easily obtained a patent similar to that conferred upon Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert. He soon sent out two small vessels, under skillful naval
+officers, to search for his new government. Warned by the disasters of
+their predecessors, they steered a more southerly course. When soundings
+indicated an approach to land, they already observed that the breeze
+from the shore was rich with delicious odors of fruits and flowers. They
+proceeded very cautiously, and presently found that they had reached a
+long, low coast, without harbors. The shore was flat and sandy; but
+softly undulating green hills were seen in the interior, covered with a
+great profusion of rich grapes. This discovery proved to be the island
+of Okakoke, off North Carolina. (1584.) The English were well received
+by the natives, and obtained from them many valuable skins in exchange
+for trinkets. Some limited explorations were made, after which the
+expedition returned to England, bearing very favorable accounts of the
+new country,[296] which filled Raleigh with joy, and raised the
+expectations of the whole kingdom. In honor of England's maiden queen,
+the name of Virginia was given to this land of promise.
+
+Sir Walter Raleigh now embarked nearly all his fortune in another
+expedition, consisting of seven small ships, which he placed under the
+able command of Sir Richard Greenville, surnamed "the Brave." The little
+fleet reached Virginia on the 29th of June, 1585, and the colony was at
+once landed. The principal duties of settlement were intrusted to Mr.
+Ralph Lane, who proved unequal to the charge. The coast, however, was
+explored for a considerable distance, and the magnificent Bay of
+Chesapeake discovered.
+
+Lane penetrated to the head of Roanoke Sound; there, without
+provocation, he seized a powerful Indian chief and his son, and retained
+the latter a close prisoner, in the hope, through him, of ruling the
+father. The natives, exasperated at this injury, deceived the English
+with false reports of great riches to be found in the interior. Lane
+proceeded up the river for several days with forty men, but, suffering
+much from the want of provisions, and having been once openly attacked
+by the savages, he returned disheartened to the coast, where he found
+that the Indians were prepared for a general rising against him, in a
+confederacy formed of the surrounding tribes, headed by a subtle chief
+called Pemisapan. In the mean time, however, the captive became attached
+to the English, warning them of the coming danger, and naming the day
+for the attack. Lane, resolving to strike the first blow, suddenly
+assailed the Indians and dispersed them; afterward, at a parley, he
+destroyed all the chiefs with disgraceful treachery. Henceforth the
+hatred of the savages to the English became intense, and they ceased to
+sow any of the lands near the settlement, with the view of starving
+their dangerous visitors.
+
+The colonists were much embarrassed by the hostilities of the Indians;
+the time appointed by Raleigh and Greenville for sending them supplies
+had passed; a heavy despondency fell upon their minds, and they began
+earnestly to wish for a means of returning home. But, suddenly, notice
+was given that a fleet of twenty-three sail was at hand, whether
+friendly or hostile no one could tell: to their great joy, it proved to
+be the armament of Sir Francis Drake. Lane and his followers immediately
+availed themselves of this opportunity, and with the utmost haste
+embarked for England, totally abandoning the settlement. (1586.) A few
+days after this unworthy flight, a vessel of 100 tons, amply provided
+with aid for the colony, arrived upon its deserted shores; the crew in
+vain searched the coast and neighborhood for their fellow-countrymen,
+and then steered for England. A fortnight after Sir Richard Greenville
+arrived with three well-appointed ships, and found a lonely desert where
+he had expected a flourishing colony: he also returned to England in
+deep disappointment, leaving, however, a small party to hold possession
+of the country till he should return with ampler resources.
+
+The noble Raleigh was not discouraged by this unhappy complication of
+errors and disasters; he immediately dispatched another expedition, with
+three ships under the command of John White. But a terrible sight
+presented itself on their arrival: the fort razed to the ground, the
+houses ruined and overgrown with grass, and a few scattered bones, told
+the fate of their countrymen. The little settlement had been assailed by
+300 Indians, and all the colonists destroyed or driven into the interior
+to an unknown fate. By an unfortunate error, White attacked one of the
+few tribes that were friendly to the English, in the attempt to revenge
+the cruel massacre. After this unhappy exploit, he was compelled, by the
+discontent of his followers, to return to England, for the purpose of
+procuring them supplies.[297] From various delays, it was not till 1590
+that another expedition reached Virginia. But again silence and
+desolation reigned upon that fatal shore. The colony left by White had
+been destroyed like its predecessor. Raleigh at last abandoned the
+scheme of settlement that had proved ruinously disastrous to him and all
+concerned, and the brave Sir Richard Greenville was soon after slain.
+(1591.)[298]
+
+The interest of the public in Virginia remained suspended till the year
+1602, when Captain Bartholomew Gosnold undertook a voyage thither, and
+brought back such brilliant reports of the beauty and fertility of the
+country, that the dormant attention of the English toward this part of
+the world was again aroused. In 1606, Arundel, Lord Wardour, sent out a
+vessel under the command of Captain Weymouth, to make further
+discoveries. The report of this voyage more than confirmed that of the
+preceding.
+
+The English nation were now at length prepared to make an efficient
+attempt to colonize the New World. In London, and at Plymouth and
+Bristol, the principal maritime cities of the kingdom, the scheme found
+numerous and ardent supporters. James I., however, only granted such
+powers to the adventurers as suited his own narrow and arbitrary views:
+he refused to sanction any sort of representative government in the
+colony, and vested all power in a council appointed by himself.[299]
+Virginia was, about that time, divided somewhat capriciously into two
+parts: the southern portion was givens to a merchant company of London,
+the northern to a merchant company of Bristol and Plymouth.[301]
+
+The southern, or London Company, were the first to commence the work of
+colonization with energy. On the 19th of December, 1606, they
+dispatched an expedition of three vessels, commanded by Captain Newport,
+comprising a number of people of rank and distinction. Among these was
+Captain John Smith, whose admirable qualities were afterward so
+conspicuously and usefully displayed. The expedition met with such
+delays and difficulties that it was at one time on the point of
+returning to England. At length, however, they descried an unknown cape,
+and soon afterward entered Chesapeake Bay, where the beauty and
+fertility of the shores even surpassed their expectations.[302] On first
+landing, they met the determined hostility of the savages, but when the
+fleet proceeded to Cape Comfort, they there received a more friendly
+reception, and were invited ashore. The Indians spread their simple
+stores of dainties before the strangers, smoked with them the calumet of
+peace, and entertained them with songs and dances. As the expedition
+moved higher up the bay, where no English had been before seen, it met
+with a still more cordial welcome.
+
+Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement established in
+America, although it has not since risen to very great importance. The
+site was chosen by this expedition about forty miles above the entrance,
+upon the banks of James River, where the emigrants at once proceeded to
+establish themselves. They suffered great distress from the commencement
+on account of the bad quality of the provisions, furnished under
+contract by Sir Thomas Smith, one of the leading members of the company.
+Disease soon followed want, and in a short time fifty of the settlers
+died. Under these difficult circumstances, the energy and ability of
+Captain John Smith pointed him out as the only person to command, and by
+the consent of all he was invested with absolute authority. He arranged
+the internal affairs of the colony as he best could, and then set out to
+collect supplies in the neighboring country. The Indians met him with
+derision, and refused to trade with him; he therefore, urged by
+necessity, drove them away, and took possession of a village well
+stocked with provisions. The Indians soon returned in force and attacked
+him furiously, but were easily repulsed. After their defeat they opened
+a friendly intercourse, and furnished the required supplies. Smith made
+several further excursions. On returning to the colony, he found that a
+conspiracy had been formed among his turbulent followers to break up the
+settlement and sail for England; this he managed to suppress, and soon
+again started to explore the country. In this expedition he rashly
+exposed himself unprotected to the assaults of the Indians, and was
+taken prisoner after a most gallant attempt at escape. He was led about
+in triumph for some time from village to village, and at length
+sentenced to die. His head was laid upon a stone, and the executioner
+stood over him with a club, awaiting the signal to slay, when
+Pocahontas, daughter of the Indian chief, implored her father's mercy
+for the white man. He was inexorable, and ordered the execution to
+proceed; but the generous girl laid her head upon that of the intended
+victim, and vowed that the death blow should strike her first. The
+savage chief moved by his daughter's devotion, spared the prisoner's
+life.[303] Smith was soon afterward escorted in safety to Jamestown, and
+given up on a small ransom being paid to the Indians.[304] (1608.)
+
+Smith found, on his arrival, that the colonists were fitting out a
+pinnace to return to England. He, with ready decision, declared that the
+preparations should be discontinued immediately, or he would sink the
+little vessel. His prompt determination was successful, and the people
+agreed to remain. Through the generous kindness of Pocahontas, supplies
+of provisions were furnished to the settlement, till the arrival of a
+vessel from England, replenished its stores. Soon after his happy
+escape from the hands of the savages, Smith again started fearlessly
+upon an expedition to explore the remainder of Chesapeake Bay. He sailed
+in a small barge, accompanied only by twelve men, and with this slender
+force completed a voyage of 3000 miles along an unknown coast, among a
+fierce and generally hostile people, and depending on accident and his
+own ingenuity for supplies. During several years Pocahontas continued to
+visit the English, but her father was still hostile, and once endeavored
+to surprise Smith and slay him in the woods; but again the generous
+Indian girl saved his life at the hazard of her own: in a dark night she
+ran for many miles through the forest, evading the vigilance of her
+fierce countrymen, and warned him of the threatened danger. An open war
+now ensued between the English and the Indians, and was continued with
+great mutual injury, till a worthy gentleman named Thomas Rolfe, deeply
+interested by the person and character of Pocahontas, made her his wife;
+a treaty was then concluded with the Indian chief, which was henceforth
+religiously observed. (1613.)
+
+The colony[305] meanwhile proceeded with varied fortunes. The emigrants
+had been very badly selected for their task: "poor gentlemen, tradesmen,
+serving-men, libertines, and such like, ten times more fit to spoil a
+commonwealth than either to begin or maintain one." These men were
+tempted into the undertaking by hopes of sudden wealth, and were
+altogether disinclined to even the slight labor of tilling that
+exuberant soil, when only a subsistence was to be their reward. In 1619
+James commenced the system of transporting malefactors, by sending 100
+"dissolute persons" to Virginia. These men were used as laborers, or
+rather slaves, but tended seriously to lower the character of the
+voluntary emigration.[306] In 1625 only 1800 convicts remained alive out
+of 9000 who had been transported at a cost of £15,000.[308] The
+contracted and arbitrary system of the exclusive company was felt as a
+great evil in the colony.[309] This body was at length superseded by the
+forfeiture of its charter, and the crown assumed the direction of
+affairs. Many years of alternate anarchy and tyranny followed. During
+the rebellion of Bacon in 1676, the most remarkable event in this early
+period of Virginian history, English troops were first introduced into
+the American colonies. Sir William Berkeley, who was appointed governor
+in 1642, visited the insurrectionists with a terrible vengeance, when
+the death of the leader, Bacon, left them defenseless. "The old fool,"
+said Charles II. (with truth), "has taken away more lives in that naked
+country than I for the murder of my father." But, though the complaints
+of the oppressed were heard in England with impartiality, and Berkeley
+was hunted to death by public opinion on his return there to defend
+himself, the permanent results of Bacon's rebellion were disastrous to
+Virginia: all the measures of reform which had been attempted during
+its brief success were held void, and every restrictive feature that had
+been introduced into legislation by the detested governor was
+perpetuated.
+
+Among the first settlers in Virginia, gold was the great object, it was
+every where eagerly sought, but in vain. Several ships were loaded with
+a sort of yellow clay, and sent to England under the belief that it
+contained the most precious of metals, but it was found to be utterly
+worthless. The colonists next turned their attention to the cultivation
+of tobacco.[310] This speedily became so profitable that it was pursued
+even to the exclusion of all other industry.
+
+There yet remains to be told one terrible incident in the earlier story
+of Virginia, an incident that resulted in the total destruction of the
+Indian race. The successor to the father of Pocahontas had conceived a
+deadly enmity against the English: this was embittered from day to day,
+as he saw the hated white men multiplying and spreading over the hunting
+grounds of his fathers. Then a fierce determination took possession of
+his savage heart. For years he matured his plans, and watched the
+favorable moment to crush every living stranger at a blow. He took all
+his people into counsel, and such was their fidelity, and so deep the
+wile of the Indian chief, that, during four years of preparation, no
+warning reached the intended victims. To the last fatal moment, a
+studied semblance of cordial friendship was observed; some Englishmen,
+who had lost their way in the woods were kindly and carefully guided
+back again.
+
+One Friday morning (March 22d, 1622) the Indians came to the town in
+great numbers, bearing presents, and finding their way into every house.
+Suddenly the fierce shout of the savages broke the peaceful silence, and
+the death-shriek of their victims followed. In little more than a
+minute, three hundred and forty-seven, of all ages and sexes, were
+struck down in this horrid massacre. The warning of an Indian converted
+to Christianity saved Jamestown. The surviving English assembled there,
+and began a war of extermination against the savages. By united force,
+superior arms, and, it must be added, by treachery as black as that of
+their enemies, the white men soon swept away the Indian race forever
+from the Virginian, soil.[311]
+
+As has been before mentioned, the northern part of Virginia was bestowed
+by royal grant upon a Merchant Company of Plymouth, and other southern
+and western sea-ports. The first effort to take possession of the new
+territory was feeble and disastrous. Twenty-nine Englishmen and two
+Indians were sent out in a little bark of only fifty-five tons burden
+(1606); they were taken by the Spaniards off the coast of Hispaniola,
+who treated them with great cruelty. Some time after this ill-fated
+expedition had failed, another colony of 100 men, led by Captains Popham
+and Gilbert, settled on the River Sagadahock, and built a fort called by
+them St. George. (1607.) They abandoned the settlement, however, the
+following year, and returned to England. The next project of British
+North American colonization was set on foot by Captain John Smith,
+already so highly distinguished in transatlantic history. (1614.) After
+much difficulty, he effected the equipment of two vessels, and sailed
+for the Virginian shore; but, although successful as a trading
+speculation, the only permanent fruits of the voyage was a map of the
+coast, which he presented to Charles I. The king, always interested in
+maritime affairs, listened favorably to Smith's accounts of the New
+World, but proved either unable or unwilling to render him any useful
+assistance. The next year this brave adventurer again crossed the seas
+in a small vessel containing only sixteen emigrants. The little
+expedition was captured by the French, and the leader, with great
+difficulty, effected his return to England.
+
+Meanwhile, a man named Hunt, who had been left in charge of one of the
+ships in Smith's first expedition, committed an outrage upon the natives
+that led to deplorable results (1616); he inveigled thirty of them on
+board, carried them suddenly away, and sold them into slavery. The
+savages rose against the next English party that landed upon their
+coast, and killed and wounded several in revenge. Captain Dormer, a
+prudent and conciliatory person, with one of the betrayed natives, was
+sent by the company to explain to the furious Indians that Hunt's crime
+was the act of an individual, and not of the nation: this commission was
+well and wisely executed. For about two years Dormer frequently repeated
+his visits with advantage to his employers, but finally was attacked by
+strange savages and wounded fatally.
+
+But still, through all these difficulties and disasters, adventurers
+pressed on to the fertile Western desert, allured by liberal grants of
+land from the chartered companies. The undefined limits of these
+concessions led to constant and mischievous quarrels among the settlers,
+often attended with violence and bloodshed; from these causes the early
+progress of the colony was very slow. One hundred and twenty years after
+England had discovered North America, she only possessed a few scattered
+fishing huts along the shore. But events were now at hand which at once
+stamped a peculiar character upon the colonization of this part of the
+New World,[312] and which were destined to exercise an influence upon
+the human race of an importance even yet incalculable.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 288: See Preface to Bancroft's _History of the United
+States_.]
+
+[Footnote 289: "Sir Humphrey had published, in 1576, a treatise
+concerning a northwest passage to the East Indies, which, although
+tinctured with the pedantry of the age, is full of practical sense and
+judicious argument."--P.F. Tytler's _Life of Sir Walter Raleigh_, p.
+26.]
+
+[Footnote 290: "Sir Walter Raleigh, step-brother to Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert, was one of his companions in this enterprise, and, although it
+proved unsuccessful, the instructions of Sir Humphrey could not fail to
+be of service to Raleigh, who at this time was not much above
+twenty-five, while the admiral must have been in the maturity of his
+years and abilities."--Tytler, p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 291: "On its homeward passage, the small squadron of Gilbert
+was dispersed and disabled by a Spanish fleet, and many of the company
+were slain; but, perhaps owing to the disastrous issue of the fight, it
+has been slightly noticed by the English historians."--Oldy's _Life of
+Raleigh_, p. 28, 29.]
+
+[Footnote 292: Raleigh, who had by this time risen into favor with the
+queen, did not embark on the expedition, but he induced his royal
+mistress to take so deep an interest in its success, that, on the eve of
+its sailing from Plymouth, she commissioned him to convey to Sir H.
+Gilbert her earnest wishes for his success, with a special token of
+regard--a little trinket representing an anchor guided by a lady. The
+following was Raleigh's letter, written from the court: "Brother--I have
+sent you a token from her majesty, an anchor guided by a lady, as you
+see; and, further, her highness willed me to send you word that she
+wished you as great good hap and safety to your ship as if she herself
+were there in person, desiring you to have care of yourself as of that
+which she tendereth; and therefore, for her sake, you must provide for
+it accordingly. Farther, she commandeth that you leave your picture with
+me. For the rest, I leave till our meeting, or to the report of this
+bearer, who would needs be the messenger of this good news. So I commit
+you to the will and protection of God, who sends us such life and death
+as he shall please or hath appointed. Richmond, this Friday morning.
+Your true brother, WALTER RALEIGH."--This letter is indorsed as having
+been received March 18, 1582-3, and it may be remarked that it settles
+the doubt as to the truth of Prince's story of the golden anchor,
+questioned by Campbell in his _Lives of the Admirals_. In the
+_Heroologia Angliæ_, p. 65, there is a fine print of Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert, taken evidently from an original picture; but, unlike the
+portrait mentioned by Granger, it does not bear the device mentioned in
+the text. Raleigh's letter explains this difference. When Sir Humphrey
+was at Plymouth, on the eve of sailing, the queen commands him, we see,
+to leave his picture with Raleigh. This must allude to a portrait
+already painted; and, of course, the golden anchor then sent could not
+be seen in it. Now, he perished on the voyage. The picture at Devonshire
+House, mentioned by Granger, which bears this honorable badge, must,
+therefore have been painted _after_ his death.--Tytler's _Raleigh_, p.
+45; Granger's _Biographical History_, vol. i., p. 246; Cayley, vol. i.,
+p. 31; Prince's _Worthies of Devonshire_.]
+
+[Footnote 293: "This ship was of 200 tons burden: it had been built
+under Raleigh's own eye, equipped at his expense, and commanded by
+Captain Butler, her master being Thomas Davis, of Bristol."--Tytler, p.
+44.]
+
+[Footnote 294: The _Delight_. The _Swallow_ had, a short time before,
+been sent home with some of the crew, who were sick. The remaining barks
+were the _Golden Hind_ and the _Squirrel_, the first of forty, the last
+of ten tons burden. For what reason does not appear, the admiral
+insisted, against the remonstrances of his officers and crew, in having
+his flag in the _Squirrel_. It was a fatal resolution. The larger
+vessel, the _Golden Hind_, arrived at Falmouth on the 22d September,
+1583.]
+
+[Footnote 295: See Captain Edward Haies's _Narrative of the Expedition
+of Sir Humphrey Gilbert_; Hakluyt, vol. iii., p. 143-159.]
+
+[Footnote 296: Oldy's _Life of Raleigh_, p. 58. The description given of
+Virginia by the two captains in command of the expedition (Captains
+Philip Amadas and Walter Barlow) was, that "the soil is the most
+plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all the world. We found the
+people most gentle, loving, faithful, void of all guile and treason, and
+such as lived after the manner of the Golden Age."]
+
+[Footnote 297: Unfortunately, on White's arrival in England, the nation
+was wholly engrossed by the expected invasion of the Spanish Armada, and
+Sir Richard Greenville, who was preparing to sail for Virginia, received
+notice that his services were wanted at home. Raleigh, however,
+contrived to send out White with two more vessels; but they were
+attacked by a Spanish ship of war, and so severely shattered that they
+were obliged to return. Another expedition could not be undertaken until
+1590; and no trace could then, or ever after, be found of the
+unfortunate colony left by White.
+
+"Robertson reproaches Raleigh with levity in now throwing up his scheme
+of a Virginian colony. But, really, when we consider that in the course
+of four years he had sent out seven successive expeditions, each more
+unfortunate than the other, and had spent £40,000--nearly his whole
+fortune--without the least prospect of a return, it can not be viewed as
+a very unaccountable caprice that he should get sick of the business,
+and be glad to transfer it into other hands."--Murray, vol. i., p. 254.]
+
+[Footnote 298: For an account of Sir Richard Greenville's death, see
+Appendix, No. LX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 299: "The fundamental idea, of the older British colonial
+policy appears to have been, that wherever a man went, he carried with
+him the rights of an Englishman, whatever these were supposed to be. In
+the reign of James I., the state doctrine was, that most popular rights
+were usurpations; and the colonists of Virginia, sent out under the
+protection of government, were therefore placed under that degree of
+control which the state believed itself authorized to exercise at home.
+The Puritans exalted civil franchise to a republican pitch: their
+colonies were therefore republican; there was no such notion as that of
+an intermediate state of tutelage or semi-liberty. Hence the entire
+absence of solicitude on the part of the mother country to interfere
+with the internal government of the colonies arose not altogether from
+neglect, but partly from principle. This is remarkably proved by the
+fact that representative government was seldom expressly granted in the
+early charters; _it was assumed by the colonists as a matter of right_.
+Thus, to use the odd expression of the historian of Massachusetts, 'A
+house of burgesses broke out in Virginia,' in 1619,[300] almost
+immediately after its second settlement; and although the constitution
+of James contained no such element, it was at once acceded to by the
+mother country as a thing of course. No thought was ever seriously
+entertained of supplying the colonies with the elements of an
+aristocracy. Virginia was the only province of old foundation in which
+the Church of England was established; and there it was abandoned, with
+very little help, to the caprice or prejudices of the colonists, under
+which it speedily decayed. The Puritans enjoyed, undisturbed, their
+peculiar notions of ecclesiastical government. 'It concerned New England
+always to remember that they were originally a plantation religious, not
+a plantation of trade. And if any man among us make religion as twelve,
+and the world as thirteen, such an one hath not the spirit of a true New
+Englandman.' And when they chose to illustrate this noble principle by
+decimating their own numbers by persecution, and expelling from their
+limits all dissenters from their own establishment, the mother country
+never exerted herself to protect or prohibit. The only ambition of the
+state was to regulate the trade of its colonies: in this respect, and
+this only, they were fenced round with restrictions, and watched with
+the most diligent jealousy. They had a right to self-government and
+self-taxation; a right to religious freedom, in the sense which they
+chose themselves to put upon the word; a right to construct their
+municipal polity as they pleased; but no right to control or amend the
+slightest fiscal regulation of the imperial authority, however
+oppressively it might bear upon them.
+
+"Such, I say, were the general notions prevailing in England on the
+subject of colonial government during the period of the foundation and
+early development of our transatlantic colonies--the notions by which
+the practice of government was regulated--although I do not assert that
+they were framed into a consistent and logical theory. Perhaps we shall
+not be far wrong in regarding Lord Chatham as the last distinguished
+assertor of these principles, in an age when they had begun to be
+partially superseded by newer speculations."--Merivale _On
+Colonization_, vol. i., p. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 300: Hutchinson's _History of Massachusetts_, p. 94.]
+
+[Footnote 301: "In the spring of 1606, James I. by patent divided
+Virginia into two colonies. The _southern_ included all lands between
+the 34th and 41st degrees of north latitude. This was granted to the
+London Company. The _northern_ included all lands between the 38th and
+45th degrees of north latitude, and was granted to the Plymouth Company.
+To prevent disputes about territory, the colonies were forbidden to
+plant within a hundred miles of each other. There appears an
+inconsistency in these grants, as the lands lying between the 38th and
+41st degrees are covered by both patents.
+
+"In the month of August, 1615, Captain John Smith arrived in England,
+where he drew a map of the northern part of Virginia, and called it New
+England. From this time the name of Virginia was confined to the
+southern part of the colony."--Winterbottom's _History of America_, vol.
+iv., p. 165. See Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. i., p.
+120.]
+
+[Footnote 302: Percy, in Purchas, iv., 1687.]
+
+[Footnote 303: "This celebrated scene is preserved in a beautiful piece
+of sculpture over the western door of the Rotundo of the Capitol at
+Washington. The group consists of five figures, representing the precise
+moment when Pocahontas, by her interposition, saved Smith from being
+executed. It is the work of Capellano, a pupil of Canova's."--Thatcher's
+_Indian Biography_, vol. i., p. 22. See Appendix, No. LXI., (see Vol II)
+for the History of Pocahontas.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Smith, in Pinkerton, xiii., 51-55. "The account is fully
+contained in the oldest book printed in Virginia, in our Cambridge
+library. It is a thin quarto, in black letter, by John Smith, printed in
+1608."--Bancroft's _Hist. of the United States_, vol. i., p. 132.]
+
+[Footnote 305: In the year 1610, the South Virginian or London Company
+sealed a patent to Lord Delawarr, constituting him Governor and
+Captain-General of South Virginia. His name was given to a bay and
+river, and to the Indians who dwelt in the surrounding country, called
+in their own tongue Lenni-Lenape, which name signifies THE ORIGINAL
+PEOPLE. Lord Delawarr's health was ruined by the hardships and anxieties
+he was exposed to in Virginia, and he was obliged to return to England
+in little more than a year.]
+
+[Footnote 306: Captain Smith says of Virginia, "that the number of
+felons and vagabonds did bring such evil character on the place, that
+some did choose to be hanged rather than go there, and _were_."--Graham's
+_Rise and Progress of the United States_, vol. i., p. 71
+
+"England adopted in the seventeenth century the system of transportation
+to her North American plantations, and the example was propagated by
+Cromwell, who introduced the practice of selling his political captives
+as slaves to the West Indians. But the number of regular convicts was
+too small, and that of free laborers too large, in the old provinces of
+North America, to have allowed this infusion of a convict population to
+produce much effect on the development of those communities, either in
+respect of their morals or their health.[307] Our own times are the
+first which have witnessed the phenomena of communities, in which the
+bulk of the working people consists of felons serving out the period of
+their punishment."--Merrivale, vol. ii., p. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 307: It must be remembered that the crimes of the convicts
+were chiefly political. The number transported to Virginia for social
+crimes was never considerable--scarcely enough to sustain the sentiment
+of pride in its scorn of the laboring population--certainly not enough
+to affect its character.--Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 191.]
+
+[Footnote 308: Stith's _Hist. of Virginia_, p. 167, 168; Chalmers's
+_Annals of the United Colonies_, p. 69.]
+
+[Footnote 309: Stith's _Hist. of Virginia_, p. 307.]
+
+[Footnote 310: It is asserted by Camden that tobacco was first brought
+into England by Mr. Ralph Lane, who went out as chief governor of
+Virginia in the first expedition commanded by Sir Richard Greenville.
+There can be little doubt that Lane was desired to import it by his
+master, Sir Walter Raleigh, who had seen it used in France during his
+residence there.--Camden, in Kennet, vol. ii., p. 509.
+
+"There is a well-known tradition that Sir Walter first began to smoke it
+privately in his study, and the servant coming in with his tankard of
+ale and nutmeg, as he was intent upon his book, seeing the smoke issuing
+from his mouth, threw all the liquor in his face by way of extinguishing
+the fire, and, running down stairs, alarmed the family with piercing
+cries that his master, before they could get up, would be burned to
+ashes."--Oldy's _Life of Raleigh_, p. 74.
+
+"King James declared himself the enemy of tobacco, and drew against it
+his royal pen. In the work which he entitled 'Counterblast to Tobacco,'
+he poured the most bitter reproaches on this 'vile and nauseous weed.'
+He followed it up by a proclamation to restrain 'the disorderly trading
+in tobacco,' as tending to a general and new corruption of both men's
+bodies and minds. Parliament also took the fate of this weed into their
+most solemn deliberation. Various members inveighed against it, as a
+mania which infested the whole nation; that plowmen took it at the plow;
+that it 'hindered' the health of the whole nation, and that thousands
+had died of it. Its warmest friends ventured only to plead that, before
+the final anathema was pronounced against it, a little pause might be
+granted to the inhabitants of Virginia and the Somer's Isles to find
+some other means of existence and trade. James's enmity did not prevent
+him from endeavoring to fill his coffers by the most enormous imposts
+laid upon tobacco, insomuch that the colonists were obliged for some
+time to send the whole into the ports of Holland. The government of New
+England, more consistently, passed a complete interdict against tobacco,
+the smoke of which they compared to that of the bottomless pit. Yet
+tobacco, like other proscribed objects, throve under persecution, and
+achieved a final triumph over all its enemies. Indeed, the enmity
+against it was in some respects beneficial to Virginia, as drawing forth
+the most strict prohibitions against 'abusing and misemploying the soil
+of this fruitful kingdom' to the production of so odious an article.
+After all, as the impost for an average of seven years did not reach a
+hundred and fifty thousand pounds, it could not have that mighty
+influence, either for good or evil, which was ascribed to it by the
+fears and passions of the age."--Chalmers. b. i., ch. iii., with notes.
+Massaire, p. 210. Wives, p. 197, quoted by Murray.
+
+"Frenchmen they call those tobacco plants whose leaves do not spread and
+grow large, but rather spire upward and grow tall; these plants they do
+not tend, not being worth their labor."--Mr. Clayton's _Letter to the
+Royal Society_, 1688. _Miscellanea Curiosa_, vol. iii., p. 303-310.]
+
+[Footnote 311: The colonists of Virginia, in a kind of manifesto
+published in 1622, expressed their satisfaction at some late warlike
+excursions of the Indians as a pretext for robbing and subjugating them.
+"Now these cleared grounds in all their villages, which live situated in
+the fruitfullest parts of the land, shall be inhabited by us, whereas
+heretofore the grubbing of woods was the greatest labor. The way of
+conquering them is much more easy than that of civilizing them by fair
+means; for they are a rude, barbarous, and naked people, scattered in
+small companies, which are helps to victory, but hinderances to
+civility."--_Tracts relating to Virginia in the British Museum_, quoted
+by Merrivale. See Appendix, No. LXII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 312: "Il faut envisager surtout l'influence qu'à exercée le
+Nouveau Continent sur les destinées du genre humain sous le rapport des
+institutions sociales. La tourmente religieuse du seizième siècle, en
+favorisant l'essor d'une libre reflexion, a préludé à la tourmente
+politique des temps dans lesquels nous vivons. Le premier de ces
+mouvemens a coincidé avec l'époque de l'établissement des colonies
+Européennes en Amérique; le second s'est fait sentir vers la fin du
+dix-huitième siècle, et a fini par briser les liens de dépendance qui
+unissaient les deux mondes. Une circonstance sur laquelle on n'a
+peut-être pas assez fixé l'attention publique et qui tient à ces causes
+mystérieuses dont a dépendu la distribution inégale du genre humain sur
+le globe, a favorisée, on pourrait dire, à rendre possible l'influence
+politique que je viens de signaler. Une moitié du globe est restée si
+faiblement peuple que, malgré le long travail d'une civilisation
+indigène, qui a eu lieu entre les découvertes de Lief et de Colomb, sur
+les côtes Américaines opposées à l'Asie, d'immenses pays dans la partie
+orientale n'offroient au quinzième siècle que des tribus éparses de
+peuples chasseurs. Cet état de depopulation dans des pays fertiles et
+éminemment aptes à la culture de nos céreales, a permis aux Européens
+d'y fonder des établissemens sur une échelle qu'aucune colonisation de
+l'Asie et de l'Afrique n'a pu atteindre. Les peuples chasseurs ont été
+refoulés des côtes orientales vers l'interieur, et dans le nord de
+l'Amérique, sous des climats et des aspects de végétation très analogues
+à ceux des îles Britanniques, il s'est forme par émigration, des la fin
+de l'année 1620, des communautés dont les institutions se présentent
+comme le reflet des institutions libres de la mère patrie. La Nouvelle
+Angleterre n'étoit pas primitivement un établissement d'industrie et de
+commerce, comme le sont encore les factoreries de l'Afrique; ce n'étoit
+pas une domination sur les peuples agricoles d'une race différente,
+comme l'empire Britannique dans l'Inde, et pendant longtemps, l'empire
+Espagnole au Mexique et au Pérou. La Nouvelle Angleterre, qui a reçu une
+première colonisation de quatre mille familles de puritains, dont
+descend aujourd'hui un tiers de la population blanche des Etats Unis,
+étoit un établissement religieux. La liberté civile s'y montrait des
+l'origine inséparable de la liberté du culte. Or l'histoire nous revèle
+que les institutions libres de l'Angleterre, de la Hollande, et de la
+Suisse, malgré leur proximité, n'ont pas réagi sur les peuples de
+l'Europe latine, comme ce reflet de formes de gouvernemens entièrement
+democratiques qui, loin de tout ennemi extérieur, favorisés par une
+tendance uniforme et constante de souvenirs et de vielles moeurs, ont
+pris dans un calme longtemps prolongé, des développemens inconnus aux
+temps modernes. C'est ainsi que le manque de population dans des régions
+des Nouveau Continent opposées à l'Europe, et le libre et prodigieux
+accroissement d'une colonisation Anglaise audelà de la grande vallée de
+l'Atlantique, a puissamment contribué à changer la face politique et les
+destinées de l'ancien continent. On a affirmé que si Colomb n'avoit pas
+changé, selon les conseils d'Alonzo Pinzon,[313] le 7 Octobre, 1492, la
+direction de sa route, qui étoit de l'est à l'ouest, et gouverné vers le
+sud-ouest, il seroit entre dans le courant d'eau chaude ou Gulf Stream,
+et auroit été porté vers la Floride, et de là peut-être vers le cap
+Hatteras et la Virginie, incident d'une immense importance, puisqu'il
+auroit pu donner aux Etats Unis, en lieu d'une population Protestante
+Anglaise, une population Catholique Espagnole."--Humboldt's _Géog. du
+Nouveau Continent_, tom. iii., p. 163.]
+
+[Footnote 313: Alonzo s'étoit écrié "que son coeur lui disoit que pour
+trouver la terre, il falloit gouverner vers le sud-ouest." L'inspiration
+d'Alonzo étoit moins mystériuse qu'elle peut le paraître au premier
+abord. Pinzon avoit vu dans la soirée passer des perroquets, et il
+savoit que ces oiseaux n'alloient pas sans motif du côte du sud. Jamais
+vol d'oiseau n'a eu des suites plus graves.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+
+The Protestant Reformation was eminently suited to the spirit of the
+English people, although forced upon them in the first instance by the
+absolute power of a capricious king, and unaccompanied by any
+acknowledgment of those rights of toleration and individual judgment
+upon which its strength seemed mainly to depend. The monarch, when
+constituted the head of the Church, exacted the same spiritual obedience
+from his subjects as they had formerly rendered to the Pope of Rome.
+Queen Elizabeth adopted her father's principles: she favored the power
+of the hierarchy, and the pomp and ceremony of external religious
+observances. But the English people, shocked by the horrors of Mary's
+reign, and terrified by the papal persecutions on the Continent, were
+generally inclined to favor the extremes of Calvinistic simplicity, as a
+supposed security against another reaction to the Romish faith. The
+stern and despotic queen, encouraged by the counsels of Archbishop
+Whitgift, assumed the groundless right of putting down the opinions of
+the Puritans by force. (1583.) Various severities were exercised against
+those who held the obnoxious doctrines; but, despite the storm of
+persecution, the spirit of religious independence spread rapidly among
+the sturdy people of England. At length a statute was passed of a nature
+now almost incredible--secession from the Church was punishable by
+banishment, and by death in case of refusal on return.[314] (1593.)
+
+The Puritans were thus driven to extremity.[315] The followers of an
+enthusiastic seceder named Brown[316] formed the first example of an
+independent system: each congregation was in itself a Church, and the
+spiritual power was wholly vested in its members. This sect was
+persecuted to the uttermost: the leader was imprisoned in no less than
+thirty-two different places, and many of his followers suffered death
+itself for conscience' sake. Some of the Brownists took refuge in
+Holland[317] (1598); but, impelled by a longing for an independent home,
+or perhaps urged by the mysterious impulse of their great destiny, they
+cast their eyes upon that stern Western shore, where the untrodden
+wilderness offered them at least the "freedom to worship God." They
+applied to the London Company for a grant of land, declaring that they
+were "weaned from the delicate milk of their native country, and knit
+together in a strict and sacred band, whom small things could not
+discourage, nor small discontents cause to wish themselves home again."
+After some delay they accomplished their object; however, the only
+security they could obtain for religious independence was a promise
+that, as long they demeaned themselves quietly, no inquiry should be
+made.[318]
+
+Much of the history of nations may be traced through the foundation and
+progress of their colonies. Each particular era has shown, in the
+settlements of the time, types of the several mother countries, examples
+of their systems, and the results of their exigencies. At one time this
+type is of an adventurous, at another of a religious character; now
+formed by political, again by social influences. The depth and
+durability of this impress may be measured by the strength of the first
+motives, and the genius of the people from whom the emigration
+flows.[319] The ancient colonies of Asia Minor displayed the original
+characteristics of the mother country long after her states had become
+utterly changed. The Roman settlements in Italy raised upon the ruins of
+a subjugated nation a fabric of civilization and power that can never be
+forgotten. The proud and adventurous, but ruthless spirit that
+distinguished the Spanish nation at the time of their wonderful
+conquests in the New World, is still exhibited in the haughty tyranny of
+Cuba, and the sanguinary struggles of the South American republics. The
+French Canadian of to-day retains most or many of the national
+sentiments of those who crossed the Atlantic to extend the power of
+France and of her proudest king. And still, in that great Anglo-Saxon
+nation of the West, through the strife of democratic ambition, and amid
+the toils and successes of an enormous commerce, we trace the
+foundations, overgrown perhaps, but all unshaken, of that stern edifice
+of civil and religious liberty[322] which the Pilgrim fathers raised
+with their untiring labor, and cemented with their blood.
+
+The peculiar nature of the first New England emigration was the result
+of those strong tendencies of the British people soon afterward
+strengthened into a determination sufficiently powerful to sacrifice
+the monarch and subvert the Church and State.
+
+The Brownists, or, as they are more happily called, the Pilgrim fathers,
+set sail on the 12th of July, 1620, in two small vessels. There were in
+all 120 souls, with a moderate supply of provisions and goods. On the
+9th of November they reached Cape Cod, after a rough voyage; they had
+been obliged to send one of their ships back to England. From ignorance
+of the coast and from the lateness of the season, they could not find
+any very advantageous place of settlement; they finally fixed upon New
+Plymouth,[323] where they landed on the 21st of December. During the
+remainder of the winter they suffered terribly from cold, want, and
+sickness; no more than fifty remained alive when spring came to mitigate
+their sufferings. The after progress of the little colony was for some
+time slow and painful. The system of common property[324] had excited
+grievous discontent; this tended to create an aversion to labor that was
+to be productive of no more benefit to the industrious than to the idle;
+in a short time it became necessary to enforce a certain degree of
+exertion by the punishment of whipping. They intrusted all religious
+matters to the gifted among their brethren, and would not allow of the
+formation of any regular ministry. However, the unsuitableness of these
+systems to men subject to the usual impulses and weakness of human
+nature soon became obvious, and the first errors were gradually
+corrected. In the course of ten years the population reached to 300, and
+the settlement prospered considerably.
+
+King James was not satisfied with the slow progress of American
+colonization. (1620.) In the same year that the Pilgrim fathers landed
+at Plymouth, he formed a new company under the title of the Grand
+Council of Plymouth,[325] and appointed many people of rank and
+influence to its direction. Little good, however, resulted from this
+step. Though the council itself was incapable of the generous project of
+planting colonies, it was ever ready to make sale of patents, which
+sales, owing to Parliamentary opposition to their claims, soon became
+their only source of revenue.[326] They sold to some gentlemen of
+Dorchester a belt of land stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
+and extending three miles south of the River Charles, and three miles
+north of _every_ part of the River Merrimac. Other associates in the
+enterprise were sought and found in and about London: Winthrop, Johnson,
+Pinchon, Eaton, Saltonstall, Billingham, famous in colonial annals.
+Endicott, the first governor of the new colony, was one of the original
+purchasers of the patent. They were all kindred spirits, men of
+religious fervor, uniting the emotions of enthusiasm with unbending
+resolution in action.
+
+The first winter brought to these colonists the usual privation,
+suffering, and death, but a now rapidly-increasing emigration more than
+filled up the places of all casualties. From this period, many men of
+respectability and talent,[327] especially ministers of the Gospel,
+sought that religious freedom[328] in America which was denied them at
+home. A general impulse was given among the commercial and industrious
+classes; vessels constantly crowded from the English ports across the
+Atlantic, till at length the court took the alarm. A proclamation was
+issued "to restrain the disorderly transportation of his majesty's
+subjects, because of the many idle and refractory humors, 'whose only or
+principal end is to live beyond the reach of authority.'" It has long
+been a popular story that eight emigrant ships were seized when on the
+point of sailing for America, and the passengers forced to land; among
+whom were John Hampden,[329] Sir Arthur Hazlerig, and Oliver Cromwell.
+This tale has, however, been proved untrue by modern historians.[330]
+
+Notwithstanding these unjust and mischievous prohibitions, a
+considerable number of emigrants still found their way across the
+Atlantic. But when the outburst of popular indignation swept away all
+the barriers raised by a short-sighted tyranny against English freedom,
+many flocked hack again to their native country to enjoy its
+newly-acquired liberty. (1648.) The odious and iniquitous persecution of
+the Puritans resulted in a great benefit to the human race, and gave the
+first strong impulse to the spirit of resistance that ultimately
+overthrew oppression. It caused, also, the colonization of New England
+to be effected by a class of men far superior in industry, energy,
+principle, and character to those who usually left their English homes
+to seek their fortunes in new countries. That religion, for which they
+had made so great a sacrifice, was the main-spring of all their social
+and political systems. They were, however, too blindly zealous to
+discriminate between the peculiar administration of a theocracy and the
+catholic and abiding principles of the Gospel. If they did not openly
+profess that the judicial law of Moses was still in force, they at any
+rate openly practiced its stern enactments.
+
+The intolerance of these martyrs of intolerance is a sad example of
+human waywardness.[331] In their little commonwealth, seceders from the
+established forms of faith were persecuted with an unholy zeal.
+Imprisonment, banishment, and even death itself, were inflicted for that
+free exercise of religious opinions which the Pilgrim fathers had
+sacrificed all earthly interests to win for themselves. In those dark
+days of fanatic faith or vicious skepticism, the softening influence of
+true Christianity was but little felt. The stern denunciations and
+terrible punishments of the Old Testament were more suited to the iron
+temper of the age than the gentle dispensations of the New--the fiery
+zeal of Joshua than the loving persuasiveness of St. John.
+
+As the tenets of each successive sect rose into popularity and
+influenced the majority, they became state questions,[332] distracted
+the Church, and threatened the very existence of the colony. The first
+schism that disturbed the peace of the settlements was raised by Roger
+Williams at Salem. (1635.) This worthy and sincere enthusiast held many
+just and sound views among others that were wild and injurious: he
+stoutly upheld freedom of conscience, and inconveniently contested the
+right of the British crown to bestow Indian lands upon Englishmen. On
+the other hand, he contrived to raise a storm of fanatic hatred against
+the red cross in the banner of St. George, which seriously disturbed
+the state,[333] and led to violent writings and altercations. At length
+Williams was banished as a distractor of the public peace, but a popular
+uproar attended his departure, and the greater part of the inhabitants
+were with difficulty dissuaded from following him. He retired to
+Providence, Rhode Island[334] (1636), where a little colony soon settled
+round him, and he there lived and died in general esteem and
+regard.[335]
+
+The Antinomian sect shortly after excited a still more dangerous
+commotion in the colony. (1637.) Mrs. Hutchinson, a Lincolnshire lady of
+great zeal and determination, joined by nearly the whole female
+population, adopted these views in the strongest manner. The ministers
+of the church, although decided Calvinists, and firmly opposed to the
+Romish doctrines of salvation by works, earnestly pressed the
+reformation of heart and conduct as a test of religion. Mrs. Hutchinson
+and her followers held that to inculcate any rule of life or manners was
+a crime against the Holy Spirit; in their actual deportment, however, it
+must be confessed that their bitterest enemies could not find grounds of
+censure. With the powerful advocacy of female zeal, these doctrines
+spread rapidly, and the whole colony was soon divided between "the
+covenant of works and the covenant of grace;" the ardor and obstinacy of
+the disputants being by no means proportioned to their full
+understanding of the point[336] in dispute. Sir Harry Vane,[337] whose
+rank and character had caused him to be elected governor in spite of
+his youth, zealously adopted Antinomian opinions, and, in consequence,
+was ejected from office by the opposite party at the ensuing election,
+Mrs. Hutchinson having failed to secure in the country districts that
+superiority which she possessed in the town of Boston.[338] After some
+ineffectual efforts to reconcile the seceders to the Church, the new
+governor and the ministers summoned a general synod of the colonial
+clergy to meet at Cambridge, where, after some very turbulent
+proceedings, the whole of the Antinomian doctrines were condemned.
+
+As might have been supposed, this condemnation had but little effect.
+The obnoxious principles were preached as widely and zealously as
+before, till the civil authority resorted to the rude argument of force,
+banished Mr. Wheelwright, one of the leaders, with two of his followers,
+from the colony, and fined and disfranchised others. Mrs. Hutchinson was
+ultimately accused, condemned, and ordered to leave the colony in six
+months. Although she made a sort of recantation of her errors, her
+inexorable judges insisted in carrying out the sentence.[339] The
+unhappy lady removed to Rhode Island, where her husband, through her
+influence, was elected governor, and where she was followed by many of
+her devoted adherents. (1638.) Thus the persecutions in the old
+settlement of Massachusetts had the same effect as those in England--of
+elevating a few stubborn recusants into the founders of states and
+nations. After her husband's death Mrs. Hutchinson removed into a
+neighboring Dutch settlement, where she and all her family met with a
+dreadful fate; they were surprised by the Indians, and every one
+destroyed. (1643.)
+
+Although by these violent and unjust punishments, and by disarming the
+disaffected, the Antinomian spirit was for a time put down, unity was by
+no means restored. Pride and the love of novelty continually gave birth
+to new sects. Ministers, who had possessed the highest reputation in
+England, saw with sorrow that their colonial churches were neglected for
+the sake of ignorant and mischievous enthusiasts. Even common
+profligates and rogues, when other lesser villainies had failed, assumed
+the hypocritical semblance of some peculiar religion, and enjoyed their
+day of popularity.
+
+The Anabaptists next carried away the fickle affections of the
+multitude, and excited the enmity of their rulers. (1643.) This schism
+first became perceptible by people leaving the church when the rites of
+baptism were being administered; but at length private meetings for
+worship were held, attended by large congregations. The magistrates, as
+usual, practiced great severities against these seceders, first by fine,
+imprisonment, and even whipping; finally by banishment. The Anabaptists
+were, however, not put down by the arm of power, but were speedily
+forgotten in the sudden appearance of a stranger sect than any that had
+hitherto appeared even in New England.
+
+The people called Quakers had lately made their appearance in the north
+of England. (1648.) They soon found their way to America, where they
+were received with bitter hostility from the commencement. (1656.) The
+dangerous enthusiasts who first went forth to preach the doctrines of
+this strange sect were very different men from those who now command the
+respect and good will of all classes by their industry, benevolence, and
+love of order. The original propagandists believed that the divine
+government was still administered on earth by direct and special
+communication, as in the times chronicled by Holy Writ: they therefore
+despised and disregarded all human authorities. To actual force, indeed,
+they only opposed a passive resistance; and their patience and
+obstinacy in carrying out this principle must excite astonishment, if
+not admiration. But their language was most violent and abusive against
+all priests and ministers, governors and magistrates.[340] The women of
+this novel persuasion were even more fanatic than the men. Several
+leaving their husbands and children in England, crossed the seas to bear
+witness to their inspiration at Boston. They were, however, rudely
+received, their books burned, and themselves either imprisoned or
+scourged and banished. Nowise intimidated by these severities, several
+other women brought upon themselves the vengeance of the law by frantic
+and almost incredible demonstrations; and a man named Faubord endeavored
+to sacrifice his first-born son under a supposed command from Heaven.
+
+The ministers and magistrates came to the conclusion that the colony
+could never enjoy peace while the Quakers continued among them. These
+sectarians were altogether unmanageable by the means of ordinary power
+or reason; they would neither pay fines nor work in prison, nor, when
+liberated, promise to amend their conduct. The government now enacted
+still more violent laws against them, one, among others, rendering them
+liable to have their ears cut off for obstinacy; and yet this strange
+fanaticism increased from day to day. At length the Quakers were
+banished from the colony, under the threat of death in case of return.
+They were, however, scarcely beyond the borders when a supposed
+inspiration prompted them to retrace their steps to Boston: scarcely had
+their absence been observed, when their solemn voices were again heard
+denouncing the city of their persecutors.
+
+The horrible law decreeing the punishment of death against the Quakers
+had only been carried by a majority of thirteen to twelve in the
+Colonial Court of Deputies, and after a strong opposition; but, to the
+eternal disgrace of the local government, its atrocious provisions were
+carried into effect, and four of the unhappy fanatics were judicially
+murdered. The tidings of these executions filled England with horror.
+Even Charles II. was moved to interpose the royal power for the
+protection of at least the lives of the obnoxious sectarians. He issued
+a warrant on the 9th of September, 1661, absolutely prohibiting the
+punishment of death against Quakers, and directing that they should be
+sent to England for trial. In consequence of this interference, no more
+executions took place, but other penalties were continued with unabated
+severity.
+
+While the persecution of the Quakers and Anabaptists raged in New
+England, an important addition to the numbers of the colonists was
+gained, a large body of Nonconformists having fled across the Atlantic
+from a fresh assault commenced against their liberties by Charles II.
+This Puritan emigration was regarded with great displeasure by the king.
+He speedily took an opportunity of arbitrarily depriving the colony of
+its charter, and sent out Sir Edmund Andros to administrate as absolute
+governor. The country soon felt painfully the despotic tyranny of their
+new ruler; and the establishment of an English Church, with the usual
+ritual, spread general consternation. When James ascended the throne, a
+proclamation of tolerance somewhat allayed the fears of the settlers;
+but the administration of temporal affairs became ruinously oppressive.
+On the pretense that the titles of all land obtained under the old
+charter had become void by its abrogation, new and exorbitant fees were
+exacted, heavy and injudicious taxes arbitrarily imposed, and all right
+of representation denied to the colonists. At length, in the year 1689,
+a man, named Winslow, brought from Virginia the joyful news of the
+Prince of Orange's proclamation; he was immediately arrested for
+treason; but the people rose tumultuously, imprisoned the governor, and
+re-established the authority of their old magistrates. On the 26th of
+May, a vessel arrived with the intelligence that William and Mary had
+been proclaimed in England. Although the new monarch declared himself
+favorably disposed toward the colonists, he did not restore their
+beloved charter. He, however, granted them a Constitution nearly similar
+to that of the mother country, which rendered the people of New England
+tolerably contented.
+
+The colony was now fated to suffer from a delusion more frantic and
+insane than any it had hitherto admitted, and which compromised its very
+existence. The New Englanders had brought with them the belief in
+witchcraft prevalent among the early reformers, and the wild and savage
+wilderness where their lot was now cast tended to deepen the impressions
+of superstition upon their minds. Two young girls, of the family of Mr.
+Paris, minister of Salem, were suddenly afflicted with a singular
+complaint, probably of an hysterical character, which baffled the united
+skill of the neighboring physicians; till one, more decided than the
+rest, declared that the sufferers were bewitched. From this time prayers
+and fasting were the remedies adopted, and the whole town of Salem at
+length joined in a day of humiliation. The patients, however, did not
+improve, till an Indian servingwoman denounced another, named Tituba, as
+the author of the evil. Mr. Paris assailed the accused, and tortured her
+in the view of extracting a confession of guilt, which she at length
+made, with many absurd particulars, hoping to appease her persecutor.
+From this time the mischievous folly spread wider; a respectable
+clergyman, Mr. Burroughs, was tried for witchcraft on the evidence of
+five women, and condemned to death, his only defense being that he was
+accused of that which had no existence, and was impossible. New charges
+multiplied daily; the jails of Salem were full of the accused, and
+prisoners were transferred to other towns, where the silly infection
+spread, and filled the whole colony with alarm.
+
+Nothing could afford stronger proof of the hold which this sad delusion
+had taken of the popular mind than the readiness so constantly displayed
+by the accused to confess the monstrous imputation, whose punishment was
+infamy and death. Many detailed long consultations held with Satan for
+the purpose of overthrowing the kingdom of heaven. In some cases these
+confessions were the result of distempered understandings; but,
+generally, they may be attributed to the hope of respite and ultimate
+reprieve, as none but the supposed impenitent sorcerers were executed.
+Thus only the truthful and conscientious suffered from the effects of
+this odious insanity. Some among the wretched people who had confessed
+witchcraft showed a subsequent disposition to retract. A man named
+Samuel Wardmell, having solemnly recanted his former statement, was
+tried, condemned, and executed. Despite this terrible warning, a few
+others followed the conscientious but fatal example. Every one of the
+sufferers during this dreadful period protested their innocence to the
+last. It seems difficult to discover any adequate motives for these
+atrocious and constant accusations. There is too much reason to believe
+that the confiscation of the condemned persons' property, malice against
+the accused, a desire to excite the public mind, and gain the notice and
+favor of those in power, were generally the objects of the witnesses.
+
+The evil at length attained such a frightful magnitude that the firmest
+believers in witchcraft began to waver. In two months nineteen unhappy
+victims had been executed, eight more remained under sentence of death,
+150 accused were still in prison, and there was no more room for the
+crowds daily brought in. No character or position was a shield against
+these absurd imputations; all lay at the mercy of a few mad or malignant
+beings. The first mitigation of the mischief was effected by the
+governor assembling the ministers to discuss whether what was called
+specter evidence should be held sufficient for the condemnation of the
+accused. The assembly decided against that particular sort of evidence
+being conclusive; but, at the same time, exhorted the governor to
+persevere in the vigorous prosecution of witchcraft, "according to the
+wholesome statutes of the English nation."[341] Public opinion,
+however, soon began to run strongly against those proceedings, and
+finally the governor took the bold step of pardoning all these under
+sentence for witchcraft, throwing open all the prisons, and turning a
+deaf ear to every accusation (January, 1693). From that time the
+troubles of the afflicted were heard of no more. Those who had confessed
+came forward to retract or disclaim their former statements, and the
+most active judges and persecutors publicly expressed contrition for the
+part they had taken in the fatal and almost incredible insanity. In the
+reaction that ensued, many urged strict inquiry into the fearful
+prejudices that had sacrificed innocent lives; but so general had been
+the crime, that it was deemed wisest to throw a vail of oblivion over
+the whole dreadful scene.[342]
+
+While the settlers of New England were distracted by their own madness
+and intolerance, they had to contend with great external difficulties
+from the animosity of the Indians. The native races in this part of the
+continent appear to have been in some respects superior to those
+dwelling by the shores of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lake. They
+acknowledged the absolute power of a sachem or king, which gave a
+dangerous vigor and unity to their actions. They at first received the
+English with hospitality and kindness, and the colonists, on their part,
+passed laws to protect not only the persons of the natives, but to
+insure them an equitable price for their lands. The narrowed limits of
+their hunting-grounds, however, and the rapid advance of the white men,
+soon began to alarm the Indians.[343] When their jealousy was thus
+aroused, occasions of quarrel speedily presented themselves; the baneful
+influence of strong liquors, largely furnished in spite of the strictest
+prohibitions, increased their excitement. Some Englishmen were slain;
+the murderers were seized, tried, and executed by the colonial
+government, according to British law. These proceedings kindled a deep
+resentment among the savages, and led to measures of retaliation at
+their hands.
+
+It has been an unfortunate feature of European settlement in America,
+that the border population, those most in contact with the natives, have
+been visually men of wild and desperate character, the tainted foam of
+the advancing tide of civilization. Those reckless adventurers were
+little scrupulous in their dealings with the simple savage; they utterly
+disregarded those rights which his weakness could not defend, and by
+intolerable provocation excited him to a bloody but futile resistance.
+The Indians naturally confounded the whole English race with these
+contemptuous oppressors, and commenced a war that resulted in their own
+extermination. They did not face the English in the field, but hovered
+round the border, and, with sudden surprise, overwhelmed detached posts
+and settlements in a horrible destruction. The astute colonists soon
+adopted the policy of forming alliances, and taking advantage of ancient
+enmities to stir up hostilities among them. By this means they
+accomplished the destruction of the warlike Pequods,[344] their
+bitterest foes. Other enemies, however, soon came into the field, and
+at length, the original allies of the English, jealous of the
+encroaching power of the white strangers, also took arms against them.
+The Indian chiefs, after a time, began to adopt European tactics of war,
+and for many years kept the colony in alarm by their formidable attacks:
+they were, however, finally driven altogether from the field.
+
+The New England settlers showed more sincerity than other adventurers in
+endeavoring to accomplish their principal professed object of
+colonization, that of teaching Christianity to the Indians.[345] They
+appointed zealous and pious ministers for the mission,[346] and
+established a seminary for the education of the natives, whence some
+scholars were to be selected to preach the Gospel among their savage
+countrymen. Great obstacles were encountered in this good work; the
+Indians showed a bigoted attachment to their own strange religious
+conceits, and their priests and conjurers used all their powerful
+influence against Christianity, denouncing in furious terms all who
+forsook their creed for the English God. Despite these difficulties, a
+number of savages were induced to form themselves in villages, and lead
+a civilized[347] and Christian life, under the guidance of ministers of
+their own race.[348] In a few years thirty congregations of "praying
+Indians,"[349] their numbers amounting to 3000, were established in
+Massachusetts.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 314: 35 Eliz., c. 1, stat. 4, p. 841-843; _Parl. Hist._, p.
+863; Strype's _Whitgift_, p. 414, &c.; Neale's _Puritans_, vol. i., p.
+526, 527, quoted by Bancroft, vol. i., p. 290.]
+
+[Footnote 315: "The _Gospel Advocate_ asserts that 'the judicial law of
+Moses being still in force, no prince or law ought to save the lives of
+(_inter alios_) heretics, willful breakers of the Sabbath, neglecters of
+the sacrament without just reason.' Well may the historian of the
+Puritans (Neale) say, 'Both parties agreed in asserting the necessity of
+a uniformity of public worship, _and of using the sword of the
+magistrate in support of their respective principles_.' It should never
+be forgotten by those who are inclined to blame the severe laws passed
+against these Nonconformists, that the English government was dealing
+with men whose avowed wish and object it was not simply to be tolerated,
+but to subvert existing institutions in Church and State, and set up in
+their place those approved by themselves."--Godley's _Letters from
+America_, vol. ii., p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 316: "The most noisy advocate of the new opinions was Brown, a
+man of rashness, possessing neither true courage nor constancy. He has
+acquired historical notoriety because his hot-headed indiscretion urged
+him to undertake the defense of separation.... Brown eventually
+purchased a living in the English Church by conformity."--Bancroft's
+_History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 287.]
+
+[Footnote 317: "But, although Holland is a country of the greatest
+religious freedom, they were not better satisfied there than in England.
+They were tolerated, indeed, but watched. Their zeal began to have
+dangerous languor for want of opposition, and being without power and
+influence, they grew tired of the indolent security of their sanctuary.
+They were desirous of removing to a country where they should see no
+superior."--Russell's _Modern Europe_, vol. ii., p. 427.
+
+"They were restless from the consciousness of ability to act a more
+important part on the theater of the world ... they were moved by an
+enlightened desire of improving their condition ... the honorable
+ambition of becoming the founders of a state."--Bancroft's _History of
+the United States_, vol. i., p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 318: This was a promise from James I., who had now succeeded
+to the throne of England.]
+
+[Footnote 319: "A strongly-marked distinction exists between the
+Southern and Northern Americans. The two extremes are formed by the New
+Englanders[320] and the Virginians. The former are certainly the more
+respectable. They are industrious, frugal, enterprising, regular in
+their habits, pure in their manners, and strongly impressed with
+sentiments of religion. The name Yankee, which we apply as one of
+reproach and derision to Americans in general, is assumed by them as
+their natural and appropriate designation.[321] It is a common proverb
+in America, that a Yankee will live where another would starve. Their
+very prosperity, however, with a certain reserve in their character, and
+supposed steady attention to small gains, renders them not excessively
+popular with those among whom they settle. They are charged with a
+peculiar species of finesse, called 'Yankee tricks,' and the character
+of being 'up to every thing' is applied to them, we know not exactly
+how, in a sense of reproach. The Virginian planter, on the contrary, is
+lax in principle, destitute of industry, eager in the pursuit of rough
+pleasures, and demoralized by the system of negro slavery, which exists
+in almost a West Indian form. Yet, with all the Americans who attempt to
+draw the parallel, he seems rather the favorite. He is frank,
+open-hearted, and exercising a splendid hospitality. Both Cooper and
+Judge Hall report him as a complete gentleman; by which they evidently
+mean, not the finished courtier, but the English country gentleman or
+squire, though the opening afforded by the political constitution of his
+country causes him to cultivate his mind more by reading and inquiry. A
+large proportion of the most eminent and ruling statesmen in
+America--Washington, Jefferson, Madison--were Virginians. Surrounded
+from their infancy with ease and wealth, accustomed to despise, and to
+see despised, money on a small scale, and no laborious exertions made
+for its attainment, they imbibe from youth the habits and ideas of the
+higher classes. Luxurious living, gaming, horse-racing, cock-fighting,
+and other rough, turbulent amusements, absorb a great portion of their
+life. Although, therefore, the leisure enjoyed by them, when well
+improved, may have produced some very elevated and accomplished
+characters, they can not, taken at the highest, be considered so
+respectable a class as their somewhat despised northern brethren; and
+the lower ranks are decidedly in a state of comparative moral
+debasement."--Murray, vol. ii., p. 394.]
+
+[Footnote 320: Descendants of the Puritans.]
+
+[Footnote 321: "The word Yankees (which is the Indian corruption of
+English _Yengeese_) is both offensive and incorrect as applied to any
+but New Englanders."--Godley's _Letters from America_.]
+
+[Footnote 322: "James I. ranked among their party, as much as he was
+able by severe usage, all those who stood up in defense even of civil
+liberty."--Bolingbroke's _Remarks upon English History_, p. 283.]
+
+[Footnote 323: "In memory of the hospitalities which the company had
+received at the last English port from which they had sailed, this
+oldest New England colony obtained the name of Plymouth. The two vessels
+which conveyed the Pilgrim fathers from Delft Haven were the _Mayflower_
+and the _Speedwell_. The Mayflower alone proceeded to America."--Bancroft,
+vol. i., p. 313.]
+
+[Footnote 324: "Under the influence of this wild notion, the colonists
+of New Plymouth, in imitation of the primitive Christians, threw all
+their property into a common stock."--Robertson's _America_, book x. One
+of the many errors with which the volume of Robertson teems. There was
+no attempt at imitating the primitive Christians; the partnership was a
+consequence of negotiation with British merchants; the colonists
+preferred the system of private property, and acted upon it, as far and
+as soon as was possible.--Bancroft's _History of the United States_,
+vol. i., p. 306.]
+
+[Footnote 325: "The remonstrances of the Virginia corporation and a
+transient regard for the rights of the country could delay, but could
+not defeat, a measure that was sustained by the personal favorites of
+the monarch. King James issued to forty of his subjects, some of them
+members of his household and his government, the most wealthy and
+powerful of the English nobility, a patent, which in American annals,
+and even in the history of the world, has but one parallel. The
+territory conferred on the patentees in absolute property, with
+unlimited jurisdiction, the sole powers of legislation, the appointment
+of all officers and all forms of government, comprised, and at the time
+was believed to comprise, much more than a million of square miles: it
+was, by a single signature of King James, given away to a corporation
+within the realm, composed of but forty individuals."--Bancroft, vol.
+i., p. 273.]
+
+[Footnote 326: "The very extent of the grant rendered it of little
+value. The results which grew out of the concession of this charter form
+a new proof, if any were wanting, of that mysterious connection of
+events by which Providence leads to ends that human councils had not
+conceived."--Bancroft, vol. i., p. 273.
+
+The Grand Council of Plymouth resigned their charter in 1635.]
+
+[Footnote 327: "The circumstance which threw a greater luster on the
+colony than any other was the arrival of Mr. John Cotton, the most
+esteemed of all the Puritan ministers in England. He was equally
+distinguished for his learning, and for a brilliant and figurative
+eloquence. He was so generally beloved that his nonconformity to the
+ritual of the Established Church, of which he was a minister, was for a
+considerable time disregarded. At last, however, he was called before
+the ecclesiastical commission, and he determined upon emigration, 'Some
+reverend and renowned ministers of our Lord' endeavored to persuade him
+that the forms to which he refused obedience were 'sufferable trifles,'
+and did not actually amount to a breach of the second commandment. Mr.
+Cotton, however, argued so forcibly on the opposite side, that several
+of the most eminent became all that he was, and afterward followed his
+example. There went out with him Mr. Hooker and Mr. Stone, who were
+esteemed to make 'a glorious triumvirate,' and were received in New
+England with the utmost exultation. It was doubtless a severe trial to
+these ministers, who appear really to have been, as they say, 'faithful,
+watchful, painful, serving their flock daily with prayers and tears,'
+who possessed such a reputation at home and over Europe, to find that no
+sooner did any half-crazed enthusiast spring up or arrive in the colony,
+that the people could be prevented only by the most odious compulsion
+from deserting their churches and flocking to him in a mass. Vainly did
+Mr. John Cotton strive to persuade Roger Williams, the sectary, that the
+red cross on the English banner, or his wife's being in the room while
+he said grace, were 'sufferable trifles,' and 'Mrs. Hutchinson and her
+ladies' treated his advice and exhortations with equal disregard and
+contempt. One of them sent him a pound of candles to intimate his need
+of more spiritual light. This was then the freedom for which his church
+and his country had been deserted."--Mather; Neale; Hutchinson.]
+
+[Footnote 328: "Robertson is astonished that Neale (see Neale, p. 56)
+should assert that freedom of religious worship was granted, when the
+charter expressly asserts the king's supremacy. But this, in fact, was
+never the article at which they demurred; for the spirit of loyalty was
+still very strong. It seems quite clear, from the confidence with which
+they went, and the manner in which they acted when there, that, though
+there was no formal or written stipulation, the most full understanding
+existed that very ample latitude was to be allowed in this respect. We
+have seen on every occasion the vast sacrifices which kings were willing
+to make in order to people their distant possessions; and the necessity
+was increased by the backwardness hitherto visible."--Murray's
+_America_, vol. i., p. 249.]
+
+[Footnote 329: During the year 1635 we find the name of John Hampden
+joined with those of six other gentlemen of family and fortune, who
+united with the Lords Say and Brooke in making a purchase from the Earl
+of Warwick of an extensive grant of land in a wide wilderness then
+called Virginia, but which now forms a part of the State of Connecticut.
+That these transatlantic possessions were designed by the associates
+ultimately, or under certain contingencies, to serve as an asylum to
+themselves and a home to their posterity, there is no room to doubt; but
+it is evident that nothing short of circumstances constituting a moral
+necessity would have urged persons of their rank, fortunes, and habits
+of life to encounter the perils, privations, and hardships attendant
+upon the pioneers of civilization in that inhospitable clime.
+Accordingly, they for the present contented themselves with sending out
+an agent to take possession of these territories and to build a fort.
+This was done, and the town called Saybrook, from the united names of
+the two noble proprietors, still preserves the memory of the enterprise.
+They finally abandoned the whole design, and sold the land in 1636,
+probably.--Miss Aikin's _Life of Charles I._, p. 471. Bancroft, vol. i.,
+p. 384.]
+
+[Footnote 330: "In one of these embargoed ships had actually embarked
+for their voyage across the Atlantic two no less considerable personages
+than John Hampden and his kinsman, Oliver Cromwell."--_Life of Hampden_,
+by Lord Nugent, vol. i., p. 254. London, 1832.
+
+Lord Nugent has fallen into the vulgar error, an invention, probably, of
+the Puritan historian, and unanswerably disproved by a reference to
+Parliamentary records. See Miss Aikin's _Life of Charles I._, vol. i.,
+p. 472; Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 411. The
+exultation of the Puritan writers on the subject is excessive. They
+ascribe all the subsequent misfortunes of Charles I. in connection with
+the scheme of Providence to this tyrannical edict, as they call
+it.--Russell's _Modern Europe_, vol. ii., p. 237. See Bancroft's
+_History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 412.
+
+"Nothing could be more barbarous than this! To impose laws on men which
+in conscience they thought they could not comply with, to punish them
+for their noncompliance, and continually revile them as undutiful and
+disobedient subjects by reason thereof, and yet not permit them
+peaceably to depart and enjoy their own opinions in a distant part of
+the world, yet dependent on the sovereign: to do all this was base,
+barbarous, and inhuman. But persecutors of all ages and nations are near
+the same; they are without the feelings and the understandings of men.
+Cromwell or Hampden could have given little opposition to the measures
+of Charles in the wilds of North America. In England they engaged with
+spirit against him, and he had reason to repent his hindering their
+voyage. May such at all times be the reward of those who attempt to rule
+over their fellow-men with rigor: may they find that they will not be
+slaves to kings or priests, but that they know the rights by nature
+conferred on them, and will assert them! This will make princes cautious
+how they give themselves up to arbitrary counsels, and dread the
+consequences of them."--Harris's _Life of Cromwell_, p. 56.]
+
+[Footnote 331: "Mr. Dudley, one of the most respectable of the
+governors, was found, at his death, with a copy of verses in his pocket,
+which included the following couplet:
+
+   "'Let men of God in court and churches watch
+   O'er such as do a toleration hatch'"--CHALMERS.]
+
+[Footnote 332: "The cutting the hair very close, which seemed supported
+by St. Paul's authority, was the chief outward symbol of a Puritan. In
+the case of a minister, it was considered essential that the ear should
+be thoroughly uncovered. Even after the example of Dr. Owen and other
+eminent divines had given a sanction to letting the hair grow, and even
+to periwigs, a numerous association was formed at Boston (where Mr. John
+Cotton was pastor), with Mr. Endicot, the governor, at their head, the
+members of which bound themselves to stand by each other in resisting
+long hair to the last extremity. Vane, a young man of birth and fashion,
+continued for some time a recusant against the uncouth test of his
+principles, but at last we find a letter congratulating him on having
+'glorified God by cutting his hair.'"--Hutchinson's _Massachusetts_,
+quoted by Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 333: One of Williams's disciples, who held some command, cut
+the cross out, and trampled it under foot. This red cross had nearly
+subverted the colony. One part of the trained bands would not march
+with, another would not march without it.--Mather, Neale, &c., quoted by
+Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 334: The town of Providence, now the capital of Rhode Island,
+was founded by Williams. The Indian name was Mooshausick, but he changed
+it to Providence in commemoration of his wonderful escape from
+persecution.--Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 224.]
+
+[Footnote 335: Mather, vol. vii., ch. ii.; Neale, ch. i., p. 138;
+Hutchinson, p. 37, 39.]
+
+[Footnote 336: _Ibid._]
+
+[Footnote 337: "Mr. Controller, Sir Harry Vane's eldest son, hath left
+his father, his mother, his country, and that fortune which his father
+would have left him here, and is for conscience' sake gone into New
+England, there to lead the rest of his days, being about twenty years of
+age. He had abstained two years from taking the sacrament in England,
+because he could get nobody to administer it to him standing."--_Strafford
+Letters_, September, 1635, quoted by Miss Aikin, _Life of Charles I._,
+vol. i., p. 479.
+
+"Sir Harry Vane returned to England immediately after the loss of his
+election. His personal experience of the uncharitableness and
+intolerance exercised upon one another by men who had themselves been
+the victims of a similar spirit at home, seems to have produced for some
+time a tranquilizing effect upon the mind of Vane. He was reconciled to
+his father, married by his direction a lady of family, obtained the
+place of joint treasurer of the navy, and exhibited for some time no
+hostility to the measures of the government. But his fire was smothered
+only, not extinguished."--Miss Aikin's _Life of Charles I._, vol. i., p.
+481.
+
+"After the Restoration of Charles II., Sir Harry Vane suffered death
+upon the block. (See Hallam, vol. ii., p. 443.) The manner of his death
+was the admiration of his times."--Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 338: Boston was the capital of Massachusetts, and the center
+of the most fervent Puritanism.
+
+"Boston may be ranked as the seat of the Unitarians, as Baltimore is
+that of the Roman Catholics, and Philadelphia that of the Quakers.... No
+axiom is more applicable to the pensive, serious, scrutinizing
+inhabitant of the New England States than this: 'What I do not
+understand, I reject as worthless and false;' so said one of the most
+learned men of Boston to me. 'Why occupy the mind with that which is
+incomprehensible? Have we not enough of that which appears clear and
+plain around us?' ... The greater part of the Bostonians, including
+every one of wealth, talents, and learning, have adopted this
+doctrine."--Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 179.
+
+"In Boston all the leading men are Unitarians, a creed peculiarly
+acceptable to the pride and self-sufficiency of our nature, asserting,
+as it does, the independence and perfectibility of man, and denying the
+necessity of atonement or sanctification by supernatural influences.
+
+"Though every where in New England the greatest possible decency and
+respect with regard to morals and religion is still observed, I have no
+hesitation in saying that I do not think the New Englanders a
+_religious_ people. The assertion, I know, is paradoxical, but it is
+nevertheless true, that is, if a strong and earnest belief be a
+necessary element in a religious character: to me it seems to be its
+very essence and foundation. I am not now speaking of belief in _the
+truth_, but belief in something or any thing which is removed from the
+action of the senses.... I am not trusting to my own limited observation
+in arriving at this conclusion; I find in M. de Tocqueville's work an
+assertion of the same fact. He accounts for it, indeed, in a different
+way.... What I complain of is, not the absence of nominal, but of real,
+heartfelt, unearthly religion, such as led the Puritan Nonconformists to
+sacrifice country and kindred, and brave the dangers of the ocean and
+the wilderness for the sake of what they believed God's truth. In my
+opinion, those men were prejudiced and mistaken, and committed great and
+grievous faults; but there was, at least, a redeeming element in their
+character--that of high conscientiousness. There was no compromise of
+truth, no sacrifice to expediency about them; they believed in the
+invisible, and they acted on that belief. Every where the tone of
+religious feeling, since that time, has been altered and relaxed, but
+perhaps nowhere so much as in the land where the descendants of those
+Pilgrims lived."--Godley's _Letters from America_, vol. ii., p. 90,
+133.]
+
+[Footnote 339: "The arbitrary will of the single tyrant, the excesses of
+the prerogative, seem light when compared with their (the Puritans')
+more intolerant, more arbitrary, and more absolute power."--_Commentaries
+on the Life and Reign of Charles I._, vol. iii., p. 28, by I. D'Israeli.
+London, 1830.]
+
+[Footnote 340: Mather affirms that the Quakers used to go about saying,
+"We deny thy Christ: we deny thy God, whom thou callest Father, Son, and
+Spirit; thy Bible is the word of the devil." They used to rise up
+suddenly in the midst of a sermon, and call upon the preacher to cease
+his abomination. One writer says, "For hellish reviling of the painful
+ministers of Christ, I know no people can match them." The following
+epithets bestowed by Fisher on Dr. Owen are said to be fair specimens of
+their usual addresses: "Thou green-headed trumpeter! thou hedgehog and
+grinning dog! thou tinker! thou lizard! thou whirligig! thou firebrand!
+thou louse! thou mooncalf! thou ragged tatterdemalion! thou livest in
+philosophy and logic, which are of the devil." Even Penn is said to have
+addressed the same respected divine as, "Thou bane of reason and beast
+of the earth." When the governor or any magistrate came in sight, they
+would call out, "Woe to thee, thou oppressor," and in the language of
+Scripture prophecy would announce the judgments that were about to fall
+upon their head.--Neale, cap. i., p. 341-345. Mather, b. vii., cap. iv.
+Hutchinson, p. 196-205.]
+
+[Footnote 341: "Sir Matthew Hale burned two persons for witchcraft in
+1664. Three thousand were executed in England during the Long
+Parliament. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 1705.
+In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged nine, were hanged at
+Huntingdon. The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The
+laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an
+ignorant person attempting to revive them by finding a bill against a
+poor old woman in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they were
+repealed, 10 George II., 1736."--Viner's _Abridgement_.]
+
+[Footnote 342: Neale, vol. ii., p. 164-170. Mather, vol. ii., p. 62-64.
+
+Arfwedson says, "Close to the town of Salem is Beverley, a small,
+insignificant place, remarkable only in the annals of history as having
+formerly contained a superstitious population. Many lives have here been
+cruelly sacrificed, and the barren hill is still in existence where
+persons accused of witchcraft were hung upon tall trees. Tradition
+points out the place where the witches of old resided. Cotton Mather
+records in a work, truly original for that age, that the good people who
+lived near Massachusetts Bay were every night roused from their slumbers
+by the sound of a trumpet, summoning all the witches and
+demons."--Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_; Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 186.
+
+   "And thrice that night the trumpet rang,
+     And rock and hill replied;
+   And down the glen strange shadows sprang--
+   Mortal and fiend--a wizard gang,
+     Seen dimly, side by side.
+
+   "They gathered there from every land
+     That sleepeth in the sun;
+   They came with spell and charm in hand,
+   Waiting their master's high command--
+     Slaves to the Evil One."--_Legends of New England._]
+
+[Footnote 343: "During the war with Philip, the Indians took some
+English alive, and set them upright in the ground, with this sarcasm:
+'You English, since you came into this country, have grown considerably
+above ground; let us now see how you will grow when planted into the
+ground.'"--_Narrative of the Wars in New England_, 1675.-_Harleian
+Miscellany_, vol. v., p. 400.]
+
+[Footnote 344: "The Pequods were a powerful nation on the Connecticut
+border, who could muster a thousand warriors. The English might have
+found it difficult to withstand them but for an alliance with the second
+most powerful people, the Narragansets, whose ancient enmity to the
+Pequods for a time prevailed over their jealousy of the foreigners. But
+at length, when the Pequods were nearly exterminated, the Narragansets,
+seeing the power of the strangers paramount, began to side with their
+enemies. The Indian chiefs began to imitate the English mode of
+fighting, and even to assume English names, with some characteristic
+epithet. One-eyed John, Stone-wall John, and Sagamore Sam, kept the
+colony in perpetual alarm. But their most deadly and formidable enemy
+was Philip, sachem of the Wampanoags. No Indian was ever more dreaded by
+civilized man. A century and a half has now elapsed since this hero of
+Pokanoket fell a victim to his own race, but even to this day his name
+is respected, and the last object supposed to have been touched by him
+in his lifetime is considered by every American as a valuable relic.
+This extraordinary man, whose real name was Metacom, succeeded his
+brother in the government of the Wampanoags. The wrongs and grievances
+suffered by this brother, added to those which he had himself
+experienced from the English colonists, induced him to engage in a war
+against them. The issue might, perhaps, have been less doubtful, had not
+one of his followers defeated his plans by a premature explosion before
+he had time to summon and concentrate his warriors and allies. From this
+time no smiles were seen on his face. But though he soon perceived that
+the great enterprise he had formed was likely to be frustrated, he never
+lost that elevation of soul which distinguished him to the last moments
+of his life. By his exertions and energy, all the Indian nations
+occupying the territory between Maine and the River Connecticut, a
+distance of nearly 200 miles, took up arms. Every where the name of King
+Philip was the signal for massacre and flames. But fraud and treason
+soon accomplished what open warfare could not effect; his followers gave
+way to numbers; his nearest relations and friends forsook him, and a
+treacherous ball at last struck his heart. His head was carried round
+the country in triumph, and exposed as that of a traitor; but posterity
+has done him justice. Patriotism was his only crime, and his death was
+that of a hero."--Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 229.]
+
+[Footnote 345: "This was not the case in the earlier and more northern
+settlements, where Mather mentions a clergyman who, from the pulpit,
+alluded to this as the main object of his flock's coming out, when one
+of the principal members rose and said, 'Sir, you are mistaken; our main
+object was to catch fish.'"--Murray's _America_.
+
+"To this day the Council of Massachusets, in the impress of their public
+seal, have an Indian engraven, with these words: 'Come over and help
+us,' alluding to Acts, xv., 9."--_Narrative of the Wars in New England_,
+1675. _Harleian Miscellany_, vol. v., p. 400.]
+
+[Footnote 346: "Among these was the celebrated Eliot. Notwithstanding
+the almost incredible hardships endured by Eliot during his missionary
+labors, he lived to the age of eighty-six. He expired in 1690, and has
+ever since been known by the well-earned title of Apostle to the
+Indians."--_Missionary Records_, p. 34.
+
+Dr. Dwight says of him, "He was naturally qualified beyond almost any
+other man for the business of a missionary. In promoting among the
+Indians agriculture, health, morals, and religion, this great and good
+man labored with constancy, faithfulness, and benevolence which place
+his name not unworthily among those who are arranged immediately after
+the apostles of our Divine Redeemer." Eliot translated the Holy
+Scriptures into the Indian language. In 1661, the New Testament,
+dedicated to Charles II., was printed at Cambridge, in New England, and
+about three years afterward, it was followed by the Old Testament. This
+was the first Bible ever printed in America; and, though the impression
+consisted of 2000 copies, a second edition was required in
+1685.--_Ibid._, p. 27.
+
+"When at Harvard College, a copy of the Bible was shown me by Mr. Jared
+Sparks, translated by the missionary, Father Eliot, into the Indian
+tongue. It is now a dead language, although preached for several
+generations to crowded congregations."--Lyell's _America_, vol. i., p.
+260.
+
+"Eliot had become an acute grammarian by his studies at the English
+university of Cambridge. Having finished his laborious and difficult
+work, the Indian grammar, at the close of it, under a full sense of the
+difficulties he had encountered, and the acquisition he had made, he
+said, 'Prayers and pains, through faith in Christ Jesus, do any
+thing.'"--_Life of Eliot_, p. 55.
+
+"The Honorable Robert Boyle often strengthened Eliot's hands and
+encouraged him in his work--he who was not more admirable among
+philosophers for his discoveries in science, than he was beloved by
+Christians for his active kindness and his pious spirit."--_Ibid._, p.
+64.
+
+"Nor was Eliot alone. In the islands round Massachusetts, and within the
+limits of the Plymouth patent, missionary zeal and missionary enterprise
+were active; and the gentle Mayhew, forgetting the pride of learning,
+endeavored to win the natives to a new religion. At a later day, he took
+passage for New England to awaken interest there, and the ship in which
+he sailed was never more heard of. But such had been the force of his
+example, that his father, though bowed down with the weight of seventy
+years, resolved on assuming the office of the son whom he had lost, and
+till beyond the age of fourscore years and twelve, continued to instruct
+the natives, and with the happiest results. The Indians within his
+influence, though twenty times more numerous than the whites in their
+immediate neighborhood, preserved an immutable friendship with
+Massachusetts."--Bancroft's _Hist of the United States_, vol. ii., p.
+97. See _Missionary Records_; _Life of Eliot_; Mayhew's _Indian
+Converts_; T. Prince's _Account of English Ministers_.]
+
+[Footnote 347: "History has no example to offer of any successful
+attempt, however slight, to introduce civilization among savage tribes
+in colonies or in their vicinity, except through the influence of
+religious missionaries. This is no question of a balance of
+advantages--no matter of comparison between opposite systems. I repeat
+that no instance can be shown of the reclaiming of savages by any other
+influence than that of religion. There are two obvious reasons why such
+should be the case: the first, that religion only can supply a motive to
+the governors, placed in obscure situations, and without the reach of
+responsibility, to act with zeal, perseverance, and charity; the other,
+that it alone can supply a motive to the governed to undergo that
+alteration of habits through which the reclaimed savage must pass, and
+to which the hope of mere temporal advantage will very rarely induce him
+to consent." This position is well stated in the words of Southey: 'The
+wealth and power of governments may be vainly employed in the endeavor
+to conciliate and reclaim brute man, if religious zeal and Christian
+charity, in the true import of the word, be wanting.'--Merivale _on
+Colonization_, vol. i., p. 289.]
+
+[Footnote 348: "The attempt to organize an Indian priesthood at this
+period failed altogether, the converts possessing neither the steadiness
+nor the sobriety requisite for the holy office. The duty, therefore,
+devolved upon European teachers, who in many cases scarcely obtained the
+wages of a day laborer, and that very precariously. The formation,
+however, of a society in England for the propagation of the Gospel in
+this settlement, and pretty liberal contributions raised in the
+principal towns, in some degree remedied these evils. After the lapse of
+a few more generations, the Indian character, in its slow but steady
+upward progress under the teaching of devoted and enlightened Christian
+ministers, underwent a change so effectual, that the native teachers and
+preachers of the present day may well bear comparison in zeal, piety,
+and eloquence with their European colleagues."--Catlin's _American
+Indians_; Cotton's _American Lakes_.]
+
+[Footnote 349: "The Indians about this time (1653) obtained the
+appellation of 'Praying Indians,' and the court appointed Major Daniel
+Gookin their ruler."--_Life of Eliot_, p. 53.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+
+The principal characteristics of that colonization by which the vast
+republic of the West was formed, have been exhibited in the settlement
+of Virginia and Massachusetts. The other states were stamped with the
+impress of the two first, and in a great measure peopled from them.
+Rhode Island and the rest of the New England states were founded by
+those who had fled from the religious persecutions of Massachusetts,
+with the exception of Connecticut, which owes its origin chiefly to the
+spirit of adventure and the search for unoccupied lands. The first
+settlers divided this last-named state among themselves without the
+sanction of any authority, and then proceeded to form a constitution of
+unexampled liberality. They had to bear the chief burden in the Indian
+war, on account of their advanced and exposed position; but Connecticut
+prospered in spite of every obstacle. Several Puritans of distinction
+sought its shore from England. Charles II., on his restoration granted a
+most liberal charter, and it continued to enjoy the benefits of complete
+self-government till Massachusetts was deprived of her charter by James
+II., when Connecticut shared the same fate. At the Revolution, the
+younger state, more fortunate than her neighbor, was restored to all the
+privileges formerly enjoyed.
+
+The states of New Hampshire and Maine were originally founded on
+Loyalist and Church of England principles. Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John
+Mason, the most energetic member of the Council of Plymouth, undertook
+the colonization of these districts, but their tyrannical and
+injudicious conduct stunted the growth of the infant colonies, and
+little progress was made till the religious dissensions of Boston
+swelled their population. Violent and even fatal dissensions, however,
+distracted this incongruous community, till the government of
+Massachusetts assumed the sway over it, and re-established order and
+prosperity. Gorges and Mason disputed for many years the rights of
+authority with the new rulers; nor was the question finally settled till
+Massachusetts was deprived of her charter, when a royal government was
+established in New Hampshire.
+
+The important state of New York was founded under very different
+auspices from those of its neighbors. In 1609, Henry Hudson, while
+sailing in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the
+magnificent stream which now bears his name. A small colony was soon
+sent out from Holland[350] to settle the new country, and a trading
+post established at the mouth of the river. Sir Samuel Argall, governor
+of Virginia, conceived that this foreign settlement trenched upon the
+rights granted by the English crown to its subjects, and by a display of
+superior force constrained the Dutch colony to acknowledge British
+sovereignty (1613);[351] but this submission became a dead letter some
+years later, when large bodies of emigrants arrived from the Low
+Countries (1620);[352] the little trading post soon rose into a town,
+and a fort was erected for its defense. The site of this establishment
+was on the island of Manhattan;[353] the founders called it New
+Amsterdam. When it fell into the possession of England, the name was
+changed to New York. Albany[354] was next built, at some distance up the
+Hudson, as a post for the Indian trade, and thence a communication was
+opened for the first time with the Northern Indian confederacy of the
+Iroquois, or the Five Nations.
+
+Charles II., from hatred to the Dutch, as well as from the desire of
+aggrandizement, renewed the claims of England upon the Hudson
+settlements, and in 1664 dispatched an armament of 300 men to enforce
+this claim. Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor,[355] was totally unprepared
+to resist the threatened attack, and after a short parley agreed to
+surrender. The settlers were, however, secured in property and person,
+and in the free exercise of their religion, and the greater part
+remained under their new rulers. In the long naval war subsequently
+carried on between England and Holland, the colony again passed for a
+time under the sway of the Dutch, but at the peace was finally restored
+to Great Britain. James, then Duke of York, had received from his
+brother a grant of the district which now constitutes the State of New
+York. On assuming authority, he appointed governors with arbitrary
+power, but the colonists in assertion of their rights as Englishmen,
+stoutly resisted, and even sent home Dyer, the collector of customs,
+under a charge of high treason, for attempting to levy taxes without
+legal authority. (1681.) The duke judged it expedient to conciliate his
+sturdy transatlantic subjects, and yielded them a certain form of
+representative government. In 1682, Mr. Dongan was sent out with a
+commission to assemble a council of ten, and a house of assembly of
+eighteen popular deputies. The new governor soon rendered himself
+beloved and respected by all, although at first distrusted and disliked,
+as professing the Romish faith. New York was not allowed to enjoy these
+fortunate circumstances for any length of time; the capricious and
+arbitrary duke, on his accession to the crown, abrogated the colonial
+constitution; shortly afterward the state was annexed to Massachusetts,
+the beloved governor recalled, and the despotic Andros established in
+his stead. (1686.) At the first rumor of the Revolution of 1688, the
+inhabitants, led by a merchant of the name of Leisler, rose in arms,
+proclaimed William and Mary, and elected a house of representatives. The
+new monarch sent out a Colonel Slaughter as governor, whose authority
+was disputed by Leisler; however, the bold merchant was soon overcome,
+and with quick severity tried and executed. (1691.) The English
+Parliament, more considerate of his useful services, subsequently
+reversed his attainder, and restored the forfeited estates to his
+family. (1695.) With the view of aiding the resources and progress of
+the colony, 3000 German Protestants, called Palatines, were subsequently
+conveyed to the banks of the Hudson, and subsisted for three years, at a
+great expense, by England. These sober and industrious men proved a most
+valuable addition to the population.[356]
+
+New Jersey was formed from a part of the original territory of New York.
+Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret were the proprietors, by grant
+from James (1664): they founded the new state with great judgment and
+liberality, establishing the power of self-government and taxation. The
+Duke of York, however, on the reconquest of the country from the Dutch,
+took the opportunity of abrogating the Constitution: the colonists
+boldly appealed against this tyranny, and with such force, that the duke
+was led to refer the question to the judgment of the learned and upright
+Sir William Jones, who gave it against him. (1681.) James was obliged to
+acquiesce in this decision till he ascended the throne, when he swept
+away all the rights of the colony, and annexed it, like its neighbors,
+to the government of Massachusetts. After the accession of William, New
+Jersey was entangled for ten years in a web of conflicting claims but
+was finally established under its own independent Legislature.
+
+The State of Maryland was so named in honor of Henrietta Maria, the
+beautiful queen of Charles I., to whose influence the early settlers
+were much indebted. Religious persecution in England drove forth the
+founders of the colony; but in this case the Protestants were the
+instigators, and the cruel laws of Queen Elizabeth's reign against the
+Roman Catholics were the instruments. Lord Baltimore, an Irish peer, and
+other men of distinction in the popish body, obtained from Charles I.,
+as an asylum in the New World, a grant of that angle of Virginia lying
+on both sides of the River Chesapeake, a district rich in soil, genial
+in climate, and admirably situated for commerce. An expedition of 200
+Roman Catholics, many among them men of good birth, was sent under Mr.
+Calvert, Lord Baltimore's brother, to take possession of this favored
+tract. (1634.) Their first care was to conciliate the Indians, in which
+they eminently succeeded. The natives were even prevailed upon to
+abandon their village and their cleared lands around to the strangers,
+and to remove themselves contentedly to another situation.
+
+Maryland was most honorably distinguished in the earliest times by
+perfect freedom of religious opinion. Many members of the Church of
+England, as well as Roman Catholics, fled thither from the persecutions
+of the Puritans. The Baltimore family at first displayed great
+liberality and judgment in their rule; but, as they gained confidence
+from the secret support of the king to their cherished faith, their
+wise moderation seems to have diminished. However, the principal
+grievance brought against them was, that they had not provided by public
+funds for Church of England clergymen as fully as for those of their own
+faith, although by far the larger portion of the population belonged to
+the flock of the former. The unsatisfactory state of morals, manners,
+and religion in the colony was attributed to this neglect. At the
+Revolution, the inhabitants of Maryland rose with tumultuous zeal
+against their Roman Catholic lords, and published a manifesto in
+justification of their proceedings, accusing Lord Baltimore's government
+of intolerable tyranny. These statements, whether true or false,
+afforded King William an opportunity to assume the colonial power in his
+own hands, 1691, and to deprive the Calverts of all rights over the
+country, except the receipt of some local taxes.[357]
+
+For a long time but few settlers had established themselves in that part
+of North America now called Carolina;[358] of these, some were men who
+had fled from the persecutions of New England, and formed a little
+colony round Cape Fear (1661); others were Virginians, attracted by the
+rich unoccupied lands. After the restoration of Charles, however, the
+energies of the British nation, no longer devoted to internal quarrels,
+turned into the fields of foreign and colonial adventure. Charles
+readily bestowed upon his followers vast tracts of an uncultivated
+wilderness which he had never seen; and Monk, duke of Albemarle, the
+Earl of Clarendon, Lords Berkeley and Ashley, Sir George Carteret, and a
+few others, were created absolute lords of the new province of
+Carolina. (1663.) Great exertions were then made to attract settlers;
+immunity from prosecution for debt was secured to them for five years,
+and, at the same time, a liberal Constitution was granted, with a
+popular House of Assembly. The proprietors, anxious to perfect the work
+of colonization, prevailed upon the celebrated Locke to draw up a system
+of government for the new state, which, however excellent in theory,
+proved practically a signal failure.[359] The principal characteristic
+of the scheme was the establishment of an aristocracy with fantastic
+titles of nobility,[360] who met with the deputies in a Parliament,
+where, however, the council solely possessed the power of proposing new
+laws. The whole colonial body was subject to the Court of Proprietors in
+England, which was presided over by a chief called the Palatine,[361]
+possessing nearly supreme power. The sturdy colonists neglected, or
+deferred for future consideration, every portion of this new
+Constitution that appeared unsuitable to their condition, alleging that
+its provisions were in violation of the promises that had induced them
+to adopt the country.
+
+Carolina for a long time progressed but slowly. The colonists had no
+fixed religion,[362] and their general morals and industry were very
+indifferent. They drew largely upon the resources of the proprietors
+without giving any return, and when at length that supply was stopped,
+they resorted to every idle and iniquitous mode of raising funds. They
+hunted the Indians, and sold them as slaves to the West Indies, and
+their sea-ports became the resort of pirates. These atrocious and
+ruinous pursuits soon reduced them to a state of miserable poverty, and
+the baneful influence of a series of profligate governors completed the
+mischief. One of these, named Sette Sothel,[363] was especially
+conspicuous for rapacity and injustice. (1683.) His misrule at length
+goaded the people into insurrection; they seized him, and were about to
+send him as a prisoner to England, but released him on a promise of
+renouncing the government, and leaving the colony for a time. After
+these and some other commotions, they succeeded in re-establishing their
+ancient charter in its original simplicity.
+
+Carolina now began to improve rapidly, from the influx of a large and
+valuable immigration. The religious freedom that had been secured under
+the old charter was continued unrestricted even under Mr. Locke's
+complicated Constitution. Many Puritans flocked in from Britain to seek
+refuge from the persecutions of Charles II., and by their steadiness
+and industry soon attained considerable wealth. New England had also
+furnished her share to the new settlement of useful and energetic men
+who had been expelled by her Calvinistic intolerance. But the
+narrow-minded jealousy of the original emigrants soon interrupted the
+prosperity of the colony. Under the hypocritical plea of zeal for the
+Church of England, to which their conduct and morals were a scandal,
+they obtained, by violent means, a majority of one in the Assembly, and
+expelled all dissenters from the Legislature and government. They even
+passed a law to depose all sectarian clergy, and devote their churches
+to the services of the established religion. The oppressed Dissenters
+appealed to the British Parliament for protection. In the year 1705, an
+address was voted to the queen by the House of Commons, declaring the
+injustice of these acts, but nothing was done to relieve the colony till
+in 1721, when the people rose in insurrection, established a provisional
+government, and prayed that the king, George I., would himself undertake
+their rule. He granted their petition, and soon afterward purchased the
+rights of the proprietors. (1727.)[364]
+
+In the year 1732 a plan was formed for relieving the distress then
+severely pressing upon England by colonizing the territory still
+remaining unoccupied to the south of the Savannah. Twenty-three
+trustees, men of rank and influence, were appointed for this purpose,
+and the sum of £15,000 was placed at their disposal by Parliament and by
+voluntary subscription. With the aid of these funds about 500 people
+were forwarded to the new country, and some others went at their own
+expense. In honor of the reigning king, the name of Georgia was given to
+the new settlement. The lands were granted to the emigrants on
+conditions of military service, and a large proportion, of them were
+selected from among the hardy Scottish Highlanders and the veterans of
+some German regiments. Besides being the advance guard of civilization
+in the Indian country, the colony was threatened with the rival claims
+of the Spaniards in Florida, the boundaries of whose territory were very
+vague and uncertain. Happily for Georgia, Mr. Oglethorpe, the original
+founder of the settlement, succeeded in establishing a lasting
+friendship with the powerful Creek Indians, the natives of the country;
+but the Spaniards never ceased to alarm and threaten the colony till
+British arms had won the whole Atlantic coast. Owing to this
+disadvantage, and still more to certain humane restrictions upon the
+Indian trade,[365] no great influx of population took place until 1763,
+when peace restored confidence, and men and money were freely introduced
+from England.
+
+One of the most important of the great American states that declared
+their independence in 1783, was, with the exception of Georgia, the
+latest in its origin. Under the wise and gentle influence of the
+founders, however, it progressed more rapidly than any other. When time
+and reflection had cooled the ardor and softened the fanaticism of the
+early Quakers, the sect attracted general and just admiration by the
+mild and persevering philanthropy of its most distinguished members. The
+pure benevolence and patient courage of William Penn was a tower of
+strength to this new creed; well born, and enjoying a competent
+fortune, he possessed the means as well as the will powerfully to aid in
+its advancement. He endured with patience, but with unflinching
+constancy, a continual series of legal persecutions, and even the anger
+of his father, until the unspotted integrity of his life and his
+practical wisdom at length triumphed over prejudice and hostility, and
+he was allowed the privilege of pleading before the British Parliament
+in the cause of his oppressed brethren.
+
+William Penn inherited from his father a claim against the government
+for £16,000, which King Charles gladly paid by assigning to him the
+territory in the New World now called Pennsylvania,[367] in honor of the
+first proprietor.[368] This was a large and fertile expanse of inland
+country partly taken from New York, New Jersey, and Maryland. It was
+included between the 40th and 43d degrees of latitude, and bounded on
+the east by the Delaware River. The enlightened and benevolent
+proprietor bestowed upon the new state a Constitution that secured, as
+far as human ordinance was capable, freedom of faith, thought, and
+action. He formed some peculiar institutions for the promotion of peace
+and good will among his brethren, and for the protection of the widow
+and the orphan. By his wise and just dealings with the Indians,[369] he
+gained their important confidence and friendship: he sent commissioners
+to treat with them for the sale of their lands, and in the year 1682 met
+the assembled chiefs near the spot where Philadelphia now stands. The
+savages advanced to the place of meeting in great numbers and in warlike
+guise, but as the approach of the English was announced, they laid aside
+their weapons and seated themselves in quiet groups around their
+chiefs.[370] Penn came forward fearlessly with a few attendants, all
+unarmed, and in their usual grave and simple attire; in his hand he held
+a parchment on which were written the terms of the treaty. He then spoke
+in a few plain words of the friendship and justice that should rule the
+actions of all men, and guide him, and them, and their children's
+children. The Indians answered that they would live in peace with him
+and his white brothers as long as the sun and moon shall endure. And in
+the Quaker's parchment and the Indian's promise was accomplished the
+peaceful conquest of that lovely wilderness, a conquest more complete,
+more secure and lasting, than any that the ruthless rigor of Cortes or
+the stern valor of the Puritans had ever won.
+
+The prosperity of Pennsylvania advanced with unexampled rapidity.[371]
+The founder took out with him two thousand well-chosen emigrants, and a
+considerable number had preceded him to the new country. The orderly
+freedom that prevailed,[372] and the perpetual peace with the
+Indians,[373] gave a great advantage to this colony; emigration flowed
+thither more abundantly than to any other settlement, and thus, although
+of such recent origin, this state soon equaled the most successful of
+its older neighbors.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 350: "On Hudson's return according to the English historians,
+he sold his title to the Dutch."--_British Encyc._, vol. ii., p. 236.
+Chalmers questions, apparently on good grounds, the validity of this odd
+transaction. If, as Forster asserts, Hudson not only sailed from the
+Texel, but was equipped at the expense of the Dutch East India Company,
+there was no room for sale or purchase of any kind to constitute the
+region Dutch.--Chalmers, vol. ii., p. 568; Charlevoix. tom. i., p. 221.]
+
+[Footnote 351: "The English jurists, referring to the wide grants of
+Elizabeth, according to which Virginia extended far to the north of this
+region, insist that there had long ceased to be room for any claim to it
+founded on discovery. But the Dutch, who are somewhat slow in
+comprehension, could not see the right which Elizabeth could have to
+bestow a vast region, of the very existence of which she was ignorant.
+They therefore sent out the small colony, 1613, which was soon after
+compelled by Argall to acknowledge the sovereignty of England."--Murray's
+_America_, vol. i., p. 331; _Fastes Chronologiques_, 1613.]
+
+[Footnote 352: The Dutch West Indian Company was established in 1620,
+and sent out colonists on a large scale.]
+
+[Footnote 353: "Juet, the traveling companion of Hudson, called the
+island on which New York is situated Manna Hatta, which means the island
+of manna; in other words, a country where milk and honey flow. The name
+Manhattoes is said to be derived from the great Indian god Manetho, who
+is stated to have made this island his favorite place of residence on
+account of its peculiar attractions."--Knickerbocker's _New York_, vol.
+v., p. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 354: "Albany bore the name of Orange when it was originally
+founded by the Dutch; and as a great number of this people remained in
+the city after it passed into the possession of England, they continued
+to call it Orange, and the French Canadians give it no other
+name."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 222.
+
+"Albany received that name from the Scottish title of the Duke of
+York."--Bancroft.]
+
+[Footnote 355: Nine years before (1655), Stuyvesant had attacked the
+happy and contented little colony of Swedes who were settled on the
+banks of the Delaware, and after a sanguinary contest, the Swedish
+governor, John Rising, was obliged to submit to the Dutch authority.
+Such was the end of New Sweden, which had only maintained an independent
+existence for seventeen years. Thus the Swedish settlements passed into
+the hands of the English at the same time as those of the Dutch. The
+first Swedish colonization had been projected and encouraged by the
+great Gustavus Adolphus in 1638. They gave their settlement on the banks
+of the Delaware, the name of the Land of Canaan, and to the spot where
+they first landed that of Canaan, so inviting and delightful did this
+part of the New World first appear to them. The only thing now known of
+this terrestrial paradise is, that its situation was near Cape Henlopen,
+a short distance from the sea. The colonists purchased tracts of lands
+of the Indians, and threw up a few fortifications; of the city they
+founded, Christina, there is now no trace. It was situated near
+Wilmington, twenty-seven miles south of Philadelphia. The Dutch, whose
+principal city was then New Amsterdam, pretended that the country round
+the Delaware belonged to them, having paid it a visit before the arrival
+of the Swedes. This insinuation, moreover, did not prevent the latter
+from settling, and, according to Charlevoix, the two nations lived in
+amity with each other until Stuyvesant's aggression, the Dutch being
+wholly devoted to commerce and the Swedes to agriculture. The Swedish
+settlement was at first called New Sweden, afterward New Jersey.]
+
+[Footnote 356: "The entire cost of this transportation amounted to
+£78,533, which, amid the ferments of party, was declared by a subsequent
+vote of Parliament to be not only an extravagant and unreasonable charge
+to the kingdom, but of dangerous consequence to the Church."--_Brit.
+Emp. Amer._, vol. i., p. 249, 250.
+
+"Swabia, with the old Palatinate, has contributed very largely to the
+present population of America. From the end of Queen Anne's reign to
+1753, it is said that from 4 to 8000 went annually to Pennsylvania
+alone."--Sadler, b. iv., cap. v.]
+
+[Footnote 357: "King William, impatient of judicial forms, by his own
+act constituted Maryland a royal government. The arbitrary act was
+sanctioned by a legal opinion from Lord Holt. The Church of England was
+established as the religion of the state.... In the land which Catholics
+had opened to Protestants, the Catholic inhabitant was the sole victim
+to Anglican intolerance. Mass might not be said publicly.... No Catholic
+might teach the young.... The disfranchisement of the proprietary Lord
+Baltimore related to his creed, not to his family. To recover the
+inheritance of authority, Benedict, the son of the proprietary,
+renounced the Catholic Church for that of England. The persecution never
+crushed the faith of the humble colonists."--Bancroft, vol. iii., p.
+33.]
+
+[Footnote 358: This name was given in honor of Charles II.]
+
+[Footnote 359: "The system framed by Locke was called 'the Fundamental
+Constitutions of Carolina.' ... Locke was undoubtedly well acquainted
+with human nature, and not ignorant of the world; but he had not taken a
+sufficiently comprehensive view of the history of man, nor were
+political speculators yet duly aware of the necessity of adapting
+constitutions to those for whom they were destined. The grand
+peculiarity consisted in forming a high and titled nobility, which might
+rival the splendor of those of the Old World. But as the dukes and earls
+of England would have considered their titles degraded by being shared
+with a Carolina planter, other titles of foreign origin were adopted.
+That of landgrave was drawn from Germany. (Locke himself was created a
+landgrave.) But these princely denominations, applied to persons who
+were to earn their bread by the labor of their hands, could confer no
+real dignity. The reverence for nobility, which can only be the result
+of long-continued wealth and influence, could never be inspired by mere
+titles, especially of such an exotic and fantastic character.... The
+sanction of negro slavery was a deep blot in this boasted system.... The
+colonists, who felt perfectly at ease under their rude early
+regulations, were struck with dismay at the arrival of this
+philosophical fabric of polity."--Murray's _America_, vol. i., p. 343.]
+
+[Footnote 360: "It was insisted that there should be some landgraves and
+some caciques when many other parts of 'the Fundamental Constitutions'
+were given up; but these great nobles never struck any root in the
+Western soil, and have long since disappeared "--_Hist. Acc. of the
+Colonization of South Carolina and Georgia_, London, 1779, vol. i., p.
+44-46; Chalmers, p. 326. quoted by Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 361: Monk, duke of Albemarle, was constituted palatine.]
+
+[Footnote 362: "It is remarkable that the philosopher's colony seems to
+have been the only one founded before the eighteenth century, except
+Virginia, in which the Church of England was expressly established; but
+this clause is said to have been introduced against his will."--Merivale
+_on Colonization_, vol. i., p. 88-92.]
+
+[Footnote 363: "Mr. Chalmers makes the very bold assertion that the
+annals of delegated authority do not present a name so branded with
+merited infamy, and that there never had taken place such an
+accumulation of extortion, injustice, and rapacity as during the five
+years that he misruled the colony. He had been made prisoner in his way
+out, and kept in close captivity at Algiers, where he took, it appears,
+not warning, but lessons. (Sette Sothel had purchased the rights of Lord
+Clarendon, one of the eight original proprietaries.)"--Murray, vol. i.,
+p. 345.]
+
+[Footnote 364: "The rights of the proprietors were sold to the king for
+about the sum of £20,000. Lord Carteret alone, joining in the surrender
+of the government, received an eighth share in the soil."--_Hist.
+Account_, &c., vol. i., p. 255-321.]
+
+[Footnote 365: "The importation and use of negroes were prohibited; no
+rum was allowed to be introduced, and no one was permitted to trade with
+the Indians without special license. The colonists complained that
+without negroes it was impossible to clear the grounds and cut down the
+thick forests, though the honest Highlanders always reprobated the
+practice, and denied that any necessity for it existed."[366]--Murray,
+vol. i., p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 366: "Slavery," says Oglethorpe, "is against the Gospel, as
+well as the fundamental law of England. We refused, as trustees, to make
+a law permitting such a horrid crime."--_Memoirs of Sharpe_, vol. i., p.
+234; _Stephen's Journal_, quoted by Bancroft. In 1751, however, after
+Oglethorpe had finally left Georgia, his humane restrictions were
+withdrawn. Whitefield, who believed that God's providence would
+certainly make slavery terminate for the advantage of the Africans,
+pleaded before the trustees in its favor. At last even the Moravians
+(who in a body emigrated to Georgia in 1733) began to think that negro
+slaves might be employed in a Christian spirit, and it was agreed that
+if the negroes are treated in a Christian manner, their change of
+country would prove to them a benefit. A message from Germany served to
+crush their scruples: "If you take slaves in faith, and with the intent
+of conducting them to Christ, the action will not be a sin, but may
+prove a benediction."--Urlsperger, vol. iii., p. 479, quoted by
+Bancroft, vol. iii., p. 448.]
+
+[Footnote 367: "He accepted this grant, because it secured them against
+any other claimant from Europe. It gave him a title in the eyes of the
+Christian world, but he did not believe that it gave him any other
+title."--_Colonization and Civilization_, p. 358.]
+
+[Footnote 368: "Etablissement de la Pennsylvanie, dans le pays qui avoit
+porté le nom de Nouvelle Suéde: Cette colonie a reçu son nom de son
+fondateur, le Chevalier Guillaume Penn, Anglais à qui Charles II., Roi
+de la Grande Bretagne, conceda ce pays en 1680 et qui cette année 1681,
+y mena les Quakers ou trembleurs d'Angleterre, dont il étoit le chef.
+Lorsqu'il y arriva, il y trouva un grand nombre de Hollandois et de
+Suédois. Les premiers, pour la plupart, occupoient les endroits situés
+le long du golphe, et les seconds, les bords de la Rivière De la Warr,
+ou du midi. Il paroit par une de ses lettres, qu'il n'étoit pas content
+des Hollandois; mais il dit que les Suédois étoient une nation simple,
+sans malice, industrieuse, robuste, se souciant peu de l'abondance et se
+contentant du nécessaire."--_Fastes Chronologiques_, 1681.]
+
+[Footnote 369: "Even Penn, however, did not fully admit into his scheme
+of colonization the notion of retaining for the Indians a property in a
+part of the soil they once occupied. He gave the natives free leave to
+settle in certain parts of his territory, but, unfortunately, he did not
+treat any definite tract of the soil as their property, which would rise
+in value along with other tracts, and thus afford a stimulus to their
+gradual improvement. It was the want of systematic views in this and
+other respects, which rendered the benevolent intentions of Penn toward
+the natives of little ultimate avail; so that, after all, the chief good
+which he effected was by setting an example of benevolence and justice
+in the principle of his dealings with them."--Merivale _on
+Colonization_, vol. ii., p. 173.]
+
+[Footnote 370: "William Penn of course came unarmed, in his usual plain
+dress, without banners, or mace, or guard, or carriages, and only
+distinguished from his companions by wearing a blue sash of silk
+net-work (which, it seems, is still preserved by Mr. Kett, of Seething
+Hall, near Norwich), and by having in his hand a roll of parchment, on
+which was engrossed the confirmation of the treaty of purchase and
+amity."--_Edinburgh Review of Clarkson's Life of William Penn_, p. 358.
+
+"The scene at Shachamaxon, quoted by Howitt, forms the subject of one of
+the pictures of West. Thus ended this famous treaty, of which Voltaire
+has remarked with so much truth and severity, 'That it was the only one
+ever concluded which was not ratified by an oath, and the only one that
+never was broken.'"--Howitt. p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 371: "In three years from its foundation, Philadelphia gained
+more than New York had done in half a century."--Bancroft's _History of
+the United States_, vol. ii., p. 394.]
+
+[Footnote 372: "Virtue had never, perhaps, inspired a legislation better
+calculated to promote the fidelity of mankind. The opinions, the
+sentiments, and the morals corrected whatever might be deficient in
+it."--Raynal, vol. vii., p. 292.
+
+"Beautiful," said the philosophic Frederick of Prussia, when he read the
+account of the government of Pennsylvania; "it is perfect, if it can
+endure."--Herder, p. 13, 116. Quoted by Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 392.]
+
+[Footnote 373: "Their conduct to the Indians never altered for the
+worse. Pennsylvania, while under the administration of the Quakers,
+never became, as New England, a slaughter-house of the Indians."--Howitt,
+p. 366.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+
+Having noticed the principal features of the origin and progress of the
+English colonies--the powerful and dangerous neighbors of the French
+settlements in the New World--it is now time to return to the course of
+Canadian history subsequent to the death of the illustrious founder of
+Quebec.
+
+Monsieur de Montmagny succeeded Champlain as governor, and entered with
+zeal into his plans, but difficulties accumulated on all sides. Men and
+money were wanting, trade languished, and the Associated Company in
+France were daily becoming more indifferent to the success of the
+colony. Some few merchants and inhabitants of the outposts, indeed,
+were enriched by the profitable dealings of the fur-trade, but their
+suddenly-acquired wealth excited the jealousy rather than increased the
+general prosperity of the settlers. The work of religious institutions
+was alone pursued with vigor and success in those times of failure and
+discouragement. At Sillery, one league from Quebec, an establishment was
+founded for the instruction of the savages and the diffusion of
+Christian light. (1637.) The Hôtel Dieu owed its existence to the
+Duchesse d'Aiguillon two years afterward, and the Convent of the
+Ursulines was founded by the pious and high-born Madame de la
+Peltrie.[374]
+
+The partial success and subsequent failure of Champlain and his Indian
+allies in their encounters with the Iroquois had emboldened these brave
+and politic savages. They now captured several canoes belonging to the
+Hurons, laden with furs, which that friendly people were conveying to
+Quebec. Montmagny's military force was too small to allow of his
+avenging this insult; he, however, zealously promoted an enterprise to
+build a fort and effect a settlement on the island of Montreal, which he
+fondly hoped would curb the audacity of his savage foes. The Associated
+Company would render no aid whatever to this important plan, but the
+religious zeal of the Abbé Olivier overcame all difficulties. He
+obtained a grant of Montreal from the king, and dispatched the Sieur de
+Maisonneuve and others to take possession. On the 17th of May, 1641, the
+place destined for the settlement was consecrated by the superior of the
+Jesuits.[375]
+
+At the same time the governor erected a fort at the entrance of the
+River Richelieu, then called the Iroquois. The workmen employed at this
+labor were constantly exposed to the harassing warfare of the Indians,
+but at length completely repulsed them. A garrison, such as could be
+spared from the scanty militia of the colony, was placed in the little
+stronghold for its defense. Although the minds of the fierce Iroquois
+were fixed upon the utter destruction of the French, and in their
+confident boastings they declared that they could drive the white men
+into the sea, they indicated from time to time a desire for peace.
+Montmagny was compelled by weakness and the difficulties of his
+situation, to accept overtures which he could not but dread as insidious
+and treacherous, and he assumed an air of confidence which he by no
+means felt. His native allies were also eagerly anxious for the
+blessings of peace, and, through their means, an opportunity for opening
+negotiations soon offered. The governor and the friendly native chiefs
+met the deputies of the Iroquois nation at Three Rivers to arrange the
+terms of the proposed treaty. (1645.) After various orations, songs,
+dances, and exchanges of presents, peace was concluded to the
+satisfaction of both parties; and for the time at least, with apparent
+good faith, for the following winter the French and their new allies
+joined together in the chase, and mixed fearlessly in friendly
+intercourse.
+
+M. de Montmagny was superseded as governor of Canada by M. d'Ailleboust
+in the year 1647. He had proved himself a man of judgment, courage, and
+virtue, and had gained the love of the settlers and Indians, as well as
+the approval of the court. But, in consequence of the governor of the
+American islands having recently refused to surrender office to a person
+appointed by the king, it was decreed that no one should hold the
+government of a colony for more than three years. M. d'Ailleboust was a
+man of ability and worth, and, having held the command at Three Rivers
+for some time, was also experienced in colonial affairs, but he received
+no more support from home than his predecessor; and, despite his best
+efforts, New France continued to languish under his rule.
+
+The colony, however, was now free from the scourge of savage hostility.
+The Indians turned their subtle craft and terrible energy to the chase
+instead of war. From the far-distant hunting-grounds of the St. Maurice
+and of the gloomy Saguenay, they crowded to Three Rivers and Tadoussac
+with the spoils of the forest animals. At those settlements the trade
+went briskly on, and many of the natives became domesticated among their
+white neighbors. The worthy priests were not slow to take advantage of
+this favorable opportunity; many of the hunters from the north, who were
+attracted to the French villages by the fur trade, were told the great
+tidings of redemption; and usually, when they returned the following
+year, they were accompanied by others, who desired, with them, to
+receive the rites of baptism.[376]
+
+The most numerous and pious of the proselytes were of the Huron tribe,
+an indolent and unwarlike race, against whom the bold and powerful
+Iroquois held deadly feud, which the existing peace only kept in
+abeyance till opportunity might arise for effective action. The little
+settlement of St. Joseph was the place where first an Indian
+congregation assembled for Christian worship; the Father Antoine Daniel
+was the pastor; the flock were of the Huron tribe. Faith in treaties and
+long-continued tranquillity had lulled this unhappy people into a fatal
+security, and all cautions were forgotten,[377] when, on the morning of
+the 4th of July, 1648, while the missionary was performing service,
+there suddenly arose a cry of terror that the Iroquois were at hand.
+None but old men, women, and children were in the village at the time;
+of this the crafty enemy were aware; they had crept silently through the
+woods, and lain in ambush till morning gave them light for the foul
+massacre. Not one of the inhabitants escaped, and last of all, the good
+priest was likewise slain.
+
+During this year the first communication passed between the French and
+British North American colonies. An envoy arrived at Quebec from New
+England, bearing proposals for a lasting peace with Canada, not to be
+interrupted even by the wars of the mother countries. M. d'Ailleboust
+gladly entertained the wise proposition, and sent a deputy to Boston
+with full powers to treat, providing only that the English would consent
+to aid him against the Iroquois. But the cautious Puritans would not
+compromise themselves by this stipulation. They were sufficiently remote
+from the fierce and formidable savages of the Five Nations to be free
+from present apprehension, and to their steady and industrious habits
+the plow was more suitable than the sword. The negotiation, therefore,
+totally failed, which was probably of little consequence, for it is
+difficult to perceive how these remote and feeble colonies could have
+preserved a neutrality in the contentions of England and France, which
+was impossible even to powerful states.
+
+After a treacherous calm of some six months' duration, the unhappy
+Hurons again relapsed into a fatal security; the terrible lessons of the
+past were forgotten in the apparent tranquillity of the present. Watch
+and ward were relaxed, and again they lay at the mercy of their ruthless
+enemies. When least expected, 1000 Iroquois warriors started up from the
+thick coverts of a neighboring forest, and fell fiercely upon the
+defenseless Hurons, burned two of their villages, exterminated the
+inhabitants, and put two French missionaries to death with horrible
+tortures. Then the remnant of the defeated tribe despaired; the alliance
+of the French had only embittered the hostility of their enemies without
+affording protection; therefore they arose and deserted their villages
+and hunting grounds, wandering away, some into the northern forests,
+others as suppliants among neighboring nations.
+
+The greater body of the Hurons, however, attached themselves to the
+fortunes of the missionaries, and under them formed a settlement on the
+island of St. Joseph, but they neglected to cultivate the land. As the
+autumn advanced, the resources of the chase became exhausted, and the
+horrors of famine commenced. They were shortly reduced to the most
+dreadful extremities of suffering; every direst expedient that
+starvation could prompt and despair execute was resorted to for a few
+days' prolonging of life. Then came the scourge of contagious fever,
+sweeping numbers away with desolating fury. While these terrible
+calamities raged among the Hurons, the Iroquois seized the opportunity
+of again invading them. The village of St. John, containing nearly 3000
+souls, was the first point of attack. The feeble inhabitants offered no
+resistance, and, with their missionary, were totally destroyed. Most of
+the remnant of this unhappy tribe then took the resolution of presenting
+themselves to their conquerors, and were received into the Iroquois
+nation. The few who still remained wandering in the forests were hunted
+down like wolves, and soon exterminated.
+
+The terror of the Iroquois name now spread rapidly along the shores of
+the great lakes and rivers of the north. The fertile banks of the
+Ottawa, once the dwelling-place of numerous and powerful tribes, became
+suddenly deserted, and no one could tell whither the inhabitants had
+fled.
+
+About this time was introduced among the Montagnez, and the other tribes
+of the Saguenay country, an evil more destructive than even the tomahawk
+of the Iroquois--the "accursed fire-water;" despite the most earnest
+efforts of the governor, the fur traders at Tadoussac supplied the
+Indians with this fatal luxury. In a short time, intoxication and its
+dreadful consequences became so frequent, that the native chiefs prayed
+the governor to imprison all drunkards. At Three Rivers, however, the
+wise precautions of the authorities preserved the infant settlement from
+this monstrous calamity.
+
+In the year 1650 M. d'Ailleboust was worthily succeeded by M. de Lauson,
+one of the principals of the Associated Company. The new governor found
+affairs in a very discouraging condition, the colony rapidly declining,
+and the Iroquois, flushed by their sanguinary triumphs, more audacious
+than ever. These fierce savages intruded fearlessly among the French
+settlements, despising forts and intrenchments, and insulting the
+inhabitants with impunity. The island of Montreal suffered so much from
+their incursions, that M. de Maisonneuve, the governor, was obliged to
+repair to France to seek succors, for which he had vainly applied by
+letter. He returned in the year 1653 with a timely re-enforcement of 100
+men.
+
+Although the Iroquois had now overcome or destroyed all their native
+enemies, and proved their strength even against the Europeans, some of
+their tribes were more than ever disposed to a union with the white men.
+The Onnontagués dispatched an embassy to Quebec to request that the
+governor would send a colony of Frenchmen among them. He readily acceded
+to the proposition, and fifty men were chosen for the establishment,
+with the Sieur Dupuys for their commander. Four missionaries were
+appointed to found the first Iroquois church; and to supply temporal
+wants, provisions for a year, and sufficient seed to sow the lands about
+to be appropriated, were sent with the expedition. This design excited
+the jealousy of the other Iroquois tribes; the Agniers even tried to
+intercept the colonists with a force of 400 warriors; they, however,
+only succeeded in pillaging a few of the canoes that had fallen behind.
+The same war party soon after made an onslaught upon ninety Hurons,
+working on the Isle of Orleans under French protection, slew six, and
+carried off the rest into captivity. As they passed before Quebec they
+made their unhappy prisoners sing aloud, insultingly attracting the
+attention of the garrison. The marauders were not pursued; they dragged
+the prisoners to their villages, burned the chiefs, and condemned the
+rest to a cruel bondage. M. de Lauson can hardly be excused for thus
+suffering his allies to be torn from under his protection without an
+effort to save them from their merciless enemies. These unfortunates had
+been converted to Christianity, which increased the rage and ferocity of
+the captors against them. One brave chief, whose tortures had been
+prolonged for three days as a worshiper of the God of the white men,
+bore himself faithfully to the last, and died with the Saviour's blessed
+name upon his quivering lip.
+
+In the mean time the expedition to the country of the Onnontagués
+suffered great privations, and only escaped starvation by the generosity
+of the natives. Their spiritual mission was, however, at first eminently
+successful, the whole nation seeming disposed to adopt the Christian
+faith. But the allied tribes having carried their insolence to an
+intolerable degree, and massacred three Frenchmen near Montreal, the
+commandant at Quebec seized all the Iroquois within his reach, and
+demanded redress. The answer of the haughty savages was, to prepare for
+war. Dupuys and his little colony were now in a most perilous position:
+there was no hope of aid from Quebec, and but little chance of being
+able to escape from among their dangerous neighbors. They labored
+diligently and secretly to construct a sufficient number of canoes to
+carry them away in case some happy opportunity might arise, and found
+means to warn the people of Quebec of the coming danger. By great
+industry and skill the canoes were completed, and stored with the
+necessary provisions; through an ingenious stratagem, the French escaped
+in safety, while the savages slept soundly after one of their solemn
+feasts. In fifteen days the fugitives arrived at Montreal, where they
+found alarm on every countenance. The Iroquois swarmed over the island,
+and committed great disorders, although still professing a treacherous
+peace. The savages soon, however, threw off the mask, and broke into
+open war.
+
+On the 11th of July, 1658, the Viscompte d'Argenson landed at Quebec as
+governor. The next morning the cry "to arms" echoed through the town.
+The Iroquois had made a sudden onslaught upon some Algonquins under the
+very guns of the fortress, and massacred them without mercy. Two hundred
+men were instantly dispatched to avenge this insult, but they could not
+overtake the wily marauders. In the same year, however, a party of the
+Agniers met with a severe check in a treacherous attempt to surprise
+Three Rivers. The lesson was not lost, and the colony for some time
+enjoyed a much-needed repose. The missionaries seized this interval of
+tranquillity to recommence their sacred labors: they penetrated into
+many remote districts where Europeans had never before reached, and
+discovered several routes to the dreary shores of Hudson's Bay. In the
+year 1659, the exemplary François de Laval, abbé de Montigny, arrived at
+Quebec to preside over the Canadian Church as the first American
+bishop.[378]
+
+The temporal affairs of the colony were falling into a lamentable
+condition; no supplies arrived from France, and the local production was
+far from sufficient. Terror of the Indians kept the settlers almost
+blockaded in the forts, and cultivation was necessarily neglected. It
+was proposed by many that all the settlements should be abandoned, and
+that they should again seek the peaceful shores of their native country.
+Many individuals were massacred by the savages, and two armed parties,
+one of thirty and the other of twenty-six men, were totally destroyed.
+But some of the Indians, too, began to weary of this murderous war, and
+to long again for Christian instruction and peaceful commerce. The new
+governor was at first little inclined to negotiate with his fierce and
+capricious enemies; but, influenced by the miserable state of the
+colony, which even a brief truce might improve, he at length agreed to
+an exchange of prisoners and a peace.
+
+In 1662 the King of France was at last induced to hearken to the prayers
+of his Canadian subjects. M. de Monts[379] was sent out to inquire into
+the condition of the country, and 400 troops added to the strength of
+the garrison. But these encouraging circumstances were more than
+neutralized on account of the permission then granted by the new
+governor, Baron d'Avaugour, for the sale of ardent spirits.[380] The
+disorder soon rose to a lamentable height, and the clergy in vain
+opposed their utmost influence to its pernicious progress. At length the
+worthy bishop hastened to France, and represented to the king the
+dreadful evil that afflicted the colony. His remonstrances were
+effectual; he succeeded in obtaining such powers as he deemed necessary
+to stop the ruinous commerce.
+
+The year 1663 was rendered memorable by a tremendous earthquake, spoken
+of in a preceding chapter. In the same year the Associated Company
+remitted to the crown all their rights over New France, which the king
+again transferred to the West India Company.[381] Courts of law were
+for the first time established, and many families of valuable settlers
+found their way to the colony. Up to this period extreme simplicity and
+honesty seems to have prevailed in the little community, and it was not
+till then that a Council of State was appointed by the crown to
+co-operate with the governor in the conduct of affairs.[382] The king
+sent out the Sieur Gaudais to inquire into the state of his
+newly-acquired dependency, and to investigate certain complaints
+preferred against the Baron d'Avaugour, who had himself prayed to be
+recalled. The sieur performed his invidious task to the satisfaction of
+all parties: he made valuable reports as to the general character of the
+colonial clergy, of the advantages and disadvantages of the local
+administration of government, and imputed no fault to the Baron
+d'Avaugour, but a somewhat too rigid and stern adherence to the letter
+of the law, and the severity of justice. The baron then joyfully
+returned to France, but soon afterward fell in the defense of the fort
+of Serin against the Turks, while, with the permission of the French
+king, serving the emperor.
+
+M. de Mésy succeeded as governor, upon the recommendation of the Bishop
+of Canada, whose complaints on the subject of the sale of spirituous
+liquors had been the principal cause of the Baron d'Avaugour's recall.
+The new appointment proved far from satisfactory to those by whose
+influence it was made. M. de Mésy at once raised up a host of enemies by
+his haughty and despotic bearing. He thwarted the Jesuits to the utmost
+extent of his power; the council supported them, alleging that their
+influence over the native race was essential to the well-being of the
+colony. Various representations of these matters were made to the court
+of France, and the final result was, that the governor was recalled.
+
+Alexandre de Prouville, marquis de Tracy, was next appointed viceroy in
+America by the king, with ample powers to establish, destroy, or alter
+the institutions of the Canadian colony. Daniel de Remi, seigneur de
+Courcelles, the new governor, and M. Talon, the intendant, were
+conjoined with the viceroy in a commission to examine into the charges
+against M. de Mésy. (1665.) M. de Tracy was the first to arrive at
+Quebec; he bore with him the welcome re-enforcement of some companies of
+the veteran regiment of Carignan-Salières.[383] He sent a portion of
+this force at once against the Iroquois, accompanied by the allied
+savages. The country was speedily cleared of every enemy, and the
+harvest gathered in security. The remaining part of the regiment arrived
+soon after, with the viceroy's colleagues; a large number of families,
+artisans, and laborers; the first horses that had ever been sent to New
+France; cattle, sheep; and, in short, a far more complete colony than
+that which they came to aid.
+
+Being now established in security, and confident in strength, the
+viceroy led a sufficient force to the mouth of Richelieu River, where he
+erected three forts[384] to overawe the turbulent Iroquois.[385] These
+works were rapidly and skillfully executed, and for a time answered
+their purpose; but the wily savages soon perceived that there were other
+routes by which they could enter the settlements. In the mean time M.
+Talon remained at Quebec, collecting much valuable information
+concerning the country and its native inhabitants. He was spared,
+however, the task of inquiring into the conduct of M. de Mésy, for that
+gentleman died before the news of his recall reached Canada.
+
+Toward the end of December, 1665, three tribes of the Iroquois nation
+dispatched envoys to the viceroy at Quebec with proposals for peace and
+for an exchange of prisoners. The terms were readily complied with. M.
+de Tracy received the Indians with politic kindness and attention, and
+sent them back with valuable presents. But the formidable tribes of the
+Agniers and Onneyouths still kept sullenly apart from the French
+alliance; it was, therefore, determined to give them a severe lesson for
+their former insolence and treachery, and make them feel the supremacy
+of France. M. de Courcelles and M. de Sorel were sent with two corps to
+humble the haughty savages. The hostile Indians, alarmed at the
+preparations for their destruction, now sent deputies to Quebec to avert
+the threatening storm, although some of their war parties still infested
+the settlements, and had lately put to death three French officers,
+among them M. de Chasy, the viceroy's nephew. One of the Indian deputies
+boasted at M. de Tracy's table that he had slain the French officers
+with his own hands. He was immediately seized and strangled, and the
+negotiations broken off.
+
+The two French expeditions found the hostile country altogether
+deserted, and returned without effecting any thing, having suffered
+great fatigue and hardship. M. de Tracy then took the field in person,
+at the head of 1200 French and 600 friendly Indians, with two pieces of
+cannon. As he was setting out on the march, chiefs again came from the
+Agniers and Onneyouths to pray for peace; but he would hear of no
+accommodation, and even imprisoned the deputies. The French army marched
+on the 14th of September, 1666; provisions soon failed in the solitary
+desert through which they had to pass; in their greatest necessity,
+however, they entered a wood abounding in chestnut-trees, whose fruit
+supplied them with sustenance till they gained the first village of the
+enemy. The warriors had abandoned the old men, women, and children, and
+ample stores of food, and retired through the forest. The French found
+the Indian cabans larger and better than any they had seen elsewhere,
+and in ingeniously contrived magazines, sunk under the ground,
+sufficient grain was discovered to supply the whole colony for two
+years. The invaders burned and utterly destroyed all the villages, and
+carried away, as captives, all the inhabitants that remained, but they
+could not succeed in overtaking the warriors to force them to action.
+They then retraced their steps, strengthening the settlements on the
+River St. Lawrence as they passed. When M. de Tracy reached Quebec, he
+caused some of the prisoners to be put to death as a warning, and
+dismissed the remainder. Having established the authority of the West
+India Company instead of that of "The Hundred Associates," he returned
+to France the following spring.
+
+The humiliation of the Iroquois restored profound peace to New France.
+Then the wisdom and energy of M. Talon were directed to the development
+of the resources of the country. Scientific men were sent to examine the
+mineral resources of several districts where promising indications had
+been observed. The clearing of land proceeded rapidly, and invariably
+discovered a rich and productive soil. The population increased in
+numbers, and enjoyed abundant plenty: all were in a condition to live in
+comfort. According to the perhaps partial authority of the Jesuit
+missionaries, the progress in morality and attention to religious
+observances kept pace with the temporal prosperity of this happy colony.
+
+Although M. de Courcelles showed little activity in conducting the
+internal government of the colony, which was principally directed by M.
+Talon, he was highly energetic and vigorous in his relations with the
+Indians. Having learned that the Iroquois were intriguing with the
+Ottawas to direct their fur trade to the English colonies, thus probably
+to ruin the commerce of New France, he resolved to visit the Iroquois,
+and impress them with an idea of his power. For this purpose he took the
+route of the deep and rapid St. Lawrence, making his way in bateaux for
+130 miles above Montreal. His health, however, suffered so much in this
+difficult expedition that he was obliged to demand his recall.
+
+On his return to Quebec he found that several atrocious murders and
+robberies had been committed upon Iroquois and Mahingan Indians by
+Frenchmen, which filled the savages with indignation, and roused them
+to a fury of revenge. They attacked and burned a house in open day, and
+a woman perished in the flames. Numbers of the two injured nations and
+their savage allies hovered round Montreal, awaiting an opportunity for
+vengeance. M. de Courcelles, with his wonted vigor in emergencies,
+hastened to the threatened settlement, and called upon the Indian chiefs
+to hold parley. They assembled, and hearkened with attention while he
+enumerated the advantages that both parties derived from the existing
+peace. He then caused those among the murderers who had been convicted
+of the crime to be led out and executed on the spot. The Indians were at
+once appeased by this prompt administration of justice, and even
+lamented over the malefactors' wretched fate; they were also fully
+indemnified for the stolen property. The assembly then broke up with
+mutual satisfaction.
+
+But soon again, the repose of the country was threatened by the Iroquois
+and Ottawas, who had begun to make incursions upon each other. M. de
+Courcelles promptly interfered to quell this growing animosity,
+declaring that he would punish with the greatest severity either party
+that would not submit to reasonable conditions. He required them to send
+deputies to state their wrongs, and the grounds of dispute, and took
+upon himself to do justice to both parties. He was obeyed: the chiefs of
+the contending tribes repaired to Quebec, and by the firmness and
+judgment of the governor, the breach was healed, and peace secured.
+
+At this time a scourge more terrible than even savage war visited the
+red race of Canada. The small-pox first appeared among the northern
+tribe of the Attikamegues, and swept them totally away: many of their
+neighbors shared the same fate. Tadoussac, where 1200 Indians usually
+assembled to barter their rich furs at the end of the hunting season,
+was deserted. Three Rivers, once crowded with the friendly Algonquins,
+was now never visited by a red man, and a few years after the frightful
+plague first appeared, the settlement of Sillery, near Quebec, was
+attacked; 1500 savages took the fatal contagion, and not one survived.
+The Hurons, who had been always most intimately associated with the
+French, suffered least among the native nations from the malady. In 1670
+Father Chaumonat assembled the remnant of this once powerful tribe in
+the neighborhood of Quebec, and established them in the village of
+Lorette,[386] where a mixed race of their descendants remains to this
+day.
+
+Even the presence of the dreadful infliction of the small-pox and the
+fear of French power could not long restrain the savage impulse for war.
+The most distant tribe of the Iroquois became engaged in a sanguinary
+quarrel with a neighboring nation, and took a number of prisoners. The
+governor immediately sent to warn these turbulent savages that if they
+did not desist from war, and return their prisoners, he would destroy
+their villages as he had those of the Agniers. This peremptory message
+raised the indignation of the Iroquois, they at first proudly disclaimed
+the right of the French to dictate to the free people of the forest, and
+vowed that they would perish rather than bow down to the strangers'
+will; but, finally, the wisdom of the old men prevailed in the council:
+they knew that they were not prepared to meet the power of the
+Europeans; it was therefore decided that they should send a portion of
+their prisoners to the governor. He either believed, or pretended to
+believe, that they had fully complied with his demands, deeming it
+prudent not to drive the Indians to extremities.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 374: Among the Ursulines who accompanied Madame de la Peltrie
+to Quebec was Marie de l'Incarnation, "the Theresa of France," and Marie
+de St. Joseph. The sanctity of these remarkable women and the miracles
+they performed are the favorite theme of the Jesuit historians of
+Canada. Several lives of the former have been published, one of them by
+Charlevoix. A quarto volume of her letters was also published (à Paris,
+chez Louis Billaine, 1681): they are highly extolled as "worthy of her
+high reputation for sanctity, ability, and practical good sense in the
+business of life." They record many historical facts which occurred
+during the thirty-two years that she passed in Canada, where she arrived
+in 1640. When the Ursulines and the "Filles Hospitalières" landed at
+Quebec, they were received with enthusiasm. "It was held as a festival
+day; all work was forbidden; and the shops were shut. The governor
+received these heroines upon the shore at the head of the troops, who
+were under arms, the guns firing a salute. After the first greeting he
+led them to the church, accompanied by the acclamations of the people;
+here the Te Deum was chanted."--Charlevoix.
+
+"The venerable ash tree still lives beneath which Mary of the
+Incarnation, so famed for chastened piety, genius, and good judgment,
+toiled, though in vain, for the culture of Huron children."--Bancroft's
+_History of the United States_. vol. iii., p. 127.]
+
+[Footnote 375: "Cette ville a été nominée Ville Marie par ses
+fondateurs, mais ce nom n'a pu passer dans l'usage ordinaire; il n'a
+lieu que dans les actes publics, et parmi les seigneurs, qui en sont
+fort jaloux."--Charlevoix. When the foundations of the city of Montreal
+were first laid, the name given to it was Ville Marie. Bouchette, vol.
+i., p. 215; La Hontan, vol. xiii., p. 266.
+
+Charlevoix gives the following account of the formation and progress of
+the remarkable settlement at Montreal: "Quelques personnes puissantes,
+et plus recommandable encore par leur piété et par leur zèle pour la
+religion, formèrent donc une société, qui se proposa de faire en grand à
+Montréal, ce qu'on avoit fait en petit à Sillery. Il devoit y avoir dans
+cette isle une bourgade Françoise, bien fortifiée, et à l'abri de toute
+insulte. Les pauvres y devoient être reçus, et mis en état de subsister
+de leur travail. On projetta de faire occuper tout le reste de l'isle
+par des sauvages, de quelque nation qu'ils fussent, pourvû qu'ils
+fissent profession du Christianisme, ou qu'ils voulussent se faire
+instuire de nos mystères, et l'on étoit d'autant plus persuadé qu'ils y
+viendraient en grand nombre qu' outre un asile assuré contre les
+poursuites de leurs ennemis, ils pouvoient se promettre des secours
+toujours prompts dans leurs maladies, et contre la disette. On se
+proposoit même de les policer avec le tems, et de les accoûtumer à ne
+plus vivre que du travail de leurs mains. Le nombre de ceux qui
+entroient dans cette association fut de trente-cinq; des cette année
+1640, en vertu de la concession que le roi lui fit de l'isle, elle en
+fit prendre possession à la fin d'une messe solennelle, qui fut célébrée
+sous une tente. Le quinzième d'Octobre l'année suivante, M. de
+Maisonneuve fut déclaré gouverneur de l'isle. Le dix-septième de May
+suivant, le lieu destiné à l'habitation Françoise fut béni par le
+Supérieur des Jésuites, qui y célébra les saints mystères, dédia à la
+mère de Dieu une petite chapelle, qu'on avoit bâtie, et il y laissa le
+St. Sacrement. Cette cérémonie avoit été précédé d'une autre, trois mois
+auparavant, c'est à dire vers la fin de Février: tous les Associés
+s'etant rendus un Jeudi matin à Nôtre Dame de Paris, ceux qui étoient
+prêtres, y dirent la messe, les autres communièrent à l'autel de la
+Vierge et tous supplièrent la reine des anges de prendre l'isle de
+Montréal sous sa protection. Enfin le quinze d'Août, la fête de
+l'Assomption de la mère de Dieu fut solemnisée dans cette isle avec un
+concours extraordinaire de François et de sauvages. On ne négligea rien
+dans cette occasion pour intéresser le ciel en faveur d'un établissement
+si utile, et pour donner aux infidèles une haute idée de la religion
+Chrétienne."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 345.
+
+In the year 1644 Charlevoix says, "L'isle de Montréal se peuploit
+insensiblement, et la piété de ces nouveaux colons disposoit peu à peu
+les sauvages qui les approchoient à se soûmettre au jong de la foi." In
+1657, however, it was considered that "les premiers possesseurs de
+l'isle n'avoient pas poussé l'établissement autant qu'on avoit d'abord
+espéré." and it was therefore ceded to the Seminary of St. Sulpice in
+Paris. From that time the establishment made a rapid progress, M. de
+Maisonneuve still continuing its governor, after it had changed masters.
+He was a man of ability and piety: under his auspices the order of
+"Filles de la Congrégation" was established at Montreal by Margaret
+Bourgeois, who had accompanied the first settlers on the island from
+France. For the details of this admirable institution see Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 94. He speaks of it with justice as one of the brightest
+ornaments of New France.
+
+"Jusqu' en l'année 1692, la justice particulière de Montréal appartenoit
+à Messieurs du Séminaire de St. Sulpice, en qualité de seigneurs. Ils en
+donnèrent alors leur démission au roi, à condition que l'exercice leur
+en resteroit dans l'enclos de leur séminaire, et dans leur ferme de St.
+Gabriel, avec la propriété perpétuelle et incommutable du Greffe de la
+justice royale, qui seroit établie dans l'isle, et la nomination du
+premier juge."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 376: The kindness of the missionaries has been one of the
+causes that has perpetuated a kindly feeling toward the French. Among
+the American Indians, "a person, even in times of hostility, speaking
+French will find security from the attachment of the people to every
+thing that is French."--Imlay, p. 8.
+
+"To do justice to truth, the French missionaries in general have
+invariably distinguished themselves every where by an exemplary life,
+befitting their profession. Their religious sincerity, their apostolic
+charity, their insinuating kindness, their heroic patience, their
+remoteness from austerity and fanaticism, fix in these countries
+memorable epochs in the annals of Christianity; and while the memory of
+a Del Vilde, a Vodilla, &c., will be held in everlasting execration by
+all truly Christian hearts, that of a Daniel, a Brebeuf, &c., will never
+lose any of that veneration which the history of discoveries and
+missions has so justly conferred upon them. Hence that predilection
+which the savages manifest for the French, a predilection which they
+naturally find in the recesses of their souls, cherished by the
+traditions which their fathers have left in favor of the first apostles
+of Canada, then called New France."--Beltrami's _Travels_, 1823. The
+authority of this passage, Chateaubriand observes, is the stronger, as
+the writer is severe in his condemnation of the modern Jesuit.]
+
+[Footnote 377: "Ce n'étoit pas la faute de leurs missionnaires, s'ils
+s'endormaient de la sorte; mais ces religieux ne pouvant gagner sur
+leurs néophytes qu'ils prissent pour leur sûreté les précautions que la
+prudence exigeoit, redoublèrent leurs soins pour achever de les
+sanctifier, et pour les préparer à tout ce qui pourroit arriver. Ils les
+trouverent sur cet article d'une docilité parfaite; ils n'eurent aucune
+peine à les faire entrér dans les sentimens les plus convenables à la
+triste situation où ils se reduisaient eux-mêmes par une indolence, et
+un aveuglement, qu'on ne pouvoit comprendre et qui n'a peut-être point
+d'exemple dans l'histoire. Ce qui consoloit les pasteurs, c'est qu'ils
+les voyoient dans l'occasion braver la mort avec un courage, qui les
+animoit eux-mêmes à mourir en héros Chrétiens."--Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 378: The Abbé de Montigny was titular Bishop of Petræa, and
+had received from the pope a brief as vicar apostolic. The Church of
+Quebec was not erected into a bishop's see until 1670, when its bishop
+was no longer called titular Bishop of Petræa, but Bishop of Quebec. "Ce
+qui avoit fait traîner la cause si fort en longueur, c'est qu'il y eut
+de grandes contestations sur la dépendance immédiate du Saint Siège,
+dont le pape ne voulut point se relâcher. Cela n'empêche pourtant pas
+que l'Evêché de Quebec ne soit en quelque façon uni au clergé de France,
+en la manière de celui du Puy, lequel relève aussi immédiatement de
+Rome."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 189; _Petits Droits_, &c., tom. ii., p.
+492.
+
+"When the bishopric of Quebec was erected, Louis XIV. endowed it with
+the revenue of two abbacies, those of Benevent and L'Estrio. About
+thirty years ago, the then bishop, finding it difficult, considering the
+distance, to recover the revenues of them, by consent of Louis XV.,
+resigned the same to the clergy of France, to be united to a particular
+revenue of theirs, styled the economats, applied to the augmentation of
+small livings, in consideration of which, the bishop of this see has
+ever since received yearly 8000 livres out of the said revenues. A few
+years before the late bishop's death, the clergy of France granted him,
+for _his_ life only, a further pension of 2000 livres; the bishop had no
+estate whatever, except his palace at Quebec, destroyed by our
+artillery, a garden, and the ground-rent of two or three houses
+adjoining it, and built on some part of the lands."--Governor Murray's
+_Report on the Ancient Government and Actual State of the Province of
+Quebec in_ 1762.]
+
+[Footnote 379: Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 120.]
+
+[Footnote 380: "Jusques-là, les gouverneurs généraux avoient assez tenue
+la main à faire exécuter les ordres qu'ils avoient eux-mêmes donnés, de
+ne point vendre d'eau de vie aux sauvages; et le baron d'Avaugour avoit
+décerné des peines très sévères contre ceux qui contreviendroient à ses
+ordonnances sur ce point capital. Il arriva qu'une femme de Quebec fut
+surprise en y contrevenant, et, sur le champ, conduite en prison. Le P.
+Lallemant, à la prière de ses amis, crut pouvoir sans conséquence
+intercéder pour elle. Il alla trouver le général, qui le reçut très mal,
+et qui sans faire reflexion qu'il n'y a point d'inconséquence dans les
+ministres d'un Dieu qui a donné sa vie pour détruire le pêché et sauver
+le pécheur, à agir avec zèle pour réprimer le vice, et à demander grace
+pour le criminel, lui répondit brusquement, que puisque la traité de
+l'eau de vie n'étoit pas une faute punissable pour cette femme, elle ne
+le seroit désormais pour personne.... il ne consulta que sa mauvaise
+humeur et sa droiture mal entendue; et ce qu'il y eut de pis, c'est
+qu'il se fit un point d'honneur de ne point retracter l'indiscrète
+parole qui lui étoit echappée. Le peuple en fut bientôt instruit et le
+desordre devint extrème."--Charlevoix. tom. ii., p. 121.]
+
+[Footnote 381: Petit, vol. i., p. 24. _Colony Records._ There are no
+books of record in the secretary's office before this period. The old
+records were either carried to France, or destroyed at the fire, when
+the intendant's palace was burned down in 1725.
+
+"The company, 'des Cents Associés,' formed in 1628, though one of the
+most powerful, according to Charlevoix, that had ever existed, with
+respect to the number, the rank, and the accorded privileges of its
+members, had allowed the colony to fall into a deplorable state of
+weakness. In 1662, when it relinquished its rights to Louis XIV., the
+original number of 100 had diminished to 45."--Charlevoix, ii., p. 149.
+
+The East India Company was erected by the great Colbert in 1664. This
+company, having fallen into decay, was united with the West Indian
+Company, which was founded by law in 1718, and survived the ruin of its
+projector.]
+
+[Footnote 382: "Jusques-là il n'y avoit point eu proprement de cour de
+justice en Canada; les gouverneurs généraux jugeant les affaires d'une
+maniêre assez souveraine; on ne s'avisoit point d'appeller de leurs
+sentences; mais ils ne rendoient ordinairement des arrêts, qu'apres
+avoir inutilement tentés les voies de l'arbitrage, et l'on convient que
+leurs décisions étoient toujours, dictées par le bon sens, et selon les
+regles de la loi naturelle, qui est au-dessus de toutes les autres.
+D'ailleurs les Créoles du Canada, quoique de race Normande, pour la
+plupart n'avoient seulement l'esprit processif, et aimoient mieux pour
+l'ordinaire céder quelque chose de leur bon droit, que de perdre le tems
+à plaider. Il sembloit même que tous les biens fussent communes dans
+cette colonie, du moins on fut assez long tems sans rien fermeé sous la
+clef, et il étoit inoui qu'on s'en abusât. Il est bien étrange et bien
+humiliant pour l'homme que les précautions qu'un prince sage prit pour
+éviter la chicane et faire regner la justice, aient presque été l'époque
+de la naissance de l'une, et de l'affoiblissement de l'autre.... La
+justice est rendue selon les ordonnances du royaume et la coutume de
+Paris. Au mois de Juin, 1679, le roi autorisa par un édit quelques
+réglemens du conseil de Quebec, et c'est ce qu'on appellé dans le pays
+la réduction du Code ... par un autre édit en 1685 le conseil fut
+autorisé à juger les causes criminelles au nombre de cinq juges ...
+c'est sur le modèle du conseil supérieur à Quebec, qu'on a depuis établi
+ceux de la Martinique, de St. Domingue, et de Louisiane. Tous ses
+conseils sont d'epée."--Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 383: "The regiment de Carignan-Salières was just arrived from
+Hungary, where it had distinguished itself greatly in the war against
+the Turks."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 150.]
+
+[Footnote 384: "M. de Sorel, a captain in the Regiment De Carignan, was
+employed on the erection of the first fort, on the same site as the fort
+De Richelieu, built by M. de Montmagny, now quite in ruins. De Sorel
+gave his own name to the fort, and in time the river Richelieu, or
+Iroquois, acquired it also.
+
+"The second fort was called St. Louis; but, as M. de Chambly, captain in
+the same regiment, had superintended the erection, and afterward
+acquired the land on which it was situated, the whole district, and the
+stone fort, which has been erected since upon the ruins of the former
+one, have acquired and retained the name of Chambly. This was a very
+important fortress, as it protected the colony on the side of New York,
+and the lower Iroquois.
+
+"The third fort was built under the direction of M. de Salières, the
+colonel of the regiment De Carignan. He named it St. Theresa, because it
+was finished on that saint's day."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 152.]
+
+[Footnote 385: "Every omen was now favorable, except the conquest of New
+Netherlands (New York) by the English in 1664. That conquest eventually
+made the Five Nations (Iroquois) a dépendance on the English nation; and
+if for twenty-five years England and France sued for their friendship
+with unequal success, yet afterward, in the grand division of parties
+throughout the world, the Bourbons found in them implacable
+opponents."--Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. ii., p.
+149.]
+
+[Footnote 386: "La chapelle à Lorette est bâtie sur le modèle et avec
+toutes les dimensions de la Santa Case d'Italie, d'où l'on a envoyé à
+nos néophytes une image de la vierge, semblable à celle, que l'on voit
+dans ce célébre sanctuaire. On ne pouvoit guère choisir pour placer
+cette mission, un lieu plus sauvage."--Charlevoix.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+
+Taking advantage of the profound peace which now blessed New
+France,[387] M. Talon, the intendant, dispatched an experienced
+traveler, named Nicholas Perrot, to the distant northern and western
+tribes, for the purpose of inducing them to fix a meeting at some
+convenient place with a view of discussing the rights of the French
+crown. This bold adventurer penetrated among the nations dwelling by the
+great lakes, and with admirable address induced them all to send
+deputies to the Falls of St. Mary, where the waters of Lake Superior
+pour into Lake Huron. The Sieur de St. Lusson met the assembled Indian
+chiefs at this place in May, 1671; he persuaded them to acknowledge the
+sovereignty of his king, and erected a cross bearing the arms of France.
+
+M. de Courcelles was succeeded by the able and chivalrous Louis de
+Buade, comte de Frontenac. The new governor was a soldier of high rank,
+and a trusty follower of the great Henry of Navarre; his many high
+qualities were, however, obscured by a capricious and despotic temper.
+His plans for the advancement of the colony were bold and judicious, his
+representations to the government of France fearless and effectual, his
+personal conduct and piety unimpeachable, but he exhibited a bitterness
+and asperity to those who did not enter into his views little suited to
+the better points of his character, and it is said that ambition and the
+love of authority at times overcame his zeal for the public good.[388]
+
+M. Talon, the intendant, was at this time recalled by his own wish, but
+before he departed from the scenes of his useful labors he planned a
+scheme of exploration more extensive than any that had yet been
+accomplished in New France. From the rumors and traditions among the
+savages of the far West, with which the meeting at St. Mary's had made
+the French acquainted, it was believed that to the southwest of New
+France there flowed a vast river, called by the natives Mechasèpè, whose
+course was neither toward the great lakes to the north, nor the Atlantic
+to the east. It was therefore surmised that this unknown flood must pour
+its waters either into the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean. The wise
+intendant was impressed with the importance of possessing a channel of
+navigation to the waters of the south and west, and before his departure
+from America made arrangements to have the course of the mysterious
+stream[389] explored. He intrusted the arduous duty to Father Marquette,
+a pious priest, who was experienced in Indian travel, and an adventurous
+and able merchant of Quebec, named Jolyet. (1673.) The Comte de
+Frontenac gave hearty aid to this expedition, and in the mean time he
+himself extended the line of French settlement to the shores of Lake
+Ontario,[390] built there the fort that still bears his name, and opened
+communication with the numerous tribes westward of the Allegany
+Mountains.
+
+The exploring party, led by Marquette[391] and Jolyet, consisted of
+only six men, in two little bark canoes: at the very outset the Indians
+of the lakes told them that great and terrible dangers would beset their
+path, and recounted strange tales of supernatural difficulties and
+perils for those who had ventured to explore the mysterious regions of
+the West. Hearkening carefully to whatever useful information the
+natives could bestow, but despising their timid warnings, these
+adventurous men hastened on over the great lakes to the northwestern
+extremity of the deep and stormy Michigan, now called Green Bay.
+Numerous Indian tribes wandered over the surrounding country; among
+others, the Miamis, the most civilized and intelligent of the native
+race that they had yet seen. Two hunters of this nation undertook to
+guide the expedition to one of the tributaries of the great river of
+which they were in search. The French were struck with wonder at the
+vast prairies that lay around their route on every side, monotonous, and
+apparently boundless as the ocean.
+
+The Fox River was the stream to which the Miamis first led them.
+Although it was broad at its entrance into the lake the upper portion
+was divided by marshes into a labyrinth of narrow channels; as they
+passed up the river, the wild oats grew so thickly in the water that the
+adventurers appeared to row through fields of corn. After a portage of a
+mile and a half, they launched their canoes in the Wisconsin River, a
+tributary of the Mississippi, and the guides left them to find their way
+into the unknown solitudes of the West. Their voyage down the tributary
+was easy and prosperous, and at length, to their great joy, they reached
+the magnificent stream of the Mississippi. The banks were rich and
+beautiful, the trees the loftiest they had yet seen, and wild bulls and
+other animals roamed in vast herds over the flowery meadows.[393]
+
+For more than 200 miles Marquette and his companions continued their
+course through verdant and majestic solitudes, where no sign of human
+life appeared. At length the foot-prints of men rejoiced their sight,
+and, by following up the track, they arrived at a cluster of inhabited
+villages, where they were kindly and hospitably received. Their hosts
+called themselves Illinois, which means "men" in the native tongue, and
+is designed to express their supposed superiority over their neighbors.
+Marquette considered them the most civilized of the native American
+nations.
+
+Neither fear for the future nor the enjoyment of present comfort could
+damp the ardor of the French adventurers; they soon again launched their
+little canoes on the Father of Waters, and followed the course of the
+stream. They passed a number of bold rocks that rose straight up from
+the water's edge; on one of these, strange monsters were curiously
+painted in brilliant colors. Soon after they came to the place where the
+great Missouri pours its turbid and noisy flood into the Mississippi;
+and next they reached a lofty range of cliffs, that stretched nearly
+across from bank to bank, breasting the mighty stream. With great
+difficulty and danger they guided their little canoes through these
+turbulent waters. They passed the entrance of the Ohio,[394] and were
+again astonished at the vast size of the tributaries which fed the flood
+of the mysterious river. The inhabitants of the villages on the banks
+accepted the calumet of peace, and held friendly intercourse with the
+adventurers; and although, after passing the mouth of the Arkansas
+River, a proposition was made in the council of one tribe to slay and
+rob them, the chief indignantly overruled the cruel suggestion, and
+presented them with the sacred pipe.
+
+At the village where they were threatened with this great danger they
+were inaccurately informed that the sea was only distant five days'
+voyage. From this the travelers concluded that the waters of the
+Mississippi poured into the Gulf of Mexico, and not, as they had fondly
+hoped, into the Pacific Ocean. Fearing, therefore, that by venturing
+further they might fall into the hands of the Spaniards, and lose all
+the fruits of their toils and dangers, they determined to re-ascend the
+stream and return to Canada. After a long and dreary voyage, they
+reached Chicago, on Lake Michigan, where the adventurers separated.
+Father Marquette remained among the friendly Miamis, and Jolyet hastened
+to Quebec to announce their discoveries. Unfortunately, their
+enlightened patron, M. Talon, had already departed for France.
+
+There chanced, however, to be at Quebec at that time a young Frenchman,
+of some birth and fortune, named Robert Cavalier, sieur de la Salle,
+ambitious, brave, and energetic. He had emigrated to America with a hope
+of gaining fame and wealth in the untrodden paths of a new world. The
+first project that occupied his active mind was the discovery of a route
+to China[395] and Japan, by the unexplored regions of the west of
+Canada. The information brought by Jolyet to Quebec excited his sanguine
+expectations. Impressed with the strange idea that the Missouri would
+lead to the Northern Ocean, he determined to explore its course, and
+having gained the sanction of the governor, sailed for France to seek
+the means of fitting out an expedition. In this he succeeded by the
+favor of the Prince of Conti. The Chevalier de Tonti, a brave officer,
+who had lost an arm in the Sicilian wars, was associated with him in the
+enterprise.
+
+On the 14th of July, 1678, La Salle and Tonti embarked at Rochelle with
+thirty men, and in two months arrived at Quebec. They took Father
+Hennepin with them, and hastened on to the great lakes,[396] where they
+spent two years in raising forts and building vessels of forty or fifty
+tons burden, and carrying on the fur trade with the natives. The party
+then pushed forward to the extremity of Michigan. Their friendly
+relations with the Indians were here interrupted by a party of the
+Outagamis having robbed them of a coat. The French held a council to
+devise means of deterring the savages from such depredations, and it was
+somewhat hastily determined to demand restitution of the coat under the
+threat of putting the offending chief to death. The Outagamis, having
+divided the stolen garment into a number of small pieces for general
+distribution, found it impossible to comply with this requisition, and
+thinking that no resource remained, presented themselves to the French
+in battle array. However, through the wise mediation of Father Hennepin,
+the quarrel was arranged, and a good understanding restored.
+
+La Salle now set out with a party of forty-four men and three Recollets,
+to pursue his cherished object of exploring the course of the
+Mississippi. He descended the stream of the Illinois, and was charmed
+with the beauty and fertility of the banks: large villages rose on each
+side; the first, containing 500 wooden huts, they found deserted, but in
+descending the river they suddenly perceived that two large bodies of
+Indians were assembled on opposite banks, in order of battle. After a
+parley, however, the Indians presented the calumet of peace, and
+entertained the strangers at a great feast.
+
+The discontents among his own followers proved far more dangerous to La
+Salle than the caprice or hostility of the savages. They murmured at
+being led into unknown regions, among barbarous tribes, to gratify the
+ambition of an adventurer, and determined to destroy him and return to
+France. They were base enough to tell the natives that La Salle was a
+spy of the Iroquois, their ancient enemies, and it required all his
+genius and courage to remove this idea from the minds of the ignorant
+savages. Failing in this scheme, they endeavored to poison him and all
+his faithful adherents at a Christmas dinner; by the use of timely
+remedies, however, the intended victims recovered, and the villains,
+having fled, were in vain pursued over the trackless deserts.
+
+La Salle was obliged to return to the forts for aid, on account of the
+desertion of so many of his followers; but he sent Father Hennepin, with
+Dacan and three other Frenchmen, to explore the sources of the
+Mississippi, and left Tonti in the command of a small fort, erected on
+the Illinois, which he, however, was soon obliged to desert, in
+consequence of the hostility of the Iroquois. La Salle collected twenty
+men, with the necessary arms and provisions, and, unshaken by
+accumulated disasters, determined at once to make his way to the Gulf of
+Mexico down the course of the Mississippi. He passed the entrance of the
+swollen and muddy Missouri, and the beautiful Ohio, and, still
+descending, traversed countries where dwelt the numerous and friendly
+Chickasaw and Arkansaw Indians. Next he came to the Taencas, a people
+far advanced beyond their savage neighbors in civilization, and obeying
+an absolute prince. Farther on, the Natchez received him with
+hospitality; but the Quinipissas, who inhabited the shores more to the
+south, assailed him with showers of arrows. He wisely pursued his
+important journey without seeking to avenge the insult. Tangibao, still
+lower down the stream, had just been desolated by one of the terrible
+irruptions of savage war: the bodies of the dead lay piled in heaps
+among the ruins of their former habitations. For leagues beyond, the
+channel began to widen, and at length became so vast that one shore was
+no longer visible from the other. The water was now brackish, and
+beautiful sea-shells were seen strewn along the shore. They had reached
+the mouth of the Mississippi, the Father of Rivers.
+
+La Salle celebrated the successful end of his adventurous voyage with
+great rejoicings. Te Deum was sung, a cross was suspended from the top
+of a lofty tree, and a shield, bearing the arms of France, was erected
+close at hand. They attempted to determine the latitude by an
+observation of the sun, but the result was altogether erroneous.
+
+The country immediately around the outlet of this vast stream was
+desolate and uninteresting. Far as the eye could teach, swampy flats and
+inundated morasses filled the dreary prospect. Under the ardent rays of
+the tropical sun, noisome vapors exhaled from the rank soil and
+sluggish waters, poisoning the breezes from the southern seas, and
+corrupting them into the breath of pestilence. Masses of floating trees,
+whose large branches were scathed by months of alternate immersion and
+exposure, during hundreds of leagues of travel, choked up many of the
+numerous outlets of the river, and, cemented together by the alluvial
+deposits of the muddy stream, gradually became fixed and solid, throwing
+up a rank vegetation.[397] Above this dreary delta, however, the country
+was rich and beautiful, and graceful undulations succeeded to the
+monotonous level of the lower banks.
+
+After a brief repose, La Salle proceeded to re-ascend the river toward
+Canada, eager to carry the important tidings of his success to France.
+His journey was beset with difficulties and dangers. The course of the
+stream, though not rapid, perpetually impeded his progress. Provisions
+began to fail, and dire necessity drove him to perilous measures for
+obtaining supplies. Having met with four women of the hostile tribe of
+the Quinipissas, he treated them with great kindness, loading them with
+such gifts as might most win their favor. The chief of the savages then
+came forward and invited the French to his village, offering them the
+much-needed refreshments which they sought. But a cruel treachery lurked
+under this friendly seeming, and the adventurers were only saved from
+destruction by the careful vigilance of their leader. At daybreak the
+following morning, the Indians made a sudden attack upon their guests;
+the French, however, being thoroughly on the alert, repulsed the
+assailants, and slew several of the bravest warriors. Infuriated by the
+treachery of the savages, the victors followed the customs of Indian
+warfare, and scalped those of the enemy who fell into their power.
+
+As they ascended the river they were again endangered by the secret
+hostility of the Natchez,[398] from the effects of which a constant
+front of preparation alone preserved them. After several months of
+unceasing toil and watchfulness, with many strange and romantic
+adventures, but no other serious obstruction, the hardy travelers at
+length joyfully beheld the headland of Quebec.
+
+Immediately after his arrival, La Salle hastened to France to announce
+his great discovery,[399] and reap the distinction justly due to his
+eminent merits. (1682.) He was received with every honor, and all his
+plans and suggestions were approved by the court. Under his direction
+and command, an expedition was fitted out, consisting of four vessels
+and 280 men, for the purpose of forming a settlement at the mouth of the
+Mississippi, and thence establishing a regular communication with
+Canada, along the course of the Great River. At the same time, he
+received the commission of governor over the whole of the vast country
+extending between the lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The little squadron
+sailed from La Rochelle on the 24th of July, 1684, along with the West
+India fleet, and having touched at St. Domingo and Cuba by the way,
+arrived in safety on the coast of Florida.
+
+La Salle was involved in great perplexity by ignorance of the longitude
+of the river's mouth. Not having descended so far in his former
+expedition as to be able to judge of its appearance from the sea, he
+passed the main entrance of the Mississippi unawares, and proceeded 200
+miles to the westward, where he found himself in a bay, since called St.
+Bernard's. Attracted by the favorable appearance of the surrounding
+country, La Salle here founded the fort which was to be the basis of his
+future establishment. But difficulties and misfortunes crowded upon him;
+the vessel containing his stores and utensils was sunk through the
+negligence or treachery of her commander, and a great portion of the
+cargo lost or seized by the Indians. The violent measures he adopted to
+compel restitution of the plundered goods kindled a deep resentment in
+the minds of this fierce and haughty tribe, the Clamcoets by name. They
+made a sudden midnight attack upon the settlement, slew two of the
+French, and wounded several, and whenever opportunity offered afterward,
+repeated their assaults. The tropical climate, however, proved a far
+deadlier foe than even the savage, and at length the spirit of the
+colonists gave way under accumulated difficulties.
+
+Meanwhile Tonti, who had descended the Mississippi to join La Salle,
+sought him in vain at the mouth of the river, and along the coast for
+twenty leagues at either side. Having found no trace or tidings of the
+expedition, he relinquished the search in despair, and sailed upward
+again to the Canadian Lakes.
+
+La Salle bore up with noble courage and energy against the difficulties
+that surrounded him. His subordinates thwarted him on every occasion,
+and at length broke out into a violent mutiny, which he, however,
+vigorously suppressed. But when he discovered that the settlement
+founded and sustained by his unceasing labors was not, as he had fondly
+supposed, at the mouth of the Great River, he experienced the bitterest
+disappointment. The surrounding country, though fertile, offered no
+brilliant prospect of sudden wealth or hopes of future commerce. He
+determined, therefore, once again to explore the vast streams of the
+Mississippi and Illinois, and to endeavor to gain a greater knowledge of
+the interior of the continent. He took with him on this expedition his
+nephew, a worthy but impetuous youth, named Moranger, and about twenty
+men. This young man's haughty spirit excited a savage thirst of
+vengeance in the minds of his uncle's lawless followers; they watched
+their opportunity, and in a remote and dreary solitude in the depths of
+the new continent, La Salle and Moranger were both slain by their
+murderous hands. Thus sadly perished, in a nameless wilderness, one of
+the most daring and gifted among those wonderful men to whom the
+discovery of the New World had opened a field of glory. His temper was,
+doubtless, at times, violent and overbearing,[400] but he was dearly
+loved by his friends, respected by his dependents, and fondly revered by
+those among the Indians who came within his influence. His greatest
+difficulties arose from those who were placed under his command,
+abandoned and ungovernable men, the very refuse of society, and amenable
+to no laws, human or divine.
+
+It has been already mentioned that La Salle had sent Dacan and Father
+Hennepin to explore the Mississippi, on his first return from the
+Illinois to Lake Michigan. They descended that great river almost to the
+sea; but their followers, becoming alarmed at the idea of falling into
+the hands of the Spaniards, compelled them to return without having
+perfected their expedition. They re-ascended the stream, and passed the
+mouths of the Illinois and Wisconsin, and even reached beyond those
+magnificent falls to which the adventurous priest has given the name of
+St. Anthony. Continual danger threatened these travelers, from the
+caprice or hostility of the Indians; they were held for a long time in a
+cruel captivity, forced to accompany their captors through the most
+difficult countries, at a pace of almost incredible rapidity, till, with
+their feet and limbs cut and bleeding, they were well-nigh incapable of
+moving any further. After some time Hennepin was adopted by a chief as
+his son, and treated with much kindness; when winter came on, however,
+and a great scarcity of provisions arose, the Indians, being unable any
+longer to support their captives, allowed them to depart. The father and
+his companions used this liberty to continue their explorations down the
+Mississippi. After many other perils and adventures, they at length met
+the Sieur de Luth, who commanded a party sent in search of them, and
+with further instructions to form a settlement on the Great River.
+Hennepin at first turned back with the sieur, but found so many
+obstacles and difficulties that he determined for the present to return
+to Canada.
+
+The disasters attending the expeditions of La Salle and Hennepin for
+some time deterred others from venturing to explore the dangerous
+regions of the West, and the government totally neglected to occupy the
+splendid field which the adventure of those men had opened to French
+enterprise. It was left to the love of gain or glory, or the religious
+zeal of individuals, to continue the explorations of this savage but
+magnificent country. The Baron la Hontan was one of the first and most
+conspicuous of these dauntless travelers.[401] He had gone to Canada in
+early life with a view of retrieving the broken fortunes of his ancient
+family, and had obtained employment upon the lakes under the French
+government. While thus occupied, he became intimately acquainted with
+the life and customs of the savages, and, from his intercourse with
+them, formed the idea of penetrating into the interior of their country,
+where the white man's foot had never before trodden. His actual
+discoveries were probably not very important, and his record of them is
+confused and imperfect; but he was the first to learn the existence of
+the Rocky Mountains, and of that vast ocean which separates the western
+coast of North America from the continent of Asia.[402]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 387: "On espéroit beaucoup de la Compagnie des Indes
+Occidentales, mais elle ne prit guère plus à coeur les intérêts de la
+Nouvelle France, que n'avoit fait la précédente, ainsi que M. Talon
+avoit prévu. Cependant comme les secours que le Canada avait reçus les
+dernières années, l'avoient mis sur un assez bon pied, il s'y conserva
+quelque tems, et il n'est pas même retombé depuis dans l'état de
+foiblesse et d'épuisement dont le roi venoit de le tirer."--Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 161.]
+
+[Footnote 388: "Le peuple adoroit Frontenac à cause de sa bonté."--La
+Potherie, tom. iv., p. 110; Charlevoix, tom ii., p. 246.]
+
+[Footnote 389: The Mississippi.]
+
+[Footnote 390: "Ce lac a porté quelque tems le nom de St. Louis, on lui
+donna ensuite celui de Frontenac, aussi bien qu'au fort de Catarocoui
+dont le Comte de Frontenac fut le fondateur, mais insensiblement le lac
+a repris son ancien nom, qui est Huron ou Iroquois, et le fort celui du
+lieu où il est bâti (1721)."--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 287.]
+
+[Footnote 391: "Le Père J. Marquette, natif de Laon en Picardie, a été
+un des plus illustres missionnaires du la Nouvelle France; il en a
+parcouru presque toutes les contrées, et il y a fait plusieurs
+découvertes dont la dernière est celle du Micissipi. Deux ans après
+cette découverte, comme il alloit à Michillimackinack, il entra le 18me
+de May, 1675, dans la rivière dont il s'agit; il dressa son autel sur le
+terrein bas, qu'on lassia à droite en y entrant, et il y dit la messe.
+Il s'éloigna, ensuite un peu pour faire son action de graces, et pria
+les hommes qui conduisoient son canot, de le laisser seul pendant une
+demie heure. Ce tems passé, ils allèrent le chercher, et furent très
+surpris de le trouver mort, ils se souvinrent néanmoins qu'en entrant
+dans la rivière, il lui étoit échappé de dire qu'il finiroit la son
+voyage. Aujourd'hui les sauvages n'appellent cette rivière autrement que
+la rivière de la robe noire;[392] les François lui ont donné le nom du
+Père Marquette, et ne manquent jamais de l'invoquer, quand ils se
+trouvent en quelque danger sur le Lac Michigan. Plusieurs ont assuré
+qu'ils se croyoient redevables à son intercession, d'avoir echappé à de
+très grands perils."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 392: "Les sauvages appellent ainsi les Jésuites. Ils nomment
+les Prêtres, les Collets blancs, et les Recollets, les Robes grises."]
+
+[Footnote 393: Relation de Marquette: Recueil de Thevenot, tom. i.]
+
+[Footnote 394: The signification of the word Ohio is "Beautiful River."
+According to Bancroft, it was called the Wabash in La Salle's time, and
+long afterward.]
+
+[Footnote 395: "La Chine is a fine village three French miles to the
+southeast of Montreal, but on the same side, close to the River St.
+Lawrence. Here is a church of stone, with a small steeple, and the whole
+place has a very agreeable situation. Its name is said to have had the
+following origin: As the unfortunate M. de Sales was here, who was
+afterward murdered by his own countrymen further up the country, he was
+very intent on discovering a shorter road to China by means of the River
+St. Lawrence. He talked of nothing at that time but his now short way to
+China; but, as his project of undertaking this journey in order to make
+this discovery was stopped by an accident which happened to him here,
+and he did not at that time come any nearer China, this place got its
+name, as it were, by way of joke."--Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p.
+699.]
+
+[Footnote 396: See Appendix. No. LXIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 397: "This is the site of New Orleans. New Orleans, holding,
+from its position, the command of all the immense navigable
+river-courses of interior America, is making the most rapid progress of
+any American city, and will doubtless one day become the greatest in
+that continent--perhaps even in the world. A formidable evil, however,
+exists in the insalubrity of the air, arising from the extensive marshes
+and inundated grounds which border the lower part of the Mississippi.
+The terrible malady that bears the name of the yellow fever, makes its
+first appearance in the early days of August, and continues till
+October. During that era New Orleans appears like a deserted city; all
+who possibly can, fly to the north or the upper country; most of the
+shops are shut; and the silence of the streets is only interrupted by
+the sound of the hearse passing through them. In one year two thousand
+died of this fever. Since the morasses have been partially cleared, its
+ravages have been less destructive; and, as this work is going on, the
+city may hope, in time, to be almost free from this terrible
+scourge."--Murray's _America_, vol. ii., p. 428.]
+
+[Footnote 398: "Garcilasso de la Vega parle de cette nation comme d'un
+peuple puissant, et il n'y a pas six ans qu'on y comptoit quatre mille
+guerriers. Aujourd'hui les Natchez ne pourroient pas mettre sur pied
+deux mille combattans (1714)."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 399: "La Louisiane est le nom que M. de la Sale a donné au
+pays qu'arrose le Mississippi audessous de la Rivière des Illinois et
+qu'il a conservé jusqu'à present. C'étoit en l'honneur de Louis XIV.,
+qui regnoit alors en France."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 436.]
+
+[Footnote 400: Charlevoix thus speaks of the selection of M. de la Salle
+by M. de Seignelay: "Il n'est point de vertu qui ne soit mêlée de
+quelque défaut: c'est le sort ordinaire de l'humanité. Ce qui met le
+comble a notre humiliation, c'est que les plus grands défauts
+accompagnent souvent les plus éminentes qualités, et que la jalousie que
+celles-ci inspirent trouve presque toujours dans ceux-là un spécieux
+prétexte pour couvrir ce que cette passion a de bas et d'injuste. C'est
+à ceux qui sont établis pour gouverner les hommes à se faire jour pour
+sortir de cette labyrinthe, à dégager le vrai des ténébres dont la
+passion veut l'offusquer, et à connoître si bien ceux dont ils veulent
+se servir, qu'en leur donnent lieu de faire usage de ce qu'ils ont de
+bon, ils se précautionnent sur ce qu'ils ont de mauvais."--Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 401: _Mémoires de l'Amérique Septentrionale par M. le Baron de
+la Hontan_: à Amsterdam, 1705. For the character of these memoirs, see
+Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 408. They are translated in Pinkerton, vol.
+xiii.]
+
+[Footnote 402: The North Pacific Ocean. The South Pacific Ocean had been
+discovered by the Spaniard Balboa in 1513.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+
+An embittered disagreement between the governor general, Comte de
+Frontenac, and the intendant, M. de Cheneau, M. Talon's successor,
+rendered it necessary to recall both those officers from the colony. The
+French court attributed the greater share of blame to the governor, but
+the haughty and unbending disposition of the intendant was probably a
+principal cause of those untoward disputes. M. le Févre de la Barre and
+M. de Meules succeeded them in their respective offices, with special
+recommendation from the king to cultivate friendly relations with each
+other, and with M. de Blénac, the governor general of the French
+American islands.
+
+New France had for many years remained in a state of great confusion,
+and had made but little progress in prosperity or population, and now
+the prospects of a disastrous war darkened the future of the colonists.
+Various causes had united to revive the hostility of the Iroquois, their
+ancient and powerful foes. Since New York had fallen into English hands,
+the savages found it more advantageous to carry their trade thither than
+to barter their furs with the privileged company of France. The falling
+off of commercial intercourse soon led to further alienation, which the
+death of an Iroquois chief by the hands of an Illinois, in the territory
+of the Ottawas, then allies of the white men, soon turned into open
+hostility. The Comte de Frontenac had failed in his attempts to
+negotiate with the savages; and on the arrival of his successor, an
+invasion of the colony was hourly expected. M. de la Barre at once
+perceived the dangerous state of affairs; he therefore summoned an
+assembly of all the leading men in the country, ecclesiastical, civil,
+and military, and demanded counsel from them in the emergency.
+
+The assembly was of opinion that the Iroquois aimed at the monopoly of
+all the trade of Canada, by the instigation of the English and Dutch of
+New York, who were also supposed to incite them to enmity against the
+French, and that, consequently, those nations should be held hostile. It
+was also believed that the savages had only endeavored to gain time by
+their negotiations, while they either destroyed the tribes friendly to
+the colonists, or seduced them from their alliance. With this view they
+had already assailed the Illinois, and it was therefore the duty of the
+French to save that nation from this attack, whatever might be the cost
+or danger of the enterprise. For that purpose the colony could only
+furnish 1000 men; and to procure even this number, it was necessary that
+the labors of husbandry should be suspended. Re-enforcements of troops
+and a supply of laborers were therefore urgently required for the very
+existence of the settlements; and an earnest appeal for such assistance
+was forwarded to the king, as the result of the deliberations of the
+assembly. This application was immediately answered by the dispatch of
+200 soldiers to New France, and by a remonstrance addressed to the King
+of Great Britain, who instructed Colonel Dongan, the English governor of
+New York, to encourage more friendly relations with his French
+neighbors.
+
+While M. de la Barre pushed on his preparations for war against the
+Iroquois, he still kept up the hope of treating with them for peace in
+such a manner as not to forfeit the dignity of his position. In the mean
+time, however, he received intimation that a formidable expedition of
+1500 warriors had assembled, ostensibly to wage war with the Illinois,
+but in reality for the destruction of the Miamis and Ottawas, both
+allies of the French. The governor promptly dispatched an envoy, who
+arrived at the village where the Iroquois had mustered on the evening of
+the day appointed for the beginning of their campaign. The envoy was
+received with dignity and kindness; and he succeeded in obtaining a
+promise that the expedition should be deferred, and that they would send
+deputies to Montreal to negotiate with the French chief. But the wily
+savages had promised only to deceive; and in the month of May following,
+the governor received intelligence that 700 of these fierce warriors
+were on their march to attack his Miami and Ottawa allies, while
+another force was prepared to assail the settlements of the French
+themselves. He attributed these dangerous hostilities to the instigation
+of the English.
+
+The governor made urgent representations to the minister at home as to
+the necessity of crushing two of the Iroquois tribes, the most hostile
+and the most powerful. For this purpose, he demanded that a
+re-enforcement of 400 men should be sent to him from France as soon as
+possible, and that an order should be obtained from the Duke of York, to
+whom New York then belonged, to prevent the English from interfering
+with or thwarting the expedition.
+
+The Iroquois found the free trade with the English and Dutch more
+advantageous than that with the French, which was paralyzed by an
+injudicious monopoly; but they were still unwilling to come to an open
+rupture with their powerful neighbors. They therefore sent deputies to
+Montreal to make great but vague professions of attachment and good
+will. For many reasons, De la Barre placed but little confidence in
+these addresses: their object was obviously to gain time, and to throw
+the French off their guard. He, however, received the deputies with
+great distinction, and sent them back enriched with presents. But a few
+months after this, however, a small detachment of Frenchmen was assailed
+by the Iroquois, and plundered of merchandise which they were bearing to
+traffic with the Illinois.
+
+After this flagrant outrage, nothing remained for M. de la Barre but
+war. He had received intelligence that the Iroquois were making great
+preparations for an onslaught upon the French settlements, and that they
+had sent embassadors to the Indians of the south for the purpose of
+insuring peace in that quarter, while they threw all their power into
+the struggle with the hated pale faces. The governor promptly determined
+to adopt the bolder but safer course of striking the first blow, and
+making the cantons of his savage enemies the field of battle. As yet,
+few and small were the aids he had received from France, and a
+considerable time must elapse ere the further supplies he anticipated
+could arrive: he was, therefore, unwillingly compelled to avail himself
+of the assistance of his Indian allies. The native tribes dwelling
+around the shores of Lake Michigan entertained a deep and ancient
+jealousy of the powerful confederacy of the Iroquois or Five Nations,
+who aspired to universal dominion over the Northern Continent; they,
+therefore, held themselves equally interested with the French in the
+destruction of those formidable warriors. M. de la Durantaye, who
+commanded the fort on the far-distant shores of Lake Michigan, announced
+to his Indian neighbors that his countrymen were about to march against
+the Iroquois, and requested that all the native warriors friendly to the
+white men should meet them in the middle of August at Niagara. He was
+not, however, very successful in making levies, and with difficulty led
+500 warriors to the place of meeting, where, to his dismay, he found
+that the French had not arrived: his followers were not easily
+reconciled to this disappointment.
+
+In the mean time, M. de la Barre had, on the 9th of July, 1683, marched
+from Quebec to Montreal, where he appointed the troops to assemble for
+the expedition. No precautions to insure success were neglected. He
+dispatched a message to the English governor of New York to invite him
+to join in the attack, or, at least, to secure his neutrality. He also
+sent belts and presents to three of the Iroquois tribes, to induce them
+to refrain from joining in the quarrel of those among their confederates
+who alone had injured him and his nation. He arrived at Montreal on the
+21st, with 700 Canadians, 130 soldiers, and 200 Indians: his force was
+organized in three divisions. After a brief stay he continued his march
+westward.
+
+The governor had not proceeded far when he received intelligence that
+the other Iroquois tribes had obliged the Tsonnonthouans, his especial
+enemies, to accept of their mediation with the French, and that they
+demanded the Sieur le Moyne, in whom they placed much confidence, to
+conduct the negotiation. At the same time, he learned that the tribe he
+proposed to assail had put all their provisions into a place of
+security, and were prepared for a protracted and harassing resistance.
+His appeals both to the remaining Iroquois tribes and to the English had
+also failed, for the former would assuredly make common cause against
+him in case of his refusing their mediation, and the latter had actually
+offered to aid his enemies with 400 horse, and a like force of infantry.
+Influenced by these untoward circumstances, he dispatched M. le Moyne to
+treat, and agreed to await the Iroquois deputies on the shores of Lake
+Ontario. In the mean time, M. de la Barre and his army underwent great
+privations from the scarcity and bad quality of their provisions; they
+could with difficulty hold their ground till the arrival of the savages,
+and such was their extremity that the name of the Bay of Famine was
+given to the scene of their sufferings.
+
+The savage deputies met the French chief with great dignity, and, well
+aware of the advantage given them by the starvation and sickness of the
+white men, carried their negotiations with a high hand. They guaranteed
+that the Tsonnonthouans should make reparation, for the injuries
+inflicted on the French, but at the same time insisted that the governor
+and his army should retire the very next day. With this ignoble
+stipulation M. de la Barre was fain to agree. On his return to Quebec,
+he found, to his chagrin, that considerable re-enforcements had just
+arrived from France, which would have enabled him to dictate instead of
+submitting to dictation. The new detachment was commanded by MM.
+Monterlier and Desnos, captains of marine, who were commissioned by the
+king to proceed to the most advanced and important posts, and to act
+independently of the governor's authority. They were further instructed
+to capture as many of the Iroquois as possible, and to send them to
+France to labor in the galleys. In this same year the Chevalier de
+Callières, an officer of great merit, was sent from France to assume the
+duties of governor of the Montreal district, as successor to M. Perrot,
+who had embroiled himself with the members of the powerful Order of St.
+Sulpicius.
+
+In the year 1685, the Marquis de Dénonville arrived at Quebec as
+governor general in succession to M. de la Barre, whose advanced age and
+failing health unfitted him for the arduous duties of the office. The
+new governor was selected by the king for his known valor and prudence;
+a re-enforcement of troops was placed at his disposal, and it was
+determined to spare no effort to establish the colony in security and
+peace. Dénonville lost not a moment in proceeding to the advanced posts
+on the lakes, and, at the same time, he devoted himself to a diligent
+study of the affairs of Canada and the character of the Indians. His
+keen perception promptly discovered the impossibility of the Iroquois
+being reconciled and assimilated to the French, and he at once saw the
+necessity of extirpating, or at least thoroughly humbling, these haughty
+savages. But beyond the present dangers and difficulties of Indian
+hostility, this clear-sighted politician discerned the far more
+formidable evils that threatened the power of his country from the
+advancing encroachments of the hardy traders and fearless adventurers of
+the English colonies. He urged upon the king the advantage of building
+and garrisoning a fort at Niagara to exclude the British from the
+traffic of the lakes, and interrupt their communications with the
+Iroquois, and also to check the desertion of the French, who usually
+escaped by that route, and transferred the benefits of their experience
+and knowledge of the country to the rival colonies. The Northwest
+Company of merchants at Quebec earnestly desired this establishment, and
+engaged to pay an annual rent of 30,000 livres to the crown for the
+privilege of exclusive trade at the proposed station.
+
+The suspicions of the Marquis de Dénonville as to English encroachments
+were soon confirmed. He received a letter from the governor of New York,
+dated 29th of May, 1686, demanding explanations of the preparations
+which were being made against the Iroquois--the subjects of England--as
+any attack upon them would be a breach of the peace then existing
+between England and France. The British governor also expressed surprise
+that the French should contemplate erecting a fort at Niagara, "because
+it should be known in Canada that all that country was a dependency of
+New York." M. de Dénonville, in reply, denied the pretensions of the
+English to sovereignty in New France, and pointed out the impropriety of
+hostile communications between inferiors, while the kings whom they
+served remained on amicable terms. He rendered, however, some sort of
+evasive explanation on the subject of his preparations against the
+Iroquois.
+
+The following year the governor general received from the court the
+notification of a most important agreement between England and France,
+that, "notwithstanding any rupture between the mother countries, the
+colonies on the American continent should remain at peace."
+Unfortunately, however, the force of national prejudice, and the
+clashing of mutual interests, rendered this wise and enlightened
+provision totally fruitless.
+
+In the summer of 1687, M. de Dénonville marched toward Lake Ontario with
+a force of 2000 French and 600 Indians, having already received all the
+supplies and re-enforcements which he had expected from France. His
+first act of aggression was one that no casuistry can excuse, no
+necessity justify--one alike dishonorable and impolitic. He employed two
+missionaries, men of influence among the savages, to induce the
+principal Iroquois chiefs to meet him at the fort of Cataracouy, under
+various pretenses; he there treacherously seized the unsuspecting
+savages, and instantly dispatched them to Quebec, with orders that they
+should be forwarded to France to labor in the galleys. The missionaries
+who had been instrumental in bringing the native chiefs into this
+unworthy snare were altogether innocent of participation in the outrage,
+never for a moment doubting the honorable intentions of their countrymen
+toward the Indian deputies. One, who dwelt among the Onneyouths, was
+immediately seized by the exasperated tribe, and condemned to expiate
+the treachery of his nation, and his own supposed guilt, in the flames.
+He was, however, saved at the last moment by the intervention of an
+Indian matron, who adopted him as her son. The other--Lamberville by
+name--was held in great esteem among the Onnontagués, to whose
+instruction he had devoted himself. On the first accounts of the outrage
+at Cataracouy, the ancients assembled and called the missionary before
+them. They then declared their deep indignation at the wrong which they
+had suffered; but, at the moment when their prisoner expected to feel
+the terrible effects of their wrath, a chief arose, and with a noble
+dignity addressed him:
+
+"Thou art now our enemy--thou and thy race. We have held counsel, and
+can not resolve to treat thee as an enemy. We know thy heart had no
+share in this treason, though thou wert its tool. We are not unjust; we
+will not punish thee, being innocent, and hating the crime as much as we
+do ourselves. But depart from among us; there are some who might seek
+thy blood; and when our young men sing the war-song, we may be no longer
+able to protect thee." The magnanimous savages then furnished him with
+guides, who were enjoined to convey him to a place of safety.
+
+M. de Dénonville halted for some time at Cataracouy, and sent orders to
+the commanders of the distant western posts to meet him on the 10th of
+July at the River Des Sables, to the eastward of the country of the
+Tsonnonthouans, against whom they were first to act. The governor
+marched upon this point with his army, and, by an accident of favorable
+presage, he and the other detachments arrived at the same time. They
+immediately constructed an intrenchment, defended by palisades, in a
+commanding situation over the river, where their stores and provisions
+were safely deposited. M. d'Orvilliers, with a force of 400 men, was
+left for the protection of this dépôt, and to insure the rear of the
+advancing army.
+
+On the 13th the French pushed into the hostile country, and passed two
+deep and dangerous defiles without opposition, but at a third they were
+suddenly assailed by 800 of the Iroquois, who, after the first volley,
+dispatched 200 of their number to outflank the invaders, while they
+continued the front attack with persevering courage. The French were at
+first thrown into some confusion by this fierce and unexpected
+onslaught; but the allied savages, accustomed to the forest warfare,
+boldly held their ground, and effectually covered the rallying of the
+troops. The Iroquois, having failed in overpowering their enemies by
+surprise, and conscious of their inferiority in numbers and arms, after
+a time broke their array and dispersed among the woods. The French lost
+five men killed and twenty wounded; the Iroquois suffered far
+more--forty-five were left dead upon the field, and sixty more disabled
+in the conflict. The Ottawas, serving under M. de Dénonville, who had
+been by no means forward in the strife, with savage ferocity mangled and
+devoured the bodies of the slain. The Hurons, and the Iroquois
+Christians following the French standard, fought with determined
+bravery.
+
+The army encamped in one of the four great villages of the
+Tsonnonthouans, about eight leagues from the fort at the River Des
+Sables: they found it totally deserted by the inhabitants, and left it
+in ashes. For ten days they marched through the dense forest with great
+hardship and difficulty, and met with no traces of the enemy, but they
+marked their progress with ruin: they burned about 400,000 bushels of
+corn, and destroyed a vast number of hogs. The general, fearing that his
+savage allies would desert him if he continued longer in the field, was
+then constrained to limit his enterprise. He, however, took this
+opportunity of erecting a fort at Niagara, and left the Chevalier de la
+Troye with 100 men in garrison. Unfortunately, a deadly malady soon
+after nearly destroyed the detachment, and the post was abandoned and
+dismantled. The constant and harassing enmity of the savages combined
+with the bad state of the provisions left in the fort, to render the
+disease which had broken out so fatal in its results.
+
+The French had erected a fort called Chambly,[403] in a strong position
+on the left bank of the important River Richelieu.[404] This little
+stronghold effectually commanded the navigation of the stream, and
+through it, the communication between Lake Champlain and the southern
+districts with the waters of the St. Lawrence. On the 13th of November,
+1687, a formidable party of the Iroquois suddenly attacked the fort; the
+little garrison made a stout defense, and the assailants abandoned the
+field with the morning light; the settlement which had grown up in the
+neighborhood was, however, ravaged by the fierce Indians, and several of
+the inhabitants carried away into captivity. The French attributed this
+unexpected invasion to the instigation of their English neighbors, and
+it would appear with reason, for, on the failure of the assault, the
+governor of New York put his nearest town into a state of defense, as if
+in expectation of reprisals.
+
+In this same year there fell upon Canada an evil more severe than Indian
+aggression or English hostility. Toward the end of the summer a deadly
+malady visited the colony, and carried mourning into almost every
+household. So great was the mortality, that M. de Dénonville was
+constrained to abandon, or rather defer, his project of humbling the
+pride and power of the Tsonnonthouans. He had also reason to doubt the
+faith of his Indian allies; even the Hurons of the far West, who had
+fought so stoutly by his side on the shores of Lake Ontario, were
+discovered to have been at the time in treacherous correspondence with
+the Iroquois.
+
+While doubt and disease paralyzed the power of the French, their
+dangerous enemies were not idle. Twelve hundred Iroquois warriors
+assembled at Lake St. Francis, within two days' march of Montreal, and
+haughtily demanded audience of the governor, which was immediately
+granted. Their orator proclaimed the power of his race and the weakness
+of the white men with all the emphasis and striking illustration of
+Indian eloquence. He offered peace on terms proposed by the governor of
+New York, but only allowed the French four days for deliberation.
+
+This high-handed diplomacy was backed by formidable demonstrations. The
+whole country west of the River Sorel, or Richelieu, was occupied by a
+savage host, and the distant fort of Cataracouy, on the Ontario shore,
+was with difficulty held against 800 Iroquois, who had burned the farm
+stores with flaming arrows, and slain the cattle of the settlers. The
+French bowed before the storm they could not resist, and peace was
+concluded on conditions that war should cease in the land, and all the
+allies should share in the blessings of repose. M. de Dénonville further
+agreed to restore the Indian chiefs who had been so treacherously torn
+from their native wilds, and sent to labor in the galleys of France.
+
+But, in the mean time, some of the savage allies, disdaining the
+peaceful conclusions of negotiation, waged a merciless war. The
+Abenaquis, always the fiercest foes of the Iroquois confederacy, took
+the field while yet the conferences pended, and fell suddenly upon the
+enemy by the banks of the Sorel. They left death behind them on their
+path, and pushed on even into the English settlements, where they slew
+some of the defenseless inhabitants, and carried away their scalps in
+savage triumph. On the other hand, the Iroquois of the Rapids of St.
+Louis and the Mountain, made a deadly raid into the invaders'
+territories.
+
+The Hurons of Michillimakinack were those among the French allies who
+most dreaded the conclusion of a treaty of which they feared to become
+the first victims. Through the extraordinary machinations and cunning of
+their chief, Kondiaronk, or the Rat, they continued to reawaken the
+suspicions of the Iroquois against the French, and again strove to stir
+up the desolating flames of war.
+
+In the midst of these renewed difficulties M. de Dénonville was recalled
+to Europe, his valuable services being required in the armies of his
+king. In colonial administration he had shown an ardent zeal for the
+interests of the sovereign and the country under his charge, and his
+plans for the improvement of Canada were just, sound, and comprehensive,
+but he was deficient in tenacity of purpose, and not fortunate or
+judicious in the selection of those who enjoyed his confidence. His
+otherwise honorable and useful career can, however, never be cleansed
+from the fatal blot of one dark act of treachery. From the day when that
+evil deed was done, the rude but magnanimous Indian scorned as a broken
+reed the sullied honor of the French.
+
+The Comte de Frontenac was once again selected for the important post of
+governor of New France, and arrived at Montreal on the 27th of October,
+1689, where his predecessor handed over the arduous duties of office.
+The state of New France was such as to demand the highest qualities in
+the man to whose rule it was intrusted: trade languished, agriculture
+was interrupted by savage aggression, and the very existence of the
+colony threatened by the growing power of the formidable Iroquois
+confederacy. At the same time, a plan for the reduction of New York was
+being organized in Paris, which would inevitably call for the
+co-operation of the colonial subjects of France, and, in the event of
+failure, leave them to bear the brunt of the dangerous quarrel. M. de
+Frontenac was happily selected in this time of need.
+
+Impelled by the treacherous machinations of the Huron chief Kondiaronk,
+the Iroquois approached the colony in very different guise from that
+expected. While M. de Dénonville remained in daily hopes of receiving a
+deputation of ten or twelve of the Indians to treat for peace, he was
+astounded by the sudden descent of 1200 warriors upon the island of
+Montreal.[405] Terrible indeed was the devastation they caused; blood
+and ashes marked their path to within three leagues of the territory,
+where they blockaded two forts, after having burned the neighboring
+houses. A small force of 100 soldiers and 50 Indians, imprudently sent
+against these fierce marauders, was instantly overpowered, and taken or
+destroyed. When the work of destruction was completed, the Iroquois
+re-embarked for the Western lakes, their canoes laden with plunder, and
+200 prisoners in their train.
+
+This disastrous incursion filled the French with panic and astonishment.
+They at once blew up the forts of Cataracouy and Niagara, burned two
+vessels built under their protection, and altogether abandoned the
+shores of the Western lakes. The year was not, however, equally
+unfortunate in all parts of New France. While the island of Montreal was
+swept by the storm of savage invasion, M. d'Iberville supported in the
+north the cause of his country, and the warlike Abenaquis avenged upon
+the English settlers the evils which their Iroquois allies had inflicted
+upon, Canada. Upon his arrival, the Comte de Frontenac determined to
+restore the falling fortunes of his people by means of his great
+personal influence among the triumphant Iroquois, backed as he was with
+the presence of those prisoners who had been so treacherously seized by
+his predecessor, but whose entire confidence and good-will he had
+acquired while bringing them back to their native country. A chief named
+Oureouharé, the most distinguished among the captives, undertook to
+negotiate with his countrymen--a duty which was performed more honestly
+than efficiently: an exchange of prisoners took place, but nothing
+further was accomplished.
+
+The Northern Indians, allies of the French, had long desired to share
+the benefits of English commerce with the Iroquois; it had, however,
+been the policy of the Canadian government to keep these red tribes
+continually at war, with the view of interrupting the communications of
+traffic through their country. But the allied savages soon began to see
+the necessity of making peace with the Iroquois, in order to establish
+relations with the traders of the British settlements. With this view
+the Ottawas sent embassadors to the cantons of the Five Nations,
+restoring the prisoners captured in the war, and proffering peace and
+amity. The agents and missionaries of the French strongly remonstrated
+against these proceedings, but in vain; their former allies replied by
+insulting declarations of independence, and contemptuous scoffs at their
+want of power and courage to meet the enemy in the field; their
+commerce, too, was spoken of as unjust, injurious, and inferior to that
+of the English, of which they had endeavored to deprive those whom they
+could not protect in war; the French were also accused of endeavoring to
+shelter themselves under a dishonorable treaty, regardless of the safety
+and interests of the Indians who had fought and bled in their cause.
+
+When M. de Frontenac became aware of this formidable disaffection, he
+boldly determined to strike a blow at the English power that should
+restore the military character of France among the savages, and deprive
+the recreant Indians of their expected succor. He therefore organized
+three expeditions to invade the British settlements by different
+avenues. The first, consisting of 110 men, marched from Montreal,
+destined for New York, but only resulted in the surprise and destruction
+of the village of Corlar,[407] or Schenectady, and the massacre and
+capture of some of the inhabitants. They retreated at noon the following
+day, bearing with them forty prisoners; after much suffering from want
+of provisions, they were obliged to separate into small parties, when
+they were attacked by their exasperated enemies, and sustained some
+loss. Many would have perished from hunger in this retreat, but that
+they found a resource in living upon horse flesh: their cavalry, from
+fifty, was reduced to six by the time they regained the shelter of
+Montreal.
+
+The second invading division was mustered at Three Rivers, and only
+numbered fifty men, half being Indians. They reached an English
+settlement, called Sementels (Salmon Falls), after a long and difficult
+march and succeeded in surprising and destroying the village, with most
+of its defenders. In their retreat they were sharply attacked, but
+succeeded in escaping, through the aid of an advantageous post, which
+enabled them to check the pursuers at a narrow bridge. They soon after
+fell in with M. de Mamerval, governor of Acadia, with the third party,
+and, thus re-enforced, assailed the fortified village of Kaskebé upon
+the sea-coast, which surrendered after a heavy loss of the defenders.
+
+To regain the confidence of his Indian allies, M. de Frontenac saw the
+necessity of rendering them independent of English commerce, and safe
+from the hostility of the Iroquois. To accomplish these objects, he
+dispatched a large convoy to the west, escorted by 143 men, and bearing
+presents to the savage chiefs. On the way they encountered a party of
+the Five Nations, and defeated them after a sanguinary engagement.
+
+All these vigorous measures produced a marked effect: the convoy arrived
+at Michillimackinack at the time when the embassadors of the French
+allies were on the point of departing to conclude a treaty with the
+Iroquois. When, however, the strength of the detachment was seen, and
+the valuable presents and merchandise were displayed, the French
+interests again revived with the politic savages, and they hastened to
+give proofs of their renewed attachment: 110 canoes, bearing furs to the
+value of 100,000 crowns, and manned by 300 Indians, were dispatched soon
+after for Montreal, to be laid before the governor general. He dismissed
+the escort with presents, and exhorted them and their nation to join
+with him in humbling their mutual and deadly foe. They departed well
+pleased with their reception, and renewed professions of friendship for
+the French.
+
+In the mean time the terrible war-cry of the Iroquois was never silent
+in the Canadian settlements. Bands of these fierce and merciless
+warriors suddenly emerged from the dense forests when least expected,
+and burst upon isolated posts and villages with more or less success,
+but always with great loss of life to the assailants and assailed,[408]
+and with great destruction of the fruits of industry. These disastrous
+events caused much disquietude to the governor. He called to his
+counsels the Iroquois chief Oureouharé, who still remained attached to
+him by the closest bonds of friendship and esteem, and complained of the
+bitter hostility of his nation: "You must either not be a true friend,"
+said M. de Frontenac, "or you must be powerless in your nation, to
+permit them to wage this bitter war against me." The generous chief was
+mortified at this discourse, and answered that his remaining with the
+French, instead of returning to his own hunting grounds, where he was
+ardently beloved, was a proof of his fidelity, and that he was ready to
+do any thing that might be required of him, but that it would certainly
+need time and the course of circumstances to allay the fury of his
+people against those who had treacherously injured them. The governor
+could not but acknowledge the justice of Oureouharé's reply; he gave him
+new marks of esteem and friendship, and determined more than before to
+confide in this wise and important ally.[409]
+
+But now the greatest danger that had ever yet menaced the power of
+France upon the American continent hung over the Canadian shores. The
+men of New England were at last aroused to activity by the constant
+inroads and cruel depredations of their northern neighbors, and in
+April, 1690, dispatched a small squadron from Boston, which took
+possession of Port Royal and all the province of Acadia. In a month the
+expedition returned, with sufficient plunder to repay its cost.
+Meanwhile the British settlers deputed six commissioners to meet at New
+York in council for their defense. On the first of May, 1690, these
+deputies assembled, and promptly determined to set an expedition on foot
+for the invasion of Canada. Levies of 800 men were ordered for the
+purpose, the contingents of the several states fixed, and general rules
+appointed for the organization of their army. A fast-sailing vessel was
+dispatched to England with strong representations of the defenseless
+state of the British colonies, and with an earnest appeal for aid in the
+projected invasion of New France; they desired that ammunition and other
+warlike stores might be supplied to their militia for the attempt by
+land, and that a fleet of English frigates should be directed up the
+River St. Lawrence to co-operate with the colonial force. But at that
+time England was still too much weakened by the unhealed wounds of
+domestic strife to afford any assistance to her American children, and
+they were thrown altogether on their own resources.
+
+New York and New England boldly determined, unaided, to prosecute their
+original plans against Canada. General Winthrop, with 800 men, was
+marched by the way of Lake Champlain, on the shores of which he was to
+have met 500 of the Iroquois warriors; but, through some unaccountable
+jealousy, only a small portion of the politic savages came to the place
+of muster. Other disappointments also combined to paralyze the British
+force: the Indians had failed to provide more than half the number of
+canoes necessary for the transport of the troops across the lake, and
+the contractor of the army had imprudently neglected to supply
+sufficient provisions. No alternative remained for Winthrop but to fall
+back upon Albany for subsistence.
+
+In the mean time, Major Schuyler, who had before crossed Lake Champlain
+with a smaller British force, pushed on against the French post of La
+Prairie de la Madeleine, and attacked it with spirit. He soon overcame
+the handful of Canadian militia and Indians who formed the garrison, and
+compelled them to fall back upon Chambly, a fort further to the north.
+Having met M. de Sanermes and a considerable force advancing to their
+relief, they turned and faced their pursuers. Schuyler rashly ventured
+to attack this now superior enemy; he was soon forced to retire, with
+the loss of nearly thirty men. The French, however, suffered much more
+severely in this affair, no less than thirteen officers and nearly
+seventy of their men having been killed and wounded.
+
+The naval expedition against Quebec was assembled in Nantasket Road,
+near Boston, and consisted of thirty-five vessels of various size, the
+largest being a 44-gun frigate. Nearly 2000 troops were embarked in this
+squadron, and the chief command was confided by the people of New
+England to their distinguished countryman, Sir William Phipps, a man of
+humble birth, whose own genius and merit had won for him honor, power,
+and universal esteem. The direction of the fleet was given to Captain
+Gregory Sugars. The necessary preparations were not completed, and the
+fleet did not get under way till the season was far advanced; contrary
+winds caused a still further delay; however, several French posts on the
+shores of Newfoundland and of the Lower St. Lawrence were captured
+without opposition, and the British force arrived at Tadoussac, on the
+Saguenay, before authentic tidings of the approaching danger had reached
+Quebec.
+
+When the brave old Frontenac learned from his scouts that Winthrop's
+corps had retreated, and that Canada was no longer threatened by an
+enemy from the landward side, he hastened to the post of honor at
+Quebec, while by his orders M. de Ramsey and M. de Callières assembled
+the hardy militia of Three Rivers and the adjoining settlements to
+re-enforce him with all possible dispatch. The governor found that Major
+Provost, who commanded at Quebec before his arrival, had made vigorous
+preparation to receive the invaders;[410] it was only necessary,
+therefore, to continue the works, and confirm the orders given by his
+worthy deputy. A party, under the command of M. de Longueuil, was sent
+down the river to observe the motions of the British, and, if possible,
+to prevent their landing. At the same time, two canoes were dispatched
+by the shallow channel north of the island of Orleans to seek for some
+ships with supplies, which were daily expected from France, and to warn
+them of the presence of the hostile fleet.
+
+The Comte de Frontenac continued the preparations for defense with
+unwearied industry. The regular soldiers and militia were alike
+constantly employed upon the works, till in a short time Quebec was
+tolerably secure from the chances of a sudden assault. Lines of strong
+palisades, here and there armed with small batteries, were formed round
+the crown of the lofty headland, and the gates of the city were
+barricaded with massive beams of timber and casks filled with earth. A
+number of cannon were mounted on advantageous positions, and a large
+wind-mill of solid masonry was fitted up as a cavalier. The lower town
+was protected by two batteries each of three guns, and the streets
+leading up the steep, rocky face of the height were embarrassed with
+several intrenchments and rows of "chevaux de frise." Subsequently
+during the siege two other batteries were erected a little above the
+level of the river. The commanding natural position of the stronghold,
+however, offered far more serious obstacles to the assailants than the
+hasty and imperfect fortifications.
+
+At daylight on the 5th of October the white sails of the British fleet
+were seen rounding the headland of Point Levi, and crowding to the
+northern shore of the river, near the village of Beauport; at about ten
+o'clock they dropped anchor, lowered their canvas, and swung round with
+the receding tide. There they remained inactive till the following
+morning. On the 6th, Sir William Phipps sent a haughty summons to the
+French chief, demanding an unconditional surrender in the name of King
+William of England, and concluding with this imperious sentence: "Your
+answer positive in an hour, returned with your own trumpet, with the
+return of mine, is required upon the peril that will ensue."
+
+The British officer who bore the summons was led blind-fold through the
+town, and ushered into the presence of Comte Frontenac in the
+council-room of the castle of Quebec. The bishop, the intendant, and all
+the principal officers of the government surrounded the proud old noble.
+"Read your message," said he. The Englishman read on, and when he had
+finished, laid his watch upon the table with these words: "It is now
+ten; I await your answer for one hour." The council started from their
+seats, surprised out of their dignity by a burst of sudden anger. The
+comte paused for a time ere he could restrain his rage sufficiently to
+speak, and then replied, "I do not acknowledge King William, and I well
+know that the Prince of Orange is a usurper, who has violated the most
+sacred rights of blood and religion ... who wishes to persuade the
+nation that he is the saviour of England and the defender of the faith,
+though he has violated the laws and privileges of the kingdom, and
+overturned the Church of England: this conduct, the Divine Justice to
+which Phipps appeals will one day severely punish."
+
+The British officer, unmoved by the storm of indignation which his
+message had aroused, desired that this fierce reply should be rendered
+to him in writing for the satisfaction of his chief. "I will answer your
+master by the mouth of my cannon," replied the angry Frenchman, "that he
+may learn that a man of my rank is not to be summoned in this manner."
+Thus ended the laconic conference.
+
+On the return of the messenger, Sir William Phipps called a council of
+war: it was determined at once to attack the city. At noon, on the 8th,
+1300 men were embarked in the boats of the squadron, under the command
+of Major Walley, and landed without opposition at La Canardière, a
+little to the east of the River St. Charles. While the main body was
+being formed on the muddy shore, four companies pushed on toward the
+town, in skirmishing order, to clear the front; they had scarcely begun
+the ascent of the sloping banks when a sharp fire was poured upon them
+by 300 of the Canadian militia, posted among the rocks and bushes on
+either flank, and in a small hamlet to the right. Some of the British
+winced under this unexpected volley, fired, and fell back; but the
+officers, with prompt resolution, gave the order to charge, and
+themselves gallantly led the way; the soldiers followed at a rapid pace,
+and speedily cleared the ground. Major Walley then advanced with his
+whole force to the St. Charles River, still, however, severely harassed
+by dropping shots from the active light troops of the French: there he
+bivouacked for the night, while the enemy retreated into the garrison.
+
+Toward evening of the same day the four largest vessels of Phipps's
+squadron moved boldly up the river, and anchored close against the town.
+They opened a spirited but ineffectual fire; their shot, directed
+principally against the lofty eminence of the Upper Town, fell almost
+harmless, while a vigorous cannonade from the numerous guns of the
+fortress replied with overwhelming power. When night interrupted the
+strife, the British ships had suffered severely, their rigging was torn
+by the hostile shot, and the crews had lost many of their best men. By
+the first light of morning, however, Phipps renewed the action with
+pertinacious courage, but with no better success. About noon the contest
+became evidently hopeless to the stubborn assailants; they weighed
+anchor, and, with the receding tide, floated their crippled vessels down
+the stream, beyond the reach of the enemy's fire.[411]
+
+The British troops, under Major Walley, although placed in battle array
+at daylight, remained inactive, through some unaccountable delay, while
+the enemy's attention was diverted by the combat with Phipps's squadron.
+At length, about noon, they moved upon the formidable stronghold along
+the left bank of the River St. Charles. Some allied savages plunged into
+the bush in front to clear the advance, a line of skirmishers protected
+either flank, and six field-pieces accompanied the march of the main
+body. After having proceeded for some time without molestation, they
+were suddenly and fiercely assailed by 200 Canadian volunteers under M.
+de Longueuil; the Indians were at once swept away, the skirmishers
+overpowered, and the British column itself was forced back by their
+gallant charge. Walley, however, drew up his reserve in some brushwood a
+little in the rear, and finally compelled the enemy to retreat. During
+this smart action, M. de Frontenac, with three battalions, placed
+himself upon the opposite bank of the river, in support of the
+volunteers, but showed no disposition to cross the stream. That night,
+the English troops, harassed, depressed, diminished in numbers, and
+scantily supplied, again bivouacked upon the marshy banks of the stream:
+a severe frost, for which they were but ill prepared, chilled the weary
+limbs of the soldiers and enhanced their sufferings.
+
+On the 10th, Walley once more advanced upon the French positions, in the
+hope of breaching their palisades by the fire of his field pieces; but
+this attempt was altogether unsuccessful. His flanking parties fell into
+ambuscades, and were very severely handled, and his main body was
+checked and finally repulsed by a heavy fire from a fortified house on a
+commanding position which he had ventured to attack. Utterly dispirited
+by this failure, the British fell back in some confusion to the
+landing-place, yielding up in one hour what they had so hardly won. That
+night many of the soldiers strove to force their way into the boats, and
+order was with great difficulty restored; the next day they were
+harassed by a continual skirmish. Had it not been for the gallant
+conduct of "Captain March, who had a good company, and made the enemy
+give back," the confusion would probably have been irretrievable. When
+darkness put an end to the fire on both sides, the English troops
+received orders to embark in the boats, half a regiment at a time. But
+all order was soon lost; four times as many as the boats could sustain
+crowded down at once to the beach, rushed into the water, and pressed on
+board. The sailors were even forced to throw some of these
+panic-stricken men into the river, lest all should sink together. The
+noise and confusion increased every moment, despite the utmost exertions
+of the officers, and daylight had nearly revealed the dangerous posture
+of affairs before the embarkation was completed. The guns were
+abandoned, with some valuable stores and ammunition. Had the French
+displayed, in following up their advantages, any portion of the energy
+and skill which had been so conspicuous in their successful defense, the
+British detachment must infallibly have been either captured or totally
+destroyed.
+
+Sir William Phipps, having failed by sea and land, resolved to withdraw
+from the disastrous conflict. After several ineffectual attempts to
+recover the guns and stores which Major Walley had been forced to
+abandon, he weighed anchor and descended the St. Lawrence to a place
+about nine miles distant from Quebec, whence he sent to the Comte de
+Frontenac to negotiate for an exchange of prisoners. Humbled and
+disappointed, damaged in fortune and reputation, the English chief
+sailed from the scene of his defeat; but misfortune had not yet ceased
+to follow him, for he left the shattered wrecks of no less than nine of
+his ships among the dangerous shoals of the St. Lawrence. The government
+of Massachusetts was dismayed at the disastrous news of which Phipps was
+himself the bearer. He arrived at Boston on the 19th of November, with
+the remains of his fleet and army, his ships damaged and weather beaten,
+and his men almost in a state of mutiny from having received no pay. In
+these straits the colonial government found it impracticable to raise
+money, and resorted to "bills of credit," the first paper money which
+had ever been issued on the American continent.
+
+Great indeed was the joy and triumph of the French when the British
+fleet disappeared from the beautiful basin of Quebec. With a proud heart
+the gallant old Comte de Frontenac penned the dispatch which told his
+royal master of the victory. He failed not to dwell upon the
+distinguished merit of the colonial militia, by whose loyalty and
+courage the arms of France had been crowned with success. In grateful
+memory of this brave defense, the French king caused a medal to be
+struck, bearing the inscription, "FRANCIA IN NOVO ORBE VICTRIX: KEBECA
+LIBERATA.--A.D., M.D.C.X.C." In the lower town a church was built by the
+inhabitants to celebrate their deliverance from the British invaders,
+and dedicated to "Nôtre Dame de la Victoire."
+
+On the 12th of November, the vessels, long expected from France, arrived
+in safety at Quebec, having escaped the observation of the English fleet
+by ascending for some distance the land-locked waters of the Saguenay.
+Their presence, however, only tended to increase a scarcity then
+pressing upon the colony, the labor of the fields in the preceding
+spring having been greatly interrupted by the harassing incursions of
+the Iroquois. The troops were distributed into those parts of the
+country where supplies could most easily be obtained, and were
+cheerfully received by those who had through their valor been protected
+from the hated dominion of the stranger.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 403: Afterward called Sorel.]
+
+[Footnote 404: The River Iroquois, or Sorel. "Dans les premières années
+de notre établissement en Canada les Iroquois, pour faire des courses
+jusque dans le centre de nos habitations, descendèrent cette rivière à
+laquelle pour cette raison on donna le nom de rivière des Iroquois. On
+l'a depuis appellé la Rivière de Richelieu, à cause d'un fort qui
+portoit ce nom et qu'on avoit construit à son embouchure. Ce fort ayant
+été ruine, M. de Sorel en fit construire un autre auquel on donna son
+nom; ce nom s'est communiqué à la rivière qui le conservé encore
+aujourd'hui, quoique le fort ne subsiste plus depuis longtemps
+(1721)."--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 221.
+
+"There is another Iroquois river marked on the French maps, falling into
+the Teakiki. It received this name from a defeat experienced by the
+Iroquois from the Illinois, a race whom they had always
+despised."--Charlevoix, vol. vi., p. 118.]
+
+[Footnote 405: Charlevoix says of Montreal in 1721, "Elle n'est point
+fortifiée, une simple palisade bastionnée et assez mal entretenue fait
+toute sa défence, avec une assez mauvaise redoute sur un petit tertre,
+qui sert de boulevard, et va se terminer en douce pente à une petite
+place quarrée. C'est ce qu'on rencontre d'abord en arrivant de Quebec.
+Il n'y a pas même quarante ans, que la ville étoit toute ouverte, et
+tous les jours exposée à être brulée par les sauvages ou par les
+Anglois. Ce fut le Chevalier de Callières, frère du plénipotentiaire de
+Riswick, qui la fit fermer, tandis qu'il en étoit gouverneur. On
+projette depuis quelques années de l'environner de murailles,[406] mais
+il ne sera pas aisé d'engager les habitans à y contribuer. Ils sont
+braves et ils ne sont pas riches: on les a déjà trouve difficiles à
+persuader de la nécessité de cette dépense, et fort convaincus que leur
+valeur est plus que suffisante pour défendre leur ville centre quiconque
+osoit l'attaquer."]
+
+[Footnote 406: "Ce projet est presentement executé 1740."]
+
+[Footnote 407: "Corlar was the name of a Dutchman of consideration, who
+founded the village of Schenectady. This man enjoyed great influence
+with the Indians, who, after his death, always addressed the governor of
+New York with the title of Corlar, as the name most expressive of
+respect with which they were acquainted."--Graham, vol. ii., p. 288.
+
+"Au-dessus de la ville d'Orange il y a un fort avec une bourgade, qui
+confinent avec les cantons Iroquois, el qu'on appellé Corlar, d'où ces
+sauvages se sont accoûtumés à donner le nom de Corlar au gouverneur de
+New York."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 222.]
+
+[Footnote 408: "Colden relates that, during the war between the French
+and Iroquois, two old men were cut to pieces, and put into the
+war-kettle for the Christian Indians to feast on."--Colden, vol. i., p.
+81.
+
+"Frontenac stands conspicuous among all his nation for deeds of cruelty
+to the Indians. Nothing was more common than for his Indian prisoners to
+be given up to his Indian allies to be tormented. One of the most
+horrible of these scenes on record was perpetrated under his own eye at
+Montreal in 1691."--Colden, vol. i., p. 441, quoted by Howitt.
+
+"Les habitans en firent brûler, persuadés que le seul moyen de corriger
+ces barbares de leurs cruantés, étoit de les trailer eux-même comme ils
+traitoient les autres."--Charlevoix, _Jésuite_, tom., iii., p. 139.]
+
+[Footnote 409: "Oureouharé mourut en vrai Chrétien, l'an 1697. Le
+missionnaire qui l'assista pendant sa maladie, lui parlant un jour des
+opprobres et des ignominies de la passion du Sauveur des hommes; il
+entra dans un si grand mouvement d'indignation centre les Juifs, qu'il
+s'écria, 'Que n'étois-je là? je les aurois bien empêché de traiter ainsi
+mon Dieu.' The similar exclamation of the Frank monarch, Clovis, is well
+known."--Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 332.]
+
+[Footnote 410: "It does not appear that the fortifications of Quebec
+were of much importance till after the year 1690, when eleven stone
+redoubts which served as bastions, were erected in different parts of
+the heights of the Upper Town. The remains of several of these redoubts
+are still in existence. They were connected with each other by a strong
+line of cedar picketing, ten or twelve feet high, banked up with earth
+on the inside. This proved sufficient to resist the attacks of the
+hostile Indians for several years."--Lambert's _Travels_, vol. i., p.
+39.
+
+"In 1720 a more extensive system of fortification was commenced, under
+the direction of M. de Lery."--Smith's _Canada_, vol. i., p. 184.]
+
+[Footnote 411: The flag of the rear admiral was shot away, and, drifting
+toward the shore, a Canadian swam out into the stream and brought it in
+triumphantly. For many years the precious trophy was hung up in the
+parish church of Quebec.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+
+In May, 1691, the Iroquois, to the number of about 1000 warriors, again
+poured down upon the settlements near Montreal, and marked their course
+with massacre and ruin. Other bands, less numerous, spread themselves
+over the fertile and beautiful banks of the Richelieu River, burning the
+happy homesteads and rich store-yards of the settlers. At length, the
+Sieur de la Mine, with a detachment of militia, surprised a party of
+these fierce marauders at Saint Sulpice, and slew them without mercy.
+Twelve of the Iroquois escaped into a ruinous house, where they held
+out for a time with courage and success; but the French set fire to the
+building, and they were obliged to abandon it: some were killed in their
+efforts to escape, but five fell alive into the hands of their
+exasperated enemies, and were burned, with a savage cruelty such as they
+themselves would have exhibited.
+
+Intelligence now arrived that a formidable force of English, Iroquois,
+and Mahingan Indians were advancing upon Montreal by the River Richelieu
+or Sorel; 800 men led by the Chevalier de Callières, were sent to oppose
+their progress, and encamped on the Prairie de la Madeleine,[412] by the
+borders of the St. Lawrence. Before daylight, the following morning, the
+invaders carried an important position by surprise, slaying several of
+the defenders, and finally retreated in good order and with little loss.
+On falling back into the woods, they met and destroyed a small French
+detachment, and boldly faced a more considerable force under M. de
+Valrenes. For an hour and half these formidable warriors withstood the
+fire, and repelled the charges of the Canadian troops; but at length
+they were overpowered and dispersed, not, however, before inflicting a
+loss of no less than 120 men upon their conquerors. An Englishman
+captured in the engagement declared that the invaders had purposed to
+destroy the harvest, which would have reduced the colony to the last
+extremity. The design, in a great measure, failed, and an abundant crop
+repaid the industry and successful courage of the French.
+
+At the first news of this alarming inroad, M. de Frontenac hastened to
+the post of danger, but tranquillity had already been restored, and the
+toils of the husbandman were again plied upon the scene of strife. At
+Montreal he found a dispatch from the governor of New England, proposing
+an exchange of prisoners and a treaty of neutrality with Canada,
+notwithstanding the war then carried on between the mother countries.
+The Canadian governor mistrusted the sincerity of the English proposals,
+and they were not productive of any result. During the remainder of the
+year the Iroquois continued to disturb the repose of the colony by
+frequent and mischievous irruptions, and many valuable lives were lost
+in repelling those implacable savages.
+
+The war continued with checkered results and heavy losses on both sides
+in the two following years. An invasion of the canton of the Agniers, by
+the French, was at first successful, but in the retreat the colonists
+suffered great privation, and most of their prisoners escaped, while any
+of their number that strayed or fell in the rear were immediately cut
+off by their fierce pursuers. The fur trade was also much injured by
+these long-continued hostilities, for the vigilant enmity of the
+Iroquois closed up the communication with the Western country by the
+waters of the St. Lawrence and its magnificent tributaries.
+
+We have seen that for a long period the history of the colony is a mere
+chronicle of savage and resultless combats, and treacherous truces
+between the French and the formidable Iroquois confederacy. This almost
+perpetual warfare gave a preponderance to the military interests among
+the settlers, not a little injurious to their advance in material
+prosperity. The Comte de Frontenac had, by his vigorous administration,
+and haughty and unbending character, rendered himself alike respected
+and feared by his allies and enemies. But, while all acknowledged his
+courage and ability, his system of internal government bore upon the
+civil inhabitants with almost intolerable severity; upon them fell all
+the burden and labor of the wars; they were ruined by unprofitable toil,
+while the soldiers worked the lands for the benefit of the military
+officers whom he desired to conciliate. He also countenanced, or at
+least tolerated, the fatal trade in spirituous liquors, which his
+authority alone could have suppressed. Owing to these causes, the colony
+made but little progress, commerce languished, and depression and
+discontent fell upon the hearts of the Canadian people.
+
+In the year 1695, M. de Frontenac re-established the fort of
+Catarocouy, despite the universal disapprobation of the settlers and the
+positive commands of the king. The object was, however, happily and ably
+accomplished by M. de Crisasy in a very short time, and without the loss
+of a man. This brave and active officer made good use of his powerful
+position. He dispatched scouts in all directions, and, by a judicious
+arrangement of his small forces, checked the hostilities of the Iroquois
+upon the Canadian settlements.
+
+The Sieur de Révérin, a man of enlightened and enterprising mind, had
+long desired to develop the resources of the Canadian waters, and in
+1697 at length succeeded in associating several merchants with himself,
+and establishing a fishery at the harbor of Mount Louis, among the
+mountains of Nôtre Dame, half way between Quebec and the extremity of
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the southern side. The situation was well
+chosen, the neighboring soil fertile, and the waters abounded in fish.
+But, where nature had provided every thing that industry could require,
+the hand of man interfered to counteract her bounty. The hostility of
+the English embarrassed the infant settlement and alarmed its founders.
+Despite of these difficulties, a plentiful harvest and successful
+fishing at first rewarded the adventurers; subsequently, however, they
+were less fortunate, and the place was for some time neglected and
+almost forgotten.[413]
+
+Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac, died in the seventy-eighth year of
+his age, 1698, having to the last preserved that astonishing energy of
+character which had enabled him to overcome the difficulties and dangers
+of his adventurous career. He died as he had lived, beloved by many,
+respected by all; with the unaided resources of his own strong mind, he
+had preserved the power of France on the American continent
+undiminished, if not increased, through years of famine, disaster, and
+depression. He loved patronage and power, but disdained the
+considerations of selfish interest. It must, however, be acknowledged
+that a jealous, sullen, and even vindictive temper obscured in some
+degree the luster of his success, and detracted from the dignity of his
+nature. The Chevalier de Callières, governor of Montreal, was appointed
+his successor, to the satisfaction of all classes in the colony.
+
+The new governor[414] applied himself vigorously to the difficult task
+of establishing the tranquillity of his territories. He endeavored to
+procure the alliance of all the Indian tribes within reach of French
+intercourse or commerce, but the high price charged by the Canadian
+merchants for their goods proved a constant difficulty in the way of
+negotiation, and ever afforded the savages a pretext for disaffection
+and complaint. In the midst of his useful labors, this excellent chief
+was suddenly cut off by death; his upright and judicious administration
+won the esteem of all the colonists, and the truth and honesty of his
+dealings with the native tribes gave him an influence over them which
+none of his predecessors had ever won. On the petition of the
+inhabitants of Canada, the king willingly appointed the Marquis de
+Vaudreuil to the vacant government. Soon after his accession a
+deputation of the Iroquois arrived at Quebec, and for the first time
+formally acknowledged the sovereignty of France, and claimed the
+protection of her flag.
+
+M. de Raudot, the intendant, introduced various important judicial and
+fiscal improvements in the affairs of the colony at this time; by his
+influence and mediation he effectually checked a litigious spirit which
+had infused itself among the Canadians to a ruinous extent, and by
+strong representations induced the king to remove the cruel restrictions
+placed upon colonial industry by the jealousy of the mother country.
+
+In the spring of 1708 a council was held at Montreal to deliberate upon
+the course to be pursued in checking the intrigues of the English among
+the allied savages: the chiefs of all the Christian Indians and the
+faithful and warlike Abenaquis were present on the occasion. It was
+resolved that a blow should be struck against the British colonies, and
+a body of 400 men, including Indians, was formed for the expedition, the
+object of which was kept secret. After a march of 150 leagues across an
+almost impracticable country, the French attacked the little fort and
+village of Haverhill, garrisoned by thirty New Englandmen, and carried
+them after a sharp struggle; many of the defenders were killed or
+captured, and the settlement destroyed. The neighboring country was,
+however, soon aroused, and the assailants with difficulty effected a
+retreat, losing thirty of their men.
+
+Intelligence reached the French in the following year that Colonel
+Vetch, who, during a residence of several years at Quebec, had contrived
+to sound all the difficult passages of the River St. Lawrence, had
+successfully instigated the Queen of England to attempt the conquest of
+New France; that a fleet of twenty ships was being prepared for the
+expedition, and a force of 6000 regular troops were to sail under its
+protection, while 2000 English and as many Indians, under the command of
+General Nicholson, were to march upon Montreal by the way of Lake
+Champlain. M. de Vaudreuil immediately assembled a council of war to
+meet the emergency, where some bold measures were planned, but a
+misunderstanding between the governor general and one of his principal
+officers paralyzed their execution. Finally, indeed, a considerable
+force was marched to anticipate the British attack; but the dissensions
+of the leaders, the insubordination of the troops, and the want of
+correct intelligence, embarrassed their movements, and drove them to an
+inglorious retreat. On the other hand, the English, mistrusting the
+faith of their Indian allies, and suffering from a frightful mortality,
+burned their canoes and advanced posts, and retreated from the frontier.
+The perfidious Iroquois, while professing the closest friendship, had
+poisoned the stream hard by the British camp, and thus caused the fatal
+malady which decimated their unsuspecting allies. The fleet destined
+for the attack of Quebec never crossed the Atlantic: it was sent to
+Lisbon instead, to support the falling fortunes of Portugal against the
+triumphant arms of Castile.
+
+In the following year, another abortive expedition was undertaken by the
+English against Canada. Intelligence was brought to M. de Vaudreuil that
+ten ships of war of 50 guns each and upward had arrived from England,
+and were assembled at Boston, together with 35 transports capable of
+conveying 3000 men, while a force of provincial militia and Indians of
+New York, nearly 2000 strong, were collected in that state to assail him
+by land. The French governor immediately called together the Iroquois
+deputies, and successfully urged their neutrality in the approaching
+struggle. He also secured the somewhat doubtful allegiance of the allied
+tribes, but only accepted the proffered services of a few warriors of
+each nation, and this more as hostages than for the purpose of
+increasing his strength.
+
+M. de Vaudreuil then hastened from Montreal to Quebec, where he found
+that his lieutenant, M. de Boucourt, had effectually executed his orders
+to strengthen the defenses. The settlements along the coast below that
+important stronghold were sufficiently guarded to render a hostile
+debarkation difficult and dangerous. The governor immediately
+re-ascended the St. Lawrence, and formed a corps of 3000 men under M. de
+Longueiul, at Chambly, to await the approach of the English. The
+invading army, however, retreated without coming to action, having
+received information of a great disaster which had befallen their fleet.
+The British admiral had neglected the warnings of an experienced French
+navigator, named Paradis, who accompanied him, and approached too near a
+small island in the narrow and dangerous channel of the Traverse; a
+sudden squall from the southeast burst upon him at that critical moment,
+and his own, with seven other ships of the fleet, were driven on the
+rocky shore, and utterly destroyed: very few men escaped from these
+ill-fated vessels.[415]
+
+The generosity and loyalty of the merchants of Quebec furnished the
+governor with 50,000 crowns, to strengthen the fortifications of their
+town, on the occasion of a rumor that the English were again preparing
+an invasion of Canada, in 1712, aided by the Iroquois, to whom they had
+become reconciled. At the same time, a new enemy entered the field--the
+fiercest and bravest of the native tribes; this people, called Outagamis
+or Foxes, joined in a confederacy with the Five Nations, and undertook
+to burn the French fort at Detroit,[416] and destroy the inhabitants. A
+large force of their warriors advanced upon the little stronghold, but
+Du Buisson, the able and gallant commandant, having summoned the
+neighboring allies to the assistance of his garrison of twenty
+Frenchmen, defeated the dangerous invaders after a series of conflicts
+almost unparalleled for obstinacy in Indian war, and destroyed more than
+a thousand of their best and bravest.[417]
+
+These important successes, however, could not secure to the French an
+equality in trade with their English rivals; their narrow and
+injudicious commercial system limited the supply of European goods to be
+exchanged for the spoils of the Red Man's forests; the fur trade,
+therefore, fell almost wholly into the hands of British merchants, and
+even those native tribes in closest alliance with the Canadian governor
+obtained their scanty clothing from the looms of Yorkshire, and their
+weapons of the chase from the industrious hands of our colonists.
+
+By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Louis the Magnificent ceded away
+forever, with ignorant indifference, the noble province of Acadia,[418]
+the inexhaustible fisheries of Newfoundland, and his claims to the vast
+but almost unknown regions of Hudson's Bay; his nominal sovereignty over
+the Iroquois was also thrown into the scale,[419] and thus a
+dearly-purchased peace restored comparative tranquillity to the remnant
+of his American empire.[420]
+
+The fierce Outagamis, more incensed than weakened by their losses at
+Detroit, made savage and murderous reprisals upon all the nations allied
+to the French. Their vindictive vigilance rendered the routes between
+the distant posts of Canada, and those southward to Louisiana,[421] for
+many years almost impracticable. At one time, indeed, when overwhelmed
+by a successful invasion, these implacable savages made a formal cession
+of their territories to M. de Vaudreuil; but, the moment opportunity
+offered, they renewed hostilities, and, although beaten in repeated
+encounters, having united the remnant of their tribe to the powerful
+Sioux and Chichachas,[423] they continued for a long time to harass the
+steps of their detested conquerors.
+
+On the 10th of April, 1725, M. de Vaudreuil closed his useful career.
+For one-and-twenty years he had discharged his important duties with
+unswerving loyalty, ability, and vigilance. Good fortune crowned him
+with well-merited success, and he went to rest from his earthly labors
+with the blessings of a grateful people, who, under his wise rule, had
+rapidly progressed to prosperity.
+
+The Marquis de Beauharnois, captain of the marine, succeeded to the
+government of the now tranquil colony. His anxiety was aroused, however,
+the year after his accession, by the vigorous efforts of the English to
+extend their commerce even into the heart of the Canadian territories.
+Governor Burnet, of New York, had erected a fort and trading post at
+Oswego, with the view of monopolizing the rich traffic of the Western
+lakes. To counteract this design, M. de Beauharnois sent the Baron de
+Longueuil to negotiate with the Indians in the neighborhood of Niagara,
+for their consent to the erection of a French fort and establishment
+upon the banks of their magnificent river, where it enters the waters of
+Ontario. After many difficulties in reconciling the jealousy of the
+native tribes, the French succeeded in effecting their object. On the
+other hand, the men of New York strengthened their defenses at Oswego,
+and increased the garrison. Angry communications then passed between the
+French and English governors in peremptory demands for its abandonment
+by the one, and prompt refusals by the other. Each was well aware of the
+importance of the position: it served as a means of diverting nearly all
+the Indian trade by Albany and the channel of the Hudson into the
+British colonies, and also formed a frontier protection to those
+numerous and flourishing settlements which Anglo-Saxon industry and
+courage were rapidly forming in the wilderness.
+
+In the vain hope of checking the irrepressible energies of rival
+colonization, Beauharnois erected a fort at Crown Point, on Lake
+Champlain, commanding its important navigation, and also serving to hold
+in terror the settlers on the neighboring banks of the Hudson and
+Connecticut. The English remonstrated without effect against this
+occupation, and the French remained in peaceable possession of their
+establishment. The next war that broke out between the mother countries
+spread rapine and destruction over the colonial frontiers, without any
+real result beyond mutual injury and embittered hatred. From this fort
+at Crown Point, and other posts held by the Canadians, marauding parties
+poured upon the British settlements, and destroyed them with horrid
+barbarity. A party of French and Indians even penetrated to Saratoga,
+within forty miles of Albany, attacked and burned the fort, and slew or
+carried into captivity the unhappy defenders.
+
+For many subsequent years the history of Canada is but a chronicle of
+the accession of governors and the registration of royal edicts. In
+comparison with her southern rivals, the progress in material prosperity
+was very slow. Idleness and drunkenness, with all their attendant evils,
+were rife to a most injurious extent. The innumerable fêtes, or holidays
+of the Church, afforded opportunities to the dissolute, and occasioned
+frequent instances of serious disorders, till the king was urged to
+interfere: the number of these fête-days was then very much reduced, to
+the great benefit of the colony. The feudal system of tenure also
+operated most unfavorably upon the development of agricultural
+resources, and the forced partition of lands tended to reduce all the
+landholders to a fraternity of pauperism. The court of France endeavored
+vainly to remedy these evils, without removing the causes, and passed
+various edicts to encourage the further clearance of wild land, and to
+stimulate settlement.
+
+In 1745, the year when the power of France in Europe was exalted by the
+splendid victory of Fontenoy, a dangerous blow was struck at her
+sovereignty in America by the capture of Louisburg, and with it the
+whole island of Cape Breton,[424] by the New Englanders under Mr.
+Pepperel,[425] aided by Admiral Warren's squadron. This disaster was no
+sooner known in Paris[430] than an extensive armament was equipped under
+the command of the Duc d'Anville, an officer of known valor and ability.
+The wounded pride of the French hurried on rapidly the preparations for
+this expedition, which they confidently hoped would redeem the
+tarnished honor of their arms in the Western world. Early in May the
+fleet was already completely appointed; but the elements did not second
+these energetic preparations, and contrary winds detained the armament
+till the 22d of June. Then it at last put to sea, in the formidable
+strength of eleven ships of the line, thirty smaller vessels of war, and
+transports containing 3000 regular soldiers. Nova Scotia, the
+Acadia[431] of other days, was their destination. There it was expected
+that the old French settlers, who had unwillingly submitted to English
+conquest, would readily range themselves once more under the
+fleur-de-lys: Canada had already sent her contingent of 1700 men under
+M. de Ramsay to aid the enterprise, and M. de Conflans, with four ships
+of the line from the West Indies, was directed to join the squadron.
+
+This formidable fleet was but a short time at sea when the ships
+separated and fell into hopeless confusion. On the 12th of September,
+indeed, the Duc d'Anville reached the Western continent in the
+Northumberland, accompanied by a few other vessels, but there no laurels
+awaited the gallant admiral: he was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and
+in four days his body was committed to the deep. The vice admiral
+immediately proposed returning to France, on account of the absence of
+the greater part of his force; but other officers strongly opposed this
+desponding counsel, and urged a bold attack upon Nova Scotia[432] rather
+than an inglorious retreat. The more vigorous course was adopted by a
+council of war, which threw the vice admiral into such a state of
+frantic excitement that he ran himself through the body, fancying he had
+fallen into the hands of the enemy. De la Jonquière succeeded to the
+command, and, although more than three-score years of age, acted with
+unimpaired energy. But the elements were again hostile to France; the
+fleet was dispersed by a violent storm off Cape Sable, and the shattered
+remnant of the expedition returned ingloriously to their country,
+without having accomplished any of the objects for which they had been
+sent forth.
+
+The government at Paris was, however, by no means cast down by these
+untoward occurrences, and the armament was speedily equipped to renew
+their efforts against the English colonies. The expedition was prepared
+at Brest, under the command of M. de la Jonquière, and, at the same
+time, a squadron under M. de St. George was armed with a view to
+threaten the coasts of British India.
+
+The English ministry, early informed of all the movements of their
+opponents, resolved to intercept both these squadrons, which they had
+been apprised would sail from port at the same time. Admiral Anson and
+Rear-admiral Warren were ordered upon this enterprise with a formidable
+fleet, and, taking their departure from Plymouth, steered for Cape
+Finisterre, on the Gallican coast. On the third of May, 1746, they fell
+in with the French squadrons of six large men-of-war, as many frigates,
+four armed East Indiamen, and a valuable convoy of thirty ships. The
+enemy's heavier vessels immediately formed in order of battle, while the
+merchantmen made all sail away, under the protection of the frigates.
+The British were also ready for action, and a severe combat ensued.
+Before night all the French line of battle ships were captured after a
+spirited defense, but two thirds of the convoy escaped through the
+darkness of the night. A considerable quantity of bullion fell into the
+hands of the victors, and their grateful sovereign rewarded the courage
+and good fortune of the admirals by raising Anson to the peerage, and
+decorating Warren with the ribbon of the Bath.
+
+Admiral de la Jonquière, the newly-appointed governor of Canada, was
+among the numerous captives who graced the triumph of the British fleet.
+When the news of this event reached Paris, the king appointed to the
+vacant dignity the Comte de la Galissonière,[433] an officer of
+distinguished merit and ability. The wisdom of this selection was
+speedily displayed; the new governor no sooner entered upon the duties
+of office than his active zeal found employment in endeavoring to
+develop the magnificent resources of his province. He made himself
+thoroughly acquainted with the face of the country, the climate,
+population, agriculture, and commerce, and then presented an able
+statement to the French court of the great importance of the colony, and
+a system which, had it been adopted in time, might have secured it
+against English aggression.
+
+The Comte de la Galissonière proposed that M. du Quesne, a skillful
+engineer, should be appointed to establish a line of fortifications
+through the interior of the country, and, at the same time, urged the
+government of France to send out 10,000 peasants to form settlements on
+the banks of the great lakes and southern rivers. By these means he
+affirmed that the English colonies would be restricted within the narrow
+tract lying eastward from the Allegany Mountains, and in time laid open
+to invasion and ruin. His advice was, however, disregarded, and the
+splendid province of Canada soon passed forever from under the sway of
+France.[434]
+
+Under the impression that the expected peace between the mother
+countries would render it important to define the boundaries of their
+colonial possessions, the active governor of Canada dispatched M. de
+Celeron de Bienville, with 300 men, to traverse the vast wilderness
+lying from Detroit southeast to the Apalachian Mountains. Assuming this
+range as the limit of the British colonies, he directed that leaden
+plates, engraved with the arms of France, should be buried at particular
+places in the western country, to mark the territories of France, and
+that the chief of the expedition should endeavor to secure a promise
+from the Indians to exclude for the future all English traders. At the
+same time, he gave notice to the governor of Pennsylvania that he was
+commanded by the King of France to seize all British merchants found in
+those countries, and to confiscate their goods. De Celeron fulfilled his
+difficult commission to the best of his powers, but the forms of
+possession which he executed excited the jealous apprehension of the
+Indians, who concluded that he designed to subject or even enslave them.
+
+When M. de la Galissonière failed in his endeavor to obtain the aid of
+an extensive immigration from France, he turned his thoughts toward the
+Acadian settlers[435] (whom the treaty of Utrecht had transferred to
+the British crown), with the object of forming a new colony. The
+readiest expedient to influence this simple and pious people was,
+obviously, by gaining over their clergy; the Abbé le Loutre was selected
+as the fittest embassador to induce them to withdraw from allegiance to
+the English government. This politic and unscrupulous priest appealed to
+their interests, nationality, and religion as inducements to abandon the
+conquered country, and to establish themselves under the French crown in
+a new settlement which he proposed to form on the Canadian side of
+Acadia. Le Loutre's persuasions influenced many of these primitive
+people to proceed to the French posts, where every protection and
+attention was bestowed upon them.
+
+Animated by the success of this measure, and sanguine that large numbers
+of the Acadians would follow the first seceders, De la Galissonière
+induced the home government to appoint a considerable sum yearly to
+carrying out his views; but, in the midst of his patriotic exertions, he
+was obliged to hand over the reins of government to M. de la Jonquière,
+who had now arrived to claim the post so ably held by another during his
+captivity with the English. Galissonière, however, before he sailed for
+France, magnanimously furnished his successor with the best information
+on colonial matters, and pointed out the most promising plans for the
+improvement of the province.[436] De la Jonquière unwisely rejected
+such as related to the Acadian settlements; but the King of France
+disapproved of his inaction, and reprimanded him for not having
+continued the course of his predecessor. Instructions were given him to
+take immediate possession of the neighboring country, to build new forts
+for its retention, and to occupy it with troops; he was also desired to
+aid Le Loutre in all his proceedings, and to forward his designs. In
+obedience to these orders, M. de Boishebert was dispatched with a body
+of troops and some peasants, to take post near the mouth of the River
+St. John, which was looked upon as an important post for the defense of
+the new settlement.
+
+These measures inevitably aroused the jealousy of the English governor
+of Nova Scotia, who made repeated remonstrances on the subject, but with
+no other effect than that of causing De la Jonquière to warn his
+officers to avoid all possible grounds of dispute, as he expected the
+limits of the rival powers would be speedily arranged.
+
+(1749.) Supplies for the new post at St. John's could only be obtained
+from Quebec, and transmitted by the long and difficult circuit of the
+whole Acadian peninsula. M. de Vergor was sent on this mission in an
+armed sloop, containing military and other stores for the French and
+Indians. He was ordered to avoid all English vessels, but, if he could
+no longer shun pursuit, to fight to the last. This stern command was not
+obeyed, for he surrendered without an effort to Captain Rous, who,
+apprised of his design, had intercepted him on the coast. On the news of
+the capture of this sloop, M. de la Jonquière empowered the governor of
+Louisburg[437] to make reprisals upon all English vessels that might
+enter his port.
+
+General Cornwallis, governor of Halifax,[438] sent a detachment of
+British troops, under Major Lawrence, to watch the movements of La
+Corne, the French commander, who had been directed to build a fort on
+the Bay of Fundy, called Beau-sejour.[439] As soon as Le Loutre became
+aware of the arrival of the English, he caused the houses and homesteads
+of those unfortunate Acadians who remained faithful to England to be
+burned. Soon after this cruel severity the French and English leaders
+held a conference, and agreed to erect forts opposite to each other on
+each side of the River Beau-bassin,[440] but to remain at peace till
+they received further instructions.
+
+While occasions of dispute were thus arising on the Nova Scotia
+peninsula, a still more dangerous difficulty threatened the cause of
+peace in the far West. The governors of the British colonies continued
+to grant license to their merchants to trade on the banks of the Ohio,
+in contempt of the haughty pretensions of French sovereignty. By the
+orders of La Jonquière, three of these adventurers were seized, with all
+their goods, and carried captive to Montreal: after a long examination,
+however, they were discharged.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 412: "Vis à vis de Montreal, du côté du sud est un endroit qu'
+on appellé la Prairie de la Madeleine."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 233.
+
+"Le Cap de la Madeleine a eu son nom de l'Abbé de la Madeleine, un des
+membres de la Compagnie des cent Associés." The name of the Prairie had
+probably the same origin.--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 167.]
+
+[Footnote 413: There was a flourishing settlement at Mount Louis in
+1758, which was destroyed by General Wolfe.]
+
+[Footnote 414: "Sans avoir le brilliant de son prédécesseur, il en avait
+tout le solide; des vûës droites et désinteressés, sans préjuge et sans
+passion; une fermeté toujours d'accord avec la raison, une valeur, que
+le flegme sçavoit modérer et rendre utile: un grand sens, beaucoup de
+probité et d'honneur, et une pénétration d'esprit, à laquelle une grande
+application et une longue expérience avoient ajonté tout ce que
+l'expérience peut donner de lumières. Il avoit pris des les commencemens
+un grand empire sur les sauvages, qui le connoisoient exacte à tenir sa
+parole, et ferme à vouloir qu' on lui gardât celles qu' on lui avoient
+données. Les François de leur côté étaient convaincus qu'il n'
+exigeroient jamais rien d'eux, que de raisonnable; que pour n' avoir ni
+la naissance, ni les grandes alliances du Comte de Frontenac, ni le rang
+de lieutenant général des armées du roi, il ne sçauroit pas moins se
+faire obéir que lui."--Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 353.]
+
+[Footnote 415: "Enfin la retraite des deux armées Anglaises qui devaient
+attaquer en même tems la Nouvelle France par terre et par mer, et
+diviser ses forces en les occupant aux deux extremités de la colonie, n'
+étant plus douteuse, et le bruit s' étant répandu que la première avait
+fait naufrage dans le fleuve St. Laurent vers les Sept Isles, M. de
+Vaudreuil y envoya plusieurs barques. Elles y trouverent les carcasses
+de huit gros vaisseaux, dont on avoit enlevé les canons et les meilleurs
+effets, et près de trois mille personnes noyées, dont les corps étoient
+étendus sur le rivage. On y reconnut deux compagnies entières des Gardes
+de la Reine, qu' on distingua à leurs casaques rouges, et plusieurs
+familles Ecossoises, destinées à peupler le Canada, mais quoique le
+reste de la flotte eut reste mouillé plusieurs jours au même endroit,
+pour enlever toute la charge des vaisseaux brisés, on ne laissa point d'
+y faire un assez grand butin."--Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 82.]
+
+[Footnote 416: The city of Detroit dates its history from July, 1701. At
+that time M. de la Motte Cadillac, with one hundred men, and a Jesuit,
+carrying with them every thing necessary for the commencement and
+support of the establishment meditated, reached this place. "How
+numerous and diversified," said a public literary document, "are the
+incidents compressed within the history of this settlement. No place in
+the United States presents such a series of events interesting in
+themselves and permanently affecting, as they occurred, its progress and
+prosperity. Five times its flag has changed; three different
+sovereignties have claimed its allegiance; and since it has been held by
+the United States, its government has been thrice transferred. Twice it
+has been besieged by the Indians, once captured in war, and once burned
+to the ground."
+
+"Detroit has long been considered as the limit of civilization toward
+the northwest. This town, or commercial port, is dignified by the name,
+and enjoys the chartered rights of a city, although its population at
+present does not exceed three thousand. The banks of the river above and
+below the city are lined with a French population, descendants of the
+first European traders among the Indians in that quarter, and extending
+from Lake Erie to Lake St. Clair, increasing in density as they approach
+the town, and averaging, perhaps, one hundred per mile. This place, but
+a little while ago so distant, is now brought within four days of the
+city of New York, the track pursued being seven hundred and fifty miles.
+Here, at Detroit, some of the finest steamers in North America come and
+go every day, connecting it with the east, and have begun already to
+search out the distant west and north."--Colton's _Tour to the American
+Lakes_, vol. i., p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 417: "Le fruit de sa victoire (Da Buisson) fut que les Anglois
+désespérèrent de s' établir au Détroit, ce qui auroit été la ruine entière
+de la Nouvelle France, non seulement à cause de la situation de ce lieu,
+qui est le centre et le plus beau pays du Canada, mais encore parcequ'il
+ne nous auroit plus été possible d'entretenir la moindre communication
+avec les sauvages d'en haut ni avec la Louisiane."--Charlevoix, vol.
+iv., p. 105.]
+
+[Footnote 418: "Le roi très Chrétien céde à la reine d'Angleterre à
+perpétuite, l'Acadie, ou Nouvelle Ecosse, en entier, conformément à ses
+anciennes limites, comme aussi la ville de Port Royal, maintenant
+appellée Annapolis Royale."--_Article XII. du Traité d'Utrecht_, 1713.]
+
+[Footnote 419: "Ce dernier article ne nous ôta rien de réel, et ne donna
+non plus rien aux Anglais, parceque les cantons renouvellèrent les
+protestations, qu'ils avoient déjà faites plus d'une fois contre les
+prétentions réciproques de leurs voisins et ont très bien sçu se
+maintenir dans la possession de leur liberté et da leur
+indépendance."--Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 420: "Il (Prior) étoit pareillement autorisé à traité sur les
+limites de l'Amérique septentrionale, et s'il plaisoit au roi, ces deux
+articles pouvoient être regles en peu de tems."--_Mémoires de Torcy sur
+la Paix d'Utrecht_, vol. iii., p. 426.]
+
+[Footnote 421: It is hardly remembered at the present day that the
+French nation once claimed, and had begun to colonize the whole region
+which lies at the back of the thirteen original United States, from the
+mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi, comprising both
+the Canadas and the vast fertile valley of the Ohio, and had actually
+occupied the two outlets of this whole region by its ports at Quebec and
+New Orleans.[422] Canada, the oldest French colony, and the only one on
+the continent to which that nation has sent any considerable number of
+settlers, was under the management of an exclusive company, from 1663 to
+the downfall of what was called the Mississippi Scheme, in 1720; and
+this circumstance, still more, perhaps, than the vicious system of
+granting the land to non-resident proprietors, to be held by seignorial
+tenure, checked its progress. Louisiana, with more sources of surplus
+wealth from climate and soil, was never a very thriving colony, and was
+surrendered to Spain with little reluctance, from which last power its
+dominion passed to the United States.
+
+The French traders and hunters intermarried and mixed with the Indians
+at the back of our settlements, and extended their scattered posts along
+the whole course of the two vast rivers of that continent. Even at this
+day, far away on the upper waters of these mighty streams, and beyond
+the utmost limits reached by the backwoodsman, the traveler discovers
+villages in which the aspect and social usages of the people, their
+festivities and their solemnities, in which the white and red man mingle
+on equal terms, strangely contrast with the habits of the
+Anglo-American, and announce to him, on his first approach, their Gallic
+origin.--Merivale, vol. i., p. 58; Sismondi, _Etudes sur L'Ecole
+Politique_, vol. ii., p. 200; Latrobe.]
+
+[Footnote 422: "La ville de Nouvelle Orléans fut fondée dans l'année
+1717. M. de Bienville fit choix de la situation. On a nommé cetto
+fameuse ville la Nouvelle Orléans. Ceux qui lui ont donné ce nom
+croyoient qu' Orléans est du genre féminin, mais qu' importe? l'usage
+est établi et il est au-dessus des regles de la grammaire. Cette ville
+est la première qu' un des plus grands fleuves du monde ait vu s'elever
+aur ses bords."--Charlevoix, vol. viii., p. 192.]
+
+[Footnote 423: "Garcilasso de la Vega parle des Chichachas dans son
+histoire de la conquête de la Floride, et il les place à peu près au
+même endroit où ils sont encore presentement.... Ce sont encore les plus
+braves soldats de la Louisiane, mais ils étoient beaucoup plus nombreux
+du tem de Ferdinand de Soto.... C'est notre alliance aves les Illinois
+qui nous a mis en guerre avec les Chichachas et les Anglois de la
+Caroline attisent le feu. Nôtre établissement dans la Louisiane fait
+grand mal au coeur à ceux-ci; c'est une barrière que nous mettons entre
+leurs puissantes colonies de l'Amérique septentrionale, et le
+Mexique.... Les Espagnols qui nous voyent avec des yeux si jaloux nous
+fortifier dans ce pays, ne sentent pas encore l'importance du service
+que nous leur rendons."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 160.]
+
+[Footnote 424: From the year 1706 the name of Cape Breton was changed to
+Ile Royale. Louisburg was called le Havre à l'Anglais.]
+
+[Footnote 425: "The importance of the colonies[426] was too little
+considered until the commencement of the last war. The reduction of Cape
+Breton by the people of New England was an acquisition so unexpected and
+fortunate, that America became, on that remarkable event, a more general
+topic of conversation. Mr. Shirley, the governor of Massachusetts Bay,
+was the principal projector of that glorious enterprise; an enterprise
+which reduced to the obedience of his Britannic majesty the _Dunkirk_ of
+North America. Of such consequence to the French was the possession of
+that important key to their American settlements, that its restitution
+was, in reality, the purchase of the last general peace of
+Europe."[427]--_A Review of the Military Operations in North America, in
+a Letter to a Nobleman_, p. 4 (London, 1757).
+
+"The plan of the invasion of Cape Breton was laid at Boston, and New
+England[428] bore the expense of it. A merchant named Pepperel,[429] who
+had excited, encouraged, and directed the enterprise, was intrusted with
+the command of the army of 6000 men, which had been levied for this
+expedition. Though these forces, convoyed by a squadron from Jamaica,
+brought the first news to Cape Breton of the danger that threatened it;
+though the advantage of a surprise would have secured the landing
+without opposition; though they had but six hundred regular troops to
+encounter, and eight hundred inhabitants hastily armed, the success of
+the undertaking was still precarious. What great exploits, indeed, could
+have been expected from militia suddenly assembled, who had never seen a
+siege or faced an enemy, and were to act under the direction of
+sea-officers only? These inexperienced troops stood in need of the
+assistance of some fortunate accident, with which they were indeed
+favored in a singular manner. The construction and repair of the
+fortifications had always been left to the care of the garrison at
+Louisburg. The soldiers were eager to be employed on these works, as the
+means of procuring a comfortable subsistence. When they found that those
+who were to have paid them appropriated to themselves the profits of
+their labors, they demanded justice: it was denied them, and they
+determined to assert their right. As the depredations had been shared
+between the chief persons of the colony and the subaltern officers, the
+soldiers could obtain no redress. They had, in consequence, lived in
+open rebellion for above six months when the English appeared before the
+place. This was the time to conciliate the minds of both parties; the
+soldiers made the first advances, but their commanders distrusted a
+generosity of which they themselves were incapable. It was firmly
+believed that the soldiers were only desirous of sallying out that they
+might have an opportunity of deserting, and their own officers kept them
+in a manner prisoners, until a defense so ill managed had reduced them
+to the necessity of capitulating. The whole island shared the fate of
+Louisburg, its only bulwark. This valuable possession, restored to
+France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, was again attacked by the
+English in 1748, and taken. The possession was confirmed to Great
+Britain by the peace in 1763, since which the fortifications have been
+blown up, and the town of Louisburg dismantled."--Winterbottom's
+_History of America_, vol. iv., p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 426: "L'île de Cap Bréton n'étoit pas alors (at the time of
+the treaty of Ryswick), un objet, et l'établissement que nous y avions
+n'avoit rien qui put exciter la jalousie des Anglais: elle nous
+demeura."--Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 349.]
+
+[Footnote 427: "The island of Cape Breton, of which the French were
+shamefully left in possession at the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, through
+the negligence or corruption of the British ministry, when Great Britain
+had the power of giving law to her enemies."--Russell's _Modern Europe_,
+vol. iii., p. 223.
+
+"Only three years after Cape Breton was taken by the New Englanders,
+England was obliged reluctantly to resign her favorite conquest of Cape
+Breton, in order to obtain the restitution of Madras. This was by the
+treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. The final conquest took place in
+1758, by the English, under Amherst and Wolfe."--Belsham, vol. ii., p.
+333.]
+
+[Footnote 428: "The sum of £235,749 was granted by the British
+Parliament to the provinces of New England, to reimburse them for the
+expense of reducing Cape Breton."--Smollett, vol. iii., p. 224.]
+
+[Footnote 429: "The news of this victory being transmitted to England,
+Mr. Pepperel was preferred to the dignity of a baronet of Great
+Britain."--Ibid., vol. iii., p. 154.]
+
+[Footnote 430: "When Marshal Belleisle was told of the taking of Cape
+Breton, he said he could believe that, because the ministry had no hand
+in it. We are making bonfires for Cape Breton, and thundering over
+Genoa, while our army in Flanders is running away."--Walpole's _Letters
+to Sir Horace Mann_, July 26, 1745.]
+
+[Footnote 431: "The tract of country known by the name of Nova Scotia,
+or New Scotland, was in 1784 divided into two provinces, viz., New
+Brunswick on the southwest, and Nova Scotia on the southeast. The former
+comprehends that part of the old province of Nova Scotia which lies to
+the northward and westward of a line drawn from the mouth of the River
+St. Croix, through the center of the Bay of Fundy to Baye Verte, and
+thence into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, including all lands within six
+leagues of the coast. The rest is the province of Nova Scotia, to which
+is annexed the island of St. John's, which lies north of it in the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence. The modern Nova Scotia is the French Acadia. The modern
+New Brunswick is the French Nouvelle Ecosse. This name was given by Sir
+William Alexander, to whom the first grant of lands was given by James
+I.; since then the country has frequently changed hands, from the French
+to the English nation, backward and forward. It was not confirmed to the
+English till the peace of Utrecht. Three thousand families were
+transported into this country in 1749, at the charge of the government,
+and they built and settled the town of Halifax."--Winterbottom's
+_History of America_, vol. iv., p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 432: "La cour de France avoit extrêmement à coeur de recouvrer
+cette province (Acadia); les efforts reitérés des Anglois pour l'avoir
+en leur puissance, et plus encore, leur triomphe après l'avoir conquise,
+avoit enfin ouvert les yeux aux François sur la grandeur de la perte
+qu'ils avoient faite. M. de Pontchartrain écrivit ainsi à M. de
+Beaubarnois: 'Je vous ai fait assez connoître combien il est important
+de reprendre ce poste (le Port Royal) avant que les ennemies y soient
+solidement établis. La conservation de toute l'Amérique septentrionale,
+et le commerce des Pêches le démandent également: ce sont deux objets
+qui me touchent vivement.'"--Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 90.]
+
+[Footnote 433: "Roland Michel Barrin, marquis de la Galissonière,
+remplit la poste de gouverneur comme s'il ne se fut toute sa vie occupé
+que de cet objet.... Il établit à Quebec un arsenal maritime, et un
+chantier de construction, où l'on n'employa que les bois des pays. Il
+conçut, proposa, et fit adopter le vasté plan dont il commenca
+l'execution, de joindre le Canada et la Louisiana par une chaine de
+forts et d'établissements, le long de l'Ohio et des Mississippi, à
+travers les régions désertes qui séparaient ces deux colonies à l'ouest
+des lacs. A l'avantage d'établir entre elles une communication moins
+pénible et moins long que par le nord, se joignoit celui de pouvoir
+faire parvenir les dépêches en France, en hiver par la Louisiane, tandis
+que l'embouchure du fleuve St. Laurent est fermeé par les glaces; enfin
+celui de resserrer les Anglais entre les montagnes et la mer.... Il
+emporta tous les regrets quand il revint en France, en 1749.... La
+défaite de l'amiral Anglais, Byng, et la prise de Minorque que fut le
+fruit de cette victoire décisive, couronnèrent sa carrière. Il avoit
+entrepris cette dernière expédition contre l'avis des médécins qui lui
+avoient annoncé sa mort comme prochaine, s'il se rembarquoit.... Il
+cacha ses maux tant qu'il put, mais il fut enfin obligé de se démettre
+du commandement. Il revint en France et se mit en route pour
+Fontainebleau où étoit alors le roi. Les forces lui manquèrent
+totalement à Nemours, où il mourut le 26 Octobre, 1756.... A ses talens
+éminens comme marin, la Galissonière unissoit une infinité de
+connaissances.... Sérieux et ferme, mais en même tems doux, modéré,
+affable, et intégre, il se faisito respecter et chérir de tous ceux qui
+servoient sous ses ordres.... Tant de belles qualités étoient cachées
+sous un extérieur peu avantageux. La Galissonière étoit de petite taille
+et bossu. Lorsque les sauvages vinrent le saluer à son arrivée au
+Canada, frappés de son peu d'apparence, ils lui parlèrent en ces termes,
+'Il faut que tu aies une bien belle âme, puisqu' avec un si vilain
+corps, le grand chef notre père t'a envoyé ici pour nous commander.' Ils
+ne tardèrent pas à reconnaître la justice de leur opinion, et
+entourèrent de leur amour et de leur vénération, en l'appellant du nom
+de père, l'homme qui ne se servit du pouvoir que pour améliorer leur
+sort."--_Biographie Universelle_, art. Galissonière.]
+
+[Footnote 434: "In observing on old maps the extent of the ancient
+French colonies in America, I was haunted by one painful idea. I asked
+myself how the government of my country could have left colonies to
+perish which would now be to us a source of inexhaustible prosperity.
+From Acadia and Canada to Louisiana, from the mouth of the St. Lawrence
+to that of the Mississippi, the territories of New France surrounded
+what originally formed the confederation of the thirteen United States.
+The eleven other states, the district of Columbia, the Michigan,
+Northwest, Missouri, Oregon, and Arkansas territories, belonged, or
+would have belonged to us, as they now belong to the United States, by
+the cession of the English and Spaniards, our first heirs in Canada and
+in Louisiana. More than two thirds of North America would acknowledge
+the sovereignty of France.... We possessed here vast countries which
+might have offered a home to the excess of our population, an important
+market to our commerce, a nursery to our navy. Now we are forced to
+confine in our prisons culprits condemned by the tribunals, for want of
+a spot of ground whereon to place these wretched creatures. We are
+excluded from the New World, where the human race is recommencing. The
+English and Spanish languages serve to express the thoughts of many
+millions of men in Africa, in Asia, in the South Sea Islands, on the
+continent of the two Americas; and we, disinherited of the conquests of
+our courage and our genius, hear the language of Racine, of Colbert, and
+of Louis XIV. spoken merely in a few hamlets of Louisiana and Canada,
+under a foreign sway. There it remains, as though but for an evidence of
+the reverses of our fortune and the errors of our policy. Thus, then,
+has France disappeared from North America, like those Indian tribes with
+which she sympathized, and some of the wrecks of which I have
+beheld."--Chateaubriand's _Travels in America_, vol. ii., p. 207.]
+
+[Footnote 435: From the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 1632, till 1654,
+the French had quiet possession of Acadia; then Cromwell sent Major
+Sedgwick to attack it, with orders to expel all who would not
+acknowledge themselves subjects of England. Sedgwick executed his
+commission, and Cromwell passed a grant of Acadia to one De la Tour, a
+French refugee, who had purchased Lord Sterling's title to that country;
+and De la Tour soon after transferred his right to Sir William Temple.
+
+Nova Scotia was ceded to France at the treaty of Breda, in 1670. In 1690
+it was retaken by Sir William Phipps on his way to Quebec. It was given
+back to France by the treaty of Ryswick; retaken by General Nicholson
+(who gave the name of Annapolis to Port Royal) in 1710, during the War
+of the Succession. It was formally and finally ceded to England at the
+peace of Utrecht. The undefined limits of Nova Scotia were a constant
+source of dispute between the French and English nations.]
+
+[Footnote 436: Professor Kalm thus speaks of La Galissonière, who was
+the governor of Quebec at the time of his travels through Canada. "He
+was of a low stature and somewhat hump-backed. He has a surprising
+knowledge in all branches of science, and especially in natural history,
+in which he is so well versed, that, when he began to speak to me about
+it, I imagined I saw our great Linnæus under a new form. When he spoke
+of the use of natural history, of the method of learning, and employing
+it to raise the state of a country, I was astonished to see him take his
+reasons from politics, as well as natural philosophy, mathematics, and
+other sciences. I own that my conversation with this nobleman was very
+instructive to me, and I always drew a great deal of useful knowledge
+from it. He told me several ways of employing natural history to the
+purposes of politics, and to make a country powerful in order to depress
+its envious neighbors. Never has natural history had a greater promotion
+in this country, and it is very doubtful whether it will ever have its
+equal here. As soon as he got the place of governor general, he began to
+take those measures for getting information in natural history which I
+have mentioned before. When he saw people who had for some time been in
+a settled place of the country, especially in the more remote parts, he
+always questioned them about the trees, plants, earths, stones, ores,
+animals, &c., of the place. Those who seemed to have clearer notions
+than the rest were obliged to give him circumstantial descriptions of
+what they had seen. He himself wrote down all the accounts he received,
+and by this great appreciation, so uncommon among persons of his rank,
+he soon acquired a knowledge of the most distant parts of America. The
+priests, commandants of forts and of several distant places, are often
+surprised by his questions, and wonder at his knowledge when they come
+to Quebec to pay their visits to him, for he often tells them that near
+such a mountain, or on such a shore, &c., where they often went a
+hunting, there are some particular plants, trees, earths, ores, &c., for
+he had got a knowledge of these things before. From hence it happened
+that some of the inhabitants believed he had a preternatural knowledge
+of things, as he was able to mention all the curiosities of places,
+sometimes near 200 Swedish miles from Quebec, though he never was there
+himself. Never was there a better statesman than he, and nobody can take
+better measures, and choose more proper means for improving a country
+and increasing its welfare. Canada was scarcely acquainted with the
+treasure it possessed in the person of this nobleman when it lost him
+again; the king wanted his services at home, and could not have him so
+far off."--Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 679.]
+
+[Footnote 437: Louisburg, together with the whole island of Cape Breton,
+had been restored to the French by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in
+1748.]
+
+[Footnote 438: "In the year after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the land
+forces of Great Britain were reduced to little more than 18,000 men;
+those in Minorca, Gibraltar, and the American plantations, to 10,000;
+while the sailors retained in the royal navy were under
+17,000."--_Commons' Journals_, Nov. 23, 1749, and Jan. 19, 1750.
+
+"From the large number both of soldiers and seamen suddenly discharged,
+it was found that they might be either driven to distress or tempted to
+depredation. Thus, both for their own comfort and for the quiet of the
+remaining community, emigration seemed to afford a safe and excellent
+resource. The province of Nova Scotia was fixed upon for this
+experiment, and the freehold of fifty acres was offered to each settler,
+with ten acres more for every child brought with him, besides a free
+passage, and an exemption from all taxes during a term of ten years.
+Allured by such advantages, above 4000 persons, with their families,
+embarked under the command of Colonel Cornwallis, and landed at the
+harbor of Chebuctow. The new town which soon arose from those labors
+received its name from the Earl of Halifax, who presided at the Board of
+Trade, and who had the principal share in the foundation of this colony.
+In the first winter there were but 300 huts of wood, surrounded by a
+palisade; but Halifax at present deserves to be ranked among the most
+thriving dependencies of the British crown."--Lord Mahon's _History of
+England_, vol. iv., p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 439: "As it was the intention of the government to build a
+strong fort at Beau-sejour, Chaussegros de Lery, son of the engineer who
+traced the fortifications of Quebec, was sent for that purpose. De
+Vassan, who succeeded La Corne in the command of this post, was
+instructed, as his predecessor had been, to pay the utmost attention to
+the Abbé le Loutre, and to avoid all disputes with the English. De
+Vassan's penetration soon led him to discover Le Loutre's true
+character; but, not wishing to have any misunderstanding with him, he
+left him full scope in the management of the affairs of the Acadians.
+These unhappy people had from the first felt the iron hand of his
+tyranny; neither the provisions nor clothing furnished by the crown
+could be obtained without repeated supplications and prayers, and in
+every instance he showed a heart steeled against every sentiment of
+humanity."--Smith's _History of Canada_, vol. i., p. 217.]
+
+[Footnote 440: "We soon after came to anchor in the basin, called by the
+French, with much propriety, Beau-bassin, where a hundred ships of the
+line may ride in safety without crowding, and from the time we entered
+this bay we found water enough every where for a first-rate ship of war.
+It is about five miles from Beau-sejour, now Fort Cumberland."--Knox's
+_Historical Journal_, vol. i., p. 35.]
+
+END OF VOL. I.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Conquest of Canada (Vol. 1 of 2), by 
+George Warburton
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+Title: The Conquest of Canada (Vol. 1 of 2)
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+Author: George Warburton
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+
+<h4>THE</h4>
+<h1>CONQUEST OF CANADA.</h1>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h4>THE AUTHOR OF "HOCHELAGA."</h4>
+
+
+<p class='center' style="margin-top: 5em;"><small>IN TWO VOLUMES.<br />
+
+VOL. 1.</small></p>
+
+<p  class='center' style="margin-top: 5em;"><small>NEW YORK:<br />
+HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,<br />
+82 CLIFF STREET.<br />
+1850.</small>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>England and France started in a fair race for the magnificent prize of
+supremacy in America. The advantages and difficulties of each were much
+alike, but the systems by which they improved those advantages and met
+those difficulties were essentially different. New France was colonized
+by a government, New England by a people. In Canada the men of
+intellect, influence, and wealth were only the agents of the mother
+country; they fulfilled, it is true, their colonial duties with zeal and
+ability, but they ever looked to France for honor and approbation, and
+longed for a return to her shores as their best reward. They were in the
+colony, but not of it. They strove vigorously to repel invasion, to
+improve agriculture, and to encourage commerce, for the sake of France,
+but not for Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The mass of the population of New France were descended from settlers
+sent out within a short time after the first occupation of the country,
+and who were not selected for any peculiar qualifications. They were not
+led to emigrate from the spirit of adventure, disappointed ambition, or
+political discontent; by far the larger proportion left their native
+country under the pressure of extreme want or in blind obedience to the
+will of their superiors. They were then established in points best
+suited to the interests of France, not those best suited to their own.
+The physical condition of the humbler emigrant, however, became better
+than that of his countrymen in the Old World; the fertile soil repaid
+his labor with competence; independence fostered self-reliance, and the
+unchecked range of forest and prairie inspired him with thoughts of
+freedom. But all these elevating tendencies were fatally counteracted by
+the blighting influence of feudal organization. Restrictions,
+humiliating as well as injurious, pressed upon the person and property
+of the Canadian. Every avenue to wealth and influence was closed to him
+and thrown open to the children of Old France. He saw whole tracts of
+the magnificent country lavished upon the favorites and military
+followers of the court, and, through corrupt or capricious influences,
+the privilege of exclusive trade granted for the aggrandizement of
+strangers at his expense.</p>
+
+<p>France founded a state in Canada. She established a feudal and
+ecclesiastical frame-work for the young nation, and into that
+Procrustean bed the growth of population and the proportions of society
+were forced. The state fixed governments at Montreal, Three Rivers, and
+Quebec; there towns arose. She divided the rich banks of the St.
+Lawrence and of the Richelieu into seigneuries; there population spread.
+She placed posts on the lakes and rivers of the Far West; there the
+fur-traders congregated. She divided the land into dioceses and
+parishes, and appointed bishops and curates; a portion of all produce of
+the soil was exacted for their support. She sent out the people at her
+own cost, and acknowledged no shadow of popular rights. She organized
+the inhabitants by an unsparing conscription, and placed over them
+officers either from the Old Country or from the favored class of
+seigneurs. She grasped a monopoly of every valuable production of the
+country, and yet forced upon it her own manufactures to the exclusion of
+all others. She squandered her resources and treasures on the colony,
+but violated all principles of justice in a vain endeavor to make that
+colony a source of wealth. She sent out the ablest and best of her
+officers to govern on the falsest and worst of systems. Her energy
+absorbed all individual energy; her perpetual and minute interference
+aspired to shape and direct all will and motive of her subjects. The
+state was every thing, the people nothing. Finally, when the power of
+the state was broken by a foreign foe, there remained no power of the
+people to supply its place. On the day that the French armies ceased to
+resist, Canada was a peaceful province of British America.</p>
+
+<p>A few years after the French crown had founded a state in Canada, a
+handful of Puritan refugees founded a people in New England. They bore
+with them from the mother country little beside a bitter hatred of the
+existing government, and a stern resolve to perish or be free. One small
+vessel&mdash;the Mayflower&mdash;held them, their wives, their children, and their
+scanty stores. So ignorant were they of the country of their adoption,
+that they sought its shores in the depth of winter, when nothing but a
+snowy desert met their sight. Dire hardships assailed them; many
+sickened and died, but those who lived still strove bravely. And bitter
+was their trial; the scowling sky above their heads, the frozen earth
+under their feet, and sorest of all, deep in their strong hearts the
+unacknowledged love of that venerable land which they had abandoned
+forever.</p>
+
+<p>But brighter times soon came; the snowy desert changed into a fair scene
+of life and vegetation. The woods rang with the cheerful sound of the
+ax; the fields were tilled hopefully, the harvest gathered gratefully.
+Other vessels arrived bearing more settlers, men, for the most part,
+like those who had first landed. Their numbers swelled to hundreds,
+thousands, tens of thousands. They formed themselves into a community;
+they decreed laws, stern and quaint, but suited to their condition. They
+had neither rich nor poor; they admitted of no superiority save in their
+own gloomy estimate of merit; they persecuted all forms of faith
+different from that which they themselves held, and yet they would have
+died rather than suffer the religious interference of others. Far from
+seeking or accepting aid from the government of England, they patiently
+tolerated their nominal dependence only because they were virtually
+independent. For protection against the savage; for relief in pestilence
+or famine; for help to plenty and prosperity, they trusted alone to God
+in heaven, and to their own right hand on earth.</p>
+
+<p>Such, in the main, were the ancestors of the men of New England, and, in
+spite of all subsequent admixture, such, in the main, were they
+themselves. In the other British colonies also, hampered though they
+were by charters, and proprietary rights, and alloyed by a Babel
+congregation of French Huguenots, Dutch, Swedes, Quakers, Nobles,
+Roundheads, Canadians, rogues, zealots, infidels, enthusiasts, and
+felons, a general prosperity had created individual self-reliance, and
+self-reliance had engendered the desire of self-government. Each colony
+contained a separate vitality within itself. They commenced under a
+variety of systems; more or less practicable, more or less liberal, and
+more or less dependent on the parent state. But the spirit of
+adventure, the disaffection, and the disappointed ambition which had so
+rapidly recruited their population, gave a general bias to their
+political feelings which no arbitrary authority could restrain, and no
+institutions counteract. They were less intolerant and morose, but at
+the same time, also, less industrious and moral than their Puritan
+neighbors. Like them, however, they resented all interference from
+England as far as they dared, and constantly strove for the acquisition
+or retention of popular rights.</p>
+
+<p>The British colonists, left at first, in a great measure, to themselves,
+settled on the most fertile lands, built their towns upon the most
+convenient harbors, directed their industry to the most profitable
+commerce, raised the most valuable productions. The trading spirit of
+the mother country became almost a passion when transferred to the New
+World. Enterprise and industry were stimulated to incredible activity by
+brilliant success and ample reward. As wealth and the means of
+subsistence increased, so multiplied the population. Early marriages
+were universal; a numerous family was the riches of the parent.
+Thousands of immigrants, also, from year to year swelled the living
+flood that poured over the wilderness. In a century and a half the
+inhabitants of British America exceeded nearly twenty-fold the people of
+New France. The relative superiority of the first over the last was even
+greater in wealth and resources than in population. The merchant navy of
+the English colonies was already larger than that of many European
+nations, and known in almost every port in the world where men bought
+and sold. New France had none.</p>
+
+<p>The French colonies were founded and fostered by the state, with the
+real object of extending the dominion, increasing the power, and
+illustrating the glory of France. The ostensible object of settlement,
+at least that holding the most prominent place in all Acts and Charters,
+was to extend the true religion, and to minister to the glory of God.
+From the earliest time the ecclesiastical establishments of Canada were
+formed on a scale suited to these professed views. Not only was ample
+provision made for the spiritual wants of the European population, but
+the labors of many earnest and devoted men were directed to the
+enlightenment of the heathen Indians. At first the Church and the civil
+government leaned upon each other for mutual support and assistance, but
+after a time, when neither of these powers found themselves troubled
+with popular opposition, their union grew less intimate; their interests
+differed, jealousies ensued, and finally they became antagonistic orders
+in the community. The mass of the people, more devout than intelligent,
+sympathized with the priesthood; this sympathy did not, however,
+interfere with unqualified submission to the government.</p>
+
+<p>The Canadians were trained to implicit obedience to their rulers,
+spiritual and temporal: these rulers ventured not to imperil their
+absolute authority by educating their vassals. It is true there were a
+few seminaries and schools under the zealous administration of the
+Jesuits; but even that instruction was unattainable by the general
+population; those who walked in the moonlight which such reflected rays
+afforded, were not likely to become troublesome as sectarians or
+politicians. Much credit for sincerity can not be given to those who
+professed to promote the education of the people, when no
+printing-press was ever permitted in Canada during the government of
+France.</p>
+
+<p>Canada, unprovoked by Dissent, was altogether free from the stain of
+religious persecution: hopelessly fettered in the chains of metropolitan
+power, she was also undisturbed by political agitation. But this calm
+was more the stillness of stagnation than the tranquillity of content.
+Without a press, without any semblance of popular representation, there
+hardly remained other alternatives than tame submission or open mutiny.
+By hereditary habit and superstition the Canadians were trained to the
+first, and by weakness and want of energy they were incapacitated for
+the last.</p>
+
+<p>Although the original charter of New England asserted the king's
+supremacy in matters of religion, a full understanding existed that on
+this head ample latitude should be allowed; ample latitude was
+accordingly taken. She set up a system of faith of her own, and enforced
+conformity. But the same spirit that had excited the colonists to
+dissent from the Church of England, and to sacrifice home and friends in
+the cause, soon raised up among them a host of dissenters from their own
+stern and peculiar creed. Their clergy had sacrificed much for
+conscience' sake, and were generally "faithful, watchful, painful,
+serving their flock daily with prayers and tears," some among them,
+also, men of high European repute. They had often, however, the
+mortification of seeing their congregations crowding to hear the ravings
+of any knave or enthusiast who broached a new doctrine. Most of these
+mischievous fanatics were given the advantage of that interest and
+sympathy which a cruel and unnecessary persecution invariably excites.
+All this time freedom of individual judgment was the watch-word of the
+persecutors. There is no doubt that strong measures were necessary to
+curb the furious and profane absurdities of many of the seceders, who
+were the very outcasts of religion. On considering the criminal laws of
+the time, it would also appear that not a few of the outcasts of
+society, also, had found their way to New England. The code of
+Massachusetts contained the description of the most extraordinary
+collection of crimes that ever defaced a statute-book, and the various
+punishments allotted to each.</p>
+
+<p>In one grand point the pre-eminent merit of the Puritans must be
+acknowledged: they strove earnestly and conscientiously for what they
+held to be the truth. For this they endured with unshaken constancy, and
+persecuted with unremitting zeal.</p>
+
+<p>The suicidal policy of the Stuarts had, for a time, driven all the
+upholders of civil liberty into the ranks of sectarianism. The advocates
+of the extremes of religious and political opinion flocked to America,
+the furthest point from kings and prelates that they could conveniently
+reach. Ingrafted on the stubborn temper of the Englishman, and planted
+in the genial soil of the West, the love of this civil and religious
+liberty grew up with a vigor that time only served to strengthen; that
+the might of armies vainly strove to overcome. Thus, ultimately, the
+persecution under the Stuarts was the most powerful cause ever yet
+employed toward the liberation of man in his path through earth to
+heaven.</p>
+
+<p>For many years England generally refrained from interference with her
+American colonies in matters of local government or in religion. They
+taxed themselves, made their own laws, and enjoyed religious freedom in
+their own way. In one state only, in Virginia, was the Church of England
+established, and even there it was accorded very little help by the
+temporal authority: in a short time it ceased to receive the support of
+a majority of the settlers, and rapidly decayed. On one point, however,
+the mother country claimed and exacted the obedience of the colonists to
+the imperial law. In her commercial code she would not permit the
+slightest relaxation in their favor, whatever the peculiar circumstances
+of their condition might be. This short-sighted and unjust restriction
+was borne, partly because it could not be resisted, and partly because
+at that early time the practical evil was but lightly felt. Although the
+principle of representation was seldom specified in the earlier
+charters, the colonists in all cases assumed it as a matter of right:
+they held that their privileges as Englishmen accompanied them wherever
+they went, and this was generally admitted as a principle of colonial
+policy.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century England adopted the system of transportation
+to the American colonies. The felons were, however, too limited in
+numbers to make any serious inroad upon the morals or tranquillity of
+the settlers. Many of the convicts were men sentenced for political
+crimes, but free from any social taint; the laboring population,
+therefore, did not regard them with contempt, nor shrink from their
+society. It may be held, therefore, that this partial and peculiar
+system of transportation introduced no distinct element into the
+constitution of the American nation.</p>
+
+<p>The British colonization in the New World differed essentially from any
+before attempted by the nations of modern Europe, and has led to
+results of immeasurable importance to mankind. Even the magnificent
+empire of India sinks into insignificance, in its bearings upon the
+general interests of the world, by comparison with the Anglo-Saxon
+empire in America. The success of each, however, is unexampled in
+history.</p>
+
+<p>In the great military and mercantile colony of the East an enormous
+native population is ruled by a dominant race, whose number amounts to
+less than a four-thousandth part of its own, but whose superiority in
+war and civil government is at present so decided as to reduce any
+efforts of opposition to the mere outbursts of hopeless petulance. In
+that golden land, however, even the Anglo-Saxon race can not increase
+and multiply; the children of English parents degenerate or perish under
+its fatal sun. No permanent settlement or infusion of blood takes place.
+Neither have we effected any serious change in the manners or customs of
+the East Indians; on the other hand, we have rather assimilated ours to
+theirs. We tolerate their various religions, and we learn their
+language; but in neither faith nor speech have they approached one
+tittle toward us. We have raised there no gigantic monument of power
+either in pride or for utility; no temples, canals, or roads remain to
+remind posterity of our conquest and dominion. Were the English rule
+over India suddenly cast off, in a single generation the tradition of
+our Eastern empire would appear a splendid but baseless dream, that of
+our administration an allegory, of our victories a romance.</p>
+
+<p>In the great social colonies of the West, the very essence of vitality
+is their close resemblance to the parent state. Many of the coarser
+inherited elements of strength have been increased. Industry and
+adventure have been stimulated to an unexampled extent by the natural
+advantages of the country, and free institutions have been developed
+almost to license by general prosperity and the absence of external
+danger. Their stability, in some one form or another, is undoubted: it
+rests on the broadest possible basis&mdash;on the universal will of the
+nation. Our vast empire in India rests only on the narrow basis of the
+superiority of a handful of Englishmen: should any untoward fate shake
+the Atlas strength that bears the burden, the superincumbent mass must
+fall in ruins to the earth. With far better cause may England glory in
+the land of her revolted children than in that of her patient slaves:
+the prosperous cities and busy sea-ports of America are prouder
+memorials of her race than the servile splendor of Calcutta or the
+ruined ramparts of Seringapatam. In the earlier periods the British
+colonies were only the reflection of Britain; in later days their light
+has served to illumine the political darkness of the European Continent.
+The attractive example of American democracy proved the most important
+cause that has acted upon European society since the Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the close of George II.'s reign England had reached the lowest
+point of national degradation recorded in her history. The disasters of
+her fleets and armies abroad were the natural fruits of almost universal
+corruption at home. The admirals and generals, chosen by a German king
+and a subservient ministry, proved worthy of the mode of their
+selection. An obsequious Parliament served but to give the apparent
+sanction of the people to the selfish and despotic measures of the
+crown. Many of the best blood and of the highest chivalry of the land
+still held loyal devotion to the exiled Stuarts, while the mass of the
+nation, disgusted by the sordid and unpatriotic acts of the existing
+dynasty, regarded it with sentiments of dislike but little removed from
+positive hostility. A sullen discontent paralyzed the vigor of England,
+obstructed her councils, and blunted her sword. In the cabinets of
+Europe, among the colonists of America, and the millions of the East
+alike, her once glorious name had sunk almost to a by-word of reproach.
+But "the darkest hour is just before the dawn:" a new disaster, more
+humiliating, and more inexcusable than any which had preceded, at length
+goaded the passive indignation of the British people into irresistible
+action. The spirit that animated the men who spoke at Runnymede, and
+those who fought on Marston Moor, was not dead, but sleeping. The free
+institutions which wisdom had devised, time hallowed, and blood sealed,
+were evaded, but not overthrown. The nation arose as one man, and with a
+peaceful but stern determination, demanded that these things should
+cease. Then, for "the hour," the hand of the All Wise supplied "the
+man." The light of Pitt's genius, the fire of his patriotism, like the
+dawn of an unclouded morning, soon chased away the chilly night which
+had so long darkened over the fortunes of his country.</p>
+
+<p>But not even the genius of the great minister, aided as it was by the
+awakened spirit of the British people, would have sufficed to rend
+Canada from France without the concurrent action of many and various
+causes: the principal of these was, doubtless, the extraordinary growth
+of our American settlements. When the first French colonists founded
+their military and ecclesiastical establishments at Quebec, upheld by
+the favor and strengthened by the arms of the mother country, they
+regarded with little uneasiness the unaided efforts of their English
+rivals in the South. But these dangerous neighbors rose with wonderful
+rapidity from few to many, from weak to powerful. The cloud, which had
+appeared no greater than "a man's hand" on the political horizon, spread
+rapidly wider and wider, above and below, till at length from out its
+threatening gloom the storm burst forth which swept away the flag of
+France.</p>
+
+<p>As a military event, the conquest of Canada was a matter of little or no
+permanent importance: it can only rank as one among the numerous scenes
+of blood that give an intense but morbid interest to our national
+annals. The surrender of Niagara and Quebec were but the acknowledgment
+or final symbol of the victory of English over French colonization. For
+three years the admirable skill of Montcalm and the valor of his troops
+deferred the inevitable catastrophe of the colony: then the destiny was
+accomplished. France had for that time played out her part in the
+history of the New World; during one hundred and fifty years her
+threatening power had served to retain the English colonies in
+interested loyalty to protecting England. Notwithstanding the immense
+material superiority of the British Americans, the fleets and armies of
+the mother country were indispensable to break the barrier raised up
+against them by the union, skill, and courage of the French.</p>
+
+<p>Montcalm's far-sighted wisdom suggested consolation even in his defeat
+and death. In a remarkable and almost prophetic letter, which he
+addressed to M. de Berryer during the siege of Quebec, he foretells
+that the British power in America shall be broken by success, and that
+when the dread of France ceases to exist, the colonists will no longer
+submit to European control. One generation had not passed away when his
+prediction was fully accomplished. England, by the conquest of Canada,
+breathed the breath of life into the huge Frankenstein of the American
+republic.</p>
+
+<p>The rough schooling of French hostility was necessary for the
+development of those qualities among the British colonists which enabled
+them finally to break the bonds of pupilage and stand alone. Some degree
+of united action had been effected among the several and
+widely-different states; the local governments had learned how to raise
+and support armies, and to consider military movements. On many
+occasions the provincial militia had borne themselves with distinguished
+bravery in the field; several of their officers had gained honorable
+repute; already the name of <span class="smcap">Washington</span> called a flush of pride
+upon each American cheek. The stirring events of the contest with Canada
+had brought men of ability and patriotism into the strong light of
+active life, and the eyes of their countrymen sought their guidance in
+trusting confidence. Through the instrumentality of such men as these
+the American Revolution was shaped into the dignity of a national
+movement, and preserved from the threatening evils of an insane
+democracy.</p>
+
+<p>The consequences of the Canadian war furnished the cause of the quarrel
+which led to the separation of the great colonies from the mother
+country. England had incurred enormous debt in the contest; her people
+groaned under taxation, and the wealthy Americans had contributed in
+but a very small proportion to the cost of victories by which they were
+the principal gainers. The British Parliament devised an unhappy
+expedient to remedy this evil: it assumed the right of taxing the
+unrepresented colonies, and taxed them accordingly. Vain was the
+prophetic eloquence of Lord Chatham; vain were the just and earnest
+remonstrances of the best and wisest among the colonists: the time was
+come. Then followed years of stubborn and unyielding strife; the blood
+of the same race gave sterner determination to the quarrel. The balance
+of success hung equally. Once again France appeared upon the stage in
+the Western world, and La Fayette revenged the fall of Montcalm.</p>
+
+<p>However we may regret the cause and conduct of the Revolutionary war, we
+can hardly regret its result. The catastrophe was inevitable: the folly
+or wisdom of British statesmen could only have accelerated or deferred
+it. The child had outlived the years of pupilage; the interests of the
+old and the young required a separate household. But we must ever mourn
+the mode of separation: a bitterness was left that three quarters of a
+century has hardly yet removed; and a dark page remains in our annals,
+that tells of a contest begun in injustice, conducted with mingled
+weakness and severity, and ended in defeat. The cause of human freedom,
+perhaps for ages, depended upon the issue of the quarrel. Even the
+patriot minister merged the apparent interests of England in the
+interests of mankind. By the light of Lord Chatham's wisdom we may read
+the disastrous history of that fatal war, with a resigned and tempered
+sorrow for the glorious inheritance rent away from us forever.</p>
+
+<p>The reaction of the New World upon the Old may be distinctly traced
+through the past and the present, but human wisdom may not estimate its
+influence on the future. The lessons of freedom learned by the French
+army while aiding the revolted colonies against England were not
+forgotten. On their return to their native country, they spread abroad
+tidings that the new people of America had gained a treasure richer a
+thousand-fold than those which had gilded the triumphs of Cortes or
+Pizarro&mdash;the inestimable prize of liberty. Then the down-trampled
+millions of France arose, and with avaricious haste strove for a like
+treasure. They won a specious imitation, so soiled and stained, however,
+that many of the wisest among them could not at once detect its nature.
+They played with the coarse bawble for a time, then lost it in a sea of
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless the tempest that broke upon France had long been gathering.
+The rays that emanated from such false suns as Voltaire and Rousseau had
+already drawn up a moral miasma from the swamps of sensual ignorance:
+under the shade of a worthless government these noxious mists collected
+into the clouds from whence the desolating storm of the Revolution
+burst. It was, however, the example of popular success in the New World,
+and the republican training of a portion of the French army during the
+American contest, that finally accelerated the course of events. A
+generation before the "Declaration of Independence" the struggle between
+the rival systems of Canada and New England had been watched by thinking
+men in Europe with deep interest, and the importance to mankind of its
+issue was fully felt. While France mourned the defeat of her armies and
+the loss of her magnificent colony, the keen-sighted philosopher of
+Ferney gave a banquet to celebrate the British triumph at Quebec, not as
+the triumph of England over France, but as that of freedom over
+despotism.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The overthrow of French by British power in America was not the effect
+of mere military superiority. The balance of general success and glory
+in the field is no more than shared with the conquered people. The
+morbid national vanity, which finds no delight but in the triumphs of
+the sword, will shrink from the study of this checkered story. The
+narrative of disastrous defeat and doubtful advantage must be endured
+before we arrive at that of the brilliant victory which crowned our arms
+with final success. We read with painful surprise of the rout and ruin
+of regular British regiments by a crowd of Indian savages, and of the
+bloody repulse of the most numerous army that had yet assembled round
+our standards in America before a few weak French battalions and an
+unfinished parapet.</p>
+
+<p>For the first few years our prosecution of the Canadian war was marked
+by a weakness little short of imbecility. The conduct of the troops was
+indifferent, the tactics of the generals bad, and the schemes of the
+minister worse. The coarse but powerful wit of Smollett and Fielding,
+and the keen sarcasms of "Chrysal," convey to us no very exalted idea of
+the composition of the British army in those days. The service had sunk
+into contempt. The withering influence of a corrupt patronage had
+demoralized the officers; successive defeats, incurred through the
+inefficiency of courtly generals, had depressed the spirit of the
+soldiery, and, were it not for the proof shown upon the bloody fields
+of La Feldt and Fontenoy, we might almost suppose that English manhood
+had become an empty name.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the battalions shipped off to take part in the American contest
+were hasty levies without organization or discipline: the colonel, a man
+of influence, with or without other qualifications, as the case might
+be; the officers, his neighbors and dependents. These armed mobs found
+themselves suddenly landed in a country, the natural difficulty of which
+would of itself have proved a formidable obstacle, even though
+unenhanced by the presence of an active and vigilant enemy. At the same
+time, there devolved upon them the duties and the responsibilities of
+regular troops. A due consideration of these circumstances tends to
+diminish the surprise which a comparison of their achievements with
+those recorded in our later military annals might create.</p>
+
+<p>Very different were the ranks of the American army from the magnificent
+regiments whose banners now bear the crowded records of Peninsular and
+Indian victory; who, within the recollection of living men, have stood
+as conquerors upon every hostile land, yet never once permitted a
+stranger to tread on England's sacred soil but as a prisoner, fugitive,
+or friend. In Cairo and Copenhagen; in Lisbon, Madrid, and Paris; in the
+ancient metropolis of China; in the capital of the young American
+republic, the British flag has been hailed as the symbol of a triumphant
+power or of a generous deliverance. Well may we cherish an honest pride
+in the prowess and military virtue of our soldiers, loyal alike to the
+crown and to the people; facing in battle, with unshaken courage, the
+deadly shot and sweeping charge, and, with a still loftier valor,
+enduring, in times of domestic troubles, the gibes and injuries of
+their misguided countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>In the stirring interest excited by the progress and rivalry of our
+kindred races in America, the sad and solemn subject of the Indian
+people is almost forgotten. The mysterious decree of Providence which
+has swept them away may not be judged by human wisdom. Their existence
+will soon be of the past. They have left no permanent impression on the
+constitution of the great nation which now spreads over their country.
+No trace of their blood, language, or manners may be found among their
+haughty successors. As certainly as their magnificent forests fell
+before the advancing tide of civilization, they fell also. Neither the
+kindness nor the cruelty of the white man arrested or hastened their
+inevitable fate. They withered alike under the Upas-shade of European
+protection and before the deadly storm of European hostility. As the
+snow in spring they melted away, stained, tainted, trampled down.</p>
+
+<p>The closing scene of French dominion in Canada was marked by
+circumstances of deep and peculiar interest. The pages of romance can
+furnish no more striking episode than the battle of Quebec. The skill
+and daring of the plan which brought on the combat, and the success and
+fortune of its execution, are unparalleled. There a broad, open plain,
+offering no advantages to either party, was the field of fight. The
+contending armies were nearly equal in military strength, if not in
+numbers. The chiefs of each were men already of honorable fame. France
+trusted firmly in the wise and chivalrous Montcalm; England trusted
+hopefully in the young and heroic Wolfe. The magnificent stronghold
+which was staked upon the issue of the strife stood close at hand. For
+miles and miles around, the prospect extended over as fair a land as
+ever rejoiced the sight of man; mountain and valley, forest and waters,
+city and solitude, grouped together in forms of almost ideal beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The strife was brief, but deadly. The September sun rose upon two
+gallant armies arrayed in unbroken pride, and noon of the same day saw
+the ground where they had stood strewn with the dying and the dead.
+Hundreds of the veterans of France had fallen in the ranks, from which
+they disdained to fly; the scene of his ruin faded fast from Montcalm's
+darkening sight, but the proud consciousness of having done his duty
+deprived defeat and death of their severest sting. Not more than a
+musket-shot away lay Wolfe; the heart that but an hour before had
+throbbed with great and generous impulse, now still forever. On the face
+of the dead there rested a triumphant smile, which the last agony had
+not overcast; a light of unfailing hope, that the shadows of the grave
+could not darken.</p>
+
+<p>The portion of history here recorded is no fragment. Within a period
+comparatively brief, we see the birth, the growth, and the catastrophe
+of a nation. The flag of France is erected at Quebec by a handful of
+hardy adventurers; a century and a half has passed, and that flag is
+lowered to a foreign foe before the sorrowing eyes of a Canadian people.
+This example is complete as that presented in the life of an individual:
+we see the natural sequence of events; the education and the character,
+the motive and the action, the error and the punishment. Through the
+following records may be clearly traced combinations of causes, remote,
+and even apparently opposed, uniting in one result, and also the
+surprising fertility of one great cause in producing many different
+results.</p>
+
+<p>Were we to read the records of history by the light of the understanding
+instead of by the fire of the passions, the study could be productive
+only of unmixed good; their examples and warnings would afford us
+constant guidance in the paths of public and private virtue. The narrow
+and unreasonable notion of exclusive national merit can not survive a
+fair glance over the vast map of time and space which history lays
+before us. We may not avert our eyes from those dark spots upon the
+annals of our beloved land where acts of violence and injustice stand
+recorded against her, nor may we suffer the blaze of military renown to
+dazzle our judgment. Victory may bring glory to the arms, while it
+brings shame to the councils of a people; for the triumphs of war are
+those of the general and the soldier; increase of honor, wisdom, and
+prosperity are the triumphs of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>The citizens of Rome placed the images of their ancestors in the
+vestibule, to recall the virtues of the dead, and to stimulate the
+emulation of the living. We also should fix our thoughts upon the
+examples which history presents, not in a vain spirit of selfish
+nationality, but in earnest reverence for the great and good of all
+countries, and a contempt for the false, and mean, and cruel even of our
+own.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See Appendix, No. I. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE CONQUEST OF CANADA.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The philosophers of remote antiquity acquired the important knowledge of
+the earth's spherical form; to their bold genius we are indebted for the
+outline of the geographical system now universally adopted. With a
+vigorous conception, but imperfect execution, they traced out the scheme
+of denoting localities by longitude and latitude: according to their
+teaching, the imaginary equatorial line, encompassing the earth, was
+divided into hours and degrees.</p>
+
+<p>Even at that distant period hardy adventurers had penetrated far away
+into the land of the rising sun, and many a wondrous tale was told of
+that mysterious empire, where one third of our fellow-men still stand
+apart from the brotherhood of nations. Among the various and astounding
+exaggerations induced by the vanity of the narrators, and the ignorance
+of their audience, none was more ready than that of distance. The
+journey, the labor of a life; each league of travel a new scene; the day
+crowded with incident, the night a dream of terror or admiration. Then,
+as the fickle will of the wanderer suggested, as the difficulties or
+encouragement of nature, and the hostility or aid of man impelled, the
+devious course bent to the north or south, was hastened, hindered, or
+retraced.</p>
+
+<p>By such vague and shadowy measurement as the speculations of these
+wanderers supplied, the sages of the past traced out the ideal limits of
+the dry land which, at the word of God, appeared from out the gathering
+together of the waters.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The most eminent geographer before the time of Ptolemy places the
+confines of Seres&mdash;the China of to-day&mdash;at nearly two thirds of the
+distance round the world, from the first meridian.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Ptolemy reduces
+the proportion to one half. Allowing for the supposed vast extent of
+this unknown country to the eastward, it was evident that its remotest
+shores approached our Western World. But, beyond the Pillars of
+Hercules, the dark and stormy waters of the Atlantic<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> forbade
+adventure. The giant minds of those days saw, even through the mists of
+ignorance and error, that the readiest course to reach this distant land
+must lie toward the setting sun, across the western ocean.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> From over
+this vast watery solitude no traveler had ever brought back the story of
+his wanderings. The dim light of traditionary memory gave no guiding
+ray, the faint voice of rumor breathed not its mysterious secrets. Then
+poetic imagination filled the void; vast islands were conjured up out of
+the deep, covered with unheard-of luxuriance of vegetation, rich in
+mines of incalculable value, populous with a race of conquering
+warriors. But this magnificent vision was only created to be destroyed;
+a violent earthquake rent asunder in a day and a night the foundations
+of Atlantis, and the waters of the Western Ocean swept over the ruins of
+this once mighty empire.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> In after ages we are told, that some
+Ph&oelig;nician vessels, impelled by a strong east wind, were driven for
+thirty days across the Atlantic: there they found a part of the sea
+where the surface was covered with rushes and sea-weed, somewhat
+resembling a vast inundated meadow.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The voyagers ascribed these
+strange appearances to some cause connected with the submerged Atlantis,
+and even in later years they were held by many as confirmation of
+Plato's marvelous story.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Carthaginian annals is found the mention of a fertile and
+beautiful island of the distant Atlantic. Many adventurous men of that
+maritime people were attracted thither by the delightful climate and the
+riches of the soil; it was deemed of such value and importance that they
+proposed to transfer the seat of their republic to its shores in case of
+any irreparable disaster at home. But at length the Senate, fearing the
+evils of a divided state, denounced the distant colony, and decreed the
+punishment of death to those who sought it for a home. If there be any
+truth in this ancient tale, it is probable that one of the Canary
+Islands was its subject.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although the New World in the West was unknown to the ancients, there is
+no doubt that they entertained a suspicion of its existence;<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> the
+romance of Plato&mdash;the prophecy of Seneca, were but the offsprings of
+this vague idea. Many writers tell us it was conjectured that, by
+sailing from the coast of Spain, the eastern shores of India might be
+reached;<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> the length of the voyage, or the wonders that might lie in
+its course, imagination alone could measure or describe. Whatever might
+have been the suspicion or belief<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> of ancient time, we may feel assured
+that none then ventured to seek these distant lands, nor have we reason to
+suppose that any of the civilized European races gave inhabitants to the
+New World before the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>To the barbarous hordes of Northeastern Asia America must have long been
+known as the land where many of their wanderers found a home. It is not
+surprising that from them no information was obtained; but it is strange
+that the bold and adventurous Northmen should have visited it nearly
+five hundred years before the great Genoese, and have suffered their
+wonderful discovery to remain hidden from the world, and to become
+almost forgotten among themselves.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the year 1001 the Icelanders touched upon the American coast, and for
+nearly two centuries subsequent visits were repeatedly made by them and
+the Norwegians, for the purpose of commerce or for the gratification of
+curiosity. Biorn Heriolson, an Icelander, was the first discoverer:
+steering for Greenland, he was driven to the south by tempestuous and
+unfavorable winds, and saw different parts of America, without, however,
+touching at any of them. Attracted by the report of this voyage, Leif,
+son of Eric, the discoverer of Greenland, fitted out a vessel to pursue
+the same adventure. He passed the coast visited by Biorn, and steered
+southwest till he reached a strait between a large island and the main
+land. Finding the country fertile and pleasant, he passed the winter
+near this place, and gave it the name of Vinland,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> from the wild vine
+which grew there in great abundance.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The winter days were longer in
+this new country than in Greenland, and the weather was more temperate.</p>
+
+<p>Leif returned to Greenland in the spring; his brother Thorvald succeeded
+him, and remained two winters in Vinland exploring much of the coast and
+country.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> In the course of the third summer the natives, now called
+Esquimaux, were first seen; on account of their diminutive stature the
+adventurers gave them the name of <i>Skr&aelig;lingar</i>.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> These poor savages,
+irritated by an act of barbarous cruelty, attacked the Northmen with
+darts and arrows, and Thorvald fell a victim to their vengeance. A
+wealthy Icelander, named Thorfinn, established a regular colony in
+Vinland soon after this event; the settlers increased rapidly in
+numbers, and traded with the natives for furs and skins to great
+advantage. After three years the adventurers returned to Iceland
+enriched by the expedition, and reported favorably upon the new country.
+Little is known of this settlement after Thorfinn's departure till early
+in the twelfth century, when a bishop of Greenland<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> went there to
+promulgate the Christian faith among the colonists; beyond that time
+scarcely a notice of its existence occurs, and the name and situation of
+the ancient Vinland soon passed away from the knowledge of man. Whether
+the adventurous colonists ever returned, or became blended with the
+natives,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> or perished by their hands, no record remains to tell.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>Discoveries such as these by the ancient Scandinavians&mdash;fruitless to the
+world and almost buried in oblivion&mdash;can not dim the glory of that
+transcendant genius to whom we owe the knowledge of a New World.</p>
+
+<p>The claim of the Welsh to the first discovery of America seems to rest
+upon no better original authority than that of Meridith-ap-Rees, a bard
+who died in the year 1477. His verses only relate that Prince Madoc,
+wearied with dissensions at home, searched the ocean for a new kingdom.
+The tale of this adventurer's voyages and colonization was written one
+hundred years subsequent to the early Spanish discoveries, and seems to
+be merely a fanciful completion of his history: he probably perished in
+the unknown seas. It is certain that neither the ancient principality
+nor the world reaped any benefit from these alleged discoveries.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth
+centuries, the Venetian Marco Polo<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and the Englishman Mandeville<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+awakened the curiosity of Europe with respect to the remote parts of the
+earth. Wise and discerning men selected the more valuable portions of
+their observations; ideas were enlarged, and a desire for more perfect
+information excited a thirst for discovery. While this spirit was
+gaining strength in Europe, the wonderful powers of the magnet were
+revealed to the Western World.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> The invention of the mariner's
+compass aided and extended navigation more than all the experience and
+adventure of preceding ages: the light of the stars, the guidance of the
+sea-coast, were no longer necessary; trusting to the mysterious powers
+of his new friend, the sailor steered out fearlessly into the ocean,
+through the bewildering mists or the darkness of night.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards were the first to profit by the bolder spirit and improved
+science of navigation. About the beginning of the fourteenth century,
+they were led to the accidental discovery of the Canary Islands,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and
+made repeated voyages thither, plundering the wretched inhabitants, and
+carrying them off as slaves.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Pope Clement VI. conferred these
+countries as a kingdom upon Louis de la Cerda, of the royal race of
+Castile; he, however, was powerless to avail himself of the gift, and it
+passed to the stronger hand of John de Bethancourt, a Norman baron.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+The countrymen of this bold adventurer explored the seas far to the
+south of the Canary Islands, and acquired some knowledge of the coast of
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The glory of leading the career of systematic exploration belongs to the
+Portuguese:<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> their attempts were not only attended with considerable
+success, but gave encouragement and energy to those efforts that were
+crowned by the discovery of a world: among them the great Genoese was
+trained, and their steps in advance matured the idea, and aided the
+execution of his design. The nations of Europe had now begun to cast
+aside the errors and prejudices of their ancestors. The works of the
+ancient Greeks and Romans were eagerly searched for information, and
+former discoveries brought to light.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> The science of the Arabians was
+introduced and cultivated by the Moors and Jews, and geometry,
+astronomy, and geography were studied as essential to the art of
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1412, the Portuguese doubled Cape Non, the limit of ancient
+enterprise. For upward of seventy years afterward they pursued their
+explorations, with more or less of vigor and success, along the African
+coast, and among the adjacent islands. By intercourse with the people of
+these countries they gradually acquired some knowledge of lands yet
+unvisited. Experience proved that the torrid zone was not closed to the
+enterprise of man.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> They found that the form of the continent
+contracted as it stretched southward, and that it tended toward the
+east. Then they brought to mind the accounts of the ancient Phoenician
+voyagers round Africa,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> long deemed fabulous, and the hope arose that
+they might pursue the same career, and win for themselves the
+magnificent prize of Indian commerce. In the year 1486 the adventurous
+Bartholomew Diaz<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> first reached the Cape of Good Hope; soon afterward
+the information gained by Pedro de Covilham, in his overland journey,
+confirmed the consequent sanguine expectations of success. The attention
+of Europe was now fully aroused, and the progress of the Portuguese was
+watched with admiration and suspense. But during this interval, while
+all eyes were turned with anxious interest toward the East, a little
+bark, leaky and tempest-tossed, sought shelter in the Tagus.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> It had
+come from the Far West&mdash;over that stormy sea where, from the creation
+until then, had brooded an impenetrable mystery. It bore the richest
+freight<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> that ever lay upon the bosom of the deep&mdash;the tidings of a
+New World.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>It would be but tedious to repeat here all the well-known story of
+Christopher Columbus;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> his early dangers and adventures, his
+numerous voyages, his industry, acquirements, and speculations, and how
+at length the great idea arose in his mind, and matured itself into a
+conviction; then how conviction led to action, checked and interrupted,
+but not weakened, by the doubts of pedantic ignorance,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and the
+treachery,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> coolness, or contempt of courts. On Friday,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> the 3d
+of August, 1492, a squadron of three small, crazy ships, bearing ninety
+men, sailed from the port of Palos, in Andalusia. Columbus, the
+commander and pilot, was deeply impressed with sentiments of religion;
+and, as the spread of Christianity was one great object of the
+expedition, he and his followers before their departure had implored the
+blessing of Heaven<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> upon the voyage, from which they might never
+return.</p>
+
+<p>They steered at first for the Canaries, over a well-known course; but on
+the 6th of September they sailed from Gomera, the most distant of those
+islands, and, leaving the usual track of navigation, stretched westward
+into the unknown sea. And still ever westward for six-and-thirty days
+they bent their course through the dreary desert of waters; terrified by
+the changeless wind that wafted them hour after hour further into the
+awful solitude, and seemed to forbid the prospect of return; bewildered
+by the altered hours of day and night, and more than all by the
+mysterious variation of their only guide, for the magnetic needle no
+longer pointed to the pole.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Then strange appearances in the sea
+aroused new fears: vast quantities of weeds covered the surface,
+retarding the motion of the vessels; the sailors imagined that they had
+reached the utmost boundary of the navigable ocean, and that they were
+rushing blindly into the rocks and quicksands of some submerged
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>The master mind turned all these strange novelties into omens of
+success. The changeless wind was the favoring breath of the Omnipotent;
+the day lengthened as they followed the sun's course; an ingenious
+fiction explained the inconstancy of the needle; the vast fields of
+sea-weed bespoke a neighboring shore; and the flight of unknown
+birds<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> was hailed with happy promise. But as time passed on, and
+brought no fulfillment of their hopes, the spirits of the timid began to
+fail; the flattering appearances of land had repeatedly deceived them;
+they were now very far beyond the limit of any former voyage. From the
+timid and ignorant these doubts spread upward, and by degrees the
+contagion extended from ship to ship: secret murmurs rose to
+conspiracies, complaints, and mutiny. They affirmed that they had
+already performed their duty in so long pursuing an unknown and hopeless
+course, and that they would no more follow a desperate adventurer to
+destruction. Some even proposed to cast their leader into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The menaces and persuasions that had so often enabled Columbus to
+overcome the turbulence and fears of his followers now ceased to be of
+any avail. He gave way to an irresistible necessity, and promised that
+he would return to Spain, if unsuccessful in their search for three days
+more. To this brief delay the mutineers consented. The signs of land now
+brought almost certainty to the mind of the great leader. The
+sounding-line brought up such soil as is only found near the shore:
+birds were seen of a kind supposed never to venture on a long flight. A
+piece of newly-cut cane floated past, and a branch of a tree bearing
+fresh berries was taken up by the sailors. The clouds around the setting
+sun wore a new aspect, and the breeze became warm and variable. On the
+evening of the 11th of October every sail was furled, and strict watch
+kept, lest the ships might drift ashore during the night.</p>
+
+<p>On board the admiral's vessel all hands were invariably assembled for
+the evening hymn; on this occasion a public prayer for success was
+added, and with those holy sounds Columbus hailed the appearance of that
+small, shifting light,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> which crowned with certainty his
+long-cherished hope,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> turned his faith into realization,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and
+stamped his name forever upon the memory of man.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was by accident only that England had been deprived of the glory of
+these great discoveries. Columbus, when repulsed by the courts of
+Portugal and Spain, sent his brother Bartholomew to London,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> to lay
+his projects before Henry VII., and seek assistance for their execution.
+The king, although the most penurious of European princes, saw the vast
+advantage of the offer, and at once invited the great Genoese to his
+court. Bartholomew was, however, captured by pirates on his return
+voyage, and detained till too late, for in the mean while Isabella of
+Castile had adopted the project of Columbus, and supplied the means for
+the expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VII. was not discouraged by this disappointment: two years after
+the discoveries of Columbus became known in England, the king entered
+into an arrangement with John Cabot, an adventurous Venetian merchant,
+resident at Bristol, and, on the 5th of March, 1495, granted him letters
+patent for conquest and discovery. Henry stipulated that one fifth of
+the gains in this enterprise was to be retained for the crown, and that
+the vessels engaged in it should return to the port of Bristol. On the
+24th of June, 1497, Cabot discovered the coast of Labrador, and gave it
+the name of <i>Primavista</i>. This was, without doubt, the first visit of
+Europeans to the Continent of North America,<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> since the time of the
+Scandinavian voyages. A large island lay opposite to this shore: from
+the vast quantity of fish frequenting the neighboring waters, the
+sailors called it <i>Bacallaos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> Cabot gave this country the name of
+St. John's, having landed there on St. John's day. Newfoundland has long
+since superseded both appellations. John Cabot returned to England in
+August of the same year, and was knighted and otherwise rewarded by the
+king; he survived but a very short time in the enjoyment of his fame,
+and his son Sebastian Cabot, although only twenty-three years of age,
+succeeded him in the command of an expedition destined to seek a
+northwest passage to the South Seas.</p>
+
+<p>Sebastian Cabot sailed in the summer of 1498: he soon reached
+Newfoundland, and thence proceeded north as far as the fifty-eighth
+degree. Having failed in discovering the hoped-for passage, he returned
+toward the south, examining the coast as far as the southern boundary of
+Maryland, and perhaps Virginia. After a long interval, the enterprising
+mariner again, in 1517, sailed for America, and entered the bay<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
+which, a century afterward, received the name of Hudson. If prior
+discovery confer a right of possession, there is no doubt that the whole
+eastern coast of the North American Continent may be justly claimed by
+the English race.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>Gaspar Cortereal was the next voyager in the succession of discoverers:
+he had been brought up in the household of the King of Portugal, but
+nourished an ardent spirit of enterprise and thirst for glory, despite
+the enervating influences of a court. He sailed early in the year 1500,
+and pursued the track of John Cabot as far as the northern point of
+Newfoundland; to him is due the discovery of the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> and he also pushed on northward, by the coast of
+Labrador,<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> almost to the entrance of Hudson's Bay. The adventurer
+returned to Lisbon in October of the same year. This expedition was
+undertaken more for mercantile advantage than for the advancement of
+knowledge; timber and slaves seem to have been the objects; no less than
+fifty-seven of the natives were brought back to Portugal, and doomed to
+bondage. These unhappy savages proved so robust and useful, that great
+benefits were anticipated from trading on their servitude;<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> the
+dreary and distant land of their birth, covered with snow for half the
+year, was despised by the Portuguese, whose thoughts and hopes were ever
+turned to the fertile plains, the sunny skies, and the inexhaustible
+treasures of the East.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>But disaster and destruction soon fell upon these bold and merciless
+adventurers. In a second voyage, the ensuing year, Cortereal and all his
+followers were lost at sea: when some time had elapsed without tidings
+of their fate, his brother sailed to seek them; but he too, probably,
+perished in the stormy waters of the North Atlantic, for none of them
+were ever heard of more. The King of Portugal, feeling a deep interest
+in these brothers, fitted out three armed vessels and sent them to the
+northwest. Inquiries were made along the wild shores which Cortereal had
+first explored, without trace or tidings being found of the bold
+mariner, and the ocean was searched for many months, but the deep still
+keeps it secret.</p>
+
+<p>Florida was discovered in 1512 by Ponce de Leon, one of the most eminent
+among the followers of Columbus. The Indians had told him wonderful
+tales of a fountain called Bimini, in an island of these seas; the
+fountain possessed the power, they said, of restoring instantly youth
+and vigor to those who bathed in its waters. He sailed for months in
+search of this miraculous spring, landing at every point, entering each
+port, however shallow or dangerous, still ever hoping; but in the weak
+and presumptuous effort to grasp at a new life, he wasted away his
+strength and energy, and prematurely brought on those ills of age he had
+vainly hoped to shun. Nevertheless, this wild adventure bore its
+wholesome fruits, for Ponce de Leon then first brought to the notice of
+Europe that beautiful land which, from its wonderful fertility and the
+splendor of its flowers, obtained the name of Florida.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first attempt made by the French to share in the advantages of these
+discoveries was in the year 1504. Some Basque and Breton fishermen at
+that time began to ply their calling on the Great Bank of Newfoundland,
+and along the adjacent shores. From them the Island of Cape Breton
+received its name. In 1506, Jean Denys, a man of Harfleur, drew a map of
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Two years afterward, a pilot of Dieppe, named
+Thomas Aubert, excited great curiosity in France by bringing over some
+of the savage natives from the New World: there is no record whence they
+were taken, but it is supposed from Cape Breton. The reports borne back
+to France by these hardy fishermen and adventurers were not such as to
+raise sanguine hopes of riches from the bleak northern regions they had
+visited: no teeming fertility or genial climate tempted the settler, no
+mines of gold or silver excited the avarice of the soldier;<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> and for
+many years the French altogether neglected to profit by their
+discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time, Pope Alexander VI. issued a bull bestowing the whole
+of the New World upon the kings of Spain and Portugal.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> Neither
+England nor France allowed the right of conferring this magnificent and
+undefined gift; it did not throw the slightest obstacle in the path of
+British enterprise and discovery, and the high-spirited Francis I. of
+France refused to acknowledge the papal decree.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the year 1523, Francis I. fitted out a squadron of four ships to
+pursue discovery<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> in the west; the command was intrusted to Giovanni
+Verazzano, of Florence, a navigator of great skill and experience, then
+residing in France: he was about thirty-eight years of age, nobly born,
+and liberally educated; the causes that induced him to leave his own
+country and take service in France are not known. It has often been
+remarked as strange that three Italians should have directed the
+discoveries of Spain, England, and France, and thus become the
+instruments of dividing the dominions of the New World among alien
+powers, while their own classic land reaped neither glory nor advantage
+from the genius and courage of her sons. Of this first voyage the only
+record remaining is a letter from Verazzano to Francis I., dated 8th of
+July, 1524, merely stating that he had returned in safety to Dieppe.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the following year Verazzano fitted out and armed a
+vessel called the Dauphine, manned with a crew of thirty hands, and
+provisioned for eight months. He first directed his course to Madeira;
+having reached that island in safety, he left it on the 17th of January
+and steered for the west. After a narrow escape from the violence of a
+tempest, and having proceeded for about nine hundred leagues, a long,
+low line of coast rose to view, never before seen by ancient or modern
+navigators. This country appeared thickly peopled by a vigorous race, of
+tall stature and athletic form; fearing to risk a landing at first with
+his weak force, the adventurer contented himself with admiring at a
+distance the grandeur and beauty of the scenery, and enjoying the
+delightful mildness of the climate. From this place he followed the
+coast for about fifty leagues to the south, without discovering any
+harbor or inlet where he might shelter his vessel; he then retraced his
+course and steered to the north. After some time Verazzano ventured to
+send a small boat on shore to examine the country more closely: numbers
+of savages came to the water's edge to meet the strangers, and gazed on
+them with mingled feelings of surprise, admiration, joy, and fear. He
+again resumed his northward course, till, driven by want of water, he
+armed the small boat and sent it once more toward the land to seek a
+supply; the waves and surf, however, were so great that it could not
+reach the shore. The natives assembled on the beach, by their signs and
+gestures, eagerly invited the French to approach: one young sailor, a
+bold swimmer, threw himself into the water, bearing some presents for
+the savages, but his heart failed him on a nearer approach, and he
+turned to regain the boat; his strength was exhausted, however, and a
+heavy sea washed him, almost insensible, up upon the beach. The Indians
+treated him with great kindness, and, when he had sufficiently
+recovered, sent him back in safety to the ship.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>Verazzano pursued his examination of the coast with untiring zeal, narrowly
+searching every inlet for a passage through to the westward, until he
+reached the great island known to the Breton fishermen&mdash;Newfoundland.
+In this important voyage he surveyed more than two thousand miles of
+coast, nearly all that of the present United States, and a great
+portion of British North America.</p>
+
+<p>A short time after Verazzano's return to Europe, he fitted out another
+expedition, with the sanction of Francis I., for the establishment of a
+colony in the newly-discovered countries. Nothing certain is known of
+the fate of this enterprise, but the bold navigator returned to France
+no more; the dread inspired by his supposed fate<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> deterred the French
+king and people from any further adventure across the Atlantic during
+many succeeding years. In later times it has come to light that
+Verazzano was alive thirteen years after this period:<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> those best
+informed on the subject are of opinion that the enterprise fell to the
+ground in consequence of Francis I. having been captured by the Emperor
+Charles V., and that the adventurer withdrew himself from the service of
+France, having lost his patron's support.</p>
+
+<p>The year after the failure of Verazzano's last enterprise, 1525, Stefano
+Gomez sailed from Spain for Cuba and Florida; thence he steered
+northward in search of the long-hoped-for passage to India, till he
+reached Cape Race, on the south-eastern extremity of Newfoundland. The
+further details of his voyage remain unknown, but there is reason to
+suppose that he entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and traded upon its
+shores. An ancient Castilian tradition existed that the Spaniards
+visited these coasts before the French, and having perceived no
+appearance of mines or riches, they exclaimed frequently, "Aca
+nada;"<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> the natives caught up the sound, and when other Europeans
+arrived, repeated it to them. The strangers concluded that these words
+were a designation, and from that time this magnificent country bore the
+name of <span class="smcap">Canada</span>.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> "La sph&eacute;ricit&eacute; de la terre &eacute;tant reconnue, l'&egrave;tendue de la
+terre habit&eacute;e en longitude d&eacute;termin&eacute;, en m&ecirc;me temps la largeur de
+l'Atlantique entre les c&ocirc;tes occidentales d'Europe et d'Afrique et les
+c&ocirc;tes orientales d'Asie par diff&eacute;rens degr&eacute;s de latitude. Eratosth&egrave;ne
+(Strabo, ii., p. 87, Cas.) &eacute;value la circonf&eacute;rence de l'&eacute;quateur &agrave;
+252,000 stades, et la largeur de la <i>chlamyde</i> du Cap Sacr&egrave; (Cap Saint
+Vincent) &agrave; l'extr&eacute;mit&eacute; de la grande ceinture de Taurus, pr&egrave;s de Thin&aelig; &agrave;
+70,000 stades. En prolongeant la distance vers le sud est jusque au cap
+des Coliaques qui, d'apr&egrave;s les id&eacute;es de Strabon sur la configuration de
+l'Asie, repr&eacute;sente notre Cap Comorin, et avance plus &agrave; l'est que la c&ocirc;te
+de Thin&aelig;, la combinaison des donn&eacute;es d'Eratosth&egrave;ne offre 74,600 et m&ecirc;me
+78,000 stades. Or, en r&eacute;duisant, par la diff&eacute;rence de latitude, le
+p&eacute;rim&egrave;tre equatorial au parall&egrave;le de Rhodes, des portes Caspiennes et de
+Thin&aelig; c'est &agrave; dire, au parall&egrave;le de 36&deg; 0' et non de 36&deg; 21', on trouve
+203,872 stades, et pour largeur de la terre habit&eacute;e, par le parall&egrave;le de
+Rhodes, 67,500 stades. Strabon dit par cons&eacute;quence avec justesse, dans
+le fameux passage o&ugrave; il semble pr&eacute;dire l'existence du Nouveau Continent,
+en parlant de deux terres habit&eacute;es dans la m&ecirc;me zone temp&eacute;r&eacute;e bor&eacute;ale
+que les terres occupent plus du tiers de la circonf&eacute;rence du parall&egrave;le
+qui passe par Thin&aelig;. Par cette supposition la distance de l'Ib&egrave;rie aux
+Indes est au del&agrave; de 236&deg; &agrave; peu pr&egrave;s 240&deg;. Ou peut &ecirc;tre surpris de voir
+que le r&eacute;sultat le plus ancien est aussi le plus exact de tous ceux que
+nous trouvons en descendant d'Eratosth&egrave;ne par Posidonius aux temps de
+Marin de Tyr et de Ptol&eacute;m&eacute;e. La terre habit&eacute;e offre effectivement,
+d'apr&egrave;s nos connaissances actuelles, entre les 36&deg; et 37&deg; 130 degr&eacute;s
+d'&eacute;tendue en longitude; il y a par cons&eacute;quent des c&ocirc;tes de la Chine au
+Cap Sacr&eacute; &agrave; travers l'oc&eacute;an de l'est &agrave; l'ouest 230 degr&eacute;s. L'accord que
+je nommerai accidentel de cette vraie distance et de l'&eacute;valuation
+d'Eratosth&egrave;ne atteint done dix degr&eacute;s en longitude. Posidonius
+'soup&ccedil;onne (c'est l'expression de Strabon, lib. ii., p. 102, Cas.), que
+la longueur de la terre habit&eacute;e laquelle est, selon lui, d'environ
+70,000 stades, doit former la moiti&eacute; du cercle entier sur lequel le
+mesure se prend, et qu' ainsi &agrave; partir de l'extr&eacute;mit&eacute; occidentale de
+cette m&ecirc;me terre habit&eacute;e, en naviguant avec un vent d'est continuel
+l'espace de 70,000 autres stades, ou arriverait dans l'Inde."&mdash;Humboldt's
+<i>G&eacute;ographie du Nouveau Continent</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> "La longueur de la terre habit&eacute;e comprise entre les
+m&eacute;ridiens des &icirc;les Fortun&eacute;es et de Sera &eacute;toit, d'apr&egrave;s Marin de Tyr
+(Ptol., Geogr., lib. i., cap. 11) de 15 heures ou de 225&deg;. C'&eacute;toit
+avancer les c&ocirc;tes de la Chine jusqu'au m&eacute;ridien des &icirc;les Sandwich, et
+r&eacute;duire l'espace &agrave; parcourir des &icirc;les Canaries aux c&ocirc;tes orientales de
+l'Asie &agrave; 135&deg;, erreur de 86&deg; en longitude. La grande extension de
+23-1/2&deg; que les anciens donnoient &agrave; la mer Caspienne, contribuoit
+&eacute;galement beaucoup &agrave; augmenter la largeur de l'Asie. Ptol&eacute;m&eacute;e a laisse
+intacte, dans l'&eacute;valuation de la terre habit&eacute;e, selon Posidonius, la
+distance des &icirc;les Fortun&eacute;es au passage de l'Euphrate &agrave; Hi&eacute;rapolis. Les
+reductions de Ptol&eacute;m&eacute;e ne portent que sur les distances de l'Euphrate &agrave;
+<i>la Tour de Pierre</i> et de cette tour &agrave; la m&eacute;tropole des Seres. Les 225&deg;
+de Marin de Tyr deviennent, selon l'Almagest (lib. ii., p. 1) 180&deg;,
+selon la G&eacute;ographie de Ptol&eacute;m&eacute;e (lib. i., p. 12) 177-1/4&deg;. Les c&ocirc;tes des
+Sin&aelig;<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> reculent donc du m&eacute;ridien des &icirc;les Sandwich vers celui des
+Carolines orientales, et l'espace &agrave; parcourir par mer en longitude
+n'&eacute;toit plus de 135&deg;, mais de 180&deg; &agrave; 182-3/4&deg;. Il &eacute;toit dans les
+int&eacute;r&ecirc;ts de Christophe Colomb de pr&eacute;f&eacute;rer de beaucoup les calculs de
+Marin de Tyr &agrave; ceux de Ptol&eacute;m&eacute;e et a force de conjectures Colomb
+parvient &agrave; restreindre l'espace de l'Oc&eacute;an qui lui restait &agrave; traverser
+des &icirc;les du cap Vert au Cathay de l'Asie orientale &agrave; 128&deg;" (<i>Vida del
+Almirante</i>).&mdash;Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;ographie du Nouveau Continent</i>, vol. ii., p.
+364.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In opposition to the opinion of Malte Brun and M. de
+Josselin, Mr. Hugh Murray is considered to have satisfactorily proved
+the correctness of Ptolemy's assertion that the Seres or Sin&aelig; are
+identical with the Chinese.&mdash;See <i>Trans. of the Royal Society of
+Edinburgh</i>, vol. viii., p. 171.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> That the vast waters of the Atlantic were regarded with
+"awe and wonder, seeming to bound the world as with a chaos," needs no
+greater proof than the description given of it by Xerif al Edrizi, an
+eminent Arabian writer, whose countrymen were the boldest navigators of
+the Middle Ages, and possessed all that was then known of geography.
+"The ocean," he observes, "encircles the ultimate bounds of the
+inhabited earth, and all beyond it is unknown. No one has been able to
+verify any thing concerning it, on account of its difficult and perilous
+navigation, its great obscurity, its profound depth, and frequent
+tempests; through fear of its mighty fishes and its haughty winds; yet
+there are many islands in it, some peopled, others uninhabited. There is
+no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters; or if any have done
+so, they have merely kept along its coasts, fearful of departing from
+them. The waves of this ocean, though they roll as high as mountains,
+yet maintain themselves without breaking; for if they broke it would be
+impossible for ship to plow them."&mdash;<i>Description of Spain</i>, by Xerif al
+Edrizi: Cond&eacute;'s Spanish translation. Madrid, 1799.&mdash;Quoted by Washington
+Irving.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Aristotle, Strabo, Pliny, and Seneca arrived at this
+conclusion. The idea, however, of an intervening continent never appears
+to have suggested itself.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> In the Atlantic Ocean, over against the Pillars of
+Hercules, lay an island larger than Asia and Africa taken together, and
+in its vicinity were other islands. The ocean in which these islands
+were situated was surrounded on every side by main-land; and the
+Mediterranean, compared with it, resembled a mere harbor or narrow
+entrance. Nine thousand years before the time of Plato this island of
+Atlantis was both thickly settled and very powerful. Its sway extended
+over Africa as far as Egypt, and over Europe as far as the Tyrrhenian
+Sea. The further progress of its conquests, however, was checked by the
+Athenians, who, partly with the other Greeks, partly by themselves,
+succeeded in defeating these powerful invaders, the natives of Atlantis.
+After this a violent earthquake, which lasted for the space of a day and
+a night, and was accompanied with inundations of the sea, caused the
+islands to sink; and for a long period subsequent to this, the sea in
+that quarter was impassable by reason of the slime and shoals.&mdash;Plato,
+<i>Tim.</i>, 24-29, 296; <i>Crit.</i>, 108-110, 39, 43. The learned Gessner is of
+opinion that the Isle of Ceres, spoken of in a poem of very high
+antiquity, attributed to Orpheus, was a fragment of Atlantis. Kircher,
+in his "Mundus Subterraneus," and Beckman, in his "History of Islands,"
+suppose the Atlantis to have been an island extending from the Canaries
+to the Azores; that it was really ingulfed in one of the convulsions of
+the globe, and that those small islands are mere fragments of it.
+Gosselin, in his able research into the voyages of the ancients,
+supposes the Atlantis of Plato to have been nothing more nor less than
+one of the nearest of the Canaries, viz, Fortaventura or Lancerote.
+Carli and many others find America in the Atlantis, and adduce many
+plausible arguments in support of their assertion.&mdash;Carli, <i>Letters
+Amer.</i>; Fr. transl., ii., 180. M. Bailly, in his "Letters sur
+l'Atlantide de Platon," maintains the existence of the Atlantides, and
+their island Atlantis, by the authorities of Homer, Sanchoniathon, and
+Diodorus Siculus, in addition to that of Plato. Manheim maintains very
+strenuously that Plato's Atlantis is Sweden and Norway. M. Bailly, after
+citing many ancient testimonies, which concur in placing this famous
+isle in the north, quotes that of Plutarch, who confirms these
+testimonies by a circumstantial description of the Isle of Ogygia, or
+the Atlantis, which he represents as situated in the north of Europe.
+The following is the theory of Buffon: after citing the passage relating
+to the Atlantis, from Plato's "Tim&aelig;us," he adds, "This ancient tradition
+is not devoid of probability. The lands swallowed up by the waters were,
+perhaps, those which united Ireland to the Azores, and the Azores to the
+Continent of America; for in Ireland there are the same fossils, the
+same shells, and the same sea bodies as appear in America, and some of
+them are found in no other part of Europe."&mdash;Buffon's <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, by
+Smellie, vol. i., p. 507.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The first authentic description of the Mar di Sargasso of
+Aristotle is due to Columbus. It spreads out between the nineteenth and
+thirty-fourth degrees of north latitude. Its chief axis lies about seven
+degrees to the westward of the Island of Corvo. The smaller bank, on the
+other hand, lies between the Bermudas and Bahamas. The winds and partial
+currents in different years slightly affect the position and extent of
+these Atlantic "sea-weed meadows." No other sea in either hemisphere
+displays a similar extent of surface covered by plants collected in this
+way. These meadows of the ocean present the wonderful spectacle of a
+collection of plants covering a space nearly seven times as large as
+France.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See Appendix, No. II. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See Aristotle, <i>De Mirab. Auscult.</i>, cap. lxxxiv., 84, p.
+836, Bekk. This work, "A Collection of Wonderful Narratives," is
+attributed to Aristotle; the real compiler is unknown. According to
+Humboldt, it seems to have been written before the first Punic
+war.&mdash;Diodorus of Sicily, vol. xix. Aristotle attributes the discovery
+of the island to the Carthaginians; Diodorus to the Ph&oelig;nicians. The
+occurrence is said to have taken place in the earliest times of the
+Tyrrhenian dominion of the sea, during the contest between the
+Tyrrhenian Pelasgi and the Ph&oelig;nicians. The Island of the Seven Cities
+(see Appendix, No. II. (vol. II.)) was identified with the island mentioned by
+Aristotle as having been discovered by the Carthaginians, and was
+inserted in the early maps under the name of Antilla. Paul Toscanelli,
+the celebrated physician of Florence, thus writes to Columbus: "From the
+Island of Antilia, which you call the Seven Cities, and of which you
+have some knowledge," &amp;c. In the Middle Ages conjectures were
+religiously inscribed upon the maps, as is proved by Antilia, St.
+Borondon (see Appendix (vol. II.)), the Hand of Satan, Green Island, Maida Island,
+and the exact form of vast southern regions. Humboldt refers the name of
+Antilia so far back as the fourteenth century. The earliest date given
+by Ferdinand Columbus is 1436. "Beyond the Azores, but at no great
+distance toward the west, occurs the Ysola de Antilia, which we may
+conclude, even allowing the date of the map to be genuine (in the
+library of St. Mark, at Venice, date 1436), to be a mere gratuitous or
+theoretic supposition, and to have received that strange name because
+the obvious and natural idea of antipodes has been anathematized by
+Catholic ignorance." He elsewhere says that "some Portuguese
+cosmographers have inserted the island described by Aristotle in maps
+under the name of Antilia."&mdash;<i>Hist. of the Discovery of America</i>, by Don
+Ferdinand Columbus, in Ker, vol. iii., p. 3-29.
+</p><p>
+The origin of the name Antilla, or Antilia, is still a matter of
+conjecture. Humboldt attributes to a "litt&eacute;rateur distingu&eacute;" the
+solution of the enigma, from a passage in Aristotle's "De Mundo," which
+speaks of the probable existence of unknown lands opposite to the mass
+of continents which we inhabit. These countries, be they small or
+great, whose shores are opposed to ours, were marked out by the word
+<i>porthornoi</i>, which in the Middle Ages was translated by <i>antinsul&aelig;</i>.
+Humboldt says that this translation is totally incorrect; however, the
+idea of the "litt&eacute;rateur distingu&eacute;" is evidently the same as Ferdinand
+Columbus's. The following is the hypothesis favored by Humboldt:
+"Peut-&ecirc;tre m&ecirc;me le nom d'Antilia qui para&icirc;t pour la premi&egrave;re fois sur
+une carte V&eacute;nitienne de 1436 n'est il qu'une forme Portuguaise donn&eacute;e &agrave;
+un nom g&eacute;ographique des Arabes. L'&eacute;tymologie que hasarde M. Buace me
+para&icirc;t tr&egrave;s ing&eacute;nieuse.... La syllabe initiale me para&icirc;t la corruption
+de l'article Arabe. D'al Tinnin et d'Al tin on aura fait peu &agrave; peu Antinna
+et Antilla, comme par un d&eacute;placement analogue de consonnes, les Espagnols
+ont fait de crocodilo, corcodilo et cocodrilo. Le Dragon est <i>al Tin</i>,
+et l'Antilia est peut-&ecirc;tre, l'&icirc;le des dragons  marins."&mdash;Humboldt's
+<i>Ex. Crit.</i>, vol. ii., 211.
+</p><p>
+Oviedo applies the relation of Aristotle to the Hesperian Islands, and
+asserts that they were the "India" discovered by Columbus. "Perch&egrave; egli
+(Colombo) conobbe come era in effetto che queste terre che egli ben
+ritrovava scritte, erano del tutto uscite dalla memoria degli uomin; e
+io per me non dubito che si sapissero, e possedessero anticamente dalli
+R&egrave; de Spagna: e voglio qui dire quello che Aristotele in questo caso ne
+scrisse, &amp;c.... io tengo che queste Indie siano quelle autiche e famose
+Isole Hesperide cos&egrave; dette da Hespero 12 Re di Spagna. Or come la Spagna
+e l'Italia tolsero il nome da Hespero 12 Re di Spagna cosi anco da
+questo istesso ex torsero queste isole Hesperidi, che noi diciamo, <i>onde
+senza</i> alcun dubbio si de tenere, che in quel tempe questo isole sotto
+la signoria della Spagna stessero, e sotto un medesmo Re, che fu (come
+Beroso dice) 1658 anni prima che il nostro Salvatore nascesse. E perch&egrave;
+al presente siamo nel 1535 della salute nostra, ne segue che siano ora
+tre milo e cento novantatre anni che la Spagna e'l suo Re Hespero
+signoreggiavano queste Indie o Isole Hesperidi. E come cosa sua par che
+abbia la divina giustizia voluto ritornargliele."&mdash;<i>Hist. Gen. dell'
+Indie de Gonzalo Fernando d'Oviedo</i>, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 80.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> "It is very possible that in the same temperate zone, and
+almost in the same latitude as Thin&aelig; (or Athens?), where it crosses the
+Atlantic Ocean, there are inhabited worlds, distinct from that in which
+we dwell."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>&mdash;Strabo, lib. i., p. 65, and lib. ii., p. 118. It is
+surprising that this expression never attracted the attention of the
+Spanish authors, who, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, were
+searching every where in classical literature with the expectation of
+finding some traces of acquaintance with the New World.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> "The idea of such a locality in a continuation of the long
+axis of the Mediterranean was connected with a grand view of the earth
+by Eratosthenes (generally and extensively known among the ancients),
+according to which the entire ancient continent, in its widest expanse
+from west to east, in the parallel of about thirty-six degrees, presents
+an almost unbroken line of elevation."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "D'Anville a dit avec esprit que la plus grande des
+erreurs dans la g&eacute;ographie de Ptol&eacute;m&eacute;e a conduit les hommes &agrave; la plus
+grande d&eacute;couverte de terres nouvelles c'est, &agrave; dire la supposition que
+l'Asie s'&eacute;tendait vers l'est, au del&agrave; du 180 degr&eacute; de longitude."
+</p><p>
+Both Strabo and Aristotle speak of "the same sea bathing opposite
+shores," Strabo, lib. i., p. 103; lib. ii., p. 162. Aristotle, <i>De
+C&aelig;lo</i>, lib. ii., cap. 14, p. 297. The possibility of navigating from the
+extremity of Europe to the eastern shores of Asia is clearly asserted by
+the Stagirite, and in the two celebrated passages of Strabo. Aristotle
+does not suppose the distance to be very great, and draws an ingenious
+argument in favor of his supposition from the geography of animals.
+Strabo sees no obstacle to passing from Iberia to India, except the
+immense extent of the Atlantic Ocean. It is to be remembered that
+Strabo, as well as Eratosthenes, extend the appellation of Atlantic Sea
+to every part of the ocean.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;og. du Nouveau Continent</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See Appendix, No. III. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Au milieu de tant de discussions acerbes qu'une curieuse
+malignit&eacute; et le go&ucirc;t d'une fausse &eacute;rudition classique firent na&icirc;tre sur
+le m&eacute;rite de Christophe Colomb, parmi ses contemporains, personne n'a
+pens&eacute; aux navigations des Normands comme pr&eacute;curseurs des G&eacute;nois. Cette
+id&eacute;e ne se presenta que soixante quatre ans apr&egrave;s la mort du grand
+homme. On savait par ces propres r&eacute;cits 'qu'il &eacute;toit all&eacute; &agrave; Thul&eacute;' mais
+alors ce voyage vers le nord ne fit na&icirc;tre aucun soup&ccedil;on sur la
+priorit&eacute;, de la d&eacute;couverte.... Le m&eacute;rite d'avoir reconnu la premi&egrave;re
+d&eacute;couverte de l'Am&eacute;rique septentrionale par les Normands appartient
+indubitablement au g&eacute;ographe Ortelius, qui annon&ccedil;a cette opinion des
+l'ann&eacute;e 1570. 'Christophe Colomb, dit Ortelius, a seulement mis le
+Nouveau Monde en rapport durable de commerce et d'utilit&eacute; avec l'Europe'
+(<i>Theatr. Orbis Terr.</i>, on p. 5, 6). Ce jugement est beaucoup trop
+s&eacute;ver&egrave;."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;og. du Nouveau Continent</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> "Biorn first saw land in the Island of Nantucket, one
+degree south of Boston, then in New Scotland, and lastly in
+Newfoundland."&mdash;Carl Christian Rafn, <i>Antiquitates American&aelig;</i>, 1845, p.
+4, 421; Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>.
+</p><p>
+"The country called 'the good Vinland' (Vinland it goda) by Leif,
+included the shore between Boston and New York, and therefore parts of
+the present states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut,
+between the parallels of latitude of Civita, Vecchia and Terracina,
+where, however, the average temperature of the year is between 46&deg; and
+52&deg; (Fahr.). This was the chief settlement of the Normans. Their active
+and enterprising spirit is proved by the circumstance that, after they
+had settled in the south as far as 41&deg; 30' north latitude, they erected
+three pillars to mark out the boundaries near the eastern coast of
+Baffin's Bay, in the latitude of 72&deg; 55', upon one of the Women Islands
+northwest of the present most northern Danish colony of Upernavik. The
+Runic inscription upon the stone, discovered in the autumn of 1824,
+contains, according to Rask and Finn Magnusen, the date of the year
+1135. From this eastern coast of Baffin's Bay, the colonists visited,
+with great regularity, on account of the fishery, Lancaster Sound and a
+part of Barrow's Straits, and this occurred more than six centuries
+before the bold undertakings of Parry and Ross. The locality of the
+fishery is very accurately described; and Greenland priests, from the
+diocese of Gardar, conducted the first voyage of discovery in 1266.
+These northwestern summer stations were called the Kroksjardar, heathen
+countries. Mention was early made of the Siberian wood, which was then
+collected, as well as of the numerous whales, seals, walrus, and polar
+bears."&mdash;Rafn, <i>Antiq. Amer.</i>, p. 20, 274, 415-418, quoted by Humboldt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> One of the objections brought forward by Robertson against
+the Norman discovery of America is, that the wild vine has never since
+been found so far north as Labrador; but modern travelers have
+ascertained that a species of wild vine grows even as far north as the
+shores of Hudson's Bay.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Since Robertson's time, however, the
+locality of the first Norman settlement has been moved further south,
+and into latitudes where the best species of wild vines are abundant.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Sir A. Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland, 1812. Preliminary
+Dissertation by Dr Holland, p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Rafn, <i>Antiq. Amer.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The Esquimaux were at that time spread much further south
+than they are at present.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>, vol. ii., p. 268.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Eric Upsi, a native of Iceland, and the first Greenland
+bishop, undertook to go to Vinland as a Christian missionary in 1121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "The learned Grotius founds an argument for the
+colonization of America by the Norwegians on the similarity between the
+names of Norway and La Norimb&egrave;gue, a district bordering on New
+England."&mdash;Grotius, <i>De Origine Gentium Americanarum</i>, in quarto, 1642.
+See, also, the Controversy between Grotius and Jean de La&euml;t.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Accurate information respecting the former intercourse of
+the Northmen with the Continent of America reaches only as far as the
+middle of the fourteenth century. In the year 1349 a ship was sent from
+Greenland to Markland (New Scotland) to collect timber and other
+necessaries. Upon their return from Markland, the ship was overtaken by
+storms, and compelled to land at Straumfjord, in the west of Iceland.
+This is the last account of the "Norman America," preserved for us in
+the ancient Scandinavian writings. The settlements upon the west coast
+of Greenland, which were in a very flourishing condition until the
+middle of the fourteenth century, gradually declined, from the fatal
+influence of monopoly of trade, by the invasion of the Esquimaux, by the
+black death which depopulated the north from the year 1347 to 1351, and
+also by the arrival of a hostile fleet, from what country is not known.
+</p><p>
+By means of the critical and most praiseworthy efforts of Christian
+Rafn, and the Royal Society for Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, the
+traditions and ancient accounts of the voyage of the Normans to
+Helluland (Newfoundland), to Markland (the mouth of the River St.
+Lawrence at Nova Scotia), and at Winland (Massachusetts), have been
+separately printed and satisfactorily commented upon. The length of the
+voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the rising and
+setting of the sun, are accurately laid down. The principal sources of
+information are the historical narrations of Erik the Red, Thorfinn
+Karlsefne, and Snorre Thorbrandson, probably written in Greenland
+itself, as early as the twelfth century, partly by descendants of the
+settlers born in Winland.&mdash;Rafn, <i>Antiq. Amer.</i>, p. 7, 14, 16. The care
+with which the tables of their pedigrees was kept was so great, that the
+table of the family of Thorfinn Karlsefne, whose son, Snorre
+Thorbrandson, was born in America, was kept from the year 1007 to 1811.
+</p><p>
+The name of the colonized countries is found in the ancient national
+songs of the natives of the F&auml;r&ouml;e Islands.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>, vol.
+ii., p. 268-452.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See Appendix, No. IV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See Appendix, No. V. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See Appendix, No. VI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> See Appendix, No. VII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The numerous data which have come down to us from
+antiquity, and an acute examination of the local relations, especially
+the great vicinity of the settlements upon the African coast, which
+incontestably existed, lead me to believe that Ph&oelig;nicians,
+Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, and probably even the Etruscans, were
+acquainted with the group of the Canary Islands.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>,
+vol. ii., p. 414.
+</p><p>
+"Porro occidentalis navigatio, quantum etiam fam&acirc; assequi Plinius
+potuit, tantum ad Fortunatas Insulas cursum protendit, earumque
+pr&aelig;cipuam &agrave; multitudine canum Canariam vocatam refert."&mdash;Acosta, <i>De
+Natura Novi Orbis</i>, lib. i., cap. ii.
+</p><p>
+Respecting the probability of the Semitic origin of the name of the
+Canary Islands, Pliny, in his Latinizing etymological notions,
+considered them to be <i>Dog Islands</i>! (Vide Credner's Biblical
+Representation of Paradise, in Illgen's Journal for Historical Theology,
+1836, vol. vi., p. 166-186.)&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>, vol. ii., p. 414.
+</p><p>
+The most fundamental, and, in a literary point of view, the most complete
+account of the Canary Islands, that was written in ancient times, down to
+the Middle Ages, was collected in a work of Joachim Jos&eacute; da Costa de
+Macedo, with the title "Memoria cem que se pretende provar que os Arabes
+n&atilde;o connecer&atilde;o as Canarias autes dos Portuguesques, 1844." (See, also,
+Viera y Clavigo, <i>Notic. de la Hist. de Canaria</i>.)&mdash;Humboldt's
+<i>Cosmos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See Appendix, No. VIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> "Jean de Bethancourt knew that before the expedition of
+Alvaro Beccara, that is to say, before the end of the fourteenth
+century, Norman adventurers had penetrated as far as Sierra Leone (lat.
+8&deg; 30'), and he sought to follow their traces. Before the Portuguese,
+however, no European nation appears to have crossed the
+equator."&mdash;Humboldt.
+</p><p>
+"Les Normands et les Arabes sont les seules nations qui, jusqu'au
+commencement du douzi&egrave;me si&egrave;cle, aient partag&eacute; la gloire des grandes
+exp&eacute;ditions maritimes, le go&ucirc;t des aventures &eacute;tranges, la passion du
+pillage et des conqu&ecirc;tes &eacute;ph&eacute;m&egrave;res. Les Normands ont occup&eacute;
+successivement l'Islande et la Neustrie, ravag&eacute; les sanctuaires de
+l'Italie, ravag&eacute; la Pouille sur les Grecs, inscrit leurs caract&egrave;res
+runiques jusque sur les flancs d'un des lions que Morosini enleva au
+Pir&eacute;e d'Ath&egrave;nes pour en orner l'arsenal de Venise."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;og.
+du Nouveau Continent</i>, vol. ii., p. 86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> "No nation," says Southey, "has ever accomplished such
+great things in proportion to its means as the Portuguese." Its early
+maritime history does, indeed, present a striking picture of enterprise
+and restless energy, but the annals of Europe afford no similar instance
+of rapid degeneracy. There was an age when less than forty thousand
+armed Portuguese kept the whole coasts of the ocean in awe, from Morocco
+to China; when one hundred and fifty sovereign princes paid tribute to
+the treasury of Lisbon. But in all their enterprises they aimed at
+conquest, and not at colonization. The government at home exercised
+little control over the arms of its piratical mariners; the mother
+country derived no benefit from their achievements. To the age of
+conquest succeeded one of effeminacy and corruption.&mdash;Merivale's
+<i>Lectures on Colonization</i>, vol. i., p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See Appendix, No. IX. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> The zones were imaginary bands or circles in the heavens,
+producing an effect of climate on corresponding belts on the globe of
+the earth. The frigid zones, between the polar circles and the poles,
+were considered uninhabitable and unnavigable, on account of the extreme
+cold. The torrid zone, lying beneath the track of the sun, or rather the
+central part of it, immediately about the equator, was considered
+uninhabitable, unproductive, and impassable, on account of the excessive
+heat. The temperate zones, lying between the torrid and the frigid
+zones, were supposed to be the only parts of the globe suited to the
+purposes of life. Parmenides, according to Strabo, was the inventor of
+this theory of the five zones. Aristotle supported the same doctrine. He
+believed that there was habitable earth in the southern hemisphere, but
+that it was forever divided from the part of the world already known by
+the impassable zone of scorching heat at the equator. (Aristot., Met.,
+ii., cap. v.) Pliny supported the opinion of Aristotle concerning the
+burning zones. (Pliny, lib. i., cap. lxvi.) Strabo (lib. ii.), in
+mentioning this theory, gives it likewise his support; and others of the
+ancient philosophers, as well as the poets, might be cited, to show the
+general prevalence of the belief.&mdash;Cicero, <i>Somnium Scipionis</i>, cap.
+vi.; Geminus, cap. xiii., p. 31; ap. Petavii Opus de Doctr. Tempor. in
+quo Uranologium sive Systemata var. Auctorum. Amst., 1705, vol. iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See Appendix, No. X. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Barros, Dec. I., lib. iii., cap. iv., p. 190, says
+distinctly, "Bartholomeu Diaz, e os de sua compantica per causa dos
+perigos, e tormentas, que em o dobrar delle pass&aacute;ram che puyeram nome
+Tormentoso." The merit of the first circumnavigation, therefore, does
+not belong to Vasco de Gama, as is generally supposed. Diaz was at the
+Cape in May, 1487, and, therefore, almost at the same time that Pedro de
+Covilham and Alonzo de Payva of Barcelona commenced their expedition. As
+early as December, 1487, Diaz himself brought to Portugal the account of
+his important discovery. The mission of Pedro Covilham and Alonzo de
+Payva, in 1487, was set on foot by King John II., in order to search for
+"the African priest Johannes." Believing the accounts which he had
+obtained from Indian and Arabian pilots in Calicut, Goa, Aden, as well
+as in Sofala, on the eastern coast of Africa, Covilham informed King
+John II., by means of two Jews from Cairo, that if the Portuguese were
+to continue their voyages of discovery upon the western coast in a
+southerly direction, they would come to the end of Africa, whence a
+voyage to the <i>Island of the Moon</i>, to Zanzibar, and the gold country of
+Sofala, would be very easy. Accounts of the Indian and Arabian trading
+stations upon the east coast of Africa, and of the form of the southern
+extremity of the Continent, may have extended to Venice, through Egypt,
+Abyssinia, and Arabia. The triangular form of Africa was actually
+delineated upon the map of Sanuto, made in 1306, and discovered in the
+"Portulano della Mediceo-Laurenziana," by Count Baldelli in 1351, and
+also in the chart of the world by Fra Mauro.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>, vol.
+ii., p. 290, 461.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Faria y Sousa complains that "the admiral entered Lisbon
+with a vain-glorious exultation, in order to make Portugal feel, by
+displaying the tokens of his discovery, how much she had erred in not
+acceding to his propositions."&mdash;<i>Europa Portuguesa</i>, t. ii., p. 402,
+403.
+</p><p>
+Ruy de Pina asserts that King John was much importuned to kill Columbus
+on the spot, since, with his death, the prosecution of the undertaking,
+as far as the sovereigns of Castile were concerned, would cease, from
+want of a suitable person to take charge of it; but the king had too
+much magnanimity to adopt the iniquitous measure proposed.&mdash;Vasconcellos,
+<i>Vida del Rie Don Juan II.</i>, lib. vi,; Garcia de Resende, <i>Vide
+da Dom Joam II.</i>; Las Casas, <i>Hist. Ind.</i>, lib. i., cap. lxxiv.;
+MS. quoted by Prescott.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> "A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo Mumto di&oacute; Colon,"
+was the inscription on the costly monument that was raised over the
+remains of Columbus in the Carthusian Monastery of La Cuevas at Seville.
+"The like of which," says his son Ferdinand, with as much truth as
+simplicity, "was never recorded of any man in ancient or modern
+times."&mdash;<i>Hist. del Almirante</i>, cap. cviii.
+</p><p>
+His ashes were finally removed to Cuba, where they now repose in the
+Cathedral church of its capital.&mdash;Navarrete, <i>Coleccion de Viages</i>, tom.
+ii.
+</p><p>
+"E dandogli il titol di Don volsero che egli aggiungesse presso all'arm&egrave;
+di casa sua quattro altre, cio&egrave; quelle del Regno de Castiglio di Leon, e
+il Mar Oceano con tutte l'isole e quattro anchore per dimostrare
+l'ufficio d'Almirante, con un motto d'intorno che dicea, 'Per Castiglia
+e per Leon, Nuovo Mundo trovo Colon.'"&mdash;Ramusio, <i>Discorio</i>, tom. iii.
+</p><p>
+The heir of Columbus was always to bear the arms of the admiral, to seal
+with them, and in his signature never to use any other title than simply
+"the Admiral."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XII.&mdash; (vol. II.) In the Middle Ages the prevalent
+opinion was that the sea covered but one seventh of the surface of the
+globe; an opinion which Cardinal d'Ailly (Imago Mundi, cap. viii.)
+founded on the apocryphal fourth book of Ezra. Columbus, who always
+derived much of his cosmological knowledge from the cardinal's work, was
+much interested in upholding this idea of the smallness of the sea, to
+which the misunderstood expression of "the ocean-stream" contributed not
+a little. He was also accustomed to cite Aristotle, and Seneca, and St.
+Augustine, in confirmation of this opinion.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Examen Critique
+de l'Hist. de la G&eacute;ographie</i>, tom. i., p. 186.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> See, especially, the details of the conference held at
+Salamanca (the great seat of learning in Spain), given in the fourth
+chapter of Washington Irving's "Columbus." One of the objections
+advanced was, that, admitting the earth to be spherical, and should a
+ship succeed in reaching in this way the extremity of India, she could
+never get back again; for the rotundity of the globe would present a
+kind of mountain, up which it would be impossible for her to sail with
+the most favorable wind.&mdash;<i>Hist. del Almirante</i>, cap. ii.; <i>Hist. de
+Chiapa por Remesel</i>, lib. ii., cap. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Columbus was required by King John II., of Portugal, to
+furnish a detailed plan of his proposed voyages, with the charts and
+other documents according to which he proposed to shape his course, for
+the alleged purpose of having them examined by the royal counselors. He
+readily complied; but while he remained in anxious suspense as to the
+decision of the council, a caravel was secretly dispatched with
+instructions to pursue the route designated in the papers of Columbus.
+This voyage had the ostensible pretext of carrying provisions to the
+Cape de Verde Islands; the private instructions given were carried into
+effect when the caravel departed thence. It stood westward for several
+days; but then the weather grew stormy, and the pilots having no zeal to
+stimulate them, and seeing nothing but an immeasurable waste of wild,
+trembling waves still extending before them, lost all courage to
+proceed. They put back to the Cape de Verde Islands, and thence to
+Lisbon, excusing their own want of resolution by ridiculing the project
+of Columbus. On discovering this act of treachery, Columbus instantly
+quitted Portugal.&mdash;<i>Hist. del Almirante</i>, cap. viii.; Herrera, Dec. I.,
+lib. i., cap. vii.; Munoz, <i>Hist. del Nuevo Mundo</i>, lib. ii.&mdash;Quoted by
+Prescott.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> "Le Vendredi n'&eacute;tant pas regard&eacute; dans la Chr&eacute;tient&eacute; comme
+un jour de bon augure pour le commencement d'une entreprise, les
+historiens du 17<sup>me</sup> si&egrave;cle, qui g&eacute;missaient d&eacute;j&agrave; sur les maux dont,
+selon eux, l'Europe a &eacute;t&eacute; accabl&eacute; par la d&eacute;couverte de l'Am&eacute;rique, on
+fait remarque que Colomb est parti pour la premi&egrave;re exp&eacute;dition
+<i>vendredi</i>, 3 ao&ucirc;t 1492, et que la premi&egrave;re terre d'Am&eacute;rique a &eacute;t&eacute;
+d&eacute;couverte <i>vendredi</i> 12 Octobre de la m&ecirc;me ann&eacute;e. La r&eacute;formation du
+calendrier appliqu&eacute;e au journal de Colomb, qui indique toujours &agrave; la
+fois, les jours de la semaine et la date du mois, feroit disparo&icirc;tre le
+pronostic du jour fatal."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;og. du Nouveau Continent</i>, vol.
+iii., p. 160.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> His first landing in the New World partook of the same
+character as his departure from the Old.
+</p><p>
+"Christoforo Colombo&mdash;primo con una bandiera nella quale era figurato il
+nostro Signore Jesu Christo in croce, salt&ocirc; in terra, e quella piant&ograve;, e
+poi tutti gli alti smontarono, e inginocchiati baciarono la terra, tre
+volti piangendo di allegrezza. Di poi Colombo alzate le mani al cielo
+lagrimando disse, Signor Dio Eterno, Signore omnipotente, tu creasti il
+cielo, e la terra, e il mare con la tua santa parola, sia benedetto e
+glorificato il nome tuo, sia ringraziata la tua Maest&agrave;, la quale si &egrave;
+degnata per mano d' uno umil suo servo far ch' el suo santo nome sia
+conosciuto e divulgato in questa altra parte del mondo."&mdash;Pietro
+Martire, <i>Dell' Indie Occidentali</i>, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 2; Oviedo,
+<i>Hist. Gen. dell' India</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Columbus not only has, incontestably, the merit of first
+discovering the line where there is no declination of the needle, but
+also of first inducing a study of terrestrial magnetism in Europe, by
+his observations concerning the increasing declination as he sailed in a
+westerly direction from that line. It had been already easily recognized
+in the Mediterranean, and in all places where, in the twelfth century,
+the declination was as much as eight or ten degrees, even though their
+instruments were so imperfect that the ends of a magnetic needle did not
+point exactly to the geographical north or south. It is improbable that
+the Arabs or Crusaders drew attention to the fact of the compass
+pointing to the northeast and northwest in different parts of the world,
+as to a phenomenon which had long been known. The merit which belongs to
+Columbus is, not for the first observance of the existence of the
+declination, which is given, for example, upon the map of Andrew Bianca,
+in 1436, but for the remark which he made on the 13th of September,
+1492, that about two degrees and a half to the east of the Island of
+Corvo the magnetic variation changed, and that it passed over from
+northeast to northwest. This discovery of a magnetic line without any
+variation indicates a remarkable epoch in nautical astronomy. It was
+celebrated with just praise by Oviedo, Casas, and Herrera. If with Livio
+Sanuto we ascribe it to the renowned mariner Sebastian Cabot, we forget
+that his first voyage, which was undertaken at the expense of some
+merchants of Bristol, and which was crowned with success by his touching
+the main-land of America, falls five years later than the first
+expedition of Columbus.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>, vol. ii., p. 318; Las
+Casas, <i>Hist. Ind.</i>, lib. i., cap. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> "In sailing toward the West India Islands birds are often
+seen at the distance of two hundred leagues from the nearest
+coast."&mdash;Sloane's <i>Nat. Hist. of Jamaica</i>, vol. i., p. 30.
+</p><p>
+Captain Cook says, "No one yet knows to what distance any of the Oceanic
+birds go to sea; for my own part, I do not believe that there is any one
+of the whole tribe that can be relied on in pointing out the vicinity of
+land."&mdash;<i>Voyage toward the South Pole</i>, vol. i., p. 275.
+</p><p>
+The Portuguese, however, only keeping along the African coast and
+watching the flight of birds with attention, concluded that they did not
+venture to fly far from land. Columbus adopted this erroneous opinion
+from his early instructors in navigation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> "Puesto que el amirante a los diez de la noche vi&ograve; lumbre
+... y era como una candelilla de cera que se alzaba y levantaba, lo cual
+a pocos pareciera ser indicio de tierra. Pero el amirante tuv&ograve; por
+cierto estar junto a la tierra. Por lo qual quando dijeron la 'Salve'
+que acostumbran decir y cantar a su manera todos los marineros, y de
+hallan todos, vogo y amonest&ograve;los el amirante que hiciesen buena guarda
+al castillo de proa, y mirasen bien por la tierra."&mdash;<i>Diar. de Colon.
+Prem. Viag. 11 de Oct.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> "Let those who are disposed to faint under difficulties,
+in the prosecution of any great and worthy undertaking, remember that
+eighteen years elapsed after the time that Columbus conceived his
+enterprise before he was enabled to carry it into effect; that most of
+that time was passed in almost hopeless solicitation, amid poverty,
+neglect, and taunting ridicule; that the prime of his life had wasted
+away in the struggle, and that, when his perseverance was finally
+crowned with success, he was about in his fifty-sixth year. This example
+should encourage the enterprising never to despair."&mdash;Washington
+Irving's <i>Life of Columbus</i>, vol. i., p. 174.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> "While Columbus lay on a sick-bed by the River Belem, he
+was addressed in a dream by an unknown voice, distinctly uttering these
+words: 'Maravill&oacute;samente Dios hizo sonar tu nombre en la tierra; de los
+atamientos de la Mar Oceana, que estaban cerradas con cadenas tan
+fuertes, te di&oacute; las llaves.' (Letter to the Catholic monarch, July 7th,
+1503.)"&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> "The application to King Henry VII. was not made until
+1488, as would appear from the inscription on a map which Bartholomew
+presented to the king. Las Casas intimates, from letters and writings of
+Bartholomew Columbus, in his possession, that the latter accompanied
+Bartholomew Diaz in his voyage from Lisbon, in 1486, along the coast of
+Africa, in the course of which he discovered the Cape of Good
+Hope."&mdash;Las Casas, <i>Hist. Ind.</i>, lib. i., cap. vii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> "The American Continent was first discovered under the
+auspices of the English, and the coast of the United States by a native
+of England (Sebastian Cabot told me that he was born in
+Bristowe)."&mdash;<i>History of the Travayles in the East and West Indies</i>, by
+R. Eden and R. Willes, 1577. fol. 267. Posterity hardly remembered that
+they<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> (the Cabots) had reached the American Continent nearly four
+months before Columbus, on his third voyage, came in sight of the
+main-land.&mdash;Bancroft's <i>Hist. of the United States</i>, vol. i., p. 11.
+Charlevoix's "Histoire de la Nouvelle France," and the "Fastes
+Chronologiques," endeavor to discredit the discoveries of John and
+Sebastian Cabot, but the testimonies of cotemporary authors are
+decisive. Unfortunately, no journal or relation remains of the voyages
+of the Cabots to North America, but several authors have handed down
+accounts of them, which they received from the lips of Sebastian Cabot
+himself. See Hakluyt, iii., 27; Galearius Butrigarius, in Ramusio, tom.
+ii.; Ramusio, Preface to tom. iii.; Peter Martyr ab Angleria, Dec. III.,
+cap. vi.; Gomara, <i>Gen. Hist. of the West Indies</i>, b. ii., c. vi. In
+Fabian's Chronicle, the writer asserts that he saw, in the sixteenth
+year of Henry VII., two out of three men who had been brought from
+"Newfound Island" two years before. The grant made by Edward VI. to
+Sebastian Cabot of a pension equal to &pound;1000 per annum of our money,
+attests that "the good and acceptable service" for which it was
+conferred was of a very important nature. The words of the grant are
+handed down to us by Hakluyt, vol. iii., p. 31.&mdash;See <i>Life of Henry
+VII.</i>, by Lord Bacon; Bacon's <i>Works</i>, vol. iii., p. 356, 357.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> "The only immediate fruit of Cabot's first enterprise is
+said to have been the importation from America of the first turkeys ever
+seen in Europe. Why this bird received the name it enjoys in England has
+never been satisfactorily explained. By the French it was called 'Coq
+d'Inde,' on account of its American original, America being then
+generally termed Western India."&mdash;Graham's <i>Hist. of the United States</i>,
+vol. i., p. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Baccalaos was the name given by the natives to the codfish
+with which these waters abounded. Pietro Martire, who calls Sebastian
+Cabot his "dear and familiar friend," speaks of Newfoundland as
+Baccalaos; also, Lopez de Gomara and Ramusio.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Mr. Bancroft pronounces this "fact to be indisputable,"
+though he acknowledges that "the testimony respecting this expedition is
+confused and difficult of explanation." Sebastian Cabot wrote "A
+Discourse of Navigation," in which the entrance of the strait leading
+into Hudson's Bay was laid down with great precision "on a card, drawn
+by his own hand."&mdash;Ortelius, <i>Map of America in Theatrum Orbis
+Terrarum</i>; Eden and Willis, p. 223; Sir H. Gilbert, in Hakluyt, vol.
+iii., p. 49, 50; Bancroft, vol. i., p. 12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> The learned and ingenious author of the "Memoirs of
+Sebastian Cabot" has brought forward strong arguments against the
+discovery of the Continent of America by Jean Vas Cortereal in
+1494.&mdash;Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;og. du Nouveau Continent</i>, vol. i., p. 279; vol.
+ii., p. 25.
+</p><p>
+"The discoverer of the territory of our country was one of the most
+extraordinary men of his age. There is deep cause for regret that time
+has spared so few memorials of his career. He gave England a continent,
+and no one knows his burial-place."&mdash;Bancroft, vol. i., p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Ramusio, vol. iii., p. 417. This discovery is also
+attributed to Jacques Cartier, who entered the gulf on the 10th of
+August, 1535, and gave it the name of the saint whose festival was
+celebrated on that day.&mdash;Charlevoix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> In an old map published in 1508, the Labrador coast is
+called Terra Corterealis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> It has been conjectured that the name Terra de Laborador
+was given to this coast by the Portuguese slave merchants, on account of
+the admirable qualities of the natives as laborers.&mdash;<i>Picture of
+Quebec</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> It was an idea entertained by Columbus, that, as he
+extended his discoveries to climates more and more under the torrid
+influence of the sun, he should find the productions of nature
+sublimated by its rays to more perfect and precious qualities. He was
+strengthened in this belief by a letter written to him, at the command
+of the queen, by one Jayme Ferrer, an eminent and learned lapidary, who,
+in the course of his trading for precious stones and metals, had been in
+the Levant and in various parts of the East; had conversed with the
+merchants of the remote parts of Asia and Africa, and the natives of
+India, Arabia, and Ethiopia, and was considered deeply versed in
+geography generally, but especially in the nature of those countries
+from whence the valuable merchandise in which he dealt was procured. In
+this letter Ferrer assured Columbus that, according to his experience,
+the rarest objects of commerce, such as gold, precious stones, drugs,
+and spices, were chiefly to be found in the regions about the
+equinoctial line, where the inhabitants were black, or darkly colored,
+and that until the admiral should arrive among people of such
+complexions, he did not think he would find those articles in great
+abundance.&mdash;Navarrete, <i>Coleccion</i>, tom. ii., Document 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Ramusio, vol. iii., p. 347; Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 36;
+see Osorio, History of the Portuguese, b. i.; Barrow's Voyages, p.
+37-48; Herrera, Dec. 1., lib. vii., cap. ix.; Ensayo Chronologico para
+la Historia general de la Florida. En Madrid, 1723.&mdash;Quoted by Murray.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> "Les demandes ordinaires qu'on nous fait sont, 'Y a-t-il
+des tr&eacute;sors? Y a-t-il de l'or et de l'argent?' Et personne ne demande,
+'Ces peuples l&agrave; sont il dispos&eacute;s &agrave; entendre la doctrine Chr&eacute;tienne?' Et
+quant aux mines, il y en a vraiment, mais il les faut fouiller avec
+industrie, labeur et patience. La plus belle mine que je sache, c'est du
+bled et du vin, avec la nourriture du bestial; qui a de ceci, il a de
+l'argent, et des mines, nous n'en vivons point."&mdash;Marc l'Escarbot.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> This bold stretch of papal authority, so often ridiculed
+as chimerical and absurd, was in a measure justified by the event, since
+it did, in fact, determine the principle on which the vast extent of
+unappropriated empire in the eastern and western hemispheres was
+ultimately divided between two petty states of Europe. Alexander had not
+even the excuse that he thought he was disposing of uncultivated and
+uninhabited regions, since he specifies in his donation both towns and
+castles: "Civitates et castra in perpetuum tenore pr&aelig;sentium donamus."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> "What," said Francis I., "shall the kings of Spain and
+Portugal divide all America between them, without suffering me to take a
+share as their brother? I would fain see the article in Adam's will that
+bequeaths that vast inheritance to them."&mdash;<i>Encyclopedia</i>, vol. iv., p.
+695.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> "In the latter years of his life, Francis, by a strict
+economy of the public money, repaired the evils of his early
+extravagance, while, at the same time, he was enabled to spare
+sufficient for carrying on the magnificent public institutions he had
+undertaken, and for forwarding the progress of discovery, of the fine
+arts, and of literature."&mdash;Bacon's <i>Life and Times of Francis I.</i>, p.
+399-401.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XIV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> "Navig&ograve; anche lungo la detta terra l'anno 1524 un gran
+capitano del Re Christianissimo Francesco, detto Giovanni da Verazzano,
+Fiorentino, e scorse tutta la costa fino alla Florida, come per una sua
+lettera scritta al detto Re, particolarmente si vedi&agrave; la qual sola
+abbiamo potuto avere perciocch&egrave; l'altre si sono smarrite nelli travagli
+della povera citt&agrave; di Fiorenza e nell' ultimo viaggio che esso fece,
+avendo voluto smontar in terra con alcuni compagni, furono tutti morti
+da quei popoli, e in presentia di col&oacute;ro che erano rimasi nelle navi,
+furono arrostiti e mangeati." (Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 416.) The Baron La
+Houtan and La Potherie give the same account of Verazzano's end; they
+are not, however, very trustworthy authorities. Le Beau repeats the same
+story; but Charlevoix's words are, "Je ne trouve aucun fondement &agrave; ce
+que quelques uns ont publi&eacute;, qu'ayant mis pied &agrave; terre dans un endroit
+o&ugrave; il voulait b&acirc;tir un fort, les sauvages se jet&egrave;rent sur lui, le
+massacr&egrave;rent avec tous ses gens et le mang&egrave;rent." A Spanish historian
+has asserted, contrary to all probability, that Verazzano was taken by
+the Spaniards, and hung as a pirate.&mdash;D. Andr&egrave;s Gonzalez de Barcia,
+<i>Ensayo Chronologico para la Historia della Florida</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Tiraboschi, <i>Storia della Literatura Italiana</i>, vol. vii.,
+p. 261, 262.&mdash;Quoted in the <i>Picture of Quebec</i>, to which valuable work
+J.C. Fisher, Esq., president of the Literary and Historical Society of
+Quebec, largely contributed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Signifying "here is nothing." The insatiable thirst of the
+Spanish discoverers for gold is justified by the greatest of all
+discoverers, the disinterested Columbus himself, on high religious
+principles. When acquainting their Castilian majesties with the
+abundance of gold<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> to be procured in the newly-found countries, he
+thus speaks, "El oro es excelentisimo, del oro se hace tesoro; y con el
+quien lo tiene hace quanto quiere en el mundo, y elega a que echa las
+animas al paraiso." (Navarrete, <i>Coleccion de los Viages</i>, vol. i., p.
+309.) A passage which the modern editor of his papers affirms to be in
+conformity with many texts of Scripture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> The historian Herrera, writing in the light of experience,
+makes use of the strong expression, that "mines were a lure devised by
+the evil spirit to draw the Spaniards on to destruction." "L'Espagne,"
+says Montesquieu, "a fait comme ce roi insens&eacute;, qui demanda que tout ce
+qu'il toucheroit se convertit en or, et qui fut oblig&eacute; de revenir aux
+Dieux, pour les prier de finir sa mis&egrave;re."&mdash;<i>Esprit des Loix</i>, lib.
+xxi., cap. 22.
+</p><p>
+"Les mines du P&eacute;rou et du Mexique ne valoient pas m&ecirc;me pour l'Espagne ce
+qu'elle auroit tire du son propre fonds en los cultivant. Avec tant de
+tr&eacute;sors Philippe II. fit banqueroute."&mdash;Millot. "P&acirc;turage et labourage,"
+said the wise Sully, "valent mieux que tout l'or du P&eacute;rou."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Father Hennepin asserts that the Spaniards were the first
+discoverers of Canada, and that, finding nothing there to gratify their
+extensive desires for gold, they bestowed upon it the appellation of El
+Capo di Nada, "Cape Nothing," whence, by corruption, its present
+name.&mdash;<i>Nouvelle Description d'un tr&egrave;s grand pays situ&eacute; dans l'Am&eacute;rique
+entre le Nouveau Mexique et la Mer Glaciale, depuis l'an</i> 1667 <i>jusqu'
+en</i> 1670. <i>Par le P&egrave;re Louis Hennepin, Missionaire Recollet &agrave; Utrecht</i>,
+1697.
+</p><p>
+La Potherie gives the same derivation. <i>Histoire de l'Am&eacute;rique
+Septentrionale par M. de Bacqueville de la Potherie, &agrave; Paris</i>, 1722. The
+opinion expressed in a note of Charlevoix (Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France, vol. i., p. 13), is that deserving most credit. "D'autres
+d&eacute;rivent ce nom du mot Iroquois 'Kannata,' qui se prononce Cannada, et
+signifie un amas de cabanes." This derivation would reconcile the
+different assertions of the early discoverers, some of whom give the
+name of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Lawrence; others, equally
+worthy of credit, confine it to a small district in the neighborhood of
+Stadacona (now Quebec). <i>Seconda Relatione di Jacques Cartier</i>, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442, 447. "Questo popolo (di Hochelaga) non
+partendo mai del lore paese, ne essendo vagabondi, come quelli di Canada
+e di Saguenay bench&egrave; dette di Canada sieno lor suggetti con otte o nove
+altri villaggi posti sopra detto fiume." Father du Creux, who arrived in
+Canada about the year 1625, in his "Historia Canadensis," gives the name
+of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Lawrence, confessing, however,
+his ignorance of the etymology: "Porro de Etymologi&acirc; vocis Canada nihil
+satis cert&egrave; potui comperire; priscam quidem esse, constat ex eo, quod
+illam ante annos prope sexaginta passim usurpari audiebam puer."
+</p><p>
+Dupon&ccedil;eau, in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of
+Philadelphia, founds his conjecture of the Indian origin of the name of
+Canada upon the fact that, in the translation of the Gospel of St.
+Matthew into the Mohawk tongue, made by Brandt, the Indian chief, the
+word Canada is always used to signify a village. The mistake of the
+early discoverers, in taking the name of a part for that of the whole,
+is very pardonable in persons ignorant of the Indian language. It is
+highly improbable that at the period of its discovery the name of Canada
+was extended over this immense country. The migratory habits of the
+aborigines are alone conclusive against it. They distinguished
+themselves by their different tribes, not by the country over which they
+hunted and rode at will. They more probably gave names to localities
+than adopted their own from any fixed place of residence. The Iroquois
+and the Ottawas conferred their appellations on the rivers that ran
+through their hunting grounds, and the Huron tribe gave theirs to the
+vast lake now bearing their name. It has, however, never been pretended
+that any Indian tribe bore the name of Canada, and the natural
+conclusion therefore is, that the word "Canada" was a mere local
+appellation, without reference to the country; that each tribe had their
+own "Canada," or collection of huts, which shifted its position
+according to their migrations.
+</p><p>
+Dr. Douglas, in his "American History," pretends that Canada derives its
+name from Monsieur Kane or Cane, whom he advances to have been the first
+adventurer in the River St. Lawrence.&mdash;Knox's <i>Historical Journal</i>, vol.
+i., p. 303.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the year 1534, Philip Chabot, admiral of France, urged the king to
+establish a colony in the New World,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> by representing to him in
+glowing colors the great riches and power derived by the Spaniards from
+their transatlantic possessions. Francis I., alive to the importance of
+the design, soon agreed to carry it out. <span class="smcap">Jacques Cartier</span>, an
+experienced navigator of St. Malo, was recommended by the admiral to be
+intrusted with the expedition, and was approved of by the king. On the
+20th of April, 1534, Cartier sailed from St. Malo with two ships of only
+sixty tons burden each, and one hundred and twenty men for their
+crews:<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> he directed his course westward, inclining rather to the
+north; the winds proved so favorable, that on the twentieth day of the
+voyage he made Cape Bonavista, in Newfoundland. But the harbors of that
+dreary country were still locked up in the winter's ice, forbidding the
+approach of shipping: he then bent to the southeast, and at length found
+anchorage at St. Catharine, six degrees lower in latitude. Having
+remained here ten days, he again turned to the north, and on the 21st of
+May reached Bird Island, fourteen leagues from the coast.</p>
+
+<p>Jacques Cartier examined all the northern shores of Newfoundland,
+without having ascertained that it was an island, and then passed
+southward through the Straits of Belleisle. The country appeared every
+where the same bleak and inhospitable wilderness;<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> but the harbors
+were numerous, convenient, and abounding in fish. He describes the
+natives as well-proportioned men, wearing their hair tied up over their
+heads like bundles of hay, quaintly interlaced with birds' feathers.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>
+Changing his course still more to the south, he then traversed the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence, approached the main-land, and on the 9th of July
+entered a deep bay; from the intense heat experienced there, he named it
+the "Baye de Chaleurs." The beauty of the country, and the kindness and
+hospitality of his reception, alike charmed him; he carried on a little
+trade with the friendly savages, exchanging European goods for their
+furs and provisions.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving this bay, Jacques Cartier visited a considerable extent of the
+gulf coast; on the 24th of July he erected a cross thirty feet high,
+with a shield bearing the fleurs-de-lys of France, on the shore of Gasp&eacute;
+Bay.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Having thus taken possession<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> of the country for his king in
+the usual manner of those days, he sailed, the 25th of July, on his
+homeward voyage: at this place two of the natives were seized by
+stratagem, carried on board the ships, and borne away to France. Cartier
+coasted along the northern shores of the Gulf till the 15th of August,
+and even entered the mouth of the River St. Lawrence, but the weather
+becoming stormy, he determined to delay his departure no longer: he
+passed again through the Straits of Belleisle, and arrived at St. Malo
+on the 5th of September, 1534, contented with his success, and full of
+hope for the future.</p>
+
+<p>Jacques Cartier was received with the consideration due to the
+importance of his report. The court at once perceived the advantage of
+an establishment in this part of America, and resolved to take steps for
+its foundation. Charles de Moncy, Sieur de la Mailleraye, vice-admiral
+of France, was the most active patron of the undertaking; through his
+influence Cartier obtained a more effective force, and a new commission,
+with ampler powers than before. When the preparations for the voyage
+were completed, the adventurers all assembled in the Cathedral of St.
+Malo, on Whitsunday, 1535, by the command of their pious leader; the
+bishop then gave them a solemn benediction, with all the imposing
+ceremonials of the Romish Church.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of May Jacques Cartier embarked, and started on his voyage
+with fair wind and weather. The fleet consisted of three small ships,
+the largest being only one hundred and twenty tons burden. Many
+adventurers and young men of good family accompanied the expedition as
+volunteers. On the morrow the wind became adverse, and rose to a storm;
+the heavens lowered over the tempestuous sea; for more than a month the
+utmost skill of the mariners could only enable them to keep their ships
+afloat, while tossed about at the mercy of the waves. The little fleet
+was dispersed on the 25th of June: each vessel then made for the coast
+of Newfoundland as it best might. The general's vessel, as that of
+Cartier was called, was the first to gain the land, on the 7th of July,
+and there awaited her consorts; but they did not arrive till the 26th of
+the month. Having taken in supplies of fuel and water, they sailed in
+company to explore the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A violent storm arose on
+the 1st of August, forcing them to seek shelter. They happily found a
+port on the north shore, at the entrance of the Great River, where,
+though difficult of access, there was a safe anchorage. Jacques Cartier
+called it St. Nicolas, and it is now almost the only place still bearing
+the name he gave. They left their harbor on the 7th, coasting westward
+along the north shore, and on the 10th came to a gulf filled with
+numerous and beautiful islands.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> Cartier gave this gulf the name of
+St. Lawrence, having discovered it on that saint's festival day.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>On the 15th of August they reached a long, rocky island toward the
+south, which Cartier named L'Isle de l'Assumption, now called
+Anticosti.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Thence they continued their course, examining carefully
+both shores of the Great River,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> and occasionally holding
+communication with the inhabitants, till, on the 1st of September, they
+entered the mouth of the deep and gloomy Saguenay. The entrance of this
+great tributary was all they had leisure to survey; but the huge rocks,
+dense forests, and vast body of water, forming a scene of somber
+magnificence such as had never before met their view, inspired them with
+an exalted idea of the country they had discovered. Still passing to the
+southwest up the St. Lawrence, on the 6th they reached an island
+abounding in delicious filberts, and on that account named by the
+voyagers Isle aux Coudres. Cartier, being now so far advanced into an
+unknown country, looked out anxiously for a port where his vessels might
+winter in safety. He pursued his voyage till he came upon another
+island, of great extent, fertility, and beauty, covered with woods and
+thick, clustering vines. This he named Isle de Bacchus:<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> it is now
+called Orleans. On the 7th of September, Donnacona, the chief of the
+country,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> came with twelve canoes filled by his train, to hold
+converse with the strangers, whose ships lay at anchor between the
+island and the north shore of the Great River. The Indian chief
+approached the smallest of the ships with only two canoes, fearful of
+causing alarm, and began an oration, accompanied with strange and
+uncouth gestures. After a time he conversed with the Indians who had
+been seized on the former voyage, and now acted as interpreters. He
+heard from them of their wonderful visit to the great nation over the
+salt lake, of the wisdom and power of the white men, and of the kind
+treatment they had received among the strangers. Donnacona appeared
+moved with deep respect and admiration; he took Jacques Cartier's arm
+and placed it gently over his own bended neck, in token of confidence
+and regard. The admiral cordially returned these friendly
+demonstrations. He entered the Indian's canoe, and presented bread and
+wine, which they ate and drank together. They then parted in all amity.</p>
+
+<p>After this happy interview, Jacques Cartier, with his boats, pushed up
+the north shore against the stream, till he reached a spot where a
+little river flowed into a "goodly and pleasant sound," forming a
+convenient haven.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> He moored his vessels here for the winter on the
+16th of September, and gave the name of St. Croix to the stream, in
+honor of the day on which he first entered its waters; Donnacona,
+accompanied by a train of five hundred Indians, came to welcome his
+arrival with generous friendship. In the angle formed by the tributary
+stream and the Great River, stood the town of Stadacona, the
+dwelling-place of the chief; thence an irregular slope ascended to a
+lofty height of table-land: from this eminence a bold headland frowned
+over the St. Lawrence, forming a rocky wall three hundred feet in
+height. The waters of the Great River&mdash;here narrowed to less than a mile
+in breath&mdash;rolled deeply and rapidly past into the broad basin beyond.
+When the white men first stood on the summit of this bold headland,
+above their port of shelter, most of the country was fresh from the hand
+of the Creator; save the three small barks lying at the mouth of the
+stream, and the Indian village, no sign of human habitation met their
+view. Far as the eye could reach, the dark forest spread; over hill and
+valley, mountain and plain; up to the craggy peaks, down to the blue
+water's edge; along the gentle slopes of the rich Isle of Bacchus, and
+even from projecting rocks, and in fissures of the lofty precipice, the
+deep green mantle of the summer foliage hung its graceful folds. In the
+dim distance, north, south, east, and west, where mountain rose above
+mountain in tumultuous variety of outline, it was still the same; one
+vast leafy vail concealed the virgin face of Nature from the stranger's
+sight. On the eminence commanding this scene of wild but magnificent
+beauty, a prosperous city now stands; the patient industry of man has
+felled that dense forest, tree by tree, for miles and miles around, and
+where it stood, rich fields rejoice the eye; the once silent waters of
+the Great River below now surge against hundreds of stately ships;
+commerce has enriched this spot, art adorned it; a memory of glory
+endears it to every British heart. But the name <span class="smcap">Quebec</span><a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>
+still remains unchanged; as the savage first pronounced it to the white
+stranger, it stands to-day among the proudest records of our country's
+story.</p>
+
+<p>The chief Donnacona and the French continued in friendly intercourse,
+day by day exchanging good offices and tokens of regard. But Jacques
+Cartier was eager for further discoveries; the two Indian interpreters
+told him that a city of much larger size than Stadacona lay further up
+the river, the capital of a great country; it was called in the native
+tongue Hochelaga; thither he resolved to find his way. The Indians
+endeavored vainly to dissuade their dangerous guests from this
+expedition; they represented the distance, the lateness of the season,
+the danger of the great lakes and rapid currents; at length they had
+recourse to a kind of masquerade or pantomime, to represent the perils
+of the voyage, and the ferocity of the tribes inhabiting that distant
+land. The interpreters earnestly strove to dissuade Jacques Cartier from
+proceeding on his enterprise, and one of them refused to accompany him.
+The brave Frenchman would not hearken to such dissuasions, and treated
+with equal contempt the verbal and pantomimic warnings of the alleged
+difficulties. As a precautionary measure to impress the savages with an
+exalted idea of his power as a friend or foe, he caused twelve cannon
+loaded with bullets to be fired in their presence against a wood; amazed
+and terrified at the noise, and the effects of this discharge, they
+fled, howling and shrieking, away.</p>
+
+<p>Jacques Cartier sailed for Hochelaga on the 19th of September; he took
+with him the Hermerillon, one of his smallest ships, the pinnace, and
+two long-boats, bearing thirty-five armed men, with their provisions and
+ammunition. The two larger vessels and their crews were left in the
+harbor of St. Croix, protected by poles and stakes driven into the water
+so as to form a barricade. The voyage presented few of the threatened
+difficulties; the country on both sides of the Great River was rich and
+varied, covered with stately timber, and abounding in vines. The natives
+were every where friendly and hospitable; all that they possessed was
+freely offered to the strangers. At a place called Hochelai, the chief
+of the district visited the French, and showed much friendship and
+confidence, presenting Jacques Cartier with a girl seven years of age,
+one of his own children.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th, the expedition was stopped in Lake St. Pierre by the
+shallows, not having hit upon the right channel. Jacques Cartier took
+the resolution of leaving his larger vessels behind and proceeding with
+his two boats; he met with no further interruption, and at length
+reached Hochelaga on the 2d of October, accompanied by De Pontbriand, De
+la Pommeraye, and De Gozelle, three of his volunteers. The natives
+welcomed him with every demonstration of joy and hospitality; above a
+thousand people, of all ages and sexes, come forth to meet the
+strangers, greeting them with affectionate kindness. Jacques Cartier, in
+return for their generous reception, bestowed presents of tin, beads,
+and other bawbles upon all the women, and gave some knives to the men.
+He returned to pass the night in the boats, while the savages made great
+fires on the shore, and danced merrily all night long. The place where
+the French first landed was probably about eleven miles from the city
+of Hochelaga, below the rapid of St. Mary.</p>
+
+<p>On the day after his arrival Jacques Cartier proceeded to the town; his
+volunteers and some others of his followers accompanied him, arrayed in
+full dress; three of the natives undertook to guide them on their way.
+The road was well beaten, and bore evidence of having been much
+frequented: the country through which it passed was exceedingly rich and
+fertile. Hochelaga stood in the midst of great fields of Indian corn; it
+was of a circular form, containing about fifty large huts, each fifty
+paces long and from fourteen to fifteen wide, all built in the shape of
+tunnels, formed of wood, and covered with birch bark; the dwellings were
+divided into several rooms, surrounding an open court in the center,
+where the fires burned. Three rows of palisades encircled the town, with
+only one entrance; above the gate, and over the whole length of the
+outer ring of defense, there was a gallery, approached by flights of
+steps, and plentifully provided with stones and other missiles to resist
+attack. This was a place of considerable importance, even in those
+remote days, as the capital of a great extent of country, and as having
+eight or ten villages subject to its sway.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants spoke the language of the great Huron nation, and were
+more advanced in civilization than any of their neighbors: unlike other
+tribes, they cultivated the ground and remained stationary. The French
+were well received by the people of Hochelaga; they made presents, the
+Indians gave f&ecirc;tes; their fire-arms, trumpets, and other warlike
+equipments filled the minds of their simple hosts with wonder and
+admiration, and their beards and clothing excited a curiosity which the
+difficulties of an unknown language prevented from being satisfied. So
+great was the veneration for the white men, that the chief of the town,
+and many of the maimed, sick, and infirm, came to Jacques Cartier,
+entreating him, by expressive signs, to cure their ills. The pious
+Frenchman disclaimed any supernatural power, but he read aloud part of
+the Gospel of St. John, made the sign of the cross over the sufferers,
+and presented them with chaplets and other holy symbols; he then prayed
+earnestly that the poor savages might be freed from the night of
+ignorance and infidelity. The Indians regarded these acts and words with
+deep gratitude and respectful admiration.</p>
+
+<p>Three miles from Hochelaga, there was a lofty hill, well tilled and very
+fertile;<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> thither Jacques Cartier bent his way, after having examined
+the town. From the summit he saw the river and the country for thirty
+leagues around, a scene of singular beauty. To this hill he gave the
+name of Mont Royal; since extended to the large and fertile island on
+which it stands, and to the city below. Time has now swept away every
+trace of Hochelaga; on its site the modern capital of Canada has arisen;
+fifty thousand people of European race, and stately buildings of carved
+stone, replace the simple Indians and the huts of the ancient town.</p>
+
+<p>Jacques Cartier, having made his observations, returned to the boats,
+attended by a great concourse; when any of his men appeared fatigued
+with their journey, the kind Indians carried them on their shoulders.
+This short stay of the French seemed to sadden and displease these
+hospitable people, and on the departure of the boats they followed their
+course for some distance along the banks of the river. On the 4th of
+October Jacques Cartier reached the shallows, where the pinnace had been
+left; he resumed his course the following day, and arrived at St. Croix
+on the 11th of the same month.</p>
+
+<p>The men who had remained at St. Croix had busied themselves during their
+leader's absence in strengthening their position, so as to secure it
+against surprise, a wise precaution under any circumstances among a
+savage people, but especially in the neighborhood of a populous town,
+the residence of a chief whose friendship they could not but distrust,
+in spite of his apparent hospitality.</p>
+
+<p>The day after Jacques Cartier's arrival, Donnacona came to bid him
+welcome, and entreated him to visit Stadacona. He accepted the
+invitation, and proceeded with his volunteers and fifty sailors to the
+village, about three miles from where the ships lay. As they journeyed
+on, they observed that the houses were well provided and stored for the
+coming winter, and the country tilled in a manner showing that the
+inhabitants were not ignorant of agriculture; thus they formed, on the
+whole, a favorable impression of the docility and intelligence of the
+Indians during this expedition.</p>
+
+<p>When the awful and unexpected severity of the winter set in, the French
+were unprovided with necessary clothing and proper provisions; the
+scurvy attacked them, and by the month of March twenty-five were dead,
+and nearly all were infected; the remainder would probably have also
+perished; but when Jacques Cartier was himself attacked with the
+dreadful disease, the Indians revealed to him the secret of its cure:
+this was the decoction of the leaf and bark of a certain tree, which
+proved so excellent a remedy that in a few days all were restored to
+health.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>Jacques Cartier, on the 21st of April, was first led to suspect the
+friendship of the natives from seeing a number of strong and active
+young men make their appearance in the neighboring town; these were
+probably the warriors of the tribe, who had just then returned from the
+hunting grounds, where they had passed the winter, but there is now no
+reason to suppose that their presence indicated any hostility. However,
+Jacques Cartier, fearing treachery, determined to anticipate it. He had
+already arranged to depart for France. On the 3d of May he seized the
+chief, the interpreters, and two other Indians, to present them to
+Francis I.: as some amends for this cruel and flagrant violation of
+hospitality, he treated his prisoners with great kindness; they soon
+became satisfied with their fate. On the 6th of May he made sail for
+Europe, and, after having encountered some difficulties and delays,
+arrived safely at St. Malo the 8th of July, 1536.</p>
+
+<p>The result of Jacques Cartier's expedition was not encouraging to the
+spirit of enterprise in France; no mines had been discovered,<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> no
+rare and valuable productions found.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> The miserable state to which
+the adventurers had been reduced by the rigorous climate and loathsome
+diseases, the privations they had endured, the poverty of their
+condition, were sufficient to cool the ardor of those who might
+otherwise have wished to follow up their discoveries. But, happily for
+the cause of civilization, some of those powerful in France judged more
+favorably of Jacques Cartier's reports, and were not to be disheartened
+by the unsuccessful issue of one undertaking; the dominion over such a
+vast extent of country, with fertile soil and healthy climate, inhabited
+by a docile and hospitable people, was too great an object to be lightly
+abandoned. The presence of Donnacona, the Indian chief, tended to keep
+alive an interest in the land whence he had come; as soon as he could
+render himself intelligible in the French language, he confirmed all
+that had been said of the salubrity, beauty, and richness of his native
+country. The pious Jacques Cartier most of all strove to impress upon
+the king the glory and merit of extending the blessed knowledge of a
+Savior to the dark and hopeless heathens of the West; a deed well worthy
+of the prince who bore the title of Most Christian King and Eldest Son
+of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>Jean Fran&ccedil;ois de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a gentleman of Picardy, was
+the most earnest and energetic of those who desired to colonize the
+lands discovered by Jacques Cartier; he bore a high reputation in his
+own province, and was favored by the friendship of the king. With these
+advantages he found little difficulty in obtaining a commission to
+command an expedition to North America; the title and authority of
+lieutenant general and viceroy was conferred upon him; his rule to
+extend over Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay, Newfoundland, Belle Isle,
+Carpon, Labrador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos, with the delegated
+rights and powers of the crown. This patent was dated the 15th of
+January, 1540. Jacques Cartier was named second in command. The orders
+to the leaders of the expedition enjoined them to discover more than had
+been hitherto accomplished, and, if possible, to reach the country of
+Saguenay, where, from some reports of the Indians, they still hoped to
+find mines of gold and silver. The port of St. Malo was again chosen for
+the fitting out of the expedition: the king furnished a sum of money to
+defray the expenses.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p>Jacques Cartier exerted himself vigorously in preparing the little fleet
+for the voyage, and awaited the arrival of his chief with the necessary
+arms, stores, and ammunition; Roberval was meanwhile engaged at Honfleur
+in fitting out two other vessels at his own cost, and being urged to
+hasten by the king, he gave his lieutenant orders to start at once, with
+full authority to act as if he himself were present. He also promised to
+follow from Honfleur with all the required supplies. Jacques Cartier
+sailed on the 23d of May, 1541, having provisioned his fleet for two
+years. Storms and adverse winds dispersed the ships for some time, but
+in about a month they all met again on the coast of Newfoundland, where
+they hoped Roberval would join them. They awaited his coming for some
+weeks, but at length proceeded without him to the St. Lawrence; on the
+23d of August they reached their old station near the magnificent
+headland of Quebec.</p>
+
+<p>Donnacona's successor as chief of the Indians at Stadacona came in state
+to welcome the French on their return, and to inquire after his absent
+countrymen. They told him of the chief's death, but concealed the fate
+of the other Indians, stating that they were enjoying great honor and
+happiness in France, and would not return to their own country. The
+savages displayed no symptoms of anger, surprise, or distrust at this
+news; their countenances exhibited the same impassive calm, their
+manners the same quiet dignity as ever; but from that hour their hearts
+were changed; hatred and hostility took the place of admiration and
+respect, and a sad foreboding of their approaching destruction darkened
+their simple minds. Henceforth the French were hindered and molested by
+the inhabitants of Stadacona to such an extent that it was deemed
+advisable to seek another settlement for the winter. Jacques Cartier
+chose his new position at the mouth of a small river three leagues
+higher on the St. Lawrence;<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> here he laid up some of his vessels
+under the protection of two forts, one on a level with the water, the
+other on the summit of an overhanging cliff; these strongholds
+communicated with each other by steps cut in the solid rock; he gave the
+name of Charlesbourg Royal to this new station. The two remaining
+vessels of the fleet he sent back to France with letters to the king,
+stating that Roberval had not yet arrived.</p>
+
+<p>Under the impression that the country of the Saguenay, the land of
+fabled wealth, could be reached by pursuing the line of the St.
+Lawrence, Jacques Cartier set forth to explore the rapids above
+Hochelaga on the 7th of September, 1541. The season being so far
+advanced, he only undertook this expedition with a view to being better
+acquainted with the route, and to being provided with all necessary
+preparations for a more extensive exploration in the spring. In passing
+up the Great River he renewed acquaintance with the friendly and
+hospitable chief of Hochelai, and there left two boys under charge of
+the Indians to learn the language. On the 11th he reached the sault or
+rapids above Hochelaga, where the progress of the boats was arrested by
+the force of the stream; he then landed and made his way to the second
+rapid. The natives gave him to understand that above the next sault
+there lay a great lake; Cartier, having obtained this information,
+returned to where he had left the boats; about four hundred Indians had
+assembled and met him with demonstrations of friendship; he received
+their good offices and made them presents in return, but still regarded
+them with distrust on account of their unusual numbers. Having gained
+as much information as he could, he set out on his return to
+Charlesbourg Royal, his winter-quarters. The chief was absent when
+Jacques Cartier stopped at Hochelai on descending the river; he had gone
+to Stadacona to hold counsel with the natives of that district for the
+destruction of the white men. On arriving at Charlesbourg Royal, Jacques
+Cartier found confirmation of his suspicions against the Indians; they
+now avoided the French, and never approached the ships with their usual
+offerings of fish and other provisions; a great number of men had also
+assembled at Stadacona. He accordingly made every possible preparation
+for defense in the forts, and took due precautions against a surprise.
+There are no records extant of the events of this winter in Canada, but
+it is probable that no serious encounter took place with the natives;
+the French, however, must have suffered severely from the confinement
+rendered necessary by their perilous position, as well as from want of
+the provisions and supplies which the bitter climate made requisite.</p>
+
+<p>Roberval, though high-minded and enterprising, failed in his engagements
+with Jacques Cartier: he did not follow his adventurous lieutenant with
+the necessary and promised supplies till the spring of the succeeding
+year. On the 16th of April, 1542, he at length sailed from Rochelle with
+three large vessels, equipped principally at the royal cost. Two hundred
+persons accompanied him, some of them being gentlemen of condition,
+others men and women purposing to become settlers in the New World. Jean
+Alphonse, an experienced navigator of Saintonge, by birth a Portuguese,
+was pilot of the expedition. After a very tedious voyage, they entered
+the Road of St. John's, Newfoundland, on the 8th of June, where they
+found no fewer than seventeen vessels engaged in the inexhaustible
+fisheries of those waters.</p>
+
+<p>While Roberval indulged in a brief repose at this place, the unwelcome
+appearance of Jacques Cartier filled him with disappointment and
+surprise. The lieutenant gave the hostility of the savages and the
+weakness of his force as reasons for having abandoned the settlement
+where he had passed the winter. He still, however, spoke favorably of
+the richness and fertility of the country, and gladdened the eyes of
+the adventurers by the sight of a substance that resembled gold ore, and
+crystals that they fancied were diamonds, found on the bold headland of
+Quebec. But, despite these flattering reports and promising specimens,
+Jacques Cartier and his followers could not be induced, by entreaties or
+persuasions, to return. The hardships and dangers of the last terrible
+winter were too fresh in memory, and too keenly felt, to be again
+braved. They deemed their portion of the contract already complete, and
+the love of their native land overcame the spirit of adventure, which
+had been weakened, if not quenched, by recent disappointment and
+suffering. To avoid the chance of an open rupture with Roberval, the
+lieutenant silently weighed anchor during the night, and made all sail
+for France. This inglorious withdrawal from the enterprise paralyzed
+Roberval's power, and deferred the permanent settlement of Canada for
+generations then unborn. Jacques Cartier died soon after his return to
+Europe.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> Having sacrificed his fortune in the pursuit of discovery,
+his heirs were granted an exclusive privilege of trade to Canada for
+twelve years, in consideration of his sacrifices for the public good;
+but this gift was revoked four months after it was bestowed.</p>
+
+<p>Roberval determined to proceed on his expedition, although deprived of
+the powerful assistance and valuable experience of his lieutenant. He
+sailed from Newfoundland for Canada, and reached Cap Rouge, the place
+where Jacques Cartier had wintered, before the end of June, 1542. He
+immediately fortified himself there, as the situation best adapted for
+defense against hostility, and for commanding the navigation of the
+Great River. Very little is known of Roberval's proceedings during the
+remainder of that year and the following winter. The natives do not
+appear to have molested the new settlers; but no progress whatever was
+made toward a permanent establishment. During the intense cold, the
+scurvy caused fearful mischief among the French; no fewer than fifty
+perished from that dreadful malady during the winter. Demoralized by
+misery and idleness, the little colony became turbulent and lawless, and
+Roberval was obliged to resort to extreme severity of punishment before
+quiet and discipline were re-established.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the close of April the ice broke up, and released the French from
+their weary and painful captivity. On the 5th of June, 1543, Roberval
+set forth from Cap Rouge to explore the province of Saguenay, leaving
+thirty men and an officer to protect their winter-quarters: this
+expedition produced no results, and was attended with the loss of one of
+the boats and eight men. In the mean time the pilot, Jean Alphonse, was
+dispatched to examine the coasts north of Newfoundland, in hopes of
+discovering a passage to the East Indies; he reached the fifty-second
+degree of latitude, and then abandoned the enterprise; on returning to
+Europe, he published a narrative of Roberval's expedition and his own
+voyage, with a tolerably accurate description of the River St. Lawrence,
+and its navigation upward from the Gulf. Roberval reached France in
+1543; the war between Francis I. and the Emperor Charles V. for some
+years occupied his ardent spirit, and supplied him with new occasions
+for distinction, till the death of the king, his patron and friend, in
+1547. In the year 1549 he collected some adventurous men, and,
+accompanied by his brave brother, Achille, sailed once again for Canada;
+but none of this gallant band were ever heard of more. Thus, for many a
+year, were swallowed up in the stormy Atlantic all the bright hopes of
+founding a new nation in America:<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> since these daring men had failed,
+none others might expect to be successful.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Henry II., attention was directed toward Brazil;
+splendid accounts of its wealth and fertility were brought home by some
+French navigators who had visited that distant land. The Admiral Gaspard
+de Coligni was the first to press upon the king the importance of
+obtaining a footing in South America, and dividing the magnificent prize
+with the Portuguese monarch. This celebrated man was convinced that an
+extensive system of colonization was necessary for the glory and
+tranquillity of France. He purposed that the settlement in the New World
+should be founded exclusively by persons holding that Reformed faith to
+which he was so deeply attached, and thus would be provided a refuge for
+those driven from France by religious proscription and persecution. It
+is believed that Coligni's magnificent scheme comprehended the
+possession of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, gradually colonizing
+the banks of these great rivers into the depths of the Continent, till
+the whole of North America, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of
+Mexico, should be hemmed in by this gigantic line of French outposts.
+However, the first proposition was to establish a colony on the coast of
+Brazil; the king approved the project, and Durand de Villegagnon,
+vice-admiral of Brittany, was selected to command in 1555; the
+expedition, however, entirely failed, owing to religious differences.</p>
+
+<p>Under the reigns of Francis II. and Charles IX., while France was
+convulsed with civil war, America seemed altogether forgotten. But
+Coligni availed himself of a brief interval of calm to turn attention
+once more to the Western World. He this time bethought himself of that
+country to which Ponce de Leon had given the name of Florida, from the
+exuberant productions of the soil and the beauty of the scenery and
+climate. The River Mississippi<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> had been discovered by Ferdinand de
+Soto,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> about the time of Jacques Cartier's last voyage, 1543;
+consequently, the Spaniards had this additional claim upon the
+territory, which, they affirmed, they had visited in 1512, twelve years
+before the date of Verazzano's voyage in 1524. However, the claims and
+rights of the different European nations upon the American Continent
+were not then of sufficient strength to prevent each state from pursuing
+its own views of occupation. Coligni obtained permission from Charles
+IX. to attempt the establishment of a colony in Florida,<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> about the
+year 1562. The king was the more readily induced to approve of this
+enterprise, as he hoped that it would occupy the turbulent spirits of
+the Huguenots, many of them his bitter enemies, and elements of discord
+in his dominions. On the 18th of February, 1562, Jean de Ribaut, a
+zealous Protestant, sailed from Dieppe with two vessels and a picked
+crew; many volunteers, including some gentlemen of condition, followed
+his fortunes. He landed on the coast of Florida, near St. Mary's River,
+where he established a settlement and built a fort. Two years afterward
+Coligni sent out a re-enforcement, under the command of Ren&eacute; de
+Laudonni&egrave;re; this was the only portion of the admiral's great scheme
+ever carried into effect: when he fell, in the awful massacre of Saint
+Bartholomew, his magnificent project was abandoned. [1568.] After six
+years of fierce struggle with the Spaniards, the survivors of this
+little colony returned to France.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Hist. de la Nouvelle France, par le P&egrave;re Charlevoix, de la
+Compagnie de J&eacute;sus, vol. i., p. 11; Fastes Chronologiques, 1534.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Prima Relatione de Jacques Cartier della Terra Nouva,
+detta la Nouva Francia, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 435.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Se la terra fosse cosi buono; come vi sono buoni porti,
+sarebbe un gran bene, ma ella non si debba chiamar Terra Nouva, anzi
+sassi e grebani salvatichi, e proprij luoghi da fiere, per ci&ograve; che in
+tutto l'isola di Tramontana&mdash;[translated by Hakluyt "the northern part
+of the island"]&mdash;io non vidi tanta terra che se ne potesse coricar un
+carro, e vi smontai in parecchi luoghi, e all' isola di Bianco Sabbione
+non v'&egrave; altro che musco, e piccioli spini dispersi, secchi, e morti, e
+in somma io penso che questa sia la terra che Iddio dette a Caino."&mdash;J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 436.
+</p><p>
+The journal of the first two voyages of Cartier is preserved almost
+entire in the "Histoire de la Nouvelle France," by L'Escarbot; there is
+an Italian translation in the third volume of Ramusio. They are written
+in the third person, and it does not appear that he was himself the
+author.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "Sono uomini d'assai bella vita e grandezza ma indomiti e
+salvatichi: portano i capelli in cuna legati e stretti a guisa d'un
+pugno di fieno rivolto, mettendone in mezzo un legnetto, o altra cosa in
+vece di chiodo, e vi legano insieme certe penne d'uccelli."&mdash;J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 436.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> De La&euml;t., vol. i., p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> This was ingeniously represented to the natives as a
+religious ceremony, and, as such, excited nothing but the "grandissima
+ammirazione" of the natives present; it was, however, differently
+understood by their chief. "Ma essendo noi ritornati all&eacute; nostra navi,
+venne il Capitano lor vestito d'im pella vecchia d'orso negro in una
+barca con tre suoi figliuoli, e ci fece un lungo sermone mostrandaci
+detta croce e facendo il segno della croce con due dita poi ci mostrava
+la terra tutta intorno di noi come s'avesse voluto dice che tutta era
+sua, e che noi non dovevamo piantar detta croce senza sua licenza."&mdash;J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 439.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Trovavamo un molto bello e gran golfo pieno d'isole e
+buone entrate e passaggi, verso qual vento si possa fare."&mdash;J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 441.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> "Carthier donna au golphe le nom de St. Laurent, ou plut&ocirc;t
+il le donna &agrave; une baye qui est entre l'isle d'Anticoste et la c&ocirc;te
+septentrionale, d'o&ugrave; ce nom s'est &eacute;tendu &agrave; tout le golphe dont cette
+baye fait partie."&mdash;<i>Hist. de la Nouvelle France</i>, tom. i., p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> "Des sauvages l'appelloient Natiscotec, le nom d'Anticosti
+para&icirc;t lui avoir &eacute;t&eacute; donn&eacute; par les Anglais."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p.
+16. This island is one hundred and twenty-five miles long, and in its
+widest part thirty miles, dividing the River St. Lawrence into two
+channels. Throughout its whole extent it has neither bay nor harbor
+sufficiently safe to shelter ships. It is uncultivated, being generally
+of an unprofitable soil, upon which any attempted improvements have met
+with very unpromising results. Since the year 1809, establishments have
+been formed on the island for the relief of shipwrecked persons; two men
+reside there, at two different stations, all the year round, furnished
+with provisions for the use of those who may have the misfortune to need
+them. Boards are placed in different parts describing the distance and
+direction to these friendly spots; instances of the most flagrant
+inattention have, however, occurred, which were attended with the most
+distressing and fatal consequences."&mdash;Bonchette, vol. i., p. 169.
+</p><p>
+"At present the whole island might be purchased for a few hundred
+pounds. It belongs to some gentlemen in Quebec; and you might, for a
+very small sum, become one of the greatest land-owners in the world, and
+a Canadian <i>seigneur</i> into the bargain."&mdash;Grey's <i>Canada</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> This is the first discovery of the River St. Lawrence,
+called by the natives the River Hochelaga, or the River of Canada.
+Jacques Cartier accurately determined the breadth of its mouth ninety
+miles across. Cape Rosier, a small distance to the north of the point of
+Gasp&eacute;, is properly the place which marks the opening of the gigantic
+river. "V'&egrave; tra le terre d'ostro e quelle di tramontana la distantia di
+trenta leghe in circa, e pi&ugrave; di dugento braccia di fondo. Ci dissero
+anche i detti salvatichi e certificarono quivi essere il cammino e
+principio del gran fiume di Hochelaga e strada di Canada."&mdash;J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442.
+</p><p>
+J. Cartier always afterward speaks of the St. Lawrence as the River of
+Hochelaga, or Canada. Charlevoix says, "Parceque le fleuve qu'on
+appelloit auparavant la Rivi&egrave;re de Canada se d&eacute;charge dans le Golphe de
+St. Laurent, il a insensiblement pris le nom de Fleuve de St. Laurent,
+qu'il porte aujourd'hui (1720)."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> "Lorsque Jacques Carthier d&eacute;couvrit cette &icirc;le, il la
+trouva toute remplie de vignes, et la nomma l'&Icirc;le de Bacchus. Ce
+navigateur &eacute;tait Br&eacute;ton, apr&egrave;s lui sont venus des Normands qui ont
+arrach&eacute; les vignes et &agrave; Bacchus ont substitut&eacute; Pomone et C&eacute;r&egrave;s. En effet
+elle produit de bon froment et d'excellent fruits."&mdash;<i>Journal
+Historique</i>, lettre ii., p. 102.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix also mentions that, when he visited the islands in 1720, the
+inhabitants were famed for their skill in sorcery, and were supposed to
+hold intercourse with the devil!
+</p><p>
+The Isle of Orleans was, in 1676, created an earldom, by the title of
+St. Laurent, which, however, has long been extinct. The first Comte de
+St. Laurent was of the name of Berthelot.&mdash;Charlevoix, vol. v., p. 99.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> "Il signor de Canada (chiamato Donnacona per nome, ma per
+signore il chiamano Agouhanna)."&mdash;J. Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p.
+442. Agouhanna signified chief or lord.
+</p><p>
+Here, says Jacques Cartier, begins the country of Canada. "Il settimo
+giorno di detto mese la vigilia della Madonna, dopo udita la messa ci
+partimmo dall' isola de' nocellari per andar all'insu di detta fiume, e
+arrivamo a quattordici isole distanti dall' isola de Nocellari intorno
+setto in otto leghe, e quivi &egrave; il principio della provincia, e terra di
+Canada."&mdash;J. Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> The writer of these pages adds the testimony of an
+eye-witness to the opinion of the ingenious author of the "Picture of
+Quebec," as to the localities here described. The old writers, even
+Charlevoix himself, have asserted that the "Port St. Croix was at the
+entrance of the river now called Jacques Cartier, which flows into the
+St. Lawrence about fifteen miles above Quebec." Charlevoix, indeed,
+mentions that "Champlain pr&eacute;tend que cette rivi&egrave;re est celle de St.
+Charles, mais," he adds, "il se trompe," &amp;c. However, the localities are
+still unchanged; though three centuries have since elapsed, the
+description of Jacques Cartier is easily recognized at the present day,
+and marks out the mouth of the little River St. Charles<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> as the first
+winter station of the Europeans in Canada. The following are J.
+Cartier's words: "Per cercar luogo e porto sicuro da metter le nav&eacute;, e
+andammo al contrario per detto fiume intorno di dieci leghe costezziando
+detta isola (di Bacchus) e in capo di quella trovammo un gorgo d'acqua
+bello e ameno ("the beautiful basin of Quebec," as it is called in the
+"Picture of Quebec")&mdash;nel quel luogo e un picciol fiume e porto, dove
+per il flusso &egrave; alta l'acqua intorno a tre braccia, ne parve questo
+luogo comodo per metter le nostre navi, per il che quivi le mettemmo in
+sicuro, e lo chiamammo Santa Croce, percio che nel detto giorno v' eramo
+giunti.... Alla riva e lito di quell' isola di Bacchus verso ponente v'&egrave;
+un goejo d'acque molto bello e dilettevole, e convenientemente da
+mettere navilij, dove &egrave; uno stretto del detto fiume molto corrente e
+profondo ma non e lungo pi&ugrave; d'un terzo di lega intorno, per traverso del
+quale vi &egrave; una terra tutta di colline di buona altezza ... quive &egrave; la
+stanza e la terra di Donnacona, e chiamasi il luogo Stadacona ... sotto
+la qual alta terra verso tramontana &egrave; il fiume e porto di Santa Croce,
+nel qual luogo e porto siamo stati dalli 15 di Settembre fino alli 16 di
+Maggio 1536, nel qual luogo le navi rimasero in secco." The "one place"
+in the River St. Lawrence, "deep and swift running," means, of course,
+that part directly opposite the Lower Town, and no doubt it appeared, by
+comparison, "very narrow" to those who had hitherto seen the noble river
+only in its grandest forms. The town of Stadacona stood on that part of
+Quebec which is now covered by the suburbs of St. Roch, with part of
+those of St. John, looking toward the St. Charles. The area, or ground
+adjoining, is thus described by Cartier, as it appeared three centuries
+ago: "terra Tanta buona, quanto sia possibile di vedere, e &egrave; molto
+fertile, piena di bellissimi arbori della sorte di quelli di Francia,
+come sarebbeno quercie, olmi, frassin&egrave;, najare, nassi, cedri, vigne,
+specie bianchi, i quali producono il frutto cosi grosso come susin&egrave;
+damaschini, e di molte altre specie d'arbori, sotto de quali vi nasce e
+cresce cosi bel canapo come quel di Francia, e nondimeno vi nasce senza
+semenza, e senza opera umana o lavoro alcuno."&mdash;Jacques Cartier, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 443, 449, 450.
+</p><p>
+The exact spot in the River St. Charles where the French passed the
+winter is supposed, on good authority, to have been the site of the old
+bridge, called Dorchester Bridge, where there is a ford at low water,
+close to the Marine Hospital. That it was on the east bank, not far from
+the residence of Charles Smith, Esq., is evident from the river having
+been frequently crossed by the natives coming from Stadacona to visit
+the French.&mdash;<i>Picture of Quebec</i>, p. 43-46; 1834.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> It received this name, according to La Potherie, in
+compliment to Charles des Bo&uuml;es, grand vicar of Pontoise, founder of the
+first mission of Recollets in New France. The River St. Charles was
+called Coubal Coubat by the natives, from its windings and
+meanderings.&mdash;Smith's <i>Canada</i>, vol. i., p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> "Quebec en langue Algonquine signifie <i>retr&eacute;cissement</i>.
+Les Abenaquis dont la langue est une dialecte Algonquine, le nomment
+Quelibec, qui veut dire <i>ce qui est ferme</i>, parceque de l'entr&eacute;e de la
+petite rivi&egrave;re de la Chaudi&egrave;re par o&ugrave; ces sauvages venaient &agrave; Quebec, le
+port de Quebec ne paroit qu'une grande barge."&mdash;Charlevoix, vol. i., p.
+50.
+</p><p>
+"Trouvant un lieu le plus &eacute;troit de la rivi&egrave;re que les habitans du pays
+nomment Qu&eacute;bec;" "la pointe de Qu&eacute;bec, ainsi appell&eacute;e des
+sauvages."&mdash;Champlain, vol. i., p. 115, 124.
+</p><p>
+Others give a Norman derivation for the word: it is said that Quebec was
+so called after Caudebec, on the Seine.
+</p><p>
+La Potherie's words are: "On tient que les Normands qui &eacute;toient avec J.
+Cartier &agrave; sa premi&egrave;re d&eacute;couverte, apercevant en bout de l'isle
+d'Orl&eacute;ans, un cap fort &eacute;lev&eacute;, s'&eacute;cri&egrave;rent 'Quel bec!' et qu' &agrave; la suite
+du tems la nom de Quebec lui est reste. Je ne suis point garant de cette
+&eacute;tymologie." Mr. Hawkins terms this "a derivation entirely illusory and
+improbable," and asserts that the word is of Norman origin. He gives an
+engraving of a seal belonging to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk,
+dated in the 7th of Henry V., or A.D. 1420. The legend or motto is,
+"Sigillum Willielmi de la Pole, Comitis Suffolcki&aelig;, Domine de Hamburg et
+de Quebec." Suffolk was impeached by the Commons of England in 1450, and
+one of the charges brought against him was, his unbounded influence in
+Normandy, where he lived and ruled like an independent prince; it is
+not, therefore, improbable that he enjoyed the French title of Quebec in
+addition to his English honors.
+</p><p>
+The Indian name Stadacona had perished before the time of Champlain,
+owing, probably, to the migration of the principal tribe and the
+succession of others. The inhabitants of Hochelaga, we are told by
+Jacques Cartier, were the only people in the surrounding neighborhood
+who were not migratory.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> "In mezzo di quelle campagne, &egrave; posta la terra d'Hochelaga
+appresso e congiunta con una montagna coltivata tutta attorno e molto
+fertile, sopra la qual si vede molto lontano. Noi la chiamammo il Monto
+Regal.... Parecchi uomini e donne ci vennero a condur e menar sopra la
+montagna, qui dinanzi detta, la qual chiamammo Monte Regal, distante da
+detto luogo poco manco d'un miglio, sopra la quale essendo noi, vedemmo
+e avemmo notitia di pi&ugrave; di trenta leghe attorno di quella, e verso la
+parte di tramontana si vede una continuazione di montagne, li quali
+corrono avante e ponente, e altra tante verso il mezzo giorno, fra le
+quali montagna &egrave; la terra, pi&ugrave; bella che sia possibile a veder."&mdash;J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 447, 448.
+</p><p>
+"Cartier donna le nom de Mont Royal &agrave; la montagne au pied de laquelle
+&eacute;toit la bourgade de Hochelaga. Il d&eacute;couvrit de l&agrave; une grande &eacute;tendue de
+pays dont la vue le charma, et avec raison, car il en est peu au monde
+de plus beau et de meilleur."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> "This tree is supposed to have been the spruce fir, <i>Pinus
+Canadensis</i>. It is called 'Ameda' by the natives. Spruce-beer is known
+to be a powerful anti-scorbutic."&mdash;Champlain. part i., p. 124.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix calls the tree <i>Epinette Blanche</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Any information given by the natives as to the existence
+of mines was vague and unsatisfactory, "Poscia ci mostrarono con segni,
+che passate dette tre cadute si poteva navigar per detto fiume il spazio
+di tre lune: noi pensammo che quello sia il fiume che passa per il passe
+di Saguenay, e senza che li facessimo dimanda presero la catena del
+subiotto del capitano che era d'argento, e il manico del pugnale di uno
+de nostre compagni marinari, qual era d'ottone giallo quanto l'oro, e ci
+mostrarono che quello veniva di sopra di detto fiume ... Il capitan
+mostro loro del rame rosso, qual chiamano <i>Caignetadze</i> dimostrandoli
+con segni voltandosi verso detto paese li dimandava se veniva da quelle
+parti, e eglino cominciarono a crollar il capo, volendo dir no, ma ben
+ne significarono che veniva da <i>Saguenay</i>.
+</p><p>
+"Pi&ugrave; ci hanno detto e fatto intendere, che in quel paese di <i>Saguenay</i>
+sono genti vestite di drappi come noi, ... e che hanno gran quantit&agrave;
+d'oro e rame rosso ... e che gli nomini e donne di quella terra sono
+vestite di pelli come loro, noi li dimandammo se ci &egrave; oro e rame rosso,
+ci risposero di si. Io penso che questo luogo sia verso la Florida per
+quanto ho potuto intendere dalli loro segni e indicij."&mdash;J. Cartier, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 448-450.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The only valuable the natives seemed to have in their
+possession was a substance called <i>esurgny</i>, white as snow, of which
+they made beads and wore them about their necks. This they looked upon
+as the most precious gift they could bestow on the white men. The mode
+in which it was prepared is said by Cartier to be the following: When
+any one was adjudged to death for a crime, or when their enemies are
+taken in war, having first slain the person, they make long gashes over
+the whole of the body, and sink it to the bottom of the river in a
+certain place, where the esurgny abounds. After remaining ten or twelve
+hours, the body is drawn up and the esurgny or <i>cornibotz</i> is found in
+the gashes. These necklaces of beads the French found had the power to
+stop bleeding at the nose. It is supposed that in the above account the
+French misunderstood the natives or were imposed upon by them; and there
+is no doubt that the "valuable substance" described by Cartier was the
+Indian wampum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XIV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> The precise spot on which the upper fort of Jacques
+Cartier was built, afterward enlarged by Roberval, has been fixed by an
+ingenious gentleman at Quebec at the top of Cape Rouge Height, a short
+distance from the handsome villa of Mr. Atkinson. A few months ago, Mr.
+Atkinson's workmen, in leveling the lawn in front of the house, and
+close to the point of Cape Rouge Height, found beneath the surface some
+loose stones which had apparently been the foundation of some building
+or fortification. Among these stones were found several iron balls of
+different sizes, adapted to the caliber of the ship guns used at the
+period of Jacques Cartier's and Roberval's visit. Upon the whole, the
+evidence of the presence of the French at Cape Rouge may be considered
+as conclusive. Nor is there any good reason to doubt that Roberval took
+up his quarters in the part which Jacques Cartier had left.&mdash;<i>Picture of
+Quebec</i>, p. 62-469.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Jacques Cartier was born at St. Malo about 1500. The day
+of his birth can not be discovered, nor the time and place of his death.
+Most probably he finished his useful life at St. Malo; for we find,
+under the date of the 29th of November, 1549, that the celebrated
+navigator with his wife, Catharine des Granges, founded an obit in the
+Cathedral of St. Malo, assigning the sum of four francs for that
+purpose. The mortuary registers of St. Malo make no mention of his
+death, nor is there any tradition on the subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> The name of America was first given to the New World in
+1507. "L'opinion anciennement &eacute;mise et encore tr&egrave;s r&eacute;pandue que Vespuce,
+dans l'exercice de son emploi de Piloto mayor, et charg&eacute; de corriger les
+cartes hydrographiques de 1508 &agrave; 1512, ait profit&eacute; de sa position pour
+appeler de son nom le Nouveau Monde, n'a aucun fondement. La
+d&eacute;nomination d'Am&eacute;rique a &eacute;t&eacute; propos&eacute;e loin de Seville, en Lorraine, en
+1507, une ann&eacute;e avant la cr&eacute;ation de l'office d'un Piloto mayor de
+Indias. Les Mappe Mondes qui portent le nom d'Am&eacute;rique n'ont paru que 8
+our 10 ans apr&egrave;s la mort de Vespuce, et dans des pays sur lequels ni lui
+ni ses parents n'exer&ccedil;aient aucune influence. Il est probable que
+Vespuce n'a jamais su quelle dangereuse gloire on lui pr&eacute;paroit &agrave; Saint
+Di&eacute;, dans un petit endroit, situ&eacute; au pied des Vosges, et dont
+vraisembablement le nom m&ecirc;me lui &eacute;toit inconnu. Jusqu' &agrave; l'&eacute;poque de sa
+mort, le mot Am&eacute;rique, employ&eacute; comme d&eacute;nomination d'un continent ne
+s'est trouve imprim&eacute; que dans deux seuls ouvrages, dans la Cosmographi&aelig;
+Introductio de Martin Waldseem&uuml;ller, et dans le Globus Mundi (Argentor,
+1509). On n'a jusqu'ici aucun rapport direct de Waldseem&uuml;ller
+imprimateur de Saint Di&eacute;, avec le navigateur Florentin."&mdash;Humboldt's
+<i>Geogr. du Nouveau Continent</i>, vol. v., p. 206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Nom&oelig;si-Sipu, <i>Fish River</i>, M&oelig;sisip by corruption.
+This river is called Cucagna by Garcilasso.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> For the romantic details of Ferdinand de Soto's perilous
+enterprise, see Vega Garcilasso de Florida del Ynca, b. i., ch. iii.,
+iv.; Herrera, Dec. VI., b. vii., ch. ix.; Purchas, 4, 1532; "Purchas,
+his Pilgrimage," otherwise called "Hackluytus Posthumus;" a voluminous
+compilation by a chaplain of Archbishop Abbot's, designed to comprise
+whatever had been related concerning the religion of all nations, from
+the earliest times.&mdash;Miss Aikin's <i>Charles I.</i>, vol. i., p. 39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> "La colonie Fran&ccedil;aise &eacute;tablie sous Charles IX. comprenoit
+la partie m&eacute;ridionnale de la Caroline Angloise, la Nouvelle Georgie,
+d'aujourd'hui (1740) San Matteo, appell&eacute; par Laudonni&egrave;re Caroline en
+l'honneur du roi Charles, St. Augustin, et tout ce que les Espagnols ont
+sur cette c&ocirc;te jusqu'au Cap Fran&ccedil;ois, n'a jamais &eacute;t&eacute; appell&eacute;e autrement
+que la Floride Fran&ccedil;aise, ou la Nouvelle France, ou la France
+Occidentale."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 383.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> See Appendix, Nos. XV., XVI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Little or no effort was made to colonize any part of Canada for nearly
+fifty years after the loss of Roberval; but the Huguenots of France did
+not forget that hope of a refuge from religious persecution which their
+great leader, Coligni, had excited in their breasts. Several of the
+leaders of subsequent expeditions of trade and discovery to Canada and
+Acadia were Calvinists, until 1627, when Champlain, zealous for the
+Romish faith, procured a decree forbidding the free exercise of the
+Reformed religion in French America.</p>
+
+<p>Although the French seemed to have renounced all plan of settlement in
+America by the evacuation of Florida, the fishermen of Normandy and
+Brittany still plied their calling on the Great Bank and along the
+stormy shores of Newfoundland, and up the Gulf and River of St.
+Lawrence. By degrees they began to trade with the natives, and soon the
+greater gains and easier life of this new pursuit transformed many of
+these hardy sailors into merchants.</p>
+
+<p>When, after fifty years of civil strife, the strong and wise sway of
+Henry IV. restored rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery
+again arose. The Marquis de la Roche, a Breton gentleman, obtained from
+the king, in 1598, a patent granting the same powers that Roberval had
+possessed. He speedily armed a vessel, and sailed for Nova Scotia in the
+same year, accompanied by a skillful Norman pilot named Chedotel. He
+first reached Sable Island, where he left forty miserable wretches,
+convicts drawn from the prisons of France, till he might discover some
+favorable situation for the intended settlement, and make a survey of
+the neighboring coasts. When La Roche ever reached the Continent of
+America remains unknown; but he certainly returned to France, leaving
+the unhappy prisoners upon Sable Island to a fate more dreadful than
+even the dungeons or galleys of France could threaten. After seven years
+of dire suffering, twelve of these unfortunates were found alive, an
+expedition having been tardily sent to seek them by the king. When they
+arrived in France, they became objects of great curiosity; in
+consideration of such unheard-of suffering, their former crimes were
+pardoned, a sum of money was given to each, and the valuable furs
+collected during their dreary imprisonment, but fraudulently seized by
+the captain of the ship in which they were brought home, were allowed to
+their use. In the mean time, the Marquis de la Roche, who had so cruelly
+abandoned these men to their fate, harassed by lawsuits, overwhelmed
+with vexations, and ruined in fortune by the failure of his expedition,
+died miserably of a broken heart.</p>
+
+<p>The misfortunes and ruin of the Marquis de la Roche did not stifle the
+spirit of commercial enterprise which the success of the fur trade had
+excited. Private adventurers, unprotected by any especial privilege,
+began to barter for the rich peltries of the Canadian hunters. [1600.] A
+wealthy merchant of St. Malo, named Pontgrav&eacute;, was the boldest and most
+successful of these traders; he made several voyages to Tadoussac, at
+the mouth of the Saguenay, bringing back each time a rich cargo of rare
+and valuable furs. He saw that this commerce would open to him a field
+of vast wealth, could he succeed in obtaining an exclusive privilege to
+enjoy its advantages, and managed to induce Chauvin, a captain in the
+navy, to apply to the king for powers such as De la Roche had possessed:
+the application was successful, a patent was granted to Chauvin, and
+Pontgrav&eacute; admitted to partnership. [1602.] It was, however, in vain that
+they attempted to establish a trading post at Tadoussac:<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> after
+having made two voyages thither without realizing their sanguine
+expectations of gain, Chauvin died while once more preparing to try his
+fortune.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the great object of colonization was completely forgotten
+in the eager pursuit of the fur trade, till De Chatte, the governor of
+Dieppe, who succeeded to the privileges of Chauvin, founded a company of
+merchants at Rouen, for the further development of the resources of
+Canada. [1603.] An armament was fitted out under the command of the
+experienced Pontgrav&eacute;; he was commissioned by the king to make further
+discoveries in the St. Lawrence, and to establish a settlement upon some
+suitable position on the coast. Samuel de Champlain, a captain in the
+navy, accepted a command in this expedition at the request of De
+Chatte; he was a native of Saintonge, and had lately returned to France
+from the West Indies, where he had gained a high name for boldness and
+skill. Under the direction of this wise and energetic man the first
+successful efforts were made to found a permanent settlement in the
+magnificent province of Canada, and the stain of the errors and
+disasters of more than seventy years was at length wiped away.</p>
+
+<p>Pontgrav&eacute; and Champlain sailed for the St. Lawrence in 1603. They
+remained a short time at Tadoussac, where they left their ships; then,
+trusting themselves to a small, open boat, with only five sailors, they
+boldly pushed up the Great River to the sault St. Louis, where Jacques
+Cartier had reached many years before. By this time Hochelaga, the
+ancient Indian city, had, from some unknown cause, sunk into such
+insignificance that the adventurers did not even notice it, nor deem it
+worthy of a visit; but they anchored for a time under the shade of the
+magnificent headland of Quebec. On the return of the expedition to
+France, Champlain found, to his deep regret, that De Chatte, the worthy
+and powerful patron of the undertaking, had died during his absence.
+Pierre du Guast, sieur de Monts, had succeeded to the powers and
+privileges of the deceased, with even a more extensive commission.</p>
+
+<p>De Monts was a Calvinist, and had obtained from the king the freedom of
+religious faith for himself and his followers in America, but under the
+engagement that the Roman Catholic worship should be established among
+the natives. Even his opponents admitted the honesty and patriotism of
+his character,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> and bore witness to his courage and ability; he was,
+nevertheless, unsuccessful; many of those under his command failed in
+their duty, and the jealousy excited by his exclusive privileges and
+obnoxious doctrines<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> involved him in ruinous embarrassments.</p>
+
+<p>The trading company established by De Chatte was continued and increased
+by his successor. With this additional aid De Monts was enabled to fit
+out a more complete armament than had ever hitherto been engaged in
+Canadian commerce. He sailed from Havre on the 7th of March, 1604, with
+four vessels. Of these, two under his immediate command were destined
+for Acadia. Champlain, Poutrincourt, and many other volunteers, embarked
+their fortunes with him, purposing to cast their future lot in the New
+World. A third vessel was dispatched under Pontgrav&eacute; to the Strait of
+Canso, to protect the exclusive trading privileges of the company. The
+fourth steered for Tadoussac, to barter for the rich furs brought by the
+Indian hunters from the dreary wilds of the Saguenay.</p>
+
+<p>On the 6th of May De Monts reached a harbor on the coast of Acadia,
+where he seized and confiscated an English vessel, in vindication of his
+exclusive privileges. Thence he sailed to the Island of St. Croix, where
+he landed his people, and established himself for the winter. In the
+spring of 1605 he hastened to leave this settlement, where the want of
+wood and fresh water, and the terrible ravages of the scurvy, had
+disheartened and diminished the number of his followers. In the mean
+time Champlain had discovered and named Port Royal, now Annapolis, a
+situation which presented many natural advantages. De Monts removed the
+establishment thither, and erected a fort, appointing Pontgrav&eacute; to its
+command. Soon afterward he bestowed Port Royal and a large extent of the
+neighboring country upon De Poutrincourt, and the grant was ultimately
+confirmed by letters patent from the king. This was the first concession
+of land made in North America since its discovery.</p>
+
+<p>When De Monts returned to France in 1605, he found that enemies had been
+busily and successfully at work in destroying his influence at court.
+Complaints of the injustice of his exclusive privileges poured in from
+all the ports in the kingdom. It was urged that he had interfered with
+and thwarted the fisheries, under the pretense of securing the sole
+right of trading with the Indian hunters. These statements were
+hearkened to by the king, and all the Sieur's privileges were revoked.
+De Monts bore up bravely against this disaster. He entered into a new
+engagement with De Poutrincourt, who had followed him to France, and
+dispatched a vessel from Rochelle on the 13th of May to succor the
+colony in Acadia. The voyage was unusually protracted, and the settlers
+at Port Royal, at length reduced to great extremities, feared that they
+had been abandoned to their fate. The wise and energetic Pontgrav&eacute; did
+all that man could do to reassure them; but, finally, their supplies
+being completely exhausted, he was constrained to yield to the general
+wish, and embark his people for France. He had scarcely sailed, however,
+when he heard of the arrival of Poutrincourt and the long-desired
+supplies. He then immediately returned to Port Royal, where he found his
+chief already landed. Under able and judicious management,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> the
+colony increased and prospered until 1614, when it was attacked and
+broken up by Sir Samuel Argall with a Virginian force.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>The enemies of De Monts did not relax in their efforts till he was
+deprived of his high commission. A very insufficient indemnity was
+granted for the great expenses he had incurred. Still he was not
+disheartened: in the following year, 1607, he obtained a renewal of his
+privileges for one year, on condition that he should plant a colony upon
+the banks of the St. Lawrence. The trading company did not lose
+confidence in their principal, although his courtly influence had been
+destroyed; but their object was confined to the prosecution of the
+lucrative commerce in furs, for which reason they ceased to interest
+themselves in Acadia, and turned their thoughts to the Great River of
+Canada, where they hoped to find a better field for their undertaking.
+They equipped two ships at Honfleur, under the command of Champlain and
+Pontgrav&eacute;, to establish the fur trade at Tadoussac. De Monts remained in
+France, vainly endeavoring to obtain an extension of his patent. Despite
+his disappointments, he fitted out some vessels in the spring of 1608,
+with the assistance of the company, and dispatched them to the River
+St. Lawrence on the 13th of April, under the same command as before.</p>
+
+<p>Champlain reached Tadoussac on the 3d of June; his views were far more
+extended than those of a mere merchant; even honest fame for himself,
+and increase of glory and power for his country, were, in his eyes,
+objects subordinate to the extension of the Catholic faith. After a
+brief stay, he ascended the Great River, examining the shore with minute
+care, to seek the most fitting place where the first foundation of
+French empire might be laid. On the 3d of July he reached
+<span class="smcap">Quebec</span>, where, nearly three quarters of a century before,
+Jacques Cartier had passed the winter. This magnificent position was at
+once chosen by Champlain as the site of the future capital of Canada:
+centuries of experience have proved the wisdom of the selection;
+admirably situated for purposes of war or commerce, and completely
+commanding the navigation of the Great River, it stands the center of a
+scene of beauty that can nowhere be surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>On the bold headland overlooking the waters of the basin, he commenced
+his work by felling the trees, and rooting up the wild vines and tangled
+underwood from the virgin soil. Some rude huts were speedily erected for
+shelter; spots around them were cultivated to test the fertility of the
+land: this labor was repaid by abundant production. The first permanent
+work undertaken in the new settlement was the erection of a solid
+building as a magazine for their provisions. A temporary barrack on the
+highest point of the position, for the officers and men, was
+subsequently constructed. These preparations occupied the remainder of
+the summer. The first snow fell on the 18th of November, but only
+remained on the ground for two days: in December it again returned, and
+the face of nature was covered till the end of April, 1609. From the
+time of Jacques Cartier to the establishment of Champlain, and even to
+the present day, there has been no very decided amelioration of the
+severity of the climate; indeed, some of the earliest records notice
+seasons milder than many of modern days.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Stadacona, like its prouder neighbor of Hochelaga, seems to
+have dwindled into insignificance since the time when it had been an
+object of such interest and suspicion to Jacques Cartier. Some Indians
+still lived in huts around Quebec, but in a state of poverty and
+destitution, very different from the condition of their ancestors.
+During the winter of 1608, they suffered dire extremities of famine;
+several came over from the southern shores of the river, miserably
+reduced by starvation, and scarcely able to drag along their feeble
+limbs, to seek aid from the strangers. Champlain relieved their
+necessities and treated them with politic kindness. The French suffered
+severely from the scurvy during the first winter of their residence.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th of April, 1609, Champlain, accompanied by two Frenchmen,
+ascended the Great River with a war party of Canadian Indians. After a
+time, turning southward up a tributary stream, he came to the shores of
+a large and beautiful lake, abounding with fish; the shores and
+neighboring forests sheltered, in their undisturbed solitude, countless
+deer and other animals of the chase. To this splendid sheet of water he
+gave his own name, which it still bears. To the south and west rose huge
+snow-capped mountains, and in the fertile valleys below dwelt numbers of
+the fierce and hostile Iroquois. Champlain and his savage allies pushed
+on to the furthest extremity of the lake, descended a rapid, and entered
+another smaller sheet of water, afterward named St. Sacrement. On the
+shore they encountered two hundred of the Iroquois warriors; a battle
+ensued; the skill and the astonishing weapons of the white men soon gave
+their Canadian allies a complete victory. Many prisoners were taken,
+and, in spite of Champlain's remonstrances, put to death with horrible
+and protracted tortures. The brave Frenchman returned to Quebec, and
+sailed for Europe in September, leaving Captain Pierre Chauvin, an
+experienced officer, in charge of the infant settlement. Henry IV.
+received Champlain with favor, and called him to an interview at
+Fontainebleau:<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> the king listened attentively to the report of the
+new colony, expressing great satisfaction at its successful foundation
+and favorable promise. But the energetic De Monts, to whom so much of
+this success was due, could find no courtly aid: the renewal of his
+privilege was refused, and its duration had already expired. By the
+assistance of the Merchant Company, he fitted out two vessels in the
+spring of 1610, under the tried command of Champlain and Pontgrav&eacute;: the
+first was destined for Quebec, with some artisans, settlers, and
+necessary supplies for the colony; the second was commissioned to carry
+on the fur trade at Tadoussac. Champlain sailed from Honfleur on the 8th
+of April, and reached the mouth of the Saguenay in eighteen days, a
+passage which even all the modern improvements in navigation have rarely
+enabled any one to surpass in rapidity. He soon hastened on to Quebec,
+where, to his great joy, he found the colonists contented and
+prosperous; the virgin soil had abundantly repaid the labors of
+cultivation, and the natives had in no wise molested their dangerous
+visitors. He joined the neighboring tribes of Algonquin and Montagnez
+Indians, during the summer, in an expedition against the Iroquois.
+Having penetrated the woody country beyond Sorel for some distance, they
+came upon a place where their enemies were intrenched; this they took,
+after a bloody resistance. Champlain and another Frenchman were slightly
+wounded in the encounter.</p>
+
+<p>In 1612 Champlain found it necessary to revisit France; some powerful
+patron was wanted to forward the interests of the colony, and to provide
+the supplies and resources required for its extension. The Count de
+Soissons readily entered into his views, and delegated to him the
+authority of viceroy, which had been conferred upon the count.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>
+Soissons died soon after, and the Prince of Cond&eacute; became his successor.
+Champlain was wisely continued in the command he had so long and ably
+held, but was delayed in France for some time by difficulties on the
+subject of commerce with the merchants of St. Malo.</p>
+
+<p>Champlain sailed again from St. Malo on the 6th of March, 1613, in a
+vessel commanded by Pontgrav&eacute;, and anchored before Quebec on the 7th of
+May. He found the state of affairs at the settlement so satisfactory
+that his continued presence was unnecessary; he therefore proceeded at
+once to Montreal, and, after a short stay at that island, explored for
+some distance the course of the Ottawa, which there pours its vast flood
+into the main stream of the St. Lawrence. The white men were filled with
+wonder and admiration at the magnitude of this great tributary, the
+richness and beauty of its shores, the broad lakes and deep rapids, and
+the eternal forests, clothing mountain, plain, and valley for countless
+leagues around. As they proceeded they found no diminution in the volume
+of water; and when they inquired of the wandering Indian for its source,
+he pointed to the northwest, and indicated that it lay in the unknown
+solitudes of ice and snow, to which his people had never reached. After
+this expedition Champlain returned with his companion Pontgrav&eacute; to St.
+Malo, where they arrived in the end of August.</p>
+
+<p>Having engaged some wealthy merchants of St. Malo, Rouen, and Rochelle
+in an association for the support of the colony, through the assistance
+of the Prince of Cond&eacute;, viceroy of New France, he obtained letters
+patent of incorporation for the company [1614]. The temporal welfare of
+the settlement being thus placed upon a secure basis, Champlain, who was
+a zealous Catholic, next devoted himself to obtain spiritual aid. By his
+entreaties four Recollets were prevailed upon to undertake the mission.
+These were the first<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> ministers of religion settled in Canada. They
+reached Quebec in the beginning of April, 1615, accompanied by
+Champlain, who, however, at once proceeded to Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>On arriving at this island, he found the Huron and other allied tribes
+again preparing for an expedition against the Iroquois. With a view of
+gaining the friendship of the savages, and of acquiring a knowledge of
+the country, he injudiciously offered himself to join a quarrel in which
+he was in no wise concerned. The father Joseph Le Caron accompanied him,
+in the view of preparing the way for religious instruction, by making
+himself acquainted with the habits and language of the Indians.
+Champlain was appointed chief by the allies, but his savage followers
+rendered slight obedience to this authority. The expedition proved very
+disastrous: the Iroquois were strongly intrenched, and protected by a
+quantity of felled trees; their resistance proved successful; Champlain
+was wounded, and the allies were forced to retreat with shame and with
+heavy loss.</p>
+
+<p>The respect of the Indians for the French was much diminished by this
+untoward failure; they refused to furnish Champlain with a promised
+guide to conduct him to Quebec, and he was obliged to pass the winter
+among them as an unwilling guest. He, however, made the best use of his
+time; he visited many of the principal Huron and Algonquin towns, even
+those as distant as Lake Nipissing, and succeeded in reconciling several
+neighboring nations. At the opening of the navigation, he gained over
+some of the Indians to his cause, and, finding that another expedition
+against the Iroquois was in preparation, embarked secretly and arrived
+at Quebec on the 11th of July, 1616, when he found that he and the
+father Joseph were supposed to have been dead long since. They both
+sailed for France soon after their return from among the Hurons.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year, a signal service was rendered to the colony by a
+worthy priest named Duplessys: he had been engaged for some time at
+Three Rivers in the instruction of the savages, and had happily so far
+gained their esteem, that some of his pupils informed him of a
+conspiracy among all the neighboring Indian tribes for the utter
+destruction of the French; eight hundred chiefs and warriors had
+assembled to arrange the plan of action. Duplessys contrived, with
+consummate ability, to gain over some of the principal Indians to make
+advances toward a reconciliation with the white men, and, by degrees,
+succeeded in arranging a treaty, and in causing two chiefs to be given
+up as hostages for its observance.</p>
+
+<p>For several years Champlain was constantly obliged to visit France for
+the purpose of urging on the tardily provided aids for the colony. The
+court would not interest itself in the affairs of New France since a
+company had undertaken their conduct, and the merchants, always limited
+in their views to mere commercial objects, cared but little for the fate
+of the settlers so long as their warehouses were stored with the
+valuable furs brought by the Indian hunters. These difficulties would
+doubtless have smothered the infant nation in its cradle, had it not
+been for the untiring zeal and constancy of its great founder. At every
+step he met with new trials from the indifference, caprice, or
+contradiction of his associates, but, with his eye steadily fixed upon
+the future, he devoted his fortune and the energies of his life to the
+cause, and rose superior to every obstacle.</p>
+
+<p>In 1620, the Prince of Cond&eacute; sold the vice-royalty of New France to his
+brother-in-law, the Marshal de Montmorenci, for eleven thousand crowns.
+The marshal wisely continued Champlain as lieutenant governor, and
+intrusted the management of colonial affairs in France to M. Dolu, a
+gentleman of known zeal and probity. Champlain being hopeful that these
+changes would favorably affect Canada, resolved now to establish his
+family permanently in that country. Taking them with him, he sailed from
+France in the above-named year, and arrived at Quebec in the end of May.
+In passing by Tadoussac, he found that some adventurers of Rochelle had
+opened a trade with the savages, in violation of the company's
+privileges, and had given the fatal example of furnishing the hunters
+with fire-arms in exchange for their peltries.</p>
+
+<p>A great danger menaced the colony in the year 1621. The Iroquois sent
+three large parties of warriors to attack the French settlements. This
+savage tribe feared that if the white men obtained a footing in the
+country, their alliance with the Hurons and Algonquins, of which the
+effects had already been felt, might render them too powerful. The first
+division marched upon Sault St. Louis, where a few Frenchmen were
+established. Happily, there was warning of their approach; the
+defenders, aided by some Indian allies, repulsed them with much loss,
+and took several prisoners. The Iroquois had, however, seized Father
+Guillaume Poulain, one of the Recollets, in their retreat; they tied him
+to a stake, and were about to burn him alive, when they were persuaded
+to exchange the good priest for one of their own chiefs, who had fallen
+into the hands of the French. Another party of these fierce marauders
+dropped down the river to Quebec in a fleet of thirty canoes, and
+suddenly invested the Convent of the Recollets, where a small fort had
+been erected; they did not venture to attack this little stronghold, but
+fell upon some Huron villages near at hand, and massacred the helpless
+inhabitants with frightful cruelty; they then retreated as suddenly as
+they had come. Alarmed by this ferocious attack, which weakness and the
+want of sufficient supplies prevented him from avenging, Champlain sent
+Father Georges le Brebeuf as an agent, to represent to the king the
+deplorable condition of the colony, from the criminal neglect of the
+company. The appeal was successful; the company was suppressed, and the
+exclusive privilege transferred to Guillaume and Emeric de Caen, uncle
+and nephew.</p>
+
+<p>The king himself wrote to his worthy subject Champlain, expressing high
+approval of his eminent services, and exhorting him to continue in the
+same career. This high commendation served much to strengthen his hands
+in the exercise of his difficult authority. He was embarrassed by
+constant disputes between the servants of the suppressed company, and
+those who acted for the De Caens; religious differences also served to
+embitter these dissensions, as the new authorities were zealous
+Huguenots.</p>
+
+<p>This year Champlain discovered that his ancient allies, the Hurons,
+purposed to detach themselves from his friendship, and unite with the
+Iroquois for his destruction. To avert this danger, he sent among them
+Father Joseph la Caron and two other priests, who appear to have
+succeeded in their mission of reconciliation. The year after, he erected
+a stone fort<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> at Quebec for the defense of the settlement, which
+then only numbered fifty souls of all ages and sexes. As soon as the
+defenses were finished, Champlain departed for France with his family,
+to press for aid from the government for the distressed colony.</p>
+
+<p>On his arrival, he found that Henri de Levi, duke de Ventadour, had
+purchased the vice-royalty of New France from the Marshal de
+Montmorenci, his uncle, with the view of promoting the spiritual welfare
+of Canada, and the general conversion of the heathen Indians to the
+Christian faith. He had himself long retired from the strife and
+troubles of the world, and entered into holy orders. Being altogether
+under the influence of the Jesuits, he considered them as the means
+given by heaven for the accomplishment of his views. The pious and
+exemplary Father Lallemant, with four other priests and laymen of the
+Order of Jesus, undertook the mission, and sailed for Canada in 1625.
+They were received without jealousy by their predecessors of the
+Recollets, and admitted under their roof on their first arrival.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>
+The following year three other Jesuit fathers reached Quebec in a little
+vessel provided by themselves; many artisans accompanied them. By the
+aid of this re-enforcement, the new settlement soon assumed the
+appearance of a town.</p>
+
+<p>The Huguenot De Caens used their powerful influence to foment the
+religious disputes now raging in the infant settlement;<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> they were
+also far more interested in the profitable pursuit of the fur trade than
+in promoting the progress of colonization; for these reasons, the
+Cardinal de Richelieu judged that their rule was injurious to the
+prosperity of the country; he revoked their privileges, and caused the
+formation of a numerous company of wealthy and upright men; to this he
+transferred the charge of the colony. This body was chartered under the
+name of "The Company of One Hundred Associates:"<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> their capital was
+100,000 crowns; their privileges as follows: To be proprietors of
+Canada; to govern in peace and war; to enjoy the whole trade for
+fifteen years (except the cod and whale fishery), and the fur trade in
+perpetuity; untaxed imports and exports. The king gave them two ships of
+300 tons burden each, and raised twelve of the principal members to the
+rank of nobility. The company, on their part, undertook to introduce 200
+or 300 settlers during the year 1628, and 16,000 more before 1643,
+providing them with all necessaries for three years, and settling them
+afterward on a sufficient extent of cleared land for their future
+support. The articles of this agreement were signed by the Cardinal de
+Richelieu on the 19th of April, 1627, and subsequently approved by the
+king.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the Indians were a constant terror to the settlers in
+Canada: several Frenchmen had been assassinated by the ruthless savages,
+and their countrymen were too feeble in numbers to demand the punishment
+of the murderers. Conscious of their strength, the natives became daily
+more insolent; no white man could venture beyond the settlement without
+incurring great danger. Building languished, and much of the cleared
+land remained uncultivated. Such was the disastrous state of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The commencement of the company's government was marked by heavy
+misfortune. The first vessels sent by them to America fell into the
+hands of the English, at the sudden breaking out of hostilities. In
+1628, Sir David Kertk, a French Calvinist refugee in the British
+service, reached Tadoussac with a squadron, burned the fur houses of the
+free traders, and did other damage; thence he sent to Quebec, summoning
+Champlain to surrender. The brave governor consulted with Pontgrav&eacute; and
+the inhabitants; they came to the resolution of attempting a defense,
+although reduced to great extremities, and sent Kertk such a spirited
+answer that he, ignorant of their weakness, did not advance upon the
+town. He, however, captured a convoy under the charge of De Roquemont,
+with several families on board, and a large supply of provisions for the
+settlement. This expedition against Canada was said to have been planned
+and instigated by De Caen, from a spirit of vengeance against those who
+had succeeded to his lost privileges.</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1629, Lewis and Thomas, brothers of Sir David Kertk, appeared
+with an armament before Quebec. As soon as the fleet had anchored, a
+white flag with a summons to capitulate was sent ashore. This time the
+assailants were well informed of the defenders' distress, but offered
+generous terms if Champlain would at once surrender the fort. He, having
+no means of resistance, was fain to submit. The English took possession
+the following day, and treated the inhabitants with such good faith and
+humanity, that none of them left the country. Lewis Kertk remained in
+command at Quebec; Champlain proceeded with Thomas to Tadoussac, where
+they met the admiral, Sir David, with the remainder of the fleet. In
+September they sailed for England, and Champlain was sent on to France,
+according to treaty.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<p>When the French received the news of the loss of Canada, opinion was
+much divided as to the wisdom of seeking to regain the captured
+settlement.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> Some thought its possession of little value in
+proportion to the expense it caused, while others deemed that the fur
+trade and fisheries were of great importance to the commerce of France,
+as well as a useful nursery for experienced seamen. Champlain strongly
+urged the government not to give up a country where they had already
+overcome the principal difficulties of settlement, and where, through
+their means, the light of religion was dawning upon the darkness of
+heathen ignorance. His solicitations were successful, and Canada was
+restored to France at the same time with Acadia and Cape Breton, by the
+treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> [1632]. At this period the fort of
+Quebec, surrounded by a score of hastily-built dwellings and barracks,
+some poor huts on the island of Montreal, the like at Three Rivers and
+Tadoussac, and a few fishermen's log-houses elsewhere on the banks of
+the St. Lawrence, were the only fruits of the discoveries of Verazzano,
+Jacques Cartier, Roberval, and Champlain, the great outlay of La Roche
+and De Monts, and the toils and sufferings of their followers, for
+nearly a century.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>By the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye the company were restored to all
+their rights and privileges, and obtained compensation for the losses
+they had sustained, but it was some time before the English could be
+effectually excluded from the trade which they had established with the
+Indians during their brief possession of the country. In 1633 Champlain
+was reappointed governor of New France, and on his departure for the
+colony took with him many respectable settlers: several Protestants were
+anxious to join him; this, however, was not permitted. Two Jesuits,
+Fathers de Brebeuf and Enemond Masse, accompanied the governor: they
+purposed to devote themselves to the conversion of the Indians to
+Christianity, and to the education of the youth of the colony. The
+Recollets had made but little progress in proselytism; as yet, very few
+of the natives had been baptized, nor were the Jesuits at first<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>
+much more successful: these persevering men were, however, not to be
+disheartened by difficulties, and they were supported by the hope that
+when they became better acquainted with the language and manners of
+their pupils, their instructions would yield a richer harvest.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p>As New France advanced in population and prosperity, the sentiments of
+religion became strengthened among the settlers. On the first arrival of
+the Jesuits, R&eacute;n&egrave; Rohault, the eldest son of the Marquis de Gamache, and
+himself one of the order, adopted the idea of founding a college at
+Quebec for the education of youth and the conversion of the Indians, and
+offered 6000 crowns of gold as a donation to forward the object. The
+capture of the settlement by the English had, for a time, interrupted
+the execution of this plan; but Rohault at length succeeded in laying
+the foundation of the building in December, 1635, to the great joy of
+the French colonists.</p>
+
+<p>In the same month, to the deep regret of all good men, death deprived
+his country of the brave, high-minded, and wise Champlain. He was buried
+in the city of which he was the founder, where, to this day, he is
+fondly and gratefully remembered among the just and good. Gifted with
+high ability, upright, active, and chivalrous, he was, at the same time,
+eminent for his Christian zeal and humble piety. "The salvation of one
+soul," he often said, "is of more value than the conquest of an empire."
+To him belongs the glory of planting Christianity and civilization among
+the snows of those northern forests; during his life, indeed, a feeble
+germ, but, sheltered by his vigorous arm&mdash;nursed by his tender care&mdash;the
+root struck deep. Little more than two centuries have passed since the
+faithful servant went to rest upon the field of his noble toils. And now
+a million and a half of Christian people dwell in peace and plenty upon
+that magnificent territory, which his zeal and wisdom first redeemed
+from the desolation of the wilderness.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> "Parceque les relations et les voyageurs parloient
+beaucoup de Tadoussac, les G&eacute;ographes ont suppos&eacute; que e'&eacute;tait une ville,
+mais il n'y a jamais eu qu'une maison Fran&ccedil;aise, et quelques cabannes de
+sauvages, qui y venoient au tems de la trait&eacute;, et qui emportoient
+ensuite leurs cabannes; comme on fait les loges d'une foire. Il est vrai
+que ce port a &eacute;t&eacute; lontemps l'abord de toutes les nations sauvages du
+nord et de l'est; que les Fran&ccedil;ois s'y rendoient des que la navigation
+&eacute;toit libre; soil de France, soil du Canada; que les missionnaires
+profitoient de l'occasion, et y venoient n&eacute;gocier pour le ciel.... Au
+reste Tadoussac est un bon port, et on m'a assur&eacute; que vingt cinq
+vaisseaux de guerre y pouvoient &ecirc;tre &agrave; l'abri de tous les vents, que
+l'ancrage y est sur, et que l'entr&eacute;e en est facile."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom.
+v., p. 96, 1721.
+</p><p>
+"Tadoussac, one hundred and forty miles below Quebec, is a post
+belonging to the Hudson Bay Company, and is the residence of one of its
+partners and an agent. They alone are allowed to trade with the Indians
+in the interior. At Tadoussac is a Roman Catholic chapel, a store and
+warehouse, and some eight or ten dwellings. Here is erected a
+flag-staff, surrounded by several pieces of cannon, on an eminence
+elevated about fifty feet, and overlooking the inner warehouse, where is
+a sufficient depth of water to float the largest vessels. This place was
+early settled by the French, who are said to have here erected the first
+dwelling built of stone and mortar in Canada, and the remains of it are
+still to be seen. The view is exceedingly picturesque from this point.
+The southern shore of the St. Lawrence may be traced, even with the
+naked eye, for many a league; the undulating line of snow-white cottages
+stretching far away to the east and west; while the scene is rendered
+gay and animated by the frequent passage of the merchant vessel plowing
+its way toward the port of Quebec, or hurrying upon the descending tide
+to the Gulf; while, from the summit of the hill upon which Tadoussac
+stands, the sublime and impressive scenery of the Saguenay rises to
+view."&mdash;<i>Picturesque Tourist</i>, p. 267 (New York, 1844).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> "The colony that was sent to Canada this year was among
+the number of those things that had not my approbation; there was no
+kind of riches to be expected from all those countries of the New World
+which are beyond the fortieth degree of latitude. His majesty gave the
+conduct of this expedition to the Sieur de Monts."&mdash;<i>Memoirs of Sully</i>,
+b. xvi., p. 241, English translation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> The pious Romanist, Champlain, thus details the
+inconveniences caused by the different creeds of the Frenchmen composing
+the expedition of De Monts: "Il se trouva quelque chose &agrave; redire en
+cette entreprise, qui est en ce que deux religions contraires ne font
+jamais un grand fruit pour la gloire de Dieu parmi les infid&egrave;les que
+l'on veut convertir. J'ai vu le ministre et notre cur&eacute; s'entre battre &agrave;
+coups de poing, sur le diff&eacute;rend de la religion. Je ne s&ccedil;ais pas qui
+&eacute;toit le plus vaillant et qui donnoit le meilleur coup, mas je s&ccedil;ais
+tr&egrave;s bien que le ministre se plaignoit quelquefois au Sieur de Monts
+d'avoir &eacute;t&eacute; battue, et vuidoit en cette fa&ccedil;on les points de
+controversie. Je vous laisse &agrave; penser si cela &eacute;toit beau &agrave; voir; les
+sauvages &eacute;toient tant&ocirc;t d'une partie, tant&ocirc;t d'une autre, et les
+Fran&ccedil;ois m&ecirc;l&eacute;s selon leurs diverses croyances, disoit pis que pendre de
+l'une et de l'autre religion, quoique le Sieur de Monts y apport&acirc;t la
+paix le plus qu'il pouvoit."&mdash;<i>Voyages de la Nouvelle France
+Occidentale, dite Canada, faits par le Sieur de Champlain &agrave; Paris</i>,
+1632.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> De Poutrincourt had been accompanied, in his last voyage
+from France, by Marc Lescarbot, well known as one of the best historians
+of the early French colonists. His memoirs and himself are thus
+described by Charlevoix: "Un avocat de Paris, nomm&eacute; Marc L'Escarbot,
+homme d'esprit et fort attach&eacute; &agrave; M. de Poutrincourt, avoit eu la
+curiosit&eacute; de voir le Nouveau Monde. Il animoit les uns, il piequoit les
+autres d'honneur, il se faisoit aimer de tous, et ne s'&eacute;pargnoit
+lui-m&ecirc;me en rien. Il inventoit tous les jours quelque chose de nouveau
+pour l'utilit&eacute; publique, et jamais on ne comprit mieux de quelle
+ressource peut &ecirc;tre dans un nouvel &eacute;tablissement, un esprit cultiv&eacute; par
+l'&eacute;tude.... C'est &agrave; cet avocat, que nous sommes redevable des meilleurs
+m&eacute;moires que nous ayons de ce qui s'est pass&eacute; sous ses yeux. On y voit
+un auteur exact, judicieux, et un homme, qui eut &eacute;t&eacute; aussi capable
+d'&eacute;tablir une colonie que d'en &eacute;crire une histoire." (Charlevoix, vol.
+i., p. 185.) The title of L'Escarbot's work is "Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France, par Marc L'Escarbot, Avocat en Parlement, t&eacute;moin oculaire d'une
+partie des choses y r&eacute;cit&eacute;es: &agrave; Paris, 1609."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> "Argall se fondait sur une concession de Jacques I., qui
+avait permis &agrave; ses sujets de s'etablir jusqu'au quarante cinq degr&eacute;s, et
+il crut pouvoir profiter de la foiblesse des Fran&ccedil;ais pour les traitre
+en usurpateurs.... Si Poutrincourt avoit &eacute;t&eacute; dans son fort avec trente
+hommes bien arm&eacute;s, Argall n'auroit pas m&ecirc;me eu l'assurance de l'attaquer
+... en deux heures de tems le fen consuma tout ce que les Fran&ccedil;ais
+possedoient dans une colonie o&ugrave; l'on avait d&eacute;j&agrave; depens&eacute; plus de cent
+mille &eacute;cus.... Celui qui y perdit davantage, fut M. de Poutrincourt qui,
+depuis ce tems l&agrave; ne songea plus a l'Am&eacute;rique. Il rentra dans le
+service, o&ugrave; il s'&eacute;tait d&eacute;j&agrave; par plusieurs belles actions et mourut au
+lit d'honneur."&mdash;Jean de La&euml;t.
+</p><p>
+In 1621, James I. conferred Acadia upon Sir William Alexander, who gave
+it the name of Nova Scotia. At the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, in
+1632, it was restored to the French; again taken by the English, it was
+again restored to France by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. In 1710, when
+Acadia was taken by General Nicholson, the English perceived its
+importance for their commerce. They obtained its formal and final
+cession at the treaty of Utrecht, 1713.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> "It was at this time that the name of New France was
+first given to Canada."&mdash;Charlevoix. tom. i., p. 232.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Champlain, part i., p. 231; Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 236.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Seven or eight years before the arrival of the PP.
+Recollets at Quebec, Roman Catholic missionaries had found their way to
+Nova Scotia. They were Jesuits. It was remarkable that Henry IV., whose
+life had been twice attempted by the Jesuits,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> should have earnestly
+urged their establishment in America. When Port Royal was ceded to
+Poutrincourt by De Monts, the king intimated to him that it was time to
+think of the conversion of the savages, and that it was <i>his desire</i>
+that the Jesuits should be employed in this work. Charlevoix
+acknowledges that De Poutrincourt was "un fort honn&ecirc;te homme, et
+sinc&egrave;rement attach&eacute; &agrave; la religion Catholique"&mdash;nevertheless, his
+prejudices against Jesuits were so strong, that "il &eacute;toit bien r&eacute;solu de
+ne les point mene au Port Royal." On various pretexts he evaded obeying
+the royal commands, and when, the year after, the Jesuits were sent out
+to him, at the expense of Madame de Gruercheville, and by the orders of
+the queen's mother, he rendered their stay at Port Royal as
+uncomfortable as was consistent with his noble and generous character,
+vigilantly guarding against their acquiring any dangerous influence. His
+former prejudices could not have been lessened by the assassination of
+Henry IV.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The two Jesuits selected by P. Cotton, Henry IV.'s
+confessor, for missionary labors in Acadia, were P. Pierre Biast and P.
+Enemond Masse. They were taken prisoners at the time of Argall's descent
+on Acadia, 1614, and conveyed to England.&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 189,
+216.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> By Barri&egrave;re in 1593; by Jean Ch&acirc;tel in 1594. He finally
+perished by the hand of Ravaillac, in 1610. See Sully's Memoirs, b. vi.,
+vii.; Cayet, Chron. Noven., b.v.; P&egrave;re de Chalons, tom. iii., p. 245,
+quoted by Sully.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Henri s' &eacute;tait montr&eacute; bienveillant pour les J&eacute;suites,
+encore que les parlemens et tous ceux qui tenoient, &aacute; la magistrature
+ressentoient plus de pr&eacute;vention contre ces religieux que les Hugonots
+eux-m&ecirc;mes.... Henri IV. fit abattre la pyramide qui avait &eacute;t&eacute; &eacute;lev&eacute;e en
+m&eacute;moire de l' attentat de Jean Ch&acirc;tel contre lui, parce que l'
+inscription qu' elle portait inculpait les J&eacute;suites d'avoir excit&eacute; &agrave; cet
+assassinat.&mdash;Sismondi: <i>Histoire des Fran&ccedil;ais</i>. See De Thou, tom. ix.,
+p. 696, 704; tom. x., p. 26 &agrave; 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> When Champlain first laid the foundations of the fort in
+1623, to which he gave the name of St. Louis, it is evident that he was
+actuated by views, not of a political, but a commercial character. When
+Montmagny rebuilt the fort in 1635, it covered about four acres of
+ground, and formed nearly a parallelogram. Of these works only a few
+vestiges remain, except the eastern wall, which is kept in solid
+repair.&mdash;Bonchette.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 247.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> "Ce fut Guillaume de Ca&euml;n qui les conduisit (les
+J&eacute;suites) &agrave; Quebec. Il avoit donn&eacute; sa parole au Duc de Ventadour qu'il
+ne laisseroit les J&eacute;suites manquer du rien; cependant, des qu'ils furent
+d&eacute;barqu&eacute;s, il leur d&eacute;clara que, si les PP. Recollets ne vouloient pas
+les recevoir et les loger chez eux, ils n'avoient point d'autre parti &agrave;
+prendre que retourner en France. Ils s'aper&ccedil;urent m&ecirc;me bient&ocirc;t qu'on
+avoit travaill&eacute; a pr&eacute;v&eacute;nir contre eux les habitans de Quebec, en leur
+mettant entre les mains les &eacute;crits les plus injurieux, que les
+Calvinistes de France avoient publi&eacute;s contre leur compagnie. Mais leur
+pr&eacute;sence eut bient&ocirc;t effac&eacute; tous ces pr&eacute;jug&eacute;s."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p.
+248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Charlevoix highly extols this brilliant conception of the
+Cardinal de Richelieu, "et ne craint point d'avancer que la Nouvelle
+France seroit aujourd'hui la plus puissante colonie de l'Am&eacute;rique, si
+l'execution avoit r&eacute;pondue &agrave; la beaut&eacute; du projet, et si les membres de
+ce grand corps eussent profit&eacute; des dispositions favorables du souverain
+et de son ministre &agrave; leur &eacute;gard."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 250;
+<i>M&eacute;moires des Commissaires</i>, vol. i., p. 346.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Champlain's proposals of capitulation (Smith's Canada,
+vol. i., p. 22) sufficiently prove that, down to 1629, France had
+scarcely any permanent footing in the country. By stipulating for the
+removal of "all the French" in Quebec, Champlain seems to consider that
+the whole province was virtually lost to France, and "the single
+vessel," which was to furnish the means of removal, reduces "all the
+French" in Quebec to a very small number.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Charlevoix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 273.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> "L'&icirc;le au Cap Br&eacute;ton (c'&eacute;toit bien peu de choses que
+l'&eacute;tablissement que nous avions alors dans cette &icirc;le) le fort de Quebec
+environn&eacute; de quelques m&eacute;chantes maisons et de quelques baraques, deux ou
+trois cabanes dans l'&Icirc;le de Montreal, autant peut-&ecirc;tre &agrave; Tadoussac, et
+en quelques autres endroits sur le fleuve St. Laurent, pour la commodit&eacute;
+de la p&ecirc;ch&eacute; et de la Trait&eacute;, un commencement d'habitation aux Trois
+Rivi&egrave;res et les rivi&egrave;res de Port Royal, voil&agrave; en quoi consistoit la
+Nouvelle France et tout le fruit des d&eacute;couvertes de Verazzani, de Jaques
+Cartier, de M. de Roberval, de Champlain, des grandes d&eacute;penses de
+Marquis de la Roche, et de M. de Monts et de l'industrie d'un grand
+nombre de Fran&ccedil;ais qui auroient pu y faire un grand &eacute;tablissement, s'ils
+eussent &eacute;t&eacute; bien conduits."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 274.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XVI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> The Jesuits always retained the superior position they
+held from the first among the Roman Catholic missionaries of Canada.
+There is a well-known Canadian proverb, "Pour faire un Recollet il faut
+une hachette, pour un Pr&ecirc;tre un ciseau, mais pour un J&eacute;suite il faut un
+pinceau." See Appendix, No. XVII., (vol. II.) for Professor Kalm's account of these
+three classes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Having followed the course of discovery and settlement in New France up
+to the death of the man who stamped the first permanent impression upon
+that country, it is now time to review its character and condition at
+the period when it became the abode of a civilized people. Champlain's
+deputed commission of governor gave him authority over all that France
+possessed or claimed on the continent and islands of North America;
+Newfoundland, Isle Royale, and Acadia, were each portions of this vast
+but vague territory; and those unknown, boundless solitudes of ice and
+snow, lying toward the frozen north, whose very existence was a
+speculation, were also, by the shadowy right of a European king, added
+to his wide dominion. Of that portion, however, called Canada, it is
+more especially the present subject to treat.</p>
+
+<p>Canada is a vast plain, irregular in elevation and feature, forming a
+valley between two ranges of high land; one of these ranges divides it,
+to the north, from the dreary territories of Hudson's Bay; the other, to
+the south, from the republic of the United States and the British
+province of New Brunswick. None of the hills rise to any great height;
+with one exception, Man's Hill, in the State of Maine, 2000 feet is
+their greatest altitude above the sea. The elevated districts are,
+however, of very great extent, broken, rugged, and rocky, clothed with
+dense forests, intersected with rapid torrents, and varied with
+innumerable lakes. The great plain of Canada narrows to a mere strip of
+low land by the side of the St. Lawrence, as it approaches the eastern
+extremity. From Quebec to the gulf on the north side, and toward Gasp&eacute;
+on the south, the grim range of mountains reaches almost to the water's
+edge; westward of that city the plain expands, gradually widening into a
+district of great beauty and fertility; again, westward of Montreal, the
+level country becomes far wider and very rich, including the broad and
+valuable flats that lie along the lower waters of the Ottawa. The rocky,
+elevated shores of Lake Huron bound this vast valley to the west; the
+same mountain range extends along the northern shore of Lake Superior;
+beyond lie great tracts of fertile soil, where man's industrious hand
+has not yet been applied.</p>
+
+<p>Canada may be described as lying between the meridians of 57&deg; 50' and
+90&deg; west; from the mouth of the Esquimaux River on the confines of
+Labrador, to the entrance of the stream connecting the waters of Lake
+Superior and the Rainy Lake, bordering on Prince Rupert's Land. The
+parallels of 42&deg; and 52&deg; inclose this country to the south and north.
+The greatest length is about 1300 miles, the breadth 700. A space of
+348,000 square miles is inclosed within these limits.</p>
+
+<p>The great lakes in Canada give a character to that country distinct from
+any other in the Old World or the New. They are very numerous; some far
+exceed all inland waters elsewhere in depth and extent; they feed,
+without apparent diminution, the great river St. Lawrence; the tempest
+plows their surface into billows that rival those of the Atlantic,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>
+and they contain more than half of all the fresh water upon the surface
+of the globe.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>Superior<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> is the largest and most elevated of these lakes: it is
+crescent-shaped, convex to the north; to the southeast and southwest its
+extremities are narrow points: the length through the curve is 360
+geographical miles, the breadth in the widest part 140, the
+circumference 1500. The surface of this vast sheet of fresh water is 627
+feet above the level of the Atlantic; from various indications upon the
+shores, there is good reason to conclude that at some remote period it
+was forty or fifty feet higher. The depth of Lake Superior varies much
+in different parts, but is generally very great; at the deepest it is
+probably 1200 feet. The waters are miraculously pure and transparent;
+many fathoms down, the eye can distinctly trace the rock and shingle of
+the bottom, and follow the quick movements of the numerous and beautiful
+fish inhabiting these crystal depths. No tides vary the stillness of
+this inland sea, but when a strong prevailing wind sweeps over the
+surface, the waves are lashed to fury, and the waters, driven by its
+force, crowd up against the leeward shore. When in the spring the warm
+sun melts the mountain snows, and each little tributary becomes an
+impetuous torrent pouring into this great basin, the level of the
+surface rises many feet. Although no river of any magnitude helps to
+supply Lake Superior, a vast number of small streams fall in from among
+clefts and glens along the rugged shores;<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> there are also many large
+islands; one, Isle Royale, is more than forty miles in length. In some
+places lofty hills<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> rise abruptly from the water's edge; in others
+there are intervals of lower lands for sixty or seventy miles, but every
+where stands the primeval forest, clothing height and hollow alike. At
+the south-eastern extremity of this lake, St. Mary's Channel carries the
+superabundant waters for nearly forty miles, till they fall into Lake
+Huron; about midway between, they rush tumultuously down a steep
+descent, with a tremendous roar, through shattered masses of rock,
+filling the pure air above with clouds of snowy foam.</p>
+
+<p>Lake Huron is the next in succession and the second in magnitude of
+these inland seas. The outline is very irregular, to the north and east
+formed by the Canadian territory, to the southwest by that of the United
+States. From where the Channel of St. Mary enters this lake to the
+furthest extremity is 240 miles, the greatest breadth is 220, the
+circumference about 1000; the surface is only 32 feet lower than that of
+Superior; in depth and in pure transparency the waters of this lake are
+not surpassed by its great neighbor. Parallel to the north shore runs a
+long, narrow peninsula called Cabot Head, which, together with a chain
+of islands, shuts in the upper waters so as almost to form a separate
+and distinct lake. The Great Manitoulin Island, the largest of this
+chain, is seventy-five miles in length. In the Indian tongue the name
+denotes it the abode of the Great Spirit,<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> and the simple savages
+regard these woody shores with reverential awe.</p>
+
+<p>To the north and west of Lake Huron the shores are generally rugged and
+precipitous; abrupt heights of from 30 to 100 feet rise from the water's
+edge, formed of clay, huge stones, steep rocks, and wooded acclivities;
+further inland, the peaks of the Cloche Mountains ascend to a
+considerable height. To the east, nature presents a milder aspect; a
+plain of great extent and richness stretches away toward the St.
+Lawrence. Many streams pour their flood into this lake; the principal
+are the Maitland, Severn, Moon, and French Rivers; they are broad and
+deep, but their sources lie at no great distance. By far the largest
+supply of water comes from the vast basin of Lake Superior, through the
+Channel of St. Mary. Near the northwestern extremity of Huron, a narrow
+strait<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> connects it with Lake Michigan in the United States; there
+is a slight difference of level between these two great sheets of water,
+and a current constantly sets into the southern basin: this lake is also
+remarkable for its depth and transparency.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<p>At the southern extremity of Lake Huron, its overflow pours through a
+river about thirty miles in length into a small lake; both lake and
+river bear the name of St. Clair.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Thence the waters flow on,
+through the broad but shallow stream of the Detroit, until they fall
+into Lake Erie thirty miles below; on either side, the banks and
+neighboring districts are rich in beauty and abundantly fertile.</p>
+
+<p>Lake Erie is shallow and dangerous, the anchorage is bad, the harbors
+few and inconvenient. Long, low promontories project for a considerable
+distance from the main land, and embarrass the navigation; but the
+coasts, both on the Canadian and American side, are very fertile.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>
+Lake Erie is about 265 miles long, and 63 wide at its greatest breadth;
+the circumference is calculated at 658 miles; its surface lies 30 feet
+below the level of Lake Huron.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> The length of the lake stretches
+northeast, almost the same direction as the line of the River St.
+Lawrence.</p>
+
+<p>The Niagara River flows from the northeastern extremity of Lake Erie to
+Lake Ontario in a course of 33 miles, with a fall of not less than 334
+feet. About twenty miles below Lake Erie is the grandest sight that
+nature has laid before the human eye&mdash;the Falls of Niagara. A stream
+three quarters of a mile wide, deep and rapid, plunges over a rocky
+ledge 150 feet in height; about two thirds of the distance across from
+the Canadian side stands Goat Island, covered with stately timber: four
+times as great a body of water precipitates itself over the northern or
+Horse-shoe Fall as that which flows over the American portion. Above the
+cataract the river becomes very rapid and tumultuous in several places,
+particularly at the Ferry of Black Rock, where it rushes past at the
+rate of seven miles an hour; within the last mile there is a tremendous
+indraught to the Falls. The shores on both sides of the Niagara River
+are of unsurpassed natural fertility, but there is little scenic beauty
+around to divert attention from the one object. The simplicity of this
+wonder adds to the force of its impression: no other sight over the wide
+world so fills the mind with awe and admiration. Description may convey
+an idea of the height and breadth<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a>&mdash;the vast body of
+water<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a>&mdash;the profound abyss&mdash;the dark whirlpools&mdash;the sheets of
+foam<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a>&mdash;the plumy column of spray<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> rising up against the sky&mdash;the
+dull, deep sound that throbs through the earth, and fills the air for
+miles and miles with its unchanging voice<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>&mdash;but of the magnitude of
+this idea, and the impression, stamped upon the senses by the reality,
+it is vain to speak to those who have not stood beside Niagara.</p>
+
+<p>Tho descent of the land from the shores of Lake Erie to those of Ontario
+is general and gradual,<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> and there is no feature in the
+neighborhood of the Falls to mark its locality. From the Erie boundary
+the river flows smoothly through a level but elevated plain, branching
+round one large and some smaller islands. Although the deep, tremulous
+sound of Niagara tells of its vicinity, there is no unusual appearance
+till within about a mile, when the waters begin to ripple and hasten on;
+a little further it dashes down a magnificent rapid, then again becomes
+tranquil and glassy, but glides past with astonishing swiftness. There
+are numberless points whence the fall of this great river may be well
+seen: the best is Table Rock, at the top of the cataract; the most
+wonderful is the recess between the falling flood and the cliff over
+which it leaps.</p>
+
+<p>For some length below Niagara the waters are violently agitated;
+however, at the distance of half a mile, a ferry plies across in safety.
+The high banks on both sides of the river extend to Queenston and
+Lewiston, eight miles lower, confining the waters to a channel of no
+more than a quarter of a mile in breadth, between steep and lofty
+cliffs; midway is the whirlpool,<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> where the current rushes
+furiously round within encircling heights. Below Queenston the river
+again rolls along a smooth stream, between level and cultivated banks,
+till it pours its waters into Lake Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>Ontario is the last<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> and the most easterly of the chain of
+lakes.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> The greatest length is 172 miles; at the widest it measures
+59 miles across; the circumference is 467 miles, and the surface is 334
+feet below the level of Lake Erie. The depth of Ontario varies very much
+along the coast, being seldom more than from three to 50 fathoms; and in
+the center, a plummet, with 300 fathoms of line, has been tried in vain
+for soundings. A sort of gravel, small pieces of limestone, worn round
+and smooth by the action of water, covers the shores, lying in long
+ridges sometimes miles in extent. The waters, like those of the other
+great lakes, are very pure and beautiful, except where the shallows
+along the margin are stirred up by violent winds: for a few days in June
+a yellow, unwholesome scum covers the surface at the edge every year.
+There is a strange phenomenon connected with Ontario, unaccounted for by
+scientific speculation; each seventh year, from some inscrutable cause,
+the waters reach to an unusual height, and again subside, mysteriously
+as they arose. The beautiful illusion of the mirage spreads its dreamy
+enchantment over the surface of Ontario in the summer calms, mixing
+islands, clouds, and waters in strange confusion.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+<p>The outline of the shores is much diversified: to the northeast lie low
+lands and swampy marshes; to the north and northeast extends a bold
+range of elevated grounds; southward the coast becomes again flat for
+some distance inland, till it rises into the ridge of heights that marks
+the position of Niagara. The country bordering the lake is generally
+rich and productive, and was originally covered with forest. A ridge of
+lofty land runs from the beautiful Bay of Quint&eacute;, on the northwest of
+the lake, westward along the shore, at a distance of nine or more miles:
+from these heights innumerable streams flow into Ontario on one side,
+and into the lakes and rivers of the back country on the other. At
+Toronto the ridge recedes to the distance of twenty-four miles northeast
+from the lake, separating the tributary waters of Lakes Huron and
+Ontario; thence merging in the Burlington Heights, it continues along
+the southwest side from four to eight miles distant from the shore to
+the high grounds about Niagara.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the great stream of Niagara, many rivers flow into Ontario both
+on the Canadian and American sides. The bays and harbors are also very
+numerous, affording great facilities for navigation and commerce: in
+this respect the northern shore is the most favored&mdash;the Bays of Quint&eacute;
+and Burlington are especially remarkable for their extent and
+security.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p>
+
+<p>The northeast end of Lake Ontario, where its waters pour into the St.
+Lawrence, is a scene of striking beauty;<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> numerous wooded islands,
+in endless variety of form and extent, divide the entrance of the Great
+River<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> into a labyrinth of tortuous channels, for twelve miles in
+breadth from shore to shore: this width gradually decreases as the
+stream flows on to Prescot, fifty miles below; a short distance beyond
+that town the rapids commence,<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> and thence to Montreal the
+navigation is interrupted for vessels of burden; boats, rafts, and small
+steamers, however, constantly descend these tumultuous waters, and not
+unfrequently are lost in the dangerous attempt. The most beautiful and
+formidable of these rapids is called the Cedars, from the rich groves of
+that fragrant tree covering numerous and intricate islands, which
+distort the rushing stream into narrow and perilous channels: the water
+is not more than ten feet deep in some places, and flows at the rate of
+twelve miles an hour. The river there widens into Lake St. Francis, and
+again into Lake St. Louis, which drains a large branch of the Ottawa at
+its south-western extremity. The water of this great tributary is
+remarkably clear and of a bright emerald color; that of the St. Lawrence
+at this junction is muddy, from having passed over deep beds of marl for
+several miles above its entrance to Lake St. Louis: for some distance
+down the lake the different streams can be plainly distinguished from
+each other. From the confluence of the first branches above Montreal
+these two great rivers seem bewildered among the numerous and beautiful
+islands, and, hurrying past in strong rapids, only find rest again in
+the broad, deep waters many miles below.</p>
+
+<p>The furthest sources of the Ottawa River are unknown.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> It rises to
+importance at the outlet from Lake Temiscaming, 350 miles west of its
+junction with the St. Lawrence.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Beyond the Falls and Portage des
+Allumettes, 110 miles above Hull, this stream has been little explored.
+There it is divided into two channels by a large island fifteen miles
+long: the southernmost of these expands into the width of four or five
+miles, and communicates by a branch of the river with the Mud and Musk
+Rat Lakes. Twelve miles further south the river again forms two
+branches, including an extensive and beautiful island twenty miles in
+length; numerous rapids and cascades diversify this wild but lovely
+scene; thence to the foot of the Chenaux, wooded islands in picturesque
+variety deck the bosom of the stream, and the bright blue waters here
+wind their way for three miles through a channel of pure white marble.
+Nature has bestowed abundant fertility as well as beauty upon this
+favored district. The Gatineau River joins the Ottawa near Hull, after a
+course of great length. This stream is navigated by canoes for more than
+300 miles, traversing an immense valley of rich soil and picturesque
+scenery.</p>
+
+<p>At the foot of the Chenaux the magnificent Lake des Chats opens to
+view, in length about fifteen miles; the shores are strangely indented,
+and numbers of wooded islands stud the surface of the clear waters. At
+the foot of the lake there are falls and rapids;<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> thence to Lake
+Chaudi&egrave;re, a distance of six miles, the channel narrows, but expands
+again to form that beautiful and extensive basin. Rapids again succeed,
+and continue to the Chaudi&egrave;re Falls. The boiling pool into which these
+waters descend is of great depth: the sounding-line does not reach the
+bottom at the length of 300 feet. It is supposed that the main body of
+the river flows by a subterraneous passage, and rises again half a mile
+lower down. Below the Chaudi&egrave;re Falls the navigation is uninterrupted to
+Grenville, sixty miles distant. The current is scarcely perceptible; the
+banks are low, and generally over-flowed in the spring; but the varying
+breadth of the river, the numerous islands, the magnificent forests, and
+the crystal purity of the waters, lend a charm to the somewhat
+monotonous beauty of the scene. At Grenville commences the Long Sault, a
+swift and dangerous rapid, which continues with intervals till it falls
+into the still Lake of the Two Mountains. Below the heights from whence
+this sheet of water derives its name, the well-known Rapids of St.
+Anne's discharge the main stream into the waters of the St.
+Lawrence.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p>
+
+<p>Below the island of Montreal the St. Lawrence continues, in varying
+breadth and considerable depth, to Sorel, where it is joined by the
+Richelieu River from the south; thence opens the expanse of Lake St.
+Peter, shallow and uninteresting; after twenty-five miles the Great
+River contracts again, receives in its course the waters of the St.
+Maurice, and other large streams; and 180 miles below Montreal the vast
+flood pours through the narrow channel that lies under the shadow of
+Quebec.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Below this strait lies a deep basin, nearly four miles
+wide, formed by the head of the Island of Orleans: the main channel
+continues by the south shore. It would be wearisome to tell of all the
+numerous and beautiful islands that deck the bosom of the St. Lawrence
+from Quebec to the Gulf. The river gradually expands till it reaches a
+considerable breadth at the mouth of the Saguenay. There is a dark shade
+for many miles below where this great tributary pours its gloomy flood
+into the pure waters of the St. Lawrence: 120 miles westward it flows
+from a large, circular sheet of water, called Lake St. John; but the
+furthest sources lie in the unknown regions of the west and north. For
+about half its course, from the lake to Tadoussac at the mouth, the
+banks are rich and fertile; but thence cliffs rise abruptly out of the
+water to a lofty height&mdash;sometimes 2000 feet&mdash;and two or three miles
+apart. The depth of the Saguenay is very great, and the surrounding
+scenery is of a magnificent but desolate character.</p>
+
+<p>Below the entrance of the Saguenay the St. Lawrence increases to twenty
+miles across, at the Bay of Seven Islands to seventy, at the head of the
+large and unexplored island of Anticosti to ninety, and at the point
+where it may be said to enter the Gulf between Gasp&eacute; and the Labrador
+coast, reaches the enormous breadth of 120 miles. In mid-channel both
+coasts can be seen; the mountains on the north shore rise to a great
+height in a continuous range, their peaks capped with eternal snows.</p>
+
+<p>Having traced this vast chain of water communication from its remotest
+links, it is now time to speak of the magnificent territory which it
+opens to the commerce and enterprise of civilized man.</p>
+
+<p>Upper or Western Canada<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> is marked off from the eastern province by
+the natural boundary of the Ottawa or Grand River. It consists almost
+throughout of one uniform plain. In all those districts hitherto settled
+or explored, there is scarcely a single eminence that can be called a
+hill, although traversed by two wide ridges, rising above the usual
+level of the country. The greater of these elevations passes through
+nearly the whole extent of the province from southeast to northwest,
+separating the waters falling into the St. Lawrence and the great lakes
+from those tributary to the Ottawa: the highest point is forty miles
+north of Kingston, being also the most elevated level on that
+magnificent modern work, the Rideau Canal;<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> it is 290 feet above the
+Ottawa at Bytown, and 160 feet higher than the surface of Lake Ontario.
+Toward these waters the plain descends at the gradient of about four
+feet in the mile; this declivity is imperceptible to the eye, and is
+varied by gently undulating slopes and inequalities. Beyond the broad,
+rich valley lying to the north of this elevation there is a rocky and
+mountainous country; still farther north are seen snow-covered peaks of
+a great but unknown height; thence to the pole extends the dreary region
+of the Hudson Bay territory.</p>
+
+<p>The lesser elevation begins near the eastern extremity of Ontario, and
+runs almost parallel with the shores of the lake to a point about
+twenty-four miles northwest from Toronto, where it separates the streams
+flowing into Lakes Huron and Ontario: it then passes southeast between
+Lakes Erie and Ontario, and terminates on the Genesee in the United
+States. This has a more perceptible elevation than the southern ridge,
+and in some places rises into bold heights.</p>
+
+<p>The only portion of the vast plain of Western Canada surveyed or
+effectually explored is included by a line drawn from the eastern coast
+of Lake Huron to the Ottawa River, and the northern shores of the great
+chain of lake and river; this is, however, nearly as large as the whole
+of England.</p>
+
+<p>The natural features of Lower or Eastern Canada are unsurpassed by those
+of any other country in grace and variety: rivers, lakes, mountains,
+forests, prairies, and cataracts are grouped together in endless
+combinations of beauty and magnificence. The eastern districts,
+beginning with the bold sea-coast and broad waters of the St. Lawrence,
+are high, mountainous, and clothed with dark forests on both sides, down
+to the very margin of the river. To the north, a lofty and rugged range
+of heights runs parallel with the shore as far westward as Quebec;
+thence it bends west and southwest to the banks of the Ottawa. To the
+south, the elevated ridge, where it reaches within sixty miles of
+Quebec, turns from the parallel of the St. Lawrence southwest and south
+into the United States; this ridge, known by the name of the Alleganies,
+rises abruptly out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence at Perc&eacute;, between the
+Baye de Chaleur and Gasp&eacute; Cape, and is more distant from the Great River
+than that upon the northern shore. Where the Alleganies enter the United
+States they divide the plains of the Atlantic coast from the basin of
+the Ohio; their greatest height is about 4000 feet above the level of
+the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The Valley of the St. Lawrence, lying between these two ranges of
+heights, is marked by great diversities of hill, plain, and valley. Both
+from the north and south numerous rivers pour their tributary flood into
+the great waters of Canada; of those eastward of the Saguenay little is
+known beyond their entrance; they flow through cliffs of light-colored
+sand, rocky, wooded knolls, or, in some places, deep, swampy moss-beds
+nearly three feet in depth. From the Saguenay to Quebec the mountain
+ridge along the shore of the St. Lawrence is unbroken, save where
+streams find their way to the Great River, but beyond this coast-border
+the country is in some places level, in others undulating, with hills of
+moderate height, and well-watered valleys. From Quebec westward to the
+St. Maurice, which joins the St. Lawrence at Three Rivers, the land
+rises in a gentle ascent from the banks of the Great River, and presents
+a rich tract of fertile plains and slopes: in the distance, a lofty
+chain of mountains protects this favored district from the bitter
+northern blast. Along the north bank of the St. Lawrence, from the St.
+Maurice, the country toward the Ottawa is slightly elevated into table
+ridges, with occasional abrupt declivities and some extensive plains. In
+this portion of Canada are included the islands of Montreal, Jesus, and
+Perrot, formed by the various branches of the Great River and the
+Ottawa, where their waters unite. Montreal is the largest and most
+fertile of these islands; its length is thirty-two miles and breadth
+ten; the general shape is triangular. Isle Jesus is twenty-one miles by
+six in extent, and also very rich; there are, besides, several other
+smaller islands of considerable fertility. Isle Perrot is poor and
+sandy. The remote country to the north of the Ottawa is but little
+known.</p>
+
+<p>On the south shore of the St. Lawrence, the peninsula of Gasp&eacute; is the
+most eastern district; this large tract of country has been very little
+explored: so far as it has been examined, it is uneven, mountainous, and
+intersected with deep ravines; but the forests, rivers, and lakes are
+very fine, and the valleys fertile. The sea-beach is low and hard,<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>
+answering the purposes of a road; at the Cape of Gasp&eacute;, however, there
+are some bold and lofty cliffs. Behind the beach the land rises into
+high, round hills, well wooded; sheltered from the Gasp&eacute; district to the
+Chaudi&egrave;re River, the country is not so stern as on the northern side of
+the St. Lawrence; though somewhat hilly, it abounds in large and fertile
+valleys. The immediate shores of the river are flat; thence irregular
+ridges arise, till they reach an elevated table-land fifteen or twenty
+miles from the beach. From the Chaudi&egrave;re River westward extends that
+rich and valuable country now known by the name of the Eastern
+Townships. At the mouth of the Chaudi&egrave;re the banks of the St. Lawrence
+are bold and lofty, but they gradually lower to the westward till they
+sink into the flats of Baye du Febre, and form the marshy shores of Lake
+St. Peter, whence a rich plain extends to a great distance. This
+district contains several high, isolated mountains, and is abundantly
+watered by lakes and rivers. To the south lies the territory of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> "The sea (if it may be so termed) on Lake Ontario is so
+high during a sharp gale, that it was at first thought the smaller class
+steamboats could not live on it; and on Lake Superior, the waves almost
+rival those of the far-famed Cape of Storms, while the ground-swell,
+owing to the comparative shallowness, or little specific gravity of the
+fresh water, is such as to make the oldest sailor sick. Whether the
+water in the lowest depths of Lakes Superior and Ontario be salt or
+fresh, we can not ascertain; for the greater density of the former may
+keep it always below, or there may be a communication with the
+fathomless abysses of the ocean."&mdash;Montgomery Martin, p. 181.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> "Beyond Lake Superior, stretching into the vast interior
+of North America, we find first a long chain of little lakes connected
+by narrow channels, and which, combined, form what in the early
+narratives and even treaties is called Long Lake. Next occur, still
+connected by the same channel, the larger expanses of Lake La Pluie and
+Lake of the Woods. Another channel of about 100 miles connects this last
+with the Winnipeg Lake, whose length from north to south is almost equal
+to the Superior; but in a few parts only it attains the breadth of 50
+miles. The whole of this wonderful series of lakes, separated by such
+small intervals, may almost be considered as forming one inland sea.
+There is nothing parallel to this in the rest of the globe. The Tzad,
+the great interior sea of Africa, does not equal the Ontario. The Caspian,
+indeed, is considerably greater than any of these lakes, almost equal to
+the whole united; but the Caspian forms the final receptacle of many great
+rivers, among which the Volga is of the first magnitude. But the northern
+waters, after forming this magnificent chain of lakes, are not yet
+exhausted, but issue forth from the last of them, to form one of the
+noblest river channels either in the old or new continent."&mdash;<i>History
+of Discoveries and Travels in North America</i>, by H. Murray, Esq.,
+vol. ii., p. 458.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> "Lake Superior is called, also, Keetcheegahmi and
+Missisawgaiegon. It is remarkable, that while every other large lake is
+fed by rivers of the first order, this, the most capacious on the
+surface of the globe, does not receive a third or even fourth rate
+stream; the St. Louis, the most considerable, not having a course of
+more than 150 miles. But, whatever deficiency there may be in point of
+magnitude, it is compensated by the vast number which pour in their
+copious floods from the surrounding heights. The dense covering of wood
+and the long continuance of frost must also, in this region, greatly
+diminish the quantity drawn off by evaporation."&mdash;Bouchette, vol. i., p.
+127, 128. Darby's <i>View of the United States</i> (1828), p. 200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> "The <i>Pictured</i> Rocks (so called from their appearance)
+are situated on the south side of the lake, toward the east end, and are
+really quite a natural curiosity; they form a perpendicular wall 300
+feet high, extending about twelve miles, with numerous projections and
+indentations in every variety of form, and vast caverns, in which the
+entering waves make a tremendous sound. The Pictured Rocks of Lake
+Superior have been described as 'surprising groups of overhanging
+precipices, towering walls, caverns, waterfalls, and prostrate ruins,
+which are mingled in the most wonderful disorder, and burst upon the
+view in ever-varying and pleasing succession.' Among the more remarkable
+objects are the Cascade La Portaille and the Doric Arch. The Cascade
+consists of a considerable stream precipitated from a height of 70 feet
+by a single leap into the lake, and projected to such a distance that a
+boat may pass beneath the fall and the rock perfectly dry. The Doric
+Arch has all the appearance of a work of art, and consists of an
+isolated mass of sandstone, with four pillars supporting an entablature
+of stone, covered with soil, and a beautiful grove of pine and spruce
+trees, some of which are 60 feet in height."&mdash;Montgomery Martin's
+<i>History of Canada</i>, vol. i., p. 211.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> "The Thunder Mountain is one of the most appalling
+objects of the kind that I have ever seen, being a bleak rock, about
+twelve hundred feet above the level of the lake, with a perpendicular
+face of its full height toward the west; the Indians have a
+superstition, which one can hardly repeat without becoming giddy, that
+any person who may scale the eminence, and turn round on the brink of
+its fearful wall, will live forever."&mdash;Simpson, vol. i., p. 33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> "The Indian appellation of 'Sacred Isles' first occurs at
+Lake Huron, and thence westward is met with in Superior, Michigan, and
+the vast and numerous lakes of the interior. Those who have been in
+Asia, and have turned their attention to the subject, will recognize the
+resemblance in sound between the North American Indian and the Tartar
+names."&mdash;Montgomery Martin's <i>History of Canada</i>, vol. i., p. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> "The remarkable post of Michillimackinack is a beautiful
+island or great rock, planted in the strait of the same name, which
+forms the connection between Lakes Huron and Michigan. The meaning of
+the Indian word Michillimackinack is <i>Great Turtle</i>. The island is
+crowned with a cap 300 feet above the surrounding waters, on the top of
+which is a fortification. If Quebec is the Gibraltar of North America,
+Mackinaw (the vulgar appellation for this fort) is only second in its
+physical character, and in its susceptibilities of improvement as a
+military post. It is also a must important position for the facilities
+it affords in the fur trade between New York and the Northwest."&mdash;Mr.
+Colton's <i>American Lakes</i>, vol. i., p. 92.
+</p><p>
+The value of canals and steam navigation may be judged of from the fact
+that, in 1812, the news of the declaration of war against Great Britain
+by the United States did not reach the post of Michillimackinack (1107
+miles from Quebec) in a shorter time than two months; the same place is
+now within the distance of ten days' journey from the Atlantic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> "So clear are the waters of these lakes, that a white
+napkin, tied to a lead, and sunk thirty fathoms beneath a smooth
+surface, may be seen as distinctly as when immersed three
+feet."&mdash;Colton. vol. i., p. 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> "The St. Clair (according to Dr. Bigsby) is the only
+river of discharge for Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, which cover
+a surface of thirty-eight and a half million of acres, and are fed by
+numerous large rivers. Other able observers are of opinion that the
+Missouri and the Mississippi receive some of the waters of Superior and
+Michigan. Many persons think that a subterraneous communication exists
+between all the great lakes, as is surmised to be the case between the
+Mediterranean and the Euxine."&mdash;Montgomery Martin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> "The Lake Erie is justly dignified by the illustrious
+name of Conti, for assuredly it is the finest lake upon earth. Its
+circumference extends to 230 leagues; but it affords every where such a
+charming prospect, that its banks are decked with oak-trees, elms,
+chestnut-trees, walnut-trees, apple-trees, plum-trees, and vines, which
+bear their fine clusters up to the very top of the trees, upon a sort of
+ground that lies as smooth as one's hand. Such ornaments as these are
+sufficient to give rise to the most agreeable idea of a landscape in the
+world."&mdash;La Hontan, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 343 (1683).
+</p><p>
+"Le nom que le Lac Eri&eacute; porte est celui d'une nation de la langue
+Huronne, qui &eacute;tait &eacute;tablie sur ses bords et que les Iroquois ont
+enti&egrave;rement d&eacute;truite. Eri&eacute; veut dire Chat, et les Eri&eacute;s sont nomm&eacute;s dans
+quelques relations la nation du Chat. Ce nom vient apparemment de la
+quantit&eacute; de ces animaux qu'on trouve dans le pays. Quelqes cartes
+modernes ont donn&eacute; au Lac Eri&eacute; le nom de Conti, mais ce nom n'a pas fait
+fortune, non plus que ceux de Cond&eacute;, de Tracy, et d'Orl&eacute;ans, donn&eacute;s au
+Lac Huron, au Lac Sup&eacute;rieur, et au Lac Michigan."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. v.,
+p, 374 (1721).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> "In extreme depth Lake Erie varies from forty to
+forty-five fathoms, with a rocky bottom. Lakes Superior and Huron have a
+stiff, clayey bottom, mixed with shells. Lake Erie reported to be the
+only one of the series in which any current is perceptible. The fact, if
+it is one, is usually ascribed to its shallowness; but the vast volume
+of its outlet&mdash;the Niagara River&mdash;with its strong current, is a much
+more probable cause than the small depth of its water, which may be far
+more appropriately adduced as the reason why the navigation is
+obstructed by ice much more than either of the other great lakes. As
+connected with trade and navigation, this lake is the most important of
+all the great chain, not only because it is bordered by older
+settlements than any of them except Ontario, but still more because from
+its position it concentrates the trade of the vast West. The Kingston
+Herald notices a most extraordinary occurrence on Lake Erie during a
+late storm (1836). A channel was made by the violence of the tempest
+through Long Point, N. Foreland, 300 yards wide, and from 11 to 15 feet
+deep. It had been in contemplation to cut a canal at this very spot, the
+expenses of which were estimated at &pound;12,000. The York Courier confirms
+this extraordinary intelligence, stating that the storm made a breach
+through the point near the main land, converted the peninsula into an
+island, and actually made a canal 400 yards wide, and eight or ten feet
+deep, almost at the very point where the proposed canal was to be cut,
+and rendered nothing else now necessary in order to secure a safe
+channel for the vessels, and a good harbor on both sides, than the
+construction of a pier on the west side, to prevent the channel being
+filled up with sand."&mdash;Montgomery Martin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> "The Horse-shoe Cataract on the British side is the
+largest of the Falls. The curvatures have been geometrically computed at
+700 yards, and its altitude, taken with a plumb-line from the surface of
+the Table Rock, 149 feet; the American fall, narrowed by Goat Island,
+does not exceed 375 yards in curvilinear length (the whole irregular
+semicircle is nearly three quarters of a mile), its perpendicular height
+being 162 feet, or 13 feet higher than the top of the Great Fall, adding
+57 feet for the fall. The rapids thus give only a total of 219 feet,
+which is less than many other falls; but their magnificence consists in
+the volume of the water precipitated over them, which has been computed
+at 2400 millions of tons per day, 102 millions per hour! A calculation
+made at Queenston, below the Falls, is as follows: The river is here
+half a mile broad; it averages 25 feet deep; current three miles an
+hour; in one hour it will discharge a current of water three miles long,
+half a mile wide, and twenty-five feet deep, containing 1,111,400,000
+cubic feet, being 18,524,000 cubic feet, or 113,510,000 gallons of water
+each minute."&mdash;Montgomery Martin's <i>History of Canada</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "The total area of the four great lakes which pour forth
+their waters to the ocean over the Falls of Niagara is estimated at
+100,000 square miles."&mdash;Montgomery Martin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Colonel Bouchette observes, that, according to the
+altitude of the sun, and the situation of the spectator, a distinct and
+bright iris is soon amid the revolving columns of mist that soar from
+the foaming chasm, and shroud the broad front of the gigantic flood.
+Both arches of the bow are seldom entirely elicited, but the interior
+segment is perfect, and its prismatic hues are extremely glowing and
+vivid. The fragments of a plurality of rainbows are sometimes to be seen
+in various parts of the misty curtain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Symptoms of the Falls are discerned from a vast distance.
+From Buffalo, twenty miles off, two small fleecy specks are distinctly
+seen, appearing and disappearing at intervals. These are the clouds of
+spray arising from the Falls; it is even asserted that they have been
+seen from Lake Erie, a distance of fifty-four miles.&mdash;Weld, p. 374.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> The sound of the Falls appears to have been heard at the
+distance of twenty or even forty miles: but these effects depend much on
+the direction of the wind, and the tranquil or disturbed state of the
+atmosphere. Mr. Weld mentions having approached the Falls within half a
+mile without hearing any sound, while the spray was but just
+discernible.&mdash;Weld, p. 374.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> "The shores of Lake Erie, though flat, are elevated about
+400 feet above those of Lake Ontario. The descent takes place in the
+short interval between the two lakes traversed by the Niagara Channel.
+This descent is partly gradual, producing only a succession of rapids.
+It is at Queenston, about seven miles below the present site of the
+Falls, that a range of hills marks the descent to the Ontario level.
+Volney conceives it certain that this must have been the place down
+which the river originally fell, and that the continued and violent
+action of its waves must have gradually worn away the rocks beneath
+them, and in the course of ages carried the Fall back to its present
+position, from which it continues gradually receding. Mr. Howison
+confirms the statement, that, in the memory of persons now living in
+Upper Canada, a considerable change has been observed. The whole course
+of the river downward to Queenston is through a deep dell, bordered by
+broken and perpendicular steeps, rudely overhung by trees and shrubs,
+and the opposite strata of which correspond, affording thus the
+strongest presumption that it is a channel hewn out by the river
+itself."&mdash;H. Murray's <i>Historical Description of America</i>, vol. ii., p.
+466.
+</p><p>
+"It is now considered that there is clear geological proof that the Fall
+once existed at Queenston. The 710,000 tons of water which each minute
+pour over the precipice of the Niagara, are estimated to carry away a
+foot of the cliff every year; therefore we must suppose a period of
+20,000 years occupied in the recession of the cataract to its present
+site."&mdash;Lyell's <i>Geology</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> "The mouth of the whirlpool is more than 1000 feet wide,
+and in length about 2000. Mr. Howison, in his sketches of Upper Canada,
+says that the current of the river has formed a circular excavation in
+the high and perpendicular banks, resembling a bay. The current, which
+is extremely rapid, whenever it reaches the upper point of this bay,
+forsakes the direct channel, and sweeps wildly round the sides of it;
+when, having made this extraordinary circuit, it regains its proper
+course, and rushes with perturbed velocity between two perpendicular
+precipices, which are not more than 400 feet asunder. The surface of the
+whirlpool is in a state of continual agitation. The water boils, mantles
+up, and wreaths in a manner that proves its fearful depth, and the
+confinement it suffers; the trees that come within the sphere of the
+current are swept along with a quivering, zigzag motion, which it is
+difficult to describe. This singular body of water must be several
+hundred feel deep, and has not hitherto been frozen over, although in
+spring the broken ice that descends from Lake Erie descends in such
+quantities upon its surface, and becomes so closely wedged together,
+that it resists the current, and remains till warm weather breaks it up.
+The whirlpool is one of the greatest natural curiosities in the Upper
+Province, and its formation can not be rationally accounted
+for."&mdash;Martin's <i>History of Canada</i>, p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> "This inland sea, though the smallest of the great chain
+with which it is connected, is of such extent, that vessels in crossing
+it lose sight of land, and must steer their way by the compass; and the
+swell is often equal to that of the ocean. During the winter, the
+northeast part of Ontario, from the Bay of Quint&eacute; to Sacket's Harbor, is
+frozen across; but the wider part of the lake is frozen only to a short
+distance from the shore. Lake Erie is frozen still less; the northern
+parts of Huron and Michigan more; and Superior is said to be frozen to a
+distance of seventy miles from its coasts. The navigation of Ontario
+closes in October; ice-boats are sometimes used when the ice is <i>glare</i>
+(smooth). One, mentioned by Lieutenant de Roos, was twenty-three feet in
+length, resting on three skates of iron, one attached to each end of a
+strong cross-bar, fixed under the fore-feet, the remaining one to the
+stern, from the bottom of the rudder; the mast and sail those of a
+common boat: when brought into play on the ice, she could sail (if it
+may be so termed) with fearful rapidity, nearly twenty-three miles an
+hour. One has been known to cross from Toronto to Fort George or
+Niagara, a distance of forty miles, in little more than three quarters
+of an hour; but, in addition to her speed before the wind, she is also
+capable of beating well up to windward, requiring, however, an
+experienced hand to manage her, in consequence of her extreme
+sensibility of the rudder during her quick motion."&mdash;Martin's <i>History
+of Canada</i>.
+</p><p>
+"The great earthquake that destroyed Lisbon happened on the 1st of
+November, 1755, and on Lake Ontario strong agitations of the water were
+observed from the month of October, 1755."&mdash;<i>Lettera Rarissima data
+nelle Indie nella Isola di Jamaica a 7 Julio del</i> 1503 (Bassano, 1810,
+p. 29).
+</p><p>
+"From some submarine center in the Atlantic, this earthquake spread one
+enormous convulsion over an area of 700,000 square miles, agitating, by
+a single impulse, the lakes of Scotland and Sweden, and the islands of
+the West Indian Sea. Not, however, by a simultaneous shock, for the
+element of time comes in with the distance of undulation; and, together
+with this, another complexity of action in the transmission of
+earthquake movements through the sea, arising from the different rate of
+progression at different depths. In the fact that the wave of the Lisbon
+earthquake reached Plymouth at the rate of 2.1 miles per minute, and
+Barbadoes at 7.3 miles per minute, there is illustration of the law that
+the velocity of a wave is proportional to the square root of its depth,
+and becomes a substitute for the sounding line in fixing the mean
+proportional depth of different parts of this great ocean."&mdash;Humboldt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> "There are two lakes in Lower Canada, Matapediac and
+Memphremagog. The former is about 16 miles long, and three broad in its
+greatest breadth, about 21 miles distant from the St. Lawrence River, in
+the county of Rimouski; amid the islands that separate the waters
+running into the St. Lawrence from those that run to the Bay of
+Chaleurs, it is navigable for rafts of all kinds of timber, with which
+the banks of the noble River Matapediac are thickly covered.
+Memphremagog Lake, in the county of Stanstead, stretching its south
+extremity into the State of Vermont, is of a semi-circular shape, 30
+miles long, and very narrow. It empties itself into the fine river St.
+Francis, by means of the River Magog, which runs through Lake
+Scaswaninepus. The Memphremagog Lake is said to be navigable for ships
+of 500 tons burden."&mdash;Martin's <i>History of Canada</i>, p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> "It is worthy of remark, that the great lakes of Upper
+Canada are liable to the formation of the Prester or water-spout, and
+that several instances are recorded of the occurrence of that truly
+extraordinary phenomenon, the theory of which, however, is well known.
+Whether electricity be a cause or a consequence of this formidable
+meteor, appears, nevertheless, to be a question of some doubt among
+natural philosophers; Gassendi being disposed to favor the former
+opinion, while Cavallo espouses the latter."&mdash;Bouchette's <i>Topographical
+and Statistical Description of Upper and Lower Canada</i>, vol. i., p.
+346.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> "The most considerable harbors on the English side are
+Toronto (York, the former name, has recently been changed to the Indian
+name of the place, Toronto) and Kingston. Toronto is situated near the
+head of Lake Ontario, on the north side of an excellent harbor or
+elliptical basin, of an area of eight or nine miles, formed by a long,
+low, sandy peninsula or island, stretching from the land east of the
+town to Gibraltar Point, abreast of a good fort. The town of Toronto, at
+that period York, was twice captured by the Americans, in April and
+August, 1813, owing to its defenseless state, and a large ship of war on
+the stocks burned. The Americans would not now find its capture such an
+easy task. Little more than forty years ago, the site whereon Toronto
+now stands, and the whole country to the north and west of it, was a
+perfect wilderness; the land is now fast clearing&mdash;thickly settled by a
+robust and industrious European-descended population, blessed with
+health and competence, and on all sides indicating the rapid progress of
+civilization. The other British town of importance on this shore is
+Kingston, formerly Cataraqui or Frontenac, distant from Toronto 184
+miles, and from Montreal 180 miles. It is, next to Quebec and Halifax,
+the strongest British post in America, and, next to Quebec and Montreal,
+the first in commercial importance. It is advantageously situated on the
+north bank of Lake Ontario, at the head of the River St. Lawrence, and
+is separated from Points Frederic and Henry by a bay, which extends a
+considerable distance to the northwest beyond the town, where it
+receives the water of a river flowing from the interior. Point Frederic
+is a long, narrow peninsula, extending about half a mile into the lake,
+distant from Kingston about three quarters of a mile on the opposite
+side of its bay. This peninsula forms the west side of a narrow and deep
+inlet called Navy Bay, from its being our chief naval d&eacute;p&ocirc;t on Lake
+Ontario."&mdash;Martin's <i>History of Canada</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> "The channel of the St. Lawrence is here so spacious that
+it is called the Lake of the Thousand Islands. The vast number implied
+in this name was considered a vague exaggeration, till the commissioners
+employed in fixing the boundary with the United States actually counted
+them, and found that they amounted to 1692. They are of every imaginable
+size, shape, and appearance; some barely visible, others covering
+fifteen acres; but, in general, their broken outline presents the most
+picturesque combinations of wood and rock. The navigator, in steering
+through them, sees an ever-changing scene: sometimes he is inclosed in a
+narrow channel; then he discovers before him twelve openings, like so
+many noble rivers; and, soon after, a spacious lake seems to surround
+him on every side."&mdash;Bouchette, vol. i., p. 156; Howison's <i>Sketches of
+Canada</i>, p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> "The St. Lawrence traverses the whole extent of Lower
+Canada, as the lakes every where border and inclose Upper Canada. There
+is a difficulty in tracing its origin, or, at least, which of the
+tributaries of Lake Superior is to be called the St. Lawrence. The
+strongest claim seems to be made by the series of channels which connect
+all the great upper lakes, though, strictly speaking, till after the
+Ontario, there is nothing which can very properly be called a river.
+There are only a number of short canals connecting the different lakes,
+or, rather, separating one immense lake into a number of great branches.
+It seems an interesting question how this northern center of the
+continent, at the precise latitude of about 50&deg;, should pour forth so
+immense and overwhelming a mass of waters; for through a great part of
+its extent it is quite a dead flat, though the Winnepeg, indeed, draws
+some tributaries from the Rocky Mountains. The thick forests with which
+the surface is covered, the slender evaporation which takes place during
+the long continuance of cold, and, at the same time, the thorough
+melting of the snows by the strong summer heat, seem to be the chief
+sources of this profuse and superabundant moisture."&mdash;H. Murray's
+<i>Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in North America</i>, vol.
+ii., p. 459, 1829.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> "The statements laid before Parliament thus enumerate and
+describe the five rapids of the St. Lawrence, which are impassable by
+steam, and occur between Montreal and Kingston, a distance, by the St.
+Lawrence River, of 171 miles, and by the Rideau Canal, 267 miles. The
+rapids vary in rapidity, intricacy, depth and width of channel, and in
+extent, from half a mile to nine miles. The Cedar Rapid, twenty-four
+miles from La Chine, is nine miles long, very intricate, running from
+nine to twelve miles an hour, and in some places only from nine to ten
+feet water in the channel. The Coteau du Lac Rapid, six miles above the
+former, is two miles long, equally intricate in channel, and in some
+places only sixteen feet wide. Long Sault, forty-five miles above the
+preceding, is nine or ten miles long, with generally the same depth of
+water throughout. It is intersected by several islands, through whose
+channels the water rushes with great velocity, so that boats are carried
+through it, or on it, at the rate of twenty-seven miles an hour; at the
+foot of the rapid the water takes a sudden leap over a slight precipice,
+whence its name. From the Long Sault to Prescot is forty-one miles shoal
+water, running from six to eight miles an hour, and impassable by
+steamboats. Then the Rapid du Plas, half a mile long, and Rapid Galoose,
+one and half a mile long, intervene."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> "According to Mr. M'Gregor (<i>Brit. Amer.</i>, vol. ii., p.
+525), the Ottawa, or Grand River, is said to have its source near the
+Rocky Mountains, and to traverse in its windings a distance of 2500
+miles. The more sober statement of Bouchette attributes to the Ottawa a
+course of about 450 miles before joining the St. Lawrence."&mdash;Bouchette,
+vol. i., p. 187.
+</p><p>
+"A tremendous scene is presented at the eastern part of Lake St. Louis,
+where the St. Lawrence and its grand tributary, the Ottawa, rush down at
+once and meet in dreadful conflict. The swell is then equal to that
+produced by a high gale in the British Channel, and the breakers so
+numerous, that all the skill of the boatmen is required to steer their
+way. The Canadian boatmen, however, are among the most active and hardy
+races in the world, and they have boats expressly constructed for the
+navigation of these perilous channels. The largest of these, called, it
+is not known why, the Durham boat, is used both here and in the rapids
+of the Mohawk. It is long, shallow, and nearly flat-bottomed. The chief
+instrument of steerage is a pole ten feet long, shod with iron, and
+crossed at short intervals with small bars of wood like the feet of a
+ladder. The men place themselves at the bow, two on each side, thrust
+their poles into the channel, and grasping successively the wooden bars,
+work their way toward the stern, thus pushing on the vessel in that
+direction. At other times, by the brisk and vigorous use of the oar,
+they catch and dash through the most favorable lines of current. In this
+exhausting struggle, however, it is needful to have frequent pauses for
+rest, and in the most difficult passages there are certain positions
+fixed for this purpose, which the Canadians call <i>pipes</i>."&mdash;H. Murray's
+<i>Hist. Descr. of America</i>, vol. ii., p. 473.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> "From the sea to Montreal, this superb river is called
+the St. Lawrence; from thence to Kingston, in Upper Canada, the
+Cataraqui or Iroquois; between Lakes Ontario and Erie, the Niagara;
+between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, the Detroit; between Lakes St. Clair
+and Huron, the St. Clair; and between Lakes Huron and Superior, the
+distance is called the Narrows, or Falls of St. Mary. The St. Lawrence
+discharges to the ocean annually about 4,277,880 millions of tons of
+fresh water, of which 2,112,120 millions of tons may be reckoned melted
+snow; the quantity discharged before the thaw comes on, being 4512
+millions of tons per day for 240 days, and the quantity after the thaw
+begins, being 25,560 millions per day for 125 days, the depths and
+velocity when in and out of flood being duly considered: hence a ton of
+water being nearly equal to 55 cubic yards of pure snow, the St.
+Lawrence frees a country of more than 2000 miles square, covered to the
+depth of three feet. The embouchure of this first-class stream is that
+part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence where the island of Anticosti divides
+the mouth of the river into two branches. According to Mr. M'Taggart, a
+shrewd and humorous writer, the solid contents in cubic feet of the St.
+Lawrence, embracing Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario,
+is estimated at 1,547,792,360,000 cubic feet, and the superficial area
+being 72,930 square miles, the water therein would form a cubic column
+of nearly 22 miles on each side!"&mdash;Montgomery Martin's <i>History of
+Canada</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> "Kinnel Lodge, the residence of the celebrated Highland
+chieftain M'Nab, is romantically situated on the south bank of the lake,
+about five miles above the head of the Chats Rapids, which are three
+miles long, and pass amid a labyrinth of varied islands, until the
+waters of the Ottawa are suddenly precipitated over the Falls of the
+Chats, which, to the number of fifteen or sixteen, form a curved line
+across the river, regularly divided by woody islands, the falls being in
+depth from sixteen to twenty feet."&mdash;M. Martin's <i>History of Canada</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XIX. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> "At Quebec, the River St. Lawrence narrows to 1314 yards;
+yet the navigation is completely unobstructed, while there is formed
+near the city a capacious harbor. About twenty-one miles lower, its
+waters, beginning to mingle with those of the sea, acquire a saline
+taste, which increases till, at Kamauraska, seventy-five miles nearer
+its mouth, they become completely salt. Yet custom, with somewhat
+doubtful propriety, considers the river as continued down to the island
+of Anticosti, and bounded by Cape Rosier on the southern, and Mingau
+settlement on the northern shore."&mdash;Bouchette's <i>Top. and Stat. Descr.
+of Canada</i>, vol. i., p. 164-169.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XX. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> "The Falls of the Rideau are about fifty feet in height
+and 300 in breadth, being, at the time we saw them, more magnificent
+than usual, by reason of the high state of the waters. It is from their
+resemblance to a curtain that they are distinguished by the name of
+Rideau, and they also give this name to the river that feeds them, which
+again lends the same appellation to the canal that connects the Ottawa
+with Lake Ontario."&mdash;Simpson, vol. i., p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> Modern alluvial accumulations are rapidly increasing on
+some points of this coast, owing to the enormous mass of fresh water,
+charged with earthy matter, that here mingles with the sea. The surface
+of the water at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, where the depth is 100
+fathoms, is stated by Bayfield to be turbid from this cause: yet that
+this discoloration is superficial is evident, for in the wake of a ship
+moving through the turbid surface, the clear blue waters of the sea are
+seen below.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Upon the surface of Canada are found manifest indications of that
+tremendous deluge, the effects of which are so plainly visible in the
+Old World. Huge bowlder stones<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> abound in almost every part of the
+province; sometimes they are seen rounded, piled in high heaps on
+extensive horizontal beds of limestone, swept together by the force of
+some vast flood. Masses of various kinds of shells lie in great
+quantities in hollows and valleys, some of them hundreds of feet above
+the level of Lake Ontario. Near to great rivers, and often where now no
+waters are at hand, undulations of rocks are seen like those found in
+the beds of rapids where the channels are waved. These have evidently,
+at some remote period, been the courses of floods now no longer
+existing. On the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence detached bowlder
+stones appear, some of enormous size, many tons in weight; they must
+have come from a great distance, for nowhere in that region is there any
+rock of similar material. In the upper strata of the country are
+abundant fossil remains of distinct animal existences now unknown; they
+are blended with the limestone in which they lie.</p>
+
+<p>It seems certain that the whole of Canada has been violently convulsed
+by some effort of nature since the floods of the deluge passed away; the
+mountains are abrupt and irregular in outline, and in some places cleft
+with immense chasms; the rivers also show singular contortions. North of
+Quebec and in St. Paul's Bay are many traces of volcanic eruptions, and
+vast masses of alluvial rocks, bearing marks of vitrification,
+frequently appear on the surface of the earth. There is, besides, strong
+evidence that the American Continent has lain for unknown ages beneath
+the great deep, or that it is of later formation than Europe or Asia.</p>
+
+<p>As far as it has been explored, the general geological structure of
+Canada exhibits a granite country, with some calcareous rocks of a soft
+texture in horizontal strata. The lower islands in the St. Lawrence are
+merely inequalities of the vast granite strata which occasionally stand
+above the level of the waters; the whole neighboring country appears as
+if the Great River had at one time covered it. The banks of the St.
+Lawrence are in many places formed of a schistus substance in a decaying
+state, but still granite is every where found in strata, inclined, but
+never parallel to the horizon. In the Gasp&eacute; District, many beautiful
+quartz, and a great variety of cornelians, agates, copals, and jaspers
+have been found, and traces of coal have also been observed.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p>
+
+<p>The north shore of the St. Lawrence, from thirty miles below Quebec
+eastward, and along the coast of Labrador, is generally of the primitive
+formations. Except in the marshes and swamps, rocks obtrude upon the
+surface in all quarters; in many places, deep fissures of from six
+inches to two feet wide are seen bearing witness to volcanic violence;
+the Indians describe some of these rents as several miles long, and
+forty or fifty deep; when covered with the thick underwood, they are, at
+times, very dangerous to the traveler. These chasms are probably owing
+to some great subterranean action; there is a manuscript in the Jesuits'
+College at Quebec which records the occurrence of an earthquake on the
+5th of February, 1663, at about half past 5 P.M., felt through the whole
+extent of Canada: trees in the forests were torn up and dashed against
+each other with inconceivable violence; mountains were raised from their
+foundations and thrown into valleys, leaving awful chasms behind; from
+the openings issued dense clouds of smoke, dust, and sand; many rivers
+disappeared, others were diverted from their course, and the great St.
+Lawrence became suddenly white as far down as the mouth of the Saguenay.
+The first shock lasted for more than half an hour, but the greatest
+violence was only for fifteen minutes. At Tadoussac, a shower of
+volcanic ashes descended upon the rivers, agitating the waters like a
+tempest. This tremendous earthquake extended simultaneously over
+180,000 square miles of country, and lasted for nearly six months almost
+without intermission.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the neighborhood of Quebec, a dark clay slate generally appears, and
+forms the bed of the St. Lawrence as far as Lake Ontario, and even at
+Niagara; bowlders and other large masses of rock, however, of various
+kinds, occur in detached portions at many different places. The great
+elevated ridge of broken country running toward the Ottawa River, at the
+distance of from fifty to one hundred miles from the north shore of Lake
+Ontario, and the course of the St. Lawrence, is rich in silver, lead,
+copper, and iron. On the north shore of the Saguenay, the rugged
+mountains abound in iron to such an extent as to influence the mariner's
+compass. The iron mines of St. Maurice<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> have been long known, and
+found abundantly productive of an admirable metal, inferior to none in
+the world; it is remarkably pliant and malleable, and little subject to
+oxydation. In 1667, Colbert sent M. de la Potardi&egrave;re, an experienced
+mineralogist, to examine these mines; he reported the iron very
+abundant, and of excellent quality, but it was not till 1737 that the
+forges were established by the French: they failed to pay the expenses
+of the speculation; the superintendent and fourteen clerks, however,
+gained fortunes by the losses of their employers.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that immense mineral resources remain undiscovered
+among the rocky solitudes of Lower Canada. Marble of excellent quality,
+and endless variety of color, is found in different parts of the
+country, and limestone is almost universal. Labrador produces a
+beautiful and well-known spar of rich and brilliant tints, ultra-marine,
+greenish yellow, red, and some of a fine pearly gray.</p>
+
+<p>In Upper Canada, the country north of Lake Ontario is generally
+characterized by a limestone subsoil resting on granite. The rocks about
+Kingston are usually a very compact limestone, of a bluish-gray color,
+having a slight silicious admixture, increasing as the depth increases,
+with occasional intrusions of quartz or hornstone. The limestone strata
+are horizontal, with the greatest dip when nearest to the elder rock on
+which it rests; their thickness, like the depths of the soil, varies
+from a few feet to a few inches: in these formations many minerals are
+observed; genuine granite is seldom or never found.</p>
+
+<p>West of Lake Ontario, the chasm at the Falls of Niagara shows the strata
+of the country to be limestone, next slate, and lowest sandstone.
+Limestone and sandstone compose the secondary formations of a large
+portion of Canada, and of nearly all that vast extent of country in the
+United States drained by the Mississippi. At Niagara the interposing
+structure of slate is nearly forty feet thick, and fragile, like shale
+crumbling away from under the limestone, thus strengthening the opinion
+that there has been for many ages a continual retrocession of the Great
+Falls. Around Lake St. Clair, masses of granite, mica slate, and quartz
+are found in abundance. The level shores of Lake Huron offer little
+geological variety; secondary limestone, filled with the usual reliqui&aelig;,
+is the general structure of the coast, but detached blocks of granite
+and other primitive rocks are occasionally found: this district appears
+poor in minerals. The waters of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior have
+evidently, at some remote period, formed one vast sheet, which probably
+burst its bounds by a sudden action of nature, and subsided into the
+present divisions, all lower than the former general level: the
+separating ridges of these waters are but slightly elevated; great
+masses of rock and huge bowlders of granite are found rolled at least
+100 miles from their original situations, and immense alluvial beds of
+fresh-water shells, apparently formed since the deluge, but when the
+waters were still of a vast depth and extent, are found in the east of
+Lake Huron.</p>
+
+<p>Little or nothing is known of the dreary solitudes beyond Lake Superior;
+enormous muddy ponds and marshes are succeeded by open, dry, sandy
+plains; then forests of hemlock and spruce arise, again swamp, bog,
+windfalls, and stagnant water succeed; in the course of many miles there
+may not be one dry spot found for a resting-place. The cold is intense
+in this desolate region; in winter spirits freeze into a consistency
+like honey; and even in the height of summer the thermometer only shows
+thirty-six degrees at sunrise. Part of the north and east shore of this
+greatest of the lakes present old formations&mdash;sienite, stratified
+greenstone, more or less chloritic, and alternating five times with vast
+beds of granite&mdash;the general direction east, with a north or
+perpendicular dip. Great quantities of the older shell limestone are
+found strewn in rolled masses on the beach. Amygdaloid occupies also a
+very large tract to the north, mingled with porphyries, conglomerates,
+and various other substances. From Thunder Mountain westward, trappose
+greenstone is the prevailing rock: it gives rise to some strange
+pilastered precipices near Fort William. Copper<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> abounds in this
+region to an extent, perhaps, unsurpassed any where in the world. At the
+Coppermine River, three hundred miles from the Sault de St. Marie, this
+metal, in a pure state, nearly covers the face of a serpentine rock, and
+is also found within the stone in solid masses. Iron is abundant in many
+parts of Upper Canada; at Charlotteville, eight miles from Lake Erie,
+the metal produced is of a very fine quality. The Marmora Iron Works,
+about thirty-two miles north of the Bay of Quint&eacute;, on the River Trent,
+are situated on an extensive white rocky flat, apparently the bed of
+some dried-up river; the ore is found on the surface, and is very rich,
+yielding ninety-two per cent.: the necessary assistants, lime and fuel,
+abound close at hand. Various other minerals have also been found there;
+among the rest, small specimens of a metal like silver.</p>
+
+<p>There are many strong mineral springs in different parts of Canada; the
+most remarkable of these is the Burning Spring above Niagara; its waters
+are black, hot and bubbling, and emit, during the summer, a gas that
+burns with a pure bright flame; this sulphureted hydrogen is used to
+light a neighboring mill. Salt springs are also numerous; gypsum is
+obtained in large quantities, with pipe and potter's clay; yellow ocher
+sometimes occurs; and there are many kinds of valuable building stones.
+It is gathered from the Indians that there are incipient volcanoes in
+several parts of these regions, particularly toward the Chippewa hunting
+grounds.</p>
+
+<p>The soil of Lower Canada is generally fertile; about Quebec it is light
+and sandy in some parts, in others it is a mixture of loam and clay.
+Above the Richelieu Rapids, where the great valley of the St. Lawrence
+begins to widen, the low lands consist of a light and loose dark earth,
+with ten or twelve inches of depth, lying on a stratum of cold clay, all
+apparently of alluvial formation. Along the banks of the Ottawa there is
+a great extent of rich alluvial soil; each year develops large districts
+of fertile land, before unknown. The soils of Upper Canada are various;
+brown clay and loam, intermixed with marl, predominates, particularly in
+the rich district between the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa: north of
+Ontario it is more clayey and extremely fertile. A rich black mold
+prevails in the district between Lakes Ontario and Erie. There is in
+this upper country an almost total absence of stone or gravel for
+building and other common purposes. So great is the fertility of the
+soil in Canada, that fifty bushels of wheat an acre are frequently
+produced, even where the stumps of trees still occupy a considerable
+portion of the ground: near Toronto one hundred bushels of wheat have
+been grown upon a single acre, and in some districts the land has
+yielded rich crops of that grain for twenty successive years, without
+being manured.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of the soil in wild lands may be known by the timber growing
+upon it. Hard-wood trees, those that shed their leaves during winter,
+show the best indication, such as maple, bass-wood, elm, black walnut,
+hickory, butternut, iron-wood, hemlock, and a giant species of nettle.
+A mixture of beech is good, but where it stands alone the soil is
+generally light. Oak is uncertain as an indication, being found on
+various bottoms. Soft or evergreen wood, such as pine, fir, larch, and
+others of the species, are considered decisive of a very light soil. The
+larch or tamarack on wide, flat plains, indicates sand upon a substratum
+of marly clay, which the French Canadians hold in high estimation. It
+is, however, right to add, that some very respectable authorities
+dispute that the nature of the timber can be fully relied on as a guide
+to the value of the land. The variety of trees found in the Canadian
+forest is astonishing, and it is supposed that many kinds still remain
+unknown. Of all these, none is more beautiful and useful than the maple;
+its brilliant foliage, changing with each season of the year, is the
+richest ornament of the forest. The timber is valuable for many
+purposes, and from the sap might be produced an immense quantity of
+excellent sugar. A great deal is at present made, but, like all the
+other resources of this magnificent country, it is very partially turned
+to the use of man: the sap of the maple is valuable also for
+distillation.</p>
+
+<p>There is a considerable variety of climate in Canada, from the
+northeast, chilled by the winds of the Atlantic,<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> to the southwest,
+five degrees lower, and approaching the center of the continent; the
+neighborhood of ranges of bare and rugged mountains,<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> has also a
+marked effect upon the temperature of different localities. However, in
+all parts the winters are very severe, while the heat of summer is
+little inferior to that of the tropics. But, on the whole, the clear
+blue sky, unobscured by fog or mist, and the pure elastic air, bespeak
+the salubrity of these provinces in all seasons.</p>
+
+<p>In Lower Canada the extreme severity of the winter is, in a measure,
+caused by the vicinity of the range of lofty and rugged mountains, as
+well as by its more northern position. The fall of snow commences in
+November, but seldom remains long on the ground till December; in that
+month constantly successive falls of snow rapidly cover the whole
+surface of the country. Toward the end of December the heavy clouds
+disperse, and the rude storm is followed by a perfect calm; the air
+becomes pure and frosty, and the skies of a clear and beautiful azure.
+The River St. Lawrence<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> is frozen over every winter from Montreal to
+the Richelieu Rapids, but from thence to Quebec only once in about five
+years; at other times, however, enormous fields and masses of ice drift
+up and down with the changing tides, increasing or diminishing with the
+severity or mildness of the weather; where the Island of Orleans divides
+the Great River into two branches, the northern channel is narrow and
+less acted upon by tides; here these huge frozen masses are forced
+together by the winds and waters, and form an enormous bridge from shore
+to shore. The greatest degree of cold prevails toward the end of
+January, for a few days occasionally so intense that the human frame can
+scarcely endure exposure to it for any length of time. When winter has
+set in nearly every bird disappears, and few wild animals are any longer
+to be seen; some, like the bear, remain torpid, others change their
+color to a snowy white, and are rarely observed. Rocks of the softer
+kinds are often rent asunder, as if with the explosion of gunpowder, by
+the irresistible expansive power of the frost.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> Dogs become mad
+from the severity of the cold, and polished iron or other metal, when
+exposed in the air for a little time, <i>burns</i> the hand at the touch as
+if it were red hot.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> During the still nights of intense frost the
+woods send forth a creaking sound, like the noise of chopping with
+thousands of hatchets. Sometimes a brief thaw occurs in the middle of
+winter, when a very extraordinary effect, called by the Canadians <i>ver
+glas</i>, is occasionally produced upon the bare trees: they are covered
+with an incrustation of pure ice from the stem to the extremities of the
+smallest branches; the slight frost of the night freezes the moisture
+that covered the bark during the day; the branches become at last unable
+to bear their icy burden, and when a strong wind arises, the destruction
+among trees of all kinds is immense. When the sun shines upon the forest
+covered with this brilliant incrustation, the effect is indescribably
+beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>The months of March and April are usually very hot, and the power of the
+sun's rays is heightened by the reflection of the ice and snows. Toward
+the end of April or the beginning of May, the dreary winter covering has
+altogether disappeared; birds of various kinds return from their wintery
+exile; the ice accumulated in the great lakes and streams that are
+tributary to the St. Lawrence breaks up with a tremendous noise, and
+rushes down in vast quantities toward the ocean, till again the tides of
+the Gulf drive them back. Sometimes the Great River is blocked up from
+shore to shore with these frozen masses; the contending currents force
+them together with terrible violence, and pile them over each other in
+various fantastic forms. The navigation of the river is not fairly
+practicable till all these have disappeared, which is generally about
+the 10th of May.</p>
+
+<p>When the young summer fairly sets in, nothing can be more charming than
+the climate&mdash;during the day bright and genial, with the air still pure
+and clear; the transition from bare brown fields and woods to verdure
+and rich green foliage is so rapid, that its progress is almost
+perceptible. Spring has scarcely begun before summer usurps its place,
+and the earth, awakened from nature's long, wintery sleep, gives forth
+her increase with astonishing bounty. This delightful season is usually
+ushered in by moderate rains, and a considerable rise in the meridian
+heat; but the nights are still cool and refreshing. In June, July, and
+August, the heat becomes great, and for some days intense; the roads and
+rocks at noon are so hot as to be painful to the touch, and the direct
+rays of the sun possess almost tropical power; but the night brings
+reinvigorating coolness, and the breezes of the morning are fresh and
+tempered as in our own favored land. September is usually a delightful
+month, although at times oppressively sultry. The autumn or fall rivals
+the spring in healthy and moderate warmth, and is the most agreeable of
+the seasons. The night-frosts destroy the innumerable venomous flies
+that have infested the air through the hot season, and, by their action
+on the various foliage of the forest, bestow an inconceivable richness
+of coloring to the landscape.</p>
+
+<p>During the summer there is a great quantity of electric fluid in the
+atmosphere, but storms of thunder and lightning are not of very frequent
+occurrence. When they do take place, their violence is sometimes
+tremendous, and serious damage often occurs. These outbursts, however,
+usually produce a favorable effect upon the weather and temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable meteoric phenomenon that has occurred in Canada
+since the country became inhabited by civilized man, was first seen in
+October, 1785, and again in July, 1814. At noonday a pitchy darkness, of
+a dismal and sinister character, completely obscured the light of the
+sun, continuing for about ten minutes at a time, and being frequently
+repeated during the afternoon. In the interval between each mysterious
+eclipse dense masses of black clouds, streaked with yellow, drove
+athwart the darkened sky, with fitful gusts of wind; thunder,
+lightning, black rain, and showers of ashes added to the terrors of the
+scene; and, when the sun appeared, its color was a bright red. The
+Indians ascribe this wonderful phenomenon to a vast volcano in the
+unknown regions of Labrador. The testimony of M. Gagnon gives
+corroboration to this idea. In December, 1791, when at St. Paul's Bay,
+in the Saguenay country, he saw the flames of an immense volcano,
+mingled with black smoke, rising to a great height in the air. Several
+violent shocks, as of an earthquake, accompanied this strange
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing winds of Lower Canada are the northeast, northwest, and
+southwest, and these exercise considerable influence on the temperature
+of the atmosphere and the state of the weather. The southwest wind, the
+most prevalent, is generally moderate, accompanied by clear, bright
+skies; the northeast and east wind bring rain in summer, and snow in
+winter, from the dreary regions of Labrador; and the northwest blast is
+keen and dry, from its passage over the vast frozen solitudes that lie
+between the Rocky Mountains<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> and Hudson's Bay. Winds from the north,
+south, or west are seldom felt: the currents of the neighboring air are
+often affected by the direction of the tidal streams, which act as far
+as 400 miles from the mouth of the Great River.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of a long continuance of snow upon the earth is favorable to
+vegetation; were the surface exposed to the intense severity of wintery
+frosts, unprotected by this ample covering, the ground could not regain
+a proper degree of heat, even under a Canadian sun, before the autumn
+frosts had again chilled the energies of nature. The natural heat of the
+earth is about 42&deg;; the surface waters freeze at 32&deg;, and thus present a
+non-conducting incrustation to the keen atmosphere; then the snow
+becomes a warm garment till the April sun softens the air above; the
+latent heat of the earth begins to be developed; the snow melts, and
+penetrates the ground through every pore, rendering friable the stiffest
+soil. For a month or more before the visible termination of the
+Canadian winter, vegetation is in active progress on the surface of the
+earth, even under snow several feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>In Upper Canada the climate does not present such extremes of heat and
+cold as in the Lower Province. In the Newcastle District, between
+latitude 44&deg; and 45&deg;, the winter is little more severe than in England,
+and the warmth of summer is tempered by a cool and refreshing southwest
+breeze, which blows throughout the day from over the waters of the great
+lakes. In spring and autumn the southwest wind brings with it frequent
+rains; the northwest wind prevails in winter, and is dry, cold, and
+elastic; the south-eastern breezes are generally accompanied by thaw and
+rain: from the west, south, or north, the wind rarely blows. The most
+sudden changes of weather consequent upon varying winds are observed
+from the northwest, when the air becomes pure and cool; thunder storms
+generally clear away with this wind: the heaviest falls of snow, and the
+most continued rains, come with the eastern breezes.</p>
+
+<p>The great lakes are never frozen in their centers, but a strong border
+of thick ice extends for some distance from the shore: in severe
+weather, a beautiful evaporation in various fantastic shapes ascends
+from the vast surfaces of these inland seas, forming cloudy columns and
+pyramids to a great height in the air: this is caused by the water being
+of a higher temperature than the atmosphere above. The chain of shallow
+lakes from Lake Simco toward the midland district are rarely frozen over
+more than an inch in thickness till about Christmas, and are free from
+ice again by the end of March. The earth in Upper Canada is seldom froze
+more than twelve or eighteen inches deep, and the general covering of
+the snow is about a foot and a half in thickness.</p>
+
+<p>In Canada the Indian summer is perhaps the most delightful period of the
+year. During most of November the weather is mild and serene; a soft,
+dry haze pervades the air, thickening toward the horizon; in the
+evenings the sun sets in a rich crimson flush, and the temperature is
+mild and genial: the birds avail themselves of the Indian summer for
+their migration. A phenomenon called the "tertian intervals" has excited
+much interest, and is still unexplained: at the end of the third day
+the greatest intensity of frost is always remittent, and succeeded by
+several days of mild weather. The climate is so dry that metals rarely
+are rusted by exposure to the air. This absence of humidity prevents the
+extremes of heat and cold from being so powerful here in their effect
+upon the sensations of the human frame as in other countries.</p>
+
+<p>The Aurora Borealis, or northern lights,<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> appear with great
+brilliancy in the clear Canadian sky, especially during the winter
+nights. Starting from behind the distant horizon, they race up through
+the vault of heaven, spreading over all space one moment, shrinking to a
+quivering streak the next, shooting out again where least expected, then
+vanishing into darkness deeper than before; now they seem like vast
+floating banners of variegated flame, then as crescents, again as
+majestic columns of light, ever changing in form and color. It is said
+that a rustling sound like that of silk accompanies this beautiful
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Canada has undergone a slight change since the discovery
+of the country; especially from the year 1818, an amelioration has been
+perceptible, partly owing to the motion of the magnetic poles, and
+partly to the gradual cultivation and clearing of the country. The
+winters are somewhat shorter and milder, and less snow falls than of
+old; the summers are also hotter.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> The felling of the forests, the
+draining of the morasses, partial though it may still be, together with
+the increasing population, have naturally some effect. The thick
+foliage, which before interposed its shade between the sun and the
+earth, intercepting the genial warmth from the lower atmosphere, has now
+been removed in many extensive tracts of country: the cultivated soil
+imbibes the heat, and returns it to the surrounding air in warm and
+humid vapors. The exhalations arising from a much increased amount of
+animal life, together with the burning of so many combustibles, are not
+altogether without their influence in softening the severity of the
+climate.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+<p>Canada abounds in an immense and beautiful variety of trees<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> and
+shrubs. Among the timber trees, the oak, pine, fir, elm, ash, birch,
+walnut, beech, maple, chestnut, cedar, and aspen, are the principal. Of
+fruit-trees and shrubs there are walnut, chestnut, apple, pear, cherry,
+plum, elder, vines,<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> hazel, hickory, sumach, juniper, hornbeam,
+thorn, laurel, whortleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, raspberry,
+blackberry, blueberry, sloe, and others; strawberries of an excellent
+flavor are luxuriantly scattered over every part of the country.
+Innumerable varieties of useful and beautiful herbs and grasses enrich
+the forests, whose virtues and peculiarities are as yet but little known
+to Europeans.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> In many places, pine-trees grow to the height of 120
+feet and upward, and are from nine to ten feet in circumference.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>
+Of this and of the fir species there are many varieties, some of them
+valuable from their production of pitch, tar, and turpentine. The
+American oak<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> is quicker in its growth and less durable than that of
+England; one species, however, called the live oak, grown in the warmer
+parts of the continent, is said to be equal, if not superior, to any in
+Europe for ship-building. The white oak is the best found in the
+Canadian settlements, and is in high repute. Another description is
+called the scrubby oak&mdash;it resembles the British gnarled oak, and is
+remarkably hard and durable. The birch<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> tribe is very numerous: the
+bark is much used by the Indians in making canoes,<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> baskets, and
+roofings; the wood is of a useful quality, and the sap, when extracted
+in the spring, produces by fermentation a pleasant but weak wine. The
+maple<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> is one of the most variable and beautiful of all the forest
+trees, and is adopted as the emblem of Canadian nationality.</p>
+
+<p>Two plants, formerly of great importance in these counties, are now almost
+extirpated, or little noticed as articles of commerce&mdash;ginseng<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> and
+capillaire. The first was found in great abundance by the French in their
+earlier settlement of the colony, and large quantities were exported to
+Europe, from whence it was forwarded to China. The high value it then
+possessed in that distant market induced the Canadians to collect the
+roots prematurely; and the Indians also gathered them wherever they could
+be found; consequently, this useful production was soon exhausted, and is
+now rarely seen. The capillaire<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> is now either become rare or
+neglected for other objects; a small quantity is, however, still exported.
+In the woods there is a vast variety of wild plants and flowers, many of
+them very beautiful. The sweet garlic especially deserves notice: two large
+pale-green leaves arise from the root; between them stands the delicate
+stem, about a foot in height, bearing a cluster of graceful flowers,
+resembling blue-bells in shape and color. The wild turnip is also very
+beautiful. There are, besides, many valuable herbs and roots, which the
+Indians use for various purposes. The reindeer moss<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> often serves
+for support and refreshment to the exhausted hunter; when boiled down
+into a liquid, it is very nourishing; and an herb called Indian tea
+produces a pleasant and wholesome draught, with a rich aromatic flavor.
+Wild oats and rice<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> are found in some of the marshy lands. The soil
+and climate are also favorable to the production of hops and a mild
+tobacco, much esteemed for the manufacture of snuff. Hemp<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> and flax
+are both indigenous in America. Father Hennepin, in the seventeenth
+century, found the former growing wild in the country of the Illinois;
+and Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in his travels to the western coast, met
+with flax in the interior, where no European was ever known to have been
+before. The Indian hemp<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> is seen in abundance upon the Canadian
+soil, particularly in light and sandy places; the bark is so strong that
+the natives use it for bow-strings; the pod bears a substance that
+rivals down in softness and elasticity; the culture is easy; the root,
+penetrating deep into the earth, survives the frosts of winter, and
+shoots out fresh stalks every spring. When five or six years old it
+attains the greatest perfection. It may be added that in these favored
+provinces all European plants, fruits, vegetables, grain,<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> legumes,
+and every other production of the earth required for the subsistence or
+luxury of man, yield their increase even more abundantly than in the old
+continents.</p>
+
+<p>The animals originally belonging to America appear to be of an inferior
+race&mdash;neither so robust, fierce, or numerous as those of the other
+continents: some are peculiar to the New World; but there is reason to
+suppose that several species have become utterly extinct, and the spread
+of cultivation, and increase of the human race rapidly extirpate many of
+those that still remain. America gives birth to no creature of equal
+bulk to the elephant and rhinoceros, or of equal strength and ferocity
+to the lion and tiger. The particular qualities in the climate, stinting
+the growth and enfeebling the spirit of the native animals, have also
+proved injurious to such as have been transported to the Canadas by
+their present European inhabitants. The soil, as well as temperature, of
+the country seems to be rather unfavorable to the development of
+strength and perfection in the animal creation.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> The general quality
+of the natural grasses covering those boundless pastures is not good or
+sufficiently nutritious.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p>
+
+<p>The native animals of Canada are the buffalo, bison, and musk bull,
+belonging to the ox kind. The buffalo is still found in herds of
+immense numbers upon the prairies of the remote western country, where
+they have wandered from the hated neighborhood of civilized man: the
+skin<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> is invaluable to the Canadians as a protection from the keen
+wintery air, and is abundantly supplied to them by the hunters of the
+Hudson's Bay Company.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> This animal is about the size of an ox, with
+the head disproportionably large; he is of a lighter color, less
+ferocious aspect, and inferior strength to those of the Old World. Both
+the bison and musk ox are varieties of the domestic cow, with a covering
+of shaggy hair; they possess considerable strength and activity. There
+are different descriptions of deer: the black and gray moose or elk, the
+caribou or reindeer,<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> the stag<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> and fallow deer.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> The moose
+deer<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> is the largest wild animal of the continent; it is often seen
+upward of ten feet high, and weighing twelve hundred weight; though
+savage in aspect, the creature is generally timid and inoffensive even
+when attacked by the hunter, and, like the sheep, may be easily
+domesticated: the flesh and skin are both of some value.</p>
+
+<p>The black and brown bear<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> is found in various parts of America, but
+chiefly in the northwest: some few are seen in the forests to the north
+of Quebec. This animal chooses for his lurking-place the hollow trunk of
+an old tree, which he prepares with sticks and branches, and a coating
+of warm moss; on the approach of the cold season he retires to his lair,
+and sleeps through the long winter till the return of spring enables him
+again to seek his prey. The bear is rather shy than fierce, but very
+powerful and dangerous when driven to extremities; he displays a strong
+degree of instinct, and is very dexterous and cunning in procuring food:
+the flesh is considered a delicacy, and the skin highly prized for
+beauty and warmth. Foxes<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> are numerous; they are of various colors
+and very cunning. Hares<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> are abundant, and turn white in winter like
+those of Norway. The wolverine or carcajou is called by the hunters
+beaver-eater, and somewhat resembles a badger; the skin is soft and
+handsome. A species of porcupine or urchin is found to the northward,
+and supplies the Indians with quills about four inches long, which, when
+dyed, are worked into showy ornaments. Squirrels<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> and various other
+small quadrupeds with fine furs are abundant in the forests. The animals
+of the cat kind are the cougar or American lion, the loup-cervier, the
+catamount, and the manguay or lynx.</p>
+
+<p>Beavers<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> are numerous in North America; these amphibious animals are
+about two feet nine inches in length, with very short fore feet and
+divided toes, while the hinder are membranous, and adapted for swimming;
+the body is covered with a soft, glossy, and valuable fur; the tail is
+oval, scaly, destitute of hair, and about a foot long. These industrious
+creatures dam up considerable streams, and construct dwellings of many
+compartments, to protect them from the rigor of the climate, as well as
+from their numerous enemies; their winter food, consisting of poplar
+logs, pieces of willows, alder, and fragments of other trees, is
+collected in autumn, and sunk in the water near the habitation. The
+beaver exhibits an extraordinary degree of instinct, and may be easily
+tamed; when caught or surprised by the approach of an enemy, it gives
+warning to its companions by striking the water with the flat of its
+tail. The musk rat and otter resemble the beaver in some of their
+habits, but are inferior in ingenuity, and of less value to the hunter.</p>
+
+<p>The walrus has now disappeared from the frequented waters of the Gulf of
+St. Lawrence, but is still found on the northern coasts of Labrador; in
+shape he somewhat resembles the seal, but is of much greater size,
+sometimes weighing 4000 pounds; when protecting their young, or when
+wounded, they are dangerous from their immense tusks; when out of the
+water, however, they are very helpless.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all these wild animals are pursued by the Indians, and the
+hunters of the Hudson's Bay Company,<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> for their skins; they are
+consequently growing rarer, and their haunts become more remote each
+succeeding year: probably, at no distant time, they will be altogether
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p>The birds of Canada differ little from those of the same names in
+Europe, but the severe climate is generally uncongenial to them. There
+are eagles, vultures, hawks, falcons, kites, owls, ravens, crows, rooks,
+jays, magpies, daws, cuckoos, woodpeckers, hoopers, creepers,
+humming-birds, thrushes, blackbirds, linnets, finches, sparrows,
+fly-catchers, pigeons, turkeys, ducks, geese, swans, grouse, ptarmigans,
+snipes, quails, and many others. The plumage of the American birds is
+very brilliant; but the sweet voices that fill the European woods with
+melody are never heard. Many of the birds of Lower Canada are migratory;
+the water-fowl seek the cooler north during the heat of summer, and
+other species fly to the south to shun the wintery frosts. In the milder
+latitudes of Upper Canada, birds are more numerous. They are known by
+the same names as those of corresponding species in England, but differ
+from them to some extent in plumage and character.</p>
+
+<p>In Lower Canada the reptiles are few and innocuous, and even these are
+not met with in the cultivated parts of the country. In the Upper
+Province, however, they are more numerous; some species are very
+dangerous, others harmless and exquisitely beautiful. Two kinds of
+rattlesnakes<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> are found here: one of a deep brown and yellow color,
+and seldom more than thirty inches in length; it frequents marshes and
+low meadows, and is very dangerous to cattle, often fastening its fangs
+upon their lips while grazing. The other is a bright greenish yellow
+clouded with brown, and twice the size of the former. These reptiles are
+thicker in proportion to their length than any others; the rattle is at
+the end of the tail, and consists of a number of dry, horny shells
+inclosed within each other. When wounded or enraged, the skin of the
+rattlesnake assumes a variety of beautiful colors; the flesh is white as
+that of the most delicate fish, and is esteemed a great luxury by the
+Indians. Cold weather weakens or destroys their poisonous qualities. In
+the spring, when they issue from their place of winter concealment, they
+are harmless till they have got to water, and at that time emit a
+sickening smell so as to injure those who hunt them. In some of the
+remoter districts they are still numerous, but in the long-settled parts
+of the country they are now rarely or never seen.</p>
+
+<p>Several varieties of lizards and frogs abound; the latter make an
+astonishing noise in marshy places during the summer evening by their
+harsh croaking. The land crab is found on the northern shore of Lake
+Erie. A small tortoise, called a terrapin,<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> is taken in some rivers,
+creeks, and swampy grounds, and is used as an article of food. Seals
+have been occasionally seen on the islands in Lake Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>Insects<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> are very numerous and various, some of them both
+troublesome and mischievous: locusts or grasshoppers have been known to
+cause great destruction to the vegetable world. Musquitoes and
+sand-flies infest the woods, and the neighborhood of water, in
+incredible numbers, during the hot weather. There are many moths and
+butterflies resembling those seen in England. The beautiful fire-fly is
+very common in Canada, their phosphorescent light shining with wonderful
+brightness through the shady forests in the summer nights.</p>
+
+<p>The lakes and rivers of Upper Canada abound in splendid fish of almost
+every variety known in England, and others peculiar to the country:
+sturgeon of 100 lbs. weight are frequently taken, and a giant species of
+pike, called the maskenongi, of more than 60 lbs. The trout of the upper
+lakes almost rivals the sturgeon in size, but not in flavor. The
+delicious white-fish, somewhat resembling a shad, is very plentiful, as
+is also the black bass, which is highly prized. A fresh-water herring
+abounds in great shoals, but is inferior in delicacy to the
+corresponding species of the salt seas. Salmon are numerous in Lake
+Ontario, but above the Falls of Niagara they are never seen.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> "The neighborhood of Quebec, as well as Canada in
+general, is much characterized by bowlders, and the size and position of
+some of them is very striking. There are two crowning the height which
+overlooks the domain farm at Beauport, whose collective weight is little
+short, by computation, of forty tons. The Heights of Abraham also are,
+or rather were, crowded with them; and it should never be forgotten that
+it was upon one of these hoary symbols, the deb&acirc;cles of the deluge, as
+they are supposed to be, that the immortal and mortal parts of two
+heroes separated from each other. It has often occurred to us, that one
+of the most suitable monuments to the memory of Wolfe and Montcalm might
+have been erected with these masses, in the form of a pyramid or pile of
+shot, instead of burying them, as in many instances has been done, in
+order to clear the ground."&mdash;<i>Picture of Quebec</i>, p. 456.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Gray says, in 1809, that "no coal has ever yet been found
+in Canada, probably because it has never been thought worth searching
+after. It is supposed that coal exists in the neighborhood of Quebec; at
+any rate, there can be no doubt that it exists in great abundance in the
+island of Cape Breton, which may one day become the Newcastle of
+Canada."&mdash;P. 287.
+</p><p>
+"No idea can be formed of the importance of the American coal seams
+until we reflect on the prodigious area over which they are continuous.
+The elliptical area occupied by the Pittsburg seam is 225 miles in its
+largest diameter, while its maximum breadth is about 100 miles, its
+superficial extent being about 14,000 square miles.
+</p><p>
+"The Apalachian coal-field extends for a distance of 720 miles from
+northeast to southwest, its greatest width being about 180 miles.
+</p><p>
+"The Illinois coal-field is not much inferior in dimensions to the whole
+of England."&mdash;Lyell's <i>America</i>, vol. ii., p. 31.
+</p><p>
+"It was the first time I had seen the true coal in America, and I was
+much struck with its surprising analogy in mineral and fossil characters
+to that of Europe; ... the whole series resting on a coarse grit and
+conglomerate, containing quartz pebbles, very like our millstone grit,
+and often called by the Americans, as well as the English miners, the
+'Farewell Rock,' because, when they have reached it in their borings,
+they take leave of all valuable fuel."&mdash;<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i., p. 61.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Professor Kalm visited the iron-works of St. Maurice in
+1748, eleven or twelve years after their first establishment. "The
+iron-work, which is the only one in the country, lies three miles to the
+west of Trois Rivi&egrave;res. Here are two great forges, besides two lesser
+ones to each of the great ones, and under the same roof with them. The
+bellows were made of wood, and every thing else as in the Swedish
+forges. The ore is got two and a half miles from the iron-works, and is
+carried thither on sledges. It is a kind of moor-ore (Tophus Tubalcaini:
+<i>Linn. Syst. Nat.</i>, lib. iii., p. 187, note 5), which lies in veins
+within six inches or a foot from the surface of the ground. Each vein is
+from six to eighteen inches deep, and below it is a white sand. The
+veins are surrounded with this sand on both sides, and covered at the
+top with a thin mold. The ore is pretty rich, and lies in loose lumps in
+the veins of the size of two fists, though there are a few which are
+near eighteen inches thick. These lumps are full of holes which are
+tilled with ocher. The ore is so soft that it may be crushed between the
+fingers. They make use of a gray limestone, which is broke in the
+neighborhood, for promoting the fusibility of the ore; to that purpose
+they likewise employ a clay marl, which is found near this place.
+Charcoals are to be had in great abundance here, because the country
+round this place is covered with wood which has never been stirred. The
+charcoals from evergreen trees, that is, from the fir kind, are best for
+the forge, but those of deciduous trees are best for the smelting-oven.
+The iron which is here made was to me described as soft, pliable, and
+tough, and is said to have the quality of not being attacked by rust so
+easily as other iron. This iron-work was first founded in 1737 by
+private persons, who afterward ceded it to the king; they cast cannon
+and mortars here of different sizes, iron stoves, which are in use all
+over Canada, kettles, &amp;c. They have likewise tried to make steel here,
+but can not bring it to any great perfection, because they are
+unacquainted with the best method of preparing it. Here are many
+officers and overseers, who have very good houses built on purpose for
+them. It is agreed on all hands that the resources of the iron-work do
+not pay the expenses which the king must every year be at in maintaining
+it. They lay the fault on the bad state of population, and say that the
+few inhabitants in the country have enough to do with agriculture, and
+that it therefore costs great trouble and large sums to get a sufficient
+number of workmen. But, however plausible this may appear, yet it is
+surprising that the king should be a loser in carrying on this work, for
+the ore is easily broken, being near the iron-work, and very fusible.
+The iron is good; and this is, moreover, the only iron-work in the
+country, from which every body must supply himself with tools, and what
+other iron he wants. But the officers and servants belonging to the
+iron-work appear to be in very affluent circumstances. A river runs down
+from the iron-work into the River St. Lawrence, by which all the iron
+can be sent in boats throughout the country at a low rate."&mdash;Kalin in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 631.
+</p><p>
+"M. Dantic, after a number of experiments to class the different kinds
+of iron, discovered that the iron of Styria was the best, and that the
+iron of North America, of Danemara in Sweden, of Spain, Bayonne,
+Roussillon, Foix, Berri, Thierache in Sweden, the communes of France,
+and Siberia, was the next class."&mdash;Abb&eacute; Raynal, vol. iii., p. 268.
+</p><p>
+Weld and Heriot mention that the bank of iron ore at the forges of St.
+Maurice was nearly exhausted in their time; new veins, however, have
+been since discovered.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix says, in 1720: "Il est certain que ces mines de fer, que
+l'&oelig;il per&ccedil;ant de M. Colbert et la vigilance de M. Talon avoit fait
+d&eacute;couvrir, apr&egrave;s avoir presq&uacute; enti&egrave;rement disparu pendant plus de
+soixante dix ans, viennent d'&ecirc;tre retrouv&eacute;es par les soins de ceux qui
+occupent aujourd'hui leur place."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 166.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Henry and others speak of a rock of pure copper, from
+which the former out off 100 lbs. weight. W. Schoolcraft examined the
+remainder of the mass in 1820, and found it of irregular shape; in its
+greatest length three feet eight inches, greatest breadth three feet
+four inches, making about eleven cubic feet, and containing, of metallic
+matter, about 2200 lbs.; but there were many marks of chisels and axes
+upon it, as if a great deal had been carried off. The surface of the
+block, unlike most metals which have suffered a long exposure to the
+atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy.&mdash;Martin's <i>History of
+Canada</i>, p. 175.
+</p><p>
+Weld mentions having seen in the possession of a gentleman at Niagara a
+lump of copper, of several ounces weight, apparently as pure as if it
+had passed through the fire, which had been struck off with a chisel
+from a piece equally pure, growing on one of the islands in Lake
+Superior. Rich veins of copper are visible in almost all the rocks on
+these islands near the shore; and copper ore, resembling copperas, is
+likewise found in deep beds near the water.&mdash;Weld, p. 346.
+</p><p>
+In Charlevoix's time (1720), "on trouvoit sur les bords du Lac Sup&eacute;rieur
+et autour de certains isles, de grosses pi&egrave;ces de cuivre qui sont
+l'objet de cette superstition des sauvages; ils les regardent avec
+v&eacute;n&eacute;ration comme un pr&eacute;sent des Dieux qui habitent sous les eaux; ils en
+ramassent les plus petits fragmens et les conservent avec soin, mais ils
+n'en font aucune usage. J'ai connu un de nos fr&egrave;res lequel &eacute;toit orf&eacute;vre
+de son m&eacute;tier, et qui, pendant qu'il &eacute;toit dans la mission du Sault
+Sainte Marie, en &eacute;toit all&eacute; chercher l&agrave;, et en avoit fait des
+chandeliers, des croix, et des encensoirs, car ce cuivre est souvent
+presque tout pur."&mdash;Tom. v., p. 415.
+</p><p>
+Kalm says that the copper found is so pure that it does not require
+melting over again, but is fit for working immediately.&mdash;Kalm in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 691 (1748).
+</p><p>
+"Before saying good-by to Lake Superior, let me add, that since the date
+of my visit, the barren rocks which we passed have become an object of
+intense interest, promising to rival, in point of mineral wealth, the
+Altai chain and the Uralian Mountains. Iron had long been known to
+abound on the northern shore, two mines having been at one time worked
+and abandoned, chiefly on account of temporary obstacles, which the
+gradual advance of agriculture and civilization was sure to remove; and,
+more recently, the southern shore, though of a much less favorable
+character in that respect, was found to possess rich veins of copper and
+silver. Under these circumstances, various enterprising persons in
+Canada have prosecuted investigations which appear to have
+satisfactorily proved that, in addition to their iron, the forbidding
+wastes of the northern shore contain inexhaustible treasures, both of
+the precious and of the useful metals, of gold and of silver, of copper
+and tin, and already have associations been formed to reap the teeming
+harvest."&mdash;Sir G. Simpson's <i>Journey round the World</i>, vol. i., p. 35
+(1841).
+</p><p>
+The following extract is from a Quebec newspaper, bearing date 25th
+June, 1848:
+</p><p>
+"<span class="smcap">The Copper Region: Singular Discovery.</span>&mdash;A correspondent of the
+Buffalo Express, writing under date June 14, from Ontonagon, Lake
+Superior, says:
+</p><p>
+"'Mr. Knapp, of the Vulcan Mining Company, has lately made some very
+singular discoveries here in working one of the veins which he lately
+found. He worked into an old cave which has been excavated centuries
+ago. This led them to look for other works of the same sort, and they
+have found a number of sinks in the earth which they have traced a long
+distance. By digging into those sinks they find them to have been made
+by the hand of man. It appears that the ancient miners went on a
+different principle from what they do at the present time. The greatest
+depth yet found in these holes is thirty feet: after getting down to a
+certain depth, they drifted along the vein, making an open cut. These
+cuts have been filled nearly to a level by the accumulation of soil; and
+we find trees of the largest growth standing in this gutter, and also
+find that trees of a very large growth have grown up and died, and
+decayed many years since; in the same places there are now standing
+trees of over three hundred years' growth. Last week they dug down into
+a new place, and about twelve feet below the surface found a mass of
+copper that will weigh from eight to ten tons. This mass was buried in
+ashes, and it appears they could not handle it, and had no means of
+cutting it, and probably built fire to melt or separate the rock from
+it, which might be done by heating, and then dashing on cold water. This
+piece of copper is as pure and clean as a new cent; the upper surface
+has been pounded clear and smooth. It appears that this mass of copper
+was taken from the bottom of a shaft, at the depth of about thirty feet.
+In sinking this shaft from where the mass now lies, they followed the
+course of the vein, which pitches considerably: this enabled them to
+raise it as far as the hole came up with a slant. At the bottom of a
+shaft they found skids of black oak, from eight to twelve inches in
+diameter: these sticks were charred through, as if burned: they found
+large wooden wedges in the same situation. In this shaft they found a
+miner's gad and a narrow chisel made of copper. I do not know whether
+these copper tools are tempered or not, but their make displays good
+workmanship. They have taken out more than a ton of cobble-stones, which
+have been used as mallets. These stones were nearly round, with a score
+cut around the tenter, and look as if this score was cut for the purpose
+of putting a withe round for a handle. The Chippewa Indians all say that
+this work was never done by Indians. This discovery will lead to a new
+method of finding veins in this country, and may be of great benefit to
+some. I suppose they will keep finding new wonders for some time yet, as
+it is but a short time since they first found the old mine. There is
+copper here in abundance, and I think people will begin to dig it in a
+few years. Mr. Knapp has found considerable silver during the past
+winter.'"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Acosta is the first philosopher who endeavored to account
+for the different degrees of heat in the Old and New Continents by the
+agency of the winds which blow in each, (<i>Hist. Moral.</i>, lib. ii. and
+iii.) M. de Buffon adopted the same theory, and illustrated it with many
+new observations. "The prevailing winds, both in Upper and Lower Canada,
+are the northeast, northwest, and southwest, which all have a
+considerable influence on the temperature of the atmosphere and the
+state of the weather. The southwest wind is the most prevalent, but it
+is generally moderate, and accompanied by clear skies; and the northeast
+and easterly winds usually bring with them continued rain in summer, and
+snow in winter; the northwest is remarkable for its dryness and
+elasticity, and, from its gathering an intense degree of frigor as it
+sweeps over the frozen plains and ice-bound hills in that quarter of the
+continent, invariably brings with it a perceptible degree of cold. Winds
+from due north, south, or west are not frequent. At Quebec, the
+direction of the wind often changes with the tide, which is felt for
+nearly sixty miles higher up the stream of the St. Lawrence."&mdash;Bonchette,
+vol. i., p. 343.
+</p><p>
+"The northwest wind is uncommonly dry, and brings with it fresh
+animation and vigor to every living thing. Although this wind is so very
+piercing in winter, yet the people never complain so much of cold as
+when the northeast wind blows. The northeast wind is also cold, but it
+renders the air raw and damp. That from the southeast is damp, but warm.
+Rain or snow usually falls when the wind comes from any point toward the
+east. The northwest wind, from coming over such an immense tract of
+land, must necessarily be dry; and, coming from regions eternally
+covered with mounds of snow and ice, it must also be cold. The northeast
+wind, from traversing the frozen seas, must be cold likewise; but, from
+passing over such a large portion of the watery main afterward, it
+brings damp and moisture with it. All those from the northeast are damp,
+and loaded with vapors from the same cause. Southerly winds, from
+crossing the warm regions between the tropics, are attended with heats;
+and the southwest wind, from passing, like the northwest, over a great
+extent of land, is dry at the same time."&mdash;Weld's <i>Travels in America</i>,
+4th ed., p. 184.
+</p><p>
+Kalm says, p. 748, that he was assured that "the northeast wind, when it
+is very violent in winter, pierces through walls of a moderate
+thickness, so that the whole wall on the inside of the house is covered
+with snow, or a thick hoar frost. The wind damages severely the houses
+that are built of stone, so that the owners are frequently obliged to
+repair them on the northeast side. In summer the north wind is generally
+attended with rain."&mdash;Kalm in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 651.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> "Many of these mountains are very high. During my stay in
+Canada, I asked many people who have traveled much in North America
+whether they ever met with mountains so high that the snow never melts
+on them in summer, to which they always answered in the negative. They
+say that the snow sometimes stays on the highest, viz., on some of those
+between Canada and the English colonies during a part of the summer, but
+that it melts as soon as the great heat begins."&mdash;Kalm, p. 671.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> "It is worthy of remark, and not a little surprising,
+that so large a river as the St. Lawrence, in latitude 47&deg;, should be
+shut up with ice as soon, and continue as long shut up, as the
+comparatively small river, the Neva, in latitude 60&deg;."&mdash;Gray's <i>Canada</i>,
+p. 320.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> "The following curious experiments were made some years
+ago at Quebec, by Major Williams, of the Artillery. Iron shells of
+different sizes, from the thirteen-inch shell to the cohorn of four
+inches diameter, were nearly filled with water, and an iron plug was
+driven in at the fuse-hole by a sledge-hammer. It was found, however,
+that the plug could never be driven so firmly into the fuse-hole as to
+resist the expanding ice, which pushed it out with great force and
+velocity, and a bolt or cylinder of ice immediately shot up from the
+hole; but when a plug was used that had springs which would expand and
+lay hold of the inside of the cavity, so that it could not possibly be
+pushed out, the force of expansion split the shell. The amazing force of
+expansion is also shown from the distance to which these iron plugs are
+thrown out of the fuse-hole. A plug of two pounds and a half weight was
+thrown no less than 415 feet from the shell; the fuse axis was at an
+angle of 45&deg;; the thermometer showed 51&deg; below the freezing point. Here
+you see ice and gunpowder performing the same operations. That similar
+effects should proceed from such dissimilar causes is very
+extraordinary."&mdash;Gray's <i>Canada</i>, p. 309.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> "These mountains were known to the French missionaries by
+the name of Montagnes des Pierres Brillantes."&mdash;Chateaubriand.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXIV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> "In Europe, in Asia, in Africa, and even in South
+America, the primeval trees, however much their magnitude may arrest
+admiration, do not grow in the promiscuous style that prevails in the
+general character of the North American woods. Many varieties of the
+pine, intermingled with birch, maple, beech, oak, and numerous other
+tribes, branch luxuriantly over the banks of lakes and rivers, extend in
+stately grandeur along the plains, and stretch proudly up to the very
+summits of the mountains. It is impossible to exaggerate the autumnal
+beauty of these forests; nothing under heaven can be compared to its
+effulgent grandeur. Two or three frosty nights in the decline of autumn
+transform the boundless verdure of a whole empire into every possible
+tint of brilliant scarlet, rich violet, every shade of blue and brown,
+vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexorable fir tribes
+alone maintain their eternal somber green. All others, in mountains or
+in villages, burst into the most glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit
+the most splendid and most enchanting panorama on earth."&mdash;M'Gregor, p.
+79, 80.
+</p><p>
+Mr. Weld says, "The varied hues of the trees at this season of the year
+(autumn) can hardly be imagined by those who never have had an
+opportunity of observing them; and, indeed, as others have often
+remarked before, were a painter to attempt to color a picture from them,
+it would be condemned in Europe as totally different from any thing that
+ever existed in nature."&mdash;Weld, p. 510.
+</p><p>
+"I can only compare the brightness of the faded leaves, scarlet, purple,
+and yellow, to that of tulips."&mdash;Lyell's <i>America</i>, vol. i., p. 107.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXVI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> "One of the most striking features in the vegetation of
+Canada is the number of species belonging to the <i>genera</i> Solidago,
+Aster, Quercus, and Pinus. It is also distinguished for the many plants
+contained in the Orders, or natural families&mdash;Grossulace&aelig;, Onograce&aelig;,
+Hypericace&aelig;, Acerace&aelig;, Betulace&aelig;, Juglandace&aelig;, and Vacciniace&aelig;; and for
+the presence of the peculiar families&mdash;Podophyll&aelig;, Sarraceniace&aelig;, and
+Hydrophyllace&aelig;. There is, on the contrary, the climate being considered,
+a remarkable paucity of Crucifer&aelig; and Umbellifer&aelig;, and, what is most
+extraordinary, a total absence of the genus Erica (heath),<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> which
+covers so many thousands of acres in corresponding latitudes in Europe.
+Mrs. Butler mentions, in her Journal, 'that some poor Scotch peasants,
+about to emigrate to Canada, took away with them some roots of the
+"bonny blooming heather," in hopes of making this beloved adorner of
+their native mountains the cheerer of their exile. The heather, however,
+refused to grow in the Canadian soil. The person who told me this said
+that the circumstance had been related to him by Sir Walter Scott, whose
+sympathy with the disappointment of these poor children of the romantic
+heather-land betrayed itself even in tears.'
+</p><p>
+"Canada is not rich in roses; only three species occur throughout the
+two provinces. Among the Ribes and the Ericace&aelig;, however, are found many
+of the most beautiful ornaments of the English garden: Andromedas,
+Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and Kalmias belong to the latter order. The
+Azalea was thus described by one of the earlier European botanical
+travelers. Professor Kalm<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> (in 1748): 'the Mayflowers, as the Swedes
+call them, were plentiful in the woods wherever I went to-day,
+especially on a dry soil, or one that is somewhat moist. The Swedes have
+given them this name because they are in full blossom in May. Some of
+the Swedes and the Dutch call them "Pinxter Bloem" (Whitsunday flowers),
+as they are in blossom about Whitsuntide. The English call them wild
+honeysuckles, and at a distance they really have a resemblance to the
+honeysuckle or lonicera. Dr. Linn&aelig;us and other botanists call it an
+Azalea (Azalea Nudiflora, <i>Linn. Spec. Plant.</i>, p. 214.) Its flowers
+were now open, and added a new ornament to the woods, being little
+inferior to the flowers of the honey-suckle and hedysarum. They sit in a
+circle round the stem's extremity, and have either a dark red or lively
+red color; but by standing some time, the sun bleaches them, and at last
+they get a whitish hue. The height of the bush is not always alike. Some
+were as tall as a full-grown man, and taller; others were but low, and
+some were not above a palm from the ground; yet they were all full of
+flowers. They have some smell, but I can not say it is very pleasant.
+However, the beauty of the color entitles them to a place in every
+flower garden.'"&mdash;<i>Travels in North America</i>, by Professor Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 557.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Seven hours' journey above the sources of the Bow River,
+Sir George Simpson mentions meeting with "an unexpected reminiscence of
+my own native hills, in the shape of a plant which appeared to me to be
+the very heather of the mountains of Scotland; and I might well regard
+the reminiscence as unexpected, inasmuch as in all my wanderings, of
+more than twenty years, I had never found any thing of the kind in North
+America. As I took a considerable degree of interest in the question of
+the supposed identity, I carried away two specimens, which, however,
+proved, on a minute comparison, to differ from the genuine staple of the
+brown heaths of the 'Land o' Cakes.'"&mdash;Vol. i., p. 120.
+</p><p>
+"We missed, also, the small 'crimson-tipped daisy' on the green lawns,
+and were told that they have been often cultivated with care, but are
+found to wither when exposed to the dry air and bright sun of this
+climate. When weeds so common with us can not be reared here, we cease
+to wonder at the dissimilarity of the native Flora of the New World.
+Yet, wherever the aboriginal forests are cleared, we see orchards,
+gardens, and arable lands filled with the same fruit-trees, the same
+grain and vegetables, as in Europe, so bountifully has Nature provided
+that the plants most useful to man should be capable, like himself, of
+becoming cosmopolites."&mdash;Lyell's <i>Travels in North America</i>,
+vol. i., p. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> The Kalmias were so named by Linn&aelig;us in honor of
+Professor Kalm, a favorite pupil of the great botanist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXVII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> The oak from the dense forests of Canada, into which the
+sun's rays never penetrate, is more porous, more abundant in sap, and
+more prone to the dry rot than the oak grown in any other country.
+Canadian timber has increased in value since the causes of its former
+rapid decay have been more fully understood. Mr. Nathaniel Gould asserts
+that the wane of the moon is now universally considered the best season
+for felling timber, both in the United States and in Canada. The
+Americans contract for their ship timber to be felled or girdled between
+the 20th of October and the 12th of February. Dry rot being probably
+caused by the natural moisture or sap being left in the wood, the less
+there is in the tree when cut, the longer it will keep sound. As regards
+the Canadian oak, it is stated by Mr. M'Taggart (the engineer, who so
+ably distinguished himself while in the colony), that it is not so
+durable as that of the British, the fiber not being so compact and
+strong; it grows in extensive groves near the banks of large lakes and
+rivers, sometimes found growing to 50 feet in length by 2 feet 6 inches;
+its specific gravity is greater than water, and therefore, when floated
+down in rafts, it is rendered buoyant with cross bars of pine. It is
+easily squared with the hatchet, and answers well for ship-building and
+heavy work; will endure the seasons for about fifteen years,<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> and
+does not decay in England so soon as in Canada.&mdash;Montgomery Martin's
+<i>Canada</i>, p. 257; Gray's <i>Canada</i>, p. 207.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Kalm says, in 1748, "They were now building several ships
+below Quebec for the king's account. However, before my departure, an
+order arrived from France prohibiting the further building of ships of
+war, because they had found that the ships built of American oak do not
+last so long as those of European oak. Near Quebec is found very little
+oak, and what grows there is not fit for use, being very small;
+therefore they are obliged to fetch their oak timber from those parts of
+Canada which border upon New England. But all the North American oaks
+have the quality of lasting longer, and withstanding putrefaction
+better, the further north they grow."&mdash;Kalm, p. 663.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> The most useful American plants in the small order
+Betulace&aelig; are the birches, of which Canada contains six species. The
+most celebrated is Betula Papyracea, the canoe birch, so called from the
+use made of the bark in the construction of the Indian boats. It extends
+from the shore of the Hudson in New York to a considerable range of
+country northward of Canada. The bark is obtained with facility in large
+pieces, and is sewed together with the tough and slender roots of the
+pine-tree. La Hontan relates a characteristic story respecting the birch
+bark: "I remember I have seen, in a certain library in France, a
+manuscript of the Gospel of St. Matthew, written in Greek upon this sort
+of bark; and which is yet more surprising, I was there told that it had
+been written above a thousand years; and, at the same time, I dare swear
+that it was the genuine birch bark of New France, which, in all
+appearance, was not then discovered."&mdash;La Hontan, in Pinkerton, vol.
+xiii., p. 361.
+</p><p>
+Mr. Weld says that "the bark resembles in some degree that of the
+cork-tree, but it is of a closer grain, and also much more pliable, for
+it admits of being rolled up the same as a piece of cloth. The Indians
+of this part of the country always carry large rolls of it in their
+canoes when they go on a hunting party, for the purpose of making
+temporary huts. The bark is spread on small poles over their heads, and
+fastened with strips of elm bark, which is remarkably tough, to stakes,
+so as to form walls on the sides."&mdash;Weld, p. 311.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXVIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXIX. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> The ginseng belongs to the small order Araliace&aelig;. The
+botanical name is Panax quinquefolium: it was called Aureliana
+Canadensis by Lafitau, who was the first to bring it from Canada to
+France.&mdash;(Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 309, fig. 13.) It was discovered in
+the forests of Canada in 1718. It is herbaceous, scarcely a foot and a
+half in height, and toward the upper part of the stem arise three
+quinate-digitate leaves, from the center of which springs the flower
+stalk. The root is fusiform and fleshy, and is the part most valued. We
+are informed that among the Chinese many volumes have been written upon
+its virtues; and that, besides the name already mentioned, it is known
+by several others, expressive of the high estimation in which it is
+universally held throughout the Celestial Empire: two of these
+appellations are, 'the pure spirit of the earth,' and 'the plant that
+gives immortality.' An ounce of ginseng bears the surprising price of
+seven or eight ounces of silver at Pekin. When the French botanists in
+Canada first saw a figure of it, they remembered to have seen a similar
+plant in this country. They were confirmed in their conjecture by
+considering that several settlements in Canada lie under the same
+latitude with those parts of Chinese Tartary and China where the true
+ginseng grows wild. They succeeded in their attempt, and found the same
+ginseng wild and abundant in several parts of North America, both in
+French and English plantations, in plain parts of the woods. It is fond
+of shade, and of a deep, rich mold, and of land which is neither wet nor
+high. It is not every where very common, for sometimes one may search
+the woods for the space of several miles without finding a single plant
+of it; but in those spots where it grows it is always found in great
+abundance. It flowers in May and June, and its berries are ripe at the
+end of August. The trade which is carried on with it here is very brisk,
+for they gather great quantities of it, and send them to France, from
+whence they are brought to China, and sold there to great advantage. The
+Indians in the neighborhood of Montreal were so taken up with the
+business of collecting ginseng, that the French farmers were not able
+during that time to hire a single Indian, as they commonly do, to help
+them in the harvest. The ginseng formerly grew in abundance round
+Montreal, but at present there is not a single plant of it to be found,
+so effectually have they been rooted out. This obliged the Indians this
+summer to go far within the English boundaries to collect these roots.
+After the Indians have sold the fresh roots to the merchants, the latter
+must take a great deal of pains with them. They are spread on the floor
+to dry, which commonly requires two months and upward, according as the
+season is wet or dry. During that time they must be turned once or twice
+every day, lest they should putrefy or molder. The roots prepared by the
+Chinese are almost transparent, and look like horn in the inside; and
+the roots which are fit for use are heavy and compact in the inside. No
+one has ever discovered the Chinese method of preparing it. It is
+thought, among other preparations, they dip the roots in a decoction of
+the leaves of ginseng. Kalm wrote thus of the ginseng in 1749 (Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 639). Mr. Heriot mentions that "one article of
+commerce the Canadians had, by their own imprudence, rendered altogether
+unprofitable. From the time that Canada ginseng had been imported to
+Canton, and its quality pronounced equal to that of Corea or Tartary, a
+pound of this plant, which before sold in Quebec for twenty pence,
+became, when its value was once ascertained, worth one pound and
+tenpence sterling. The export of this article amounted in 1752 to
+&pound;20,000 sterling. But the Canadians, eager suddenly to enrich
+themselves, reaped this plant in May when it should not have been
+gathered until September, and dried it in ovens when its moisture should
+have been gradually evaporated in the shade. This fatal mistake, arising
+from cupidity, and in some measure from ignorance, ruined the sale of
+their ginseng among the only people on earth who are partial to its use,
+and at an early period cut off from the colony a new branch of trade,
+which, under proper regulations, might have been essentially
+productive."&mdash;Heriot's <i>Travels through the Canadas</i>, p. 99, 1807.
+</p><p>
+"Mountainous woods in Tartary are mentioned as the place where the
+ginseng is produced in the greatest abundance. In 1709, the emperor
+ordered an army of ten thousand men to collect all the ginseng they
+could find, and each person was to give him two ounces of the best,
+while for the remainder payment was to be made in silver, weight for
+weight. It was in the same year that Father Jartoux, a Jesuit missionary
+in China, prepared a figure and accurate description of the plant, in
+which he bears testimony to the beneficial effects of the root. He tried
+it in many instances himself, and always with the same result,
+especially when exhausted with fatigue. His pulse was increased, his
+appetite improved, and his whole frame invigorated. Judging from the
+accounts before us, we should say that the Chinese were extravagant in
+their ideas of the virtues of this herb; but that it is undoubtedly a
+cordial stimulant, to be compared, perhaps, in some degree, with the
+aromatic root of Meum athamanticum, so much esteemed by the Scottish
+Highlanders. It has nevertheless disappeared from our Materia
+Medica."&mdash;Murray's <i>Canada</i>, vol. iii., p. 308. Charlevoix, tom. vi., p.
+24.
+</p><p>
+"Ginseng a v&eacute;ritablement la vertu de soutenir, de fortifier, et de
+rappeller les forces &eacute;puis&eacute;es."&mdash;Lafitau, tom. ii., p. 142.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> In La Hontan's time (1683), he speaks of "maiden-hair"
+being as common in the forests of Canada as fern in those of France, and
+is esteemed beyond that of other countries, insomuch that the
+inhabitants of Quebec prepare great quantities of its syrup, which they
+send to Paris, Nantes, Rouen, and several other cities of France.
+Charlevoix gives a figure of the maiden-hair (tom. iv., p. 301), under
+the name of Adiantum Americanum.&mdash;"Cette plante a la racine fort petite,
+et envelopp&eacute;e de fibres noires, fort d&eacute;li&eacute;es; sa tige est d'un pourpre
+fonc&eacute;, et s'&eacute;l&egrave;ve en quelques endroits &agrave; trois ou quatre pieds de haut;
+il en sort des branches, qui se courbent en tous sens. Les feuilles sont
+plus larges que celles de notre Capillaire de France, d'un beau verd
+d'un c&ocirc;t&eacute;, et de l'autre, sem&eacute;es de petits points obscurs; nulle part
+ailleurs cette plante n'est si haute ni si vive, qu'en Canada. Elle n'a
+aucune odeur tandis qu'elle est sur pied, mais quand elle a &eacute;t&eacute;
+renferm&eacute;e, elle r&eacute;pand une odeur de violette, qui embaume. Sa qualit&eacute;
+est aussi beaucoup au-dessus de tous les autres capillaires."
+</p><p>
+The Herba capillaris is the Adiantum pedatum of Linn&aelig;us (Sp. Pl., p.
+1557). Cornutus, in his <i>Canadens. Plant. Historia</i>, p. 7, calls it
+Adiantum Americanum, and gives a figure of it, p. 6. Kalm says that "it
+grows in all the British colonies of America, and likewise in the
+southern parts of Canada, but I never found it near Quebec. It grows in
+the woods in shady places, and in a good soil. Several people in Albany
+and Canada assured me that its leaves were very much used instead of tea
+in consumptions, coughs, and all kinds of pectoral diseases. This they
+have learned from the Indians, who have made use of it for these
+purposes from time immemorial. This American maiden-hair is reckoned
+preferable in surgery to that which we have in Europe, and therefore
+they send a great quantity of it to France every year. Commonly the
+price at Quebec is between five and fifteen sols a pound. The Indians
+went into the woods about this time (August), and traveled far above
+Montreal in quest of this plant."&mdash;Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p.
+641.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> "This moss is called by the Canadian voyageurs, <i>Tripe de
+Roche</i>; it belongs to the order Gyrophara. They who have perused the
+affecting narrative of the sufferings of Captain Franklin and his
+gallant party, on their return from their first journey to the Arctic
+Sea, will remember that it was on <i>Tripe de Roche</i> that they depended,
+under God, for their very existence. 'We looked,' says Captain Franklin,
+'with humble confidence to the Great Author and giver of all good, for a
+continuance of the support which had been hitherto always supplied to us
+at our greatest need,' and he was not disappointed."&mdash;Murray's <i>Canada</i>,
+vol. iii., p. 330. "Parmi les sauvages errans, et qui ne cultivent point
+du tout la terre, lorsque la chasse et la p&ecirc;che leur manquent, leur
+unique ressource est une esp&egrave;ce de mousse, qui cro&icirc;t sur certains
+rochers, et que nos Fran&ccedil;ais ont nomm&eacute;e Tripe de Roche; rien n'est plus
+insipide que ce mets, lequel n'a pas m&ecirc;me beaucoup de substance, c'est
+bien l&agrave; &ecirc;tre r&eacute;duit au pur n&eacute;cessaire pour ne pas mourir de
+faim."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXX. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> "The Swedes gave the name of Indian hemp to Apocynum
+cannabinum, because the Indians apply it to the same purposes as the
+Europeans do hemp; for the stalk may be divided into filaments, and is
+easily prepared. This plant grows in abundance in old corn grounds, in
+woods, on hills, and on high glades. The Indians make ropes of this
+Apocynum, which the Swedes buy, and employ them as bridles, and for
+nets. These ropes are stronger, and kept longer in water than such as
+were made of common hemp. The Swedes commonly got fourteen yards of
+these ropes for one piece of bread. On my journey through the country of
+the Iroquois, I saw the women employed in manufacturing this hemp. The
+plant is perennial, which renders the annual planting of it altogether
+unnecessary. Out of the root and stalk of this plant, when it is fresh,
+comes a white, milky juice, which is somewhat poisonous. Sometimes the
+fishing tackle of the Indian consists entirely of this hemp."&mdash;Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol xiii., p. 544.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Buffon, Hist. Nat., tom. ix., p. 13, 203; Acosta, Hist.,
+lib. iv., cap. xxxiv.; Pisonis Hist., p. 6; Herrera, Dec. IV., lib. iv.,
+cap. i.; lib. x., cap. xiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Canada has not the fine natural pastures of Ireland,
+England, Holland, and other countries enjoying a cool, moist, and
+equable climate. Artificial grasses, now a most valuable branch of
+British husbandry, are peculiarly important in Canada, where so large a
+quantity of hay should be stored for winter use. They are also most
+useful in preparing the soil for grain crops, but have the disadvantage
+of requiring to stand the severe winter, so trying to all except annual
+plants. Clover, which is supposed to yield three times the produce of
+natural grass, grows luxuriantly; but in the second year its roots are
+often found to have been destroyed by frost. For this reason, it is
+necessary to have recourse to the species named Timothy, which is
+extremely hardy, and will set at defiance even a Canadian
+winter.&mdash;Talbot, vol. i., p. 301, Gould, p. 67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> "In the western parts of Lower Canada, and throughout
+Upper Canada, where it is customary for travelers to carry their own
+bedding with them, these skins are very generally made use of for the
+purpose of sleeping upon. For upward of two months we scarcely ever had
+any other bed than one of the skins spread on the floor and a blanket to
+each person. The skins are dressed by the Indians with the hair on, and
+they are rendered by a peculiar process as pliable as cloth. When the
+buffalo is killed in the beginning of the winter, at which time he is
+fenced against the cold, the hair resembles very much that of a black
+bear; it is then long, straight, and of a blackish color; but when the
+animal is killed in the summer, the hair is short and curly, and of a
+light brown color, owing to its being scorched by the rays of the
+sun."&mdash;Weld, p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Charlevoix says, "que la peau, quoique tr&egrave;s forte,
+devient souple et mo&euml;lleuse comme le meilleur chamois. Les sauvages en
+font des boucliers, qui sont tr&egrave;s l&eacute;gers, et que les bals de fusil ne
+per&ccedil;ent pas ais&eacute;ment."&mdash;Tom. v., p. 193.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> The height of the domesticated reindeer is about three
+feet; of the wild ones, four. It lives to the age of sixteen years. The
+reindeer is a native of the northern regions only. In America it does
+not extend further south than Canada. The Indians often kill numbers for
+the sake of their tongue only; at other times they separate the flesh
+from the bones, and preserve it by drying it in the smoke. The fat they
+sell to the English, who use it for frying instead of butter. The skins,
+also, are an article of extensive commerce with the English.&mdash;Rees's
+<i>Cyclop&aelig;dia</i>, art. Cervus Tarandus.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix says that the Canadian <i>caribou</i> differs in nothing from the
+<i>Renne</i> of Buffon except in the color of its skin, which is brown or
+reddish.&mdash;Tom. v., p. 191. La Hontan calls the <i>caribou</i> a species of
+wild ass; and Charlevoix says that its form resembles that of the ass,
+but that it at least equals the stag in agility.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> Pennant is persuaded that the stag is not a native of
+America, and considers the deer known in that country by the name of
+stag as a distinct species. The American stag is the Cervus Canadensis
+of Erxleben. The Americans hunt and shoot those animals not so much for
+the sake of the flesh as of the fat, which serves as tallow in making
+candles, and the skins, which they dispose of to the Hudson's Bay
+Company. They are caught principally in the inland parts, near the
+vicinity of the lakes.&mdash;Rees's <i>Cyclop&aelig;dia</i>, art. Cervus Elaphus.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix says that "le Cerf en Canada est absolument le m&ecirc;me qu'en
+France, peut &ecirc;tre commun&eacute;ment un peu plus grand."&mdash;Tom. v., p. 189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> The fallow deer in America have been introduced there
+from Europe; for the animal called the American fallow is of a very
+different kind, and is peculiar to the New Continent. This, the <i>Cervus</i>
+Virginianus, inhabits all the provinces south of Canada.&mdash;Rees's
+<i>Cyclop&aelig;dia</i>, art. Cervus Virginianus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXIV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXVI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXVII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXVIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XXXIX. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XL. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> "While we were roaming along the shore of Lake Ontario we
+caught a species of tortoise (testudo picta), which was a gayly-colored
+shell, and I carried it a day's journey in the carriage, and then turned
+it out, to see whether, as I was told, it would know its way back to
+Lake Ontario. I am bound to admit that its instinct on this occasion did
+not fail, for it made directly for a ravine, in the bottom of which was
+a stream that would lead it in time to the Genesee River, and this would
+carry it to its native lake if it escaped destruction at the Falls below
+Rochester, where the celebrated diver, Sam Patch, perished, after he had
+succeeded in throwing himself with impunity down several other great
+waterfalls. There is a fresh-water tortoise in Europe (Terrapena
+Europea) found in Hungary, Prussia, and Silesia, as far north as
+latitude 50&deg; to 52&deg;. It also occurs near Bordeaux, and in the north of
+Italy, 44&deg; and 45&deg; north latitude, which precisely corresponds with the
+latitude of Lake Ontario."&mdash;Lyell's <i>Travels in North America</i>, vol. i.,
+p. 25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> "To the Malacodermous division belongs the remarkable
+genus Lampyris, which contains the insects commonly called glow-worms.
+The substance from which the luminous property results has been the
+subject of frequent experiment and observation. It is obviously under
+the control of the animal, which, when approached, may frequently be
+observed to diminish or put out its light. The only species with which
+we are acquainted in British America is Lampyris corusca. It occurs in
+Canada, and has been taken at least as far north as latitude 54&deg;. It was
+originally described by Simmons as a native of Finland and Russia, on
+the authority of Uddman, but has not since been found there."&mdash;Murray,
+vol. iii., p. 277.
+</p><p>
+"We saw numerous yellow butterflies, very like a British species.
+Sometimes forty of them clustering on a small spot resembled a plot of
+primroses, and as they rose altogether, and flew off slowly on every
+side, it was like the play of a beautiful fountain."&mdash;Lyell's <i>America</i>,
+vol. i., p. 25.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Perhaps the saddest chapter in the history of the sons of Adam is
+furnished by the Red Man of America. His origin is unknown; no records
+tell the tale of his ancient deeds. A foundling in the human family,
+discovered by his stronger brethren wandering wild through the forests
+and over the prairies of the western desert, no fraternal welcome
+greeted this lost child of nature; no soothing voice of affection fell
+upon his ear; no gentle kindness wooed him from his savage isolation.
+The hand of irresistible power was stretched out, not to raise him from
+his low estate and lead him into the brotherhood of civilized man, but
+to thrust him away with cruel and unjust disdain.</p>
+
+<p>Little more than three centuries and a half have elapsed since the
+Indian first gazed with terror and admiration upon the white strangers,
+and already three fourths of his inheritance are rent away, and three
+fourths of his race have vanished from the earth; while the sad remnant,
+few and feeble, faint and weary, "are fast traveling to the shades of
+their fathers, toward the setting sun."<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> Year by year they wither
+away; to them the close breath of civilized man is more destructive than
+the deadliest blight.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> The arts and appliances which the accumulated
+ingenuity of ages has provided to aid the labor and enhance the
+enjoyments of others, have been but a curse to these children of the
+wilderness. That blessed light which shines to the miserable of this
+world through the vista of the "shadowy valley," cheering the fainting
+spirit with the earnest of a glorious future, sheds but a few dim and
+distorted rays upon the outskirts of the Red Man's forest land.</p>
+
+<p>All the relations of Europeans to the Indian have been alike fatal to
+him, whether of peace or war; as tyrants or suppliants; as conquerors
+armed with unknown weapons of destruction; as the insidious purchasers
+of his hunting-grounds, betraying him into an accursed thirst for the
+deadly fire-water; as the greedy gold-seekers, crushing his feeble frame
+under the hated labors of the mine; as shipwrecked and hungry wanderers,
+while receiving his simple alms, marking the fertility and
+defenselessness of his lands; as sick men enjoying his hospitality,
+and, at the same time, imparting that terrible disease<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> which has
+swept off whole nations; as woodmen in his forest, and intrusive tillers
+of his ground, scaring away to the far West those animals of the chase
+given by the Great Spirit for his food: there is to him a terrible
+monotony of result. In the delicious islands of the Caribbean Sea, and
+in the stern and magnificent regions of the northeast, scarcely now
+remains a mound, or stone, or trace even of tradition, to point out the
+place where any among the departed millions sleep.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of the American Indians brought to light not only a new
+race, but also a totally new condition of men. The rudest form of human
+society known in the Old World was far advanced beyond that of the
+mysterious children of the West, in arts, knowledge, and government.
+Even among the simplest European and Asiatic nations the principle of
+individual possession was established; the beasts of the field were
+domesticated to supply the food and aid the labors of man, and large
+bodies of people were united under the sway of hereditary chiefs. But
+the Red Man roamed over the vast forests and prairies of his
+undiscovered continent, accompanied by few of his fellows, unassisted by
+beasts of burden,<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> and trusting alone to his skill and fortune in
+the chase for a support. The first European visitors to the New World
+were filled with such astonishment at the appearance and complexion of
+the Red Man, that they hastily concluded he belonged to a different
+species from themselves. As the native nations became better known,
+their warriors, statesmen, and orators commanded the admiration of the
+strangers. Especially in the northern people, every savage virtue was
+conspicuous; they were gentle in peace, but terrible in war; of a proud
+and noble bearing, honest, faithful, and hospitable, loving order though
+without laws, and animated by the strongest and most devoted loyalty to
+their tribe. At the same time, while willingly recording their high and
+admirable qualities, pity for the devoted race must not blind us to
+their ferocious and degrading vices.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the end of the seventeenth century that the manners and
+characteristics of this strange race attracted to any considerable
+degree the attention of philosophers and theorists; a chasm in human
+history then seemed about to be filled. Eager to throw light upon the
+subject, but too impatient to inquire into the facts necessary for the
+formation of opinions, the conclusions formed were often unjust to the
+native dignity of the Red Indian,<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> and have been proved erroneous by
+subsequent and more perfect information. On the other hand, one of the
+most gifted but dangerous of modern philosophers would exalt these
+untutored children of nature to a higher degree of honor and excellence
+than civilization and knowledge can confer. He deemed that the elevation
+and independence of mind, resulting from the rude simplicity of savage
+life, is sought in vain among the members of refined and organized
+societies.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p>
+
+<p>Every thing tended to render inquiry into the state of the rude tribes
+of America difficult and obscure. In the generality of cases they
+presented characteristics of a native simplicity, elsewhere unknown; and
+even in the more favored districts, where a degree of civilization
+appeared, it had assumed a form and direction totally different from
+that of the Old World.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+<p>The origin of this mysterious people has been the subject of an immense
+variety of speculations, and has involved the question, whether all men
+are the sons of Adam, or whether the distinctions of the human race were
+owing to the several sources from whence its members sprung? The skeptic
+supposition that each portion of the globe gave its own original type of
+man to the human family at once solves the difficulty of American
+population; but as both Christianity and philosophy alike forbid
+acceptance of this view,<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> it becomes necessary to consider the
+relative probabilities in favor of the other different theories which
+enthusiasm, ingenuity, and research have contributed to lay before the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>Without referring to the most sacred and ancient of authorities, we may
+find existing natural evidence abundantly sufficient to establish the
+belief of the common descent of our race. There are not in the human
+form differences such as distinguish separate species of the brute
+creation. All races of men are nearly of like stature and size, varying
+only by the accidents of climate and food favorable or adverse to their
+full development. The number, shape, and uses of limbs and extremities
+are alike, and internal construction is invariably the same. These are
+circumstances the least acted upon by situation and temperature, and
+therefore the surest tests of a particular species. Color is the most
+obvious and the principal indication of difference in the human
+families, and is evidently influenced to a great extent by the action of
+the sun,<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> as the swarthy cheek of the harvest laborer will witness.
+Under the equator we find the jet black of the negro; then the
+olive-colored Moors of the southern shores of the Mediterranean; again,
+the bronzed face of the Spaniard and Italian; next, the Frenchman,
+darker than those who dwell under the temperate skies of England; and,
+last, the bleached and pallid visages of the north. Along the arctic
+circle, indeed, a dusky tint again appears: that, however, may be fairly
+attributed to the scorching power of the sun, constantly over the
+horizon, through the brief and fiery summer. The natives remain
+generally in the open air during this time, fishing, or in the chase;
+and the effect of exposure stamps them with a complexion which even the
+long-continued snows can not remove. In the rigorous winter season, the
+people of those dreary countries pass most of their time in wretched
+huts or subterranean dwellings, where they heap up large fires to warm
+their shivering limbs. The smoke has no proper vent in these
+ill-constructed abodes; it fills the confined air, and tends to darken
+the complexions of those constantly exposed to its influence.</p>
+
+<p>The difference of color in the human race is doubtless influenced by
+many causes, modifying the effect of position with regard to the
+tropics. The great elevation of a particular district, its proximity to
+the sea, the shades of a vast forest, the exhalations from extensive
+marshes, all tend to diminish materially the power of a southern
+sun.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> On the other hand, intensity of heat is aggravated by the
+neighborhood of arid and sandy deserts, or rocky tracts. The action of
+long-continued heat creates a more permanent effect than the mere
+darkening of the outer skin: it alters the character of those subtile
+juices that display their color through the almost transparent
+covering.<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> We see that, from a constitutional peculiarity in
+individuals, the painful variety of the albino is sometimes produced in
+the hottest countries. Certain internal diseases, and different
+medicines, change the beautiful bloom of the young and healthy into
+repulsive and unnatural tints. A peculiar secretion of the carbon
+abounding in the human frame produces the jet black of the negro's skin,
+and enables him to bear without inconvenience the terrible sultriness of
+his native land.<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> The dark races, inferior in animal and
+intellectual powers to the white man, are yet nearly free from the
+deformities he so often exhibits, perhaps on account of a less
+susceptible and delicate structure. The Caucasian or European races,
+born and matured under a temperate climate, manifestly enjoy the highest
+gifts of man. Wherever they come in contact with their colored brother,
+he ultimately yields to the irresistible superiority, and becomes,
+according to the caprice of their haughty will, the victim, the
+dependent, or the slave.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are other characteristics different from, but generally combined
+with color, which are influenced by constitutional varieties. The hair
+usually harmonizes with the complexion, and, like it, shows the
+influence of climate. In cold countries, the natural covering of every
+animal becomes rich and soft; the plentiful locks and manly beard of the
+European show a marked contrast to the coarse and scanty hair of the
+inhabitants of tropical countries. The development of mental power and
+refined habits of life have also a strong but slow effect upon the
+outward form.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> Certain African nations of a higher intelligence and
+civilization than their rude neighbors, show much less of the
+peculiarities of the negro features. The refined Hindoo displays a
+delicate form and expression under his dark complexion. The black color
+and the negro features are accidentally not necessarily connected, and
+it seems to require both climate and inferiority of intellect to unite
+them in the same race.</p>
+
+<p>When circumstances of climate or situation have effected peculiar
+appearances in a nation or tribe, the results will long survive the
+causes when people are removed to widely-different latitudes: a dark
+color is not easily effaced, even under the influence of moderate
+temperature and heightened civilization. For these reasons, there appear
+many cases where the complexion of the inhabitants and the climate of
+the country do not correspond, but the original characteristics will be
+found undergoing the process of gradual change, ultimately adapting
+themselves to their new country and situation.<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> The marked and
+peculiar countenances of the once "chosen people" vary, in color at
+least, wherever they are seen over the world, although uninfluenced by
+any admixture of alien blood. In England the children of Israel and the
+descendant of the Saxon are alike of a fair complexion, and on the banks
+of the Nile the Jew and the Egyptian show the same swarthy hue.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></p>
+
+<p>At first sight this American race would appear to offer evidence against
+the supposed influence of climate upon color, as one general form and
+complexion prevail in all latitudes of the New World, from the tropics
+to the frozen regions of the north. Great varieties, however, exist in
+the shade of the red or copper<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> color of the Indians. There are two
+extremes of complexion among mankind&mdash;those of the northern European and
+the African negro; between these there is a series of shades, that of
+the American Indian being about midway. The structure of the New World,
+and the circumstances of its inhabitants, may account for the generally
+equal color of their skin. The western Indian never becomes black, even
+when dwelling directly under the equator. He lives among stupendous
+mountain ranges, where cool breezes from the snowy heights sweep
+through the valleys and over the plains below. The vast rivers springing
+from under those lofty peaks inundate a great extent of country, and
+turn it into swamps, whence perpetual exhalations arise and lower the
+temperature. There are no fiery deserts to heat the passing wind and
+reflect the rays of the sun; a continual forest, with luxuriant foliage,
+and a dense underwood, spreads a pleasant shade over the surface of the
+earth. America, under the same latitudes, especially on the eastern
+coast, is every where colder than the Old World. The nearest approach to
+a black complexion is seen in the people of Brazil, a country
+comparatively low, and immediately under the equator. The inhabitants of
+the lofty Mexican table-land are also very dark, and on those arid
+plains the sun pours down its scorching rays upon a surface almost
+devoid of sheltering vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of savage life, and the constant exposure to the elements,
+seem sufficient to cause a dark tint upon the human skin even in the
+temperate regions of America, where the cold is far greater than in the
+same latitude in Europe. The inhabitants of those immense countries are
+badly clothed, imperfectly defended against the weather, miserably
+housed; wandering in war or in the chase, exposed for weeks at a time to
+the mercy of the elements, they soon darken into the indelible red or
+copper color of their race. On the northwest coasts, about latitude 50&deg;,
+in Nootka Sound, and a number of other smaller bays, dwell a people more
+numerous and better provided with food and shelter than their eastern
+neighbors. They are free from a great part of the toils and hardships of
+the hunter, and from the vicissitudes of the season. When cleansed from
+their filthy and fantastic painting, it appears that their complexion
+and features resemble those of the European.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a></p>
+
+<p>Modern discoveries have to a great extent dispelled the mystery of the
+Indian origin, and proved the fallacy of the numerous and ingenious
+theories formerly advanced with so much pertinacity and zeal. Since the
+northwest coasts of America and the northeast of Asia have been
+explored, little difficulty remains on this subject. The two continents
+approach so nearly in that direction that they are almost within sight
+of each other, and small boats can safely pass the narrow strait. Ten
+degrees further south, the Aleutian and Fox Islands<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> form a
+continuous chain between Kamtschatka and the peninsula of Alaska, in
+such a manner as to leave the passage across a matter of no difficulty.
+The rude and hardy Tschutchi, inhabiting the northeast of Asia,
+frequently sail from one continent to the other.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> From the remotest
+antiquity, this ignorant people possessed the wonderful secret of the
+existence of a world hidden from the wisest and most adventurous of
+civilized nations. They were unconscious of the value of their vast
+discovery; they passed over a stormy strait from one frozen shore to
+another, as stern and desolate as that they had left behind, and knew
+not that they had crossed one of the great boundaries of earth. When
+they first entered upon the wilderness of America, probably the most
+adventurous pushed down toward the genial regions of the south, and so
+through the long ages of the past the stream of population flowed slowly
+on, wave by wave, to the remotest limits of the east and south. The
+Indians resemble the people of northeastern Asia in form and feature
+more than any other of the human race. Their population is most dense
+along the districts nearest to Asia; and among the Mexicans, whose
+records of the past deserve credence, there is a constant tradition that
+their Aztec and Toultec chiefs came from the northwest. Every where but
+to the north, America is surrounded with a vast ocean unbroken by any
+chain of islands that could connect it with the Old World. Most
+probably no living man ever crossed this immense barrier before the time
+of Columbus. It is certain that in no part of America have any authentic
+traces been found of European civilization; the civilization of America,
+such as it was, arose, as it flourished, in the fertile plains of
+Mexico<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> and in the delightful valleys of Peru;<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> there, where the
+bounty of nature supplied an abundance of the necessaries of life, the
+population rapidly multiplied, and the arts became objects of
+cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>There is something almost mysterious in the total difference between
+the languages of the Old and New World.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> All the tongues of
+civilized nations spring from a few original roots, somewhat analogous
+to each other; but it would seem that, among wandering tribes, dispersed
+over a vast extent of country, carrying on but little intercourse, and
+having no written record or traditionary recital to preserve any fixed
+standard, language undergoes a complete change in the course of ages.
+The great varieties of tongues in America, and their dissimilarity to
+each other, tend to confirm this supposition.</p>
+
+<p>In various parts of America, remains are found which place beyond a
+doubt the ancient existence of a people more numerous, powerful, and
+civilized than the present race of Indians; but the indications of this
+departed people are not such as to bespeak their having been of very
+remote antiquity: the ruined cities of Central America, concealed by the
+forest growth of centuries, and the huge mounds of earth<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> in the
+Valley of the Mississippi and upon the table-lands of Mexico, their
+dwellings and mausoleums, although long swept over by the storm of
+savage conquest, afford no proofs of their having existed very far back
+into those dark ages when the New World was unknown to Europe. The
+history of these past races of men will probably forever remain a sealed
+book, but there is no doubt that a great population once covered those
+rich countries which the first English visitors found the wild
+hunting-grounds for a few savage tribes.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> Probably the existing race
+of Red Men were the conquerors and exterminators of the feeble but
+civilized aboriginal nations, and as soon as they possessed the land
+they split into separate and hostile communities, waging perpetual war
+with each other so as constantly to diminish their numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Far up the Mississippi and the Missouri the exploration of the country
+brings to light incontestable proofs of the existence of the mysterious
+aboriginal race: wells artificially walled, and various other structures
+for convenience or defense, are frequently seen; ornaments of silver,
+copper, and even brass are found, together with various articles of
+pottery and sculptured stone; sepulchers filled with vast numbers of
+human bones have often been discovered, and human bodies in a state of
+preservation are sometimes exhumed. On one of these the hair was yellow
+or sandy, and it is well known that an unvarying characteristic of the
+present red race is the lank black hair. A splendid robe of a kind of
+linen, made apparently from nettle fibers, and interwoven with the
+beautiful feathers of the wild turkey, encircled this long-buried mummy.
+The number and the magnitude of the mounds bear evidence that the
+concurrent labors of a vast assembly of men were employed in their
+construction.<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the progress of early discovery and settlement, striking views were
+presented of savage life among the Red Men inhabiting the Atlantic
+coast; but later researches along the banks of the Mississippi and its
+tributaries, and by the great Canadian lakes, exhibited this people
+under a still more remarkable aspect. The most prominent among the
+natives of the interior for power, policy, and courage, were the
+Iroquois or Five Nations.<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> Their territory extended westward from
+Lake Champlain, to the farthest extremity of Ontario, along the southern
+banks of the St. Lawrence, and of the Great Lake. Although formed by the
+alliance of five independent tribes, they always presented a united
+front to their foes, whether in defense or aggression. Their enemies,
+the Algonquins, held an extensive domain on the northern bank of the St.
+Lawrence; these last were at one time the masters of all that portion of
+America, and were the most polished and mildest in manners of the
+northern tribes. They depended altogether for subsistence on the produce
+of the chase, and disdained those among their neighbors who attempted
+the cultivation of the soil. The Hurons<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> were a numerous nation,
+generally allied with the Algonquins, inhabiting the immense and
+fertile territory extending westward to the Great Lake, from which they
+take their name: they occupied themselves with a rude husbandry, which
+the fertile soil of the west repaid, by affording them an abundant
+subsistence; but they were more effeminate and luxurious than their
+neighbors, and inferior in savage virtue and independence. The
+above-named nations were those principally connected with the events of
+Canadian history.</p>
+
+<p>Man is less affected by climate in his bodily development than any other
+animal; his frame is at the same time so hardy and flexible, that he
+thrives and increases in every variety of temperature and situation,
+from the tropic to the pole; nevertheless, in extremes such as these,
+his complexion, size, and vigor usually undergo considerable
+modifications.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> Among the Red Men of America, however, there is a
+remarkable similarity of countenance, form, manners, and habits, in
+every part of the continent. No other race can show people speaking
+different languages, inhabiting widely different climates, and
+subsisting on different food, who are so wonderfully alike.<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> There
+are, indeed, varieties of stature, strength, intellect, and self-respect
+to be found among them; but the savage of the frozen north, and the
+Indian of the tropics, have the same stamp of person, and the same
+instincts.<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> There is a language of signs common to all, conveying
+similar ideas, and providing a means of mutual intelligence to every Red
+Man from north to south.</p>
+
+<p>The North American Indians are generally of a fair height and
+proportion. Deformities or personal defects<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> are rare among them;
+and they are never seen to fall into corpulency. Their features,
+naturally pleasing and regular, are often distorted by absurd attempts
+to improve their beauty, or render their appearance more terrible. They
+have high cheek bones, sharp and rather aquiline noses, and good teeth.
+Their skin is generally described as red or copper-colored, approaching
+to the tint of cinnamon bark, a complexion peculiar to the inhabitants
+of the New World. The hair of the Americans, like that of their
+Mongolian ancestors, is coarse, black, thin, but strong, and growing to
+a great length. Many tribes of both these races remove it from every
+part of the head except the crown, where a small tuft is left, and
+cherished with care. It is a universal habit among the tribes of the New
+World to eradicate every symptom of beard: hence the early travelers
+were led to conclude that the smoothness of their faces resulted from a
+natural deficiency. One reason for the adoption of this strange custom
+was to enable them to paint themselves with greater ease. Among old men,
+who have become indifferent to their appearance, the beard is again seen
+to a small extent.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a></p>
+
+<p>On the continent, especially toward the north, the natives were of
+robust and vigorous constitution. Their sole employment was the chase of
+the numerous wild animals of the forest and prairies: from their
+continual activity, their frame acquired firmness and strength;<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> but
+in the islands, where game was rare, and the earth supplied
+spontaneously an abundant subsistence, the Indians were comparatively
+feeble, being neither inured to the exertions of the chase nor the
+labors of cultivation. Generally, the Americans were more remarkable for
+agility than strength, and are said to have been more like beasts of
+prey than animals formed for labor. Toil was hateful, and even
+destructive to them; they broke down and perished under tasks that would
+not have wearied a European. Experience proves that the physical
+strength of civilized man exceeds that of the savage.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> Hand to hand
+in war, in wrestling, leaping, and even in running for a short distance,
+this superiority usually appears. In a long journey, however, the
+endurance of the Indian has no parallel among Europeans. A Red Man has
+been known to travel nearly eighty miles between sunrise and sunset,
+without apparent fatigue. He performs a long journey, bearing a heavy
+burden, and indulging in no refreshment or repose; an enemy can not
+escape his persevering pursuit, even when mounted on a strong horse.</p>
+
+<p>It has been already observed that the Americans are rarely or never
+deformed, or defective in their senses, while in their wild state, but
+in those districts where the restraints of law are felt, an
+extraordinary number of blind, deaf, dwarfs, and cripples, are observed.
+The terrible custom among the savage tribes of destroying those
+children who do not promise a vigorous growth, accounts for this
+apparent anomaly. Infancy is so long and helpless that it weighs as a
+heavy burden upon a wandering people; food is scanty and uncertain of
+supply, hunters and their families must range over extensive countries,
+and often remove from place to place. Judging that children of feeble or
+defective formation are not likely to survive the hardships of this
+errant life, they destroy all such unpromising offspring,<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> or desert
+them to a slower and more dreadful fate. The lot of all is so hard that
+few born with any great constitutional defect could long survive, and
+arrive at maturity.</p>
+
+<p>In the simplicity of savage life, where labor does not oppress, nor
+luxury enervate the human frame, and where harassing cares are unknown,
+we are led to expect that disease and suffering should be comparatively
+rare, and that the functions of nature should not reach the close of
+their gradual decay till an extreme old age. The decrepit and shriveled
+forms of many American Indians would seem to indicate that they had long
+passed the ordinary time of life. But it is difficult or impossible to
+ascertain their exact age, as the art of counting is generally unknown
+among them, and they are strangely forgetful and indifferent to the
+past. Their longevity, however, varies considerably, according to
+differences of climate and habits of life. These children of nature are
+naturally free from many of the diseases afflicting civilized nations;
+they have not even names in their language to distinguish such ills, the
+offspring of a luxury to them unknown. The diseases of the savage,
+however, though few, are violent and fatal; the severe hardships of his
+mode of life produce maladies of a dangerous description. From
+improvidence they are often reduced for a considerable time to a state
+bordering on starvation. When successful in the chase, or in the seasons
+when earth supplies her bounty, they indulge in enormous excesses. These
+extremes of want and abundance prove equally pernicious, for, although
+habit and necessity enable them at the time to tolerate such sudden
+transitions, the constitution is ultimately injured: disorders arising
+from these causes strike down numbers in the prime and vigor of youth,
+and are so common that they appear the necessary consequences of their
+mode of life. The Indian is likewise peculiarly subject to consumption,
+pleurisy, asthma, and paralysis, engendered by the fatigues and
+hardships of the chase and war, and constant exposure to extremes of
+heat and cold. Experience supports the conclusion that the average life
+is greater among people in an advanced condition of society than among
+those in a state of nature; among savages, all are affected by
+circumstances of over-exertion, privation, and excess, but in civilized
+societies the diseases of luxury only affect the few.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> "Driven by the European populations toward the northwest
+of North America,<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> the savage tribes are returning, by a singular
+destiny, to expire on the same shore where they landed, in unknown ages,
+to take possession of America. In the Iroquois language, the Indians
+gave themselves the appellation of <i>Men of Always</i> (Ongoueonoue); these
+<i>men of always</i> have passed away, and the stranger will soon have left
+to the lawful heirs of a whole world nothing but the mold of their
+graves."&mdash;Chateaubriand's <i>Travels in America</i> (Eng. trans.), vol. ii.,
+p. 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> De Tocqueville calculated that along the borders of the
+United States, from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico, extending a
+distance of more than 1200 miles, as the bird flies, the whites advance
+every year at a mean rate of seventeen miles; and he truly observes that
+there is a grandeur and solemnity in this gradual and continuous march
+of the European race toward the Rocky Mountains. He compares it to "a
+deluge of men rising, unabatedly, and daily driven onward by the hand of
+God."&mdash;<i>Democracy in America</i>, vol. ii., cap. x., &sect;4; Lyell, vol. ii.,
+p. 77.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XLI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XLII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> "Generally speaking, the American races of mankind were
+characterized by a want of domestic animals, and this had considerable
+influence on their domestic life." (<i>Cosmos</i>, note, vol. ii., p. 481.)
+Contrasting the Bedouin with the Red Indian, Volney observes, "the
+American savage is, on the contrary, a hunter and a butcher, who has had
+daily occasion to kill and slay, and in every animal has beheld nothing
+but a fugitive prey, which he must be quick to seize. He has thus
+acquired a roaming, wasteful, and ferocious disposition; has become an
+animal of the same kind with the wolf and tiger; has united in bands or
+troops, but not into organized societies."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> On ne prit pas d'abord les Am&eacute;ricains pour des hommes,
+mais pour des orang-otangs, pour des grands singes, qu'on pouvoit
+d&eacute;truire sans remords et sans reproche. Un pape fit une Bulle originale
+dans laquelle il d&eacute;clara qu' ayant envie de fonder des Ev&ecirc;ch&eacute;s dans les
+plus riches contr&eacute;es de l'Am&eacute;rique, il plaisoit &agrave; lui et au Saint Esprit
+de reconnoitre les Am&eacute;ricains pour des hommes v&eacute;ritables; de sorte que,
+sans cette d&eacute;cision d'une Italien, les habitans du Nouveau Monde
+seroient encore maintenant, aux yeux des fid&egrave;les, une race d'animaux
+&eacute;quivoques.... Qui auroit cru que malgr&eacute; cette sentence de Rome, on eut
+agit&eacute; violemment au conseil de Lima, 1583, si les Am&eacute;ricains avoient
+assez d'esprit pour &ecirc;tre admis aux sacrements de l'Eglise. Plusieurs
+&eacute;v&ecirc;ques persist&egrave;rent &agrave; les leur refuser pendant que les J&eacute;suites faisoient
+communier tous les jours leurs Indiens esclaves au Paraquai, afin de les
+acco&ucirc;tumer, disoient-ils, &agrave; la discipline, et pour les d&eacute;tourner de
+l'horrible coutume de se nourrir de chair humain.&mdash;<i>R&eacute;cherches
+Philosophiques sur les Am&eacute;ricains</i>, De Pauw, tom. i., p. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Rousseau, opposed by Buffon, Volney, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> "Notwithstanding the striking analogies existing between
+the nations of the New Continent and the Tartar tribes who have adopted
+the religion of Bouddah, I think I discover in the mythology of the
+Americans, in the style of their paintings, in their languages, and
+especially in their external conformation, the descendants of a race of
+men, which, early separated from the rest of mankind, has followed for a
+lengthened series of years a peculiar road in the unfolding of its
+intellectual faculties, and in its tendency toward
+civilization."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Ancient Inhabitants of America</i>, vol. i., p.
+200.
+</p><p>
+"It can not be doubted that the greater part of the nations of America
+belong to a race of men who, isolated ever since the infancy of the
+world from the rest of mankind, exhibit in the nature and diversity of
+language, in their features, and the conformation of their skull,
+incontestable proofs of an early and complete civilization."&mdash;<i>Ibid.</i>,
+vol. i., p. 250.
+</p><p>
+On the American races in general, Humboldt refers to the beautiful work
+of Samuel George Morton, <i>Crani&aelig; American&aelig;</i>, 1839, p. 62-86; and an
+account of the skulls brought by Pentland from the Highlands of
+Titicaca, in the '<i>Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science</i>,'
+vol. v., p. 475, 1834; also, Alcide d'Orbigny, <i>L'Homme Am&eacute;ricain
+consid&eacute;r&eacute; sous ses Rapports Physiol. et Mor.</i>, p. 221, 1839; and,
+further, the work, so full of delicate ethnographical observations, of
+Prinz Maximilian of Wied, <i>Reise in das Innere von Nordamerika</i>, 1839.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> "With regard to their origin, I have no doubt,
+independent of theological considerations, but that it is the same with
+ours. The resemblance of the North American savages to the Oriental
+Tartars renders it probable that they originally sprang from the same
+stock."&mdash;Buffon, Eng. trans., vol. iii., p. 193.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> "The Ethiopians," sings the old tragedian, Theodectes of
+Phaselis, "are dyed by the near sun-god in his course with a dark and
+sooty luster; the sun's heat crisps and dries up their hair." The
+expeditions of Alexander, which were so influential in exciting ideas of
+the physical cosmography, first fanned the dispute on the uncertain
+influence of climate upon races of men. Humboldt's <i>Cosmos</i>, vol. i., p.
+386. Volney, p. 506, and Oldmixon, vol. i., p. 286, assert that the
+savages are born white, and in their infancy continue so. An intelligent
+Indian said to Volney, "Why should there be any difference of color
+between us and them? (some Spaniards who had been bronzed in America).
+In them, as in us, it is the work of <i>the father of colors</i>, the sun,
+that burns us. You whites yourselves compare the skin of your faces with
+that of your bodies." This brought to my remembrance that, on my return
+from Turkey, when I quitted the turban, half my forehead above the
+eyebrows was almost like bronze, while the other half next the hair was
+as white as paper. If, as natural philosophy demonstrates, there be no
+color but what originates from light, it is evident that the different
+complexions of people are owing entirely to the various modifications of
+this fluid with other elements that act on our skin, and even compose
+its substance. Sooner or later it will be proved that the blackness of
+the African has no other source.&mdash;P. 408.
+</p><p>
+"Vespuce d&eacute;crit les indig&egrave;nes du Nouveau Continent dans sa premi&egrave;re
+lettre comme des hommes &agrave; face large et &agrave; physionomie <i>tartare</i>, dont la
+couleur rouge&acirc;tre n'&eacute;toit due qu'&agrave; l'habitude de ne pas &ecirc;tre v&ecirc;tus. Il
+revient &agrave; cette m&ecirc;me opinion en examinant les Br&eacute;siliens." (Canovai, p.
+87, 90.) "Leur teint, dit il, est rouge&acirc;tre, ce qui vient de leur nudit&eacute;
+absolue et de l'ardeur du soleil auquel ils sont constamment expos&eacute;s.
+Cette erreur a &eacute;t&eacute; partag&eacute;e par un des voyageurs modernes les plus
+spirituels, mais des plus syst&eacute;matiques, par Volney." (<i>Essai Politique
+sur la Mexique.</i>) Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;og. du Nouv. Continent</i>, vol. v., p.
+25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> On the influence of humidity much stress has been laid by
+M. D'Orbigny and Sir R. Schomburgh, each of whom has made the remark as
+the result of personal and independent observation on the inhabitants of
+the New World, that people who live under the damp shade of dense and
+lofty forests are comparatively fair.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XLI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> Mr. Jarrold asserts that the negro becomes the most
+perfect specimen of the human species, in consequence of his possessing
+the coarsest and most impassive integument.&mdash;<i>Anthropologia.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XLII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> "It is intellectual culture which contributes most to
+diversify the features. Barbarous nations have rather a physiognomy of
+tribe or horde than one peculiar to such or such an individual. The
+savage and civilized man are like those animals of the same species,
+several of which rove in the forest, while others connected with us
+share in the benefits and evils that accompany civilization. The
+varieties of form and color are frequent only in domestic animals. How
+great is the difference with respect to mobility of feature and variety
+of physiognomy between dogs again become savage in the New World, and
+those whose slightest caprices are indulged in the houses of the
+opulent. Both in men and animals the emotions of the soul are reflected
+in the features; and the features acquire the habit of mobility in
+proportion as the emotions of the mind are more frequent, more varied,
+and more durable. In every condition of man, it is not the energy or the
+transient burst of the passions which give expression to the features;
+it is rather that sensibility of the soul which brings us continually
+into contact with the external world, multiplies our sufferings and our
+pleasures, and reacts at once on the physiognomy, the manners, and the
+language. If the variety and mobility of the features embellish the
+domain of animated nature, we must admit also that both increase by
+civilization without being produced by it alone. In the great family of
+nations, no other race unites these advantages to a higher degree than
+that of Caucasus or the European. It must be admitted that this
+insensibility of the features is not peculiar to every race of men of a
+very dark complexion: it is much less apparent in the African than in
+the natives of America."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Personal Narrative</i>, vol. iii., p.
+230.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> Tacitus, in his speculations on the peopling of Britain,
+distinguishes very beautifully between what may belong to the ultimate
+influences of the country, and what may pertain to an old, unalterable
+type in the immigrated race. "Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerunt,
+indigen&aelig; an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus
+corporis varii, atque ex eo argumenta; namque rutil&aelig; Caledoniam
+habitantium com&aelig;, magni artus Germanicam originem adseverant. Silurum
+colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania,
+Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes occup&acirc;sse fidem faciunt: proximi
+Gallis et similes sunt, seu durante originis vi; seu, procurrentibus in
+divisa terris, positio c&oelig;li corporibus habitum dedit."&mdash;<i>Agricola</i>,
+cap. ii.
+</p><p>
+"No ancient author has so clearly stated the two forms of reasoning by
+which we still explain in our days the differences of color and figure
+among neighboring nations as Tacitus. He makes a just distinction
+between the influence of climate and hereditary dispositions, and, like
+a philosopher persuaded of our profound ignorance of the origin of
+things, leaves the question undecided."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Personal
+Narrative</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> See Smith on <i>The Variety of Complexion of the Human
+Species</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Mr. Lawrence's precise definition is "an obscure orange
+or rusty-iron color, not unlike the bark of the cinnamon-tree." Among
+the early discoverers, Vespucius applies to them the epithet
+"rouge&acirc;tre." Verazzano says, "sono di color berrettini e non molto dalli
+Saracini differenti."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Cook's Narrative calls their color an <i>effete</i> white,
+like that of the southern nations of Europe. Meares expressly says that
+some of the females, when cleaned, were found to have the fair
+complexions of Europe.
+</p><p>
+Somewhat further north, at Cloak Bay, in lat. 54&deg; 10', Humboldt remarks,
+that "in the midst of copper-colored Indians, with small, long eyes,
+there is a tribe with large eyes, European features, and a skin less
+dark than that of our peasantry."&mdash;<i>New Spain</i>, vol. i., p. 145.
+</p><p>
+Humboldt considers this as the strongest argument of an original
+diversity of race which has remained unaffected by climate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> See Appendix. No. XLV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> Cochrane's <i>Pedestrian Journey</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> Prescott remarks, that the progress made by the Mexicans
+in astronomy, and especially the fact of their having a general board
+for education and the fine arts, proves more in favor of their
+advancement than the noble architectural monuments which they and their
+kindred tribes erected. "Architecture," he observes, "is a sensual
+gratification, and addresses itself to the eye; it is the form in which
+the resources of a semi-civilized people are most likely to be
+lavished."&mdash;<i>Conquest of Mexico</i>, vol. i., p. 155; Lyell's <i>America</i>,
+vol. i., p. 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Dans les r&eacute;gions anciennement agricoles de l'Am&eacute;rique
+m&eacute;ridionale les conqu&eacute;rans Europ&eacute;ens n'ont fait que suivre les traces
+d'une culture indig&egrave;ne. Les Indiens sont rest&eacute;s attach&eacute;s au sol qu'ils
+ont d&eacute;frich&eacute; depuis des si&egrave;cles. Le Mexique seul compte un million sept
+cent mille indig&egrave;nes de race pure, dont le nonbre augmente avec la m&ecirc;me
+rapidit&eacute; que celui des autres castes. Au Mexique, &agrave; Guatemala, &agrave; Quito,
+au P&eacute;rou, &agrave; Bolivia, la physionomie du pays, &agrave; l'exception de quelques
+grandes villes, est essentiellement Indienne; dans les campagnes la
+variet&eacute; des langues s'est conserv&eacute;e avec les m&oelig;urs, le costume et les
+habitudes de la vie domestiqne. Il n'y a de plus que des troupeaux de
+vaches et de brebis, quelques c&eacute;reales nouvelles et les c&eacute;r&eacute;monies d'une
+culte qui se m&ecirc;l&eacute; &agrave; d'antiques superstitions locales. Il faut avoir v&eacute;cu
+dans les hautes plaines de l'Am&eacute;rique Espagnole ou dans la conf&eacute;deration
+Anglo-Am&eacute;ricain pour sentir vivement combien ce contraste entre des
+peuples chasseurs et des peuples agricoles, entre des pays lontems
+barbares ou des pays offrant d'anciennes institutions politiques et une
+l&eacute;gislation indig&egrave;ne tr&egrave;s developp&eacute;e, a facilit&eacute; ou entrav&eacute; la conqu&ecirc;te,
+influ&eacute; sur les formes des premiers &eacute;tablissement europ&eacute;ens, conserv&eacute;
+m&ecirc;me de nos jours aux diff&eacute;rentes parties de l'Am&eacute;rique ind&eacute;pendante, un
+caract&egrave;re ineffa&ccedil;able. D&eacute;j&agrave; le p&egrave;re Joseph Acosta qui a &eacute;tudi&eacute; sur les
+lieux m&ecirc;mes les suites du grand drame sanguinaire de la conqu&ecirc;te a bien
+saisi ces diff&eacute;rences frappantes de civilisation progressive et
+d'absence enti&egrave;re d'ordre social qu'offrait le nouveau-monde &agrave; l'&eacute;poque
+de Christopher Colomb, ou peu de tems apr&egrave;s la colonisation par les
+Espagnols.&mdash;<i>Hist. Nat. y Moral.</i> lib. vi., cap. ii.; Humboldt's
+<i>G&eacute;ographie du Nouveau Continent</i>, tom. i., p. 130.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XLVI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> "In both Americas it is a matter of inquiry what was the
+intention of the natives when they raised so many artificial hills,
+several of which appear to have served neither as mounds, nor
+watch-towers, nor the base of a temple. A custom established in Eastern
+Asia may throw some light on this important question. Two thousand three
+hundred years before our era, sacrifices were offered in China to the
+Supreme Being, Chan-Ty, on four great mountains called the Four Yo. The
+sovereigns, finding it inconvenient to go thither in person, caused
+eminences representing these mountains to be erected by the hands of men
+near their habitations."&mdash;<i>Voyage of Lord Macartney</i>, vol. i., p. 58;
+Hager, <i>Monument of Yu</i>, p. 10, 1802.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Mr. Flint asserts, "that the greatest population clearly
+has been in those positions where the most dense future population will
+be."&mdash;P. 166.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> "The bones of animals and snakes have sometimes been
+found mixed with human bones in these tumuli, and out of one near
+Cincinnati were dug two large marine shells, one of which was the
+<i>Cassis cornulus</i> of the Asiatic islands, the other the <i>Fulgur
+perversus</i> of the coast of Georgia and East Florida; and this is an
+additional argument used in favor of the alleged intercourse existing
+anciently between the Indians of this part of North America and the
+inhabitants of Asia, and between them and those of the Atlantic. Many
+circumstances still existing give probability to the popular belief that
+the American Indians had their origin in Asia. In their persons, color,
+and reserved disposition, they have a strong resemblance to the Malays
+of the Oriental Archipelago&mdash;that is to say, to some of the Tartar
+tribes of Upper Asia; and it is a remarkable circumstance, that, like
+those, they shave the head, leaving only a single lock of hair. The
+picture language of the Mexicans, as corresponding with the ancient
+picture language of China, and the quipos of Peru with the knotted and
+party-colored cords which the Chinese history informs us were in use in
+the early period of the empire, may also be adduced as corroborative
+evidence. The high cheek bones and the elongated eye of the two people,
+besides other personal resemblances, suggest the probability of a common
+origin."&mdash;<i>Quarterly Review</i>, No. LVII., p. 13.
+</p><p>
+"The Iroquois and Hurons made hieroglyphic paintings on wood, which bear
+a striking resemblance to those of the Mexicans."&mdash;Lafitau, vol. ii., p.
+43, 225; La Houtan, p. 193.
+</p><p>
+"A long struggle between two religious sects, the Brahmans and the
+Buddhists, terminated by the emigration of the Chamans to Thibet.
+Mongolia, China, and Japan. If tribes of the Tartar race have passed
+over to the northwest coast of America, and thence to the south and the
+east, toward the banks of Gila, and those of the Missouri, as
+etymological researches serve to indicate, we should be less surprised
+at finding among the semi-barbarous nations of the New Continent idols
+and monuments of architecture, a hieroglyphical writing, and exact
+knowledge of the duration of the year, and traditions respecting the
+first state of the world, recalling to our minds the arts, the sciences,
+and religious opinions of the Asiatic nations."&mdash;Humboldt's
+<i>Researches</i>.
+</p><p>
+In his description of a Mexican painting, Humboldt observes, "The slave
+on the left is like the figure of those saints which we see frequently
+in Hindoo paintings, and which the navigator Roblet found on the
+northwest coast of America, among the hieroglyphical paintings of the
+natives of Cox's Channel."&mdash;Merchant's <i>Voyage</i>, vol. i., p. 312.
+</p><p>
+"It is probably by philosophical and antiquarian researches in Tartary
+that the history of those civilized nations of North America, of whose
+great works only the wreck remains, will alone be elucidated."&mdash;See
+Bancroft's <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. iii., chap. xxii.; and
+Stephens's <i>Central America</i>, vol. i., p. 96; vol. ii., chap, xxvi., p.
+186, 357, 413, 433. Sec Appendix, No. XLVII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> "The five nations were the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the
+Cayugas, the Onondagas, and the Senecas. The Dutch called them Maquas,
+the French Iroquois; their appellation at home was the Mingoes, and
+sometimes the Aganuschion, or United People."&mdash;Governor Clinton's
+<i>Discourse before New York Historical Society</i>, 1811.
+</p><p>
+The Iroquois have often, among Europeans, been termed the Romans of the
+West. "Le nom d'Iroquois est purement fran&ccedil;ois, et a &eacute;t&eacute; forme du terme
+<i>Hiro</i>, qui signifie, <i>J'ai dit</i>, par lequel ces sauvages finissent tout
+leur discours, comme les Latins faisaient autrefois par leur <i>Dixi</i>; et
+<i>de Kou&eacute;</i>, qui est un cri, tant&ocirc;t de tristesse, lorsqu' on le prononce
+en tra&icirc;nant, et tant&ocirc;t de joie, lorsqu'on le prononce plus court. Leur
+nom propre est Agonnonsionni, qui veut dire, <i>Faiseurs de Cabannes</i>;
+parcequ'ils les b&acirc;tissent beaucoup plus solides, que la plupart des
+autres sauvages."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 421.
+</p><p>
+Lafitau gives the Iroquois the same name of Agonnonsionni; they used to
+say of themselves that the five nations of which they were composed
+formed but one "Cabane."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> "Le P&egrave;re Brebeuf comptoit environ trente mille &acirc;mes de
+vrais Hurons, distribu&eacute;s en vingt villages de la nation. Il y avoit
+outre cela, douze nations s&eacute;dentaires et nombreuses, qui parloient leur
+langue. La plupart de ces nations ne subsistent plus, les Iroquois ces
+ont detruites. Les vrais Hurons sont r&eacute;duits aujourd'hui &agrave; la petite
+mission de Lorette, qui est pr&egrave;s de Quebec, o&ugrave; l'on voit le
+Christianisme fleurir avec l'&eacute;dification de tous les Fran&ccedil;ais, &agrave; la
+nation des Tionnontat&egrave;s qui sont &eacute;tablis au D&eacute;troit, et &agrave; une autre
+nation qui s'est refugi&eacute;e &agrave; la Carolina."&mdash;Charlevoix, 1721.
+</p><p>
+"The Tionnontat&egrave;s mentioned above now bear the name of Wyandots, and are
+a striking exception to the degeneracy which usually attends the
+intercourse of Indians with Europeans. The Wyandots have all the energy
+of the savage warrior, with the intelligence and docility of civilized
+troops. They are Christians, and remarkable for orderly and inoffensive
+conduct; but as enemies, they are among the most dreadful of their race.
+They were all mounted (in the war of 1812-13), fearless, active,
+enterprising; to contend with them in the forest was hopeless, and to
+avoid their pursuit, impossible.
+</p><p>
+"It is worthy of remark, that the Wyandots are the only part of the
+Huron nation who ever joined in alliance with the English. The mass of
+the Hurons were always the faithful friends of the French during the
+times of the early settlement of Canada."&mdash;<i>Quarterly Review</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> The extremes of heat and cold are as unfavorable to
+intellectual as to physical superiority,<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> a fact which may be easily
+traced throughout the vast and varied extent of the two Americas. "As
+far as the parallel of 53&deg;, the temperature of the northwest coast of
+America is milder than that of the eastern coasts: we are led to expect,
+therefore, that civilization had anciently made some progress in this
+climate, and even in higher latitudes. Even in our own times, we
+perceive that in the 59th degree of latitude, in Cox's Channel and
+Norfolk Sound, the natives have a decided taste for hieroglyphical
+paintings on wood."&mdash;Humboldt <i>on the Ancient Inhabitants of America</i>.
+</p><p>
+It has been ascertained that this western coast is populous, and the
+race somewhat superior to the other Indians in arts and
+civilization.&mdash;Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 297-303; Venegas's <i>California</i>,
+Part ii., &sect;ii.
+</p><p>
+"From the happy coincidence of various circumstances, man raises himself
+to a certain degree of cultivation, even in climates the least favorable
+to the development of organized beings. Near the polar circle, in
+Iceland, in the twelfth century, we know the Scandinavians cultivated
+literature and the arts with more success than the inhabitants of
+Denmark and Prussia."&mdash;Humboldt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> The most temperate climate lies between the 40th and 50th
+degree of latitude, and it produces the most handsome and beautiful
+people. It is from this climate that the ideas of the genuine color of
+mankind and of the various degrees of beauty ought to be derived. The
+two extremes are equally remote from truth and from beauty. The
+civilized countries situated under this zone are Georgia, Circassia, the
+Ukraine, Turkey in Europe, Hungary, the south of Germany, Italy,
+Switzerland, France, and the northern parts of Spain. The natives of
+these territories are the most handsome and most beautiful people in the
+world.&mdash;Buffon, English trans., vol. iii., p. 205.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Mr. Flint says. "I have inspected the northern, middle,
+and southern Indians for a length of ten years; my opportunities of
+observation have, therefore, been considerable, and I do not undertake
+to form a judgment of their character without, at least, having seen
+much of it. I have been forcibly struck by a general resemblance in
+their countenance, make, conformation, manners, and habits. I believe
+that no race of men can show people who speak different languages,
+inhabit different climes, and subsist on different food, and who are yet
+so wonderfully alike."&mdash;(1831.)
+</p><p>
+Don Antonio Ulloa, who had extensive opportunities of forming an opinion
+on the natives of both the continents of America, asserts that "If we
+have seen one American, we may be said to have seen all, their color and
+make are so nearly the same."&mdash;<i>Notic. Americanas</i>, p. 308. See,
+likewise, Garcia, <i>Origin de los Indios</i>, p. 55-242; Torquemada,
+<i>Monarch. Indiana</i>, vol. ii., p. 571.
+</p><p>
+"If we except the northern regions, where we find men similar to the
+Laplanders, all the rest of America is peopled with inhabitants among
+whom there is little or no diversity. This great uniformity among the
+natives of America seems to proceed from their living all in the same
+manner. All the Americans were, or still are, savages; the Mexicans and
+Peruvians were so recently polished that they ought not to be regarded
+as an exception. Whatever, therefore, was the origin of those savages,
+it seems to have been common to the whole. All the Americans have sprung
+from the same source, and have preserved, with little variation, the
+characters of their race; for they have all continued in a savage state,
+and have followed nearly the same mode of life. Their climates are not
+so unequal with regard to heat and cold as those of the ancient
+continent, and their establishment in America has been too recent to
+allow those causes which produce varieties sufficient time to operate so
+as to render their effects conspicuous."&mdash;Buffon, Eng. trans., vol.
+iii., p. 188.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XLVIII (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> See Appendix, No. XLIX. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> There would never have been any difference of opinion
+between physiologists, as to the existence of the beard among the
+Americans, if they had paid attention to what the first historians of
+the conquest of their country have said on this subject; for example,
+Pigafetta, in 1519, in his Journal preserved in the Ambrosian library at
+Milan, and published (in 1800) by Amoretti, p. 18.&mdash;Benzoni, <i>Hist. del
+Mundo Nuovo</i>, p. 35, 1572; Bembo, <i>Hist. Venet.</i>, p. 86, 1557;
+Humboldt's <i>Personal Narrative</i>, vol. iii., p. 235.
+</p><p>
+"The Indians have no beard, because they use certain receipts to
+extirpate it, which they will not communicate."&mdash;Oldmixon, vol. i., p.
+286.
+</p><p>
+"Experience has made known that these receipts were little shells which
+they used as tweezers; since they have become acquainted with metals,
+they have invented an instrument consisting of a piece of brass wire
+rolled round a piece of wood the size of the finger, so as to form a
+special spring; this grasps the hairs within its turns, and pulls out
+several at once. No wonder if this practice, continued for several
+generations, should enfeeble the roots of the beard. Did the practice of
+eradicating the beard, originate from the design of depriving the enemy
+of such a dangerous hold on the face? This seems to me probable."&mdash;Volney,
+p. 412.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> When the statue of Apollo Belvedere was shown to Benjamin
+West on his first arrival at Rome, he exclaimed, "It is a model from a
+young North American Indian."&mdash;<i>Ancient America.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> "It is a notorious fact, that every European who has
+embraced the savage life has become stronger and better inured to every
+excess than the savages themselves. The superiority of the people of
+Virginia and Kentucky over them has been confirmed, not only in troop
+opposed to troop, but man to man, in all their wars."&mdash;Volney, p. 417.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Yet infanticide is condemned among the Red Indians both
+by their theology and their feelings. Dr. Richardson relates that those
+tribes who hold the idea that "the souls of the departed have to
+scramble up a great mountain, at whose top they receive the reward of
+their good or bad deeds, declare that women who have been guilty of
+infanticide never reach the top of this mountain at all. They are
+compelled instead to travel around the scenes of their crimes with
+branches of trees tied to their legs. The melancholy sounds which are
+heard in the still summer evenings, and which the ignorance of the white
+people looks upon as the screams of the goat-suckers, are really,
+according to my informant, the moanings of these unhappy
+beings"&mdash;Franklin's <i>Journey to the Polar Seas</i>, p. 77, 78.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Indian is endowed with a far greater acuteness of sense than the
+European. Despite the dazzling brightness of the long-continued snows,
+and the injurious action of the smoke of burning wood to which he is
+constantly exposed, he possesses extraordinary quickness of sight. He
+can also hear and distinguish the faintest sounds, alike through the
+gentle rustling of the forest leaves and in the roar of the storm; his
+power of smell is so delicate that he scents fire long before it becomes
+visible. By some peculiar instinct the Indian steers through the
+trackless forests, over the vast prairies, and even across wide sheets
+of water with unerring certainty. Under the gloomiest and most obscure
+sky, he can follow the course of the sun<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> as if directed by a
+compass. These powers would seem innate in this mysterious race; they
+can scarcely be the fruit of observation or practice, for children who
+have never left their native village can direct their course through
+pathless solitudes as accurately as the experienced hunter.</p>
+
+<p>In the early stages of social progress, when the life of man is rude and
+simple, the reason is little exercised, and his wants and wishes are
+limited within narrow bounds; consequently, his intellect is feebly
+developed, and his emotions are few but concentrated. These conditions
+were generally observable among the rudest tribes of the American
+Indians.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, some very striking peculiarities in the intellectual
+character of the Red Men. Without any aid from letters or education,
+some of the lower mental faculties are developed in a remarkable degree.
+As orators, strategists, and politicians, they have frequently exhibited
+very great power.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> They are constantly engaged in dangerous and
+difficult enterprises, where ingenuity and presence of mind are
+essential for their preservation. They are vigorous in the thought which
+is allied to action, but altogether incapable of speculation, deduction,
+or research. The ideas and attention of a savage are confined to the
+objects relating to his subsistence, safety, or indulgence: every thing
+else escapes his observation or excites little interest in his mind.
+Many tribes appear to make no arrangement for the future; neither care
+nor forethought prevents them from blindly following a present impulse,
+regardless of its consequences.</p>
+
+<p>The natives of North America were divided into a number of small
+communities; in the relation of these to each other, war or negotiation
+was constantly carried on; revolutions, conquests, and alliances
+frequently occurred among them. To raise the power of his tribe, and to
+weaken or destroy that of his enemy, was the great aim of every Indian.
+For these objects schemes were profoundly laid, and deeds of daring
+valor achieved: the refinements of diplomacy were employed, and plans
+arranged with the most accurate calculation. These peculiar
+circumstances also developed the power of oratory to an extraordinary
+degree.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> Upon all occasions of importance, speeches were delivered
+with eloquence, and heard with deep attention. When danger threatened,
+or opportunity of aggrandizement or revenge offered itself, a council of
+the tribe was called, where those most venerable from age and
+illustrious for wisdom deliberated for the public good. The composition
+of the Indian orator is studied and elaborate; the language is vigorous,
+and, at the same time, highly imaginative; all ideas are expressed by
+figures addressed to the senses; the sun and stars, mountains and
+rivers, lakes and forests, hatchets of war and pipes of peace, fire and
+water, are employed as illustrations of his subject with almost Oriental
+art and richness. His eloquence is unassisted by action or varied
+intonation, but his earnestness excites the sympathy of the audience,
+and his persuasion sinks into their hearts.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p>
+
+<p>The want of any written or hieroglyphic records of the past among the
+Northern Indians was, to some extent, supplied by the accurate memories
+of their old men; they were able to repeat speeches of four or five
+hours' duration, and delivered many years before, without error or even
+hesitation, and to hand them down from generation to generation with
+equal accuracy, their recollection being only assisted by small pieces
+of wood corresponding to the different subjects of discourse. On great
+and solemn occasions, belts of wampum were used as aid to recollection
+whenever a conference was held with a neighboring tribe, or a treaty or
+compact is negotiated. One of these belts, differing in some respects
+from any other hitherto used, was made for the occasion; each person who
+speaks holds this in his hand by turns, and all he says is recorded in
+the "living books" of the by-standers' memory in connection with the
+belt. When the conference ends, this memorial is deposited in the hands
+of the principal chief. As soon as any important treaty is ratified, a
+broad wampum belt of unusual splendor is given by each contracting party
+to the other, and these tokens are deposited among the other belts, that
+form, as it were, the archives of the nation. At stated intervals they
+are reproduced before the people, and the events which they commemorate
+are circumstantially recalled. Certain of the Indian women are intrusted
+with the care of these belts: it is their duty to relate to the children
+of the tribe the circumstances of each treaty or conference, and thus is
+kept alive the remembrance of every important event.</p>
+
+<p>On the matters falling within his limited comprehension, the Indian
+often displays a correct and solid judgment; he pursues his object
+without hesitation or diversion. He is quickly perceptive of simple
+facts or ideas, but any artificial combination, or mechanical
+contrivance he is slow to comprehend, especially as he considers every
+thing beneath his notice which is not necessary to his advantage or
+enjoyment. It is very difficult to engage him in any labor of a purely
+mental character, but he often displays vivacity and ardor in matters
+that interest him, and is frequently quick and happy in repartee.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Red Man is usually characterized by a certain savage elevation of
+soul and calm self-possession, that all the aid of religion and
+philosophy can not enable his civilized brethren to surpass. Master of
+his emotions, the expression of his countenance rarely alters for a
+moment even under the most severe and sudden trials. The prisoner,
+uncertain as to the fate that may befall him, preparing for his dreadful
+death, or racked by agonizing tortures, still raises his unfaltering
+voice in the death song, and turns a fearless front toward his
+tormentors.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></p>
+
+<p>The art of numbering was unknown in some American tribes, and even among
+the most advanced it was very imperfect; the savage had no property to
+estimate, no coins to count, no variety of ideas to enumerate. Many
+nations could not reckon above three, and had no words in their language
+to distinguish a greater number; some proceeded as far as ten, others to
+twenty; when they desired to convey an idea of a larger amount, they
+pointed to the hair of the head, or declared that it could not be
+counted. Computation is a mystery to all rude nations; when, however,
+they acquire the knowledge of a number of objects, and find the
+necessity of combining or dividing them, their acquaintance with
+arithmetic increases; the state of this art is therefore, to a
+considerable extent, a criterion of their degree of progress. The wise
+and politic Iroquois had advanced the farthest, but even they had not
+got beyond one thousand; the smaller tribes seldom reached above ten.</p>
+
+<p>The first ideas are suggested to the mind of man by the senses: the
+Indian acquires no other. The objects around him are all important; if
+they be available for his present purposes, they attract his attention,
+otherwise they excite no curiosity: he neither combines nor arranges
+them, nor does he examine the operations of his own mind upon them; he
+has no abstract or universal ideas, and his reasoning powers are
+generally employed upon matters merely obvious to the senses. In the
+languages of the ruder tribes there were no words to express any thing
+that is not material, such as faith, time, imagination, and the like.
+When the mind of the savage is not occupied with matters relating to his
+animal existence, it is altogether inactive. In the islands, and upon
+the exuberant plains of the south, where little exertion of ingenuity
+was required to obtain the necessaries of life, the rational faculties
+were frequently dormant, and the countenance remained vacant and
+inexpressive. Even the superior races of the north loiter away their
+time in thoughtless indolence, when not engaged in war or the chase,
+deeming other objects unworthy of their consideration. Where reason is
+so limited in a field for exertion, the mind can hardly acquire any
+considerable degree of vigor or enlargement. In civilized life men are
+urged to activity and perseverance by a desire to gratify numerous
+artificial wants; but the necessities of the Indian are few, and
+provided for by nature almost spontaneously. He detests labor, and will
+sometimes sit for whole days together without uttering a word or
+changing his posture. Neither the hope of reward nor the prospect of
+future want can overcome this inveterate indolence.</p>
+
+<p>Among the northern tribes, however, dwelling under a rigorous climate,
+some efforts are employed, and some precautions taken, to procure
+subsistence; but the necessary industry is even there looked upon as a
+degradation: the greater part of the labor is performed by women, and
+man will only stoop to those portions of the work which he considers
+least ignominious. This industry, so oppressive to one half of the
+community, is very partial, and directed by a limited foresight. During
+one part of the year they depend upon fishing for a subsistence, during
+another upon the chase, and the produce of the ground is their resource
+for the third. Regardless of the warnings of experience, they neglect to
+apportion provision for their wants, or can so little restrain their
+appetites, that, from imprudence or extravagance, they often are exposed
+to the miseries of famine like their ruder neighbors. Their sufferings
+are soon forgotten, and the horrors of one year seem to teach no lesson
+of providence for the next.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians, for the most part, are very well acquainted with the
+geography of their own country. When questioned as to the situation of
+any particular place, they will trace out on the ground with a stick, if
+opportunity offer, a tolerably accurate map of the locality indicated.
+They will show the course of the rivers, and, by pointing toward the
+sun, explain the bearings of their rude sketch. There have been recorded
+some most remarkable instances of the accuracy with which they can
+travel toward a strange place, even when its description had only been
+received through the traditions of several generations, and they could
+have possessed no personal knowledge whatever of the surrounding
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The religion of the natives of America can not but be regarded with an
+interest far deeper than the gratification of mere curiosity. The forms
+of faith, the rites, the ideas of immortality; the belief in future
+reward, in future punishment; the recognition of an invisible Power,
+infinitely surpassing that of the warrior or the chief; the dim
+traditions of a first parent, and a general deluge&mdash;all these, among a
+race so long isolated from the rest of the human family, distinct in
+language, habits, form, and mind, and displaying, when societies began
+to exist, a civilization utterly dissimilar from any before known,
+afford subject for earnest thought and anxious inquiry. Those who in the
+earlier times of American discovery supplied information on these
+points, were generally little qualified for the task. Priests and
+missionaries alone had leisure or inclination to pursue the subject;
+and their minds were often so preoccupied with their own peculiar
+doctrines, that they accommodated to them all that fell under their
+observation, and explained it by analogies which had no existence but in
+their own zealous imaginations. They seldom attempted to consider what
+they saw or heard in relation to the rude notions of the savages
+themselves. From a faint or fancied similarity of peculiar Indian
+superstitions to certain articles of Christian faith, some missionaries
+imagined they had discovered traces of an acquaintance with the divine
+mysteries of salvation: they concluded that the savage possessed a
+knowledge of the doctrine of the Trinity,<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> of the Incarnation, of
+the sacrifice of a Saviour, and of sacraments, from their own
+interpretation of certain expressions and ceremonies.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> But little
+confidence can be placed in any evidence derived from such sources.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier travelers in the interior of the New World received the
+impression that the Indians had no religious belief; they saw neither
+priests, temples, idols, nor sacrifices among any of the various and
+numerous tribes. A further knowledge of this strange people disproved
+the hastily-formed opinion, and showed that their whole life and all
+their actions were influenced by a belief in the spiritual world.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a>
+It is now known that the American Indians were pre-eminent among savage
+nations for the superior purity of their religious faith,<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> and,
+indeed, over even the boasted elegance of poetical mythology. From the
+reports of all those worthy of credence, who have lived intimately among
+these children of the forest, it is certain that they firmly believe in
+the power and unity of the Most High God, and in an immortality of
+happiness or misery. They worship the Great Spirit, the Giver of life,
+and attribute to him the creation of the world, and the government of
+all things with infinite love, wisdom, and power. Of the origin of their
+religion they are altogether ignorant. In general they believe that,
+after the world was created and supplied with animal life by the Great
+Spirit, he formed the first red man and woman, who were very large of
+stature, and lived to an extreme old age; that he often held council
+with his creatures, gave them laws and instructed them, but that the red
+children became rebels against their Great Father, and he then withdrew
+himself in sorrowful anger from among them, and left them to the
+vexations of the Bad Spirit. But still this merciful Father, from afar
+off, where he may be seen no more, showers down upon them all the
+blessings they enjoy. The Indians are truly filial and sincere in their
+devotions; they pray for what they need, and return hearty thanks for
+such mercies as they have enjoyed.<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> They supplicate him to bestow
+courage and skill upon them in the battle; the endurance which enables
+them to mock the cruel tortures of their enemies is attributed to his
+aid; their preparation for war is a long-continued religious ceremony;
+their march is supposed to be under omnipotent guidance, and their
+expeditions in the chase are held to be not unworthy of divine
+superintendence. They reject all idea of chance on the fortune of war,
+and believe firmly that every result is the decision of a Superior
+Power.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> Although this elevated conception of the One God<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> is
+deeply impressed upon the Indian's mind, it is tainted with some of the
+alloy which ever must characterize the uninspired faith. Those who have
+inquired into the religious opinions of the uneducated and laborious
+classes of men, even in the most enlightened and civilized communities,
+find that their system of belief is derived from instruction, and not
+from instinct or the results of their own examination: in savage life
+it is vain to expect that men should reason accurately, from cause to
+effect, and form a just idea of the Creator from the creation. The
+Indian combines the idea of the Great Spirit with others of a less
+perfect nature. The word used by him to indicate this Sovereign Being
+does not convey the notion of an immaterial nature; it signifies with
+him some one possessed of lofty and mysterious powers, and in this sense
+may be applied to men and even to animals.</p>
+
+<p>To the first inquirers into the religious faith of the native Americans,
+the subject of their mythology presented very great difficulties and
+complications; those Indians who attempted to explain it to Europeans
+had themselves no distinct or fixed opinions. Each man put forward
+peculiar notions, and was constantly changing them, without attempting
+to reconcile his self-contradictions.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the southern tribes, who were more settled in their religious
+faith, exhibited a remarkable degree of bigotry and spiritual pride.
+They called the Europeans "men of the accursed speech," while they
+styled themselves "the beloved of the Great Spirit." The Canadian and
+other northern nations, however, were less intolerant, and at any time
+easily induced to profess the recantation of their heathen errors for
+some small advantage. Among these latter, the hare was deemed to possess
+some mystic superiority over the rest of the animal creation; it was
+even raised to be an object of worship, and the Great Hare was
+confounded in their minds with the Great Spirit. The Algonquins believed
+in a Water God, who opposes himself to the benevolent designs of the
+Great Spirit; it is strange that the name of the Great Tiger should be
+given to this Deity, as the country does not produce such an animal, and
+from this it appears probable that the tradition of his existence had
+come from elsewhere. They have also a third Deity, who presides over
+their winter season. The gods of the Indians have bodies like the sons
+of men, and subsist in like manner with them, but are free from the
+pains and cares of mortality; the term "spirit" among them only
+signifies a being of a superior and more excellent nature than man.
+However, they believe in the omnipresence of their deities, and invoke
+their aid in all times and places.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Great Spirit and the lesser deities above mentioned, every
+Indian has his own Manitou, Okki, or guardian power; this divinity's
+presence is represented by some portable object, often of the most
+insignificant nature, such as the head, beak, or claw of a bird, the
+hoof of a deer or cow. No youth can be received among the brotherhood of
+warriors till he has placed himself, in due form, under the care of this
+familiar. The ceremony is deemed of great importance: several days of
+strict fasting are always observed in preparation for the important
+event, and the youth's dreams are carefully noted during this period.
+While under these circumstances, some object usually makes a deep
+impression upon his mind; this is then chosen for his Manitou or
+guardian spirit, and a specimen, of it is procured. He is next placed
+for some time in a large vapor bath, and having undergone the process of
+being steamed, is laid on the ground, and the figure of the Manitou is
+pricked on his breast with needles of fish-bone dipped in vermilion; the
+intervals between the scars are then rubbed with gunpowder, so as to
+produce a mixture of red and blue. When this operation is performed, he
+cries aloud to the Great Spirit, invoking aid, and praying to be
+received as a warrior.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian submits with resignation to the chastening will of the Great
+Spirit. When overtaken by any disaster, he diligently examines himself
+to discover what omission of observance or duty has called down the
+punishment, and endeavors to atone for past neglect by increased
+devotion. But if the Manitou be deemed to have shown want of ability or
+inclination to defend him, he upbraids the guardian power with
+bitterness and contempt, and threatens to seek a more effectual
+protector. If the Manitou continue useless, this threat is fulfilled.
+Fasting and dreaming are again resorted to in the same manner as before,
+and the vision of another Manitou is obtained. The former representation
+is then, as much as possible, effaced, and the figure of the
+newly-adopted amulet painted in its place. All the veneration and
+confidence forfeited by the first Manitou is now transferred to the
+successor.<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is also part of the Indian's religious belief that there are inferior
+spirits to rule over the elements, under the control of the Supreme
+Power, he being so great that he must, like their chiefs, have
+attendants to execute his behests. These inferior spirits see what
+passes on earth, and report it to their Great Ruler: the Indian,
+trusting to their good offices, invokes those spirits of the air in
+times of peril, and endeavors to propitiate them by throwing tobacco or
+other simple offerings to the winds or upon the waters. But, amid all
+these corrupt and ignorant superstitions, the One Spirit, the Creator
+and Ruler of the World, is the great object of the Red Man's adoration.
+On him they rest their hopes; to him they address their daily prayers,
+and render their solemn sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>The worship of the Indians, although frequently in private, is generally
+little regulated either by ceremonies or stated periodical devotions.
+But there are, at times, great occasions, when the whole tribe assembles
+for the purpose,<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> such as in declaring war or proclaiming peace, or
+when visited by storms or earthquakes. Their great feasts all partake of
+a religious character; every thing provided must be consumed by the
+assembly, as being consecrated to the Great Spirit. The Ottawas seem to
+have had a more complicated mythology than any other tribe: they held a
+regular festival in honor of the sun; and, while rendering thanks for
+past benefit, prayed that it might be continued to the future. They have
+also been observed to erect an idol in their village, and offer it
+sacrifice: this ceremony was, however, very rare. Many Western tribes
+visit the spring whence they have been supplied with water during the
+winter, at the breaking up of the ice, and there offer up their grateful
+worship to the Great Spirit for having preserved them in health and
+safety, and having supplied their wants. This pious homage is performed
+with much ceremony and devotion.</p>
+
+<p>Among this rude people, who were at one time supposed to have been
+without any religion, habitual piety may be considered the most
+remarkable characteristic: every action of their lives is connected with
+some acknowledgment of a Superior Power. Many have imagined that the
+severe fasts sometimes endured by the Indians were only for the purpose
+of accustoming themselves to support hunger; but all the circumstances
+connected with these voluntary privations leave no doubt that they were
+solemn religious exercises. Dreams and visions during these fasts were
+looked upon as oracular, and respected as the revelations of Heaven. The
+Indian frequently propitiates the favor of the inferior spirits by vows;
+when for some time unsuccessful in the chase, or suffering from want in
+long journeys, he promises the genius of the spot to bestow upon one of
+his chiefs, in its honor, a portion of the first fruits of his
+success;<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> if the chief be too distant to receive the gift, it is
+burned in sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>The belief of the Indian in a future state, although deeply cherished
+and sincere, can scarcely be regarded as a defined idea of the
+immortality of the soul.<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> There is little spiritual or exalted in
+his conception. When he attempts to form a distinct notion of the
+spirit, he is blinded by his senses; he calls it the shadow or image of
+his body, but its acts and enjoyments are all the same as those of its
+earthly existence. He only pictures to himself a continuation of present
+pleasures. His Heaven is a delightful country, far away beyond the
+unknown Western seas, where the skies are ever bright and serene, the
+air genial, the spring eternal, and the forests abounding in game; no
+war, disease, or torture are known in that happy land; the sufferings of
+life are endured no more, and its sweetest pleasures are perpetuated and
+increased; his wife is tender and obedient, his children dutiful and
+affectionate. In this country of eternal happiness, the Indian hopes to
+be again received into the favor of the Great Spirit, and to rejoice in
+his glorious presence.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> But in his simple mind there is a deep and
+enduring conviction that admission to this delightful country of souls
+can only be attained by good and noble actions in this mortal life. For
+the bad men there is a fate terribly different&mdash;endless afflictions,
+want, and misery; a land of hideous desolation; barren, parched, and
+dreary hunting-grounds, the abode of evil and malignant spirits, whose
+office is to torture, whose pleasure is to enhance the misery of the
+condemned. It is also almost universally believed that the Great Spirit
+manifests his wrath or his favor to the evil and the good in their
+journey to the land of souls. After death the Indian believes that he is
+supplied with a canoe; and if he has been a virtuous warrior, or
+otherwise worthy, he is guided across the vast deep to a haven of
+eternal happiness and peace by the hand of the Great Spirit; but if his
+life be stained with cowardice, vice, or negligence of duty, he is
+abandoned to the malignity of evil genii, driven about by storms and
+darkness over that unknown sea, and at length cast ashore on the barren
+land, where everlasting torments are his portion.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Indians generally believe in the existence of a Spirit of Evil, and
+occasionally pray to him in deprecation of his wrath. They do not doubt
+his inferiority to the Great Spirit, but they believe that he has the
+power to inflict torments and punishments upon the human race, and that
+he has a malignant delight in its exercise.</p>
+
+<p>The souls of the lower animals are also held by the Red Man to be
+immortal: he recognizes a certain portion of understanding in them, and
+each creature is supposed to possess a guardian spirit peculiar to
+itself. He only claims a superiority in degree of intelligence and power
+over the beasts of the field, Man is but the king of animals. In the
+world of souls are to be found the shades of every thing that breathes
+the breath of life. However, he takes little pains to arrange or develop
+these strange ideas. The enlightened heathen philosophers of antiquity
+were not more successful.</p>
+
+<p>To penetrate the mysteries of the future has always been a favorite
+object of superstition,<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> and has been attempted by a countless
+variety of means. The Indian trusts to his dreams for this revelation,
+and invariably holds them sacred. Before he engages in any important
+undertaking, particularly in war, diplomacy, or the chase, the dreams of
+his principal chiefs are carefully watched and examined; by their
+interpretation his conduct is guided. In this manner the fate of a whole
+nation has often been decided by the chance visions of a single man. The
+Indian considers that dreams are the mode by which the Great Spirit
+condescends to hold converse with man; thence arises his deep veneration
+for the omens and warnings they may shadow forth.<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p>
+
+<p>Many other superstitions, besides those of prognostics from dreams, are
+cherished among the Indians. Each remarkable natural feature, such as a
+great cataract, a lake, or a difficult and dangerous pass, possesses a
+spirit of the spot, whose favor they are fain to propitiate by votive
+offerings: skins, bones, pieces of metal, and dead dogs are hung up in
+the neighborhood, and dedicated to its honor. Supposed visions of ghosts
+are sometimes, but rarely, spoken of: it is, however, generally believed
+that the souls of the dead continue for some time to hover round the
+earthly remains: dreading, therefore, that the spirits of those they
+have tortured watch near them to seek opportunity of vengeance, they
+beat the air violently with rods, and raise frightful cries to scare the
+shadowy enemy away.</p>
+
+<p>Among some of the Indian tribes, an old man performed the duty of a
+priest at their religious festivals; he broke the bread and cast it in
+the fire, dedicated the different offerings, and officiated in the
+sacrifice. It was also his calling to declare the omens from dreams and
+other signs, as the warnings of Heaven. These religious duties of the
+priest were totally distinct from the office of the juggler, or
+"medicine-man," although some observers have confounded them together.
+There were also vestals in many nations of the continent who were
+supposed to supply by their touch a precious medicinal efficacy to
+certain roots and simples.</p>
+
+<p>The "medicine-men," or jugglers, undertook the cure of diseases, the
+interpretation of omens, the exorcising of evil spirits, and magic in
+all its branches. They were men of great consideration in the tribe, and
+were called in and regularly paid as physicians; but this position could
+only be attained by undergoing certain ordeals, which were looked upon
+as a compact with the spirits of the air. The process of the vapor bath
+was first endured; severe fasting followed, accompanied by constant
+shouting, singing, beating a sort of drum, and smoking. After these
+preliminaries the jugglers were installed by extravagant ceremonies,
+performed with furious excitement and agitation. They possessed,
+doubtless, some real knowledge of the healing art; and in external
+wounds or injuries, the causes of which are obvious, they applied
+powerful simples, chiefly vegetable, with considerable skill. With
+decoctions from ginseng, sassafras, hedisaron, and a tall shrub called
+bellis, they have been known to perform remarkable cures in cases of
+wounds and ulcers. They scarified the seat of inflammation or rheumatic
+pain skillfully with sharp-pointed bones, and accomplished the cupping
+process by the use of gourd shells as substitutes for glasses. For all
+internal complaints, their favorite specific was the vapor bath, which
+they formed with much ingenuity from their rude materials. This was
+doubtless a very efficient remedy, but they attached to it a
+supernatural influence, and employed it in the ceremonies of solemn
+preparation for great councils.</p>
+
+<p>All cases of disease, when the cause could not be discovered, were
+attributed to the influence of malignant spirits. To meet these, the
+medicine-man, or juggler, invested himself with his mysterious
+character, and endeavored to exorcise the demon by a great variety of
+ceremonies, a mixture of delusion and imposture. For this purpose, he
+arrayed himself in a strange and fanciful dress, and on his first
+arrival began to sing and dance round the sufferer, invoking the
+spirits with loud cries. When exhausted with these exertions, he
+attributed the hidden cause of the malady to the first unusual idea that
+suggested itself to his mind, and in the confidence of his supposed
+inspiration, proclaimed the necessary cure. The juggler usually
+contrived to avoid the responsibility of failure by ordering a remedy
+impossible of attainment when the patient was not likely to recover. The
+Iroquois believed that every ailment was a desire of the soul, and, when
+death followed, it was from the desire not having been accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>Among many of the Indian tribes, the barbarous custom of putting to
+death those who were thought past recovery, existed, and still exists.
+Others abandoned these unfortunates to perish of hunger and thirst, or
+under the jaws of the wild beasts of the forest. Some nations put to
+death all infants who had lost their mother, or buried them alive in her
+grave, under the impression that no other woman could rear them, and
+that they must perish by hunger. But the dreadful custom of deserting
+the aged and emaciated among the wandering tribes is universal.<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a>
+When these miserable creatures become incapable of walking or riding,
+and there is no means of carrying them, they themselves uniformly insist
+upon being abandoned to their fate, saying that they are old and of no
+further use&mdash;they left their fathers in the same manner&mdash;they wish to
+die, and their children must not mourn for them. A small fire and a few
+pieces of wood, a scanty supply of meat, and perhaps a buffalo skin, are
+left as the old man's sole resources. When in a few months the wandering
+tribe may revisit the spot where he was deserted, a skull and a few
+scattered bones will be all that the wolves and vultures have left as
+tokens of his dreadful fate.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian father and mother display great tenderness for their
+children,<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> even to the weakness of unlimited indulgence; this
+affection, however, appears to be merely instinctive, for they use no
+exertion whatever to lead their offspring to the paths of virtue.
+Children, on their part, show very little filial affection, and
+frequently treat their parents, especially their father, with indignity
+and violence. This vicious characteristic is strongly exemplified in the
+horrible custom above described.</p>
+
+<p>When the Indian believes that his death is at hand, his conduct is
+usually stoical and dignified. If he still retain the power of speech,
+he harangues those who surround him in a funeral oration, advising and
+encouraging his children, and bidding them and all his friends farewell.
+During this time, the relations of the dying man slay all the dogs they
+can catch, trusting that the souls of these animals will give notice of
+the approaching departure of the warrior for the world of spirits; they
+then take leave of him, wish him a happy voyage, and cheer him with the
+hope that his children will prove worthy of his name. When the last
+moment arrives, all the kindred break into loud lamentations, till some
+one high in consideration desires them to cease. For weeks afterward,
+however, these cries of grief are daily renewed at sunrise and sunset.
+In three days after death the funeral takes place, and the neighbors are
+invited to a feast of all the provisions that can be procured, which
+must be all consumed. The relations of the deceased do not join in the
+banquet; they cut off their hair, cover their heads, blacken their
+faces, and for a long time deny themselves every amusement.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p>
+
+<p>The deceased is buried with his arms and ornaments, and a supply of
+provisions for his long journey; the face is painted, and the body
+arrayed in the richest robes that can be obtained; it is then laid in
+the grave in an upright posture, and skins are carefully placed around,
+that it may not touch the earth. At stated intervals of eight, ten, or
+twelve years, the Indians celebrate the singular ceremony of the
+Festival of the Dead; till this has been performed, the souls of the
+deceased are supposed still to hover round their earthly remains. At
+this solemn festival, the people march in procession to the
+burial-ground, open the tombs, and continue for a time gazing on the
+moldering relics in mournful silence. Then, while the women raise a loud
+wailing, the bones of the dead are carefully collected, wrapped in fresh
+and valuable robes, and conveyed to the family cabin.<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> A feast is
+then held for several days, with dances, games, and prize combats. The
+relics are next carried to the council-house of the nation, where they
+are publicly displayed, with the presents destined to be interred with
+them. Sometimes the remains are even carried on bearers from village to
+village. At length they are laid in a deep pit, lined with rich furs;
+tears and lamentations are again renewed, and for some time fresh
+provisions are daily laid, by this simple people, upon the graves of
+their departed friends.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> "At night the savages direct their course by the polar
+star; they call it the <i>motionless star</i>. It is a curious coincidence
+that the constellation of the Bear should be called by the savages the
+Bear. This is certainly a very ancient name among them, and given long
+before any Europeans visited the country. They turn into ridicule the
+large imaginary tail which astronomers have given to an animal that has
+scarcely any such appendage, and they call the three stars that compose
+the tail of the Bear, three hunters who are in pursuit of it. The second
+of these stars has a very small one very close to it. This, they say, is
+the kettle of the second hunter, who is the bearer of the baggage and
+the provision belonging to all three.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> The savages also call the
+Pleiades 'the Dancers,' and Hygin tells us that they were thus called by
+the ancients, because they seem, from the arrangement of their stars, to
+be engaged in a circular dance."&mdash;Lafitau, vol. ii., p. 236. Hygin.,
+lib. ii., art. Taurus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> "Even at the present time" (1720), Lafitau writes, "these
+three stars are called in Italy, <i>i tre cavalli</i>"&mdash;the three knights&mdash;on
+the celestial globe of Caronelli.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> See Appendix, No. L. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> Charlevoix says that the eloquence of the savages was
+such as the Greeks admired in the barbarians, "strong, stern,
+sententious, pointed, perfectly undisguised."
+</p><p>
+Decanesora's oratory was greatly admired by the most cultivated among
+the English: his bust was said to resemble that of Cicero. The
+celebrated address of Logan is too well known to be cited here. Mr.
+Jefferson says of it, "I may challenge the whole orations of Demosthenes
+and Cicero, and of any other more eminent orator, if Europe has
+furnished more eminent, to produce a single passage superior to the
+speech of Logan." An American statesman and scholar, scarcely less
+illustrious than the former, has expressed his readiness to subscribe to
+this eulogium.&mdash;Clinton's <i>Historical Discourse</i>, 1811.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> Catlin gives the following account of a native preacher,
+known by the name of the Shawnee Prophet: "I soon learned that he was a
+very devoted Christian, regularly holding meetings in his tribe on the
+Sabbath, preaching to them, and exhorting them to a belief in the
+Christian religion, and to an abandonment of the fatal habit of
+whisky-drinking. I went on the Sabbath to hear this eloquent man preach,
+when he had his people assembled in the woods; and although I could not
+understand his language, I was surprised and pleased with the natural
+case, and emphasis, and gesticulation which carried their own evidence
+of the eloquence of his sermon. I was singularly struck with the noble
+efforts of this champion of the mere remnant of a poisoned race, so
+strenuously laboring to rescue the remainder of his people from the
+deadly bane that has been brought among them by enlightened Christians.
+It is quite certain that his exemplary endeavors have completely
+abolished the practice of drinking whisky in his tribe."&mdash;Catlin, vol.
+ii., p. 98.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> "Whatever may be the estimate of the Indian character in
+other respects, it is with me an undoubting conviction, that they are by
+nature a shrewd and intelligent race of men, in no wise, as regards
+combination of thought or quickness of apprehension, inferior to
+uneducated white men. This inference I deduce from having instructed
+Indian children.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> I draw it from having seen the men and women in
+all situations calculated to try and call forth their capacities. When
+they examine any of our inventions, steamboats, steam-mills, and cotton
+factories, for instance; when they contemplate any of our institutions
+in operation, by some quick analysis or process of reasoning, they seem
+immediately to comprehend the principle or the object. No spectacle
+affords them more delight than a large and orderly school. They scorn
+instinctively to comprehend, at least they explained to me that they
+felt, the advantages which this order of things gave our children over
+theirs."&mdash;Flint's <i>Ten Years in the Valley of the Mississippi</i>, 1831.
+</p><p>
+Mr. Flint, an experienced and intelligent observer, takes so dark a view
+of the moral character of the Red Indian that his favorable opinion of
+their mental faculties may be looked upon as probably accurate, though
+differing strongly from that more generally held. On the other side of
+the question, among the early writers may be cited M. Bouguer, <i>Voyage
+au P&eacute;rou</i>, p. 102; <i>Voyage d'Ulloa</i>, tom. i., p. 335-337. "They seem to
+live in a perpetual infancy," is the striking expression of De la
+Condamine, <i>Voyage de la Riv. Amazon</i>, p. 52, 53. Chauvelon, <i>Voyage &agrave;
+la Martinique</i>, p. 44, 50. P. Venegas, <i>Hist. de la Californie</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> All those who have expressed an opinion on the subject
+seem to agree that <i>children</i> of most native races are fully, or more
+than a match, for those of Europeans, in aptitude for intellectual
+acquirement. Indeed, it appears to be a singular law of Nature, that
+there is less precocity in the European race than almost any other. In
+those races in which we seem to have reason for believing that the
+intellectual organization is lower, perception is quicker, and maturity
+earlier.&mdash;Merivale <i>On Colonization</i>, vol. ii., p. 197.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> "Thus, on the whole, it may be said that the virtues of
+the savages are reducible to intrepid courage in danger, unshaken
+firmness amid tortures, contempt of pain and death, and patience under
+all the anxieties and distresses of life. No doubt these are useful
+qualities, but they are all confined to the individual, all selfish, and
+without any benefit to the society. Farther, they are proofs of a life
+truly wretched, and a social state so depraved or null, that a man,
+neither finding nor hoping any succor or assistance from it, is obliged
+to wrap himself up in despair, and endeavor to harden himself against
+the strokes of fate. Still it may be urged that these men, in their
+leisure hours, laugh, sing, play, and live without care for the past as
+well as for the future. Will you then deny that they are happier than
+we? Man is such a pitiable and variable creature, and habits have such a
+potent sway over him, that in the most disastrous situations he always
+finds some posture that gives him ease, something that consoles him,
+and, by comparison with past suffering, appears to him well-being and
+happiness; but if to laugh, sing, or play constitute bliss, it must
+likewise be granted that soldiers are perfectly happy beings, since
+there are no men more careless or more gay in dangers or on the eve of
+battle. It must be granted, too, that during the Revolution, in the most
+fatal of our jails, the Conciergerie, the prisoners were very happy,
+since they were, in general, more careless and gay than their keepers,
+or than those who only feared the same fate. The anxieties of those who
+were at large were as numerous as the enjoyments they wished to
+preserve; they who were in the other prisons felt but one, that of
+preserving their lives. In the Conciergerie, where a man was condemned
+in expectation or in reality, he had no longer any care; on the
+contrary, every moment of life was an acquisition, the gain of a good
+that was considered as lost. Such is nearly the situation of a soldier
+in war, and such is really that of the savage throughout the whole
+course of his life. If this be happiness, wretched indeed must be the
+country where it is an object of envy. In pursuing my investigation, I
+do not find that I am led to more advantageous ideas of the liberty of
+the savage; on the contrary, I sees in him only the slave of his wants,
+and of the freaks of a sterile and parsimonious nature. Food he has not
+at hand; rest is not at his command; he must run, weary himself, endure
+hunger and thirst, heat and cold, and all the inclemency of the elements
+and seasons; and as the ignorance in which he was born and bred gives
+him or leaves him a multitude of false and irrational ideas and
+superstitious prejudices, he is likewise the slave of a number of errors
+and passions, from which civilized man is exempted by the science and
+knowledge of every kind that an improved state of society has
+produced."&mdash;Volney's <i>Travels in the United States</i>, p. 467.
+</p><p>
+"Their impassible fortitude and endurance of suffering are, after all,
+in my mind, the result of a greater degree of physical insensibility. It
+has been told me, and I believe it, that in amputation and other
+surgical operations, their nerves do not shrink, do not show the same
+tendency to spasm with those of the whites. When the savage, to explain
+his insensibility to cold, called upon the white man to recollect how
+little his own face was affected by it, in consequence of its constant
+exposure, he added, 'My body is all face.'<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> This increasing
+insensibility, transmitted from generation to generation, finally
+becomes inwrought with the whole web of animal nature, and the body of
+the savage seems to have little more sensibility than the hoofs of
+horses."&mdash;Flint's <i>Ten Years in the Valley of the Mississippi</i>. See,
+also, Ulloa's <i>Notic. Amer.</i>, p. 313.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix quotes a passage from Cicero to the effect that "l'habitude
+au travail donne de la facilit&eacute; &agrave; supporter la douleur."&mdash;2 <i>Tusc.</i>,
+25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Delicacy of skin is observed to be in proportion to
+civilization among nations, in proportion to degrees of refinement among
+individuals.&mdash;Sharon Turner.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Conical stones, wrapped up in 100 goat skins, were the
+idols preserved in the temple of the Natchez. Many authors assert that
+the Amazons and many Eastern people had nothing in their temples but these
+pyramidal stones, which represented to them the Divinity.... "Peut-&ecirc;tre
+aussi vouloient ils (les fondateurs des Pyramides) figurer en m&ecirc;me tems
+la Divinit&eacute;, et ce qui leur restoit d'id&eacute;es du myst&egrave;re de la Sainte
+Trinit&eacute;, dans les trois faces de ces pyramides. Du moins est ce ainsi
+qu'aux Indes un Brame paroissoit concevoir les choses et s'expliquer
+d'apr&egrave;s les anciennes. 'Il faut,' disoit il, 'se r&eacute;pr&eacute;senter Dieu et ses
+trois noms diff&eacute;rents qui r&eacute;pondent &agrave; ces trois principaux attributs, &agrave;
+peu pr&egrave;s sous l'id&eacute;e de ces Pyramides triangulaires qu'on voit &eacute;lev&eacute;es
+devant la poste de quelques temples."&mdash;<i>Lettre du P&egrave;re Bouchet &agrave; M.
+Huet, Ev&ecirc;que d'Avranches.</i> Three logs are always employed to keep up
+the fire in the Natchez temple.&mdash;Lafitau, vol. i., p. 167.
+</p><p>
+Extract from a dialogue between John Wesley and the Chickasaw Indians:
+</p><p>
+"<i>Wesley.</i> Do you believe there is One above who is over all things?
+</p><p>
+"<i>Answer.</i> We believe there are four beloved things above&mdash;the clouds,
+the sun, the clear sky, and He that lives in the clear sky.
+</p><p>
+"<i>Wesley.</i> Do you believe there is but One who lives in the clear sky?
+</p><p>
+"<i>Answer.</i> We believe there are two with Him, three in all."&mdash;Wesley's
+<i>Journal</i>, No. 1., p. 39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> See Stephens's "Incidents of Travel in Central America,"
+vol. ii., p. 346.
+</p><p>
+"Les croix qui ont tant excit&eacute; la curiosit&eacute; des conquistadores &agrave;
+Coqumel, &agrave; Yucatan, et dans d'autres contr&eacute;es de l'Am&eacute;rique ne sont pas
+'des contes de moines,' et m&eacute;ritent, comme tout ce qui a rapport au
+culte des peuples indig&egrave;nes du Nouveau Continent, un examen plus
+s&eacute;rieux. Je me sers du mot culte, car un relief conserv&eacute; dans les ruines
+de Palenque, de Guatemala, et dont je poss&egrave;de une copie, ne me para&icirc;t
+laisser ancun doute qu'une figure symbolique en forme de croix &eacute;toit un
+objet d'adoration. Il faut faire observer cependant qu'&agrave; cette croix
+manque le prolongement sup&eacute;rieur, et qu'elle forme plut&ocirc;t la lettre
+<i>tau</i>. Des id&eacute;es qui n'ont ancun rapport avec le Christianisme ont pu
+&ecirc;tre symboliquement attach&eacute;es &agrave; cet embl&ecirc;me Egyptien d'Herm&egrave;s, si
+c&eacute;l&eacute;bre parmi les Chr&eacute;tiens depuis la destruction du temple de S&eacute;rapis &agrave;
+Alexandrie sous Th&eacute;odose le Grand. (Rufinus, <i>Hist. Eccles.</i>, lib. ii.,
+cap. xxix., p. 294; Zozomenes, <i>Eccl. Hist.</i>, lib. iii., cap. xv.) Un
+b&acirc;ton termin&eacute; par une croix se voit dans la main d'Astart&eacute; sur les
+monnaies de Sidon au 3me si&egrave;cle avant notre &egrave;re. En Scandinavie, un
+signe de l'alphabet <i>runique</i> figurait le <i>marteau de Thor</i>, tr&egrave;s
+semblable &agrave; la croix du relief de Palenque. On marquoit de cette <i>rune</i>,
+dans les tems payens, les objets qu'on vouloit sanctifier." (Voyez
+l'excellent Trait&eacute; de M. Guillaume Grimm. <i>Ueber Deutsche Runen</i>, p.
+242.)&mdash;Humboldt, <i>G&eacute;ographie de Nouveau Continent</i>, vol. ii., p. 356.
+</p><p>
+"La&euml;t avoue qu' Herrera parle d'une esp&egrave;ce de bapt&ecirc;me, et de confession
+usit&eacute;e dans Yucatan et dans les isles voisines, mais il ajoute qu'il est
+bien plus naturel d'attribuer toutes ces marques &eacute;quivoques de
+Christianisme qu'on a cru apercevoir en plusieurs provinces du Nouveau
+Monde au d&eacute;mon qui a toujours affect&eacute; de contrefaire le culte du vrai
+Dieu." Charlevoix adds, "Cette remarque est de tous les bons auteurs qui
+out parle de la religion des peuples nouvellement d&eacute;couverts, et fond&eacute;e
+sur l'autorit&eacute; des p&egrave;res de l'Eglise."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> See Appendix, No. LI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> "The most sensual, degraded, and least intellectual
+tribes of Northern Asia and America have purer notions of a Spiritual
+Deity than were possessed of old by the worshipers of Jupiter and Juno
+under Pericles."&mdash;<i>Progression by Antagonism.</i> This, according to Lord
+Lindsay's theory, is to be accounted for by the absence of imagination,
+these nations being only governed by Sense and Spirit, to the exclusion
+of intellect in either of its manifestations, Imagination, or
+Reason.&mdash;P. 21, 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> "At the breaking up of the winter," says Hunter, "after
+having supplied ourselves with such things as were necessary and the
+situation afforded, all our party visited the spring from which we had
+procured our supplies of water, and there offered up our orisons to the
+Great Spirit for having preserved us in health and safety, and for
+having supplied all our wants. This is the constant practice of the
+Osages, Kansas, and many other nations of Indians on breaking up their
+encampments, and is by no means an unimportant ceremony." The habitual
+piety of the Indian mind is remarked by Heckewelder, and strongly
+insisted upon by Hunter, and it is satisfactorily proved by the whole
+tenor of his descriptions, where he throws himself back, as it were,
+into the feelings peculiar to Indian life. And, indeed, after hearing at
+a council the broken fragments of an Indian harangue, however
+imperfectly rendered by an ignorant interpreter, or reading the few
+specimens of Indian oratory which have been preserved by translation, no
+one can fail to remark a perpetual and earnest reference to the power
+and goodness of the Deity. "Brothers! we all belong to one family; we
+are all children of the Great Spirit," was the commencement of
+Tecumth&eacute;'s harangue to the Osages; and he afterward tells them: "When
+the white men first set foot on our grounds, they were hungry; they had
+no places on which to spread their blankets or to kindle their fires.
+They were feeble; they could do nothing for themselves. Our fathers
+commiserated their distress, and shared freely with them whatever the
+Great Spirit has given to his red children."&mdash;<i>Quarterly Review.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> On the remarkable occasion on which our forces were
+compelled, in 1813, to evacuate the Michigan territory, Tecumth&eacute;, in the
+name of his nation, refused to consent to retreat; he closed his denial
+with these words: "Our lives are in the hand of the Great Spirit: He
+gave the lands which we possess to our fathers; if it be his will, our
+bones shall whiten upon them, but we will never quit them." An old
+Oneida chief, who was blind from years, observed to Heckewelder, "I am
+an aged hemlock; the winds of one hundred years have whistled through my
+branches; I am dead at the top. Why I yet live, the great, good Spirit
+only knows." This venerable father of the forest lived long enough to be
+converted to Christianity.&mdash;<i>Quarterly Review.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> A Huron woman under the instruction of a missionary, who
+detailed to her the perfections of God, exclaimed, in a species of
+ecstasy, "I understand, I understand; and I always felt convinced that
+our Areskoui was exactly such a one as the God you have described to
+me."&mdash;Lafitau, tom. i., p. 127. The Great Spirit was named Areskoui
+among the Huron, Agriskon&eacute; among the Iroquois, Manitou among the
+Algonquins.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> See Appendix, No. LII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Every spring the Arkansas go in a body to some retired
+place, and there turn up a large space of land, which they do with the
+drums beating all the while. After this they call it the <i>Desart</i>, or
+the Field of the Spirit, and thither they go when they are in their
+enthusiastic fits, and there wait for inspiration from their pretended
+deity. In the mean while, as they do this every year, it proves of no
+small advantage to them, for by this means they turn up all their land
+by degrees, and it becomes abundantly more fruitful.&mdash;Tonti.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> Lafitau asserts that the first beast killed by a young
+hunter was always offered in sacrifice.&mdash;Vol. i., p. 515. See Catlin's
+description of the sacrifices and ceremonies practiced when the first
+fruits of corn are ripe.&mdash;Catlin, vol. i., p. 189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> Peter Martyr speaks of the general opinion among the
+early discoverers that the Indians believed in a species of immortality.
+"They confess the soul to be immortal; having put off the bodily
+clothing, they imagine it goeth forth to the woods and the mountains,
+and that it liveth there perpetually in caves; nor do they exempt it
+from eating or drinking, but that it should be fed there. The answering
+voices heard from caves and hollows, which the Latines call echoes, they
+suppose to be the souls of the departed wandering through those
+places."&mdash;Peter Martyr, Decad. VIII., cap. ix., M. Lock's translation,
+1612.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> "Une jeune sauvagesse voyant sa s&oelig;ur mourante, par la
+quantit&eacute; de cigu&euml; qui elle avoit pris dans un d&eacute;pit, et d&eacute;termin&eacute; &agrave; ne
+faire aucun rem&egrave;de pour se garantir de la mort, pleuroit &agrave; chaudes
+larmes, et s'effor&ccedil;oit de la toucher par les liens du sang, et de
+l'amiti&eacute; qui les unissoit ensemble. Elle lui disoit sans cesse, 'C'en
+est donc fait; in veux que nous ne nous retrouvions jamais plus, et que
+nous ne nous revoyions jamais?' Le missionnaire, frapp&eacute; de ces paroles,
+lui en demanda la raison. 'Il me semble,' dit-il, 'que vous avez un pays
+des &acirc;mes, o&ugrave; vous devez tous vous re&uuml;nir &agrave; vos anc&ecirc;tres; pourquoi donc
+est ce que tu parles ainsi &agrave; la s&oelig;ur?' 'Il est vrai,' reprit-elle,
+'que nous allons tous au pays des &acirc;mes; mais les mechants, et ceux en
+particulier, qui se sont d&ecirc;truits eux-m&ecirc;mes par un mort violente, y
+portent la peine de leur crime; ils y sont s&eacute;par&eacute;s des autres, et n'ont
+point de communication avec eux: c'est l&agrave; le sujet de mes
+peines.'"&mdash;Lafitau, tom. i., p. 404. See Appendix, LII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> Hunter gives the following view of the Indian mythology,
+while describing his own and his companions' first sight of the Pacific
+Ocean: "Here the surprise and astonishment of our whole party was
+indescribably great. The unbounded view of waters, the incessant and
+tremendous dashing of the waves along the shore, accompanied with a
+noise resembling the roar of loud and distant thunder, filled our minds
+with the most sublime and awful sensation, and fixed on them as
+immutable truths the tradition we had received from our old men, that
+the great waters divide the residence of the Great Spirit from the
+temporary abodes of his red children. We have contemplated in silent
+dread the immense difficulties over which we should be obliged to
+triumph after death before we could arrive at those delightful
+hunting-grounds, which are unalterably destined for such only as do
+good, and love the Great Spirit. We looked in vain for the stranded and
+shattered canoes of those who had done wickedly; we could see none, and
+were led to hope they were few in number. We offered up our devotions,
+or, I might say, our minds were serious, and our devotions continued all
+the time we were in this country, for we had ever been taught to believe
+that the Great Spirit resided on the western side of the Rocky
+Mountains; and this idea continued throughout the journey,
+notwithstanding the more specific boundary assigned to Him by our
+traditionary dogmas."&mdash;<i>Memoirs of a Captivity among the North American
+Indians from Childhood to the Age of Nineteen</i>. By John D. Hunter, p.
+69. 1824.&mdash;See Appendix, No. LIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> See Appendix, No. LIV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> See Appendix, No. LV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> See Appendix, No. LVI. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> "While I remained among the Indians, a couple, whose tent
+was adjacent to mine, lost a son of four years of age. The parents were
+so much affected at the death of their child, that they observed the
+usual testimonies of grief with such extreme rigor as through the weight
+of sorrow and loss of blood to occasion the loss of the father. The
+woman, who had hitherto been inconsolable, no sooner saw her husband
+expire than she dried up her tears, and appeared cheerful and resigned.
+I took an opportunity of asking her the reason of so extraordinary a
+transition, when she informed me that her child was so young it would
+have been unable to support itself in the world of spirits, and both she
+and her husband were apprehensive that its situation would be far from
+happy. No sooner, however, did she behold her husband depart for the
+same place, who not only loved the child with the tenderest affection,
+but was a good hunter, and would be able to provide plentifully for its
+support, than she ceased to mourn. She said she had now no reason to
+continue her tears, as the child on whom she doted was under the care
+and protection of a fond father, and she had now only one wish remaining
+ungratified, that of herself being with them."&mdash;Carver.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> Captain Franklin says of the Chippewyans, "No article is
+spared by these unhappy men when a near relative dies; their clothes and
+tents are cut to pieces, their guns broken, and every other weapon
+rendered useless if some person do not remove these articles from their
+sight."
+</p><p>
+"When the French missionaries asked the Indians why they deprived
+themselves of their most necessary articles in favor of the dead, they
+answered, 'that it was not only to evidence their love for their
+departed relatives, but that they might avoid the sight of objects
+which, having been used by them, would continually renew their grief.'
+The same delicacy of feeling, so inconsistent with the coarseness of the
+Red Man's nature, was manifested in their custom of never uttering the
+names of the dead; and if these names were borne by any of the other
+members of the family, they laid them aside during the whole of their
+mourning. And it was esteemed the greatest insult that could be offered
+to say to any one, 'Your father is dead, your mother is
+dead.'"&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 109.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> P&egrave;re Brebeuf, <i>Relation de la Nouvelle France</i>;
+Charlevoix; Lafitau. Catlin describes the same ceremonies.
+</p><p>
+It has been often said that the care taken by the Indians for the
+deceased corpses of their ancestors was in consequence of a universally
+received tradition that these corpses were to rise again to immortal
+life.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the warmer and milder climates of America, none of the rude tribes
+were clothed; for them there was little need of defense against the
+weather, and their extreme indolence indisposed them to any exertion not
+absolutely necessary for their subsistence. Others were satisfied with a
+very slight covering, but all delighted in ornaments. They dressed their
+hair in different forms, stained their skins, and fastened bits of gold,
+or shells, or bright pebbles in their noses and cheeks. They also
+frequently endeavored to alter their natural form and feature; as soon
+as an infant was born, it was subjected to some cruel process of
+compression, by which the bones of the skull while still soft, were
+squeezed into the shape of a cone, or flattened, or otherwise
+distorted.<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> But in all efforts to adorn or alter their persons, the
+great object was to inspire terror and respect. The warrior was
+indifferent to the admiration of woman, whom he enslaved and despised,
+and it was only for war or the council that he assumed his choicest
+ornaments, and painted himself with unusual care. The decorations of the
+women were few and simple; all those that were precious and splendid
+were reserved for their haughty lords. In several tribes, the wives had
+to devote much of their time to adorning their husbands, and could
+bestow little attention upon themselves. The different nations remaining
+unclothed show considerable sagacity in anointing themselves in such a
+manner as to provide against the heat and moisture of the climate. Soot,
+the juices of herbs having a green, yellow, or vermilion tint, mixed
+with oil and grease, are lavishly employed upon their skin to adorn it
+and render it impervious. By this practice profuse perspiration is
+checked, and a defense is afforded against the innumerable and
+tormenting insects that abound every where in America.<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> Black and
+red are the favorite colors for painting the face. In war, black is
+profusely laid on, the other colors being only used to heighten its
+effect, and give a terrible expression to the countenance.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> The
+breast, arms, and legs of the Indian are tattooed with sharp needles or
+pointed bones, the colors being carefully rubbed in. His Manitou, and
+the animal chosen as the symbol of his tribe, are first painted, then
+all his most remarkable exploits, and the enemies he has slain or
+scalped, so that his body displays a pictorial history of his life.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the severe climate of the north the Indian's dress is somewhat more
+ample. Instead of shoes he wears a strip of soft leather wrapped round
+the foot, called the moccasin. Upward to the middle of the thigh, a
+piece of leather or cloth, fitting closely, serves instead of pantaloons
+and stockings: it is usually sewed on to the limb, and is never removed.
+Two aprons, each about a foot square, are fastened to a girdle round the
+waist, and hang before and behind. This is their permanent dress. On
+occasions of ceremony, however, and in cold weather, they also wear a
+short shirt, and over all a loose robe, closed or held together in
+front. Now, an English blanket is generally used for this garment; but,
+before the produce of European art was known among them, the skins of
+wild animals furnished all their covering. The chiefs usually wear a
+sort of breast-plate, covered with shells, pebbles, and pieces of
+glittering metal. Those who communicate with Europeans display beads,
+rings, bracelets, and other gauds instead. The ear, too, is cumbrously
+ornamented with showy pendents, and the tuft of hair on the crown of the
+head is interwoven with feathers, the wings of birds, shells, and many
+fantastic ornaments. Sometimes the Indian warrior wears buffalo
+horns,<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> reduced in size and polished, on his head: this, however, is
+a distinction only for those renowned in war or in the council. The
+dress of the women varies but little from that of the men, except in
+being more simple. They wear their hair long and flowing, and richly
+ornamented, whenever they can procure the means.</p>
+
+<p>The dwellings of the Indians usually receive much less attention than
+their personal appearance. Even among tribes comparatively far advanced
+in civilization, the structure of their houses or cabans was very rude
+and simple. They were generally wretched huts, of an oblong or circular
+form, and sometimes so low that it was always necessary to preserve a
+sitting or lying posture while under their shelter. There were no
+windows; a large hole in the center of the roof allowed the smoke to
+escape; and a sort of curtain of birch bark occupied the place of the
+door. These dwellings are sometimes 100 feet long, when they accommodate
+several families. Four cabans generally form a quadrangle, each open to
+the inside, with the fire in the center common to all. The numerous and
+powerful tribes formerly inhabiting Canada and its borders usually dwelt
+in huts of a very rude description. In their expeditions, both for war
+and the chase, the Indians erect temporary cabans in a remarkably short
+space of time. A few poles, raised in the shape of a cone, and covered
+with birch bark, form the roof, and the tops of pine branches make a
+fragrant bed. In winter the snow is cleared out of the place where the
+caban is to be raised, and shaped into walls, which form a shelter from
+the wind. The permanent dwellings were usually grouped in villages,
+surrounded with double and even triple rows of palisades, interlaced
+with branches of trees, so as to form a compact barrier, and offering a
+considerable difficulty to an assailing foe.</p>
+
+<p>The furniture in these huts was very scanty. The use of metal being
+unknown, the pots or vessels for boiling their food were made of coarse
+earthen-ware, or of soft stone hollowed out with a hatchet. In some
+cases they were made of wood, and the water was boiled by throwing in a
+number of heated stones.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian displays some skill in the construction of canoes, and they
+are admirably adapted for his purpose. They are usually made of the bark
+of a single tree, strengthened by ribs of strong wood. These light and
+buoyant skiffs float safely on stormy or rapid waters under the
+practiced guidance of the Indian, and can with ease be borne on his
+shoulder from one river or lake to another. Canoes formed out of the
+trunk of a large tree are also sometimes used, especially in winter, for
+the purpose of crossing rivers when there is floating ice, their great
+strength rendering them capable of enduring the collision with the
+floating masses, to which they are liable.</p>
+
+<p>Even among the rudest Indian tribes a regular union between man and wife
+was universal, although not attended with ceremonials. The marriage
+contract is a matter of purchase. The man buys his wife of her parents;
+not with money, for its value is unknown, but with some useful and
+precious article, such as a robe of bear or other handsome skin, a
+horse, a rifle, powder and shot. When the Indian has made the bargain
+with his wife's parents, he takes her home to his caban, and from that
+time she becomes his slave. There are several singular modes of
+courtship among some of the tribes, but generally much reserve and
+consideration are exhibited.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> In many respects, however, the morals
+and manners of the Indians are such as might be expected in communities
+where the precepts of Christianity are unknown, and where even the
+artificial light of civilization is wanting. There are occasionally
+instances of a divorce being resorted to from mere caprice; but,
+usually, the marriage tie is regarded as a perpetual covenant. As the
+wife toils incessantly, and procures a great part of the subsistence,
+she is considered too valuable a servant to be lightly lost. Among the
+chiefs of the tribes to the west and south, polygamy is general, and the
+number of these wife-servants constitute the principal wealth; but among
+the northern nations this plurality is very rarely possessed. The Indian
+is seldom seen to bestow the slightest mark of tenderness upon his wife
+or children: he, however, exerts himself to the utmost for their
+welfare, and will sacrifice his life to avenge their wrongs. His
+indomitable pride prompts him to assume an apparent apathy, and to
+control every emotion of affection, suffering, or sorrow.</p>
+
+<p>Parents perform few duties toward their children beyond procuring their
+daily bread. The father is by turns occupied in war and the chase, or
+sunk in total indolence, while the mother is oppressed by the toils of
+her laborious bondage, and has but little time to devote to her maternal
+cares. The infant is fastened to a board, cushioned with soft moss, by
+thongs of leather, and is generally hung on the branch of a tree, or, in
+traveling, carried on the mother's back.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> When able to move, it is
+freed from this confinement, and allowed to make its way about as it
+pleases. It soon reaches some neighboring lake or river, and sports
+itself in the water all day long. As the child advances in years it
+enjoys perfect independence; it is rarely or never reproved or
+chastised. The youths are early led to emulate the deeds of their
+fathers; they practice with the bow, and other weapons suited to a
+warrior's use; and, as manhood approaches, they gradually assume the
+dignified gravity of the elders. In some tribes the young men must pass
+through a dreadful ordeal when they arrive at the age of manhood, which
+is supposed to prepare them for the endurance of all future sufferings,
+and enables the chiefs to judge of their courage, and to select the
+bravest among them to lead in difficult enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>During four days previous to this terrible torture the candidates
+observe a strict fast, and are denied all sleep. When the appointed day
+arrives, certain strange ceremonies of an allegorical description are
+performed, in which all the inhabitants of the village take part. The
+candidates then repair to a large caban, where the chiefs and elders of
+the tribe are assembled to witness the ordeal. The torture commences by
+driving splints of wood through the flesh of the back and breasts of the
+victim: he is next hoisted off the ground by ropes attached to these
+splints, and suspended by the quivering flesh, while the tormentors
+twist the hanging body slowly round, thus exquisitely enhancing the
+agony, till a death-faint comes to the relief of the candidate: he is
+then lowered to the ground and left to the care of the Great Spirit.
+When he recovers animation, he rises and proceeds on his hands and feet
+to another part of the caban: he there lays the little finger of the
+left hand upon a buffalo skull, as a sacrifice to the Great Spirit, and
+another Indian chops it off. The fore-finger is also frequently offered
+up in the same manner: this mutilation does not interfere with the use
+of the bow, the only weapon for which the left hand is required. Other
+cruel tortures are inflicted for some time, and at length the wretched
+victim, reeling and staggering from the intensity of his suffering,
+reaches his own dwelling, where he is placed under the care of his
+friends. Some of the famous warriors of the tribe pass through this
+horrible ordeal repeatedly, and the oftener it is endured, the greater
+is their estimation among their people. No bandages are applied to the
+wounds thus inflicted, nor is any attention paid to their cure; but,
+from the extreme exhaustion and debility caused by want of sustenance
+and sleep, circulation is checked, and sensibility diminished; the
+bleeding and inflammation are very slight, and the results are seldom
+injurious.</p>
+
+<p>The native tribes are engaged in almost perpetual hostility against each
+other. War is the great occupation of savage life, the measure of merit,
+the high road of ambition, and the source of its intensest
+joy&mdash;revenge.<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> In war the Indian character presents the darkest
+aspect; the finer and gentler qualities are vailed or dormant, and a
+fiendish ferocity assumes full sway. It is waged to exterminate, not to
+reduce. The enemy is assailed with treachery, and, if conquered, treated
+with revolting cruelty. The glory and excitement of war are dear to the
+Indian, but when the first drop of blood is shed, revenge is dearer
+still. He thirsts to offer up the life of an enemy to appease the
+departed spirit of a slaughtered friend. Thus each contest generates
+another even more embittered than itself. The extension or defense of
+the hunting-grounds is often a primary cause of hostility among the
+native nations, and the increase of the power of their tribe by
+incorporating with them such of the vanquished as they may spare from a
+cruel death is another frequent motive. The savage pines and chafes in
+long-continued peace, and the prudence of the aged can with difficulty
+restrain the fierce impetuosity of the young. Individual quarrels and a
+thirst for fame often lead a single savage to invade a hostile territory
+against the counsels of his tribe; but, when war is determined by the
+general voice, more enlarged views, and a desire of aggrandizement guide
+the proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the determination of declaring war is formed, he who is
+chosen by the nation as the chief enters on a course of solemn
+preparation, entreating the aid and guidance of the Great Spirit. As a
+signal of the approaching strife, he marches three times round his
+winter dwelling, bearing a large blood-red flag, variegated with deep
+tints of black. When this terrible emblem is seen, the young warriors
+crowd around to hearken to the words of their chief. He then addresses
+them in a strain of impassioned, but rude and ferocious eloquence,
+calling upon them to follow him to glory and revenge. When he concludes
+his oration, he throws a wampum belt on the ground, which is
+respectfully lifted up by some warrior of high renown, who is judged
+worthy of being second in command. The chief now paints himself black,
+and commences a strict fast, only tasting a decoction of consecrated
+herbs to assist his dreams, which are strictly noted and interpreted by
+the elders. He then washes off the black paint. A huge fire is lighted
+in a public place in the village, and the great war-caldron set to boil:
+each warrior throws something into this vessel, and the allies who are
+to join the expedition also send offerings for the same purpose. Lastly,
+the sacred dog is sacrificed to the God of War, and boiled in the
+caldron to form the chief dish at a festival, to which only the warriors
+and men great in council are admitted.</p>
+
+<p>During these ceremonies the elders watch the omens with deep anxiety,
+and if the promise be favorable, they prepare for immediate departure.
+The chief then paints himself in bright and varied colors, to render his
+appearance terrible, and sings his war song, announcing the nature of
+the projected enterprise. His example is followed by all the warriors,
+who join a war-dance, while they proclaim with a loud voice the glory of
+their former deeds, and their determination to destroy their enemies.
+Each Indian now seizes his arms: the bow and quiver hang over the left
+shoulder, the tomahawk from the left hand, and the scalping-knife<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a>
+is stuck in the girdle. A distinguished chief is appointed to take
+charge of the Manitous or guardian powers of each warrior; they are
+collected, carefully placed in a box, and accompany the expedition as
+the ark of safety. Meanwhile the women incite the warriors to vengeance,
+and eagerly demand captives for the torture, to appease the spirits of
+their slaughtered relatives, or sometimes, indeed, to supply their
+place. When the war party are prepared to start, the chief addresses his
+followers in a short harangue; they then commence the march, singing,
+and shouting the terrible war-whoop. The women proceed with the
+expedition for some distance; and when they must return, exchange
+endearing names with their husbands and relations, and express ardent
+wishes for victory. Some little gift of affection is usually exchanged
+at parting.</p>
+
+<p>Before striking the first blow the Indians make open declaration of war.
+A herald, painted black, is sent, bearing a red tomahawk, on one side of
+which are inscribed figures representing the causes of hostilities. He
+reaches the enemy's principal village at midnight, throws down the
+tomahawk in some conspicuous place, and disappears silently. When once
+warning is thus given, every stratagem that cunning can suggest is
+employed for the enemy's destruction.</p>
+
+<p>As long as the expedition continues in friendly countries, the warriors
+wander about in small parties for the convenience of hunting, still,
+however, keeping up communication by means of sounds imitating the cries
+of birds and beasts. None ever fail to appear at the appointed place of
+meeting upon the frontier, where they again hold high festival, and
+consult the omens of their dreams. When they enter the hostile territory
+a close array is observed, and a deep silence reigns. They creep on all
+fours, walk through water, or upon the stumps of trees, to avoid leaving
+any trace of their route. To conceal their numbers they sometimes march
+in a long single file, each stepping on the foot-print of the man before
+him. They sometimes even wear the hoofs of the buffalo or the paws of
+the bear, and run for miles in a winding course to imitate the track of
+those animals. Every effort is made to surprise the foe, and they
+frequently lure him to destruction by imitating from the depths of the
+forest the cries of animals of the chase.</p>
+
+<p>If the expedition meet with no straggling party of the enemy, it
+advances with cautious stealth toward some principal village; the
+warriors creep on their hands and feet through the deep woods, and often
+even paint themselves the color of dried leaves to avoid being perceived
+by their intended victims. On approaching the doomed hamlet, they
+examine it carefully, but rapidly, from some tree-top or elevated
+ground, and again conceal themselves till nightfall in the thickest
+covert. Strange to say, these subtle warriors neglect altogether the
+security of sentinels, and are satisfied with searching the surrounding
+neighborhood for hidden foes; if none be discovered, they sleep in
+confidence, even when hostile forces are not far off. They weakly trust
+to the protecting power of their Manitous. When they have succeeded in
+reaching the village, and concealing themselves unobserved, they wait
+silently, keeping close watch till the hour before dawn, when the
+inhabitants are in the deepest sleep. Then crawling noiselessly, like
+snakes, through the grass and underwood, till they are upon the foe, the
+chief raises a shrill cry, and the massacre begins. Discharging a shower
+of arrows, they finish the deadly work with the club and tomahawk. The
+great object, however, of the conquerors is to take the enemy alive, and
+reserve him to grace their triumph and rejoice their eyes by his
+torture. When resistance is attempted, this is often impossible, and an
+instant death saves the victim from the far greater horrors of captivity
+and protracted torment. When an enemy is struck down, the victor places
+his foot upon the neck of the dead or dying man, and with a horrible
+celerity and skill tears off the bleeding scalp.<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> This trophy is
+ever preserved with jealous care by the Indian warriors.</p>
+
+<p>After any great success the war party always return to their villages,
+more eager to celebrate the victory than to improve its advantages.
+Their women and old men await their return in longing expectation. The
+fate of the war is announced from afar off by well-known signs; the bad
+tidings are first told. A herald advances to the front of the returning
+party, and sounds a death-whoop for each of their warriors who has
+fallen in the fray. Then, after a little time, the tale of victory is
+told, and the number of prisoners and of the slain declared. All
+lamentations are soon hushed, and congratulations and rejoicing succeed.
+During the retreat, if the war party be not hard pressed by the enemy,
+prisoners are treated with some degree of humanity, but are very closely
+guarded. When the expedition has returned to the village, the old men,
+women, and children form themselves into two lines; the prisoners are
+compelled to pass between them, and are cruelly bruised with sticks and
+stones, but not vitally injured by their tormentors.</p>
+
+<p>A council is usually held to decide the fate of the prisoners: the
+alternatives are, to be adopted into the conquering nation, and received
+as brothers, or to be put to death in the most horrible torments, thus
+either to supply the place of warriors fallen in battle, or to appease
+the spirits of the departed by their miserable end. The older warriors
+among the captives usually meet the hardest fate; the younger are most
+frequently adopted by the women, their wounds are cured, and they are
+thenceforth received in every respect as if they belonged to the tribe.
+The adopted prisoners go out to war against their former countrymen,
+and the new tie is held even more binding than the old.</p>
+
+<p>The veteran warrior, whose tattooed skin bears record of slaughtered
+enemies, meets with no mercy: his face is painted, his head crowned with
+flowers as if for a festival, black moccasins are put upon his feet, and
+a flaming torch is placed above him as the signal of condemnation. The
+women take the lead in the diabolical tortures to which he is subjected,
+and rage around their victim with horrible cries. He is, however,
+allowed a brief interval to sing his death-song, and he often continues
+it even through the whole of the terrible ordeal. He boasts of his great
+deeds, insults his tormentors, laughing at their feeble efforts, exults
+in the vengeance that his nation will take for his death, and pours
+forth insulting reproaches and threats. The song is then taken up by the
+woman to whose particular revenge he has been devoted. She calls upon
+the spirit of her husband or son to come and witness the sufferings of
+his foe. After tortures too various and horrible to be particularized,
+some kind wound closes the scene in death, and the victim's scalp is
+lodged among the trophies of the tribe. To endure with unshaken
+fortitude<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> is the greatest triumph of an Indian warrior, and the
+highest confusion to his enemies, but often the proud spirit breaks
+under the pangs that rack the quivering flesh, and shouts of intolerable
+agony reward the demoniac ingenuity of the tormentors.</p>
+
+<p>Many early writers considered that the charge of cannibalism<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a>
+against the Indians was well founded: doubtless, in moments of fury,
+portions of an enemy's flesh have been rent off and eaten. To devour a
+foeman's heart is held by them to be an exquisite vengeance. They have
+been known to drink draughts of human blood, and, in circumstances of
+scarcity, they do not hesitate to eat their captives. It is certain that
+all the terms used by them in describing the torture of prisoners relate
+to this horrible practice; yet, as they are so figurative in every
+expression, these may simply mean the fullest gratification of revenge.
+The evidence upon this point is obscure and contradictory; the Indian
+can not be altogether acquitted or found guilty of this foul imputation.</p>
+
+<p>The brief peace that affords respite amid the continual wars of the
+Indian tribes is scarcely more than a truce. Nevertheless, it is
+concluded with considerable form and ceremony. The first advance toward
+a cessation of hostilities is usually made through the chief of a
+neutral power. The nation proposing the first overture dispatches some
+men of note as embassadors, accompanied by an orator, to contract the
+negotiation. They bear with them the calumet<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> of peace as the
+symbol of their purpose, and a certain number of wampum belts<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> to
+note the objects and conditions of the negotiation. The orator explains
+the meaning of the belts to the hostile chiefs, and if the proposition
+be received, the opposite party accept the proffered symbols, and the
+next day present others of a similar import. The calumet is then
+solemnly smoked, and the burial of a war hatchet for each party and for
+each ally concludes the treaty. The negotiations consist more in
+presents, speeches, and ceremonies, than in any demands upon each other;
+there is no property to provide tribute, and the victors rarely or never
+require the formal cession of any of the hunting-grounds of the
+vanquished. The unrestrained passions of individuals, and the satiety of
+long continued peace, intolerable to the Indian, soon again lead to the
+renewal of hostility.</p>
+
+<p>The successful hunter ranks next to the brave warrior in the estimation
+of the savage. Before starting on his grand expeditions, he prepares
+himself by a course of fasting, dreaming, and religious observances, as
+if for war. He hunts with astonishing dexterity and skill, and regards
+this pursuit rather as an object of adventure and glory than as an
+industrious occupation.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to cultivation and the useful arts, the Indians are in the
+very infancy of progress.<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> Their villages are usually not less than
+eighteen miles apart, and are surrounded by a narrow circle of
+imperfectly-cleared land, slightly turned up with a hoe, or scraped with
+pointed sticks,<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> scarcely interrupting the continuous expanse of
+the forest. They are only acquainted with the rudest sorts of clay
+manufactures, and the use of the metals (except by European
+introduction) is altogether unknown.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> Their women, however, display
+considerable skill in weaving fine mats, in staining the hair of
+animals, and working it into brilliant colored embroideries. The wampum
+belts are made with great care and some taste. The calumet is also
+elaborately carved and ornamented; and the painting and tattooing of
+their bodies sometimes presents well-executed and highly descriptive
+pictures and hieroglyphics. They construct light and elegant baskets
+from the swamp cane, and are very skillful in making bows and arrows;
+some tribes, indeed, were so rude as not to have attained even to the
+use of this primitive weapon, and the sling was by no means generally
+known.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the American nations are without any fixed form of government
+whatever. The complete independence of every man is fully recognized. He
+may do what he pleases of good or evil, useful or destructive, no
+constituted power interferes to thwart his will. If he even take away
+the life of another, the by-standers do not interpose. The kindred of
+the slain, however, will make any sacrifice for vengeance. And yet, in
+the communities of these children of nature there usually reigns a
+wonderful tranquillity. A deadly hostility exists between the different
+tribes, but among the members comprising each the strictest union
+exists. The honor and prosperity of his nation is the leading object of
+the Indian. This national feeling forms a link to draw him closely to
+his neighbor, and he rarely or never uses violence or evil speech
+against a countryman. Where there is scarcely such a thing as individual
+property, government and justice are necessarily very much simplified.
+There exists almost a community of goods. No man wants while another has
+enough and to spare. Their generosity knows no bounds. Whole tribes,
+when ruined by disasters in war, find unlimited hospitality among their
+neighbors; habitations and hunting-grounds are allotted to them, and
+they are received in every respect as if they were members of the nation
+that protects them.</p>
+
+<p>As there is generally no wealth or hereditary distinction among this
+people, the sole claim to eminence is founded on such personal qualities
+as can only be conspicuous in war, council, or the chase. During times
+of tranquillity and inaction all superiority ceases. Every man is
+clothed and fares alike. Relations of patronage and dependence are
+unknown. All are free and equal, and they perish rather than submit to
+control or endure correction. During war, indeed, or in the chase, they
+render a sort of obedience to those who excel in character and conduct,
+but at other times no form of government whatever exists. The names of
+magistrate and subject are not in their language. If the elders
+interpose between man and man, it is to advise, not to decide. Authority
+is only tolerated in foreign, not in domestic affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Music and dancing express the emotions of the Indian's mind. He has his
+songs of war and death, and particular moments of his life are appointed
+for their recital. His great deeds and the vengeance he has inflicted
+upon his enemies are his subjects; the language and music express his
+passions rudely but forcibly. The dance<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> is still more important:
+it is the grand celebration at every festival, and alternately the
+exponent of their triumph, anger, or devotion. It is usually pantomimic,
+and highly descriptive of the subject to which it is appropriate.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians are immoderately fond of play as a means of excitement and
+agitation. While gaming, they, who are usually so taciturn and
+indifferent, become loquacious and eager. Their guns, arms, and all that
+they possess are freely staked, and at times where all else is lost,
+they will trust even their personal safety to the hazard of the
+die.<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> The most barbarous of the tribes have unhappily succeeded in
+inventing some species of intoxicating liquor: that from the root of the
+maize was in general use; it is not disagreeable to the taste, and is
+very powerful. When the accursed fire-water is placed before the
+Indians, none can resist the temptation. The wisest, best, and bravest
+succumb alike to this odious temptation: and when their unrestrained
+passions are excited by drinking, they are at times guilty of enormous
+outrages, and the scenes of their festivities often become stained with
+kindred blood. The women are not permitted to partake of this fatal
+pleasure; their duty is to serve the guests, and take care of their
+husbands and friends when overpowered by the debauch. This exclusion
+from a favorite enjoyment is evidence of the contempt in which females
+are held among the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>In the present day, he who would study the character and habits of these
+children of Nature must travel far away beyond the Rocky Mountains,
+where the murrain of perverted civilization has not yet spread. There he
+may still find the virtues and vices of the savage, and lead among those
+wild tribes that fascinating life of liberty which few have ever been
+known to abandon willingly for the restraints and luxuries of
+civilization and refinement.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> "The custom of squeezing and flattening the head is still
+strictly adhered to among the Chinooks. The people bearing the name of
+Flat Heads are very numerous, but very few among them actually practice
+the custom. Among the Chinooks it is almost universal. The process is
+thus effected: The child is placed on a thick plank, to which it is
+lashed with thongs to a position from which it can not escape, and the
+back of the head supported by a sort of pillow made of moss or
+rabbit-skins, with an inclined piece resting on the forehead of the
+child. This is every day drawn down a little tighter by means of a cord,
+which holds it in its place, until at length it touches the nose, thus
+forming a straight line from the crown of the head to the end of the
+nose. This process is seemingly a cruel one, though I doubt whether it
+causes much pain, as it is done in earliest infancy, while the bones are
+soft and cartilaginous, and easily pressed into this distorted shape by
+forcing the occipital up and the frontal down, so that the skull at the
+top in profile will show a breadth of not more than an inch and a half
+or two inches, when in a front view it exhibits a great expansion on the
+sides, making it at the top nearly the width of one and a half natural
+heads. By this remarkable operation the brain is singularly changed from
+its natural state, but in all probability not in the least diminished or
+injured in its natural functions. This belief is drawn from the
+testimony of many credible witnesses who have closely scrutinized them,
+and ascertained that those who have the head flattened are in no way
+inferior in intellectual powers to those whose heads are in their
+natural shapes. This strange custom existed precisely the same until
+recently among the Choctaws and Chickasaws, who occupied a large part of
+the states of Mississippi and Alabama, where they have laid their bones,
+and hundreds of their skulls have been procured, bearing marks of a
+similar treatment, with similar results."&mdash;Catlin's <i>American Indians</i>,
+vol. ii., p. 112.
+</p><p>
+With respect to the origin of this singular custom, Humboldt is inclined
+to think that it may be traced from the natural inclination of each race
+to look upon their own personal peculiarities as the standard of beauty.
+He observes that the pointed form of the heads is very striking in the
+Mexican drawings, and continues thus: "If we examine osteologically the
+skulls of the natives of America, we see that there is no race on the
+globe in which the frontal bone is more flattened or which have less
+forehead.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> (Blumenbach, <i>Decas Quinta Craniorum</i>, tab. xlvi., p. 14,
+1808.) This extraordinary flattening exists among people of the
+copper-colored race, who have never been acquainted with the custom of
+producing artificial deformities, as is proved by the skulls of Mexican,
+Peruvian, and Aztec Indians, which M. Bonpland and myself brought to
+Europe, and several of which are deposited in the Museum of Natural
+History at Paris. The negroes prefer the thickest and most prominent
+lips, the Calmucks perceive the line of beauty in turned-up noses. M.
+Cuvier observes (<i>Le&ccedil;ons d'Anatomie Compar&eacute;e</i>, tom. ii., p. 6) that the
+Grecian artists, in the statues of heroes, raised the facial line from
+85&deg; to 100&deg;, or beyond the natural form. I am led to think that the
+barbarous custom, among certain savage tribes in America, of squeezing
+the heads of children between two planks, arises from the idea that
+beauty consists in this extraordinary compression of the bone by which
+Nature has characterized the American race. It is no doubt from
+following this standard of beauty that even the Aztec people, who never
+disfigured the heads of their children, have represented their heroes
+and principal divinities with heads much flatter than any of the Caribs
+I saw on the Lower Orinoco."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Researches on the Ancient
+Inhabitants of America</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> "L'anatomie compar&eacute;e en offre une autre confirmation dans
+la proportion constante du volume des lobes c&eacute;r&eacute;brales avec le degr&eacute;
+d'intelligence des animaux."&mdash;Cuvier's <i>Report to the Institute on
+Flouren's Experiments in 1822</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> "Ces huiles leur sont absolument n&eacute;cessaires, et ils sont
+mang&eacute;s de vermine quand elles leur manquent."&mdash;Lafitau, tom. i., p. 59.
+</p><p>
+It is supposed by Volney that the fatal effects of the small-pox among
+the Indians are to be attributed to the obstacle that a skin thus
+hardened opposes to the eruption.&mdash;P. 416. In the most detailed account
+given of the ravages of this disease, Catlin particularly mentions that
+no eruption was visible in any of the bodies of the dead. Forster, the
+English translator of Professor Kalm's <i>Travels in America</i>, held the
+same opinion as Volney.
+</p><p>
+"When the Kalmucks in the Russian dominions get the small-pox, it has
+been observed that very few escape. Of this, I believe, no other reason
+can be alleged than that the small-pox is always dangerous, either when
+the open pores of the skin are too numerous, which is caused by opening
+them in a warm-water bath, or when they are too much closed, which is
+the case with all the nations that are dirty and greasy. All the
+American Indians rub their body with oils; the Kalmucks rub their bodies
+and their fur coats with grease; the Hottentots are also, I believe,
+patterns of filthiness: this shuts up all the pores, hinders
+perspiration entirely, and makes the small-pox always fatal among these
+nations."&mdash;<i>Note</i> by the translator of Kalm, p. 532.
+</p><p>
+"The ravages which the small-pox made this year (1750) among their
+Mohawk friends was a source of deep concern to these revered
+philanthropists. These people having been accustomed from early
+childhood to anoint themselves with bear's grease, to repel the
+innumerable tribes of noxious insects in summer, and to exclude the
+extreme cold ill winter, their pores are so completely shut up that the
+small-pox does not rise upon them, nor have they much chance of recovery
+from any acute disorder."&mdash;<i>Memoirs of an American Lady</i>, vol. i., p.
+322.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> M. de Tracy, when governor of Canada, was told by his
+Indian allies that, with his good-humored face, he would never inspire
+the enemy with any degree of awe. They besought him to place himself
+under their brush, when they would soon make him such that his very
+aspect would strike terror.&mdash;Creuxius, <i>Nova Francia</i>, p. 62;
+Charlevoix, tom, vi., p. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> St. Isidore of Seville, and Solinus, give a similar
+description of the manner of painting the body in use among the Picts.
+"The operator delineates the figures with little points made by the
+prick of a needle, and into those he insinuates the juice of some native
+plants, that their nobility, thus written, as it were, upon every limb
+of their body, might distinguish them from ordinary men by the number of
+the figures they were decorated with."&mdash;Isidor., <i>Origin</i>, lib. xix.,
+cap. xxiii.; Solin., <i>De Magn&acirc; Britanni&acirc;</i>, cap. xxv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> "These horns are made of about a third part of the horn
+of a buffalo bull, the horn having been split from end to end, and a
+third part of it taken, and shaved thin and light, and highly polished.
+They are attached to the top or the head-dress on each side, in the same
+place as they rise and stand on the head of a buffalo, rising out of a
+mat of ermine skins and tails, which hangs over the top of the
+head-dress somewhat in the form that the large and profuse locks of hair
+hang and fall over the head of a buffalo bull. This custom is one which
+belongs to all northeastern tribes, and is no doubt of very ancient
+origin, having purely a classic meaning. No one wears the head-dress
+surmounted with horns except the dignitaries who are very high in
+authority, and whose exceeding valor, worth, and power is admitted by
+all the nation. This head-dress is used only on certain occasions, and
+they are very seldom: when foreign chiefs, Indian agents, or other
+important personages visit a tribe, or at war parades. Sometimes, when a
+chief sees fit to send a war party to battle, he decorates his head with
+this symbol of power, to stimulate his men, and throws himself into the
+foremost of the battle, inviting the enemy to concentrate his shafts
+upon them. The horns upon these head-dresses are but loosely attached at
+the bottom, so that they easily fall backward or forward; and by an
+ingenious motion of the head, which is so slight as to be almost
+imperceptible, they are made to balance to and fro, and sometimes one
+backward and the other forward like a horse's ears, giving a vast deal
+of expression and force of character to the appearance of the chief who
+is wearing them. This is a remarkable instance, like hundreds of others,
+of a striking similarity to Jewish customs, to the kerns (or <i>keren</i>, in
+Hebrew), the horns worn by the Abyssinian chiefs and Hebrews as a symbol
+of power and command&mdash;worn at great parades and celebrations of
+victories."&mdash;Catlin, vol. i., p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> "When a young Indian becomes attached to a female, he
+does not frequent the lodge of her parents, or visit her elsewhere,
+oftener, perhaps, than he would provided no such attachment existed.
+Were he to pursue an opposite course before he had acquired either the
+reputation of a warrior or a hunter, and suffer his attachment to be
+known or suspected by any personal attention, he would become the
+derision of the warriors and the contempt of the squaws. On meeting,
+however, she is the first, excepting the elderly people, who engages his
+respectful and kind inquiries; after which, no conversation passes
+between them, except it be with the language of the eyes, which, even
+among savages, is eloquent, and appears to be well understood. The next
+indication of serious intentions on the part of the young hunter is the
+assumption of more industrious habits. He rises by daybreak, and, with
+his gun or bow, visits the woods and prairies, in search of the most
+rare and esteemed game. He endeavors to acquire the character of an
+expert and industrious hunter, and, whenever success has crowned his
+efforts, never fails to send the parents of the object of his affections
+some of the choicest he has procured. His mother is generally the
+bearer, and she is sure to tell from what source it comes, and to dilate
+largely on the merits and excellences of her son. The girl, on her part,
+exercises all her skill in preparing it for food, and when it is cooked,
+frequently sends some of the most delicious pieces, accompanied by other
+small presents, such as nuts, moccasins, &amp;c., to her lover. These
+negotiations are usually carried on by the mothers of the respective
+parties, who consider them confidential, and seldom divulge even to the
+remaining parents, except one or both of the candidates should be the
+offspring of a chief, when a deviation from this practice is exacted,
+and generally observed. After an Indian has acquired the reputation of a
+warrior, expert hunter, or swift runner, he has little need of minor
+qualifications, or of much address or formality in forming his
+matrimonial views. The young squaws sometimes discover their attachment
+to those they love by some act of tender regard, but more frequently
+through the kind offices of some confidante or friend. Such overtures
+generally succeed: but should they fail, it is by no means considered
+disgraceful, or in the least disadvantageous to the female; on the
+contrary, should the object of her affections have distinguished himself
+especially in battle, she is the more esteemed on account of the
+judgment she displayed in her partiality for a respectable and brave
+warrior."&mdash;Hunter, p. 235-237.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> See Appendix, No. LVII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> "They firmly believe that the spirits of those who are
+killed by the enemy without equal revenge of blood, find no rest, and at
+night haunt the houses of the tribe to which they belonged; but when
+that kindred duty of retaliation is justly executed, they immediately
+get ease and power to fly away."&mdash;Adair's <i>Account of the American
+Indians.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> "The modern scalping-knife is of civilized manufacture
+made expressly for Indian use, and carried into the Indian country by
+thousands and tens of thousands, and sold at an enormous price. In the
+native simplicity of the Indian, he shapes out his rude hatchet from a
+piece of stone, heads his arrows and spears with flints, and his knife
+is a sharpened bone or the edge of a broken silex. His untutored mind
+has not been ingenious enough to design or execute any thing so savage
+or destructive as these civilized refinements on Indian barbarity. The
+scalping-knife, in a beautiful scabbard which is carried under the belt,
+is generally used in all Indian countries where knives have been
+introduced. It is the size and shape of a butcher's knife with one edge,
+manufactured at Sheffield perhaps for sixpence, and sold to the poor
+Indians in these wild regions for a horse. If I should ever cross the
+Atlantic, with my collection, a curious enigma would be solved for the
+English people who may inquire for a scalping-knife, when they find that
+every one in my collection (and hear, also, that nearly every one that
+is to be seen in the Indian country, to the Rocky Mountains and the
+Pacific Ocean) bears on its blade, the impress of G.R."&mdash;Catlin's
+<i>American Indians</i>, vol. i., p. 236.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> See Appendix, No. LVIII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> The savage Cantabrians and the first inhabitants of Spain
+sang songs of triumph as they were led to death and while they hung on
+the cross. Strabo mentions this as a mark of their ferocity and
+barbarism.&mdash;Strabo, lib. iii., p. 114.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> The American word "cannibal," of a somewhat doubtful
+signification, is probably derived from the language of Hayti or that of
+Porto Rico. It has passed into the languages of Europe, since the end of
+the fifteenth century, as synonymous with that of Anthropophagi, "Edaces
+humanarum carnium novi heluones Anthropophagi, Caribes, alias Canibales
+appellati," says Peter Martyr of Anghiera, in the third decade of his
+<i>Oceanics</i>, dedicated to Pope Leo X. "We were assured by all the
+missionaries whom we had an opportunity of consulting, that the
+Caribbees are perhaps the least anthropophagous nation of the New
+Continent. We may conceive that the fury and despair with which the
+unhappy Caribbees defended themselves against the Spaniards when, in
+1704, a royal decree declared them slaves, may have contributed to the
+reputation they have acquired of ferocity. The licendiado Rodrigo de
+Figuera was appointed by the court in 1520 to decide which of the tribes
+of South America might be regarded as of Caribbee race, or as
+<i>Cannibals</i>, and which were Guatiaos, that is, Indians of peace, and
+friends of the Castilians. Every nation that could be accused of having
+devoured a prisoner after a battle was arbitrarily declared of Caribbee
+race. All the tribes designated by Figuera as Caribbees wore condemned
+to slavery, and might at will be sold or exterminated in
+war."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Personal Narrative</i>, vol. vi., p. 35.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix and Lafitau speak of the cannibalism of the North American
+Indians as a generally acknowledged fact: Lafitau mentions the Abenaquis
+as the only tribe who held it in detestation.&mdash;Lafitau, vol. ii., p.
+307.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> "On ne peut gu&egrave;res douter que les sauvages en faisant
+fumer dans le calumet ceux dont ils recherchent l'alliance ou le
+commerce, n'ayent intention de prendre le soleil pour t&eacute;moin et en
+quelque fa&ccedil;on pour garant de leurs trait&eacute;s, car ils ne manquent jamais
+de pousser la fum&eacute;e vers cette astre: ... Fumer donc dans la m&ecirc;me pipe,
+en signe d'alliance, est la m&ecirc;me chose que de boire dans la m&ecirc;me coupe,
+comme il s'est de tout tems pratiqu&eacute; dans plusieurs nations."&mdash;Charlevoix,
+tom. v., p. 313.
+</p><p>
+Calumet in general signifies a pipe, being a Norman word, derived from
+<i>chalumeau</i>. The savages do not understand this word, for it was
+introduced into Canada by the Normans when they first settled there, and
+has still continued in use among the French planters. The calumet, or
+pipe, is called in the Iroquois language <i>ganondaoe</i>, and by the other
+savage natives, <i>poagau</i>.
+</p><p>
+Embassadors were never safe among any of the savage tribes who do not
+smoke the calumet.&mdash;Lafitau, vol. ii., p. 313. At the time of the early
+French writers on Indian customs, the calumet, since almost universally
+in use, was only known among the tribes inhabiting Louisiana, who in
+many respects were more advanced in civilization than those of the cold
+northern regions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> Wampum is the Indian name of ornaments manufactured by
+the Indians from vari-colored shells<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> which they get on the shore of
+the fresh-water streams, and file or cut into bits of half an inch, or
+an inch in length, and perforate, giving them the shape of pieces of
+broken pipe-stems, which they string on deer's sinews, or weave them
+ingeniously into war-belts for the waist. The wampum is evidently meant
+in the description of the <i>esurgny</i> or <i>cornibolz</i>, given by Verazzano
+in Ramusio, which has so much puzzled translators and commentators.
+Lafitau and Charlevoix both describe it under the name of <i>porcelaine</i>.
+</p><p>
+"La porcelaine dont nous parlons ici, est bien diff&eacute;rente de ces
+ouvrages de porcelaine qu'on apporte de la Chine ou du Japan<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> dont
+la mati&egrave;re est une terre belutt&eacute;e et pr&eacute;par&eacute;e. Celle ci est tir&eacute;e de
+certains coquillages de mer, connues en g&eacute;n&eacute;rale sous le nom de
+porcelaines&mdash;celles dont nos sauvages se servent sont canel&eacute;es, et
+semblable pour leur figure aux coquilles de St. Jacques. Il y a de
+porcelaine de deux sortes, l'une est blanche, et c'est la plus commune.
+L'autre est d'un violet obscur; plus elle tire sur le noir plus elle est
+estim&eacute;e. La porcelaine qui sert pour les affaires d'&eacute;tat est toute
+travaill&eacute;e au petits cylindres de la longueur d'un quart de pouce et
+gros &agrave; proportion. On les distribue en deux mani&egrave;res, en branches et en
+colliers. Les branches sont compos&eacute;es de cylindres enfil&eacute;s sans ordre, &agrave;
+la suite les uns des autres comme des grains de chapelet. La porcelaine
+en est ordinairement toute blanche, et on ne s'en sert que pour des
+affaires d'une leg&egrave;re cons&eacute;quence. Les colliers sont de larges
+ceintures, o&ugrave; les petits cylindres blancs et pourpre sont dispos&eacute;s par
+rangs et assujett&egrave;s par de petites bandelettes de cuir, dont on fait un
+tissu assez propre. Leur longeur, leur largueur et les grains de couleur
+se proportionnent &agrave; l'importance de l'affaire. Les colliers communs et
+ordinaires sont de onze rangs de cent quatre-vingt grains chacun. Le
+fisc, ou le tresor public consiste principalement en ces sortes de
+colliers.... Les sauvages n'ont rien de plus pr&eacute;cieux que leur
+Porcelaine: ce sont leurs bijoux, leurs pierreries. Ils en comptent
+jusqu' aux grains, et cela leur tient lieu de toute richesse."&mdash;Lafitau,
+1720.
+</p><p>
+Catlin writes thus in 1842: "Among the numerous tribes who have formerly
+inhabited the Atlantic coast, wampum has been invariably manufactured
+and highly valued as a circulating medium (instead of coins, of which
+the Indians have no knowledge), so many strings, or so many hands'
+breadth, being the fixed value of a horse, a gun, a robe, &amp;c. It is a
+remarkable fact, that after I passed the Mississippi I saw but very
+little wampum used, and on ascending the Missouri, I do not recollect to
+have seen it worn at all by the Upper Missouri Indians, although the
+same materials for its manufacture are found in abundance in those
+regions. Below the Lions and along the whole of our western frontier,
+the different tribes are found loaded and beautifully ornamented with
+it, which they can now afford to do, for they consider it of little
+value, as the fur traders have ingeniously introduced an imitation of
+it, manufactured by steam or otherwise, of porcelain or some composition
+closely resembling it, with which they have flooded the whole Indian
+country, and sold at so reduced a price as to cheapen, and consequently
+destroy, the value and meaning of the original wampum, a string of which
+can now but very rarely be found in any part of the country."&mdash;Catlin,
+vol. i., p. 223.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> "Among the numerous shells which are found on the
+sea-shore, there are some which by the English here are called clams,
+and which bear some resemblance to the human ear. They have a
+considerable thickness, and are chiefly white, excepting the pointed
+end, which both within and without hath a blue color, between purple and
+violet. The shells contain a large animal, which is eaten both by
+Indians and Europeans. The shells of these clams are used by the Indians
+as money, and make what they call their wampum; they likewise serve
+their women for an ornament when they intend to appear in full dress.
+These wampums are properly made of the purple part of the shells, which
+the Indians value more than the white parts. A traveler who goes to
+trade with the Indians, and is well stocked with them, may become a
+considerable gainer, but if he take gold coin or bullion he will
+undoubtedly be a loser; for the Indians who live farther up the country
+put little or no value on the metals which we reckon so precious, as I
+have frequently observed in the course of my travels. The Indians
+formerly made their own wampums, though not without a great deal of
+trouble; but at present the Europeans employ themselves in that way, and
+get considerable profit by it."&mdash;Kalm in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 455.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> "Marsden et la Comte Baldelli ont rappell&eacute;, dans leur
+savans commentaires du Milione de Marco Polo, que c'est la nom de la
+coquille du genere Cypr&aelig;a &agrave; dos bomb&eacute; (porcellanor, de porcello, en
+latin porcellus, pourcelaine du p&egrave;re Trigault) qui a donn&eacute; lieu &agrave; la
+d&eacute;nomination de <i>porcelaine</i> par laquelle les peuples occidentaux ont
+d&eacute;sign&eacute; les <i>Vasa Sinica</i>. Marco Polo se sert du mot porcellane, et pour
+les coquilles <i>karis</i>, ou <i>couries</i>, employ&eacute;es comme monnaie dans
+l'Inde, et pour la poterie fine de la Chine. ... La blancheur lustr&eacute;e de
+plusieurs esp&egrave;ces de la famille des Buccinoides, appell&eacute;es de
+pourcelaines au moine &acirc;ge, a sans doute suffi pour faire donner aux
+beaux vases c&eacute;ramiques de la Chine une d&eacute;nomination analogue. Ces
+coquilles ne sont pas entr&eacute;es dans la composition de la
+porcelaine."&mdash;Humboldt, <i>G&eacute;og. du Nouveau Continent</i>, tom, v., p. 106.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> "Avant d'avoir l'usage des moulins, ils brisaient leurs
+grains dans les piles, ou des mortiers de bois, avec des pilons de m&ecirc;me
+mati&egrave;re. H&eacute;siode nous donne la mesure de la pile et du pilon des
+anciens, et de nos sauvages, dans ces paroles, 'Coupez moi une pile de
+trois pieds de haut, et un pilon de la longueur de trois coud&eacute;es.'
+(Hesiod, <i>Opera et Dies</i>, lib. v., 411; Servius in lib. ix., &AElig;neid.
+Init.) Caton met aussi la pile et le pilon, au nombre des meubles
+rustiques de son temps. Les Pisons prirent leur nom de cette mani&egrave;re de
+piler le bled."&mdash;Lafitau.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> "Il leur suffit d'un morceau de bois recourb&eacute; de trois
+doigts de largeur, attach&eacute; &agrave; un long mouche qui leur sert &agrave; sarcler la
+terre, et &agrave; la remuer leg&egrave;rement."&mdash;Lafitau, tom. ii., p. 76.
+</p><p>
+Catlin says that the tribe of Mandans raise a great deal of corn. This
+is all done by the women, who make their hoes of the shoulder-blades of
+the buffalo or elk, and dig the ground over instead of plowing it, which
+is consequently done with a vast deal of labor.&mdash;Vol. i., p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> "Nothing so distinctly marks the uncivilized condition of
+the North American Indian as his total ignorance of the art of
+metallurgy. Forged iron has been in use among the inhabitants of our
+hemisphere from time immemorial; for, though the process employed for
+obtaining the malleability of a metal in its malleable state is very
+complicated, yet M. de Marian has clearly proved that the several eras
+at which writers have pretended to fix the discovery are entirely
+fabulous."&mdash;<i>Lettres sur la Chine.</i>
+</p><p>
+Consequently the weapons of brass and other instruments of metal found
+in the dikes of Upper Canada, Florida, &amp;c., are among the strongest
+indications of the superiority of those ancient races of America who
+have now entirely passed away.
+</p><p>
+"Know, then," says Cotton Mather, "that these doleful creatures are the
+veriest ruins of mankind. They live in a country full of metals, but the
+Indians were never owners of so much as a knife till we came among them.
+Their name for an Englishman was 'knife-man.'"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 233; Charlevoix.
+</p><p>
+"The dances of the Red Indians form a singular and important feature
+throughout the customs of the aborigines of the New World. In these are
+typified, by signs well understood by the initiated, and, as it were, by
+hieroglyphic action, their historical events, their projected enterprises,
+their hunting, their ambuscades, and their battles, resembling in some
+respects the Pyrrhic dances of the  ancients."&mdash;Washington Irving's
+<i>Columbus</i>, vol. ii., p. 122.
+</p><p>
+"In the province of Pasto, on the ridge of the Cordillera, I have seen
+masked Indians, armed with rattles, performing savage dances around the
+altar, while a Franciscan monk elevated the host."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>Nouveau
+Espagne</i>, vol. i., p. 411.
+</p><p>
+See, also, Lafitau's M&oelig;urs <i>des Sauvages Am&eacute;riquains compar&eacute;s aux
+m&oelig;urs des premiers temps</i>, tom. i., p. 526. He refers to Plutarch,
+<i>in Lycurgo</i>, for an account of similar Spartan dances.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> Charlevoix; Lafitau; Boucher, <i>Histoire du Canada</i>.
+</p><p>
+"The players prepare for their ruin by religious observances; they fast,
+they watch, they pray."&mdash;Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 240. See Appendix,(vol. II.)
+No. LIX.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+
+<p>While the French were busied in establishing themselves upon the banks
+of the St. Lawrence, their ancient rivals steadily progressed in the
+occupation of the Atlantic coasts of North America.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, the oldest colonies of England were founded by
+private adventurers, at their own expense and risk. In most cases, the
+soil of the new settlements was granted to powerful individuals or
+companies of merchants, and by them made over in detail to the actual
+emigrants for certain considerations. Where, however, as often occurred,
+the emigrants had settled prior to the grant, or were in a condition to
+disregard it, they divided the land according to their own interests and
+convenience. These unrecognized proprietors prospered more rapidly than
+those who were trammeled by engagements with non-resident authorities.
+The right of government, as well as the nominal possession of the soil,
+was usually granted in the first instance, and the new colonies were
+connected with the crown of Great Britain by little more than a formal
+recognition of sovereignty. But the disputes invariably arising between
+the nominal proprietors and the actual settlers speedily caused, in most
+cases, a dissolution of the proprietary government, and threw the
+colonies one by one under royal authority.</p>
+
+<p>The system then usually adopted was to place the colony under the rule
+of an English governor, assisted by an upper House of Parliament, or
+Council, appointed by himself, and a Lower House, possessing the power
+of taxation, elected by the people. All laws, however, enacted by these
+local authorities were subject to the approbation of the British crown.
+This was the outline of colonial constitutions in every North American
+settlement, except in those established under peculiar charters. The
+habit of self-government bore its fruit of sturdy independence and
+self-reliance among our transatlantic brethren, and the prospect of
+political privileges offered a special temptation to the English
+emigrant to embark his fortunes in the New World. At their commencement
+trade was free in all, and religion in most of the new colonies; and it
+was only by slow degrees that their fiscal regulations were brought
+under the subordination of the mother country.</p>
+
+<p>Although a general sketch of British colonization in North America is
+essential to the illustration of Canadian history, it is unnecessary to
+detail more than a few of the leading features of its nature and
+progress, and of the causes which placed its interests in almost
+perpetual antagonism with those of French settlement. This subject is
+rendered not a little obscure and complicated by the contradictory
+claims and statements of proprietors, merchant adventurers, and
+settlers; the separation of provinces; the abandonment of old, and the
+foundation of new settlements.<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sir Humphrey Gilbert,<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> of Compton, in Devonshire, formed the first
+plan of British colonization in America. Queen Elizabeth, who then wore
+the crown, willingly granted a patent conveying most ample gifts and
+powers to her worthy and distinguished subject. He was given forever all
+such "heathen and barbarous countries" as he might discover, with
+absolute authority therein, both by sea and land. Only homage, and a
+fifth part of the gold and silver that might be obtained, was reserved
+for the crown.</p>
+
+<p>The first expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert failed in the very
+commencement. The adventurers were unfortunately selected; many deserted
+the cause, and others engaged in disastrous quarrels among themselves.
+The chief was ultimately obliged to set out with only a few of his own
+tried friends.<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> He encountered very adverse weather, and was driven
+back with the loss of a ship and one of his trustiest companions<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a>
+[1580]. This disaster was a severe blow to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, as most
+of his property was embarked in the undertaking. However, with unshaken
+determination, and aided by Sir George Peckham, Sir Walter Raleigh,<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a>
+and other distinguished men, he again equipped an expedition, and put to
+sea in the year 1583.</p>
+
+<p>The force with which this bold adventurer undertook to gain possession
+of a new continent was miserably small. The largest vessel was but of
+200 tons burden: the Delight, in which he himself sailed, was only 120
+tons, and the three others composing the little fleet were even much
+smaller. The crew and adventurers numbered altogether 260 men, most of
+them tradesmen, mechanics, and refiners of metal. There was such
+difficulty in completing even this small equipment, that some captured
+pirates were taken into the service.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition sailed from Concert Bay on the 11th of May, 1583. Three
+days afterward, the Raleigh,<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> the largest ship of the fleet, put
+back to land, under the plea that a violent sickness had broken out on
+board, but, in reality, from the indisposition of the crew to risk the
+enterprise. The loss of this vessel was a heavy discouragement to the
+brave leaders. After many delays and difficulties from the weather and
+the misconduct of his followers, Sir Humphrey Gilbert reached the shores
+of Newfoundland, where he found thirty-six vessels engaged in the
+fisheries. He, in virtue of his royal patent, immediately assumed
+authority over them, demanding and obtaining all the supplies of which
+he stood in need: he also proclaimed his own and the queen's possession
+of the country. Soon, however, becoming sensible that this rocky and
+dreary wilderness offered little prospect of wealth, he proceeded with
+three vessels, and a crew diminished by sickness and desertion, to the
+American coast. Owing to his imprudence in approaching the foggy and
+dangerous shore too closely, the largest vessel<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> struck, and went to
+pieces. The captain and many of the crew were lost; some of the
+remainder reached Newfoundland in an open boat, after having endured
+great hardships.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Humphrey Gilbert altogether failed in reaching any part of the main
+land of America. The weather became very bad, the winter approached, and
+provisions began to fail: there was no alternative but to return, and
+with bitter regret and disappointment he adopted that course. The two
+remaining vessels proceeded in safety as far as the meridian of the
+Azores; there, however, a terrible tempest assailed them. On the
+afternoon of the 9th of September the smaller of the two boats was
+observed to labor dangerously. Sir Humphrey Gilbert stood upon her deck,
+holding a book in his hand, encouraging the crew. "We are as near to
+heaven by sea as by land," he called out to those on board the other
+vessel, as it drifted past just before nightfall. Darkness soon
+concealed his little bark from sight; but for hours one small light was
+seen to rise and fall, and plunge about among the furious waves. Shortly
+after midnight it suddenly disappeared, and with it all trace of the
+brave chief and his crew. One maimed and storm-tossed ship returned to
+England of that armament which so short a time before had been sent
+forth to take possession of a New World.<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a></p>
+
+<p>The English nation was not diverted from the pursuit of colonial
+aggrandizement by even this disastrous failure. The queen, however, was
+more ready to assist by grants and patents than by pecuniary supplies.
+Many plausible schemes of settlement were put forward; but the
+difficulty of obtaining sufficient means of carrying them into effect,
+prevented their being adopted. At length the illustrious Sir Walter
+Raleigh undertook the task of colonization at his own sole charge, and
+easily obtained a patent similar to that conferred upon Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert. He soon sent out two small vessels, under skillful naval
+officers, to search for his new government. Warned by the disasters of
+their predecessors, they steered a more southerly course. When soundings
+indicated an approach to land, they already observed that the breeze
+from the shore was rich with delicious odors of fruits and flowers. They
+proceeded very cautiously, and presently found that they had reached a
+long, low coast, without harbors. The shore was flat and sandy; but
+softly undulating green hills were seen in the interior, covered with a
+great profusion of rich grapes. This discovery proved to be the island
+of Okakoke, off North Carolina. [1584.] The English were well received
+by the natives, and obtained from them many valuable skins in exchange
+for trinkets. Some limited explorations were made, after which the
+expedition returned to England, bearing very favorable accounts of the
+new country,<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> which filled Raleigh with joy, and raised the
+expectations of the whole kingdom. In honor of England's maiden queen,
+the name of Virginia was given to this land of promise.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Walter Raleigh now embarked nearly all his fortune in another
+expedition, consisting of seven small ships, which he placed under the
+able command of Sir Richard Greenville, surnamed "the Brave." The little
+fleet reached Virginia on the 29th of June, 1585, and the colony was at
+once landed. The principal duties of settlement were intrusted to Mr.
+Ralph Lane, who proved unequal to the charge. The coast, however, was
+explored for a considerable distance, and the magnificent Bay of
+Chesapeake discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Lane penetrated to the head of Roanoke Sound; there, without
+provocation, he seized a powerful Indian chief and his son, and retained
+the latter a close prisoner, in the hope, through him, of ruling the
+father. The natives, exasperated at this injury, deceived the English
+with false reports of great riches to be found in the interior. Lane
+proceeded up the river for several days with forty men, but, suffering
+much from the want of provisions, and having been once openly attacked
+by the savages, he returned disheartened to the coast, where he found
+that the Indians were prepared for a general rising against him, in a
+confederacy formed of the surrounding tribes, headed by a subtle chief
+called Pemisapan. In the mean time, however, the captive became attached
+to the English, warning them of the coming danger, and naming the day
+for the attack. Lane, resolving to strike the first blow, suddenly
+assailed the Indians and dispersed them; afterward, at a parley, he
+destroyed all the chiefs with disgraceful treachery. Henceforth the
+hatred of the savages to the English became intense, and they ceased to
+sow any of the lands near the settlement, with the view of starving
+their dangerous visitors.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists were much embarrassed by the hostilities of the Indians;
+the time appointed by Raleigh and Greenville for sending them supplies
+had passed; a heavy despondency fell upon their minds, and they began
+earnestly to wish for a means of returning home. But, suddenly, notice
+was given that a fleet of twenty-three sail was at hand, whether
+friendly or hostile no one could tell: to their great joy, it proved to
+be the armament of Sir Francis Drake. Lane and his followers immediately
+availed themselves of this opportunity, and with the utmost haste
+embarked for England, totally abandoning the settlement. [1586.] A few
+days after this unworthy flight, a vessel of 100 tons, amply provided
+with aid for the colony, arrived upon its deserted shores; the crew in
+vain searched the coast and neighborhood for their fellow-countrymen,
+and then steered for England. A fortnight after Sir Richard Greenville
+arrived with three well-appointed ships, and found a lonely desert where
+he had expected a flourishing colony: he also returned to England in
+deep disappointment, leaving, however, a small party to hold possession
+of the country till he should return with ampler resources.</p>
+
+<p>The noble Raleigh was not discouraged by this unhappy complication of
+errors and disasters; he immediately dispatched another expedition, with
+three ships under the command of John White. But a terrible sight
+presented itself on their arrival: the fort razed to the ground, the
+houses ruined and overgrown with grass, and a few scattered bones, told
+the fate of their countrymen. The little settlement had been assailed by
+300 Indians, and all the colonists destroyed or driven into the interior
+to an unknown fate. By an unfortunate error, White attacked one of the
+few tribes that were friendly to the English, in the attempt to revenge
+the cruel massacre. After this unhappy exploit, he was compelled, by the
+discontent of his followers, to return to England, for the purpose of
+procuring them supplies.<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> From various delays, it was not till 1590
+that another expedition reached Virginia. But again silence and
+desolation reigned upon that fatal shore. The colony left by White had
+been destroyed like its predecessor. Raleigh at last abandoned the
+scheme of settlement that had proved ruinously disastrous to him and all
+concerned, and the brave Sir Richard Greenville was soon after slain.
+[1591.]<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a></p>
+
+<p>The interest of the public in Virginia remained suspended till the year
+1602, when Captain Bartholomew Gosnold undertook a voyage thither, and
+brought back such brilliant reports of the beauty and fertility of the
+country, that the dormant attention of the English toward this part of
+the world was again aroused. In 1606, Arundel, Lord Wardour, sent out a
+vessel under the command of Captain Weymouth, to make further
+discoveries. The report of this voyage more than confirmed that of the
+preceding.</p>
+
+<p>The English nation were now at length prepared to make an efficient
+attempt to colonize the New World. In London, and at Plymouth and
+Bristol, the principal maritime cities of the kingdom, the scheme found
+numerous and ardent supporters. James I., however, only granted such
+powers to the adventurers as suited his own narrow and arbitrary views:
+he refused to sanction any sort of representative government in the
+colony, and vested all power in a council appointed by himself.<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a>
+Virginia was, about that time, divided somewhat capriciously into two
+parts: the southern portion was givens to a merchant company of London,
+the northern to a merchant company of Bristol and Plymouth.<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a></p>
+
+<p>The southern, or London Company, were the first to commence the work of
+colonization with energy. On the 19th of December, 1606, they
+dispatched an expedition of three vessels, commanded by Captain Newport,
+comprising a number of people of rank and distinction. Among these was
+Captain John Smith, whose admirable qualities were afterward so
+conspicuously and usefully displayed. The expedition met with such
+delays and difficulties that it was at one time on the point of
+returning to England. At length, however, they descried an unknown cape,
+and soon afterward entered Chesapeake Bay, where the beauty and
+fertility of the shores even surpassed their expectations.<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> On first
+landing, they met the determined hostility of the savages, but when the
+fleet proceeded to Cape Comfort, they there received a more friendly
+reception, and were invited ashore. The Indians spread their simple
+stores of dainties before the strangers, smoked with them the calumet of
+peace, and entertained them with songs and dances. As the expedition
+moved higher up the bay, where no English had been before seen, it met
+with a still more cordial welcome.</p>
+
+<p>Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement established in
+America, although it has not since risen to very great importance. The
+site was chosen by this expedition about forty miles above the entrance,
+upon the banks of James River, where the emigrants at once proceeded to
+establish themselves. They suffered great distress from the commencement
+on account of the bad quality of the provisions, furnished under
+contract by Sir Thomas Smith, one of the leading members of the company.
+Disease soon followed want, and in a short time fifty of the settlers
+died. Under these difficult circumstances, the energy and ability of
+Captain John Smith pointed him out as the only person to command, and by
+the consent of all he was invested with absolute authority. He arranged
+the internal affairs of the colony as he best could, and then set out to
+collect supplies in the neighboring country. The Indians met him with
+derision, and refused to trade with him; he therefore, urged by
+necessity, drove them away, and took possession of a village well
+stocked with provisions. The Indians soon returned in force and attacked
+him furiously, but were easily repulsed. After their defeat they opened
+a friendly intercourse, and furnished the required supplies. Smith made
+several further excursions. On returning to the colony, he found that a
+conspiracy had been formed among his turbulent followers to break up the
+settlement and sail for England; this he managed to suppress, and soon
+again started to explore the country. In this expedition he rashly
+exposed himself unprotected to the assaults of the Indians, and was
+taken prisoner after a most gallant attempt at escape. He was led about
+in triumph for some time from village to village, and at length
+sentenced to die. His head was laid upon a stone, and the executioner
+stood over him with a club, awaiting the signal to slay, when
+Pocahontas, daughter of the Indian chief, implored her father's mercy
+for the white man. He was inexorable, and ordered the execution to
+proceed; but the generous girl laid her head upon that of the intended
+victim, and vowed that the death blow should strike her first. The
+savage chief moved by his daughter's devotion, spared the prisoner's
+life.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> Smith was soon afterward escorted in safety to Jamestown, and
+given up on a small ransom being paid to the Indians.<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> [1608.]</p>
+
+<p>Smith found, on his arrival, that the colonists were fitting out a
+pinnace to return to England. He, with ready decision, declared that the
+preparations should be discontinued immediately, or he would sink the
+little vessel. His prompt determination was successful, and the people
+agreed to remain. Through the generous kindness of Pocahontas, supplies
+of provisions were furnished to the settlement, till the arrival of a
+vessel from England, replenished its stores. Soon after his happy
+escape from the hands of the savages, Smith again started fearlessly
+upon an expedition to explore the remainder of Chesapeake Bay. He sailed
+in a small barge, accompanied only by twelve men, and with this slender
+force completed a voyage of 3000 miles along an unknown coast, among a
+fierce and generally hostile people, and depending on accident and his
+own ingenuity for supplies. During several years Pocahontas continued to
+visit the English, but her father was still hostile, and once endeavored
+to surprise Smith and slay him in the woods; but again the generous
+Indian girl saved his life at the hazard of her own: in a dark night she
+ran for many miles through the forest, evading the vigilance of her
+fierce countrymen, and warned him of the threatened danger. An open war
+now ensued between the English and the Indians, and was continued with
+great mutual injury, till a worthy gentleman named Thomas Rolfe, deeply
+interested by the person and character of Pocahontas, made her his wife;
+a treaty was then concluded with the Indian chief, which was henceforth
+religiously observed. [1613.]</p>
+
+<p>The colony<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> meanwhile proceeded with varied fortunes. The emigrants
+had been very badly selected for their task: "poor gentlemen, tradesmen,
+serving-men, libertines, and such like, ten times more fit to spoil a
+commonwealth than either to begin or maintain one." These men were
+tempted into the undertaking by hopes of sudden wealth, and were
+altogether disinclined to even the slight labor of tilling that
+exuberant soil, when only a subsistence was to be their reward. In 1619
+James commenced the system of transporting malefactors, by sending 100
+"dissolute persons" to Virginia. These men were used as laborers, or
+rather slaves, but tended seriously to lower the character of the
+voluntary emigration.<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> In 1625 only 1800 convicts remained alive out
+of 9000 who had been transported at a cost of &pound;15,000.<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> The
+contracted and arbitrary system of the exclusive company was felt as a
+great evil in the colony.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> This body was at length superseded by the
+forfeiture of its charter, and the crown assumed the direction of
+affairs. Many years of alternate anarchy and tyranny followed. During
+the rebellion of Bacon in 1676, the most remarkable event in this early
+period of Virginian history, English troops were first introduced into
+the American colonies. Sir William Berkeley, who was appointed governor
+in 1642, visited the insurrectionists with a terrible vengeance, when
+the death of the leader, Bacon, left them defenseless. "The old fool,"
+said Charles II. (with truth), "has taken away more lives in that naked
+country than I for the murder of my father." But, though the complaints
+of the oppressed were heard in England with impartiality, and Berkeley
+was hunted to death by public opinion on his return there to defend
+himself, the permanent results of Bacon's rebellion were disastrous to
+Virginia: all the measures of reform which had been attempted during
+its brief success were held void, and every restrictive feature that had
+been introduced into legislation by the detested governor was
+perpetuated.</p>
+
+<p>Among the first settlers in Virginia, gold was the great object, it was
+every where eagerly sought, but in vain. Several ships were loaded with
+a sort of yellow clay, and sent to England under the belief that it
+contained the most precious of metals, but it was found to be utterly
+worthless. The colonists next turned their attention to the cultivation
+of tobacco.<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> This speedily became so profitable that it was pursued
+even to the exclusion of all other industry.</p>
+
+<p>There yet remains to be told one terrible incident in the earlier story
+of Virginia, an incident that resulted in the total destruction of the
+Indian race. The successor to the father of Pocahontas had conceived a
+deadly enmity against the English: this was embittered from day to day,
+as he saw the hated white men multiplying and spreading over the hunting
+grounds of his fathers. Then a fierce determination took possession of
+his savage heart. For years he matured his plans, and watched the
+favorable moment to crush every living stranger at a blow. He took all
+his people into counsel, and such was their fidelity, and so deep the
+wile of the Indian chief, that, during four years of preparation, no
+warning reached the intended victims. To the last fatal moment, a
+studied semblance of cordial friendship was observed; some Englishmen,
+who had lost their way in the woods were kindly and carefully guided
+back again.</p>
+
+<p>One Friday morning (March 22d, 1622) the Indians came to the town in
+great numbers, bearing presents, and finding their way into every house.
+Suddenly the fierce shout of the savages broke the peaceful silence, and
+the death-shriek of their victims followed. In little more than a
+minute, three hundred and forty-seven, of all ages and sexes, were
+struck down in this horrid massacre. The warning of an Indian converted
+to Christianity saved Jamestown. The surviving English assembled there,
+and began a war of extermination against the savages. By united force,
+superior arms, and, it must be added, by treachery as black as that of
+their enemies, the white men soon swept away the Indian race forever
+from the Virginian, soil.<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a></p>
+
+<p>As has been before mentioned, the northern part of Virginia was bestowed
+by royal grant upon a Merchant Company of Plymouth, and other southern
+and western sea-ports. The first effort to take possession of the new
+territory was feeble and disastrous. Twenty-nine Englishmen and two
+Indians were sent out in a little bark of only fifty-five tons burden
+[1606]; they were taken by the Spaniards off the coast of Hispaniola,
+who treated them with great cruelty. Some time after this ill-fated
+expedition had failed, another colony of 100 men, led by Captains Popham
+and Gilbert, settled on the River Sagadahock, and built a fort called by
+them St. George. [1607.] They abandoned the settlement, however, the
+following year, and returned to England. The next project of British
+North American colonization was set on foot by Captain John Smith,
+already so highly distinguished in transatlantic history. [1614.] After
+much difficulty, he effected the equipment of two vessels, and sailed
+for the Virginian shore; but, although successful as a trading
+speculation, the only permanent fruits of the voyage was a map of the
+coast, which he presented to Charles I. The king, always interested in
+maritime affairs, listened favorably to Smith's accounts of the New
+World, but proved either unable or unwilling to render him any useful
+assistance. The next year this brave adventurer again crossed the seas
+in a small vessel containing only sixteen emigrants. The little
+expedition was captured by the French, and the leader, with great
+difficulty, effected his return to England.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, a man named Hunt, who had been left in charge of one of the
+ships in Smith's first expedition, committed an outrage upon the natives
+that led to deplorable results [1616]; he inveigled thirty of them on
+board, carried them suddenly away, and sold them into slavery. The
+savages rose against the next English party that landed upon their
+coast, and killed and wounded several in revenge. Captain Dormer, a
+prudent and conciliatory person, with one of the betrayed natives, was
+sent by the company to explain to the furious Indians that Hunt's crime
+was the act of an individual, and not of the nation: this commission was
+well and wisely executed. For about two years Dormer frequently repeated
+his visits with advantage to his employers, but finally was attacked by
+strange savages and wounded fatally.</p>
+
+<p>But still, through all these difficulties and disasters, adventurers
+pressed on to the fertile Western desert, allured by liberal grants of
+land from the chartered companies. The undefined limits of these
+concessions led to constant and mischievous quarrels among the settlers,
+often attended with violence and bloodshed; from these causes the early
+progress of the colony was very slow. One hundred and twenty years after
+England had discovered North America, she only possessed a few scattered
+fishing huts along the shore. But events were now at hand which at once
+stamped a peculiar character upon the colonization of this part of the
+New World,<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> and which were destined to exercise an influence upon
+the human race of an importance even yet incalculable.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> See Preface to Bancroft's <i>History of the United
+States</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> "Sir Humphrey had published, in 1576, a treatise
+concerning a northwest passage to the East Indies, which, although
+tinctured with the pedantry of the age, is full of practical sense and
+judicious argument."&mdash;P.F. Tytler's <i>Life of Sir Walter Raleigh</i>, p.
+26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> "Sir Walter Raleigh, step-brother to Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert, was one of his companions in this enterprise, and, although it
+proved unsuccessful, the instructions of Sir Humphrey could not fail to
+be of service to Raleigh, who at this time was not much above
+twenty-five, while the admiral must have been in the maturity of his
+years and abilities."&mdash;Tytler, p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> "On its homeward passage, the small squadron of Gilbert
+was dispersed and disabled by a Spanish fleet, and many of the company
+were slain; but, perhaps owing to the disastrous issue of the fight, it
+has been slightly noticed by the English historians."&mdash;Oldy's <i>Life of
+Raleigh</i>, p. 28, 29.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> Raleigh, who had by this time risen into favor with the
+queen, did not embark on the expedition, but he induced his royal
+mistress to take so deep an interest in its success, that, on the eve of
+its sailing from Plymouth, she commissioned him to convey to Sir H.
+Gilbert her earnest wishes for his success, with a special token of
+regard&mdash;a little trinket representing an anchor guided by a lady. The
+following was Raleigh's letter, written from the court: "Brother&mdash;I have
+sent you a token from her majesty, an anchor guided by a lady, as you
+see; and, further, her highness willed me to send you word that she
+wished you as great good hap and safety to your ship as if she herself
+were there in person, desiring you to have care of yourself as of that
+which she tendereth; and therefore, for her sake, you must provide for
+it accordingly. Farther, she commandeth that you leave your picture with
+me. For the rest, I leave till our meeting, or to the report of this
+bearer, who would needs be the messenger of this good news. So I commit
+you to the will and protection of God, who sends us such life and death
+as he shall please or hath appointed. Richmond, this Friday morning.
+Your true brother, <span class="smcap">Walter Raleigh</span>."&mdash;This letter is indorsed as
+having been received March 18, 1582-3, and it may be remarked that it
+settles the doubt as to the truth of Prince's story of the golden
+anchor, questioned by Campbell in his <i>Lives of the Admirals</i>. In the
+<i>Heroologia Angli&aelig;</i>, p. 65, there is a fine print of Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert, taken evidently from an original picture; but, unlike the
+portrait mentioned by Granger, it does not bear the device mentioned in
+the text. Raleigh's letter explains this difference. When Sir Humphrey
+was at Plymouth, on the eve of sailing, the queen commands him, we see,
+to leave his picture with Raleigh. This must allude to a portrait
+already painted; and, of course, the golden anchor then sent could not
+be seen in it. Now, he perished on the voyage. The picture at Devonshire
+House, mentioned by Granger, which bears this honorable badge, must,
+therefore have been painted <i>after</i> his death.&mdash;Tytler's <i>Raleigh</i>, p.
+45; Granger's <i>Biographical History</i>, vol. i., p. 246; Cayley, vol. i.,
+p. 31; Prince's <i>Worthies of Devonshire</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> "This ship was of 200 tons burden: it had been built
+under Raleigh's own eye, equipped at his expense, and commanded by
+Captain Butler, her master being Thomas Davis, of Bristol."&mdash;Tytler, p.
+44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> The <i>Delight</i>. The <i>Swallow</i> had, a short time before,
+been sent home with some of the crew, who were sick. The remaining barks
+were the <i>Golden Hind</i> and the <i>Squirrel</i>, the first of forty, the last
+of ten tons burden. For what reason does not appear, the admiral
+insisted, against the remonstrances of his officers and crew, in having
+his flag in the <i>Squirrel</i>. It was a fatal resolution. The larger
+vessel, the <i>Golden Hind</i>, arrived at Falmouth on the 22d September,
+1583.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> See Captain Edward Haies's <i>Narrative of the Expedition
+of Sir Humphrey Gilbert</i>; Hakluyt, vol. iii., p. 143-159.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> Oldy's <i>Life of Raleigh</i>, p. 58. The description given of
+Virginia by the two captains in command of the expedition (Captains
+Philip Amadas and Walter Barlow) was, that "the soil is the most
+plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all the world. We found the
+people most gentle, loving, faithful, void of all guile and treason, and
+such as lived after the manner of the Golden Age."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> Unfortunately, on White's arrival in England, the nation
+was wholly engrossed by the expected invasion of the Spanish Armada, and
+Sir Richard Greenville, who was preparing to sail for Virginia, received
+notice that his services were wanted at home. Raleigh, however,
+contrived to send out White with two more vessels; but they were
+attacked by a Spanish ship of war, and so severely shattered that they
+were obliged to return. Another expedition could not be undertaken until
+1590; and no trace could then, or ever after, be found of the
+unfortunate colony left by White.
+</p><p>
+"Robertson reproaches Raleigh with levity in now throwing up his scheme
+of a Virginian colony. But, really, when we consider that in the course
+of four years he had sent out seven successive expeditions, each more
+unfortunate than the other, and had spent &pound;40,000&mdash;nearly his whole
+fortune&mdash;without the least prospect of a return, it can not be viewed as
+a very unaccountable caprice that he should get sick of the business,
+and be glad to transfer it into other hands."&mdash;Murray, vol. i., p. 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> For an account of Sir Richard Greenville's death, see
+Appendix, No. LX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> "The fundamental idea, of the older British colonial
+policy appears to have been, that wherever a man went, he carried with
+him the rights of an Englishman, whatever these were supposed to be. In
+the reign of James I., the state doctrine was, that most popular rights
+were usurpations; and the colonists of Virginia, sent out under the
+protection of government, were therefore placed under that degree of
+control which the state believed itself authorized to exercise at home.
+The Puritans exalted civil franchise to a republican pitch: their
+colonies were therefore republican; there was no such notion as that of
+an intermediate state of tutelage or semi-liberty. Hence the entire
+absence of solicitude on the part of the mother country to interfere
+with the internal government of the colonies arose not altogether from
+neglect, but partly from principle. This is remarkably proved by the
+fact that representative government was seldom expressly granted in the
+early charters; <i>it was assumed by the colonists as a matter of right</i>.
+Thus, to use the odd expression of the historian of Massachusetts, 'A
+house of burgesses broke out in Virginia,' in 1619,<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> almost
+immediately after its second settlement; and although the constitution
+of James contained no such element, it was at once acceded to by the
+mother country as a thing of course. No thought was ever seriously
+entertained of supplying the colonies with the elements of an
+aristocracy. Virginia was the only province of old foundation in which
+the Church of England was established; and there it was abandoned, with
+very little help, to the caprice or prejudices of the colonists, under
+which it speedily decayed. The Puritans enjoyed, undisturbed, their
+peculiar notions of ecclesiastical government. 'It concerned New England
+always to remember that they were originally a plantation religious, not
+a plantation of trade. And if any man among us make religion as twelve,
+and the world as thirteen, such an one hath not the spirit of a true New
+Englandman.' And when they chose to illustrate this noble principle by
+decimating their own numbers by persecution, and expelling from their
+limits all dissenters from their own establishment, the mother country
+never exerted herself to protect or prohibit. The only ambition of the
+state was to regulate the trade of its colonies: in this respect, and
+this only, they were fenced round with restrictions, and watched with
+the most diligent jealousy. They had a right to self-government and
+self-taxation; a right to religious freedom, in the sense which they
+chose themselves to put upon the word; a right to construct their
+municipal polity as they pleased; but no right to control or amend the
+slightest fiscal regulation of the imperial authority, however
+oppressively it might bear upon them.
+</p><p>
+"Such, I say, were the general notions prevailing in England on the
+subject of colonial government during the period of the foundation and
+early development of our transatlantic colonies&mdash;the notions by which
+the practice of government was regulated&mdash;although I do not assert that
+they were framed into a consistent and logical theory. Perhaps we shall
+not be far wrong in regarding Lord Chatham as the last distinguished
+assertor of these principles, in an age when they had begun to be
+partially superseded by newer speculations."&mdash;Merivale <i>On
+Colonization</i>, vol. i., p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> Hutchinson's <i>History of Massachusetts</i>, p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> "In the spring of 1606, James I. by patent divided
+Virginia into two colonies. The <i>southern</i> included all lands between
+the 34th and 41st degrees of north latitude. This was granted to the
+London Company. The <i>northern</i> included all lands between the 38th and
+45th degrees of north latitude, and was granted to the Plymouth Company.
+To prevent disputes about territory, the colonies were forbidden to
+plant within a hundred miles of each other. There appears an
+inconsistency in these grants, as the lands lying between the 38th and
+41st degrees are covered by both patents.
+</p><p>
+"In the month of August, 1615, Captain John Smith arrived in England,
+where he drew a map of the northern part of Virginia, and called it New
+England. From this time the name of Virginia was confined to the
+southern part of the colony."&mdash;Winterbottom's <i>History of America</i>, vol.
+iv., p. 165. See Bancroft's <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. i., p.
+120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Percy, in Purchas, iv., 1687.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> "This celebrated scene is preserved in a beautiful piece
+of sculpture over the western door of the Rotundo of the Capitol at
+Washington. The group consists of five figures, representing the precise
+moment when Pocahontas, by her interposition, saved Smith from being
+executed. It is the work of Capellano, a pupil of Canova's."&mdash;Thatcher's
+<i>Indian Biography</i>, vol. i., p. 22. See Appendix, No. LXI., (vol. II.) for the
+History of Pocahontas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> Smith, in Pinkerton, xiii., 51-55. "The account is fully
+contained in the oldest book printed in Virginia, in our Cambridge
+library. It is a thin quarto, in black letter, by John Smith, printed in
+1608."&mdash;Bancroft's <i>Hist. of the United States</i>, vol. i., p. 132.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> In the year 1610, the South Virginian or London Company
+sealed a patent to Lord Delawarr, constituting him Governor and
+Captain-General of South Virginia. His name was given to a bay and
+river, and to the Indians who dwelt in the surrounding country, called
+in their own tongue Lenni-Lenape, which name signifies <span class="smcap">THE ORIGINAL
+PEOPLE</span>. Lord Delawarr's health was ruined by the hardships and
+anxieties he was exposed to in Virginia, and he was obliged to return to
+England in little more than a year.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> Captain Smith says of Virginia, "that the number of felons
+and vagabonds did bring such evil character on the place, that some did
+choose to be hanged rather than go there, and <i>were</i>."&mdash;Graham's
+<i>Rise and Progress of the United States</i>, vol. i., p. 71.
+</p><p>
+"England adopted in the seventeenth century the system of transportation
+to her North American plantations, and the example was propagated by
+Cromwell, who introduced the practice of selling his political captives
+as slaves to the West Indians. But the number of regular convicts was
+too small, and that of free laborers too large, in the old provinces of
+North America, to have allowed this infusion of a convict population to
+produce much effect on the development of those communities, either in
+respect of their morals or their health.<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> Our own times are the
+first which have witnessed the phenomena of communities, in which the
+bulk of the working people consists of felons serving out the period of
+their punishment."&mdash;Merrivale, vol. ii., p. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> It must be remembered that the crimes of the convicts
+were chiefly political. The number transported to Virginia for social
+crimes was never considerable&mdash;scarcely enough to sustain the sentiment
+of pride in its scorn of the laboring population&mdash;certainly not enough
+to affect its character.&mdash;Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 191.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> Stith's <i>Hist. of Virginia</i>, p. 167, 168; Chalmers's
+<i>Annals of the United Colonies</i>, p. 69.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> Stith's <i>Hist. of Virginia</i>, p. 307.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> It is asserted by Camden that tobacco was first brought
+into England by Mr. Ralph Lane, who went out as chief governor of
+Virginia in the first expedition commanded by Sir Richard Greenville.
+There can be little doubt that Lane was desired to import it by his
+master, Sir Walter Raleigh, who had seen it used in France during his
+residence there.&mdash;Camden, in Kennet, vol. ii., p. 509.
+</p><p>
+"There is a well-known tradition that Sir Walter first began to smoke it
+privately in his study, and the servant coming in with his tankard of
+ale and nutmeg, as he was intent upon his book, seeing the smoke issuing
+from his mouth, threw all the liquor in his face by way of extinguishing
+the fire, and, running down stairs, alarmed the family with piercing
+cries that his master, before they could get up, would be burned to
+ashes."&mdash;Oldy's <i>Life of Raleigh</i>, p. 74.
+</p><p>
+"King James declared himself the enemy of tobacco, and drew against it
+his royal pen. In the work which he entitled 'Counterblast to Tobacco,'
+he poured the most bitter reproaches on this 'vile and nauseous weed.'
+He followed it up by a proclamation to restrain 'the disorderly trading
+in tobacco,' as tending to a general and new corruption of both men's
+bodies and minds. Parliament also took the fate of this weed into their
+most solemn deliberation. Various members inveighed against it, as a
+mania which infested the whole nation; that plowmen took it at the plow;
+that it 'hindered' the health of the whole nation, and that thousands
+had died of it. Its warmest friends ventured only to plead that, before
+the final anathema was pronounced against it, a little pause might be
+granted to the inhabitants of Virginia and the Somer's Isles to find
+some other means of existence and trade. James's enmity did not prevent
+him from endeavoring to fill his coffers by the most enormous imposts
+laid upon tobacco, insomuch that the colonists were obliged for some
+time to send the whole into the ports of Holland. The government of New
+England, more consistently, passed a complete interdict against tobacco,
+the smoke of which they compared to that of the bottomless pit. Yet
+tobacco, like other proscribed objects, throve under persecution, and
+achieved a final triumph over all its enemies. Indeed, the enmity
+against it was in some respects beneficial to Virginia, as drawing forth
+the most strict prohibitions against 'abusing and misemploying the soil
+of this fruitful kingdom' to the production of so odious an article.
+After all, as the impost for an average of seven years did not reach a
+hundred and fifty thousand pounds, it could not have that mighty
+influence, either for good or evil, which was ascribed to it by the
+fears and passions of the age."&mdash;Chalmers. b. i., ch. iii., with notes.
+Massaire, p. 210. Wives, p. 197, quoted by Murray.
+</p><p>
+"Frenchmen they call those tobacco plants whose leaves do not spread and
+grow large, but rather spire upward and grow tall; these plants they do
+not tend, not being worth their labor."&mdash;Mr. Clayton's <i>Letter to the
+Royal Society</i>, 1688. <i>Miscellanea Curiosa</i>, vol. iii., p. 303-310.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> The colonists of Virginia, in a kind of manifesto
+published in 1622, expressed their satisfaction at some late warlike
+excursions of the Indians as a pretext for rubbing and subjugating them.
+"Now these cleared grounds in all their villages, which live situated in
+the fruitfullest parts of the land, shall be inhabited by us, whereas
+heretofore the grubbing of woods was the greatest labor. The way of
+conquering them is much more easy than that of civilizing them by fair
+means; for they are a rude, barbarous, and naked people, scattered in
+small companies, which are helps to victory, but hinderances to
+civility."&mdash;<i>Tracts relating to Virginia in the British Museum</i>, quoted
+by Merrivale. See Appendix, No. LXII. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> "Il faut envisager surtout l'influence qu'&agrave; exerc&eacute;e le
+Nouveau Continent sur les destin&eacute;es du genre humain sous le rapport des
+institutions sociales. La tourmente religieuse du seizi&egrave;me si&egrave;cle, en
+favorisant l'essor d'une libre reflexion, a pr&eacute;lud&eacute; &agrave; la tourmente
+politique des temps dans lesquels nous vivons. Le premier de ces
+mouvemens a coincid&eacute; avec l'&eacute;poque de l'&eacute;tablissement des colonies
+Europ&eacute;ennes en Am&eacute;rique; le second s'est fait sentir vers la fin du
+dix-huiti&egrave;me si&egrave;cle, et a fini par briser les liens de d&eacute;pendance qui
+unissaient les deux mondes. Une circonstance sur laquelle on n'a
+peut-&ecirc;tre pas assez fix&eacute; l'attention publique et qui tient &agrave; ces causes
+myst&eacute;rieuses dont a d&eacute;pendu la distribution in&eacute;gale du genre humain sur
+le globe, a favoris&eacute;e, on pourrait dire, &agrave; rendre possible l'influence
+politique que je viens de signaler. Une moiti&eacute; du globe est rest&eacute;e si
+faiblement peuple que, malgr&eacute; le long travail d'une civilisation
+indig&egrave;ne, qui a eu lieu entre les d&eacute;couvertes de Lief et de Colomb, sur
+les c&ocirc;tes Am&eacute;ricaines oppos&eacute;es &agrave; l'Asie, d'immenses pays dans la partie
+orientale n'offroient au quinzi&egrave;me si&egrave;cle que des tribus &eacute;parses de
+peuples chasseurs. Cet &eacute;tat de depopulation dans des pays fertiles et
+&eacute;minemment aptes &agrave; la culture de nos c&eacute;reales, a permis aux Europ&eacute;ens
+d'y fonder des &eacute;tablissemens sur une &eacute;chelle qu'aucune colonisation de
+l'Asie et de l'Afrique n'a pu atteindre. Les peuples chasseurs ont &eacute;t&eacute;
+refoul&eacute;s des c&ocirc;tes orientales vers l'interieur, et dans le nord de
+l'Am&eacute;rique, sous des climats et des aspects de v&eacute;g&eacute;tation tr&egrave;s analogues
+&agrave; ceux des &icirc;les Britanniques, il s'est forme par &eacute;migration, des la fin
+de l'ann&eacute;e 1620, des communaut&eacute;s dont les institutions se pr&eacute;sentent
+comme le reflet des institutions libres de la m&egrave;re patrie. La Nouvelle
+Angleterre n'&eacute;toit pas primitivement un &eacute;tablissement d'industrie et de
+commerce, comme le sont encore les factoreries de l'Afrique; ce n'&eacute;toit
+pas une domination sur les peuples agricoles d'une race diff&eacute;rente,
+comme l'empire Britannique dans l'Inde, et pendant longtemps, l'empire
+Espagnole au Mexique et au P&eacute;rou. La Nouvelle Angleterre, qui a re&ccedil;u une
+premi&egrave;re colonisation de quatre mille familles de puritains, dont
+descend aujourd'hui un tiers de la population blanche des Etats Unis,
+&eacute;toit un &eacute;tablissement religieux. La libert&eacute; civile s'y montrait des
+l'origine ins&eacute;parable de la libert&eacute; du culte. Or l'histoire nous rev&egrave;le
+que les institutions libres de l'Angleterre, de la Hollande, et de la
+Suisse, malgr&eacute; leur proximit&eacute;, n'ont pas r&eacute;agi sur les peuples de
+l'Europe latine, comme ce reflet de formes de gouvernemens enti&egrave;rement
+democratiques qui, loin de tout ennemi ext&eacute;rieur, favoris&eacute;s par une
+tendance uniforme et constante de souvenirs et de vielles m&oelig;urs, ont
+pris dans un calme longtemps prolong&eacute;, des d&eacute;veloppemens inconnus aux
+temps modernes. C'est ainsi que le manque de population dans des r&eacute;gions
+des Nouveau Continent oppos&eacute;es &agrave; l'Europe, et le libre et prodigieux
+accroissement d'une colonisation Anglaise audel&agrave; de la grande vall&eacute;e de
+l'Atlantique, a puissamment contribu&eacute; &agrave; changer la face politique et les
+destin&eacute;es de l'ancien continent. On a affirm&eacute; que si Colomb n'avoit pas
+chang&eacute;, selon les conseils d'Alonzo Pinzon,<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> le 7 Octobre, 1492, la
+direction de sa route, qui &eacute;toit de l'est &agrave; l'ouest, et gouvern&eacute; vers le
+sud-ouest, il seroit entre dans le courant d'eau chaude ou Gulf Stream,
+et auroit &eacute;t&eacute; port&eacute; vers la Floride, et de l&agrave; peut-&ecirc;tre vers le cap
+Hatteras et la Virginie, incident d'une immense importance, puisqu'il
+auroit pu donner aux Etats Unis, en lieu d'une population Protestante
+Anglaise, une population Catholique Espagnole."&mdash;Humboldt's <i>G&eacute;og. du
+Nouveau Continent</i>, tom. iii., p. 163.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> Alonzo s'&eacute;toit &eacute;cri&eacute; "que son c&oelig;ur lui disoit que pour
+trouver la terre, il falloit gouverner vers le sud-ouest." L'inspiration
+d'Alonzo &eacute;toit moins myst&eacute;riuse qu'elle peut le para&icirc;tre au premier
+abord. Pinzon avoit vu dans la soir&eacute;e passer des perroquets, et il
+savoit que ces oiseaux n'alloient pas sans motif du c&ocirc;te du sud. Jamais
+vol d'oiseau n'a eu des suites plus graves.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Protestant Reformation was eminently suited to the spirit of the
+English people, although forced upon them in the first instance by the
+absolute power of a capricious king, and unaccompanied by any
+acknowledgment of those rights of toleration and individual judgment
+upon which its strength seemed mainly to depend. The monarch, when
+constituted the head of the Church, exacted the same spiritual obedience
+from his subjects as they had formerly rendered to the Pope of Rome.
+Queen Elizabeth adopted her father's principles: she favored the power
+of the hierarchy, and the pomp and ceremony of external religious
+observances. But the English people, shocked by the horrors of Mary's
+reign, and terrified by the papal persecutions on the Continent, were
+generally inclined to favor the extremes of Calvinistic simplicity, as a
+supposed security against another reaction to the Romish faith. The
+stern and despotic queen, encouraged by the counsels of Archbishop
+Whitgift, assumed the groundless right of putting down the opinions of
+the Puritans by force. [1583.] Various severities were exercised against
+those who held the obnoxious doctrines; but, despite the storm of
+persecution, the spirit of religious independence spread rapidly among
+the sturdy people of England. At length a statute was passed of a nature
+now almost incredible&mdash;secession from the Church was punishable by
+banishment, and by death in case of refusal on return.<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> [1593.]</p>
+
+<p>The Puritans were thus driven to extremity.<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> The followers of an
+enthusiastic seceder named Brown<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> formed the first example of an
+independent system: each congregation was in itself a Church, and the
+spiritual power was wholly vested in its members. This sect was
+persecuted to the uttermost: the leader was imprisoned in no less than
+thirty-two different places, and many of his followers suffered death
+itself for conscience' sake. Some of the Brownists took refuge in
+Holland<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> [1598]; but, impelled by a longing for an independent home,
+or perhaps urged by the mysterious impulse of their great destiny, they
+cast their eyes upon that stern Western shore, where the untrodden
+wilderness offered them at least the "freedom to worship God." They
+applied to the London Company for a grant of land, declaring that they
+were "weaned from the delicate milk of their native country, and knit
+together in a strict and sacred band, whom small things could not
+discourage, nor small discontents cause to wish themselves home again."
+After some delay they accomplished their object; however, the only
+security they could obtain for religious independence was a promise
+that, as long they demeaned themselves quietly, no inquiry should be
+made.<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a></p>
+
+<p>Much of the history of nations may be traced through the foundation and
+progress of their colonies. Each particular era has shown, in the
+settlements of the time, types of the several mother countries, examples
+of their systems, and the results of their exigencies. At one time this
+type is of an adventurous, at another of a religious character; now
+formed by political, again by social influences. The depth and
+durability of this impress may be measured by the strength of the first
+motives, and the genius of the people from whom the emigration
+flows.<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> The ancient colonies of Asia Minor displayed the original
+characteristics of the mother country long after her states had become
+utterly changed. The Roman settlements in Italy raised upon the ruins of
+a subjugated nation a fabric of civilization and power that can never be
+forgotten. The proud and adventurous, but ruthless spirit that
+distinguished the Spanish nation at the time of their wonderful
+conquests in the New World, is still exhibited in the haughty tyranny of
+Cuba, and the sanguinary struggles of the South American republics. The
+French Canadian of to-day retains most or many of the national
+sentiments of those who crossed the Atlantic to extend the power of
+France and of her proudest king. And still, in that great Anglo-Saxon
+nation of the West, through the strife of democratic ambition, and amid
+the toils and successes of an enormous commerce, we trace the
+foundations, overgrown perhaps, but all unshaken, of that stern edifice
+of civil and religious liberty<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> which the Pilgrim fathers raised
+with their untiring labor, and cemented with their blood.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar nature of the first New England emigration was the result
+of those strong tendencies of the British people soon afterward
+strengthened into a determination sufficiently powerful to sacrifice
+the monarch and subvert the Church and State.</p>
+
+<p>The Brownists, or, as they are more happily called, the Pilgrim fathers,
+set sail on the 12th of July, 1620, in two small vessels. There were in
+all 120 souls, with a moderate supply of provisions and goods. On the
+9th of November they reached Cape Cod, after a rough voyage; they had
+been obliged to send one of their ships back to England. From ignorance
+of the coast and from the lateness of the season, they could not find
+any very advantageous place of settlement; they finally fixed upon New
+Plymouth,<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> where they landed on the 21st of December. During the
+remainder of the winter they suffered terribly from cold, want, and
+sickness; no more than fifty remained alive when spring came to mitigate
+their sufferings. The after progress of the little colony was for some
+time slow and painful. The system of common property<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> had excited
+grievous discontent; this tended to create an aversion to labor that was
+to be productive of no more benefit to the industrious than to the idle;
+in a short time it became necessary to enforce a certain degree of
+exertion by the punishment of whipping. They intrusted all religious
+matters to the gifted among their brethren, and would not allow of the
+formation of any regular ministry. However, the unsuitableness of these
+systems to men subject to the usual impulses and weakness of human
+nature soon became obvious, and the first errors wore gradually
+corrected. In the course of ten years the population reached to 300, and
+the settlement prospered considerably.</p>
+
+<p>King James was not satisfied with the slow progress of American
+colonization. [1620.] In the same year that the Pilgrim fathers landed
+at Plymouth, he formed a new company under the title of the Grand
+Council of Plymouth,<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> and appointed many people of rank and
+influence to its direction. Little good, however, resulted from this
+step. Though the council itself was incapable of the generous project of
+planting colonies, it was ever ready to make sale of patents, which
+sales, owing to Parliamentary opposition to their claims, soon became
+their only source of revenue.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> They sold to some gentlemen of
+Dorchester a belt of land stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
+and extending three miles south of the River Charles, and three miles
+north of <i>every</i> part of the River Merrimac. Other associates in the
+enterprise were sought and found in and about London: Winthrop, Johnson,
+Pinchon, Eaton, Saltonstall, Billingham, famous in colonial annals.
+Endicott, the first governor of the new colony, was one of the original
+purchasers of the patent. They were all kindred spirits, men of
+religious fervor, uniting the emotions of enthusiasm with unbending
+resolution in action.</p>
+
+<p>The first winter brought to these colonists the usual privation,
+suffering, and death, but a now rapidly-increasing emigration more than
+filled up the places of all casualties. From this period, many men of
+respectability and talent,<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> especially ministers of the Gospel,
+sought that religious freedom<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> in America which was denied them at
+home. A general impulse was given among the commercial and industrious
+classes; vessels constantly crowded from the English ports across the
+Atlantic, till at length the court took the alarm. A proclamation was
+issued "to restrain the disorderly transportation of his majesty's
+subjects, because of the many idle and refractory humors, 'whose only or
+principal end is to live beyond the reach of authority.'" It has long
+been a popular story that eight emigrant ships were seized when on the
+point of sailing for America, and the passengers forced to land; among
+whom were John Hampden,<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> Sir Arthur Hazlerig, and Oliver Cromwell.
+This tale has, however, been proved untrue by modern historians.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding these unjust and mischievous prohibitions, a
+considerable number of emigrants still found their way across the
+Atlantic. But when the outburst of popular indignation swept away all
+the barriers raised by a short-sighted tyranny against English freedom,
+many flocked hack again to their native country to enjoy its
+newly-acquired liberty. [1648.] The odious and iniquitous persecution of
+the Puritans resulted in a great benefit to the human race, and gave the
+first strong impulse to the spirit of resistance that ultimately
+overthrew oppression. It caused, also, the colonization of New England
+to be effected by a class of men far superior in industry, energy,
+principle, and character to those who usually left their English homes
+to seek their fortunes in new countries. That religion, for which they
+had made so great a sacrifice, was the main-spring of all their social
+and political systems. They were, however, too blindly zealous to
+discriminate between the peculiar administration of a theocracy and the
+catholic and abiding principles of the Gospel. If they did not openly
+profess that the judicial law of Moses was still in force, they at any
+rate openly practiced its stern enactments.</p>
+
+<p>The intolerance of these martyrs of intolerance is a sad example of
+human waywardness.<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> In their little commonwealth, seceders from the
+established forms of faith were persecuted with an unholy zeal.
+Imprisonment, banishment, and even death itself, were inflicted for that
+free exercise of religious opinions which the Pilgrim fathers had
+sacrificed all earthly interests to win for themselves. In those dark
+days of fanatic faith or vicious skepticism, the softening influence of
+true Christianity was but little felt. The stern denunciations and
+terrible punishments of the Old Testament were more suited to the iron
+temper of the age than the gentle dispensations of the New&mdash;the fiery
+zeal of Joshua than the loving persuasiveness of St. John.</p>
+
+<p>As the tenets of each successive sect rose into popularity and
+influenced the majority, they became state questions,<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> distracted
+the Church, and threatened the very existence of the colony. The first
+schism that disturbed the peace of the settlements was raised by Roger
+Williams at Salem. [1635.] This worthy and sincere enthusiast held many
+just and sound views among others that were wild and injurious: he
+stoutly upheld freedom of conscience, and inconveniently contested the
+right of the British crown to bestow Indian lands upon Englishmen. On
+the other hand, he contrived to raise a storm of fanatic hatred against
+the red cross in the banner of St. George, which seriously disturbed
+the state,<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> and led to violent writings and altercations. At length
+Williams was banished as a distractor of the public peace, but a popular
+uproar attended his departure, and the greater part of the inhabitants
+were with difficulty dissuaded from following him. He retired to
+Providence, Rhode Island<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> [1636], where a little colony soon settled
+round him, and he there lived and died in general esteem and
+regard.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Antinomian sect shortly after excited a still more dangerous
+commotion in the colony. [1637.] Mrs. Hutchinson, a Lincolnshire lady of
+great zeal and determination, joined by nearly the whole female
+population, adopted these views in the strongest manner. The ministers
+of the church, although decided Calvinists, and firmly opposed to the
+Romish doctrines of salvation by works, earnestly pressed the
+reformation of heart and conduct as a test of religion. Mrs. Hutchinson
+and her followers held that to inculcate any rule of life or manners was
+a crime against the Holy Spirit; in their actual deportment, however, it
+must be confessed that their bitterest enemies could not find grounds of
+censure. With the powerful advocacy of female zeal, these doctrines
+spread rapidly, and the whole colony was soon divided between "the
+covenant of works and the covenant of grace;" the ardor and obstinacy of
+the disputants being by no means proportioned to their full
+understanding of the point<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> in dispute. Sir Harry Vane,<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> whose
+rank and character had caused him to be elected governor in spite of
+his youth, zealously adopted Antinomian opinions, and, in consequence,
+was ejected from office by the opposite party at the ensuing election,
+Mrs. Hutchinson having failed to secure in the country districts that
+superiority which she possessed in the town of Boston.<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> After some
+ineffectual efforts to reconcile the seceders to the Church, the new
+governor and the ministers summoned a general synod of the colonial
+clergy to meet at Cambridge, where, after some very turbulent
+proceedings, the whole of the Antinomian doctrines were condemned.</p>
+
+<p>As might have been supposed, this condemnation had but little effect.
+The obnoxious principles were preached as widely and zealously as
+before, till the civil authority resorted to the rude argument of force,
+banished Mr. Wheelwright, one of the leaders, with two of his followers,
+from the colony, and fined and disfranchised others. Mrs. Hutchinson was
+ultimately accused, condemned, and ordered to leave the colony in six
+months. Although she made a sort of recantation of her errors, her
+inexorable judges insisted in carrying out the sentence.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> The
+unhappy lady removed to Rhode Island, where her husband, through her
+influence, was elected governor, and where she was followed by many of
+her devoted adherents. [1638.] Thus the persecutions in the old
+settlement of Massachusetts had the same effect as those in England&mdash;of
+elevating a few stubborn recusants into the founders of states and
+nations. After her husband's death Mrs. Hutchinson removed into a
+neighboring Dutch settlement, where she and all her family met with a
+dreadful fate; they were surprised by the Indians, and every one
+destroyed. [1643.]</p>
+
+<p>Although by these violent and unjust punishments, and by disarming the
+disaffected, the Antinomian spirit was for a time put down, unity was by
+no means restored. Pride and the love of novelty continually gave birth
+to new sects. Ministers, who had possessed the highest reputation in
+England, saw with sorrow that their colonial churches were neglected for
+the sake of ignorant and mischievous enthusiasts. Even common
+profligates and rogues, when other lesser villainies had failed, assumed
+the hypocritical semblance of some peculiar religion, and enjoyed their
+day of popularity.</p>
+
+<p>The Anabaptists next carried away the fickle affections of the
+multitude, and excited the enmity of their rulers. [1643.] This schism
+first became perceptible by people leaving the church when the rites of
+baptism were being administered; but at length private meetings for
+worship were held, attended by large congregations. The magistrates, as
+usual, practiced great severities against these seceders, first by fine,
+imprisonment, and even whipping; finally by banishment. The Anabaptists
+were, however, not put down by the arm of power, but were speedily
+forgotten in the sudden appearance of a stranger sect than any that had
+hitherto appeared even in New England.</p>
+
+<p>The people called Quakers had lately made their appearance in the north
+of England. [1648.] They soon found their way to America, where they
+were received with bitter hostility from the commencement. [1656.] The
+dangerous enthusiasts who first went forth to preach the doctrines of
+this strange sect were very different men from those who now command the
+respect and good will of all classes by their industry, benevolence, and
+love of order. The original propagandists believed that the divine
+government was still administered on earth by direct and special
+communication, as in the times chronicled by Holy Writ: they therefore
+despised and disregarded all human authorities. To actual force, indeed,
+they only opposed a passive resistance; and their patience and
+obstinacy in carrying out this principle must excite astonishment, if
+not admiration. But their language was most violent and abusive against
+all priests and ministers, governors and magistrates.<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> The women of
+this novel persuasion were even more fanatic than the men. Several
+leaving their husbands and children in England, crossed the seas to bear
+witness to their inspiration at Boston. They were, however, rudely
+received, their books burned, and themselves either imprisoned or
+scourged and banished. Nowise intimidated by these severities, several
+other women brought upon themselves the vengeance of the law by frantic
+and almost incredible demonstrations; and a man named Faubord endeavored
+to sacrifice his first-born son under a supposed command from Heaven.</p>
+
+<p>The ministers and magistrates came to the conclusion that the colony
+could never enjoy peace while the Quakers continued among them. These
+sectarians were altogether unmanageable by the means of ordinary power
+or reason; they would neither pay fines nor work in prison, nor, when
+liberated, promise to amend their conduct. The government now enacted
+still more violent laws against them, one, among others, rendering them
+liable to have their ears cut off for obstinacy; and yet this strange
+fanaticism increased from day to day. At length the Quakers were
+banished from the colony, under the threat of death in case of return.
+They were, however, scarcely beyond the borders when a supposed
+inspiration prompted them to retrace their steps to Boston: scarcely had
+their absence been observed, when their solemn voices were again heard
+denouncing the city of their persecutors.</p>
+
+<p>The horrible law decreeing the punishment of death against the Quakers
+had only been carried by a majority of thirteen to twelve in the
+Colonial Court of Deputies, and after a strong opposition; but, to the
+eternal disgrace of the local government, its atrocious provisions were
+carried into effect, and four of the unhappy fanatics were judicially
+murdered. The tidings of these executions filled England with horror.
+Even Charles II. was moved to interpose the royal power for the
+protection of at least the lives of the obnoxious sectarians. He issued
+a warrant on the 9th of September, 1661, absolutely prohibiting the
+punishment of death against Quakers, and directing that they should be
+sent to England for trial. In consequence of this interference, no more
+executions took place, but other penalties were continued with unabated
+severity.</p>
+
+<p>While the persecution of the Quakers and Anabaptists raged in New
+England, an important addition to the numbers of the colonists was
+gained, a large body of Nonconformists having fled across the Atlantic
+from a fresh assault commenced against their liberties by Charles II.
+This Puritan emigration was regarded with great displeasure by the king.
+He speedily took an opportunity of arbitrarily depriving the colony of
+its charter, and sent out Sir Edmund Andros to administrate as absolute
+governor. The country soon felt painfully the despotic tyranny of their
+new ruler; and the establishment of an English Church, with the usual
+ritual, spread general consternation. When James ascended the throne, a
+proclamation of tolerance somewhat allayed the fears of the settlers;
+but the administration of temporal affairs became ruinously oppressive.
+On the pretense that the titles of all land obtained under the old
+charter had become void by its abrogation, new and exorbitant fees were
+exacted, heavy and injudicious taxes arbitrarily imposed, and all right
+of representation denied to the colonists. At length, in the year 1689,
+a man, named Winslow, brought from Virginia the joyful news of the
+Prince of Orange's proclamation; he was immediately arrested for
+treason; but the people rose tumultuously, imprisoned the governor, and
+re-established the authority of their old magistrates. On the 26th of
+May, a vessel arrived with the intelligence that William and Mary had
+been proclaimed in England. Although the new monarch declared himself
+favorably disposed toward the colonists, he did not restore their
+beloved charter. He, however, granted them a Constitution nearly similar
+to that of the mother country, which rendered the people of New England
+tolerably contented.</p>
+
+<p>The colony was now fated to suffer from a delusion more frantic and
+insane than any it had hitherto admitted, and which compromised its very
+existence. The New Englanders had brought with them the belief in
+witchcraft prevalent among the early reformers, and the wild and savage
+wilderness where their lot was now cast tended to deepen the impressions
+of superstition upon their minds. Two young girls, of the family of Mr.
+Paris, minister of Salem, were suddenly afflicted with a singular
+complaint, probably of an hysterical character, which baffled the united
+skill of the neighboring physicians; till one, more decided than the
+rest, declared that the sufferers were bewitched. From this time prayers
+and fasting were the remedies adopted, and the whole town of Salem at
+length joined in a day of humiliation. The patients, however, did not
+improve, till an Indian servingwoman denounced another, named Tituba, as
+the author of the evil. Mr. Paris assailed the accused, and tortured her
+in the view of extracting a confession of guilt, which she at length
+made, with many absurd particulars, hoping to appease her persecutor.
+From this time the mischievous folly spread wider; a respectable
+clergyman, Mr. Burroughs, was tried for witchcraft on the evidence of
+five women, and condemned to death, his only defense being that he was
+accused of that which had no existence, and was impossible. New charges
+multiplied daily; the jails of Salem were full of the accused, and
+prisoners were transferred to other towns, where the silly infection
+spread, and filled the whole colony with alarm.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could afford stronger proof of the hold which this sad delusion
+had taken of the popular mind than the readiness so constantly displayed
+by the accused to confess the monstrous imputation, whose punishment was
+infamy and death. Many detailed long consultations held with Satan for
+the purpose of overthrowing the kingdom of heaven. In some cases these
+confessions were the result of distempered understandings; but,
+generally, they may be attributed to the hope of respite and ultimate
+reprieve, as none but the supposed impenitent sorcerers were executed.
+Thus only the truthful and conscientious suffered from the effects of
+this odious insanity. Some among the wretched people who had confessed
+witchcraft showed a subsequent disposition to retract. A man named
+Samuel Wardmell, having solemnly recanted his former statement, was
+tried, condemned, and executed. Despite this terrible warning, a few
+others followed the conscientious but fatal example. Every one of the
+sufferers during this dreadful period protested their innocence to the
+last. It seems difficult to discover any adequate motives for these
+atrocious and constant accusations. There is too much reason to believe
+that the confiscation of the condemned persons' property, malice against
+the accused, a desire to excite the public mind, and gain the notice and
+favor of those in power, were generally the objects of the witnesses.</p>
+
+<p>The evil at length attained such a frightful magnitude that the firmest
+believers in witchcraft began to waver. In two months nineteen unhappy
+victims had been executed, eight more remained under sentence of death,
+150 accused were still in prison, and there was no more room for the
+crowds daily brought in. No character or position was a shield against
+these absurd imputations; all lay at the mercy of a few mad or malignant
+beings. The first mitigation of the mischief was effected by the
+governor assembling the ministers to discuss whether what was called
+specter evidence should be held sufficient for the condemnation of the
+accused. The assembly decided against that particular sort of evidence
+being conclusive; but, at the same time, exhorted the governor to
+persevere in the vigorous prosecution of witchcraft, "according to the
+wholesome statutes of the English nation."<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> Public opinion,
+however, soon began to run strongly against those proceedings, and
+finally the governor took the bold step of pardoning all these under
+sentence for witchcraft, throwing open all the prisons, and turning a
+deaf ear to every accusation (January, 1693). From that time the
+troubles of the afflicted were heard of no more. Those who had confessed
+came forward to retract or disclaim their former statements, and the
+most active judges and persecutors publicly expressed contrition for the
+part they had taken in the fatal and almost incredible insanity. In the
+reaction that ensued, many urged strict inquiry into the fearful
+prejudices that had sacrificed innocent lives; but so general had been
+the crime, that it was deemed wisest to throw a vail of oblivion over
+the whole dreadful scene.<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a></p>
+
+<p>While the settlers of New England were distracted by their own madness
+and intolerance, they had to contend with great external difficulties
+from the animosity of the Indians. The native races in this part of the
+continent appear to have been in some respects superior to those
+dwelling by the shores of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lake. They
+acknowledged the absolute power of a sachem or king, which gave a
+dangerous vigor and unity to their actions. They at first received the
+English with hospitality and kindness, and the colonists, on their part,
+passed laws to protect not only the persons of the natives, but to
+insure them an equitable price for their lands. The narrowed limits of
+their hunting-grounds, however, and the rapid advance of the white men,
+soon began to alarm the Indians.<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> When their jealousy was thus
+aroused, occasions of quarrel speedily presented themselves; the baneful
+influence of strong liquors, largely furnished in spite of the strictest
+prohibitions, increased their excitement. Some Englishmen were slain;
+the murderers were seized, tried, and executed by the colonial
+government, according to British law. These proceedings kindled a deep
+resentment among the savages, and led to measures of retaliation at
+their hands.</p>
+
+<p>It has been an unfortunate feature of European settlement in America,
+that the border population, those most in contact with the natives, have
+been visually men of wild and desperate character, the tainted foam of
+the advancing tide of civilization. Those reckless adventurers were
+little scrupulous in their dealings with the simple savage; they utterly
+disregarded those rights which his weakness could not defend, and by
+intolerable provocation excited him to a bloody but futile resistance.
+The Indians naturally confounded the whole English race with these
+contemptuous oppressors, and commenced a war that resulted in their own
+extermination. They did not face the English in the field, but hovered
+round the border, and, with sudden surprise, overwhelmed detached posts
+and settlements in a horrible destruction. The astute colonists soon
+adopted the policy of forming alliances, and taking advantage of ancient
+enmities to stir up hostilities among them. By this means they
+accomplished the destruction of the warlike Pequods,<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> their
+bitterest foes. Other enemies, however, soon came into the field, and
+at length, the original allies of the English, jealous of the
+encroaching power of the white strangers, also took arms against them.
+The Indian chiefs, after a time, began to adopt European tactics of war,
+and for many years kept the colony in alarm by their formidable attacks:
+they were, however, finally driven altogether from the field.</p>
+
+<p>The New England settlers showed more sincerity than other adventurers in
+endeavoring to accomplish their principal professed object of
+colonization, that of teaching Christianity to the Indians.<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> They
+appointed zealous and pious ministers for the mission,<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> and
+established a seminary for the education of the natives, whence some
+scholars were to be selected to preach the Gospel among their savage
+countrymen. Great obstacles were encountered in this good work; the
+Indians showed a bigoted attachment to their own strange religious
+conceits, and their priests and conjurers used all their powerful
+influence against Christianity, denouncing in furious terms all who
+forsook their creed for the English God. Despite these difficulties, a
+number of savages were induced to form themselves in villages, and lead
+a civilized<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> and Christian life, under the guidance of ministers of
+their own race.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> In a few years thirty congregations of "praying
+Indians,"<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> their numbers amounting to 3000, were established in
+Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> 35 Eliz., c. 1, stat. 4, p. 841-843; <i>Parl. Hist.</i>, p.
+863; Strype's <i>Whitgift</i>, p. 414, &amp;c.; Neale's <i>Puritans</i>, vol. i., p.
+526, 527, quoted by Bancroft, vol. i., p. 290.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> "The <i>Gospel Advocate</i> asserts that 'the judicial law of
+Moses being still in force, no prince or law ought to save the lives of
+(<i>inter alios</i>) heretics, willful breakers of the Sabbath, neglecters of
+the sacrament without just reason.' Well may the historian of the
+Puritans (Neale) say, 'Both parties agreed in asserting the necessity of
+a uniformity of public worship, <i>and of using the sword of the
+magistrate in support of their respective principles</i>.' It should never
+be forgotten by those who are inclined to blame the severe laws passed
+against these Nonconformists, that the English government was dealing
+with men whose avowed wish and object it was not simply to be tolerated,
+but to subvert existing institutions in Church and State, and set up in
+their place those approved by themselves."&mdash;Godley's <i>Letters from
+America</i>, vol. ii., p. 135.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> "The most noisy advocate of the new opinions was Brown, a
+man of rashness, possessing neither true courage nor constancy. He has
+acquired historical notoriety because his hot-headed indiscretion urged
+him to undertake the defense of separation.... Brown eventually
+purchased a living in the English Church by conformity."&mdash;Bancroft's
+<i>History of the United States</i>, vol. i., p. 287.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> "But, although Holland is a country of the greatest
+religious freedom, they were not better satisfied there than in England.
+They were tolerated, indeed, but watched. Their zeal began to have
+dangerous languor for want of opposition, and being without power and
+influence, they grew tired of the indolent security of their sanctuary.
+They were desirous of removing to a country where they should see no
+superior."&mdash;Russell's <i>Modern Europe</i>, vol. ii., p. 427.
+</p><p>
+"They were restless from the consciousness of ability to act a more
+important part on the theater of the world ... they were moved by an
+enlightened desire of improving their condition ... the honorable
+ambition of becoming the founders of a state."&mdash;Bancroft's <i>History of
+the United States</i>, vol. i., p. 303.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> This was a promise from James I., who had now succeeded
+to the throne of England.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> "A strongly-marked distinction exists between the
+Southern and Northern Americans. The two extremes are formed by the New
+Englanders<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> and the Virginians. The former are certainly the more
+respectable. They are industrious, frugal, enterprising, regular in
+their habits, pure in their manners, and strongly impressed with
+sentiments of religion. The name Yankee, which we apply as one of
+reproach and derision to Americans in general, is assumed by them as
+their natural and appropriate designation.<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> It is a common proverb
+in America, that a Yankee will live where another would starve. Their
+very prosperity, however, with a certain reserve in their character, and
+supposed steady attention to small gains, renders them not excessively
+popular with those among whom they settle. They are charged with a
+peculiar species of finesse, called 'Yankee tricks,' and the character
+of being 'up to every thing' is applied to them, we know not exactly
+how, in a sense of reproach. The Virginian planter, on the contrary, is
+lax in principle, destitute of industry, eager in the pursuit of rough
+pleasures, and demoralized by the system of negro slavery, which exists
+in almost a West Indian form. Yet, with all the Americans who attempt to
+draw the parallel, he seems rather the favorite. He is frank,
+open-hearted, and exercising a splendid hospitality. Both Cooper and
+Judge Hall report him as a complete gentleman; by which they evidently
+mean, not the finished courtier, but the English country gentleman or
+squire, though the opening afforded by the political constitution of his
+country causes him to cultivate his mind more by reading and inquiry. A
+large proportion of the most eminent and ruling statesmen in
+America&mdash;Washington, Jefferson, Madison&mdash;were Virginians. Surrounded
+from their infancy with ease and wealth, accustomed to despise, and to
+see despised, money on a small scale, and no laborious exertions made
+for its attainment, they imbibe from youth the habits and ideas of the
+higher classes. Luxurious living, gaming, horse-racing, cock-fighting,
+and other rough, turbulent amusements, absorb a great portion of their
+life. Although, therefore, the leisure enjoyed by them, when well
+improved, may have produced some very elevated and accomplished
+characters, they can not, taken at the highest, be considered so
+respectable a class as their somewhat despised northern brethren; and
+the lower ranks are decidedly in a state of comparative moral
+debasement."&mdash;Murray, vol. ii., p. 394.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Descendants of the Puritans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> "The word Yankees (which is the Indian corruption of
+English <i>Yengeese</i>) is both offensive and incorrect as applied to any
+but New Englanders."&mdash;Godley's <i>Letters from America</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> "James I. ranked among their party, as much as he was
+able by severe usage, all those who stood up in defense even of civil
+liberty."&mdash;Bolingbroke's <i>Remarks upon English History</i>, p. 283.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> "In memory of the hospitalities which the company had
+received at the last English port from which they had sailed, this oldest
+New England colony obtained the name of Plymouth. The two vessels which
+conveyed the Pilgrim fathers from Delft Haven were the <i>Mayflower</i>
+and the <i>Speedwell</i>. The Mayflower alone proceeded to
+America."&mdash;Bancroft, vol. i., p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> "Under the influence of this wild notion, the colonists
+of New Plymouth, in imitation of the primitive Christians, threw all
+their property into a common stock."&mdash;Robertson's <i>America</i>, book x. One
+of the many errors with which the volume of Robertson teems. There was
+no attempt at imitating the primitive Christians; the partnership was a
+consequence of negotiation with British merchants; the colonists
+preferred the system of private property, and acted upon it, as far and
+as soon as was possible.&mdash;Bancroft's <i>History of the United States</i>,
+vol. i., p. 306.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> "The remonstrances of the Virginia corporation and a
+transient regard for the rights of the country could delay, but could
+not defeat, a measure that was sustained by the personal favorites of
+the monarch. King James issued to forty of his subjects, some of them
+members of his household and his government, the most wealthy and
+powerful of the English nobility, a patent, which in American annals,
+and even in the history of the world, has but one parallel. The
+territory conferred on the patentees in absolute property, with
+unlimited jurisdiction, the sole powers of legislation, the appointment
+of all officers and all forms of government, comprised, and at the time
+was believed to comprise, much more than a million of square miles: it
+was, by a single signature of King James, given away to a corporation
+within the realm, composed of but forty individuals."&mdash;Bancroft, vol.
+i., p. 273.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> "The very extent of the grant rendered it of little
+value. The results which grew out of the concession of this charter form
+a new proof, if any were wanting, of that mysterious connection of
+events by which Providence leads to ends that human councils had not
+conceived."&mdash;Bancroft, vol. i., p. 273.
+</p><p>
+The Grand Council of Plymouth resigned their charter in 1635.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> "The circumstance which threw a greater luster on the
+colony than any other was the arrival of Mr. John Cotton, the most
+esteemed of all the Puritan ministers in England. He was equally
+distinguished for his learning, and for a brilliant and figurative
+eloquence. He was so generally beloved that his nonconformity to the
+ritual of the Established Church, of which he was a minister, was for a
+considerable time disregarded. At last, however, he was called before
+the ecclesiastical commission, and he determined upon emigration, 'Some
+reverend and renowned ministers of our Lord' endeavored to persuade him
+that the forms to which he refused obedience were 'sufferable trifles,'
+and did not actually amount to a breach of the second commandment. Mr.
+Cotton, however, argued so forcibly on the opposite side, that several
+of the most eminent became all that he was, and afterward followed his
+example. There went out with him Mr. Hooker and Mr. Stone, who were
+esteemed to make 'a glorious triumvirate,' and were received in New
+England with the utmost exultation. It was doubtless a severe trial to
+these ministers, who appear really to have been, as they say, 'faithful,
+watchful, painful, serving their flock daily with prayers and tears,'
+who possessed such a reputation at home and over Europe, to find that no
+sooner did any half-crazed enthusiast spring up or arrive in the colony,
+that the people could be prevented only by the most odious compulsion
+from deserting their churches and flocking to him in a mass. Vainly did
+Mr. John Cotton strive to persuade Roger Williams, the sectary, that the
+red cross on the English banner, or his wife's being in the room while
+he said grace, were 'sufferable trifles,' and 'Mrs. Hutchinson and her
+ladies' treated his advice and exhortations with equal disregard and
+contempt. One of them sent him a pound of candles to intimate his need
+of more spiritual light. This was then the freedom for which his church
+and his country had been deserted."&mdash;Mather; Neale; Hutchinson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> "Robertson is astonished that Neale (see Neale, p. 56)
+should assert that freedom of religious worship was granted, when the
+charter expressly asserts the king's supremacy. But this, in fact, was
+never the article at which they demurred; for the spirit of loyalty was
+still very strong. It seems quite clear, from the confidence with which
+they went, and the manner in which they acted when there, that, though
+there was no formal or written stipulation, the most full understanding
+existed that very ample latitude was to be allowed in this respect. We
+have seen on every occasion the vast sacrifices which kings were willing
+to make in order to people their distant possessions; and the necessity
+was increased by the backwardness hitherto visible."&mdash;Murray's
+<i>America</i>, vol. i., p. 249.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> During the year 1635 we find the name of John Hampden
+joined with those of six other gentlemen of family and fortune, who
+united with the Lords Say and Brooke in making a purchase from the Earl
+of Warwick of an extensive grant of land in a wide wilderness then
+called Virginia, but which now forms a part of the State of Connecticut.
+That these transatlantic possessions were designed by the associates
+ultimately, or under certain contingencies, to serve as an asylum to
+themselves and a home to their posterity, there is no room to doubt; but
+it is evident that nothing short of circumstances constituting a moral
+necessity would have urged persons of their rank, fortunes, and habits
+of life to encounter the perils, privations, and hardships attendant
+upon the pioneers of civilization in that inhospitable clime.
+Accordingly, they for the present contented themselves with sending out
+an agent to take possession of these territories and to build a fort.
+This was done, and the town called Saybrook, from the united names of
+the two noble proprietors, still preserves the memory of the enterprise.
+They finally abandoned the whole design, and sold the land in 1636,
+probably.&mdash;Miss Aikin's <i>Life of Charles I.</i>, p. 471. Bancroft, vol. i.,
+p. 384.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> "In one of these embargoed ships had actually embarked
+for their voyage across the Atlantic two no less considerable personages
+than John Hampden and his kinsman, Oliver Cromwell."&mdash;<i>Life of Hampden</i>,
+by Lord Nugent, vol. i., p. 254. London, 1832.
+</p><p>
+Lord Nugent has fallen into the vulgar error, an invention, probably, of
+the Puritan historian, and unanswerably disproved by a reference to
+Parliamentary records. See Miss Aikin's <i>Life of Charles I.</i>, vol. i.,
+p. 472; Bancroft's <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. i., p. 411. The
+exultation of the Puritan writers on the subject is excessive. They
+ascribe all the subsequent misfortunes of Charles I. in connection with
+the scheme of Providence to this tyrannical edict, as they call
+it.&mdash;Russell's <i>Modern Europe</i>, vol. ii., p. 237. See Bancroft's
+<i>History of the United States</i>, vol. i., p. 412.
+</p><p>
+"Nothing could be more barbarous than this! To impose laws on men which
+in conscience they thought they could not comply with, to punish them
+for their noncompliance, and continually revile them as undutiful and
+disobedient subjects by reason thereof, and yet not permit them
+peaceably to depart and enjoy their own opinions in a distant part of
+the world, yet dependent on the sovereign: to do all this was base,
+barbarous, and inhuman. But persecutors of all ages and nations are near
+the same; they are without the feelings and the understandings of men.
+Cromwell or Hampden could have given little opposition to the measures
+of Charles in the wilds of North America. In England they engaged with
+spirit against him, and he had reason to repent his hindering their
+voyage. May such at all times be the reward of those who attempt to rule
+over their fellow-men with rigor: may they find that they will not be
+slaves to kings or priests, but that they know the rights by nature
+conferred on them, and will assert them! This will make princes cautious
+how they give themselves up to arbitrary counsels, and dread the
+consequences of them."&mdash;Harris's <i>Life of Cromwell</i>, p. 56.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> "Mr. Dudley, one of the most respectable of the
+governors, was found, at his death, with a copy of verses in his pocket,
+which included the following couplet:
+</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+"'Let men of God in court and churches watch<br />
+O'er such as do a toleration hatch"&mdash;<span class="smcap">Chalmers</span>.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> "The cutting the hair very close, which seemed supported
+by St. Paul's authority, was the chief outward symbol of a Puritan. In
+the case of a minister, it was considered essential that the ear should
+be thoroughly uncovered. Even after the example of Dr. Owen and other
+eminent divines had given a sanction to letting the hair grow, and even
+to periwigs, a numerous association was formed at Boston (where Mr. John
+Cotton was pastor), with Mr. Endicot, the governor, at their head, the
+members of which bound themselves to stand by each other in resisting
+long hair to the last extremity. Vane, a young man of birth and fashion,
+continued for some time a recusant against the uncouth test of his
+principles, but at last we find a letter congratulating him on having
+'glorified God by cutting his hair.'"&mdash;Hutchinson's <i>Massachusetts</i>,
+quoted by Murray.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> One of Williams's disciples, who held some command, cut
+the cross out, and trampled it under foot. This red cross had nearly
+subverted the colony. One part of the trained bands would not march
+with, another would not march without it.&mdash;Mather, Neale, &amp;c., quoted by
+Murray.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> The town of Providence, now the capital of Rhode Island,
+was founded by Williams. The Indian name was Mooshausick, but he changed
+it to Providence in commemoration of his wonderful escape from
+persecution.&mdash;Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 224.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> Mather, vol. vii., ch. ii.; Neale, ch. i., p. 138;
+Hutchinson, p. 37, 39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> "Mr. Controller, Sir Harry Vane's eldest son, hath left his
+father, his mother, his country, and that fortune which his father would
+have left him here, and is for conscience' sake gone into New England,
+there to lead the rest of his days, being about twenty years of age. He
+had abstained two years from taking the sacrament in England, because he
+could get nobody to administer it to him standing."&mdash;<i>Strafford Letters</i>,
+September, 1635, quoted by Miss Aikin, <i>Life of Charles I.</i>, vol. i.,
+p. 479.
+</p><p>
+"Sir Harry Vane returned to England immediately after the loss of his
+election. His personal experience of the uncharitableness and
+intolerance exercised upon one another by men who had themselves been
+the victims of a similar spirit at home, seems to have produced for some
+time a tranquilizing effect upon the mind of Vane. He was reconciled to
+his father, married by his direction a lady of family, obtained the
+place of joint treasurer of the navy, and exhibited for some time no
+hostility to the measures of the government. But his fire was smothered
+only, not extinguished."&mdash;Miss Aikin's <i>Life of Charles I.</i>, vol. i., p.
+481.
+</p><p>
+"After the Restoration of Charles II., Sir Harry Vane suffered death
+upon the block. (See Hallam, vol. ii., p. 443.) The manner of his death
+was the admiration of his times."&mdash;Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> Boston was the capital of Massachusetts, and the center
+of the most fervent Puritanism.
+</p><p>
+"Boston may be ranked as the seat of the Unitarians, as Baltimore is
+that of the Roman Catholics, and Philadelphia that of the Quakers.... No
+axiom is more applicable to the pensive, serious, scrutinizing
+inhabitant of the New England States than this: 'What I do not
+understand, I reject as worthless and false;' so said one of the most
+learned men of Boston to me. 'Why occupy the mind with that which is
+incomprehensible? Have we not enough of that which appears clear and
+plain around us?' ... The greater part of the Bostonians, including
+every one of wealth, talents, and learning, have adopted this
+doctrine."&mdash;Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 179.
+</p><p>
+"In Boston all the leading men are Unitarians, a creed peculiarly
+acceptable to the pride and self-sufficiency of our nature, asserting,
+as it does, the independence and perfectibility of man, and denying the
+necessity of atonement or sanctification by supernatural influences.
+</p><p>
+"Though every where in New England the greatest possible decency and
+respect with regard to morals and religion is still observed, I have no
+hesitation in saying that I do not think the New Englanders a
+<i>religious</i> people. The assertion, I know, is paradoxical, but it is
+nevertheless true, that is, if a strong and earnest belief be a
+necessary element in a religious character: to me it seems to be its
+very essence and foundation. I am not now speaking of belief in <i>the
+truth</i>, but belief in something or any thing which is removed from the
+action of the senses.... I am not trusting to my own limited observation
+in arriving at this conclusion; I find in M. de Tocqueville's work an
+assertion of the same fact. He accounts for it, indeed, in a different
+way.... What I complain of is, not the absence of nominal, but of real,
+heartfelt, unearthly religion, such as led the Puritan Nonconformists to
+sacrifice country and kindred, and brave the dangers of the ocean and
+the wilderness for the sake of what they believed God's truth. In my
+opinion, those men were prejudiced and mistaken, and committed great and
+grievous faults; but there was, at least, a redeeming element in their
+character&mdash;that of high conscientiousness. There was no compromise of
+truth, no sacrifice to expediency about them; they believed in the
+invisible, and they acted on that belief. Every where the tone of
+religious feeling, since that time, has been altered and relaxed, but
+perhaps nowhere so much as in the land where the descendants of those
+Pilgrims lived."&mdash;Godley's <i>Letters from America</i>, vol. ii., p. 90,
+133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> "The arbitrary will of the single tyrant, the excesses of
+the prerogative, seem light when compared with their (the Puritans') more
+intolerant, more arbitrary, and more absolute power."&mdash;<i>Commentaries on
+the Life and Reign of Charles I.</i>, vol. iii., p. 28, by I. D'Israeli.
+London, 1830.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Mather affirms that the Quakers used to go about saying,
+"We deny thy Christ: we deny thy God, whom thou callest Father, Son, and
+Spirit; thy Bible is the word of the devil." They used to rise up
+suddenly in the midst of a sermon, and call upon the preacher to cease
+his abomination. One writer says, "For hellish reviling of the painful
+ministers of Christ, I know no people can match them." The following
+epithets bestowed by Fisher on Dr. Owen are said to be fair specimens of
+their usual addresses: "Thou green-headed trumpeter! thou hedgehog and
+grinning dog! thou tinker! thou lizard! thou whirligig! thou firebrand!
+thou louse! thou mooncalf! thou ragged tatterdemalion! thou livest in
+philosophy and logic, which are of the devil." Even Penn is said to have
+addressed the same respected divine as, "Thou bane of reason and beast
+of the earth." When the governor or any magistrate came in sight, they
+would call out, "Woe to thee, thou oppressor," and in the language of
+Scripture prophecy would announce the judgments that were about to fall
+upon their head.&mdash;Neale, cap. i., p. 341-345. Mather, b. vii., cap. iv.
+Hutchinson, p. 196-205.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> "Sir Matthew Hale burned two persons for witchcraft in
+1664. Three thousand were executed in England during the Long
+Parliament. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 1705.
+In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged nine, were hanged at
+Huntingdon. The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The
+laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an
+ignorant person attempting to revive them by finding a bill against a
+poor old woman in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they were
+repealed, 10 George II., 1736."&mdash;Viner's <i>Abridgement</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Neale, vol. ii., p. 164-170. Mather, vol. ii., p. 62-64.
+</p><p>
+Arfwedson says, "Close to the town of Salem is Beverley, a small,
+insignificant place, remarkable only in the annals of history as having
+formerly contained a superstitious population. Many lives have here been
+cruelly sacrificed, and the barren hill is still in existence where
+persons accused of witchcraft were hung upon tall trees. Tradition
+points out the place where the witches of old resided. Cotton Mather
+records in a work, truly original for that age, that the good people who
+lived near Massachusetts Bay were every night roused from their slumbers
+by the sound of a trumpet, summoning all the witches and
+demons."&mdash;Cotton Mather's <i>Magnalia</i>; Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 186.
+</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+"And thrice that night the trumpet rang,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And rock and hill replied;</span><br />
+And down the glen strange shadows sprang&mdash;<br />
+Mortal and fiend&mdash;a wizard gang,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seen dimly, side by side.</span>
+</p><p style="margin-left: 10em;">
+"They gathered there from every land<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That sleepeth in the sun;</span><br />
+They came with spell and charm in hand,<br />
+Waiting their master's high command&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Slaves to the Evil One."&mdash;<i>Legends of New England.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> "During the war with Philip, the Indians took some
+English alive, and set them upright in the ground, with this sarcasm:
+'You English, since you came into this country, have grown considerably
+above ground; let us now see how you will grow when planted into the
+ground.'"&mdash;<i>Narrative of the Wars in New England</i>, 1675.-<i>Harleian
+Miscellany</i>, vol. v., p. 400.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> "The Pequods were a powerful nation on the Connecticut
+border, who could muster a thousand warriors. The English might have
+found it difficult to withstand them but for an alliance with the second
+most powerful people, the Narragansets, whose ancient enmity to the
+Pequods for a time prevailed over their jealousy of the foreigners. But
+at length, when the Pequods were nearly exterminated, the Narragansets,
+seeing the power of the strangers paramount, began to side with their
+enemies. The Indian chiefs began to imitate the English mode of
+fighting, and even to assume English names, with some characteristic
+epithet. One-eyed John, Stone-wall John, and Sagamore Sam, kept the
+colony in perpetual alarm. But their most deadly and formidable enemy
+was Philip, sachem of the Wampanoags. No Indian was ever more dreaded by
+civilized man. A century and a half has now elapsed since this hero of
+Pokanoket fell a victim to his own race, but even to this day his name
+is respected, and the last object supposed to have been touched by him
+in his lifetime is considered by every American as a valuable relic.
+This extraordinary man, whose real name was Metacom, succeeded his
+brother in the government of the Wampanoags. The wrongs and grievances
+suffered by this brother, added to those which he had himself
+experienced from the English colonists, induced him to engage in a war
+against them. The issue might, perhaps, have been less doubtful, had not
+one of his followers defeated his plans by a premature explosion before
+he had time to summon and concentrate his warriors and allies. From this
+time no smiles were seen on his face. But though he soon perceived that
+the great enterprise he had formed was likely to be frustrated, he never
+lost that elevation of soul which distinguished him to the last moments
+of his life. By his exertions and energy, all the Indian nations
+occupying the territory between Maine and the River Connecticut, a
+distance of nearly 200 miles, took up arms. Every where the name of King
+Philip was the signal for massacre and flames. But fraud and treason
+soon accomplished what open warfare could not effect; his followers gave
+way to numbers; his nearest relations and friends forsook him, and a
+treacherous ball at last struck his heart. His head was carried round
+the country in triumph, and exposed as that of a traitor; but posterity
+has done him justice. Patriotism was his only crime, and his death was
+that of a hero."&mdash;Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 229.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> "This was not the case in the earlier and more northern
+settlements, where Mather mentions a clergyman who, from the pulpit,
+alluded to this as the main object of his flock's coming out, when one
+of the principal members rose and said, 'Sir, you are mistaken; our main
+object was to catch fish.'"&mdash;Murray's <i>America</i>.
+</p><p>
+"To this day the Council of Massachusets, in the impress of their public
+seal, have an Indian engraven, with these words: 'Come over and help
+us,' alluding to Acts, xv., 9."&mdash;<i>Narrative of the Wars in New England</i>,
+1675. <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>, vol. v., p. 400.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> "Among these was the celebrated Eliot. Notwithstanding
+the almost incredible hardships endured by Eliot during his missionary
+labors, he lived to the age of eighty-six. He expired in 1690, and has
+ever since been known by the well-earned title of Apostle to the
+Indians."&mdash;<i>Missionary Records</i>, p. 34.
+</p><p>
+Dr. Dwight says of him, "He was naturally qualified beyond almost any
+other man for the business of a missionary. In promoting among the
+Indians agriculture, health, morals, and religion, this great and good
+man labored with constancy, faithfulness, and benevolence which place
+his name not unworthily among those who are arranged immediately after
+the apostles of our Divine Redeemer." Eliot translated the Holy
+Scriptures into the Indian language. In 1661, the New Testament,
+dedicated to Charles II., was printed at Cambridge, in New England, and
+about three years afterward, it was followed by the Old Testament. This
+was the first Bible ever printed in America; and, though the impression
+consisted of 2000 copies, a second edition was required in
+1685.&mdash;<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 27.
+</p><p>
+"When at Harvard College, a copy of the Bible was shown me by Mr. Jared
+Sparks, translated by the missionary, Father Eliot, into the Indian
+tongue. It is now a dead language, although preached for several
+generations to crowded congregations."&mdash;Lyell's <i>America</i>, vol. i., p.
+260.
+</p><p>
+"Eliot had become an acute grammarian by his studies at the English
+university of Cambridge. Having finished his laborious and difficult
+work, the Indian grammar, at the close of it, under a full sense of the
+difficulties he had encountered, and the acquisition he had made, he
+said, 'Prayers and pains, through faith in Christ Jesus, do any
+thing.'"&mdash;<i>Life of Eliot</i>, p. 55.
+</p><p>
+"The Honorable Robert Boyle often strengthened Eliot's hands and
+encouraged him in his work&mdash;he who was not more admirable among
+philosophers for his discoveries in science, than he was beloved by
+Christians for his active kindness and his pious spirit."&mdash;<i>Ibid.</i>, p.
+64.
+</p><p>
+"Nor was Eliot alone. In the islands round Massachusetts, and within the
+limits of the Plymouth patent, missionary zeal and missionary enterprise
+were active; and the gentle Mayhew, forgetting the pride of learning,
+endeavored to win the natives to a new religion. At a later day, he took
+passage for New England to awaken interest there, and the ship in which
+he sailed was never more heard of. But such had been the force of his
+example, that his father, though bowed down with the weight of seventy
+years, resolved on assuming the office of the son whom he had lost, and
+till beyond the age of fourscore years and twelve, continued to instruct
+the natives, and with the happiest results. The Indians within his
+influence, though twenty times more numerous than the whites in their
+immediate neighborhood, preserved an immutable friendship with
+Massachusetts."&mdash;Bancroft's <i>Hist of the United States</i>, vol. ii., p.
+97. See <i>Missionary Records</i>; <i>Life of Eliot</i>; Mayhew's <i>Indian
+Converts</i>; T. Prince's <i>Account of English Ministers</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> "History has no example to offer of any successful
+attempt, however slight, to introduce civilization among savage tribes
+in colonies or in their vicinity, except through the influence of
+religious missionaries. This is no question of a balance of
+advantages&mdash;no matter of comparison between opposite systems. I repeat
+that no instance can be shown of the reclaiming of savages by any other
+influence than that of religion. There are two obvious reasons why such
+should be the case: the first, that religion only can supply a motive to
+the governors, placed in obscure situations, and without the reach of
+responsibility, to act with zeal, perseverance, and charity; the other,
+that it alone can supply a motive to the governed to undergo that
+alteration of habits through which the reclaimed savage must pass, and
+to which the hope of mere temporal advantage will very rarely induce him
+to consent." This position is well stated in the words of Southey: 'The
+wealth and power of governments may be vainly employed in the endeavor
+to conciliate and reclaim brute man, if religious zeal and Christian
+charity, in the true import of the word, be wanting.'&mdash;Merivale <i>on
+Colonization</i>, vol. i., p. 289.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> "The attempt to organize an Indian priesthood at this
+period failed altogether, the converts possessing neither the steadiness
+nor the sobriety requisite for the holy office. The duty, therefore,
+devolved upon European teachers, who in many cases scarcely obtained the
+wages of a day laborer, and that very precariously. The formation,
+however, of a society in England for the propagation of the Gospel in
+this settlement, and pretty liberal contributions raised in the
+principal towns, in some degree remedied these evils. After the lapse of
+a few more generations, the Indian character, in its slow but steady
+upward progress under the teaching of devoted and enlightened Christian
+ministers, underwent a change so effectual, that the native teachers and
+preachers of the present day may well bear comparison in zeal, piety,
+and eloquence with their European colleagues."&mdash;Catlin's <i>American
+Indians</i>; Cotton's <i>American Lakes</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> "The Indians about this time (1653) obtained the
+appellation of 'Praying Indians,' and the court appointed Major Daniel
+Gookin their ruler."&mdash;<i>Life of Eliot</i>, p. 53.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The principal characteristics of that colonization by which the vast
+republic of the West was formed, have been exhibited in the settlement
+of Virginia and Massachusetts. The other states were stamped with the
+impress of the two first, and in a great measure peopled from them.
+Rhode Island and the rest of the New England states were founded by
+those who had fled from the religious persecutions of Massachusetts,
+with the exception of Connecticut, which owes its origin chiefly to the
+spirit of adventure and the search for unoccupied lands. The first
+settlers divided this last-named state among themselves without the
+sanction of any authority, and then proceeded to form a constitution of
+unexampled liberality. They had to bear the chief burden in the Indian
+war, on account of their advanced and exposed position; but Connecticut
+prospered in spite of every obstacle. Several Puritans of distinction
+sought its shore from England. Charles II., on his restoration granted a
+most liberal charter, and it continued to enjoy the benefits of complete
+self-government till Massachusetts was deprived of her charter by James
+II., when Connecticut shared the same fate. At the Revolution, the
+younger state, more fortunate than her neighbor, was restored to all the
+privileges formerly enjoyed.</p>
+
+<p>The states of New Hampshire and Maine were originally founded on
+Loyalist and Church of England principles. Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John
+Mason, the most energetic member of the Council of Plymouth, undertook
+the colonization of these districts, but their tyrannical and
+injudicious conduct stunted the growth of the infant colonies, and
+little progress was made till the religious dissensions of Boston
+swelled their population. Violent and even fatal dissensions, however,
+distracted this incongruous community, till the government of
+Massachusetts assumed the sway over it, and re-established order and
+prosperity. Gorges and Mason disputed for many years the rights of
+authority with the new rulers; nor was the question finally settled till
+Massachusetts was deprived of her charter, when a royal government was
+established in New Hampshire.</p>
+
+<p>The important state of New York was founded under very different
+auspices from those of its neighbors. In 1609, Henry Hudson, while
+sailing in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the
+magnificent stream which now bears his name. A small colony was soon
+sent out from Holland<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> to settle the new country, and a trading
+post established at the mouth of the river. Sir Samuel Argall, governor
+of Virginia, conceived that this foreign settlement trenched upon the
+rights granted by the English crown to its subjects, and by a display of
+superior force constrained the Dutch colony to acknowledge British
+sovereignty [1613];<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> but this submission became a dead letter some
+years later, when large bodies of emigrants arrived from the Low
+Countries [1620];<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> the little trading post soon rose into a town,
+and a fort was erected for its defense. The site of this establishment
+was on the island of Manhattan;<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> the founders called it New
+Amsterdam. When it fell into the possession of England, the name was
+changed to New York. Albany<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> was next built, at some distance up the
+Hudson, as a post for the Indian trade, and thence a communication was
+opened for the first time with the Northern Indian confederacy of the
+Iroquois, or the Five Nations.</p>
+
+<p>Charles II., from hatred to the Dutch, as well as from the desire of
+aggrandizement, renewed the claims of England upon the Hudson
+settlements, and in 1664 dispatched an armament of 300 men to enforce
+this claim. Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor,<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> was totally unprepared
+to resist the threatened attack, and after a short parley agreed to
+surrender. The settlers were, however, secured in property and person,
+and in the free exercise of their religion, and the greater part
+remained under their new rulers. In the long naval war subsequently
+carried on between England and Holland, the colony again passed for a
+time under the sway of the Dutch, but at the peace was finally restored
+to Great Britain. James, then Duke of York, had received from his
+brother a grant of the district which now constitutes the State of New
+York. On assuming authority, he appointed governors with arbitrary
+power, but the colonists in assertion of their rights as Englishmen,
+stoutly resisted, and even sent home Dyer, the collector of customs,
+under a charge of high treason, for attempting to levy taxes without
+legal authority. [1681.] The duke judged it expedient to conciliate his
+sturdy transatlantic subjects, and yielded them a certain form of
+representative government. In 1682, Mr. Dongan was sent out with a
+commission to assemble a council of ten, and a house of assembly of
+eighteen popular deputies. The new governor soon rendered himself
+beloved and respected by all, although at first distrusted and disliked,
+as professing the Romish faith. New York was not allowed to enjoy these
+fortunate circumstances for any length of time; the capricious and
+arbitrary duke, on his accession to the crown, abrogated the colonial
+constitution; shortly afterward the state was annexed to Massachusetts,
+the beloved governor recalled, and the despotic Andros established in
+his stead. [1686.] At the first rumor of the Revolution of 1688, the
+inhabitants, led by a merchant of the name of Leisler, rose in arms,
+proclaimed William and Mary, and elected a house of representatives. The
+new monarch sent out a Colonel Slaughter as governor, whose authority
+was disputed by Leisler; however, the bold merchant was soon overcome,
+and with quick severity tried and executed. [1691.] The English
+Parliament, more considerate of his useful services, subsequently
+reversed his attainder, and restored the forfeited estates to his
+family. [1695.] With the view of aiding the resources and progress of
+the colony, 3000 German Protestants, called Palatines, were subsequently
+conveyed to the banks of the Hudson, and subsisted for three years, at a
+great expense, by England. These sober and industrious men proved a most
+valuable addition to the population.<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a></p>
+
+<p>New Jersey was formed from a part of the original territory of New York.
+Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret were the proprietors, by grant
+from James [1664]: they founded the new state with great judgment and
+liberality, establishing the power of self-government and taxation. The
+Duke of York, however, on the reconquest of the country from the Dutch,
+took the opportunity of abrogating the Constitution: the colonists
+boldly appealed against this tyranny, and with such force, that the duke
+was led to refer the question to the judgment of the learned and upright
+Sir William Jones, who gave it against him. [1681.] James was obliged to
+acquiesce in this decision till he ascended the throne, when he swept
+away all the rights of the colony, and annexed it, like its neighbors,
+to the government of Massachusetts. After the accession of William, New
+Jersey was entangled for ten years in a web of conflicting claims but
+was finally established under its own independent Legislature.</p>
+
+<p>The State of Maryland was so named in honor of Henrietta Maria, the
+beautiful queen of Charles I., to whose influence the early settlers
+were much indebted. Religious persecution in England drove forth the
+founders of the colony; but in this case the Protestants were the
+instigators, and the cruel laws of Queen Elizabeth's reign against the
+Roman Catholics were the instruments. Lord Baltimore, an Irish peer, and
+other men of distinction in the popish body, obtained from Charles I.,
+as an asylum in the New World, a grant of that angle of Virginia lying
+on both sides of the River Chesapeake, a district rich in soil, genial
+in climate, and admirably situated for commerce. An expedition of 200
+Roman Catholics, many among them men of good birth, was sent under Mr.
+Calvert, Lord Baltimore's brother, to take possession of this favored
+tract. [1634.] Their first care was to conciliate the Indians, in which
+they eminently succeeded. The natives were even prevailed upon to
+abandon their village and their cleared lands around to the strangers,
+and to remove themselves contentedly to another situation.</p>
+
+<p>Maryland was most honorably distinguished in the earliest times by
+perfect freedom of religious opinion. Many members of the Church of
+England, as well as Roman Catholics, fled thither from the persecutions
+of the Puritans. The Baltimore family at first displayed great
+liberality and judgment in their rule; but, as they gained confidence
+from the secret support of the king to their cherished faith, their
+wise moderation seems to have diminished. However, the principal
+grievance brought against them was, that they had not provided by public
+funds for Church of England clergymen as fully as for those of their own
+faith, although by far the larger portion of the population belonged to
+the flock of the former. The unsatisfactory state of morals, manners,
+and religion in the colony was attributed to this neglect. At the
+Revolution, the inhabitants of Maryland rose with tumultuous zeal
+against their Roman Catholic lords, and published a manifesto in
+justification of their proceedings, accusing Lord Baltimore's government
+of intolerable tyranny. These statements, whether true or false,
+afforded King William an opportunity to assume the colonial power in his
+own hands, 1691, and to deprive the Calverts of all rights over the
+country, except the receipt of some local taxes.<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a></p>
+
+<p>For a long time but few settlers had established themselves in that part
+of North America now called Carolina;<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> of these, some were men who
+had fled from the persecutions of New England, and formed a little
+colony round Cape Fear [1661]; others were Virginians, attracted by the
+rich unoccupied lands. After the restoration of Charles, however, the
+energies of the British nation, no longer devoted to internal quarrels,
+turned into the fields of foreign and colonial adventure. Charles
+readily bestowed upon his followers vast tracts of an uncultivated
+wilderness which he had never seen; and Monk, duke of Albemarle, the
+Earl of Clarendon, Lords Berkeley and Ashley, Sir George Carteret, and a
+few others, were created absolute lords of the new province of
+Carolina. [1663.] Great exertions were then made to attract settlers;
+immunity from prosecution for debt was secured to them for five years,
+and, at the same time, a liberal Constitution was granted, with a
+popular House of Assembly. The proprietors, anxious to perfect the work
+of colonization, prevailed upon the celebrated Locke to draw up a system
+of government for the new state, which, however excellent in theory,
+proved practically a signal failure.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> The principal characteristic
+of the scheme was the establishment of an aristocracy with fantastic
+titles of nobility,<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> who met with the deputies in a Parliament,
+where, however, the council solely possessed the power of proposing new
+laws. The whole colonial body was subject to the Court of Proprietors in
+England, which was presided over by a chief called the Palatine,<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a>
+possessing nearly supreme power. The sturdy colonists neglected, or
+deferred for future consideration, every portion of this new
+Constitution that appeared unsuitable to their condition, alleging that
+its provisions were in violation of the promises that had induced them
+to adopt the country.</p>
+
+<p>Carolina for a long time progressed but slowly. The colonists had no
+fixed religion,<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> and their general morals and industry were very
+indifferent. They drew largely upon the resources of the proprietors
+without giving any return, and when at length that supply was stopped,
+they resorted to every idle and iniquitous mode of raising funds. They
+hunted the Indians, and sold them as slaves to the West Indies, and
+their sea-ports became the resort of pirates. These atrocious and
+ruinous pursuits soon reduced them to a state of miserable poverty, and
+the baneful influence of a series of profligate governors completed the
+mischief. One of these, named Sette Sothel,<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> was especially
+conspicuous for rapacity and injustice. [1683.] His misrule at length
+goaded the people into insurrection; they seized him, and were about to
+send him as a prisoner to England, but released him on a promise of
+renouncing the government, and leaving the colony for a time. After
+these and some other commotions, they succeeded in re-establishing their
+ancient charter in its original simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>Carolina now began to improve rapidly, from the influx of a large and
+valuable immigration. The religious freedom that had been secured under
+the old charter was continued unrestricted even under Mr. Locke's
+complicated Constitution. Many Puritans flocked in from Britain to seek
+refuge from the persecutions of Charles II., and by their steadiness
+and industry soon attained considerable wealth. New England had also
+furnished her share to the new settlement of useful and energetic men
+who had been expelled by her Calvinistic intolerance. But the
+narrow-minded jealousy of the original emigrants soon interrupted the
+prosperity of the colony. Under the hypocritical plea of zeal for the
+Church of England, to which their conduct and morals were a scandal,
+they obtained, by violent means, a majority of one in the Assembly, and
+expelled all dissenters from the Legislature and government. They even
+passed a law to depose all sectarian clergy, and devote their churches
+to the services of the established religion. The oppressed Dissenters
+appealed to the British Parliament for protection. In the year 1705, an
+address was voted to the queen by the House of Commons, declaring the
+injustice of these acts, but nothing was done to relieve the colony till
+in 1721, when the people rose in insurrection, established a provisional
+government, and prayed that the king, George I., would himself undertake
+their rule. He granted their petition, and soon afterward purchased the
+rights of the proprietors. [1727.]<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the year 1732 a plan was formed for relieving the distress then
+severely pressing upon England by colonizing the territory still
+remaining unoccupied to the south of the Savannah. Twenty-three
+trustees, men of rank and influence, were appointed for this purpose,
+and the sum of &pound;15,000 was placed at their disposal by Parliament and by
+voluntary subscription. With the aid of these funds about 500 people
+were forwarded to the new country, and some others went at their own
+expense. In honor of the reigning king, the name of Georgia was given to
+the new settlement. The lands were granted to the emigrants on
+conditions of military service, and a large proportion, of them were
+selected from among the hardy Scottish Highlanders and the veterans of
+some German regiments. Besides being the advance guard of civilization
+in the Indian country, the colony was threatened with the rival claims
+of the Spaniards in Florida, the boundaries of whose territory were very
+vague and uncertain. Happily for Georgia, Mr. Oglethorpe, the original
+founder of the settlement, succeeded in establishing a lasting
+friendship with the powerful Creek Indians, the natives of the country;
+but the Spaniards never ceased to alarm and threaten the colony till
+British arms had won the whole Atlantic coast. Owing to this
+disadvantage, and still more to certain humane restrictions upon the
+Indian trade,<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> no great influx of population took place until 1763,
+when peace restored confidence, and men and money were freely introduced
+from England.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important of the great American states that declared
+their independence in 1783, was, with the exception of Georgia, the
+latest in its origin. Under the wise and gentle influence of the
+founders, however, it progressed more rapidly than any other. When time
+and reflection had cooled the ardor and softened the fanaticism of the
+early Quakers, the sect attracted general and just admiration by the
+mild and persevering philanthropy of its most distinguished members. The
+pure benevolence and patient courage of William Penn was a tower of
+strength to this new creed; well born, and enjoying a competent
+fortune, he possessed the means as well as the will powerfully to aid in
+its advancement. He endured with patience, but with unflinching
+constancy, a continual series of legal persecutions, and even the anger
+of his father, until the unspotted integrity of his life and his
+practical wisdom at length triumphed over prejudice and hostility, and
+he was allowed the privilege of pleading before the British Parliament
+in the cause of his oppressed brethren.</p>
+
+<p>William Penn inherited from his father a claim against the government
+for &pound;16,000, which King Charles gladly paid by assigning to him the
+territory in the New World now called Pennsylvania,<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> in honor of the
+first proprietor.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> This was a large and fertile expanse of inland
+country partly taken from New York, New Jersey, and Maryland. It was
+included between the 40th and 43d degrees of latitude, and bounded on
+the east by the Delaware River. The enlightened and benevolent
+proprietor bestowed upon the new state a Constitution that secured, as
+far as human ordinance was capable, freedom of faith, thought, and
+action. He formed some peculiar institutions for the promotion of peace
+and good will among his brethren, and for the protection of the widow
+and the orphan. By his wise and just dealings with the Indians,<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> he
+gained their important confidence and friendship: he sent commissioners
+to treat with them for the sale of their lands, and in the year 1682 met
+the assembled chiefs near the spot where Philadelphia now stands. The
+savages advanced to the place of meeting in great numbers and in warlike
+guise, but as the approach of the English was announced, they laid aside
+their weapons and seated themselves in quiet groups around their
+chiefs.<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> Penn came forward fearlessly with a few attendants, all
+unarmed, and in their usual grave and simple attire; in his hand he held
+a parchment on which were written the terms of the treaty. He then spoke
+in a few plain words of the friendship and justice that should rule the
+actions of all men, and guide him, and them, and their children's
+children. The Indians answered that they would live in peace with him
+and his white brothers as long as the sun and moon shall endure. And in
+the Quaker's parchment and the Indian's promise was accomplished the
+peaceful conquest of that lovely wilderness, a conquest more complete,
+more secure and lasting, than any that the ruthless rigor of Cortes or
+the stern valor of the Puritans had ever won.</p>
+
+<p>The prosperity of Pennsylvania advanced with unexampled rapidity.<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a>
+The founder took out with him two thousand well-chosen emigrants, and a
+considerable number had preceded him to the new country. The orderly
+freedom that prevailed,<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> and the perpetual peace with the
+Indians,<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> gave a great advantage to this colony; emigration flowed
+thither more abundantly than to any other settlement, and thus, although
+of such recent origin, this state soon equaled the most successful of
+its older neighbors.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> "On Hudson's return according to the English historians,
+he sold his title to the Dutch."&mdash;<i>British Encyc.</i>, vol. ii., p. 236.
+Chalmers questions, apparently on good grounds, the validity of this odd
+transaction. If, as Forster asserts, Hudson not only sailed from the
+Texel, but was equipped at the expense of the Dutch East India Company,
+there was no room for sale or purchase of any kind to constitute the
+region Dutch.&mdash;Chalmers, vol. ii., p. 568; Charlevoix. tom. i., p. 221.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> "The English jurists, referring to the wide grants of
+Elizabeth, according to which Virginia extended far to the north of this
+region, insist that there had long ceased to be room for any claim to it
+founded on discovery. But the Dutch, who are somewhat slow in
+comprehension, could not see the right which Elizabeth could have to
+bestow a vast region, of the very existence of which she was ignorant.
+They therefore sent out the small colony, 1613, which was soon after
+compelled by Argall to acknowledge the sovereignty of England."&mdash;Murray's
+<i>America</i>, vol. i., p. 331; <i>Fastes Chronologiques</i>, 1613.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> The Dutch West Indian Company was established in 1620,
+and sent out colonists on a large scale.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> "Juet, the traveling companion of Hudson, called the
+island on which New York is situated Manna Hatta, which means the island
+of manna; in other words, a country where milk and honey flow. The name
+Manhattoes is said to be derived from the great Indian god Manetho, who
+is stated to have made this island his favorite place of residence on
+account of its peculiar attractions."&mdash;Knickerbocker's <i>New York</i>, vol.
+v., p. 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> "Albany bore the name of Orange when it was originally
+founded by the Dutch; and as a great number of this people remained in
+the city after it passed into the possession of England, they continued
+to call it Orange, and the French Canadians give it no other
+name."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 222.
+</p><p>
+"Albany received that name from the Scottish title of the Duke of
+York."&mdash;Bancroft.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> Nine years before (1655), Stuyvesant had attacked the
+happy and contented little colony of Swedes who were settled on the
+banks of the Delaware, and after a sanguinary contest, the Swedish
+governor, John Rising, was obliged to submit to the Dutch authority.
+Such was the end of New Sweden, which had only maintained an independent
+existence for seventeen years. Thus the Swedish settlements passed into
+the hands of the English at the same time as those of the Dutch. The
+first Swedish colonization had been projected and encouraged by the
+great Gustavus Adolphus in 1638. They gave their settlement on the banks
+of the Delaware, the name of the Land of Canaan, and to the spot where
+they first landed that of Canaan, so inviting and delightful did this
+part of the New World first appear to them. The only thing now known of
+this terrestrial paradise is, that its situation was near Cape Henlopen,
+a short distance from the sea. The colonists purchased tracts of lands
+of the Indians, and threw up a few fortifications; of the city they
+founded, Christina, there is now no trace. It was situated near
+Wilmington, twenty-seven miles south of Philadelphia. The Dutch, whose
+principal city was then New Amsterdam, pretended that the country round
+the Delaware belonged to them, having paid it a visit before the arrival
+of the Swedes. This insinuation, moreover, did not prevent the latter
+from settling, and, according to Charlevoix, the two nations lived in
+amity with each other until Stuyvesant's aggression, the Dutch being
+wholly devoted to commerce and the Swedes to agriculture. The Swedish
+settlement was at first called New Sweden, afterward New Jersey.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> "The entire cost of this transportation amounted to
+&pound;78,533, which, amid the ferments of party, was declared by a subsequent
+vote of Parliament to be not only an extravagant and unreasonable charge
+to the kingdom, but of dangerous consequence to the Church."&mdash;<i>Brit.
+Emp. Amer.</i>, vol. i., p. 249, 250.
+</p><p>
+"Swabia, with the old Palatinate, has contributed very largely to the
+present population of America. From the end of Queen Anne's reign to
+1753, it is said that from 4 to 8000 went annually to Pennsylvania
+alone."&mdash;Sadler, b. iv., cap. v.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> "King William, impatient of judicial forms, by his own
+act constituted Maryland a royal government. The arbitrary act was
+sanctioned by a legal opinion from Lord Holt. The Church of England was
+established as the religion of the state.... In the land which Catholics
+had opened to Protestants, the Catholic inhabitant was the sole victim
+to Anglican intolerance. Mass might not be said publicly.... No Catholic
+might teach the young.... The disfranchisement of the proprietary Lord
+Baltimore related to his creed, not to his family. To recover the
+inheritance of authority, Benedict, the son of the proprietary,
+renounced the Catholic Church for that of England. The persecution never
+crushed the faith of the humble colonists."&mdash;Bancroft, vol. iii., p.
+33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> This name was given in honor of Charles II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> "The system framed by Locke was called 'the Fundamental
+Constitutions of Carolina.' ... Locke was undoubtedly well acquainted
+with human nature, and not ignorant of the world; but he had not taken a
+sufficiently comprehensive view of the history of man, nor were
+political speculators yet duly aware of the necessity of adapting
+constitutions to those for whom they were destined. The grand
+peculiarity consisted in forming a high and titled nobility, which might
+rival the splendor of those of the Old World. But as the dukes and earls
+of England would have considered their titles degraded by being shared
+with a Carolina planter, other titles of foreign origin were adopted.
+That of landgrave was drawn from Germany. (Locke himself was created a
+landgrave.) But these princely denominations, applied to persons who
+were to earn their bread by the labor of their hands, could confer no
+real dignity. The reverence for nobility, which can only be the result
+of long-continued wealth and influence, could never be inspired by mere
+titles, especially of such an exotic and fantastic character.... The
+sanction of negro slavery was a deep blot in this boasted system.... The
+colonists, who felt perfectly at ease under their rude early
+regulations, were struck with dismay at the arrival of this
+philosophical fabric of polity."&mdash;Murray's <i>America</i>, vol. i., p. 343.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> "It was insisted that there should be some landgraves and
+some caciques when many other parts of 'the Fundamental Constitutions'
+were given up; but these great nobles never struck any root in the
+Western soil, and have long since disappeared "&mdash;<i>Hist. Acc. of the
+Colonization of South Carolina and Georgia</i>, London, 1779, vol. i., p.
+44-46; Chalmers, p. 326. quoted by Murray.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> Monk, duke of Albemarle, was constituted palatine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> "It is remarkable that the philosopher's colony seems to
+have been the only one founded before the eighteenth century, except
+Virginia, in which the Church of England was expressly established; but
+this clause is said to have been introduced against his will."&mdash;Merivale
+<i>on Colonization</i>, vol. i., p. 88-92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> "Mr. Chalmers makes the very bold assertion that the
+annals of delegated authority do not present a name so branded with
+merited infamy, and that there never had taken place such an
+accumulation of extortion, injustice, and rapacity as during the five
+years that he misruled the colony. He had been made prisoner in his way
+out, and kept in close captivity at Algiers, where he took, it appears,
+not warning, but lessons. (Sette Sothel had purchased the rights of Lord
+Clarendon, one of the eight original proprietaries.)"&mdash;Murray, vol. i.,
+p. 345.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> "The rights of the proprietors were sold to the king for
+about the sum of &pound;20,000. Lord Carteret alone, joining in the surrender
+of the government, received an eighth share in the soil."&mdash;<i>Hist.
+Account</i>, &amp;c., vol. i., p. 255-321.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> "The importation and use of negroes were prohibited; no
+rum was allowed to be introduced, and no one was permitted to trade with
+the Indians without special license. The colonists complained that
+without negroes it was impossible to clear the grounds and cut down the
+thick forests, though the honest Highlanders always reprobated the
+practice, and denied that any necessity for it existed."<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a>&mdash;Murray,
+vol. i., p. 360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> "Slavery," says Oglethorpe, "is against the Gospel, as
+well as the fundamental law of England. We refused, as trustees, to make
+a law permitting such a horrid crime."&mdash;<i>Memoirs of Sharpe</i>, vol. i., p.
+234; <i>Stephen's Journal</i>, quoted by Bancroft. In 1751, however, after
+Oglethorpe had finally left Georgia, his humane restrictions were
+withdrawn. Whitefield, who believed that God's providence would
+certainly make slavery terminate for the advantage of the Africans,
+pleaded before the trustees in its favor. At last even the Moravians
+(who in a body emigrated to Georgia in 1733) began to think that negro
+slaves might be employed in a Christian spirit, and it was agreed that
+if the negroes are treated in a Christian manner, their change of
+country would prove to them a benefit. A message from Germany served to
+crush their scruples: "If you take slaves in faith, and with the intent
+of conducting them to Christ, the action will not be a sin, but may
+prove a benediction."&mdash;Urlsperger, vol. iii., p. 479, quoted by
+Bancroft, vol. iii., p. 448.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> "He accepted this grant, because it secured them against
+any other claimant from Europe. It gave him a title in the eyes of the
+Christian world, but he did not believe that it gave him any other
+title."&mdash;<i>Colonization and Civilization</i>, p. 358.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> "Etablissement de la Pennsylvanie, dans le pays qui avoit
+port&eacute; le nom de Nouvelle Su&eacute;de: Cette colonie a re&ccedil;u son nom de son
+fondateur, le Chevalier Guillaume Penn, Anglais &agrave; qui Charles II., Roi
+de la Grande Bretagne, conceda ce pays en 1680 et qui cette ann&eacute;e 1681,
+y mena les Quakers ou trembleurs d'Angleterre, dont il &eacute;toit le chef.
+Lorsqu'il y arriva, il y trouva un grand nombre de Hollandois et de
+Su&eacute;dois. Les premiers, pour la plupart, occupoient les endroits situ&eacute;s
+le long du golphe, et les seconds, les bords de la Rivi&egrave;re De la Warr,
+ou du midi. Il paroit par une de ses lettres, qu'il n'&eacute;toit pas content
+des Hollandois; mais il dit que les Su&eacute;dois &eacute;toient une nation simple,
+sans malice, industrieuse, robuste, se souciant peu de l'abondance et se
+contentant du n&eacute;cessaire."&mdash;<i>Fastes Chronologiques</i>, 1681.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> "Even Penn, however, did not fully admit into his scheme
+of colonization the notion of retaining for the Indians a property in a
+part of the soil they once occupied. He gave the natives free leave to
+settle in certain parts of his territory, but, unfortunately, he did not
+treat any definite tract of the soil as their property, which would rise
+in value along with other tracts, and thus afford a stimulus to their
+gradual improvement. It was the want of systematic views in this and
+other respects, which rendered the benevolent intentions of Penn toward
+the natives of little ultimate avail; so that, after all, the chief good
+which he effected was by setting an example of benevolence and justice
+in the principle of his dealings with them."&mdash;Merivale <i>on
+Colonization</i>, vol. ii., p. 173.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> "William Penn of course came unarmed, in his usual plain
+dress, without banners, or mace, or guard, or carriages, and only
+distinguished from his companions by wearing a blue sash of silk
+net-work (which, it seems, is still preserved by Mr. Kett, of Seething
+Hall, near Norwich), and by having in his hand a roll of parchment, on
+which was engrossed the confirmation of the treaty of purchase and
+amity."&mdash;<i>Edinburgh Review of Clarkson's Life of William Penn</i>, p. 358.
+</p><p>
+"The scene at Shachamaxon, quoted by Howitt, forms the subject of one of
+the pictures of West. Thus ended this famous treaty, of which Voltaire
+has remarked with so much truth and severity, 'That it was the only one
+ever concluded which was not ratified by an oath, and the only one that
+never was broken.'"&mdash;Howitt. p. 360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> "In three years from its foundation, Philadelphia gained
+more than New York had done in half a century."&mdash;Bancroft's <i>History of
+the United States</i>, vol. ii., p. 394.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> "Virtue had never, perhaps, inspired a legislation better
+calculated to promote the fidelity of mankind. The opinions, the
+sentiments, and the morals corrected whatever might be deficient in
+it."&mdash;Raynal, vol. vii., p. 292.
+</p><p>
+"Beautiful," said the philosophic Frederick of Prussia, when he read the
+account of the government of Pennsylvania; "it is perfect, if it can
+endure."&mdash;Herder, p. 13, 116. Quoted by Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 392.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> "Their conduct to the Indians never altered for the
+worse. Pennsylvania, while under the administration of the Quakers,
+never became, as New England, a slaughter-house of the Indians."&mdash;Howitt,
+p. 366.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Having noticed the principal features of the origin and progress of the
+English colonies&mdash;the powerful and dangerous neighbors of the French
+settlements in the New World&mdash;it is now time to return to the course of
+Canadian history subsequent to the death of the illustrious founder of
+Quebec.</p>
+
+<p>Monsieur de Montmagny succeeded Champlain as governor, and entered with
+zeal into his plans, but difficulties accumulated on all sides. Men and
+money were wanting, trade languished, and the Associated Company in
+France were daily becoming more indifferent to the success of the
+colony. Some few merchants and inhabitants of the outposts, indeed,
+were enriched by the profitable dealings of the fur-trade, but their
+suddenly-acquired wealth excited the jealousy rather than increased the
+general prosperity of the settlers. The work of religious institutions
+was alone pursued with vigor and success in those times of failure and
+discouragement. At Sillery, one league from Quebec, an establishment was
+founded for the instruction of the savages and the diffusion of
+Christian light. [1637.] The H&ocirc;tel Dieu owed its existence to the
+Duchesse d'Aiguillon two years afterward, and the Convent of the
+Ursulines was founded by the pious and high-born Madame de la
+Peltrie.<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a></p>
+
+<p>The partial success and subsequent failure of Champlain and his Indian
+allies in their encounters with the Iroquois had emboldened these brave
+and politic savages. They now captured several canoes belonging to the
+Hurons, laden with furs, which that friendly people were conveying to
+Quebec. Montmagny's military force was too small to allow of his
+avenging this insult; he, however, zealously promoted an enterprise to
+build a fort and effect a settlement on the island of Montreal, which he
+fondly hoped would curb the audacity of his savage foes. The Associated
+Company would render no aid whatever to this important plan, but the
+religious zeal of the Abb&eacute; Olivier overcame all difficulties. He
+obtained a grant of Montreal from the king, and dispatched the Sieur de
+Maisonneuve and others to take possession. On the 17th of May, 1641, the
+place destined for the settlement was consecrated by the superior of the
+Jesuits.<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p>
+
+<p>At the same time the governor erected a fort at the entrance of the
+River Richelieu, then called the Iroquois. The workmen employed at this
+labor were constantly exposed to the harassing warfare of the Indians,
+but at length completely repulsed them. A garrison, such as could be
+spared from the scanty militia of the colony, was placed in the little
+stronghold for its defense. Although the minds of the fierce Iroquois
+were fixed upon the utter destruction of the French, and in their
+confident boastings they declared that they could drive the white men
+into the sea, they indicated from time to time a desire for peace.
+Montmagny was compelled by weakness and the difficulties of his
+situation, to accept overtures which he could not but dread as insidious
+and treacherous, and he assumed an air of confidence which he by no
+means felt. His native allies were also eagerly anxious for the
+blessings of peace, and, through their means, an opportunity for opening
+negotiations soon offered. The governor and the friendly native chiefs
+met the deputies of the Iroquois nation at Three Rivers to arrange the
+terms of the proposed treaty. [1645.] After various orations, songs,
+dances, and exchanges of presents, peace was concluded to the
+satisfaction of both parties; and for the time at least, with apparent
+good faith, for the following winter the French and their new allies
+joined together in the chase, and mixed fearlessly in friendly
+intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>M. de Montmagny was superseded as governor of Canada by M. d'Ailleboust
+in the year 1647. He had proved himself a man of judgment, courage, and
+virtue, and had gained the love of the settlers and Indians, as well as
+the approval of the court. But, in consequence of the governor of the
+American islands having recently refused to surrender office to a person
+appointed by the king, it was decreed that no one should hold the
+government of a colony for more than three years. M. d'Ailleboust was a
+man of ability and worth, and, having held the command at Three Rivers
+for some time, was also experienced in colonial affairs, but he received
+no more support from home than his predecessor; and, despite his best
+efforts, New France continued to languish under his rule.</p>
+
+<p>The colony, however, was now free from the scourge of savage hostility.
+The Indians turned their subtle craft and terrible energy to the chase
+instead of war. From the far-distant hunting-grounds of the St. Maurice
+and of the gloomy Saguenay, they crowded to Three Rivers and Tadoussac
+with the spoils of the forest animals. At those settlements the trade
+went briskly on, and many of the natives became domesticated among their
+white neighbors. The worthy priests were not slow to take advantage of
+this favorable opportunity; many of the hunters from the north, who were
+attracted to the French villages by the fur trade, were told the great
+tidings of redemption; and usually, when they returned the following
+year, they were accompanied by others, who desired, with them, to
+receive the rites of baptism.<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a></p>
+
+<p>The most numerous and pious of the proselytes were of the Huron tribe,
+an indolent and unwarlike race, against whom the bold and powerful
+Iroquois held deadly feud, which the existing peace only kept in
+abeyance till opportunity might arise for effective action. The little
+settlement of St. Joseph was the place where first an Indian
+congregation assembled for Christian worship; the Father Antoine Daniel
+was the pastor; the flock were of the Huron tribe. Faith in treaties and
+long-continued tranquillity had lulled this unhappy people into a fatal
+security, and all cautions were forgotten,<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> when, on the morning of
+the 4th of July, 1648, while the missionary was performing service,
+there suddenly arose a cry of terror that the Iroquois were at hand.
+None but old men, women, and children were in the village at the time;
+of this the crafty enemy were aware; they had crept silently through the
+woods, and lain in ambush till morning gave them light for the foul
+massacre. Not one of the inhabitants escaped, and last of all, the good
+priest was likewise slain.</p>
+
+<p>During this year the first communication passed between the French and
+British North American colonies. An envoy arrived at Quebec from New
+England, bearing proposals for a lasting peace with Canada, not to be
+interrupted even by the wars of the mother countries. M. d'Ailleboust
+gladly entertained the wise proposition, and sent a deputy to Boston
+with full powers to treat, providing only that the English would consent
+to aid him against the Iroquois. But the cautious Puritans would not
+compromise themselves by this stipulation. They were sufficiently remote
+from the fierce and formidable savages of the Five Nations to be free
+from present apprehension, and to their steady and industrious habits
+the plow was more suitable than the sword. The negotiation, therefore,
+totally failed, which was probably of little consequence, for it is
+difficult to perceive how these remote and feeble colonies could have
+preserved a neutrality in the contentions of England and France, which
+was impossible even to powerful states.</p>
+
+<p>After a treacherous calm of some six months' duration, the unhappy
+Hurons again relapsed into a fatal security; the terrible lessons of the
+past were forgotten in the apparent tranquillity of the present. Watch
+and ward were relaxed, and again they lay at the mercy of their ruthless
+enemies. When least expected, 1000 Iroquois warriors started up from the
+thick coverts of a neighboring forest, and fell fiercely upon the
+defenseless Hurons, burned two of their villages, exterminated the
+inhabitants, and put two French missionaries to death with horrible
+tortures. Then the remnant of the defeated tribe despaired; the alliance
+of the French had only embittered the hostility of their enemies without
+affording protection; therefore they arose and deserted their villages
+and hunting grounds, wandering away, some into the northern forests,
+others as suppliants among neighboring nations.</p>
+
+<p>The greater body of the Hurons, however, attached themselves to the
+fortunes of the missionaries, and under them formed a settlement on the
+island of St. Joseph, but they neglected to cultivate the land. As the
+autumn advanced, the resources of the chase became exhausted, and the
+horrors of famine commenced. They were shortly reduced to the most
+dreadful extremities of suffering; every direst expedient that
+starvation could prompt and despair execute was resorted to for a few
+days' prolonging of life. Then came the scourge of contagious fever,
+sweeping numbers away with desolating fury. While these terrible
+calamities raged among the Hurons, the Iroquois seized the opportunity
+of again invading them. The village of St. John, containing nearly 3000
+souls, was the first point of attack. The feeble inhabitants offered no
+resistance, and, with their missionary, were totally destroyed. Most of
+the remnant of this unhappy tribe then took the resolution of presenting
+themselves to their conquerors, and were received into the Iroquois
+nation. The few who still remained wandering in the forests were hunted
+down like wolves, and soon exterminated.</p>
+
+<p>The terror of the Iroquois name now spread rapidly along the shores of
+the great lakes and rivers of the north. The fertile banks of the
+Ottawa, once the dwelling-place of numerous and powerful tribes, became
+suddenly deserted, and no one could tell whither the inhabitants had
+fled.</p>
+
+<p>About this time was introduced among the Montagnez, and the other tribes
+of the Saguenay country, an evil more destructive than even the tomahawk
+of the Iroquois&mdash;the "accursed fire-water;" despite the most earnest
+efforts of the governor, the fur traders at Tadoussac supplied the
+Indians with this fatal luxury. In a short time, intoxication and its
+dreadful consequences became so frequent, that the native chiefs prayed
+the governor to imprison all drunkards. At Three Rivers, however, the
+wise precautions of the authorities preserved the infant settlement from
+this monstrous calamity.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1650 M. d'Ailleboust was worthily succeeded by M. de Lauson,
+one of the principals of the Associated Company. The new governor found
+affairs in a very discouraging condition, the colony rapidly declining,
+and the Iroquois, flushed by their sanguinary triumphs, more audacious
+than ever. These fierce savages intruded fearlessly among the French
+settlements, despising forts and intrenchments, and insulting the
+inhabitants with impunity. The island of Montreal suffered so much from
+their incursions, that M. de Maisonneuve, the governor, was obliged to
+repair to France to seek succors, for which he had vainly applied by
+letter. He returned in the year 1653 with a timely re-enforcement of 100
+men.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Iroquois had now overcome or destroyed all their native
+enemies, and proved their strength even against the Europeans, some of
+their tribes were more than ever disposed to a union with the white men.
+The Onnontagu&eacute;s dispatched an embassy to Quebec to request that the
+governor would send a colony of Frenchmen among them. He readily acceded
+to the proposition, and fifty men were chosen for the establishment,
+with the Sieur Dupuys for their commander. Four missionaries were
+appointed to found the first Iroquois church; and to supply temporal
+wants, provisions for a year, and sufficient seed to sow the lands about
+to be appropriated, were sent with the expedition. This design excited
+the jealousy of the other Iroquois tribes; the Agniers even tried to
+intercept the colonists with a force of 400 warriors; they, however,
+only succeeded in pillaging a few of the canoes that had fallen behind.
+The same war party soon after made an onslaught upon ninety Hurons,
+working on the Isle of Orleans under French protection, slew six, and
+carried off the rest into captivity. As they passed before Quebec they
+made their unhappy prisoners sing aloud, insultingly attracting the
+attention of the garrison. The marauders were not pursued; they dragged
+the prisoners to their villages, burned the chiefs, and condemned the
+rest to a cruel bondage. M. de Lauson can hardly be excused for thus
+suffering his allies to be torn from under his protection without an
+effort to save them from their merciless enemies. These unfortunates had
+been converted to Christianity, which increased the rage and ferocity of
+the captors against them. One brave chief, whose tortures had been
+prolonged for three days as a worshiper of the God of the white men,
+bore himself faithfully to the last, and died with the Saviour's blessed
+name upon his quivering lip.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time the expedition to the country of the Onnontagu&eacute;s
+suffered great privations, and only escaped starvation by the generosity
+of the natives. Their spiritual mission was, however, at first eminently
+successful, the whole nation seeming disposed to adopt the Christian
+faith. But the allied tribes having carried their insolence to an
+intolerable degree, and massacred three Frenchmen near Montreal, the
+commandant at Quebec seized all the Iroquois within his reach, and
+demanded redress. The answer of the haughty savages was, to prepare for
+war. Dupuys and his little colony were now in a most perilous position:
+there was no hope of aid from Quebec, and but little chance of being
+able to escape from among their dangerous neighbors. They labored
+diligently and secretly to construct a sufficient number of canoes to
+carry them away in case some happy opportunity might arise, and found
+means to warn the people of Quebec of the coming danger. By great
+industry and skill the canoes were completed, and stored with the
+necessary provisions; through an ingenious stratagem, the French escaped
+in safety, while the savages slept soundly after one of their solemn
+feasts. In fifteen days the fugitives arrived at Montreal, where they
+found alarm on every countenance. The Iroquois swarmed over the island,
+and committed great disorders, although still professing a treacherous
+peace. The savages soon, however, threw off the mask, and broke into
+open war.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of July, 1658, the Viscompte d'Argenson landed at Quebec as
+governor. The next morning the cry "to arms" echoed through the town.
+The Iroquois had made a sudden onslaught upon some Algonquins under the
+very guns of the fortress, and massacred them without mercy. Two hundred
+men were instantly dispatched to avenge this insult, but they could not
+overtake the wily marauders. In the same year, however, a party of the
+Agniers met with a severe check in a treacherous attempt to surprise
+Three Rivers. The lesson was not lost, and the colony for some time
+enjoyed a much-needed repose. The missionaries seized this interval of
+tranquillity to recommence their sacred labors: they penetrated into
+many remote districts where Europeans had never before reached, and
+discovered several routes to the dreary shores of Hudson's Bay. In the
+year 1659, the exemplary Fran&ccedil;ois de Laval, abb&eacute; de Montigny, arrived at
+Quebec to preside over the Canadian Church as the first American
+bishop.<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a></p>
+
+<p>The temporal affairs of the colony were falling into a lamentable
+condition; no supplies arrived from France, and the local production was
+far from sufficient. Terror of the Indians kept the settlers almost
+blockaded in the forts, and cultivation was necessarily neglected. It
+was proposed by many that all the settlements should be abandoned, and
+that they should again seek the peaceful shores of their native country.
+Many individuals were massacred by the savages, and two armed parties,
+one of thirty and the other of twenty-six men, were totally destroyed.
+But some of the Indians, too, began to weary of this murderous war, and
+to long again for Christian instruction and peaceful commerce. The new
+governor was at first little inclined to negotiate with his fierce and
+capricious enemies; but, influenced by the miserable state of the
+colony, which even a brief truce might improve, he at length agreed to
+an exchange of prisoners and a peace.</p>
+
+<p>In 1662 the King of France was at last induced to hearken to the prayers
+of his Canadian subjects. M. de Monts<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> was sent out to inquire into
+the condition of the country, and 400 troops added to the strength of
+the garrison. But these encouraging circumstances were more than
+neutralized on account of the permission then granted by the new
+governor, Baron d'Avaugour, for the sale of ardent spirits.<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> The
+disorder soon rose to a lamentable height, and the clergy in vain
+opposed their utmost influence to its pernicious progress. At length the
+worthy bishop hastened to France, and represented to the king the
+dreadful evil that afflicted the colony. His remonstrances were
+effectual; he succeeded in obtaining such powers as he deemed necessary
+to stop the ruinous commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1663 was rendered memorable by a tremendous earthquake, spoken
+of in a preceding chapter. In the same year the Associated Company
+remitted to the crown all their rights over New France, which the king
+again transferred to the West India Company.<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> Courts of law were
+for the first time established, and many families of valuable settlers
+found their way to the colony. Up to this period extreme simplicity and
+honesty seems to have prevailed in the little community, and it was not
+till then that a Council of State was appointed by the crown to
+co-operate with the governor in the conduct of affairs.<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> The king
+sent out the Sieur Gaudais to inquire into the state of his
+newly-acquired dependency, and to investigate certain complaints
+preferred against the Baron d'Avaugour, who had himself prayed to be
+recalled. The sieur performed his invidious task to the satisfaction of
+all parties: he made valuable reports as to the general character of the
+colonial clergy, of the advantages and disadvantages of the local
+administration of government, and imputed no fault to the Baron
+d'Avaugour, but a somewhat too rigid and stern adherence to the letter
+of the law, and the severity of justice. The baron then joyfully
+returned to France, but soon afterward fell in the defense of the fort
+of Serin against the Turks, while, with the permission of the French
+king, serving the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>M. de M&eacute;sy succeeded as governor, upon the recommendation of the Bishop
+of Canada, whose complaints on the subject of the sale of spirituous
+liquors had been the principal cause of the Baron d'Avaugour's recall.
+The new appointment proved far from satisfactory to those by whose
+influence it was made. M. de M&eacute;sy at once raised up a host of enemies by
+his haughty and despotic bearing. He thwarted the Jesuits to the utmost
+extent of his power; the council supported them, alleging that their
+influence over the native race was essential to the well-being of the
+colony. Various representations of these matters were made to the court
+of France, and the final result was, that the governor was recalled.</p>
+
+<p>Alexandre de Prouville, marquis de Tracy, was next appointed viceroy in
+America by the king, with ample powers to establish, destroy, or alter
+the institutions of the Canadian colony. Daniel de Remi, seigneur de
+Courcelles, the new governor, and M. Talon, the intendant, were
+conjoined with the viceroy in a commission to examine into the charges
+against M. de M&eacute;sy. [1665,] M. de Tracy was the first to arrive at
+Quebec; he bore with him the welcome re-enforcement of some companies of
+the veteran regiment of Carignan-Sali&egrave;res.<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> He sent a portion of
+this force at once against the Iroquois, accompanied by the allied
+savages. The country was speedily cleared of every enemy, and the
+harvest gathered in security. The remaining part of the regiment arrived
+soon after, with the viceroy's colleagues; a large number of families,
+artisans, and laborers; the first horses that had ever been sent to New
+France; cattle, sheep; and, in short, a far more complete colony than
+that which they came to aid.</p>
+
+<p>Being now established in security, and confident in strength, the
+viceroy led a sufficient force to the mouth of Richelieu River, where he
+erected three forts<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> to overawe the turbulent Iroquois.<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> These
+works were rapidly and skillfully executed, and for a time answered
+their purpose; but the wily savages soon perceived that there were other
+routes by which they could enter the settlements. In the mean time M.
+Talon remained at Quebec, collecting much valuable information
+concerning the country and its native inhabitants. He was spared,
+however, the task of inquiring into the conduct of M. de M&eacute;sy, for that
+gentleman died before the news of his recall reached Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the end of December, 1665, three tribes of the Iroquois nation
+dispatched envoys to the viceroy at Quebec with proposals for peace and
+for an exchange of prisoners. The terms were readily complied with. M.
+de Tracy received the Indians with politic kindness and attention, and
+sent them back with valuable presents. But the formidable tribes of the
+Agniers and Onneyouths still kept sullenly apart from the French
+alliance; it was, therefore, determined to give them a severe lesson for
+their former insolence and treachery, and make them feel the supremacy
+of France. M. de Courcelles and M. de Sorel were sent with two corps to
+humble the haughty savages. The hostile Indians, alarmed at the
+preparations for their destruction, now sent deputies to Quebec to avert
+the threatening storm, although some of their war parties still infested
+the settlements, and had lately put to death three French officers,
+among them M. de Chasy, the viceroy's nephew. One of the Indian deputies
+boasted at M. de Tracy's table that he had slain the French officers
+with his own hands. He was immediately seized and strangled, and the
+negotiations broken off.</p>
+
+<p>The two French expeditions found the hostile country altogether
+deserted, and returned without effecting any thing, having suffered
+great fatigue and hardship. M. de Tracy then took the field in person,
+at the head of 1200 French and 600 friendly Indians, with two pieces of
+cannon. As he was setting out on the march, chiefs again came from the
+Agniers and Onneyouths to pray for peace; but he would hear of no
+accommodation, and even imprisoned the deputies. The French army marched
+on the 14th of September, 1666; provisions soon failed in the solitary
+desert through which they had to pass; in their greatest necessity,
+however, they entered a wood abounding in chestnut-trees, whose fruit
+supplied them with sustenance till they gained the first village of the
+enemy. The warriors had abandoned the old men, women, and children, and
+ample stores of food, and retired through the forest. The French found
+the Indian cabans larger and better than any they had seen elsewhere,
+and in ingeniously contrived magazines, sunk under the ground,
+sufficient grain was discovered to supply the whole colony for two
+years. The invaders burned and utterly destroyed all the villages, and
+carried away, as captives, all the inhabitants that remained, but they
+could not succeed in overtaking the warriors to force them to action.
+They then retraced their steps, strengthening the settlements on the
+River St. Lawrence as they passed. When M. de Tracy reached Quebec, he
+caused some of the prisoners to be put to death as a warning, and
+dismissed the remainder. Having established the authority of the West
+India Company instead of that of "The Hundred Associates," he returned
+to France the following spring.</p>
+
+<p>The humiliation of the Iroquois restored profound peace to New France.
+Then the wisdom and energy of M. Talon were directed to the development
+of the resources of the country. Scientific men were sent to examine the
+mineral resources of several districts where promising indications had
+been observed. The clearing of land proceeded rapidly, and invariably
+discovered a rich and productive soil. The population increased in
+numbers, and enjoyed abundant plenty: all were in a condition to live in
+comfort. According to the perhaps partial authority of the Jesuit
+missionaries, the progress in morality and attention to religious
+observances kept pace with the temporal prosperity of this happy colony.</p>
+
+<p>Although M. de Courcelles showed little activity in conducting the
+internal government of the colony, which was principally directed by M.
+Talon, he was highly energetic and vigorous in his relations with the
+Indians. Having learned that the Iroquois were intriguing with the
+Ottawas to direct their fur trade to the English colonies, thus probably
+to ruin the commerce of New France, he resolved to visit the Iroquois,
+and impress them with an idea of his power. For this purpose he took the
+route of the deep and rapid St. Lawrence, making his way in bateaux for
+130 miles above Montreal. His health, however, suffered so much in this
+difficult expedition that he was obliged to demand his recall.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Quebec he found that several atrocious murders and
+robberies had been committed upon Iroquois and Mahingan Indians by
+Frenchmen, which filled the savages with indignation, and roused them
+to a fury of revenge. They attacked and burned a house in open day, and
+a woman perished in the flames. Numbers of the two injured nations and
+their savage allies hovered round Montreal, awaiting an opportunity for
+vengeance. M. de Courcelles, with his wonted vigor in emergencies,
+hastened to the threatened settlement, and called upon the Indian chiefs
+to hold parley. They assembled, and hearkened with attention while he
+enumerated the advantages that both parties derived from the existing
+peace. He then caused those among the murderers who had been convicted
+of the crime to be led out and executed on the spot. The Indians were at
+once appeased by this prompt administration of justice, and even
+lamented over the malefactors' wretched fate; they were also fully
+indemnified for the stolen property. The assembly then broke up with
+mutual satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>But soon again, the repose of the country was threatened by the Iroquois
+and Ottawas, who had begun to make incursions upon each other. M. de
+Courcelles promptly interfered to quell this growing animosity,
+declaring that he would punish with the greatest severity either party
+that would not submit to reasonable conditions. He required them to send
+deputies to state their wrongs, and the grounds of dispute, and took
+upon himself to do justice to both parties. He was obeyed: the chiefs of
+the contending tribes repaired to Quebec, and by the firmness and
+judgment of the governor, the breach was healed, and peace secured.</p>
+
+<p>At this time a scourge more terrible than even savage war visited the
+red race of Canada. The small-pox first appeared among the northern
+tribe of the Attikamegues, and swept them totally away: many of their
+neighbors shared the same fate. Tadoussac, where 1200 Indians usually
+assembled to barter their rich furs at the end of the hunting season,
+was deserted. Three Rivers, once crowded with the friendly Algonquins,
+was now never visited by a red man, and a few years after the frightful
+plague first appeared, the settlement of Sillery, near Quebec, was
+attacked; 1500 savages took the fatal contagion, and not one survived.
+The Hurons, who had been always most intimately associated with the
+French, suffered least among the native nations from the malady. In 1670
+Father Chaumonat assembled the remnant of this once powerful tribe in
+the neighborhood of Quebec, and established them in the village of
+Lorette,<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> where a mixed race of their descendants remains to this
+day.</p>
+
+<p>Even the presence of the dreadful infliction of the small-pox and the
+fear of French power could not long restrain the savage impulse for war.
+The most distant tribe of the Iroquois became engaged in a sanguinary
+quarrel with a neighboring nation, and took a number of prisoners. The
+governor immediately sent to warn these turbulent savages that if they
+did not desist from war, and return their prisoners, he would destroy
+their villages as he had those of the Agniers. This peremptory message
+raised the indignation of the Iroquois, they at first proudly disclaimed
+the right of the French to dictate to the free people of the forest, and
+vowed that they would perish rather than bow down to the strangers'
+will; but, finally, the wisdom of the old men prevailed in the council:
+they knew that they were not prepared to meet the power of the
+Europeans; it was therefore decided that they should send a portion of
+their prisoners to the governor. He either believed, or pretended to
+believe, that they had fully complied with his demands, deeming it
+prudent not to drive the Indians to extremities.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> Among the Ursulines who accompanied Madame de la Peltrie
+to Quebec was Marie de l'Incarnation, "the Theresa of France," and Marie
+de St. Joseph. The sanctity of these remarkable women and the miracles
+they performed are the favorite theme of the Jesuit historians of
+Canada. Several lives of the former have been published, one of them by
+Charlevoix. A quarto volume of her letters was also published (&agrave; Paris,
+chez Louis Billaine, 1681): they are highly extolled as "worthy of her
+high reputation for sanctity, ability, and practical good sense in the
+business of life." They record many historical facts which occurred
+during the thirty-two years that she passed in Canada, where she arrived
+in 1640. When the Ursulines and the "Filles Hospitali&egrave;res" landed at
+Quebec, they were received with enthusiasm. "It was held as a festival
+day; all work was forbidden; and the shops were shut. The governor
+received these heroines upon the shore at the head of the troops, who
+were under arms, the guns firing a salute. After the first greeting he
+led them to the church, accompanied by the acclamations of the people;
+here the Te Deum was chanted."&mdash;Charlevoix.
+</p><p>
+"The venerable ash tree still lives beneath which Mary of the
+Incarnation, so famed for chastened piety, genius, and good judgment,
+toiled, though in vain, for the culture of Huron children."&mdash;Bancroft's
+<i>History of the United States</i>. vol. iii., p. 127.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> "Cette ville a &eacute;t&eacute; nomin&eacute;e Ville Marie par ses
+fondateurs, mais ce nom n'a pu passer dans l'usage ordinaire; il n'a
+lieu que dans les actes publics, et parmi les seigneurs, qui en sont
+fort jaloux."&mdash;Charlevoix. When the foundations of the city of Montreal
+were first laid, the name given to it was Ville Marie. Bouchette, vol.
+i., p. 215; La Hontan, vol. xiii., p. 266.
+</p><p>
+Charlevoix gives the following account of the formation and progress of
+the remarkable settlement at Montreal: "Quelques personnes puissantes,
+et plus recommandable encore par leur pi&eacute;t&eacute; et par leur z&egrave;le pour la
+religion, form&egrave;rent donc une soci&eacute;t&eacute;, qui se proposa de faire en grand &agrave;
+Montr&eacute;al, ce qu'on avoit fait en petit &agrave; Sillery. Il devoit y avoir dans
+cette isle une bourgade Fran&ccedil;oise, bien fortifi&eacute;e, et &agrave; l'abri de toute
+insulte. Les pauvres y devoient &ecirc;tre re&ccedil;us, et mis en &eacute;tat de subsister
+de leur travail. On projetta de faire occuper tout le reste de l'isle
+par des sauvages, de quelque nation qu'ils fussent, pourv&ucirc; qu'ils
+fissent profession du Christianisme, ou qu'ils voulussent se faire
+instuire de nos myst&egrave;res, et l'on &eacute;toit d'autant plus persuad&eacute; qu'ils y
+viendraient en grand nombre qu' outre un asile assur&eacute; contre les
+poursuites de leurs ennemis, ils pouvoient se promettre des secours
+toujours prompts dans leurs maladies, et contre la disette. On se
+proposoit m&ecirc;me de les policer avec le tems, et de les acco&ucirc;tumer &agrave; ne
+plus vivre que du travail de leurs mains. Le nombre de ceux qui
+entroient dans cette association fut de trente-cinq; des cette ann&eacute;e
+1640, en vertu de la concession que le roi lui fit de l'isle, elle en
+fit prendre possession &agrave; la fin d'une messe solennelle, qui fut c&eacute;l&eacute;br&eacute;e
+sous une tente. Le quinzi&egrave;me d'Octobre l'ann&eacute;e suivante, M. de
+Maisonneuve fut d&eacute;clar&eacute; gouverneur de l'isle. Le dix-septi&egrave;me de May
+suivant, le lieu destin&eacute; &agrave; l'habitation Fran&ccedil;oise fut b&eacute;ni par le
+Sup&eacute;rieur des J&eacute;suites, qui y c&eacute;l&eacute;bra les saints myst&egrave;res, d&eacute;dia &agrave; la
+m&egrave;re de Dieu une petite chapelle, qu'on avoit b&acirc;tie, et il y laissa le
+St. Sacrement. Cette c&eacute;r&eacute;monie avoit &eacute;t&eacute; pr&eacute;c&eacute;d&eacute; d'une autre, trois mois
+auparavant, c'est &agrave; dire vers la fin de F&eacute;vrier: tous les Associ&eacute;s
+s'etant rendus un Jeudi matin &agrave; N&ocirc;tre Dame de Paris, ceux qui &eacute;toient
+pr&ecirc;tres, y dirent la messe, les autres communi&egrave;rent &agrave; l'autel de la
+Vierge et tous suppli&egrave;rent la reine des anges de prendre l'isle de
+Montr&eacute;al sous sa protection. Enfin le quinze d'Ao&ucirc;t, la f&ecirc;te de
+l'Assomption de la m&egrave;re de Dieu fut solemnis&eacute;e dans cette isle avec un
+concours extraordinaire de Fran&ccedil;ois et de sauvages. On ne n&eacute;gligea rien
+dans cette occasion pour int&eacute;resser le ciel en faveur d'un &eacute;tablissement
+si utile, et pour donner aux infid&egrave;les une haute id&eacute;e de la religion
+Chr&eacute;tienne."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 345.
+</p><p>
+In the year 1644 Charlevoix says, "L'isle de Montr&eacute;al se peuploit
+insensiblement, et la pi&eacute;t&eacute; de ces nouveaux colons disposoit peu &agrave; peu
+les sauvages qui les approchoient &agrave; se so&ucirc;mettre au jong de la foi." In
+1657, however, it was considered that "les premiers possesseurs de
+l'isle n'avoient pas pouss&eacute; l'&eacute;tablissement autant qu'on avoit d'abord
+esp&eacute;r&eacute;." and it was therefore ceded to the Seminary of St. Sulpice in
+Paris. From that time the establishment made a rapid progress, M. de
+Maisonneuve still continuing its governor, after it had changed masters.
+He was a man of ability and piety: under his auspices the order of
+"Filles de la Congr&eacute;gation" was established at Montreal by Margaret
+Bourgeois, who had accompanied the first settlers on the island from
+France. For the details of this admirable institution see Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 94. He speaks of it with justice as one of the brightest
+ornaments of New France.
+</p><p>
+"Jusqu' en l'ann&eacute;e 1692, la justice particuli&egrave;re de Montr&eacute;al appartenoit
+&agrave; Messieurs du S&eacute;minaire de St. Sulpice, en qualit&eacute; de seigneurs. Ils en
+donn&egrave;rent alors leur d&eacute;mission au roi, &agrave; condition que l'exercice leur
+en resteroit dans l'enclos de leur s&eacute;minaire, et dans leur ferme de St.
+Gabriel, avec la propri&eacute;t&eacute; perp&eacute;tuelle et incommutable du Greffe de la
+justice royale, qui seroit &eacute;tablie dans l'isle, et la nomination du
+premier juge."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 140.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> The kindness of the missionaries has been one of the
+causes that has perpetuated a kindly feeling toward the French. Among
+the American Indians, "a person, even in times of hostility, speaking
+French will find security from the attachment of the people to every
+thing that is French."&mdash;Imlay, p. 8.</p>
+
+<p>"To do justice to truth, the French missionaries in general have
+invariably distinguished themselves every where by an exemplary life,
+befitting their profession. Their religious sincerity, their apostolic
+charity, their insinuating kindness, their heroic patience, their
+remoteness from austerity and fanaticism, fix in these countries
+memorable epochs in the annals of Christianity; and while the memory of
+a Del Vilde, a Vodilla, &amp;c., will be held in everlasting execration by
+all truly Christian hearts, that of a Daniel, a Brebeuf, &amp;c., will never
+lose any of that veneration which the history of discoveries and
+missions has so justly conferred upon them. Hence that predilection
+which the savages manifest for the French, a predilection which they
+naturally find in the recesses of their souls, cherished by the
+traditions which their fathers have left in favor of the first apostles
+of Canada, then called New France."&mdash;Beltrami's <i>Travels</i>, 1823. The
+authority of this passage, Chateaubriand observes, is the stronger, as
+the writer is severe in his condemnation of the modern Jesuit.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> "Ce n'&eacute;toit pas la faute de leurs missionnaires, s'ils
+s'endormaient de la sorte; mais ces religieux ne pouvant gagner sur
+leurs n&eacute;ophytes qu'ils prissent pour leur s&ucirc;ret&eacute; les pr&eacute;cautions que la
+prudence exigeoit, redoubl&egrave;rent leurs soins pour achever de les
+sanctifier, et pour les pr&eacute;parer &agrave; tout ce qui pourroit arriver. Ils les
+trouverent sur cet article d'une docilit&eacute; parfaite; ils n'eurent aucune
+peine &agrave; les faire entr&eacute;r dans les sentimens les plus convenables &agrave; la
+triste situation o&ugrave; ils se reduisaient eux-m&ecirc;mes par une indolence, et
+un aveuglement, qu'on ne pouvoit comprendre et qui n'a peut-&ecirc;tre point
+d'exemple dans l'histoire. Ce qui consoloit les pasteurs, c'est qu'ils
+les voyoient dans l'occasion braver la mort avec un courage, qui les
+animoit eux-m&ecirc;mes &agrave; mourir en h&eacute;ros Chr&eacute;tiens."&mdash;Charlevoix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> The Abb&eacute; de Montigny was titular Bishop of Petr&aelig;a, and
+had received from the pope a brief as vicar apostolic. The Church of
+Quebec was not erected into a bishop's see until 1670, when its bishop
+was no longer called titular Bishop of Petr&aelig;a, but Bishop of Quebec. "Ce
+qui avoit fait tra&icirc;ner la cause si fort en longueur, c'est qu'il y eut
+de grandes contestations sur la d&eacute;pendance imm&eacute;diate du Saint Si&egrave;ge,
+dont le pape ne voulut point se rel&acirc;cher. Cela n'emp&ecirc;che pourtant pas
+que l'Ev&ecirc;ch&eacute; de Quebec ne soit en quelque fa&ccedil;on uni au clerg&eacute; de France,
+en la mani&egrave;re de celui du Puy, lequel rel&egrave;ve aussi imm&eacute;diatement de
+Rome."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 189; <i>Petits Droits</i>, &amp;c., tom. ii., p.
+492.
+</p><p>
+"When the bishopric of Quebec was erected, Louis XIV. endowed it with
+the revenue of two abbacies, those of Benevent and L'Estrio. About
+thirty years ago, the then bishop, finding it difficult, considering the
+distance, to recover the revenues of them, by consent of Louis XV.,
+resigned the same to the clergy of France, to be united to a particular
+revenue of theirs, styled the economats, applied to the augmentation of
+small livings, in consideration of which, the bishop of this see has
+ever since received yearly 8000 livres out of the said revenues. A few
+years before the late bishop's death, the clergy of France granted him,
+for <i>his</i> life only, a further pension of 2000 livres; the bishop had no
+estate whatever, except his palace at Quebec, destroyed by our
+artillery, a garden, and the ground-rent of two or three houses
+adjoining it, and built on some part of the lands."&mdash;Governor Murray's
+<i>Report on the Ancient Government and Actual State of the Province of
+Quebec in</i> 1762.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> "Jusques-l&agrave;, les gouverneurs g&eacute;n&eacute;raux avoient assez tenue
+la main &agrave; faire ex&eacute;cuter les ordres qu'ils avoient eux-m&ecirc;mes donn&eacute;s, de
+ne point vendre d'eau de vie aux sauvages; et le baron d'Avaugour avoit
+d&eacute;cern&eacute; des peines tr&egrave;s s&eacute;v&egrave;res contre ceux qui contreviendroient &agrave; ses
+ordonnances sur ce point capital. Il arriva qu'une femme de Quebec fut
+surprise en y contrevenant, et, sur le champ, conduite en prison. Le P.
+Lallemant, &agrave; la pri&egrave;re de ses amis, crut pouvoir sans cons&eacute;quence
+interc&eacute;der pour elle. Il alla trouver le g&eacute;n&eacute;ral, qui le re&ccedil;ut tr&egrave;s mal,
+et qui sans faire reflexion qu'il n'y a point d'incons&eacute;quence dans les
+ministres d'un Dieu qui a donn&eacute; sa vie pour d&eacute;truire le p&ecirc;ch&eacute; et sauver
+le p&eacute;cheur, &agrave; agir avec z&egrave;le pour r&eacute;primer le vice, et &agrave; demander grace
+pour le criminel, lui r&eacute;pondit brusquement, que puisque la trait&eacute; de
+l'eau de vie n'&eacute;toit pas une faute punissable pour cette femme, elle ne
+le seroit d&eacute;sormais pour personne.... il ne consulta que sa mauvaise
+humeur et sa droiture mal entendue; et ce qu'il y eut de pis, c'est
+qu'il se fit un point d'honneur de ne point retracter l'indiscr&egrave;te
+parole qui lui &eacute;toit echapp&eacute;e. Le peuple en fut bient&ocirc;t instruit et le
+desordre devint extr&egrave;me."&mdash;Charlevoix. tom. ii., p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> Petit, vol. i., p. 24. <i>Colony Records.</i> There are no
+books of record in the secretary's office before this period. The old
+records were either carried to France, or destroyed at the fire, when
+the intendant's palace was burned down in 1725.
+</p><p>
+"The company, 'des Cents Associ&eacute;s,' formed in 1628, though one of the
+most powerful, according to Charlevoix, that had ever existed, with
+respect to the number, the rank, and the accorded privileges of its
+members, had allowed the colony to fall into a deplorable state of
+weakness. In 1662, when it relinquished its rights to Louis XIV., the
+original number of 100 had diminished to 45."&mdash;Charlevoix, ii., p. 149.
+</p><p>
+The East India Company was erected by the great Colbert in 1664. This
+company, having fallen into decay, was united with the West Indian
+Company, which was founded by law in 1718, and survived the ruin of its
+projector.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> "Jusques-l&agrave; il n'y avoit point eu proprement de cour de
+justice en Canada; les gouverneurs g&eacute;n&eacute;raux jugeant les affaires d'une
+mani&ecirc;re assez souveraine; on ne s'avisoit point d'appeller de leurs
+sentences; mais ils ne rendoient ordinairement des arr&ecirc;ts, qu'apres
+avoir inutilement tent&eacute;s les voies de l'arbitrage, et l'on convient que
+leurs d&eacute;cisions &eacute;toient toujours, dict&eacute;es par le bon sens, et selon les
+regles de la loi naturelle, qui est au-dessus de toutes les autres.
+D'ailleurs les Cr&eacute;oles du Canada, quoique de race Normande, pour la
+plupart n'avoient seulement l'esprit processif, et aimoient mieux pour
+l'ordinaire c&eacute;der quelque chose de leur bon droit, que de perdre le tems
+&agrave; plaider. Il sembloit m&ecirc;me que tous les biens fussent communes dans
+cette colonie, du moins on fut assez long tems sans rien ferme&eacute; sous la
+clef, et il &eacute;toit inoui qu'on s'en abus&acirc;t. Il est bien &eacute;trange et bien
+humiliant pour l'homme que les pr&eacute;cautions qu'un prince sage prit pour
+&eacute;viter la chicane et faire regner la justice, aient presque &eacute;t&eacute; l'&eacute;poque
+de la naissance de l'une, et de l'affoiblissement de l'autre.... La
+justice est rendue selon les ordonnances du royaume et la coutume de
+Paris. Au mois de Juin, 1679, le roi autorisa par un &eacute;dit quelques
+r&eacute;glemens du conseil de Quebec, et c'est ce qu'on appell&eacute; dans le pays
+la r&eacute;duction du Code ... par un autre &eacute;dit en 1685 le conseil fut
+autoris&eacute; &agrave; juger les causes criminelles au nombre de cinq juges ...
+c'est sur le mod&egrave;le du conseil sup&eacute;rieur &agrave; Quebec, qu'on a depuis &eacute;tabli
+ceux de la Martinique, de St. Domingue, et de Louisiane. Tous ses
+conseils sont d'ep&eacute;e."&mdash;Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 140.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> "The regiment de Carignan-Sali&egrave;res was just arrived from
+Hungary, where it had distinguished itself greatly in the war against
+the Turks."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> "M. de Sorel, a captain in the Regiment De Carignan, was
+employed on the erection of the first fort, on the same site as the fort
+De Richelieu, built by M. de Montmagny, now quite in ruins. De Sorel
+gave his own name to the fort, and in time the river Richelieu, or
+Iroquois, acquired it also.
+</p><p>
+"The second fort was called St. Louis; but, as M. de Chambly, captain in
+the same regiment, had superintended the erection, and afterward
+acquired the land on which it was situated, the whole district, and the
+stone fort, which has been erected since upon the ruins of the former
+one, have acquired and retained the name of Chambly. This was a very
+important fortress, as it protected the colony on the side of New York,
+and the lower Iroquois.
+</p><p>
+"The third fort was built under the direction of M. de Sali&egrave;res, the
+colonel of the regiment De Carignan. He named it St. Theresa, because it
+was finished on that saint's day."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 152.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> "Every omen was now favorable, except the conquest of New
+Netherlands (New York) by the English in 1664. That conquest eventually
+made the Five Nations (Iroquois) a d&eacute;pendance on the English nation; and
+if for twenty-five years England and France sued for their friendship
+with unequal success, yet afterward, in the grand division of parties
+throughout the world, the Bourbons found in them implacable
+opponents."&mdash;Bancroft's <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. ii., p.
+149.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> "La chapelle &agrave; Lorette est b&acirc;tie sur le mod&egrave;le et avec
+toutes les dimensions de la Santa Case d'Italie, d'o&ugrave; l'on a envoy&eacute; &agrave;
+nos n&eacute;ophytes une image de la vierge, semblable &agrave; celle, que l'on voit
+dans ce c&eacute;l&eacute;bre sanctuaire. On ne pouvoit gu&egrave;re choisir pour placer
+cette mission, un lieu plus sauvage."&mdash;Charlevoix.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Taking advantage of the profound peace which now blessed New
+France,<a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> M. Talon, the intendant, dispatched an experienced
+traveler, named Nicholas Perrot, to the distant northern and western
+tribes, for the purpose of inducing them to fix a meeting at some
+convenient place with a view of discussing the rights of the French
+crown. This bold adventurer penetrated among the nations dwelling by the
+great lakes, and with admirable address induced them all to send
+deputies to the Falls of St. Mary, where the waters of Lake Superior
+pour into Lake Huron. The Sieur de St. Lusson met the assembled Indian
+chiefs at this place in May, 1671; he persuaded them to acknowledge the
+sovereignty of his king, and erected a cross bearing the arms of France.</p>
+
+<p>M. de Courcelles was succeeded by the able and chivalrous Louis de
+Buade, comte de Frontenac. The new governor was a soldier of high rank,
+and a trusty follower of the great Henry of Navarre; his many high
+qualities were, however, obscured by a capricious and despotic temper.
+His plans for the advancement of the colony were bold and judicious, his
+representations to the government of France fearless and effectual, his
+personal conduct and piety unimpeachable, but he exhibited a bitterness
+and asperity to those who did not enter into his views little suited to
+the better points of his character, and it is said that ambition and the
+love of authority at times overcame his zeal for the public good.<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Talon, the intendant, was at this time recalled by his own wish, but
+before he departed from the scenes of his useful labors he planned a
+scheme of exploration more extensive than any that had yet been
+accomplished in New France. From the rumors and traditions among the
+savages of the far West, with which the meeting at St. Mary's had made
+the French acquainted, it was believed that to the southwest of New
+France there flowed a vast river, called by the natives Mechas&egrave;p&egrave;, whose
+course was neither toward the great lakes to the north, nor the Atlantic
+to the east. It was therefore surmised that this unknown flood must pour
+its waters either into the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean. The wise
+intendant was impressed with the importance of possessing a channel of
+navigation to the waters of the south and west, and before his departure
+from America made arrangements to have the course of the mysterious
+stream<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> explored. He intrusted the arduous duty to Father Marquette,
+a pious priest, who was experienced in Indian travel, and an adventurous
+and able merchant of Quebec, named Jolyet. [1673.] The Comte de
+Frontenac gave hearty aid to this expedition, and in the mean time he
+himself extended the line of French settlement to the shores of Lake
+Ontario,<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> built there the fort that still bears his name, and opened
+communication with the numerous tribes westward of the Allegany
+Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The exploring party, led by Marquette<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> and Jolyet, consisted of
+only six men, in two little bark canoes: at the very outset the Indians
+of the lakes told them that great and terrible dangers would beset their
+path, and recounted strange tales of supernatural difficulties and
+perils for those who had ventured to explore the mysterious regions of
+the West. Hearkening carefully to whatever useful information the
+natives could bestow, but despising their timid warnings, these
+adventurous men hastened on over the great lakes to the northwestern
+extremity of the deep and stormy Michigan, now called Green Bay.
+Numerous Indian tribes wandered over the surrounding country; among
+others, the Miamis, the most civilized and intelligent of the native
+race that they had yet seen. Two hunters of this nation undertook to
+guide the expedition to one of the tributaries of the great river of
+which they were in search. The French were struck with wonder at the
+vast prairies that lay around their route on every side, monotonous, and
+apparently boundless as the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>The Fox River was the stream to which the Miamis first led them.
+Although it was broad at its entrance into the lake the upper portion
+was divided by marshes into a labyrinth of narrow channels; as they
+passed up the river, the wild oats grew so thickly in the water that the
+adventurers appeared to row through fields of corn. After a portage of a
+mile and a half, they launched their canoes in the Wisconsin River, a
+tributary of the Mississippi, and the guides left them to find their way
+into the unknown solitudes of the West. Their voyage down the tributary
+was easy and prosperous, and at length, to their great joy, they reached
+the magnificent stream of the Mississippi. The banks were rich and
+beautiful, the trees the loftiest they had yet seen, and wild bulls and
+other animals roamed in vast herds over the flowery meadows.<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a></p>
+
+<p>For more than 200 miles Marquette and his companions continued their
+course through verdant and majestic solitudes, where no sign of human
+life appeared. At length the foot-prints of men rejoiced their sight,
+and, by following up the track, they arrived at a cluster of inhabited
+villages, where they were kindly and hospitably received. Their hosts
+called themselves Illinois, which means "men" in the native tongue, and
+is designed to express their supposed superiority over their neighbors.
+Marquette considered them the most civilized of the native American
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>Neither fear for the future nor the enjoyment of present comfort could
+damp the ardor of the French adventurers; they soon again launched their
+little canoes on the Father of Waters, and followed the course of the
+stream. They passed a number of bold rocks that rose straight up from
+the water's edge; on one of these, strange monsters were curiously
+painted in brilliant colors. Soon after they came to the place where the
+great Missouri pours its turbid and noisy flood into the Mississippi;
+and next they reached a lofty range of cliffs, that stretched nearly
+across from bank to bank, breasting the mighty stream. With great
+difficulty and danger they guided their little canoes through these
+turbulent waters. They passed the entrance of the Ohio,<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a> and were
+again astonished at the vast size of the tributaries which fed the flood
+of the mysterious river. The inhabitants of the villages on the banks
+accepted the calumet of peace, and held friendly intercourse with the
+adventurers; and although, after passing the mouth of the Arkansas
+River, a proposition was made in the council of one tribe to slay and
+rob them, the chief indignantly overruled the cruel suggestion, and
+presented them with the sacred pipe.</p>
+
+<p>At the village where they were threatened with this great danger they
+were inaccurately informed that the sea was only distant five days'
+voyage. From this the travelers concluded that the waters of the
+Mississippi poured into the Gulf of Mexico, and not, as they had fondly
+hoped, into the Pacific Ocean. Fearing, therefore, that by venturing
+further they might fall into the hands of the Spaniards, and lose all
+the fruits of their toils and dangers, they determined to re-ascend the
+stream and return to Canada. After a long and dreary voyage, they
+reached Chicago, on Lake Michigan, where the adventurers separated.
+Father Marquette remained among the friendly Miamis, and Jolyet hastened
+to Quebec to announce their discoveries. Unfortunately, their
+enlightened patron, M. Talon, had already departed for France.</p>
+
+<p>There chanced, however, to be at Quebec at that time a young Frenchman,
+of some birth and fortune, named Robert Cavalier, sieur de la Salle,
+ambitious, brave, and energetic. He had emigrated to America with a hope
+of gaining fame and wealth in the untrodden paths of a new world. The
+first project that occupied his active mind was the discovery of a route
+to China<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> and Japan, by the unexplored regions of the west of
+Canada. The information brought by Jolyet to Quebec excited his sanguine
+expectations. Impressed with the strange idea that the Missouri would
+lead to the Northern Ocean, he determined to explore its course, and
+having gained the sanction of the governor, sailed for France to seek
+the means of fitting out an expedition. In this he succeeded by the
+favor of the Prince of Conti. The Chevalier de Tonti, a brave officer,
+who had lost an arm in the Sicilian wars, was associated with him in the
+enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of July, 1678, La Salle and Tonti embarked at Rochelle with
+thirty men, and in two months arrived at Quebec. They took Father
+Hennepin with them, and hastened on to the great lakes,<a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> where they
+spent two years in raising forts and building vessels of forty or fifty
+tons burden, and carrying on the fur trade with the natives. The party
+then pushed forward to the extremity of Michigan. Their friendly
+relations with the Indians were here interrupted by a party of the
+Outagamis having robbed them of a coat. The French held a council to
+devise means of deterring the savages from such depredations, and it was
+somewhat hastily determined to demand restitution of the coat under the
+threat of putting the offending chief to death. The Outagamis, having
+divided the stolen garment into a number of small pieces for general
+distribution, found it impossible to comply with this requisition, and
+thinking that no resource remained, presented themselves to the French
+in battle array. However, through the wise mediation of Father Hennepin,
+the quarrel was arranged, and a good understanding restored.</p>
+
+<p>La Salle now set out with a party of forty-four men and three Recollets,
+to pursue his cherished object of exploring the course of the
+Mississippi. He descended the stream of the Illinois, and was charmed
+with the beauty and fertility of the banks: large villages rose on each
+side; the first, containing 500 wooden huts, they found deserted, but in
+descending the river they suddenly perceived that two large bodies of
+Indians were assembled on opposite banks, in order of battle. After a
+parley, however, the Indians presented the calumet of peace, and
+entertained the strangers at a great feast.</p>
+
+<p>The discontents among his own followers proved far more dangerous to La
+Salle than the caprice or hostility of the savages. They murmured at
+being led into unknown regions, among barbarous tribes, to gratify the
+ambition of an adventurer, and determined to destroy him and return to
+France. They were base enough to tell the natives that La Salle was a
+spy of the Iroquois, their ancient enemies, and it required all his
+genius and courage to remove this idea from the minds of the ignorant
+savages. Failing in this scheme, they endeavored to poison him and all
+his faithful adherents at a Christmas dinner; by the use of timely
+remedies, however, the intended victims recovered, and the villains,
+having fled, were in vain pursued over the trackless deserts.</p>
+
+<p>La Salle was obliged to return to the forts for aid, on account of the
+desertion of so many of his followers; but he sent Father Hennepin, with
+Dacan and three other Frenchmen, to explore the sources of the
+Mississippi, and left Tonti in the command of a small fort, erected on
+the Illinois, which he, however, was soon obliged to desert, in
+consequence of the hostility of the Iroquois. La Salle collected twenty
+men, with the necessary arms and provisions, and, unshaken by
+accumulated disasters, determined at once to make his way to the Gulf of
+Mexico down the course of the Mississippi. He passed the entrance of the
+swollen and muddy Missouri, and the beautiful Ohio, and, still
+descending, traversed countries where dwelt the numerous and friendly
+Chickasaw and Arkansaw Indians. Next he came to the Taencas, a people
+far advanced beyond their savage neighbors in civilization, and obeying
+an absolute prince. Farther on, the Natchez received him with
+hospitality; but the Quinipissas, who inhabited the shores more to the
+south, assailed him with showers of arrows. He wisely pursued his
+important journey without seeking to avenge the insult. Tangibao, still
+lower down the stream, had just been desolated by one of the terrible
+irruptions of savage war: the bodies of the dead lay piled in heaps
+among the ruins of their former habitations. For leagues beyond, the
+channel began to widen, and at length became so vast that one shore was
+no longer visible from the other. The water was now brackish, and
+beautiful sea-shells were seen strewn along the shore. They had reached
+the mouth of the Mississippi, the Father of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>La Salle celebrated the successful end of his adventurous voyage with
+great rejoicings. Te Deum was sung, a cross was suspended from the top
+of a lofty tree, and a shield, bearing the arms of France, was erected
+close at hand. They attempted to determine the latitude by an
+observation of the sun, but the result was altogether erroneous.</p>
+
+<p>The country immediately around the outlet of this vast stream was
+desolate and uninteresting. Far as the eye could teach, swampy flats and
+inundated morasses filled the dreary prospect. Under the ardent rays of
+the tropical sun, noisome vapors exhaled from the rank soil and
+sluggish waters, poisoning the breezes from the southern seas, and
+corrupting them into the breath of pestilence. Masses of floating trees,
+whose large branches were scathed by months of alternate immersion and
+exposure, during hundreds of leagues of travel, choked up many of the
+numerous outlets of the river, and, cemented together by the alluvial
+deposits of the muddy stream, gradually became fixed and solid, throwing
+up a rank vegetation.<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> Above this dreary delta, however, the country
+was rich and beautiful, and graceful undulations succeeded to the
+monotonous level of the lower banks.</p>
+
+<p>After a brief repose, La Salle proceeded to re-ascend the river toward
+Canada, eager to carry the important tidings of his success to France.
+His journey was beset with difficulties and dangers. The course of the
+stream, though not rapid, perpetually impeded his progress. Provisions
+began to fail, and dire necessity drove him to perilous measures for
+obtaining supplies. Having met with four women of the hostile tribe of
+the Quinipissas, he treated them with great kindness, loading them with
+such gifts as might most win their favor. The chief of the savages then
+came forward and invited the French to his village, offering them the
+much-needed refreshments which they sought. But a cruel treachery lurked
+under this friendly seeming, and the adventurers were only saved from
+destruction by the careful vigilance of their leader. At daybreak the
+following morning, the Indians made a sudden attack upon their guests;
+the French, however, being thoroughly on the alert, repulsed the
+assailants, and slew several of the bravest warriors. Infuriated by the
+treachery of the savages, the victors followed the customs of Indian
+warfare, and scalped those of the enemy who fell into their power.</p>
+
+<p>As they ascended the river they were again endangered by the secret
+hostility of the Natchez,<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> from the effects of which a constant
+front of preparation alone preserved them. After several months of
+unceasing toil and watchfulness, with many strange and romantic
+adventures, but no other serious obstruction, the hardy travelers at
+length joyfully beheld the headland of Quebec.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after his arrival, La Salle hastened to France to announce
+his great discovery,<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> and reap the distinction justly due to his
+eminent merits. [1682.] He was received with every honor, and all his
+plans and suggestions were approved by the court. Under his direction
+and command, an expedition was fitted out, consisting of four vessels
+and 280 men, for the purpose of forming a settlement at the mouth of the
+Mississippi, and thence establishing a regular communication with
+Canada, along the course of the Great River. At the same time, he
+received the commission of governor over the whole of the vast country
+extending between the lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The little squadron
+sailed from La Rochelle on the 24th of July, 1684, along with the West
+India fleet, and having touched at St. Domingo and Cuba by the way,
+arrived in safety on the coast of Florida.</p>
+
+<p>La Salle was involved in great perplexity by ignorance of the longitude
+of the river's mouth. Not having descended so far in his former
+expedition as to be able to judge of its appearance from the sea, he
+passed the main entrance of the Mississippi unawares, and proceeded 200
+miles to the westward, where he found himself in a bay, since called St.
+Bernard's. Attracted by the favorable appearance of the surrounding
+country, La Salle here founded the fort which was to be the basis of his
+future establishment. But difficulties and misfortunes crowded upon him;
+the vessel containing his stores and utensils was sunk through the
+negligence or treachery of her commander, and a great portion of the
+cargo lost or seized by the Indians. The violent measures he adopted to
+compel restitution of the plundered goods kindled a deep resentment in
+the minds of this fierce and haughty tribe, the Clamcoets by name. They
+made a sudden midnight attack upon the settlement, slew two of the
+French, and wounded several, and whenever opportunity offered afterward,
+repeated their assaults. The tropical climate, however, proved a far
+deadlier foe than even the savage, and at length the spirit of the
+colonists gave way under accumulated difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Tonti, who had descended the Mississippi to join La Salle,
+sought him in vain at the mouth of the river, and along the coast for
+twenty leagues at either side. Having found no trace or tidings of the
+expedition, he relinquished the search in despair, and sailed upward
+again to the Canadian Lakes.</p>
+
+<p>La Salle bore up with noble courage and energy against the difficulties
+that surrounded him. His subordinates thwarted him on every occasion,
+and at length broke out into a violent mutiny, which he, however,
+vigorously suppressed. But when he discovered that the settlement
+founded and sustained by his unceasing labors was not, as he had fondly
+supposed, at the mouth of the Great River, he experienced the bitterest
+disappointment. The surrounding country, though fertile, offered no
+brilliant prospect of sudden wealth or hopes of future commerce. He
+determined, therefore, once again to explore the vast streams of the
+Mississippi and Illinois, and to endeavor to gain a greater knowledge of
+the interior of the continent. He took with him on this expedition his
+nephew, a worthy but impetuous youth, named Moranger, and about twenty
+men. This young man's haughty spirit excited a savage thirst of
+vengeance in the minds of his uncle's lawless followers; they watched
+their opportunity, and in a remote and dreary solitude in the depths of
+the new continent, La Salle and Moranger were both slain by their
+murderous hands. Thus sadly perished, in a nameless wilderness, one of
+the most daring and gifted among those wonderful men to whom the
+discovery of the New World had opened a field of glory. His temper was,
+doubtless, at times, violent and overbearing,<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> but he was dearly
+loved by his friends, respected by his dependents, and fondly revered by
+those among the Indians who came within his influence. His greatest
+difficulties arose from those who were placed under his command,
+abandoned and ungovernable men, the very refuse of society, and amenable
+to no laws, human or divine.</p>
+
+<p>It has been already mentioned that La Salle had sent Dacan and Father
+Hennepin to explore the Mississippi, on his first return from the
+Illinois to Lake Michigan. They descended that great river almost to the
+sea; but their followers, becoming alarmed at the idea of falling into
+the hands of the Spaniards, compelled them to return without having
+perfected their expedition. They re-ascended the stream, and passed the
+mouths of the Illinois and Wisconsin, and even reached beyond those
+magnificent falls to which the adventurous priest has given the name of
+St. Anthony. Continual danger threatened these travelers, from the
+caprice or hostility of the Indians; they were held for a long time in a
+cruel captivity, forced to accompany their captors through the most
+difficult countries, at a pace of almost incredible rapidity, till, with
+their feet and limbs cut and bleeding, they were well-nigh incapable of
+moving any further. After some time Hennepin was adopted by a chief as
+his son, and treated with much kindness; when winter came on, however,
+and a great scarcity of provisions arose, the Indians, being unable any
+longer to support their captives, allowed them to depart. The father and
+his companions used this liberty to continue their explorations down the
+Mississippi. After many other perils and adventures, they at length met
+the Sieur de Luth, who commanded a party sent in search of them, and
+with further instructions to form a settlement on the Great River.
+Hennepin at first turned back with the sieur, but found so many
+obstacles and difficulties that he determined for the present to return
+to Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The disasters attending the expeditions of La Salle and Hennepin for
+some time deterred others from venturing to explore the dangerous
+regions of the West, and the government totally neglected to occupy the
+splendid field which the adventure of those men had opened to French
+enterprise. It was left to the love of gain or glory, or the religious
+zeal of individuals, to continue the explorations of this savage but
+magnificent country. The Baron la Hontan was one of the first and most
+conspicuous of these dauntless travelers.<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> He had gone to Canada in
+early life with a view of retrieving the broken fortunes of his ancient
+family, and had obtained employment upon the lakes under the French
+government. While thus occupied, he became intimately acquainted with
+the life and customs of the savages, and, from his intercourse with
+them, formed the idea of penetrating into the interior of their country,
+where the white man's foot had never before trodden. His actual
+discoveries were probably not very important, and his record of them is
+confused and imperfect; but he was the first to learn the existence of
+the Rocky Mountains, and of that vast ocean which separates the western
+coast of North America from the continent of Asia.<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> "On esp&eacute;roit beaucoup de la Compagnie des Indes
+Occidentales, mais elle ne prit gu&egrave;re plus &agrave; c&oelig;ur les int&eacute;r&ecirc;ts de la
+Nouvelle France, que n'avoit fait la pr&eacute;c&eacute;dente, ainsi que M. Talon
+avoit pr&eacute;vu. Cependant comme les secours que le Canada avait re&ccedil;us les
+derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es, l'avoient mis sur un assez bon pied, il s'y conserva
+quelque tems, et il n'est pas m&ecirc;me retomb&eacute; depuis dans l'&eacute;tat de
+foiblesse et d'&eacute;puisement dont le roi venoit de le tirer."&mdash;Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 161.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> "Le peuple adoroit Frontenac &agrave; cause de sa bont&eacute;."&mdash;La
+Potherie, tom. iv., p. 110; Charlevoix, tom ii., p. 246.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> The Mississippi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> "Ce lac a port&eacute; quelque tems le nom de St. Louis, on lui
+donna ensuite celui de Frontenac, aussi bien qu'au fort de Catarocoui
+dont le Comte de Frontenac fut le fondateur, mais insensiblement le lac
+a repris son ancien nom, qui est Huron ou Iroquois, et le fort celui du
+lieu o&ugrave; il est b&acirc;ti (1721)."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 287.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> "Le P&egrave;re J. Marquette, natif de Laon en Picardie, a &eacute;t&eacute;
+un des plus illustres missionnaires du la Nouvelle France; il en a
+parcouru presque toutes les contr&eacute;es, et il y a fait plusieurs
+d&eacute;couvertes dont la derni&egrave;re est celle du Micissipi. Deux ans apr&egrave;s
+cette d&eacute;couverte, comme il alloit &agrave; Michillimackinack, il entra le 18me
+de May, 1675, dans la rivi&egrave;re dont il s'agit; il dressa son autel sur le
+terrein bas, qu'on lassia &agrave; droite en y entrant, et il y dit la messe.
+Il s'&eacute;loigna, ensuite un peu pour faire son action de graces, et pria
+les hommes qui conduisoient son canot, de le laisser seul pendant une
+demie heure. Ce tems pass&eacute;, ils all&egrave;rent le chercher, et furent tr&egrave;s
+surpris de le trouver mort, ils se souvinrent n&eacute;anmoins qu'en entrant
+dans la rivi&egrave;re, il lui &eacute;toit &eacute;chapp&eacute; de dire qu'il finiroit la son
+voyage. Aujourd'hui les sauvages n'appellent cette rivi&egrave;re autrement que
+la rivi&egrave;re de la robe noire;<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> les Fran&ccedil;ois lui ont donn&eacute; le nom du
+P&egrave;re Marquette, et ne manquent jamais de l'invoquer, quand ils se
+trouvent en quelque danger sur le Lac Michigan. Plusieurs ont assur&eacute;
+qu'ils se croyoient redevables &agrave; son intercession, d'avoir echapp&eacute; &agrave; de
+tr&egrave;s grands perils."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> "Les sauvages appellent ainsi les J&eacute;suites. Ils nomment
+les Pr&ecirc;tres, les Collets blancs, et les Recollets, les Robes grises."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> Relation de Marquette: Recueil de Thevenot, tom. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> The signification of the word Ohio is "Beautiful River."
+According to Bancroft, it was called the Wabash in La Salle's time, and
+long afterward.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> "La Chine is a fine village three French miles to the
+southeast of Montreal, but on the same side, close to the River St.
+Lawrence. Here is a church of stone, with a small steeple, and the whole
+place has a very agreeable situation. Its name is said to have had the
+following origin: As the unfortunate M. de Sales was here, who was
+afterward murdered by his own countrymen further up the country, he was
+very intent on discovering a shorter road to China by means of the River
+St. Lawrence. He talked of nothing at that time but his now short way to
+China; but, as his project of undertaking this journey in order to make
+this discovery was stopped by an accident which happened to him here,
+and he did not at that time come any nearer China, this place got its
+name, as it were, by way of joke."&mdash;Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p.
+699.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> See Appendix. No. LXIV. (vol. II.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> "This is the site of New Orleans. New Orleans, holding,
+from its position, the command of all the immense navigable
+river-courses of interior America, is making the most rapid progress of
+any American city, and will doubtless one day become the greatest in
+that continent&mdash;perhaps even in the world. A formidable evil, however,
+exists in the insalubrity of the air, arising from the extensive marshes
+and inundated grounds which border the lower part of the Mississippi.
+The terrible malady that bears the name of the yellow fever, makes its
+first appearance in the early days of August, and continues till
+October. During that era New Orleans appears like a deserted city; all
+who possibly can, fly to the north or the upper country; most of the
+shops are shut; and the silence of the streets is only interrupted by
+the sound of the hearse passing through them. In one year two thousand
+died of this fever. Since the morasses have been partially cleared, its
+ravages have been less destructive; and, as this work is going on, the
+city may hope, in time, to be almost free from this terrible
+scourge."&mdash;Murray's <i>America</i>, vol. ii., p. 428.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> "Garcilasso de la Vega parle de cette nation comme d'un
+peuple puissant, et il n'y a pas six ans qu'on y comptoit quatre mille
+guerriers. Aujourd'hui les Natchez ne pourroient pas mettre sur pied
+deux mille combattans (1714)."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 177.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> "La Louisiane est le nom que M. de la Sale a donn&eacute; au
+pays qu'arrose le Mississippi audessous de la Rivi&egrave;re des Illinois et
+qu'il a conserv&eacute; jusqu'&agrave; present. C'&eacute;toit en l'honneur de Louis XIV.,
+qui regnoit alors en France."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 436.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> Charlevoix thus speaks of the selection of M. de la Salle
+by M. de Seignelay: "Il n'est point de vertu qui ne soit m&ecirc;l&eacute;e de
+quelque d&eacute;faut: c'est le sort ordinaire de l'humanit&eacute;. Ce qui met le
+comble a notre humiliation, c'est que les plus grands d&eacute;fauts
+accompagnent souvent les plus &eacute;minentes qualit&eacute;s, et que la jalousie que
+celles-ci inspirent trouve presque toujours dans ceux-l&agrave; un sp&eacute;cieux
+pr&eacute;texte pour couvrir ce que cette passion a de bas et d'injuste. C'est
+&agrave; ceux qui sont &eacute;tablis pour gouverner les hommes &agrave; se faire jour pour
+sortir de cette labyrinthe, &agrave; d&eacute;gager le vrai des t&eacute;n&eacute;bres dont la
+passion veut l'offusquer, et &agrave; conno&icirc;tre si bien ceux dont ils veulent
+se servir, qu'en leur donnent lieu de faire usage de ce qu'ils ont de
+bon, ils se pr&eacute;cautionnent sur ce qu'ils ont de mauvais."&mdash;Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> <i>M&eacute;moires de l'Am&eacute;rique Septentrionale par M. le Baron de
+la Hontan</i>: &agrave; Amsterdam, 1705. For the character of these memoirs, see
+Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 408. They are translated in Pinkerton, vol.
+xiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> The North Pacific Ocean. The South Pacific Ocean had been
+discovered by the Spaniard Balboa in 1513.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+
+<p>An embittered disagreement between the governor general, Comte de
+Frontenac, and the intendant, M. de Cheneau, M. Talon's successor,
+rendered it necessary to recall both those officers from the colony. The
+French court attributed the greater share of blame to the governor, but
+the haughty and unbending disposition of the intendant was probably a
+principal cause of those untoward disputes. M. le F&eacute;vre de la Barre and
+M. de Meules succeeded them in their respective offices, with special
+recommendation from the king to cultivate friendly relations with each
+other, and with M. de Bl&eacute;nac, the governor general of the French
+American islands.</p>
+
+<p>New France had for many years remained in a state of great confusion,
+and had made but little progress in prosperity or population, and now
+the prospects of a disastrous war darkened the future of the colonists.
+Various causes had united to revive the hostility of the Iroquois, their
+ancient and powerful foes. Since New York had fallen into English hands,
+the savages found it more advantageous to carry their trade thither than
+to barter their furs with the privileged company of France. The falling
+off of commercial intercourse soon led to further alienation, which the
+death of an Iroquois chief by the hands of an Illinois, in the territory
+of the Ottawas, then allies of the white men, soon turned into open
+hostility. The Comte de Frontenac had failed in his attempts to
+negotiate with the savages; and on the arrival of his successor, an
+invasion of the colony was hourly expected. M. de la Barre at once
+perceived the dangerous state of affairs; he therefore summoned an
+assembly of all the leading men in the country, ecclesiastical, civil,
+and military, and demanded counsel from them in the emergency.</p>
+
+<p>The assembly was of opinion that the Iroquois aimed at the monopoly of
+all the trade of Canada, by the instigation of the English and Dutch of
+New York, who were also supposed to incite them to enmity against the
+French, and that, consequently, those nations should be held hostile. It
+was also believed that the savages had only endeavored to gain time by
+their negotiations, while they either destroyed the tribes friendly to
+the colonists, or seduced them from their alliance. With this view they
+had already assailed the Illinois, and it was therefore the duty of the
+French to save that nation from this attack, whatever might be the cost
+or danger of the enterprise. For that purpose the colony could only
+furnish 1000 men; and to procure even this number, it was necessary that
+the labors of husbandry should be suspended. Re-enforcements of troops
+and a supply of laborers were therefore urgently required for the very
+existence of the settlements; and an earnest appeal for such assistance
+was forwarded to the king, as the result of the deliberations of the
+assembly. This application was immediately answered by the dispatch of
+200 soldiers to New France, and by a remonstrance addressed to the King
+of Great Britain, who instructed Colonel Dongan, the English governor of
+New York, to encourage more friendly relations with his French
+neighbors.</p>
+
+<p>While M. de la Barre pushed on his preparations for war against the
+Iroquois, he still kept up the hope of treating with them for peace in
+such a manner as not to forfeit the dignity of his position. In the mean
+time, however, he received intimation that a formidable expedition of
+1500 warriors had assembled, ostensibly to wage war with the Illinois,
+but in reality for the destruction of the Miamis and Ottawas, both
+allies of the French. The governor promptly dispatched an envoy, who
+arrived at the village where the Iroquois had mustered on the evening of
+the day appointed for the beginning of their campaign. The envoy was
+received with dignity and kindness; and he succeeded in obtaining a
+promise that the expedition should be deferred, and that they would send
+deputies to Montreal to negotiate with the French chief. But the wily
+savages had promised only to deceive; and in the month of May following,
+the governor received intelligence that 700 of these fierce warriors
+were on their march to attack his Miami and Ottawa allies, while
+another force was prepared to assail the settlements of the French
+themselves. He attributed these dangerous hostilities to the instigation
+of the English.</p>
+
+<p>The governor made urgent representations to the minister at home as to
+the necessity of crushing two of the Iroquois tribes, the most hostile
+and the most powerful. For this purpose, he demanded that a
+re-enforcement of 400 men should be sent to him from France as soon as
+possible, and that an order should be obtained from the Duke of York, to
+whom New York then belonged, to prevent the English from interfering
+with or thwarting the expedition.</p>
+
+<p>The Iroquois found the free trade with the English and Dutch more
+advantageous than that with the French, which was paralyzed by an
+injudicious monopoly; but they were still unwilling to come to an open
+rupture with their powerful neighbors. They therefore sent deputies to
+Montreal to make great but vague professions of attachment and good
+will. For many reasons, De la Barre placed but little confidence in
+these addresses: their object was obviously to gain time, and to throw
+the French off their guard. He, however, received the deputies with
+great distinction, and sent them back enriched with presents. But a few
+months after this, however, a small detachment of Frenchmen was assailed
+by the Iroquois, and plundered of merchandise which they were bearing to
+traffic with the Illinois.</p>
+
+<p>After this flagrant outrage, nothing remained for M. de la Barre but
+war. He had received intelligence that the Iroquois were making great
+preparations for an onslaught upon the French settlements, and that they
+had sent embassadors to the Indians of the south for the purpose of
+insuring peace in that quarter, while they threw all their power into
+the struggle with the hated pale faces. The governor promptly determined
+to adopt the bolder but safer course of striking the first blow, and
+making the cantons of his savage enemies the field of battle. As yet,
+few and small were the aids he had received from France, and a
+considerable time must elapse ere the further supplies he anticipated
+could arrive: he was, therefore, unwillingly compelled to avail himself
+of the assistance of his Indian allies. The native tribes dwelling
+around the shores of Lake Michigan entertained a deep and ancient
+jealousy of the powerful confederacy of the Iroquois or Five Nations,
+who aspired to universal dominion over the Northern Continent; they,
+therefore, held themselves equally interested with the French in the
+destruction of those formidable warriors. M. de la Durantaye, who
+commanded the fort on the far-distant shores of Lake Michigan, announced
+to his Indian neighbors that his countrymen were about to march against
+the Iroquois, and requested that all the native warriors friendly to the
+white men should meet them in the middle of August at Niagara. He was
+not, however, very successful in making levies, and with difficulty led
+500 warriors to the place of meeting, where, to his dismay, he found
+that the French had not arrived: his followers were not easily
+reconciled to this disappointment.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time, M. de la Barre had, on the 9th of July, 1683, marched
+from Quebec to Montreal, where he appointed the troops to assemble for
+the expedition. No precautions to insure success were neglected. He
+dispatched a message to the English governor of New York to invite him
+to join in the attack, or, at least, to secure his neutrality. He also
+sent belts and presents to three of the Iroquois tribes, to induce them
+to refrain from joining in the quarrel of those among their confederates
+who alone had injured him and his nation. He arrived at Montreal on the
+21st, with 700 Canadians, 130 soldiers, and 200 Indians: his force was
+organized in three divisions. After a brief stay he continued his march
+westward.</p>
+
+<p>The governor had not proceeded far when he received intelligence that
+the other Iroquois tribes had obliged the Tsonnonthouans, his especial
+enemies, to accept of their mediation with the French, and that they
+demanded the Sieur le Moyne, in whom they placed much confidence, to
+conduct the negotiation. At the same time, he learned that the tribe he
+proposed to assail had put all their provisions into a place of
+security, and were prepared for a protracted and harassing resistance.
+His appeals both to the remaining Iroquois tribes and to the English had
+also failed, for the former would assuredly make common cause against
+him in case of his refusing their mediation, and the latter had actually
+offered to aid his enemies with 400 horse, and a like force of infantry.
+Influenced by these untoward circumstances, he dispatched M. le Moyne to
+treat, and agreed to await the Iroquois deputies on the shores of Lake
+Ontario. In the mean time, M. de la Barre and his army underwent great
+privations from the scarcity and bad quality of their provisions; they
+could with difficulty hold their ground till the arrival of the savages,
+and such was their extremity that the name of the Bay of Famine was
+given to the scene of their sufferings.</p>
+
+<p>The savage deputies met the French chief with great dignity, and, well
+aware of the advantage given them by the starvation and sickness of the
+white men, carried their negotiations with a high hand. They guaranteed
+that the Tsonnonthouans should make reparation, for the injuries
+inflicted on the French, but at the same time insisted that the governor
+and his army should retire the very next day. With this ignoble
+stipulation M. de la Barre was fain to agree. On his return to Quebec,
+he found, to his chagrin, that considerable re-enforcements had just
+arrived from France, which would have enabled him to dictate instead of
+submitting to dictation. The new detachment was commanded by MM.
+Monterlier and Desnos, captains of marine, who were commissioned by the
+king to proceed to the most advanced and important posts, and to act
+independently of the governor's authority. They were further instructed
+to capture as many of the Iroquois as possible, and to send them to
+France to labor in the galleys. In this same year the Chevalier de
+Calli&egrave;res, an officer of great merit, was sent from France to assume the
+duties of governor of the Montreal district, as successor to M. Perrot,
+who had embroiled himself with the members of the powerful Order of St.
+Sulpicius.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1685, the Marquis de D&eacute;nonville arrived at Quebec as
+governor general in succession to M. de la Barre, whose advanced age and
+failing health unfitted him for the arduous duties of the office. The
+new governor was selected by the king for his known valor and prudence;
+a re-enforcement of troops was placed at his disposal, and it was
+determined to spare no effort to establish the colony in security and
+peace. D&eacute;nonville lost not a moment in proceeding to the advanced posts
+on the lakes, and, at the same time, he devoted himself to a diligent
+study of the affairs of Canada and the character of the Indians. His
+keen perception promptly discovered the impossibility of the Iroquois
+being reconciled and assimilated to the French, and he at once saw the
+necessity of extirpating, or at least thoroughly humbling, these haughty
+savages. But beyond the present dangers and difficulties of Indian
+hostility, this clear-sighted politician discerned the far more
+formidable evils that threatened the power of his country from the
+advancing encroachments of the hardy traders and fearless adventurers of
+the English colonies. He urged upon the king the advantage of building
+and garrisoning a fort at Niagara to exclude the British from the
+traffic of the lakes, and interrupt their communications with the
+Iroquois, and also to check the desertion of the French, who usually
+escaped by that route, and transferred the benefits of their experience
+and knowledge of the country to the rival colonies. The Northwest
+Company of merchants at Quebec earnestly desired this establishment, and
+engaged to pay an annual rent of 30,000 livres to the crown for the
+privilege of exclusive trade at the proposed station.</p>
+
+<p>The suspicions of the Marquis de D&eacute;nonville as to English encroachments
+were soon confirmed. He received a letter from the governor of New York,
+dated 29th of May, 1686, demanding explanations of the preparations
+which were being made against the Iroquois&mdash;the subjects of England&mdash;as
+any attack upon them would be a breach of the peace then existing
+between England and France. The British governor also expressed surprise
+that the French should contemplate erecting a fort at Niagara, "because
+it should be known in Canada that all that country was a dependency of
+New York." M. de D&eacute;nonville, in reply, denied the pretensions of the
+English to sovereignty in New France, and pointed out the impropriety of
+hostile communications between inferiors, while the kings whom they
+served remained on amicable terms. He rendered, however, some sort of
+evasive explanation on the subject of his preparations against the
+Iroquois.</p>
+
+<p>The following year the governor general received from the court the
+notification of a most important agreement between England and France,
+that, "notwithstanding any rupture between the mother countries, the
+colonies on the American continent should remain at peace."
+Unfortunately, however, the force of national prejudice, and the
+clashing of mutual interests, rendered this wise and enlightened
+provision totally fruitless.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1687, M. de D&eacute;nonville marched toward Lake Ontario with
+a force of 2000 French and 600 Indians, having already received all the
+supplies and re-enforcements which he had expected from France. His
+first act of aggression was one that no casuistry can excuse, no
+necessity justify&mdash;one alike dishonorable and impolitic. He employed two
+missionaries, men of influence among the savages, to induce the
+principal Iroquois chiefs to meet him at the fort of Cataracouy, under
+various pretenses; he there treacherously seized the unsuspecting
+savages, and instantly dispatched them to Quebec, with orders that they
+should be forwarded to France to labor in the galleys. The missionaries
+who had been instrumental in bringing the native chiefs into this
+unworthy snare were altogether innocent of participation in the outrage,
+never for a moment doubting the honorable intentions of their countrymen
+toward the Indian deputies. One, who dwelt among the Onneyouths, was
+immediately seized by the exasperated tribe, and condemned to expiate
+the treachery of his nation, and his own supposed guilt, in the flames.
+He was, however, saved at the last moment by the intervention of an
+Indian matron, who adopted him as her son. The other&mdash;Lamberville by
+name&mdash;was held in great esteem among the Onnontagu&eacute;s, to whose
+instruction he had devoted himself. On the first accounts of the outrage
+at Cataracouy, the ancients assembled and called the missionary before
+them. They then declared their deep indignation at the wrong which they
+had suffered; but, at the moment when their prisoner expected to feel
+the terrible effects of their wrath, a chief arose, and with a noble
+dignity addressed him:</p>
+
+<p>"Thou art now our enemy&mdash;thou and thy race. We have held counsel, and
+can not resolve to treat thee as an enemy. We know thy heart had no
+share in this treason, though thou wert its tool. We are not unjust; we
+will not punish thee, being innocent, and hating the crime as much as we
+do ourselves. But depart from among us; there are some who might seek
+thy blood; and when our young men sing the war-song, we may be no longer
+able to protect thee." The magnanimous savages then furnished him with
+guides, who were enjoined to convey him to a place of safety.</p>
+
+<p>M. de D&eacute;nonville halted for some time at Cataracouy, and sent orders to
+the commanders of the distant western posts to meet him on the 10th of
+July at the River Des Sables, to the eastward of the country of the
+Tsonnonthouans, against whom they were first to act. The governor
+marched upon this point with his army, and, by an accident of favorable
+presage, he and the other detachments arrived at the same time. They
+immediately constructed an intrenchment, defended by palisades, in a
+commanding situation over the river, where their stores and provisions
+were safely deposited. M. d'Orvilliers, with a force of 400 men, was
+left for the protection of this d&eacute;p&ocirc;t, and to insure the rear of the
+advancing army.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th the French pushed into the hostile country, and passed two
+deep and dangerous defiles without opposition, but at a third they were
+suddenly assailed by 800 of the Iroquois, who, after the first volley,
+dispatched 200 of their number to outflank the invaders, while they
+continued the front attack with persevering courage. The French were at
+first thrown into some confusion by this fierce and unexpected
+onslaught; but the allied savages, accustomed to the forest warfare,
+boldly held their ground, and effectually covered the rallying of the
+troops. The Iroquois, having failed in overpowering their enemies by
+surprise, and conscious of their inferiority in numbers and arms, after
+a time broke their array and dispersed among the woods. The French lost
+five men killed and twenty wounded; the Iroquois suffered far
+more&mdash;forty-five were left dead upon the field, and sixty more disabled
+in the conflict. The Ottawas, serving under M. de D&eacute;nonville, who had
+been by no means forward in the strife, with savage ferocity mangled and
+devoured the bodies of the slain. The Hurons, and the Iroquois
+Christians following the French standard, fought with determined
+bravery.</p>
+
+<p>The army encamped in one of the four great villages of the
+Tsonnonthouans, about eight leagues from the fort at the River Des
+Sables: they found it totally deserted by the inhabitants, and left it
+in ashes. For ten days they marched through the dense forest with great
+hardship and difficulty, and met with no traces of the enemy, but they
+marked their progress with ruin: they burned about 400,000 bushels of
+corn, and destroyed a vast number of hogs. The general, fearing that his
+savage allies would desert him if he continued longer in the field, was
+then constrained to limit his enterprise. He, however, took this
+opportunity of erecting a fort at Niagara, and left the Chevalier de la
+Troye with 100 men in garrison. Unfortunately, a deadly malady soon
+after nearly destroyed the detachment, and the post was abandoned and
+dismantled. The constant and harassing enmity of the savages combined
+with the bad state of the provisions left in the fort, to render the
+disease which had broken out so fatal in its results.</p>
+
+<p>The French had erected a fort called Chambly,<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> in a strong position
+on the left bank of the important River Richelieu.<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> This little
+stronghold effectually commanded the navigation of the stream, and
+through it, the communication between Lake Champlain and the southern
+districts with the waters of the St. Lawrence. On the 13th of November,
+1687, a formidable party of the Iroquois suddenly attacked the fort; the
+little garrison made a stout defense, and the assailants abandoned the
+field with the morning light; the settlement which had grown up in the
+neighborhood was, however, ravaged by the fierce Indians, and several of
+the inhabitants carried away into captivity. The French attributed this
+unexpected invasion to the instigation of their English neighbors, and
+it would appear with reason, for, on the failure of the assault, the
+governor of New York put his nearest town into a state of defense, as if
+in expectation of reprisals.</p>
+
+<p>In this same year there fell upon Canada an evil more severe than Indian
+aggression or English hostility. Toward the end of the summer a deadly
+malady visited the colony, and carried mourning into almost every
+household. So great was the mortality, that M. de D&eacute;nonville was
+constrained to abandon, or rather defer, his project of humbling the
+pride and power of the Tsonnonthouans. He had also reason to doubt the
+faith of his Indian allies; even the Hurons of the far West, who had
+fought so stoutly by his side on the shores of Lake Ontario, were
+discovered to have been at the time in treacherous correspondence with
+the Iroquois.</p>
+
+<p>While doubt and disease paralyzed the power of the French, their
+dangerous enemies were not idle. Twelve hundred Iroquois warriors
+assembled at Lake St. Francis, within two days' march of Montreal, and
+haughtily demanded audience of the governor, which was immediately
+granted. Their orator proclaimed the power of his race and the weakness
+of the white men with all the emphasis and striking illustration of
+Indian eloquence. He offered peace on terms proposed by the governor of
+New York, but only allowed the French four days for deliberation.</p>
+
+<p>This high-handed diplomacy was backed by formidable demonstrations. The
+whole country west of the River Sorel, or Richelieu, was occupied by a
+savage host, and the distant fort of Cataracouy, on the Ontario shore,
+was with difficulty held against 800 Iroquois, who had burned the farm
+stores with flaming arrows, and slain the cattle of the settlers. The
+French bowed before the storm they could not resist, and peace was
+concluded on conditions that war should cease in the land, and all the
+allies should share in the blessings of repose. M. de D&eacute;nonville further
+agreed to restore the Indian chiefs who had been so treacherously torn
+from their native wilds, and sent to labor in the galleys of France.</p>
+
+<p>But, in the mean time, some of the savage allies, disdaining the
+peaceful conclusions of negotiation, waged a merciless war. The
+Abenaquis, always the fiercest foes of the Iroquois confederacy, took
+the field while yet the conferences pended, and fell suddenly upon the
+enemy by the banks of the Sorel. They left death behind them on their
+path, and pushed on even into the English settlements, where they slew
+some of the defenseless inhabitants, and carried away their scalps in
+savage triumph. On the other hand, the Iroquois of the Rapids of St.
+Louis and the Mountain, made a deadly raid into the invaders'
+territories.</p>
+
+<p>The Hurons of Michillimakinack were those among the French allies who
+most dreaded the conclusion of a treaty of which they feared to become
+the first victims. Through the extraordinary machinations and cunning of
+their chief, Kondiaronk, or the Rat, they continued to reawaken the
+suspicions of the Iroquois against the French, and again strove to stir
+up the desolating flames of war.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of these renewed difficulties M. de D&eacute;nonville was recalled
+to Europe, his valuable services being required in the armies of his
+king. In colonial administration he had shown an ardent zeal for the
+interests of the sovereign and the country under his charge, and his
+plans for the improvement of Canada were just, sound, and comprehensive,
+but he was deficient in tenacity of purpose, and not fortunate or
+judicious in the selection of those who enjoyed his confidence. His
+otherwise honorable and useful career can, however, never be cleansed
+from the fatal blot of one dark act of treachery. From the day when that
+evil deed was done, the rude but magnanimous Indian scorned as a broken
+reed the sullied honor of the French.</p>
+
+<p>The Comte de Frontenac was once again selected for the important post of
+governor of New France, and arrived at Montreal on the 27th of October,
+1689, where his predecessor handed over the arduous duties of office.
+The state of New France was such as to demand the highest qualities in
+the man to whose rule it was intrusted: trade languished, agriculture
+was interrupted by savage aggression, and the very existence of the
+colony threatened by the growing power of the formidable Iroquois
+confederacy. At the same time, a plan for the reduction of New York was
+being organized in Paris, which would inevitably call for the
+co-operation of the colonial subjects of France, and, in the event of
+failure, leave them to bear the brunt of the dangerous quarrel. M. de
+Frontenac was happily selected in this time of need.</p>
+
+<p>Impelled by the treacherous machinations of the Huron chief Kondiaronk,
+the Iroquois approached the colony in very different guise from that
+expected. While M. de D&eacute;nonville remained in daily hopes of receiving a
+deputation of ten or twelve of the Indians to treat for peace, he was
+astounded by the sudden descent of 1200 warriors upon the island of
+Montreal.<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> Terrible indeed was the devastation they caused; blood
+and ashes marked their path to within three leagues of the territory,
+where they blockaded two forts, after having burned the neighboring
+houses. A small force of 100 soldiers and 50 Indians, imprudently sent
+against these fierce marauders, was instantly overpowered, and taken or
+destroyed. When the work of destruction was completed, the Iroquois
+re-embarked for the Western lakes, their canoes laden with plunder, and
+200 prisoners in their train.</p>
+
+<p>This disastrous incursion filled the French with panic and astonishment.
+They at once blew up the forts of Cataracouy and Niagara, burned two
+vessels built under their protection, and altogether abandoned the
+shores of the Western lakes. The year was not, however, equally
+unfortunate in all parts of New France. While the island of Montreal was
+swept by the storm of savage invasion, M. d'Iberville supported in the
+north the cause of his country, and the warlike Abenaquis avenged upon
+the English settlers the evils which their Iroquois allies had inflicted
+upon, Canada. Upon his arrival, the Comte de Frontenac determined to
+restore the falling fortunes of his people by means of his great
+personal influence among the triumphant Iroquois, backed as he was with
+the presence of those prisoners who had been so treacherously seized by
+his predecessor, but whose entire confidence and good-will he had
+acquired while bringing them back to their native country. A chief named
+Oureouhar&eacute;, the most distinguished among the captives, undertook to
+negotiate with his countrymen&mdash;a duty which was performed more honestly
+than efficiently: an exchange of prisoners took place, but nothing
+further was accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>The Northern Indians, allies of the French, had long desired to share
+the benefits of English commerce with the Iroquois; it had, however,
+been the policy of the Canadian government to keep these red tribes
+continually at war, with the view of interrupting the communications of
+traffic through their country. But the allied savages soon began to see
+the necessity of making peace with the Iroquois, in order to establish
+relations with the traders of the British settlements. With this view
+the Ottawas sent embassadors to the cantons of the Five Nations,
+restoring the prisoners captured in the war, and proffering peace and
+amity. The agents and missionaries of the French strongly remonstrated
+against these proceedings, but in vain; their former allies replied by
+insulting declarations of independence, and contemptuous scoffs at their
+want of power and courage to meet the enemy in the field; their
+commerce, too, was spoken of as unjust, injurious, and inferior to that
+of the English, of which they had endeavored to deprive those whom they
+could not protect in war; the French were also accused of endeavoring to
+shelter themselves under a dishonorable treaty, regardless of the safety
+and interests of the Indians who had fought and bled in their cause.</p>
+
+<p>When M. de Frontenac became aware of this formidable disaffection, he
+boldly determined to strike a blow at the English power that should
+restore the military character of France among the savages, and deprive
+the recreant Indians of their expected succor. He therefore organized
+three expeditions to invade the British settlements by different
+avenues. The first, consisting of 110 men, marched from Montreal,
+destined for New York, but only resulted in the surprise and destruction
+of the village of Corlar,<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> or Schenectady, and the massacre and
+capture of some of the inhabitants. They retreated at noon the following
+day, bearing with them forty prisoners; after much suffering from want
+of provisions, they were obliged to separate into small parties, when
+they were attacked by their exasperated enemies, and sustained some
+loss. Many would have perished from hunger in this retreat, but that
+they found a resource in living upon horse flesh: their cavalry, from
+fifty, was reduced to six by the time they regained the shelter of
+Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>The second invading division was mustered at Three Rivers, and only
+numbered fifty men, half being Indians. They reached an English
+settlement, called Sementels (Salmon Falls), after a long and difficult
+march and succeeded in surprising and destroying the village, with most
+of its defenders. In their retreat they were sharply attacked, but
+succeeded in escaping, through the aid of an advantageous post, which
+enabled them to check the pursuers at a narrow bridge. They soon after
+fell in with M. de Mamerval, governor of Acadia, with the third party,
+and, thus re-enforced, assailed the fortified village of Kaskeb&eacute; upon
+the sea-coast, which surrendered after a heavy loss of the defenders.</p>
+
+<p>To regain the confidence of his Indian allies, M. de Frontenac saw the
+necessity of rendering them independent of English commerce, and safe
+from the hostility of the Iroquois. To accomplish these objects, he
+dispatched a large convoy to the west, escorted by 143 men, and bearing
+presents to the savage chiefs. On the way they encountered a party of
+the Five Nations, and defeated them after a sanguinary engagement.</p>
+
+<p>All these vigorous measures produced a marked effect: the convoy arrived
+at Michillimackinack at the time when the embassadors of the French
+allies were on the point of departing to conclude a treaty with the
+Iroquois. When, however, the strength of the detachment was seen, and
+the valuable presents and merchandise were displayed, the French
+interests again revived with the politic savages, and they hastened to
+give proofs of their renewed attachment: 110 canoes, bearing furs to the
+value of 100,000 crowns, and manned by 300 Indians, were dispatched soon
+after for Montreal, to be laid before the governor general. He dismissed
+the escort with presents, and exhorted them and their nation to join
+with him in humbling their mutual and deadly foe. They departed well
+pleased with their reception, and renewed professions of friendship for
+the French.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time the terrible war-cry of the Iroquois was never silent
+in the Canadian settlements. Bands of these fierce and merciless
+warriors suddenly emerged from the dense forests when least expected,
+and burst upon isolated posts and villages with more or less success,
+but always with great loss of life to the assailants and assailed,<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a>
+and with great destruction of the fruits of industry. These disastrous
+events caused much disquietude to the governor. He called to his
+counsels the Iroquois chief Oureouhar&eacute;, who still remained attached to
+him by the closest bonds of friendship and esteem, and complained of the
+bitter hostility of his nation: "You must either not be a true friend,"
+said M. de Frontenac, "or you must be powerless in your nation, to
+permit them to wage this bitter war against me." The generous chief was
+mortified at this discourse, and answered that his remaining with the
+French, instead of returning to his own hunting grounds, where he was
+ardently beloved, was a proof of his fidelity, and that he was ready to
+do any thing that might be required of him, but that it would certainly
+need time and the course of circumstances to allay the fury of his
+people against those who had treacherously injured them. The governor
+could not but acknowledge the justice of Oureouhar&eacute;'s reply; he gave him
+new marks of esteem and friendship, and determined more than before to
+confide in this wise and important ally.<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></p>
+
+<p>But now the greatest danger that had ever yet menaced the power of
+France upon the American continent hung over the Canadian shores. The
+men of New England were at last aroused to activity by the constant
+inroads and cruel depredations of their northern neighbors, and in
+April, 1690, dispatched a small squadron from Boston, which took
+possession of Port Royal and all the province of Acadia. In a month the
+expedition returned, with sufficient plunder to repay its cost.
+Meanwhile the British settlers deputed six commissioners to meet at New
+York in council for their defense. On the first of May, 1690, these
+deputies assembled, and promptly determined to set an expedition on foot
+for the invasion of Canada. Levies of 800 men were ordered for the
+purpose, the contingents of the several states fixed, and general rules
+appointed for the organization of their army. A fast-sailing vessel was
+dispatched to England with strong representations of the defenseless
+state of the British colonies, and with an earnest appeal for aid in the
+projected invasion of New France; they desired that ammunition and other
+warlike stores might be supplied to their militia for the attempt by
+land, and that a fleet of English frigates should be directed up the
+River St. Lawrence to co-operate with the colonial force. But at that
+time England was still too much weakened by the unhealed wounds of
+domestic strife to afford any assistance to her American children, and
+they were thrown altogether on their own resources.</p>
+
+<p>New York and New England boldly determined, unaided, to prosecute their
+original plans against Canada. General Winthrop, with 800 men, was
+marched by the way of Lake Champlain, on the shores of which he was to
+have met 500 of the Iroquois warriors; but, through some unaccountable
+jealousy, only a small portion of the politic savages came to the place
+of muster. Other disappointments also combined to paralyze the British
+force: the Indians had failed to provide more than half the number of
+canoes necessary for the transport of the troops across the lake, and
+the contractor of the army had imprudently neglected to supply
+sufficient provisions. No alternative remained for Winthrop but to fall
+back upon Albany for subsistence.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time, Major Schuyler, who had before crossed Lake Champlain
+with a smaller British force, pushed on against the French post of La
+Prairie de la Madeleine, and attacked it with spirit. He soon overcame
+the handful of Canadian militia and Indians who formed the garrison, and
+compelled them to fall back upon Chambly, a fort further to the north.
+Having met M. de Sanermes and a considerable force advancing to their
+relief, they turned and faced their pursuers. Schuyler rashly ventured
+to attack this now superior enemy; he was soon forced to retire, with
+the loss of nearly thirty men. The French, however, suffered much more
+severely in this affair, no less than thirteen officers and nearly
+seventy of their men having been killed and wounded.</p>
+
+<p>The naval expedition against Quebec was assembled in Nantasket Road,
+near Boston, and consisted of thirty-five vessels of various size, the
+largest being a 44-gun frigate. Nearly 2000 troops were embarked in this
+squadron, and the chief command was confided by the people of New
+England to their distinguished countryman, Sir William Phipps, a man of
+humble birth, whose own genius and merit had won for him honor, power,
+and universal esteem. The direction of the fleet was given to Captain
+Gregory Sugars. The necessary preparations were not completed, and the
+fleet did not get under way till the season was far advanced; contrary
+winds caused a still further delay; however, several French posts on the
+shores of Newfoundland and of the Lower St. Lawrence were captured
+without opposition, and the British force arrived at Tadoussac, on the
+Saguenay, before authentic tidings of the approaching danger had reached
+Quebec.</p>
+
+<p>When the brave old Frontenac learned from his scouts that Winthrop's
+corps had retreated, and that Canada was no longer threatened by an
+enemy from the landward side, he hastened to the post of honor at
+Quebec, while by his orders M. de Ramsey and M. de Calli&egrave;res assembled
+the hardy militia of Three Rivers and the adjoining settlements to
+re-enforce him with all possible dispatch. The governor found that Major
+Provost, who commanded at Quebec before his arrival, had made vigorous
+preparation to receive the invaders;<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> it was only necessary,
+therefore, to continue the works, and confirm the orders given by his
+worthy deputy. A party, under the command of M. de Longueuil, was sent
+down the river to observe the motions of the British, and, if possible,
+to prevent their landing. At the same time, two canoes were dispatched
+by the shallow channel north of the island of Orleans to seek for some
+ships with supplies, which were daily expected from France, and to warn
+them of the presence of the hostile fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The Comte de Frontenac continued the preparations for defense with
+unwearied industry. The regular soldiers and militia were alike
+constantly employed upon the works, till in a short time Quebec was
+tolerably secure from the chances of a sudden assault. Lines of strong
+palisades, here and there armed with small batteries, were formed round
+the crown of the lofty headland, and the gates of the city were
+barricaded with massive beams of timber and casks filled with earth. A
+number of cannon were mounted on advantageous positions, and a large
+wind-mill of solid masonry was fitted up as a cavalier. The lower town
+was protected by two batteries each of three guns, and the streets
+leading up the steep, rocky face of the height were embarrassed with
+several intrenchments and rows of "chevaux de frise." Subsequently
+during the siege two other batteries were erected a little above the
+level of the river. The commanding natural position of the stronghold,
+however, offered far more serious obstacles to the assailants than the
+hasty and imperfect fortifications.</p>
+
+<p>At daylight on the 5th of October the white sails of the British fleet
+were seen rounding the headland of Point Levi, and crowding to the
+northern shore of the river, near the village of Beauport; at about ten
+o'clock they dropped anchor, lowered their canvas, and swung round with
+the receding tide. There they remained inactive till the following
+morning. On the 6th, Sir William Phipps sent a haughty summons to the
+French chief, demanding an unconditional surrender in the name of King
+William of England, and concluding with this imperious sentence: "Your
+answer positive in an hour, returned with your own trumpet, with the
+return of mine, is required upon the peril that will ensue."</p>
+
+<p>The British officer who bore the summons was led blind-fold through the
+town, and ushered into the presence of Comte Frontenac in the
+council-room of the castle of Quebec. The bishop, the intendant, and all
+the principal officers of the government surrounded the proud old noble.
+"Read your message," said he. The Englishman read on, and when he had
+finished, laid his watch upon the table with these words: "It is now
+ten; I await your answer for one hour." The council started from their
+seats, surprised out of their dignity by a burst of sudden anger. The
+comte paused for a time ere he could restrain his rage sufficiently to
+speak, and then replied, "I do not acknowledge King William, and I well
+know that the Prince of Orange is a usurper, who has violated the most
+sacred rights of blood and religion ... who wishes to persuade the
+nation that he is the saviour of England and the defender of the faith,
+though he has violated the laws and privileges of the kingdom, and
+overturned the Church of England: this conduct, the Divine Justice to
+which Phipps appeals will one day severely punish."</p>
+
+<p>The British officer, unmoved by the storm of indignation which his
+message had aroused, desired that this fierce reply should be rendered
+to him in writing for the satisfaction of his chief. "I will answer your
+master by the mouth of my cannon," replied the angry Frenchman, "that he
+may learn that a man of my rank is not to be summoned in this manner."
+Thus ended the laconic conference.</p>
+
+<p>On the return of the messenger, Sir William Phipps called a council of
+war: it was determined at once to attack the city. At noon, on the 8th,
+1300 men were embarked in the boats of the squadron, under the command
+of Major Walley, and landed without opposition at La Canardi&egrave;re, a
+little to the east of the River St. Charles. While the main body was
+being formed on the muddy shore, four companies pushed on toward the
+town, in skirmishing order, to clear the front; they had scarcely begun
+the ascent of the sloping banks when a sharp fire was poured upon them
+by 300 of the Canadian militia, posted among the rocks and bushes on
+either flank, and in a small hamlet to the right. Some of the British
+winced under this unexpected volley, fired, and fell back; but the
+officers, with prompt resolution, gave the order to charge, and
+themselves gallantly led the way; the soldiers followed at a rapid pace,
+and speedily cleared the ground. Major Walley then advanced with his
+whole force to the St. Charles River, still, however, severely harassed
+by dropping shots from the active light troops of the French: there he
+bivouacked for the night, while the enemy retreated into the garrison.</p>
+
+<p>Toward evening of the same day the four largest vessels of Phipps's
+squadron moved boldly up the river, and anchored close against the town.
+They opened a spirited but ineffectual fire; their shot, directed
+principally against the lofty eminence of the Upper Town, fell almost
+harmless, while a vigorous cannonade from the numerous guns of the
+fortress replied with overwhelming power. When night interrupted the
+strife, the British ships had suffered severely, their rigging was torn
+by the hostile shot, and the crews had lost many of their best men. By
+the first light of morning, however, Phipps renewed the action with
+pertinacious courage, but with no better success. About noon the contest
+became evidently hopeless to the stubborn assailants; they weighed
+anchor, and, with the receding tide, floated their crippled vessels down
+the stream, beyond the reach of the enemy's fire.<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a></p>
+
+<p>The British troops, under Major Walley, although placed in battle array
+at daylight, remained inactive, through some unaccountable delay, while
+the enemy's attention was diverted by the combat with Phipps's squadron.
+At length, about noon, they moved upon the formidable stronghold along
+the left bank of the River St. Charles. Some allied savages plunged into
+the bush in front to clear the advance, a line of skirmishers protected
+either flank, and six field-pieces accompanied the march of the main
+body. After having proceeded for some time without molestation, they
+were suddenly and fiercely assailed by 200 Canadian volunteers under M.
+de Longueuil; the Indians were at once swept away, the skirmishers
+overpowered, and the British column itself was forced back by their
+gallant charge. Walley, however, drew up his reserve in some brushwood a
+little in the rear, and finally compelled the enemy to retreat. During
+this smart action, M. de Frontenac, with three battalions, placed
+himself upon the opposite bank of the river, in support of the
+volunteers, but showed no disposition to cross the stream. That night,
+the English troops, harassed, depressed, diminished in numbers, and
+scantily supplied, again bivouacked upon the marshy banks of the stream:
+a severe frost, for which they were but ill prepared, chilled the weary
+limbs of the soldiers and enhanced their sufferings.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th, Walley once more advanced upon the French positions, in the
+hope of breaching their palisades by the fire of his field pieces; but
+this attempt was altogether unsuccessful. His flanking parties fell into
+ambuscades, and were very severely handled, and his main body was
+checked and finally repulsed by a heavy fire from a fortified house on a
+commanding position which he had ventured to attack. Utterly dispirited
+by this failure, the British fell back in some confusion to the
+landing-place, yielding up in one hour what they had so hardly won. That
+night many of the soldiers strove to force their way into the boats, and
+order was with great difficulty restored; the next day they were
+harassed by a continual skirmish. Had it not been for the gallant
+conduct of "Captain March, who had a good company, and made the enemy
+give back," the confusion would probably have been irretrievable. When
+darkness put an end to the fire on both sides, the English troops
+received orders to embark in the boats, half a regiment at a time. But
+all order was soon lost; four times as many as the boats could sustain
+crowded down at once to the beach, rushed into the water, and pressed on
+board. The sailors were even forced to throw some of these
+panic-stricken men into the river, lest all should sink together. The
+noise and confusion increased every moment, despite the utmost exertions
+of the officers, and daylight had nearly revealed the dangerous posture
+of affairs before the embarkation was completed. The guns were
+abandoned, with some valuable stores and ammunition. Had the French
+displayed, in following up their advantages, any portion of the energy
+and skill which had been so conspicuous in their successful defense, the
+British detachment must infallibly have been either captured or totally
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Phipps, having failed by sea and land, resolved to withdraw
+from the disastrous conflict. After several ineffectual attempts to
+recover the guns and stores which Major Walley had been forced to
+abandon, he weighed anchor and descended the St. Lawrence to a place
+about nine miles distant from Quebec, whence he sent to the Comte de
+Frontenac to negotiate for an exchange of prisoners. Humbled and
+disappointed, damaged in fortune and reputation, the English chief
+sailed from the scene of his defeat; but misfortune had not yet ceased
+to follow him, for he left the shattered wrecks of no less than nine of
+his ships among the dangerous shoals of the St. Lawrence. The government
+of Massachusetts was dismayed at the disastrous news of which Phipps was
+himself the bearer. He arrived at Boston on the 19th of November, with
+the remains of his fleet and army, his ships damaged and weather beaten,
+and his men almost in a state of mutiny from having received no pay. In
+these straits the colonial government found it impracticable to raise
+money, and resorted to "bills of credit," the first paper money which
+had ever been issued on the American continent.</p>
+
+<p>Great indeed was the joy and triumph of the French when the British
+fleet disappeared from the beautiful basin of Quebec. With a proud heart
+the gallant old Comte de Frontenac penned the dispatch which told his
+royal master of the victory. He failed not to dwell upon the
+distinguished merit of the colonial militia, by whose loyalty and
+courage the arms of France had been crowned with success. In grateful
+memory of this brave defense, the French king caused a medal to be
+struck, bearing the inscription, "<span class="smcap">FRANCIA IN NOVO ORBE VICTRIX:
+KEBECA LIBERATA.&mdash;A.D., M.D.C.X.C</span>." In the lower town a church was
+built by the inhabitants to celebrate their deliverance from the British
+invaders, and dedicated to "N&ocirc;tre Dame de la Victoire."</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th of November, the vessels, long expected from France, arrived
+in safety at Quebec, having escaped the observation of the English fleet
+by ascending for some distance the land-locked waters of the Saguenay.
+Their presence, however, only tended to increase a scarcity then
+pressing upon the colony, the labor of the fields in the preceding
+spring having been greatly interrupted by the harassing incursions of
+the Iroquois. The troops were distributed into those parts of the
+country where supplies could most easily be obtained, and were
+cheerfully received by those who had through their valor been protected
+from the hated dominion of the stranger.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> Afterward called Sorel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> The River Iroquois, or Sorel. "Dans les premi&egrave;res ann&eacute;es
+de notre &eacute;tablissement en Canada les Iroquois, pour faire des courses
+jusque dans le centre de nos habitations, descend&egrave;rent cette rivi&egrave;re &agrave;
+laquelle pour cette raison on donna le nom de rivi&egrave;re des Iroquois. On
+l'a depuis appell&eacute; la Rivi&egrave;re de Richelieu, &agrave; cause d'un fort qui
+portoit ce nom et qu'on avoit construit &agrave; son embouchure. Ce fort ayant
+&eacute;t&eacute; ruine, M. de Sorel en fit construire un autre auquel on donna son
+nom; ce nom s'est communiqu&eacute; &agrave; la rivi&egrave;re qui le conserv&eacute; encore
+aujourd'hui, quoique le fort ne subsiste plus depuis longtemps
+(1721)."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 221.
+</p><p>
+"There is another Iroquois river marked on the French maps, falling into
+the Teakiki. It received this name from a defeat experienced by the
+Iroquois from the Illinois, a race whom they had always
+despised."&mdash;Charlevoix, vol. vi., p. 118.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> Charlevoix says of Montreal in 1721, "Elle n'est point
+fortifi&eacute;e, une simple palisade bastionn&eacute;e et assez mal entretenue fait
+toute sa d&eacute;fence, avec une assez mauvaise redoute sur un petit tertre,
+qui sert de boulevard, et va se terminer en douce pente &agrave; une petite
+place quarr&eacute;e. C'est ce qu'on rencontre d'abord en arrivant de Quebec.
+Il n'y a pas m&ecirc;me quarante ans, que la ville &eacute;toit toute ouverte, et
+tous les jours expos&eacute;e &agrave; &ecirc;tre brul&eacute;e par les sauvages ou par les
+Anglois. Ce fut le Chevalier de Calli&egrave;res, fr&egrave;re du pl&eacute;nipotentiaire de
+Riswick, qui la fit fermer, tandis qu'il en &eacute;toit gouverneur. On
+projette depuis quelques ann&eacute;es de l'environner de murailles,<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> mais
+il ne sera pas ais&eacute; d'engager les habitans &agrave; y contribuer. Ils sont
+braves et ils ne sont pas riches: on les a d&eacute;j&agrave; trouve difficiles &agrave;
+persuader de la n&eacute;cessit&eacute; de cette d&eacute;pense, et fort convaincus que leur
+valeur est plus que suffisante pour d&eacute;fendre leur ville centre quiconque
+osoit l'attaquer."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> "Ce projet est presentement execut&eacute; 1740."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> "Corlar was the name of a Dutchman of consideration, who
+founded the village of Schenectady. This man enjoyed great influence
+with the Indians, who, after his death, always addressed the governor of
+New York with the title of Corlar, as the name most expressive of
+respect with which they were acquainted."&mdash;Graham, vol. ii., p. 288.
+</p><p>
+"Au-dessus de la ville d'Orange il y a un fort avec une bourgade, qui
+confinent avec les cantons Iroquois, el qu'on appell&eacute; Corlar, d'o&ugrave; ces
+sauvages se sont acco&ucirc;tum&eacute;s &agrave; donner le nom de Corlar au gouverneur de
+New York."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 222.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> "Colden relates that, during the war between the French
+and Iroquois, two old men were cut to pieces, and put into the
+war-kettle for the Christian Indians to feast on."&mdash;Colden, vol. i., p.
+81.
+</p><p>
+"Frontenac stands conspicuous among all his nation for deeds of cruelty
+to the Indians. Nothing was more common than for his Indian prisoners to
+be given up to his Indian allies to be tormented. One of the most
+horrible of these scenes on record was perpetrated under his own eye at
+Montreal in 1691."&mdash;Colden, vol. i., p. 441, quoted by Howitt.
+</p><p>
+"Les habitans en firent br&ucirc;ler, persuad&eacute;s que le seul moyen de corriger
+ces barbares de leurs cruant&eacute;s, &eacute;toit de les trailer eux-m&ecirc;me comme ils
+traitoient les autres."&mdash;Charlevoix, <i>J&eacute;suite</i>, tom., iii., p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> "Oureouhar&eacute; mourut en vrai Chr&eacute;tien, l'an 1697. Le
+missionnaire qui l'assista pendant sa maladie, lui parlant un jour des
+opprobres et des ignominies de la passion du Sauveur des hommes; il
+entra dans un si grand mouvement d'indignation centre les Juifs, qu'il
+s'&eacute;cria, 'Que n'&eacute;tois-je l&agrave;? je les aurois bien emp&ecirc;ch&eacute; de traiter ainsi
+mon Dieu.' The similar exclamation of the Frank monarch, Clovis, is well
+known."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 332.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> "It does not appear that the fortifications of Quebec
+were of much importance till after the year 1690, when eleven stone
+redoubts which served as bastions, were erected in different parts of
+the heights of the Upper Town. The remains of several of these redoubts
+are still in existence. They were connected with each other by a strong
+line of cedar picketing, ten or twelve feet high, banked up with earth
+on the inside. This proved sufficient to resist the attacks of the
+hostile Indians for several years."&mdash;Lambert's <i>Travels</i>, vol. i., p.
+39.
+</p><p>
+"In 1720 a more extensive system of fortification was commenced, under
+the direction of M. de Lery."&mdash;Smith's <i>Canada</i>, vol. i., p. 184.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> The flag of the rear admiral was shot away, and, drifting
+toward the shore, a Canadian swam out into the stream and brought it in
+triumphantly. For many years the precious trophy was hung up in the
+parish church of Quebec.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In May, 1691, the Iroquois, to the number of about 1000 warriors, again
+poured down upon the settlements near Montreal, and marked their course
+with massacre and ruin. Other bands, less numerous, spread themselves
+over the fertile and beautiful banks of the Richelieu River, burning the
+happy homesteads and rich store-yards of the settlers. At length, the
+Sieur de la Mine, with a detachment of militia, surprised a party of
+these fierce marauders at Saint Sulpice, and slew them without mercy.
+Twelve of the Iroquois escaped into a ruinous house, where they held
+out for a time with courage and success; but the French set fire to the
+building, and they were obliged to abandon it: some were killed in their
+efforts to escape, but five fell alive into the hands of their
+exasperated enemies, and were burned, with a savage cruelty such as they
+themselves would have exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>Intelligence now arrived that a formidable force of English, Iroquois,
+and Mahingan Indians were advancing upon Montreal by the River Richelieu
+or Sorel; 800 men led by the Chevalier de Calli&egrave;res, were sent to oppose
+their progress, and encamped on the Prairie de la Madeleine,<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> by the
+borders of the St. Lawrence. Before daylight, the following morning, the
+invaders carried an important position by surprise, slaying several of
+the defenders, and finally retreated in good order and with little loss.
+On falling back into the woods, they met and destroyed a small French
+detachment, and boldly faced a more considerable force under M. de
+Valrenes. For an hour and half these formidable warriors withstood the
+fire, and repelled the charges of the Canadian troops; but at length
+they were overpowered and dispersed, not, however, before inflicting a
+loss of no less than 120 men upon their conquerors. An Englishman
+captured in the engagement declared that the invaders had purposed to
+destroy the harvest, which would have reduced the colony to the last
+extremity. The design, in a great measure, failed, and an abundant crop
+repaid the industry and successful courage of the French.</p>
+
+<p>At the first news of this alarming inroad, M. de Frontenac hastened to
+the post of danger, but tranquillity had already been restored, and the
+toils of the husbandman were again plied upon the scene of strife. At
+Montreal he found a dispatch from the governor of New England, proposing
+an exchange of prisoners and a treaty of neutrality with Canada,
+notwithstanding the war then carried on between the mother countries.
+The Canadian governor mistrusted the sincerity of the English proposals,
+and they were not productive of any result. During the remainder of the
+year the Iroquois continued to disturb the repose of the colony by
+frequent and mischievous irruptions, and many valuable lives were lost
+in repelling those implacable savages.</p>
+
+<p>The war continued with checkered results and heavy losses on both sides
+in the two following years. An invasion of the canton of the Agniers, by
+the French, was at first successful, but in the retreat the colonists
+suffered great privation, and most of their prisoners escaped, while any
+of their number that strayed or fell in the rear were immediately cut
+off by their fierce pursuers. The fur trade was also much injured by
+these long-continued hostilities, for the vigilant enmity of the
+Iroquois closed up the communication with the Western country by the
+waters of the St. Lawrence and its magnificent tributaries.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that for a long period the history of the colony is a mere
+chronicle of savage and resultless combats, and treacherous truces
+between the French and the formidable Iroquois confederacy. This almost
+perpetual warfare gave a preponderance to the military interests among
+the settlers, not a little injurious to their advance in material
+prosperity. The Comte de Frontenac had, by his vigorous administration,
+and haughty and unbending character, rendered himself alike respected
+and feared by his allies and enemies. But, while all acknowledged his
+courage and ability, his system of internal government bore upon the
+civil inhabitants with almost intolerable severity; upon them fell all
+the burden and labor of the wars; they were ruined by unprofitable toil,
+while the soldiers worked the lands for the benefit of the military
+officers whom he desired to conciliate. He also countenanced, or at
+least tolerated, the fatal trade in spirituous liquors, which his
+authority alone could have suppressed. Owing to these causes, the colony
+made but little progress, commerce languished, and depression and
+discontent fell upon the hearts of the Canadian people.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1695, M. de Frontenac re-established the fort of
+Catarocouy, despite the universal disapprobation of the settlers and the
+positive commands of the king. The object was, however, happily and ably
+accomplished by M. de Crisasy in a very short time, and without the loss
+of a man. This brave and active officer made good use of his powerful
+position. He dispatched scouts in all directions, and, by a judicious
+arrangement of his small forces, checked the hostilities of the Iroquois
+upon the Canadian settlements.</p>
+
+<p>The Sieur de R&eacute;v&eacute;rin, a man of enlightened and enterprising mind, had
+long desired to develop the resources of the Canadian waters, and in
+1697 at length succeeded in associating several merchants with himself,
+and establishing a fishery at the harbor of Mount Louis, among the
+mountains of N&ocirc;tre Dame, half way between Quebec and the extremity of
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the southern side. The situation was well
+chosen, the neighboring soil fertile, and the waters abounded in fish.
+But, where nature had provided every thing that industry could require,
+the hand of man interfered to counteract her bounty. The hostility of
+the English embarrassed the infant settlement and alarmed its founders.
+Despite of these difficulties, a plentiful harvest and successful
+fishing at first rewarded the adventurers; subsequently, however, they
+were less fortunate, and the place was for some time neglected and
+almost forgotten.<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a></p>
+
+<p>Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac, died in the seventy-eighth year of
+his age, 1698, having to the last preserved that astonishing energy of
+character which had enabled him to overcome the difficulties and dangers
+of his adventurous career. He died as he had lived, beloved by many,
+respected by all; with the unaided resources of his own strong mind, he
+had preserved the power of France on the American continent
+undiminished, if not increased, through years of famine, disaster, and
+depression. He loved patronage and power, but disdained the
+considerations of selfish interest. It must, however, be acknowledged
+that a jealous, sullen, and even vindictive temper obscured in some
+degree the luster of his success, and detracted from the dignity of his
+nature. The Chevalier de Calli&egrave;res, governor of Montreal, was appointed
+his successor, to the satisfaction of all classes in the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The new governor<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> applied himself vigorously to the difficult task
+of establishing the tranquillity of his territories. He endeavored to
+procure the alliance of all the Indian tribes within reach of French
+intercourse or commerce, but the high price charged by the Canadian
+merchants for their goods proved a constant difficulty in the way of
+negotiation, and ever afforded the savages a pretext for disaffection
+and complaint. In the midst of his useful labors, this excellent chief
+was suddenly cut off by death; his upright and judicious administration
+won the esteem of all the colonists, and the truth and honesty of his
+dealings with the native tribes gave him an influence over them which
+none of his predecessors had ever won. On the petition of the
+inhabitants of Canada, the king willingly appointed the Marquis de
+Vaudreuil to the vacant government. Soon after his accession a
+deputation of the Iroquois arrived at Quebec, and for the first time
+formally acknowledged the sovereignty of France, and claimed the
+protection of her flag.</p>
+
+<p>M. de Raudot, the intendant, introduced various important judicial and
+fiscal improvements in the affairs of the colony at this time; by his
+influence and mediation he effectually checked a litigious spirit which
+had infused itself among the Canadians to a ruinous extent, and by
+strong representations induced the king to remove the cruel restrictions
+placed upon colonial industry by the jealousy of the mother country.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1708 a council was held at Montreal to deliberate upon
+the course to be pursued in checking the intrigues of the English among
+the allied savages: the chiefs of all the Christian Indians and the
+faithful and warlike Abenaquis were present on the occasion. It was
+resolved that a blow should be struck against the British colonies, and
+a body of 400 men, including Indians, was formed for the expedition, the
+object of which was kept secret. After a march of 150 leagues across an
+almost impracticable country, the French attacked the little fort and
+village of Haverhill, garrisoned by thirty New Englandmen, and carried
+them after a sharp struggle; many of the defenders were killed or
+captured, and the settlement destroyed. The neighboring country was,
+however, soon aroused, and the assailants with difficulty effected a
+retreat, losing thirty of their men.</p>
+
+<p>Intelligence reached the French in the following year that Colonel
+Vetch, who, during a residence of several years at Quebec, had contrived
+to sound all the difficult passages of the River St. Lawrence, had
+successfully instigated the Queen of England to attempt the conquest of
+New France; that a fleet of twenty ships was being prepared for the
+expedition, and a force of 6000 regular troops were to sail under its
+protection, while 2000 English and as many Indians, under the command of
+General Nicholson, were to march upon Montreal by the way of Lake
+Champlain. M. de Vaudreuil immediately assembled a council of war to
+meet the emergency, where some bold measures were planned, but a
+misunderstanding between the governor general and one of his principal
+officers paralyzed their execution. Finally, indeed, a considerable
+force was marched to anticipate the British attack; but the dissensions
+of the leaders, the insubordination of the troops, and the want of
+correct intelligence, embarrassed their movements, and drove them to an
+inglorious retreat. On the other hand, the English, mistrusting the
+faith of their Indian allies, and suffering from a frightful mortality,
+burned their canoes and advanced posts, and retreated from the frontier.
+The perfidious Iroquois, while professing the closest friendship, had
+poisoned the stream hard by the British camp, and thus caused the fatal
+malady which decimated their unsuspecting allies. The fleet destined
+for the attack of Quebec never crossed the Atlantic: it was sent to
+Lisbon instead, to support the falling fortunes of Portugal against the
+triumphant arms of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year, another abortive expedition was undertaken by the
+English against Canada. Intelligence was brought to M. de Vaudreuil that
+ten ships of war of 50 guns each and upward had arrived from England,
+and were assembled at Boston, together with 35 transports capable of
+conveying 3000 men, while a force of provincial militia and Indians of
+New York, nearly 2000 strong, were collected in that state to assail him
+by land. The French governor immediately called together the Iroquois
+deputies, and successfully urged their neutrality in the approaching
+struggle. He also secured the somewhat doubtful allegiance of the allied
+tribes, but only accepted the proffered services of a few warriors of
+each nation, and this more as hostages than for the purpose of
+increasing his strength.</p>
+
+<p>M. de Vaudreuil then hastened from Montreal to Quebec, where he found
+that his lieutenant, M. de Boucourt, had effectually executed his orders
+to strengthen the defenses. The settlements along the coast below that
+important stronghold were sufficiently guarded to render a hostile
+debarkation difficult and dangerous. The governor immediately
+re-ascended the St. Lawrence, and formed a corps of 3000 men under M. de
+Longueiul, at Chambly, to await the approach of the English. The
+invading army, however, retreated without coming to action, having
+received information of a great disaster which had befallen their fleet.
+The British admiral had neglected the warnings of an experienced French
+navigator, named Paradis, who accompanied him, and approached too near a
+small island in the narrow and dangerous channel of the Traverse; a
+sudden squall from the southeast burst upon him at that critical moment,
+and his own, with seven other ships of the fleet, were driven on the
+rocky shore, and utterly destroyed: very few men escaped from these
+ill-fated vessels.<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></p>
+
+<p>The generosity and loyalty of the merchants of Quebec furnished the
+governor with 50,000 crowns, to strengthen the fortifications of their
+town, on the occasion of a rumor that the English were again preparing
+an invasion of Canada, in 1712, aided by the Iroquois, to whom they had
+become reconciled. At the same time, a new enemy entered the field&mdash;the
+fiercest and bravest of the native tribes; this people, called Outagamis
+or Foxes, joined in a confederacy with the Five Nations, and undertook
+to burn the French fort at Detroit,<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> and destroy the inhabitants. A
+large force of their warriors advanced upon the little stronghold, but
+Du Buisson, the able and gallant commandant, having summoned the
+neighboring allies to the assistance of his garrison of twenty
+Frenchmen, defeated the dangerous invaders after a series of conflicts
+almost unparalleled for obstinacy in Indian war, and destroyed more than
+a thousand of their best and bravest.<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></p>
+
+<p>These important successes, however, could not secure to the French an
+equality in trade with their English rivals; their narrow and
+injudicious commercial system limited the supply of European goods to be
+exchanged for the spoils of the Red Man's forests; the fur trade,
+therefore, fell almost wholly into the hands of British merchants, and
+even those native tribes in closest alliance with the Canadian governor
+obtained their scanty clothing from the looms of Yorkshire, and their
+weapons of the chase from the industrious hands of our colonists.</p>
+
+<p>By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Louis the Magnificent ceded away
+forever, with ignorant indifference, the noble province of Acadia,<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a>
+the inexhaustible fisheries of Newfoundland, and his claims to the vast
+but almost unknown regions of Hudson's Bay; his nominal sovereignty over
+the Iroquois was also thrown into the scale,<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> and thus a
+dearly-purchased peace restored comparative tranquillity to the remnant
+of his American empire.<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a></p>
+
+<p>The fierce Outagamis, more incensed than weakened by their losses at
+Detroit, made savage and murderous reprisals upon all the nations allied
+to the French. Their vindictive vigilance rendered the routes between
+the distant posts of Canada, and those southward to Louisiana,<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> for
+many years almost impracticable. At one time, indeed, when overwhelmed
+by a successful invasion, these implacable savages made a formal cession
+of their territories to M. de Vaudreuil; but, the moment opportunity
+offered, they renewed hostilities, and, although beaten in repeated
+encounters, having united the remnant of their tribe to the powerful
+Sioux and Chichachas,<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> they continued for a long time to harass the
+steps of their detested conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th of April, 1725, M. de Vaudreuil closed his useful career.
+For one-and-twenty years he had discharged his important duties with
+unswerving loyalty, ability, and vigilance. Good fortune crowned him
+with well-merited success, and he went to rest from his earthly labors
+with the blessings of a grateful people, who, under his wise rule, had
+rapidly progressed to prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>The Marquis de Beauharnois, captain of the marine, succeeded to the
+government of the now tranquil colony. His anxiety was aroused, however,
+the year after his accession, by the vigorous efforts of the English to
+extend their commerce even into the heart of the Canadian territories.
+Governor Burnet, of New York, had erected a fort and trading post at
+Oswego, with the view of monopolizing the rich traffic of the Western
+lakes. To counteract this design, M. de Beauharnois sent the Baron de
+Longueuil to negotiate with the Indians in the neighborhood of Niagara,
+for their consent to the erection of a French fort and establishment
+upon the banks of their magnificent river, where it enters the waters of
+Ontario. After many difficulties in reconciling the jealousy of the
+native tribes, the French succeeded in effecting their object. On the
+other hand, the men of New York strengthened their defenses at Oswego,
+and increased the garrison. Angry communications then passed between the
+French and English governors in peremptory demands for its abandonment
+by the one, and prompt refusals by the other. Each was well aware of the
+importance of the position: it served as a means of diverting nearly all
+the Indian trade by Albany and the channel of the Hudson into the
+British colonies, and also formed a frontier protection to those
+numerous and flourishing settlements which Anglo-Saxon industry and
+courage were rapidly forming in the wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>In the vain hope of checking the irrepressible energies of rival
+colonization, Beauharnois erected a fort at Crown Point, on Lake
+Champlain, commanding its important navigation, and also serving to hold
+in terror the settlers on the neighboring banks of the Hudson and
+Connecticut. The English remonstrated without effect against this
+occupation, and the French remained in peaceable possession of their
+establishment. The next war that broke out between the mother countries
+spread rapine and destruction over the colonial frontiers, without any
+real result beyond mutual injury and embittered hatred. From this fort
+at Crown Point, and other posts held by the Canadians, marauding parties
+poured upon the British settlements, and destroyed them with horrid
+barbarity. A party of French and Indians even penetrated to Saratoga,
+within forty miles of Albany, attacked and burned the fort, and slew or
+carried into captivity the unhappy defenders.</p>
+
+<p>For many subsequent years the history of Canada is but a chronicle of
+the accession of governors and the registration of royal edicts. In
+comparison with her southern rivals, the progress in material prosperity
+was very slow. Idleness and drunkenness, with all their attendant evils,
+were rife to a most injurious extent. The innumerable f&ecirc;tes, or holidays
+of the Church, afforded opportunities to the dissolute, and occasioned
+frequent instances of serious disorders, till the king was urged to
+interfere: the number of these f&ecirc;te-days was then very much reduced, to
+the great benefit of the colony. The feudal system of tenure also
+operated most unfavorably upon the development of agricultural
+resources, and the forced partition of lands tended to reduce all the
+landholders to a fraternity of pauperism. The court of France endeavored
+vainly to remedy these evils, without removing the causes, and passed
+various edicts to encourage the further clearance of wild land, and to
+stimulate settlement.</p>
+
+<p>In 1745, the year when the power of France in Europe was exalted by the
+splendid victory of Fontenoy, a dangerous blow was struck at her
+sovereignty in America by the capture of Louisburg, and with it the
+whole island of Cape Breton,<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> by the New Englanders under Mr.
+Pepperel,<a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> aided by Admiral Warren's squadron. This disaster was no
+sooner known in Paris<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> than an extensive armament was equipped under
+the command of the Duc d'Anville, an officer of known valor and ability.
+The wounded pride of the French hurried on rapidly the preparations for
+this expedition, which they confidently hoped would redeem the
+tarnished honor of their arms in the Western world. Early in May the
+fleet was already completely appointed; but the elements did not second
+these energetic preparations, and contrary winds detained the armament
+till the 22d of June. Then it at last put to sea, in the formidable
+strength of eleven ships of the line, thirty smaller vessels of war, and
+transports containing 3000 regular soldiers. Nova Scotia, the
+Acadia<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> of other days, was their destination. There it was expected
+that the old French settlers, who had unwillingly submitted to English
+conquest, would readily range themselves once more under the
+fleur-de-lys: Canada had already sent her contingent of 1700 men under
+M. de Ramsay to aid the enterprise, and M. de Conflans, with four ships
+of the line from the West Indies, was directed to join the squadron.</p>
+
+<p>This formidable fleet was but a short time at sea when the ships
+separated and fell into hopeless confusion. On the 12th of September,
+indeed, the Duc d'Anville reached the Western continent in the
+Northumberland, accompanied by a few other vessels, but there no laurels
+awaited the gallant admiral: he was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and
+in four days his body was committed to the deep. The vice admiral
+immediately proposed returning to France, on account of the absence of
+the greater part of his force; but other officers strongly opposed this
+desponding counsel, and urged a bold attack upon Nova Scotia<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> rather
+than an inglorious retreat. The more vigorous course was adopted by a
+council of war, which threw the vice admiral into such a state of
+frantic excitement that he ran himself through the body, fancying he had
+fallen into the hands of the enemy. De la Jonqui&egrave;re succeeded to the
+command, and, although more than three-score years of age, acted with
+unimpaired energy. But the elements were again hostile to France; the
+fleet was dispersed by a violent storm off Cape Sable, and the shattered
+remnant of the expedition returned ingloriously to their country,
+without having accomplished any of the objects for which they had been
+sent forth.</p>
+
+<p>The government at Paris was, however, by no means cast down by these
+untoward occurrences, and the armament was speedily equipped to renew
+their efforts against the English colonies. The expedition was prepared
+at Brest, under the command of M. de la Jonqui&egrave;re, and, at the same
+time, a squadron under M. de St. George was armed with a view to
+threaten the coasts of British India.</p>
+
+<p>The English ministry, early informed of all the movements of their
+opponents, resolved to intercept both these squadrons, which they had
+been apprised would sail from port at the same time. Admiral Anson and
+Rear-admiral Warren were ordered upon this enterprise with a formidable
+fleet, and, taking their departure from Plymouth, steered for Cape
+Finisterre, on the Gallican coast. On the third of May, 1746, they fell
+in with the French squadrons of six large men-of-war, as many frigates,
+four armed East Indiamen, and a valuable convoy of thirty ships. The
+enemy's heavier vessels immediately formed in order of battle, while the
+merchantmen made all sail away, under the protection of the frigates.
+The British were also ready for action, and a severe combat ensued.
+Before night all the French line of battle ships were captured after a
+spirited defense, but two thirds of the convoy escaped through the
+darkness of the night. A considerable quantity of bullion fell into the
+hands of the victors, and their grateful sovereign rewarded the courage
+and good fortune of the admirals by raising Anson to the peerage, and
+decorating Warren with the ribbon of the Bath.</p>
+
+<p>Admiral de la Jonqui&egrave;re, the newly-appointed governor of Canada, was
+among the numerous captives who graced the triumph of the British fleet.
+When the news of this event reached Paris, the king appointed to the
+vacant dignity the Comte de la Galissoni&egrave;re,<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> an officer of
+distinguished merit and ability. The wisdom of this selection was
+speedily displayed; the new governor no sooner entered upon the duties
+of office than his active zeal found employment in endeavoring to
+develop the magnificent resources of his province. He made himself
+thoroughly acquainted with the face of the country, the climate,
+population, agriculture, and commerce, and then presented an able
+statement to the French court of the great importance of the colony, and
+a system which, had it been adopted in time, might have secured it
+against English aggression.</p>
+
+<p>The Comte de la Galissoni&egrave;re proposed that M. du Quesne, a skillful
+engineer, should be appointed to establish a line of fortifications
+through the interior of the country, and, at the same time, urged the
+government of France to send out 10,000 peasants to form settlements on
+the banks of the great lakes and southern rivers. By these means he
+affirmed that the English colonies would be restricted within the narrow
+tract lying eastward from the Allegany Mountains, and in time laid open
+to invasion and ruin. His advice was, however, disregarded, and the
+splendid province of Canada soon passed forever from under the sway of
+France.<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p>
+
+<p>Under the impression that the expected peace between the mother
+countries would render it important to define the boundaries of their
+colonial possessions, the active governor of Canada dispatched M. de
+Celeron de Bienville, with 300 men, to traverse the vast wilderness
+lying from Detroit southeast to the Apalachian Mountains. Assuming this
+range as the limit of the British colonies, he directed that leaden
+plates, engraved with the arms of France, should be buried at particular
+places in the western country, to mark the territories of France, and
+that the chief of the expedition should endeavor to secure a promise
+from the Indians to exclude for the future all English traders. At the
+same time, he gave notice to the governor of Pennsylvania that he was
+commanded by the King of France to seize all British merchants found in
+those countries, and to confiscate their goods. De Celeron fulfilled his
+difficult commission to the best of his powers, but the forms of
+possession which he executed excited the jealous apprehension of the
+Indians, who concluded that he designed to subject or even enslave them.</p>
+
+<p>When M. de la Galissoni&egrave;re failed in his endeavor to obtain the aid of
+an extensive immigration from France, he turned his thoughts toward the
+Acadian settlers<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> (whom the treaty of Utrecht had transferred to
+the British crown), with the object of forming a new colony. The
+readiest expedient to influence this simple and pious people was,
+obviously, by gaining over their clergy; the Abb&eacute; le Loutre was selected
+as the fittest embassador to induce them to withdraw from allegiance to
+the English government. This politic and unscrupulous priest appealed to
+their interests, nationality, and religion as inducements to abandon the
+conquered country, and to establish themselves under the French crown in
+a new settlement which he proposed to form on the Canadian side of
+Acadia. Le Loutre's persuasions influenced many of these primitive
+people to proceed to the French posts, where every protection and
+attention was bestowed upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Animated by the success of this measure, and sanguine that large numbers
+of the Acadians would follow the first seceders, De la Galissoni&egrave;re
+induced the home government to appoint a considerable sum yearly to
+carrying out his views; but, in the midst of his patriotic exertions, he
+was obliged to hand over the reins of government to M. de la Jonqui&egrave;re,
+who had now arrived to claim the post so ably held by another during his
+captivity with the English. Galissoni&egrave;re, however, before he sailed for
+France, magnanimously furnished his successor with the best information
+on colonial matters, and pointed out the most promising plans for the
+improvement of the province.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> De la Jonqui&egrave;re unwisely rejected
+such as related to the Acadian settlements; but the King of France
+disapproved of his inaction, and reprimanded him for not having
+continued the course of his predecessor. Instructions were given him to
+take immediate possession of the neighboring country, to build new forts
+for its retention, and to occupy it with troops; he was also desired to
+aid Le Loutre in all his proceedings, and to forward his designs. In
+obedience to these orders, M. de Boishebert was dispatched with a body
+of troops and some peasants, to take post near the mouth of the River
+St. John, which was looked upon as an important post for the defense of
+the new settlement.</p>
+
+<p>These measures inevitably aroused the jealousy of the English governor
+of Nova Scotia, who made repeated remonstrances on the subject, but with
+no other effect than that of causing De la Jonqui&egrave;re to warn his
+officers to avoid all possible grounds of dispute, as he expected the
+limits of the rival powers would be speedily arranged.</p>
+
+<p>[1749.] Supplies for the new post at St. John's could only be obtained
+from Quebec, and transmitted by the long and difficult circuit of the
+whole Acadian peninsula. M. de Vergor was sent on this mission in an
+armed sloop, containing military and other stores for the French and
+Indians. He was ordered to avoid all English vessels, but, if he could
+no longer shun pursuit, to fight to the last. This stern command was not
+obeyed, for he surrendered without an effort to Captain Rous, who,
+apprised of his design, had intercepted him on the coast. On the news of
+the capture of this sloop, M. de la Jonqui&egrave;re empowered the governor of
+Louisburg<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> to make reprisals upon all English vessels that might
+enter his port.</p>
+
+<p>General Cornwallis, governor of Halifax,<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> sent a detachment of
+British troops, under Major Lawrence, to watch the movements of La
+Corne, the French commander, who had been directed to build a fort on
+the Bay of Fundy, called Beau-sejour.<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> As soon as Le Loutre became
+aware of the arrival of the English, he caused the houses and homesteads
+of those unfortunate Acadians who remained faithful to England to be
+burned. Soon after this cruel severity the French and English leaders
+held a conference, and agreed to erect forts opposite to each other on
+each side of the River Beau-bassin,<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> but to remain at peace till
+they received further instructions.</p>
+
+<p>While occasions of dispute were thus arising on the Nova Scotia
+peninsula, a still more dangerous difficulty threatened the cause of
+peace in the far West. The governors of the British colonies continued
+to grant license to their merchants to trade on the banks of the Ohio,
+in contempt of the haughty pretensions of French sovereignty. By the
+orders of La Jonqui&egrave;re, three of these adventurers were seized, with all
+their goods, and carried captive to Montreal: after a long examination,
+however, they were discharged.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> "Vis &agrave; vis de Montreal, du c&ocirc;t&eacute; du sud est un endroit qu'
+on appell&eacute; la Prairie de la Madeleine."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 233.
+</p><p>
+"Le Cap de la Madeleine a eu son nom de l'Abb&eacute; de la Madeleine, un des
+membres de la Compagnie des cent Associ&eacute;s." The name of the Prairie had
+probably the same origin.&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 167.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> There was a flourishing settlement at Mount Louis in
+1758, which was destroyed by General Wolfe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> "Sans avoir le brilliant de son pr&eacute;d&eacute;cesseur, il en avait
+tout le solide; des v&ucirc;&euml;s droites et d&eacute;sinteress&eacute;s, sans pr&eacute;juge et sans
+passion; une fermet&eacute; toujours d'accord avec la raison, une valeur, que
+le flegme s&ccedil;avoit mod&eacute;rer et rendre utile: un grand sens, beaucoup de
+probit&eacute; et d'honneur, et une p&eacute;n&eacute;tration d'esprit, &agrave; laquelle une grande
+application et une longue exp&eacute;rience avoient ajont&eacute; tout ce que
+l'exp&eacute;rience peut donner de lumi&egrave;res. Il avoit pris des les commencemens
+un grand empire sur les sauvages, qui le connoisoient exacte &agrave; tenir sa
+parole, et ferme &agrave; vouloir qu' on lui gard&acirc;t celles qu' on lui avoient
+donn&eacute;es. Les Fran&ccedil;ois de leur c&ocirc;t&eacute; &eacute;taient convaincus qu'il n'
+exigeroient jamais rien d'eux, que de raisonnable; que pour n' avoir ni
+la naissance, ni les grandes alliances du Comte de Frontenac, ni le rang
+de lieutenant g&eacute;n&eacute;ral des arm&eacute;es du roi, il ne s&ccedil;auroit pas moins se
+faire ob&eacute;ir que lui."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 353.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> "Enfin la retraite des deux arm&eacute;es Anglaises qui devaient
+attaquer en m&ecirc;me tems la Nouvelle France par terre et par mer, et
+diviser ses forces en les occupant aux deux extremit&eacute;s de la colonie, n'
+&eacute;tant plus douteuse, et le bruit s' &eacute;tant r&eacute;pandu que la premi&egrave;re avait
+fait naufrage dans le fleuve St. Laurent vers les Sept Isles, M. de
+Vaudreuil y envoya plusieurs barques. Elles y trouverent les carcasses
+de huit gros vaisseaux, dont on avoit enlev&eacute; les canons et les meilleurs
+effets, et pr&egrave;s de trois mille personnes noy&eacute;es, dont les corps &eacute;toient
+&eacute;tendus sur le rivage. On y reconnut deux compagnies enti&egrave;res des Gardes
+de la Reine, qu' on distingua &agrave; leurs casaques rouges, et plusieurs
+familles Ecossoises, destin&eacute;es &agrave; peupler le Canada, mais quoique le
+reste de la flotte eut reste mouill&eacute; plusieurs jours au m&ecirc;me endroit,
+pour enlever toute la charge des vaisseaux bris&eacute;s, on ne laissa point d'
+y faire un assez grand butin."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> The city of Detroit dates its history from July, 1701. At
+that time M. de la Motte Cadillac, with one hundred men, and a Jesuit,
+carrying with them every thing necessary for the commencement and
+support of the establishment meditated, reached this place. "How
+numerous and diversified," said a public literary document, "are the
+incidents compressed within the history of this settlement. No place in
+the United States presents such a series of events interesting in
+themselves and permanently affecting, as they occurred, its progress and
+prosperity. Five times its flag has changed; three different
+sovereignties have claimed its allegiance; and since it has been held by
+the United States, its government has been thrice transferred. Twice it
+has been besieged by the Indians, once captured in war, and once burned
+to the ground."
+</p><p>
+"Detroit has long been considered as the limit of civilization toward
+the northwest. This town, or commercial port, is dignified by the name,
+and enjoys the chartered rights of a city, although its population at
+present does not exceed three thousand. The banks of the river above and
+below the city are lined with a French population, descendants of the
+first European traders among the Indians in that quarter, and extending
+from Lake Erie to Lake St. Clair, increasing in density as they approach
+the town, and averaging, perhaps, one hundred per mile. This place, but
+a little while ago so distant, is now brought within four days of the
+city of New York, the track pursued being seven hundred and fifty miles.
+Here, at Detroit, some of the finest steamers in North America come and
+go every day, connecting it with the east, and have begun already to
+search out the distant west and north."&mdash;Colton's <i>Tour to the American
+Lakes</i>, vol. i., p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> "Le fruit de sa victoire (Da Buisson) fut que les Anglois
+d&eacute;sesp&eacute;r&egrave;rent de s' &eacute;tablir au D&eacute;troit, ce qui auroit &eacute;t&eacute; la ruine enti&egrave;re
+de la Nouvelle France, non seulement &agrave; cause de la situation de ce lieu,
+qui est le centre et le plus beau pays du Canada, mais encore parcequ'il
+ne nous auroit plus &eacute;t&eacute; possible d'entretenir la moindre communication
+avec les sauvages d'en haut ni avec la Louisiane."&mdash;Charlevoix, vol. iv.,
+p. 105.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> "Le roi tr&egrave;s Chr&eacute;tien c&eacute;de &agrave; la reine d'Angleterre &agrave;
+perp&eacute;tuite, l'Acadie, ou Nouvelle Ecosse, en entier, conform&eacute;ment &agrave; ses
+anciennes limites, comme aussi la ville de Port Royal, maintenant
+appell&eacute;e Annapolis Royale."&mdash;<i>Article XII. du Trait&eacute; d'Utrecht</i>, 1713.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> "Ce dernier article ne nous &ocirc;ta rien de r&eacute;el, et ne donna
+non plus rien aux Anglais, parceque les cantons renouvell&egrave;rent les
+protestations, qu'ils avoient d&eacute;j&agrave; faites plus d'une fois contre les
+pr&eacute;tentions r&eacute;ciproques de leurs voisins et ont tr&egrave;s bien s&ccedil;u se
+maintenir dans la possession de leur libert&eacute; et da leur
+ind&eacute;pendance."&mdash;Charlevoix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> "Il (Prior) &eacute;toit pareillement autoris&eacute; &agrave; trait&eacute; sur les
+limites de l'Am&eacute;rique septentrionale, et s'il plaisoit au roi, ces deux
+articles pouvoient &ecirc;tre regles en peu de tems."&mdash;<i>M&eacute;moires de Torcy sur
+la Paix d'Utrecht</i>, vol. iii., p. 426.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> It is hardly remembered at the present day that the
+French nation once claimed, and had begun to colonize the whole region
+which lies at the back of the thirteen original United States, from the
+mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi, comprising both
+the Canadas and the vast fertile valley of the Ohio, and had actually
+occupied the two outlets of this whole region by its ports at Quebec and
+New Orleans.<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> Canada, the oldest French colony, and the only one on
+the continent to which that nation has sent any considerable number of
+settlers, was under the management of an exclusive company, from 1663 to
+the downfall of what was called the Mississippi Scheme, in 1720; and
+this circumstance, still more, perhaps, than the vicious system of
+granting the land to non-resident proprietors, to be held by seignorial
+tenure, checked its progress. Louisiana, with more sources of surplus
+wealth from climate and soil, was never a very thriving colony, and was
+surrendered to Spain with little reluctance, from which last power its
+dominion passed to the United States.
+</p><p>
+The French traders and hunters intermarried and mixed with the Indians
+at the back of our settlements, and extended their scattered posts along
+the whole course of the two vast rivers of that continent. Even at this
+day, far away on the upper waters of these mighty streams, and beyond
+the utmost limits reached by the backwoodsman, the traveler discovers
+villages in which the aspect and social usages of the people, their
+festivities and their solemnities, in which the white and red man mingle
+on equal terms, strangely contrast with the habits of the
+Anglo-American, and announce to him, on his first approach, their Gallic
+origin.&mdash;Merivale, vol. i., p. 58; Sismondi, <i>Etudes sur L'Ecole
+Politique</i>, vol. ii., p. 200; Latrobe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> "La ville de Nouvelle Orl&eacute;ans fut fond&eacute;e dans l'ann&eacute;e
+1717. M. de Bienville fit choix de la situation. On a nomm&eacute; cetto
+fameuse ville la Nouvelle Orl&eacute;ans. Ceux qui lui ont donn&eacute; ce nom
+croyoient qu' Orl&eacute;ans est du genre f&eacute;minin, mais qu' importe? l'usage
+est &eacute;tabli et il est au-dessus des regles de la grammaire. Cette ville
+est la premi&egrave;re qu' un des plus grands fleuves du monde ait vu s'elever
+aur ses bords."&mdash;Charlevoix, vol. viii., p. 192.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> "Garcilasso de la Vega parle des Chichachas dans son
+histoire de la conqu&ecirc;te de la Floride, et il les place &agrave; peu pr&egrave;s au
+m&ecirc;me endroit o&ugrave; ils sont encore presentement.... Ce sont encore les plus
+braves soldats de la Louisiane, mais ils &eacute;toient beaucoup plus nombreux
+du tem de Ferdinand de Soto.... C'est notre alliance aves les Illinois
+qui nous a mis en guerre avec les Chichachas et les Anglois de la
+Caroline attisent le feu. N&ocirc;tre &eacute;tablissement dans la Louisiane fait
+grand mal au c&oelig;ur &agrave; ceux-ci; c'est une barri&egrave;re que nous mettons
+entre leurs puissantes colonies de l'Am&eacute;rique septentrionale, et le
+Mexique.... Les Espagnols qui nous voyent avec des yeux si jaloux nous
+fortifier dans ce pays, ne sentent pas encore l'importance du service
+que nous leur rendons."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 160.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> From the year 1706 the name of Cape Breton was changed to
+Ile Royale. Louisburg was called le Havre &agrave; l'Anglais.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> "The importance of the colonies<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> was too little
+considered until the commencement of the last war. The reduction of Cape
+Breton by the people of New England was an acquisition so unexpected and
+fortunate, that America became, on that remarkable event, a more general
+topic of conversation. Mr. Shirley, the governor of Massachusetts Bay,
+was the principal projector of that glorious enterprise; an enterprise
+which reduced to the obedience of his Britannic majesty the <i>Dunkirk</i> of
+North America. Of such consequence to the French was the possession of
+that important key to their American settlements, that its restitution
+was, in reality, the purchase of the last general peace of
+Europe."<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a>&mdash;<i>A Review of the Military Operations in North America, in
+a Letter to a Nobleman</i>, p. 4 (London, 1757).
+</p><p>
+"The plan of the invasion of Cape Breton was laid at Boston, and New
+England<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> bore the expense of it. A merchant named Pepperel,<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> who
+had excited, encouraged, and directed the enterprise, was intrusted with
+the command of the army of 6000 men, which had been levied for this
+expedition. Though these forces, convoyed by a squadron from Jamaica,
+brought the first news to Cape Breton of the danger that threatened it;
+though the advantage of a surprise would have secured the landing
+without opposition; though they had but six hundred regular troops to
+encounter, and eight hundred inhabitants hastily armed, the success of
+the undertaking was still precarious. What great exploits, indeed, could
+have been expected from militia suddenly assembled, who had never seen a
+siege or faced an enemy, and were to act under the direction of
+sea-officers only? These inexperienced troops stood in need of the
+assistance of some fortunate accident, with which they were indeed
+favored in a singular manner. The construction and repair of the
+fortifications had always been left to the care of the garrison at
+Louisburg. The soldiers were eager to be employed on these works, as the
+means of procuring a comfortable subsistence. When they found that those
+who were to have paid them appropriated to themselves the profits of
+their labors, they demanded justice: it was denied them, and they
+determined to assert their right. As the depredations had been shared
+between the chief persons of the colony and the subaltern officers, the
+soldiers could obtain no redress. They had, in consequence, lived in
+open rebellion for above six months when the English appeared before the
+place. This was the time to conciliate the minds of both parties; the
+soldiers made the first advances, but their commanders distrusted a
+generosity of which they themselves were incapable. It was firmly
+believed that the soldiers were only desirous of sallying out that they
+might have an opportunity of deserting, and their own officers kept them
+in a manner prisoners, until a defense so ill managed had reduced them
+to the necessity of capitulating. The whole island shared the fate of
+Louisburg, its only bulwark. This valuable possession, restored to
+France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, was again attacked by the
+English in 1748, and taken. The possession was confirmed to Great
+Britain by the peace in 1763, since which the fortifications have been
+blown up, and the town of Louisburg dismantled."&mdash;Winterbottom's
+<i>History of America</i>, vol. iv., p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> "L'&icirc;le de Cap Br&eacute;ton n'&eacute;toit pas alors (at the time of
+the treaty of Ryswick), un objet, et l'&eacute;tablissement que nous y avions
+n'avoit rien qui put exciter la jalousie des Anglais: elle nous
+demeura."&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 349.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> "The island of Cape Breton, of which the French were
+shamefully left in possession at the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, through
+the negligence or corruption of the British ministry, when Great Britain
+had the power of giving law to her enemies."&mdash;Russell's <i>Modern Europe</i>,
+vol. iii., p. 223.
+</p><p>
+"Only three years after Cape Breton was taken by the New Englanders,
+England was obliged reluctantly to resign her favorite conquest of Cape
+Breton, in order to obtain the restitution of Madras. This was by the
+treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. The final conquest took place in
+1758, by the English, under Amherst and Wolfe."&mdash;Belsham, vol. ii., p.
+333.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> "The sum of &pound;235,749 was granted by the British
+Parliament to the provinces of New England, to reimburse them for the
+expense of reducing Cape Breton."&mdash;Smollett, vol. iii., p. 224.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> "The news of this victory being transmitted to England,
+Mr. Pepperel was preferred to the dignity of a baronet of Great
+Britain."&mdash;Ibid., vol. iii., p. 154.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> "When Marshal Belleisle was told of the taking of Cape
+Breton, he said he could believe that, because the ministry had no hand
+in it. We are making bonfires for Cape Breton, and thundering over
+Genoa, while our army in Flanders is running away."&mdash;Walpole's <i>Letters
+to Sir Horace Mann</i>, July 26, 1745.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> "The tract of country known by the name of Nova Scotia,
+or New Scotland, was in 1784 divided into two provinces, viz., New
+Brunswick on the southwest, and Nova Scotia on the southeast. The former
+comprehends that part of the old province of Nova Scotia which lies to
+the northward and westward of a line drawn from the mouth of the River
+St. Croix, through the center of the Bay of Fundy to Baye Verte, and
+thence into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, including all lands within six
+leagues of the coast. The rest is the province of Nova Scotia, to which
+is annexed the island of St. John's, which lies north of it in the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence. The modern Nova Scotia is the French Acadia. The modern
+New Brunswick is the French Nouvelle Ecosse. This name was given by Sir
+William Alexander, to whom the first grant of lands was given by James I.;
+since then the country has frequently changed hands, from the French
+to the English nation, backward and forward. It was not confirmed to the
+English till the peace of Utrecht. Three thousand families were
+transported into this country in 1749, at the charge of the government,
+and they built and settled the town of Halifax."&mdash;Winterbottom's
+<i>History of America</i>, vol. iv., p. 39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> "La cour de France avoit extr&ecirc;mement &agrave; c&oelig;ur de
+recouvrer cette province (Acadia); les efforts reit&eacute;r&eacute;s des Anglois pour
+l'avoir en leur puissance, et plus encore, leur triomphe apr&egrave;s l'avoir
+conquise, avoit enfin ouvert les yeux aux Fran&ccedil;ois sur la grandeur de la
+perte qu'ils avoient faite. M. de Pontchartrain &eacute;crivit ainsi &agrave; M. de
+Beaubarnois: 'Je vous ai fait assez conno&icirc;tre combien il est important
+de reprendre ce poste (le Port Royal) avant que les ennemies y soient
+solidement &eacute;tablis. La conservation de toute l'Am&eacute;rique septentrionale,
+et le commerce des P&ecirc;ches le d&eacute;mandent &eacute;galement: ce sont deux objets
+qui me touchent vivement.'"&mdash;Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> "Roland Michel Barrin, marquis de la Galissoni&egrave;re,
+remplit la poste de gouverneur comme s'il ne se fut toute sa vie occup&eacute;
+que de cet objet.... Il &eacute;tablit &agrave; Quebec un arsenal maritime, et un
+chantier de construction, o&ugrave; l'on n'employa que les bois des pays. Il
+con&ccedil;ut, proposa, et fit adopter le vast&eacute; plan dont il commenca
+l'execution, de joindre le Canada et la Louisiana par une chaine de
+forts et d'&eacute;tablissements, le long de l'Ohio et des Mississippi, &agrave;
+travers les r&eacute;gions d&eacute;sertes qui s&eacute;paraient ces deux colonies &agrave; l'ouest
+des lacs. A l'avantage d'&eacute;tablir entre elles une communication moins
+p&eacute;nible et moins long que par le nord, se joignoit celui de pouvoir
+faire parvenir les d&eacute;p&ecirc;ches en France, en hiver par la Louisiane, tandis
+que l'embouchure du fleuve St. Laurent est ferme&eacute; par les glaces; enfin
+celui de resserrer les Anglais entre les montagnes et la mer.... Il
+emporta tous les regrets quand il revint en France, en 1749.... La
+d&eacute;faite de l'amiral Anglais, Byng, et la prise de Minorque que fut le
+fruit de cette victoire d&eacute;cisive, couronn&egrave;rent sa carri&egrave;re. Il avoit
+entrepris cette derni&egrave;re exp&eacute;dition contre l'avis des m&eacute;d&eacute;cins qui lui
+avoient annonc&eacute; sa mort comme prochaine, s'il se rembarquoit.... Il
+cacha ses maux tant qu'il put, mais il fut enfin oblig&eacute; de se d&eacute;mettre
+du commandement. Il revint en France et se mit en route pour
+Fontainebleau o&ugrave; &eacute;toit alors le roi. Les forces lui manqu&egrave;rent
+totalement &agrave; Nemours, o&ugrave; il mourut le 26 Octobre, 1756.... A ses talens
+&eacute;minens comme marin, la Galissoni&egrave;re unissoit une infinit&eacute; de
+connaissances.... S&eacute;rieux et ferme, mais en m&ecirc;me tems doux, mod&eacute;r&eacute;,
+affable, et int&eacute;gre, il se faisito respecter et ch&eacute;rir de tous ceux qui
+servoient sous ses ordres.... Tant de belles qualit&eacute;s &eacute;toient cach&eacute;es
+sous un ext&eacute;rieur peu avantageux. La Galissoni&egrave;re &eacute;toit de petite taille
+et bossu. Lorsque les sauvages vinrent le saluer &agrave; son arriv&eacute;e au
+Canada, frapp&eacute;s de son peu d'apparence, ils lui parl&egrave;rent en ces termes,
+'Il faut que tu aies une bien belle &acirc;me, puisqu' avec un si vilain
+corps, le grand chef notre p&egrave;re t'a envoy&eacute; ici pour nous commander.' Ils
+ne tard&egrave;rent pas &agrave; reconna&icirc;tre la justice de leur opinion, et
+entour&egrave;rent de leur amour et de leur v&eacute;n&eacute;ration, en l'appellant du nom
+de p&egrave;re, l'homme qui ne se servit du pouvoir que pour am&eacute;liorer leur
+sort."&mdash;<i>Biographie Universelle</i>, art. Galissoni&egrave;re.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> "In observing on old maps the extent of the ancient
+French colonies in America, I was haunted by one painful idea. I asked
+myself how the government of my country could have left colonies to
+perish which would now be to us a source of inexhaustible prosperity.
+From Acadia and Canada to Louisiana, from the mouth of the St. Lawrence
+to that of the Mississippi, the territories of New France surrounded
+what originally formed the confederation of the thirteen United States.
+The eleven other states, the district of Columbia, the Michigan,
+Northwest, Missouri, Oregon, and Arkansas territories, belonged, or
+would have belonged to us, as they now belong to the United States, by
+the cession of the English and Spaniards, our first heirs in Canada and
+in Louisiana. More than two thirds of North America would acknowledge
+the sovereignty of France.... We possessed here vast countries which
+might have offered a home to the excess of our population, an important
+market to our commerce, a nursery to our navy. Now we are forced to
+confine in our prisons culprits condemned by the tribunals, for want of
+a spot of ground whereon to place these wretched creatures. We are
+excluded from the New World, where the human race is recommencing. The
+English and Spanish languages serve to express the thoughts of many
+millions of men in Africa, in Asia, in the South Sea Islands, on the
+continent of the two Americas; and we, disinherited of the conquests of
+our courage and our genius, hear the language of Racine, of Colbert, and
+of Louis XIV. spoken merely in a few hamlets of Louisiana and Canada,
+under a foreign sway. There it remains, as though but for an evidence of
+the reverses of our fortune and the errors of our policy. Thus, then,
+has France disappeared from North America, like those Indian tribes with
+which she sympathized, and some of the wrecks of which I have
+beheld."&mdash;Chateaubriand's <i>Travels in America</i>, vol. ii., p. 207.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> From the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 1632, till 1654,
+the French had quiet possession of Acadia; then Cromwell sent Major
+Sedgwick to attack it, with orders to expel all who would not
+acknowledge themselves subjects of England. Sedgwick executed his
+commission, and Cromwell passed a grant of Acadia to one De la Tour, a
+French refugee, who had purchased Lord Sterling's title to that country;
+and De la Tour soon after transferred his right to Sir William Temple.
+</p><p>
+Nova Scotia was ceded to France at the treaty of Breda, in 1670. In 1690
+it was retaken by Sir William Phipps on his way to Quebec. It was given
+back to France by the treaty of Ryswick; retaken by General Nicholson
+(who gave the name of Annapolis to Port Royal) in 1710, during the War
+of the Succession. It was formally and finally ceded to England at the
+peace of Utrecht. The undefined limits of Nova Scotia were a constant
+source of dispute between the French and English nations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> Professor Kalm thus speaks of La Galissoni&egrave;re, who was
+the governor of Quebec at the time of his travels through Canada. "He
+was of a low stature and somewhat hump-backed. He has a surprising
+knowledge in all branches of science, and especially in natural history,
+in which he is so well versed, that, when he began to speak to me about
+it, I imagined I saw our great Linn&aelig;us under a new form. When he spoke
+of the use of natural history, of the method of learning, and employing
+it to raise the state of a country, I was astonished to see him take his
+reasons from politics, as well as natural philosophy, mathematics, and
+other sciences. I own that my conversation with this nobleman was very
+instructive to me, and I always drew a great deal of useful knowledge
+from it. He told me several ways of employing natural history to the
+purposes of politics, and to make a country powerful in order to depress
+its envious neighbors. Never has natural history had a greater promotion
+in this country, and it is very doubtful whether it will ever have its
+equal here. As soon as he got the place of governor general, he began to
+take those measures for getting information in natural history which I
+have mentioned before. When he saw people who had for some time been in
+a settled place of the country, especially in the more remote parts, he
+always questioned them about the trees, plants, earths, stones, ores,
+animals, &amp;c., of the place. Those who seemed to have clearer notions
+than the rest were obliged to give him circumstantial descriptions of
+what they had seen. He himself wrote down all the accounts he received,
+and by this great appreciation, so uncommon among persons of his rank,
+he soon acquired a knowledge of the most distant parts of America. The
+priests, commandants of forts and of several distant places, are often
+surprised by his questions, and wonder at his knowledge when they come
+to Quebec to pay their visits to him, for he often tells them that near
+such a mountain, or on such a shore, &amp;c., where they often went a
+hunting, there are some particular plants, trees, earths, ores, &amp;c., for
+he had got a knowledge of these things before. From hence it happened
+that some of the inhabitants believed he had a preternatural knowledge
+of things, as he was able to mention all the curiosities of places,
+sometimes near 200 Swedish miles from Quebec, though he never was there
+himself. Never was there a better statesman than he, and nobody can take
+better measures, and choose more proper means for improving a country
+and increasing its welfare. Canada was scarcely acquainted with the
+treasure it possessed in the person of this nobleman when it lost him
+again; the king wanted his services at home, and could not have him so
+far off."&mdash;Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 679.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> Louisburg, together with the whole island of Cape
+Breton, had been restored to the French by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
+in 1748.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> "In the year after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the land
+forces of Great Britain were reduced to little more than 18,000 men;
+those in Minorca, Gibraltar, and the American plantations, to 10,000;
+while the sailors retained in the royal navy were under
+17,000."&mdash;<i>Commons' Journals</i>, Nov. 23, 1749, and Jan. 19, 1750.
+</p><p>
+"From the large number both of soldiers and seamen suddenly discharged,
+it was found that they might be either driven to distress or tempted to
+depredation. Thus, both for their own comfort and for the quiet of the
+remaining community, emigration seemed to afford a safe and excellent
+resource. The province of Nova Scotia was fixed upon for this
+experiment, and the freehold of fifty acres was offered to each settler,
+with ten acres more for every child brought with him, besides a free
+passage, and an exemption from all taxes during a term of ten years.
+Allured by such advantages, above 4000 persons, with their families,
+embarked under the command of Colonel Cornwallis, and landed at the
+harbor of Chebuctow. The new town which soon arose from those labors
+received its name from the Earl of Halifax, who presided at the Board of
+Trade, and who had the principal share in the foundation of this colony.
+In the first winter there were but 300 huts of wood, surrounded by a
+palisade; but Halifax at present deserves to be ranked among the most
+thriving dependencies of the British crown."&mdash;Lord Mahon's <i>History of
+England</i>, vol. iv., p. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> "As it was the intention of the government to build a
+strong fort at Beau-sejour, Chaussegros de Lery, son of the engineer who
+traced the fortifications of Quebec, was sent for that purpose. De
+Vassan, who succeeded La Corne in the command of this post, was
+instructed, as his predecessor had been, to pay the utmost attention to
+the Abb&eacute; le Loutre, and to avoid all disputes with the English. De
+Vassan's penetration soon led him to discover Le Loutre's true
+character; but, not wishing to have any misunderstanding with him, he
+left him full scope in the management of the affairs of the Acadians.
+These unhappy people had from the first felt the iron hand of his
+tyranny; neither the provisions nor clothing furnished by the crown
+could be obtained without repeated supplications and prayers, and in
+every instance he showed a heart steeled against every sentiment of
+humanity."&mdash;Smith's <i>History of Canada</i>, vol. i., p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> "We soon after came to anchor in the basin, called by the
+French, with much propriety, Beau-bassin, where a hundred ships of the
+line may ride in safety without crowding, and from the time we entered
+this bay we found water enough every where for a first-rate ship of war.
+It is about five miles from Beau-sejour, now Fort Cumberland."&mdash;Knox's
+<i>Historical Journal</i>, vol. i., p. 35.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p class='center'>END OF VOL. I.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's The Conquest of Canada (Vol. 1 of 2), by George Warburton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Conquest of Canada (Vol. 1 of 2)
+
+Author: George Warburton
+
+Release Date: April 21, 2008 [EBook #25119]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONQUEST OF CANADA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Graeme Mackreth and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+CONQUEST OF CANADA.
+
+BY
+
+THE AUTHOR OF "HOCHELAGA."
+
+
+IN TWO VOLUMES.
+
+VOL. 1.
+
+NEW YORK:
+HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+82 CLIFF STREET.
+1850.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+England and France started in a fair race for the magnificent prize of
+supremacy in America. The advantages and difficulties of each were much
+alike, but the systems by which they improved those advantages and met
+those difficulties were essentially different. New France was colonized
+by a government, New England by a people. In Canada the men of
+intellect, influence, and wealth were only the agents of the mother
+country; they fulfilled, it is true, their colonial duties with zeal and
+ability, but they ever looked to France for honor and approbation, and
+longed for a return to her shores as their best reward. They were in the
+colony, but not of it. They strove vigorously to repel invasion, to
+improve agriculture, and to encourage commerce, for the sake of France,
+but not for Canada.
+
+The mass of the population of New France were descended from settlers
+sent out within a short time after the first occupation of the country,
+and who were not selected for any peculiar qualifications. They were not
+led to emigrate from the spirit of adventure, disappointed ambition, or
+political discontent; by far the larger proportion left their native
+country under the pressure of extreme want or in blind obedience to the
+will of their superiors. They were then established in points best
+suited to the interests of France, not those best suited to their own.
+The physical condition of the humbler emigrant, however, became better
+than that of his countrymen in the Old World; the fertile soil repaid
+his labor with competence; independence fostered self-reliance, and the
+unchecked range of forest and prairie inspired him with thoughts of
+freedom. But all these elevating tendencies were fatally counteracted by
+the blighting influence of feudal organization. Restrictions,
+humiliating as well as injurious, pressed upon the person and property
+of the Canadian. Every avenue to wealth and influence was closed to him
+and thrown open to the children of Old France. He saw whole tracts of
+the magnificent country lavished upon the favorites and military
+followers of the court, and, through corrupt or capricious influences,
+the privilege of exclusive trade granted for the aggrandizement of
+strangers at his expense.
+
+France founded a state in Canada. She established a feudal and
+ecclesiastical frame-work for the young nation, and into that
+Procrustean bed the growth of population and the proportions of society
+were forced. The state fixed governments at Montreal, Three Rivers, and
+Quebec; there towns arose. She divided the rich banks of the St.
+Lawrence and of the Richelieu into seigneuries; there population spread.
+She placed posts on the lakes and rivers of the Far West; there the
+fur-traders congregated. She divided the land into dioceses and
+parishes, and appointed bishops and curates; a portion of all produce of
+the soil was exacted for their support. She sent out the people at her
+own cost, and acknowledged no shadow of popular rights. She organized
+the inhabitants by an unsparing conscription, and placed over them
+officers either from the Old Country or from the favored class of
+seigneurs. She grasped a monopoly of every valuable production of the
+country, and yet forced upon it her own manufactures to the exclusion of
+all others. She squandered her resources and treasures on the colony,
+but violated all principles of justice in a vain endeavor to make that
+colony a source of wealth. She sent out the ablest and best of her
+officers to govern on the falsest and worst of systems. Her energy
+absorbed all individual energy; her perpetual and minute interference
+aspired to shape and direct all will and motive of her subjects. The
+state was every thing, the people nothing. Finally, when the power of
+the state was broken by a foreign foe, there remained no power of the
+people to supply its place. On the day that the French armies ceased to
+resist, Canada was a peaceful province of British America.
+
+A few years after the French crown had founded a state in Canada, a
+handful of Puritan refugees founded a people in New England. They bore
+with them from the mother country little beside a bitter hatred of the
+existing government, and a stern resolve to perish or be free. One small
+vessel--the Mayflower--held them, their wives, their children, and their
+scanty stores. So ignorant were they of the country of their adoption,
+that they sought its shores in the depth of winter, when nothing but a
+snowy desert met their sight. Dire hardships assailed them; many
+sickened and died, but those who lived still strove bravely. And bitter
+was their trial; the scowling sky above their heads, the frozen earth
+under their feet, and sorest of all, deep in their strong hearts the
+unacknowledged love of that venerable land which they had abandoned
+forever.
+
+But brighter times soon came; the snowy desert changed into a fair scene
+of life and vegetation. The woods rang with the cheerful sound of the
+ax; the fields were tilled hopefully, the harvest gathered gratefully.
+Other vessels arrived bearing more settlers, men, for the most part,
+like those who had first landed. Their numbers swelled to hundreds,
+thousands, tens of thousands. They formed themselves into a community;
+they decreed laws, stern and quaint, but suited to their condition. They
+had neither rich nor poor; they admitted of no superiority save in their
+own gloomy estimate of merit; they persecuted all forms of faith
+different from that which they themselves held, and yet they would have
+died rather than suffer the religious interference of others. Far from
+seeking or accepting aid from the government of England, they patiently
+tolerated their nominal dependence only because they were virtually
+independent. For protection against the savage; for relief in pestilence
+or famine; for help to plenty and prosperity, they trusted alone to God
+in heaven, and to their own right hand on earth.
+
+Such, in the main, were the ancestors of the men of New England, and, in
+spite of all subsequent admixture, such, in the main, were they
+themselves. In the other British colonies also, hampered though they
+were by charters, and proprietary rights, and alloyed by a Babel
+congregation of French Huguenots, Dutch, Swedes, Quakers, Nobles,
+Roundheads, Canadians, rogues, zealots, infidels, enthusiasts, and
+felons, a general prosperity had created individual self-reliance, and
+self-reliance had engendered the desire of self-government. Each colony
+contained a separate vitality within itself. They commenced under a
+variety of systems; more or less practicable, more or less liberal, and
+more or less dependent on the parent state. But the spirit of
+adventure, the disaffection, and the disappointed ambition which had so
+rapidly recruited their population, gave a general bias to their
+political feelings which no arbitrary authority could restrain, and no
+institutions counteract. They were less intolerant and morose, but at
+the same time, also, less industrious and moral than their Puritan
+neighbors. Like them, however, they resented all interference from
+England as far as they dared, and constantly strove for the acquisition
+or retention of popular rights.
+
+The British colonists, left at first, in a great measure, to themselves,
+settled on the most fertile lands, built their towns upon the most
+convenient harbors, directed their industry to the most profitable
+commerce, raised the most valuable productions. The trading spirit of
+the mother country became almost a passion when transferred to the New
+World. Enterprise and industry were stimulated to incredible activity by
+brilliant success and ample reward. As wealth and the means of
+subsistence increased, so multiplied the population. Early marriages
+were universal; a numerous family was the riches of the parent.
+Thousands of immigrants, also, from year to year swelled the living
+flood that poured over the wilderness. In a century and a half the
+inhabitants of British America exceeded nearly twenty-fold the people of
+New France. The relative superiority of the first over the last was even
+greater in wealth and resources than in population. The merchant navy of
+the English colonies was already larger than that of many European
+nations, and known in almost every port in the world where men bought
+and sold. New France had none.
+
+The French colonies were founded and fostered by the state, with the
+real object of extending the dominion, increasing the power, and
+illustrating the glory of France. The ostensible object of settlement,
+at least that holding the most prominent place in all Acts and Charters,
+was to extend the true religion, and to minister to the glory of God.
+From the earliest time the ecclesiastical establishments of Canada were
+formed on a scale suited to these professed views. Not only was ample
+provision made for the spiritual wants of the European population, but
+the labors of many earnest and devoted men were directed to the
+enlightenment of the heathen Indians. At first the Church and the civil
+government leaned upon each other for mutual support and assistance, but
+after a time, when neither of these powers found themselves troubled
+with popular opposition, their union grew less intimate; their interests
+differed, jealousies ensued, and finally they became antagonistic orders
+in the community. The mass of the people, more devout than intelligent,
+sympathized with the priesthood; this sympathy did not, however,
+interfere with unqualified submission to the government.
+
+The Canadians were trained to implicit obedience to their rulers,
+spiritual and temporal: these rulers ventured not to imperil their
+absolute authority by educating their vassals. It is true there were a
+few seminaries and schools under the zealous administration of the
+Jesuits; but even that instruction was unattainable by the general
+population; those who walked in the moonlight which such reflected rays
+afforded, were not likely to become troublesome as sectarians or
+politicians. Much credit for sincerity can not be given to those who
+professed to promote the education of the people, when no
+printing-press was ever permitted in Canada during the government of
+France.
+
+Canada, unprovoked by Dissent, was altogether free from the stain of
+religious persecution: hopelessly fettered in the chains of metropolitan
+power, she was also undisturbed by political agitation. But this calm
+was more the stillness of stagnation than the tranquillity of content.
+Without a press, without any semblance of popular representation, there
+hardly remained other alternatives than tame submission or open mutiny.
+By hereditary habit and superstition the Canadians were trained to the
+first, and by weakness and want of energy they were incapacitated for
+the last.
+
+Although the original charter of New England asserted the king's
+supremacy in matters of religion, a full understanding existed that on
+this head ample latitude should be allowed; ample latitude was
+accordingly taken. She set up a system of faith of her own, and enforced
+conformity. But the same spirit that had excited the colonists to
+dissent from the Church of England, and to sacrifice home and friends in
+the cause, soon raised up among them a host of dissenters from their own
+stern and peculiar creed. Their clergy had sacrificed much for
+conscience' sake, and were generally "faithful, watchful, painful,
+serving their flock daily with prayers and tears," some among them,
+also, men of high European repute. They had often, however, the
+mortification of seeing their congregations crowding to hear the ravings
+of any knave or enthusiast who broached a new doctrine. Most of these
+mischievous fanatics were given the advantage of that interest and
+sympathy which a cruel and unnecessary persecution invariably excites.
+All this time freedom of individual judgment was the watch-word of the
+persecutors. There is no doubt that strong measures were necessary to
+curb the furious and profane absurdities of many of the seceders, who
+were the very outcasts of religion. On considering the criminal laws of
+the time, it would also appear that not a few of the outcasts of
+society, also, had found their way to New England. The code of
+Massachusetts contained the description of the most extraordinary
+collection of crimes that ever defaced a statute-book, and the various
+punishments allotted to each.
+
+In one grand point the pre-eminent merit of the Puritans must be
+acknowledged: they strove earnestly and conscientiously for what they
+held to be the truth. For this they endured with unshaken constancy, and
+persecuted with unremitting zeal.
+
+The suicidal policy of the Stuarts had, for a time, driven all the
+upholders of civil liberty into the ranks of sectarianism. The advocates
+of the extremes of religious and political opinion flocked to America,
+the furthest point from kings and prelates that they could conveniently
+reach. Ingrafted on the stubborn temper of the Englishman, and planted
+in the genial soil of the West, the love of this civil and religious
+liberty grew up with a vigor that time only served to strengthen; that
+the might of armies vainly strove to overcome. Thus, ultimately, the
+persecution under the Stuarts was the most powerful cause ever yet
+employed toward the liberation of man in his path through earth to
+heaven.
+
+For many years England generally refrained from interference with her
+American colonies in matters of local government or in religion. They
+taxed themselves, made their own laws, and enjoyed religious freedom in
+their own way. In one state only, in Virginia, was the Church of England
+established, and even there it was accorded very little help by the
+temporal authority: in a short time it ceased to receive the support of
+a majority of the settlers, and rapidly decayed. On one point, however,
+the mother country claimed and exacted the obedience of the colonists to
+the imperial law. In her commercial code she would not permit the
+slightest relaxation in their favor, whatever the peculiar circumstances
+of their condition might be. This short-sighted and unjust restriction
+was borne, partly because it could not be resisted, and partly because
+at that early time the practical evil was but lightly felt. Although the
+principle of representation was seldom specified in the earlier
+charters, the colonists in all cases assumed it as a matter of right:
+they held that their privileges as Englishmen accompanied them wherever
+they went, and this was generally admitted as a principle of colonial
+policy.
+
+In the seventeenth century England adopted the system of transportation
+to the American colonies. The felons were, however, too limited in
+numbers to make any serious inroad upon the morals or tranquillity of
+the settlers. Many of the convicts were men sentenced for political
+crimes, but free from any social taint; the laboring population,
+therefore, did not regard them with contempt, nor shrink from their
+society. It may be held, therefore, that this partial and peculiar
+system of transportation introduced no distinct element into the
+constitution of the American nation.
+
+The British colonization in the New World differed essentially from any
+before attempted by the nations of modern Europe, and has led to
+results of immeasurable importance to mankind. Even the magnificent
+empire of India sinks into insignificance, in its bearings upon the
+general interests of the world, by comparison with the Anglo-Saxon
+empire in America. The success of each, however, is unexampled in
+history.
+
+In the great military and mercantile colony of the East an enormous
+native population is ruled by a dominant race, whose number amounts to
+less than a four-thousandth part of its own, but whose superiority in
+war and civil government is at present so decided as to reduce any
+efforts of opposition to the mere outbursts of hopeless petulance. In
+that golden land, however, even the Anglo-Saxon race can not increase
+and multiply; the children of English parents degenerate or perish under
+its fatal sun. No permanent settlement or infusion of blood takes place.
+Neither have we effected any serious change in the manners or customs of
+the East Indians; on the other hand, we have rather assimilated ours to
+theirs. We tolerate their various religions, and we learn their
+language; but in neither faith nor speech have they approached one
+tittle toward us. We have raised there no gigantic monument of power
+either in pride or for utility; no temples, canals, or roads remain to
+remind posterity of our conquest and dominion. Were the English rule
+over India suddenly cast off, in a single generation the tradition of
+our Eastern empire would appear a splendid but baseless dream, that of
+our administration an allegory, of our victories a romance.
+
+In the great social colonies of the West, the very essence of vitality
+is their close resemblance to the parent state. Many of the coarser
+inherited elements of strength have been increased. Industry and
+adventure have been stimulated to an unexampled extent by the natural
+advantages of the country, and free institutions have been developed
+almost to license by general prosperity and the absence of external
+danger. Their stability, in some one form or another, is undoubted: it
+rests on the broadest possible basis--on the universal will of the
+nation. Our vast empire in India rests only on the narrow basis of the
+superiority of a handful of Englishmen: should any untoward fate shake
+the Atlas strength that bears the burden, the superincumbent mass must
+fall in ruins to the earth. With far better cause may England glory in
+the land of her revolted children than in that of her patient slaves:
+the prosperous cities and busy sea-ports of America are prouder
+memorials of her race than the servile splendor of Calcutta or the
+ruined ramparts of Seringapatam. In the earlier periods the British
+colonies were only the reflection of Britain; in later days their light
+has served to illumine the political darkness of the European Continent.
+The attractive example of American democracy proved the most important
+cause that has acted upon European society since the Reformation.
+
+Toward the close of George II.'s reign England had reached the lowest
+point of national degradation recorded in her history. The disasters of
+her fleets and armies abroad were the natural fruits of almost universal
+corruption at home. The admirals and generals, chosen by a German king
+and a subservient ministry, proved worthy of the mode of their
+selection. An obsequious Parliament served but to give the apparent
+sanction of the people to the selfish and despotic measures of the
+crown. Many of the best blood and of the highest chivalry of the land
+still held loyal devotion to the exiled Stuarts, while the mass of the
+nation, disgusted by the sordid and unpatriotic acts of the existing
+dynasty, regarded it with sentiments of dislike but little removed from
+positive hostility. A sullen discontent paralyzed the vigor of England,
+obstructed her councils, and blunted her sword. In the cabinets of
+Europe, among the colonists of America, and the millions of the East
+alike, her once glorious name had sunk almost to a by-word of reproach.
+But "the darkest hour is just before the dawn:" a new disaster, more
+humiliating, and more inexcusable than any which had preceded, at length
+goaded the passive indignation of the British people into irresistible
+action. The spirit that animated the men who spoke at Runnymede, and
+those who fought on Marston Moor, was not dead, but sleeping. The free
+institutions which wisdom had devised, time hallowed, and blood sealed,
+were evaded, but not overthrown. The nation arose as one man, and with a
+peaceful but stern determination, demanded that these things should
+cease. Then, for "the hour," the hand of the All Wise supplied "the
+man." The light of Pitt's genius, the fire of his patriotism, like the
+dawn of an unclouded morning, soon chased away the chilly night which
+had so long darkened over the fortunes of his country.
+
+But not even the genius of the great minister, aided as it was by the
+awakened spirit of the British people, would have sufficed to rend
+Canada from France without the concurrent action of many and various
+causes: the principal of these was, doubtless, the extraordinary growth
+of our American settlements. When the first French colonists founded
+their military and ecclesiastical establishments at Quebec, upheld by
+the favor and strengthened by the arms of the mother country, they
+regarded with little uneasiness the unaided efforts of their English
+rivals in the South. But these dangerous neighbors rose with wonderful
+rapidity from few to many, from weak to powerful. The cloud, which had
+appeared no greater than "a man's hand" on the political horizon, spread
+rapidly wider and wider, above and below, till at length from out its
+threatening gloom the storm burst forth which swept away the flag of
+France.
+
+As a military event, the conquest of Canada was a matter of little or no
+permanent importance: it can only rank as one among the numerous scenes
+of blood that give an intense but morbid interest to our national
+annals. The surrender of Niagara and Quebec were but the acknowledgment
+or final symbol of the victory of English over French colonization. For
+three years the admirable skill of Montcalm and the valor of his troops
+deferred the inevitable catastrophe of the colony: then the destiny was
+accomplished. France had for that time played out her part in the
+history of the New World; during one hundred and fifty years her
+threatening power had served to retain the English colonies in
+interested loyalty to protecting England. Notwithstanding the immense
+material superiority of the British Americans, the fleets and armies of
+the mother country were indispensable to break the barrier raised up
+against them by the union, skill, and courage of the French.
+
+Montcalm's far-sighted wisdom suggested consolation even in his defeat
+and death. In a remarkable and almost prophetic letter, which he
+addressed to M. de Berryer during the siege of Quebec, he foretells
+that the British power in America shall be broken by success, and that
+when the dread of France ceases to exist, the colonists will no longer
+submit to European control. One generation had not passed away when his
+prediction was fully accomplished. England, by the conquest of Canada,
+breathed the breath of life into the huge Frankenstein of the American
+republic.
+
+The rough schooling of French hostility was necessary for the
+development of those qualities among the British colonists which enabled
+them finally to break the bonds of pupilage and stand alone. Some degree
+of united action had been effected among the several and
+widely-different states; the local governments had learned how to raise
+and support armies, and to consider military movements. On many
+occasions the provincial militia had borne themselves with distinguished
+bravery in the field; several of their officers had gained honorable
+repute; already the name of WASHINGTON called a flush of pride upon each
+American cheek. The stirring events of the contest with Canada had
+brought men of ability and patriotism into the strong light of active
+life, and the eyes of their countrymen sought their guidance in trusting
+confidence. Through the instrumentality of such men as these the
+American Revolution was shaped into the dignity of a national movement,
+and preserved from the threatening evils of an insane democracy.
+
+The consequences of the Canadian war furnished the cause of the quarrel
+which led to the separation of the great colonies from the mother
+country. England had incurred enormous debt in the contest; her people
+groaned under taxation, and the wealthy Americans had contributed in
+but a very small proportion to the cost of victories by which they were
+the principal gainers. The British Parliament devised an unhappy
+expedient to remedy this evil: it assumed the right of taxing the
+unrepresented colonies, and taxed them accordingly. Vain was the
+prophetic eloquence of Lord Chatham; vain were the just and earnest
+remonstrances of the best and wisest among the colonists: the time was
+come. Then followed years of stubborn and unyielding strife; the blood
+of the same race gave sterner determination to the quarrel. The balance
+of success hung equally. Once again France appeared upon the stage in
+the Western world, and La Fayette revenged the fall of Montcalm.
+
+However we may regret the cause and conduct of the Revolutionary war, we
+can hardly regret its result. The catastrophe was inevitable: the folly
+or wisdom of British statesmen could only have accelerated or deferred
+it. The child had outlived the years of pupilage; the interests of the
+old and the young required a separate household. But we must ever mourn
+the mode of separation: a bitterness was left that three quarters of a
+century has hardly yet removed; and a dark page remains in our annals,
+that tells of a contest begun in injustice, conducted with mingled
+weakness and severity, and ended in defeat. The cause of human freedom,
+perhaps for ages, depended upon the issue of the quarrel. Even the
+patriot minister merged the apparent interests of England in the
+interests of mankind. By the light of Lord Chatham's wisdom we may read
+the disastrous history of that fatal war, with a resigned and tempered
+sorrow for the glorious inheritance rent away from us forever.
+
+The reaction of the New World upon the Old may be distinctly traced
+through the past and the present, but human wisdom may not estimate its
+influence on the future. The lessons of freedom learned by the French
+army while aiding the revolted colonies against England were not
+forgotten. On their return to their native country, they spread abroad
+tidings that the new people of America had gained a treasure richer a
+thousand-fold than those which had gilded the triumphs of Cortes or
+Pizarro--the inestimable prize of liberty. Then the down-trampled
+millions of France arose, and with avaricious haste strove for a like
+treasure. They won a specious imitation, so soiled and stained, however,
+that many of the wisest among them could not at once detect its nature.
+They played with the coarse bawble for a time, then lost it in a sea of
+blood.
+
+Doubtless the tempest that broke upon France had long been gathering.
+The rays that emanated from such false suns as Voltaire and Rousseau had
+already drawn up a moral miasma from the swamps of sensual ignorance:
+under the shade of a worthless government these noxious mists collected
+into the clouds from whence the desolating storm of the Revolution
+burst. It was, however, the example of popular success in the New World,
+and the republican training of a portion of the French army during the
+American contest, that finally accelerated the course of events. A
+generation before the "Declaration of Independence" the struggle between
+the rival systems of Canada and New England had been watched by thinking
+men in Europe with deep interest, and the importance to mankind of its
+issue was fully felt. While France mourned the defeat of her armies and
+the loss of her magnificent colony, the keen-sighted philosopher of
+Ferney gave a banquet to celebrate the British triumph at Quebec, not as
+the triumph of England over France, but as that of freedom over
+despotism.[1]
+
+The overthrow of French by British power in America was not the effect
+of mere military superiority. The balance of general success and glory
+in the field is no more than shared with the conquered people. The
+morbid national vanity, which finds no delight but in the triumphs of
+the sword, will shrink from the study of this checkered story. The
+narrative of disastrous defeat and doubtful advantage must be endured
+before we arrive at that of the brilliant victory which crowned our arms
+with final success. We read with painful surprise of the rout and ruin
+of regular British regiments by a crowd of Indian savages, and of the
+bloody repulse of the most numerous army that had yet assembled round
+our standards in America before a few weak French battalions and an
+unfinished parapet.
+
+For the first few years our prosecution of the Canadian war was marked
+by a weakness little short of imbecility. The conduct of the troops was
+indifferent, the tactics of the generals bad, and the schemes of the
+minister worse. The coarse but powerful wit of Smollett and Fielding,
+and the keen sarcasms of "Chrysal," convey to us no very exalted idea of
+the composition of the British army in those days. The service had sunk
+into contempt. The withering influence of a corrupt patronage had
+demoralized the officers; successive defeats, incurred through the
+inefficiency of courtly generals, had depressed the spirit of the
+soldiery, and, were it not for the proof shown upon the bloody fields
+of La Feldt and Fontenoy, we might almost suppose that English manhood
+had become an empty name.
+
+Many of the battalions shipped off to take part in the American contest
+were hasty levies without organization or discipline: the colonel, a man
+of influence, with or without other qualifications, as the case might
+be; the officers, his neighbors and dependents. These armed mobs found
+themselves suddenly landed in a country, the natural difficulty of which
+would of itself have proved a formidable obstacle, even though
+unenhanced by the presence of an active and vigilant enemy. At the same
+time, there devolved upon them the duties and the responsibilities of
+regular troops. A due consideration of these circumstances tends to
+diminish the surprise which a comparison of their achievements with
+those recorded in our later military annals might create.
+
+Very different were the ranks of the American army from the magnificent
+regiments whose banners now bear the crowded records of Peninsular and
+Indian victory; who, within the recollection of living men, have stood
+as conquerors upon every hostile land, yet never once permitted a
+stranger to tread on England's sacred soil but as a prisoner, fugitive,
+or friend. In Cairo and Copenhagen; in Lisbon, Madrid, and Paris; in the
+ancient metropolis of China; in the capital of the young American
+republic, the British flag has been hailed as the symbol of a triumphant
+power or of a generous deliverance. Well may we cherish an honest pride
+in the prowess and military virtue of our soldiers, loyal alike to the
+crown and to the people; facing in battle, with unshaken courage, the
+deadly shot and sweeping charge, and, with a still loftier valor,
+enduring, in times of domestic troubles, the gibes and injuries of
+their misguided countrymen.
+
+In the stirring interest excited by the progress and rivalry of our
+kindred races in America, the sad and solemn subject of the Indian
+people is almost forgotten. The mysterious decree of Providence which
+has swept them away may not be judged by human wisdom. Their existence
+will soon be of the past. They have left no permanent impression on the
+constitution of the great nation which now spreads over their country.
+No trace of their blood, language, or manners may be found among their
+haughty successors. As certainly as their magnificent forests fell
+before the advancing tide of civilization, they fell also. Neither the
+kindness nor the cruelty of the white man arrested or hastened their
+inevitable fate. They withered alike under the Upas-shade of European
+protection and before the deadly storm of European hostility. As the
+snow in spring they melted away, stained, tainted, trampled down.
+
+The closing scene of French dominion in Canada was marked by
+circumstances of deep and peculiar interest. The pages of romance can
+furnish no more striking episode than the battle of Quebec. The skill
+and daring of the plan which brought on the combat, and the success and
+fortune of its execution, are unparalleled. There a broad, open plain,
+offering no advantages to either party, was the field of fight. The
+contending armies were nearly equal in military strength, if not in
+numbers. The chiefs of each were men already of honorable fame. France
+trusted firmly in the wise and chivalrous Montcalm; England trusted
+hopefully in the young and heroic Wolfe. The magnificent stronghold
+which was staked upon the issue of the strife stood close at hand. For
+miles and miles around, the prospect extended over as fair a land as
+ever rejoiced the sight of man; mountain and valley, forest and waters,
+city and solitude, grouped together in forms of almost ideal beauty.
+
+The strife was brief, but deadly. The September sun rose upon two
+gallant armies arrayed in unbroken pride, and noon of the same day saw
+the ground where they had stood strewn with the dying and the dead.
+Hundreds of the veterans of France had fallen in the ranks, from which
+they disdained to fly; the scene of his ruin faded fast from Montcalm's
+darkening sight, but the proud consciousness of having done his duty
+deprived defeat and death of their severest sting. Not more than a
+musket-shot away lay Wolfe; the heart that but an hour before had
+throbbed with great and generous impulse, now still forever. On the face
+of the dead there rested a triumphant smile, which the last agony had
+not overcast; a light of unfailing hope, that the shadows of the grave
+could not darken.
+
+The portion of history here recorded is no fragment. Within a period
+comparatively brief, we see the birth, the growth, and the catastrophe
+of a nation. The flag of France is erected at Quebec by a handful of
+hardy adventurers; a century and a half has passed, and that flag is
+lowered to a foreign foe before the sorrowing eyes of a Canadian people.
+This example is complete as that presented in the life of an individual:
+we see the natural sequence of events; the education and the character,
+the motive and the action, the error and the punishment. Through the
+following records may be clearly traced combinations of causes, remote,
+and even apparently opposed, uniting in one result, and also the
+surprising fertility of one great cause in producing many different
+results.
+
+Were we to read the records of history by the light of the understanding
+instead of by the fire of the passions, the study could be productive
+only of unmixed good; their examples and warnings would afford us
+constant guidance in the paths of public and private virtue. The narrow
+and unreasonable notion of exclusive national merit can not survive a
+fair glance over the vast map of time and space which history lays
+before us. We may not avert our eyes from those dark spots upon the
+annals of our beloved land where acts of violence and injustice stand
+recorded against her, nor may we suffer the blaze of military renown to
+dazzle our judgment. Victory may bring glory to the arms, while it
+brings shame to the councils of a people; for the triumphs of war are
+those of the general and the soldier; increase of honor, wisdom, and
+prosperity are the triumphs of the nation.
+
+The citizens of Rome placed the images of their ancestors in the
+vestibule, to recall the virtues of the dead, and to stimulate the
+emulation of the living. We also should fix our thoughts upon the
+examples which history presents, not in a vain spirit of selfish
+nationality, but in earnest reverence for the great and good of all
+countries, and a contempt for the false, and mean, and cruel even of our
+own.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: See Appendix, No. I. (see Vol II)]
+
+
+
+
+THE CONQUEST OF CANADA.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+
+The philosophers of remote antiquity acquired the important knowledge of
+the earth's spherical form; to their bold genius we are indebted for the
+outline of the geographical system now universally adopted. With a
+vigorous conception, but imperfect execution, they traced out the scheme
+of denoting localities by longitude and latitude: according to their
+teaching, the imaginary equatorial line, encompassing the earth, was
+divided into hours and degrees.
+
+Even at that distant period hardy adventurers had penetrated far away
+into the land of the rising sun, and many a wondrous tale was told of
+that mysterious empire, where one third of our fellow-men still stand
+apart from the brotherhood of nations. Among the various and astounding
+exaggerations induced by the vanity of the narrators, and the ignorance
+of their audience, none was more ready than that of distance. The
+journey, the labor of a life; each league of travel a new scene; the day
+crowded with incident, the night a dream of terror or admiration. Then,
+as the fickle will of the wanderer suggested, as the difficulties or
+encouragement of nature, and the hostility or aid of man impelled, the
+devious course bent to the north or south, was hastened, hindered, or
+retraced.
+
+By such vague and shadowy measurement as the speculations of these
+wanderers supplied, the sages of the past traced out the ideal limits of
+the dry land which, at the word of God, appeared from out the gathering
+together of the waters.[2]
+
+The most eminent geographer before the time of Ptolemy places the
+confines of Seres--the China of to-day--at nearly two thirds of the
+distance round the world, from the first meridian.[3] Ptolemy reduces
+the proportion to one half. Allowing for the supposed vast extent of
+this unknown country to the eastward, it was evident that its remotest
+shores approached our Western World. But, beyond the Pillars of
+Hercules, the dark and stormy waters of the Atlantic[5] forbade
+adventure. The giant minds of those days saw, even through the mists of
+ignorance and error, that the readiest course to reach this distant land
+must lie toward the setting sun, across the western ocean.[6] From over
+this vast watery solitude no traveler had ever brought back the story of
+his wanderings. The dim light of traditionary memory gave no guiding
+ray, the faint voice of rumor breathed not its mysterious secrets. Then
+poetic imagination filled the void; vast islands were conjured up out of
+the deep, covered with unheard-of luxuriance of vegetation, rich in
+mines of incalculable value, populous with a race of conquering
+warriors. But this magnificent vision was only created to be destroyed;
+a violent earthquake rent asunder in a day and a night the foundations
+of Atlantis, and the waters of the Western Ocean swept over the ruins of
+this once mighty empire.[7] In after ages we are told, that some
+Phoenician vessels, impelled by a strong east wind, were driven for
+thirty days across the Atlantic: there they found a part of the sea
+where the surface was covered with rushes and sea-weed, somewhat
+resembling a vast inundated meadow.[8] The voyagers ascribed these
+strange appearances to some cause connected with the submerged Atlantis,
+and even in later years they were held by many as confirmation of
+Plato's marvelous story.[9]
+
+In the Carthaginian annals is found the mention of a fertile and
+beautiful island of the distant Atlantic. Many adventurous men of that
+maritime people were attracted thither by the delightful climate and the
+riches of the soil; it was deemed of such value and importance that they
+proposed to transfer the seat of their republic to its shores in case of
+any irreparable disaster at home. But at length the Senate, fearing the
+evils of a divided state, denounced the distant colony, and decreed the
+punishment of death to those who sought it for a home. If there be any
+truth in this ancient tale, it is probable that one of the Canary
+Islands was its subject.[10]
+
+Although the New World in the West was unknown to the ancients, there is
+no doubt that they entertained a suspicion of its existence;[11] the
+romance of Plato--the prophecy of Seneca, were but the offsprings of
+this vague idea. Many writers tell us it was conjectured that, by
+sailing from the coast of Spain, the eastern shores of India might be
+reached;[13] the length of the voyage, or the wonders that might lie in
+its course, imagination alone could measure or describe. Whatever might
+have been the suspicion or belief[14] of ancient time, we may feel
+assured that none then ventured to seek these distant lands, nor have we
+reason to suppose that any of the civilized European races gave
+inhabitants to the New World before the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+To the barbarous hordes of Northeastern Asia America must have long been
+known as the land where many of their wanderers found a home. It is not
+surprising that from them no information was obtained; but it is strange
+that the bold and adventurous Northmen should have visited it nearly
+five hundred years before the great Genoese, and have suffered their
+wonderful discovery to remain hidden from the world, and to become
+almost forgotten among themselves.[15]
+
+In the year 1001 the Icelanders touched upon the American coast, and for
+nearly two centuries subsequent visits were repeatedly made by them and
+the Norwegians, for the purpose of commerce or for the gratification of
+curiosity. Biorn Heriolson, an Icelander, was the first discoverer:
+steering for Greenland, he was driven to the south by tempestuous and
+unfavorable winds, and saw different parts of America, without, however,
+touching at any of them. Attracted by the report of this voyage, Leif,
+son of Eric, the discoverer of Greenland, fitted out a vessel to pursue
+the same adventure. He passed the coast visited by Biorn, and steered
+southwest till he reached a strait between a large island and the main
+land. Finding the country fertile and pleasant, he passed the winter
+near this place, and gave it the name of Vinland,[16] from the wild vine
+which grew there in great abundance.[17] The winter days were longer in
+this new country than in Greenland, and the weather was more temperate.
+
+Leif returned to Greenland in the spring; his brother Thorvald succeeded
+him, and remained two winters in Vinland exploring much of the coast and
+country.[19] In the course of the third summer the natives, now called
+Esquimaux, were first seen; on account of their diminutive stature the
+adventurers gave them the name of _Skraelingar_.[20] These poor savages,
+irritated by an act of barbarous cruelty, attacked the Northmen with
+darts and arrows, and Thorvald fell a victim to their vengeance. A
+wealthy Icelander, named Thorfinn, established a regular colony in
+Vinland soon after this event; the settlers increased rapidly in
+numbers, and traded with the natives for furs and skins to great
+advantage. After three years the adventurers returned to Iceland
+enriched by the expedition, and reported favorably upon the new country.
+Little is known of this settlement after Thorfinn's departure till early
+in the twelfth century, when a bishop of Greenland[21] went there to
+promulgate the Christian faith among the colonists; beyond that time
+scarcely a notice of its existence occurs, and the name and situation of
+the ancient Vinland soon passed away from the knowledge of man. Whether
+the adventurous colonists ever returned, or became blended with the
+natives,[22] or perished by their hands, no record remains to tell.[23]
+
+Discoveries such as these by the ancient Scandinavians--fruitless to the
+world and almost buried in oblivion--can not dim the glory of that
+transcendant genius to whom we owe the knowledge of a New World.
+
+The claim of the Welsh to the first discovery of America seems to rest
+upon no better original authority than that of Meridith-ap-Rees, a bard
+who died in the year 1477. His verses only relate that Prince Madoc,
+wearied with dissensions at home, searched the ocean for a new kingdom.
+The tale of this adventurer's voyages and colonization was written one
+hundred years subsequent to the early Spanish discoveries, and seems to
+be merely a fanciful completion of his history: he probably perished in
+the unknown seas. It is certain that neither the ancient principality
+nor the world reaped any benefit from these alleged discoveries.[24]
+
+In the middle of the thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth
+centuries, the Venetian Marco Polo[25] and the Englishman Mandeville[26]
+awakened the curiosity of Europe with respect to the remote parts of the
+earth. Wise and discerning men selected the more valuable portions of
+their observations; ideas were enlarged, and a desire for more perfect
+information excited a thirst for discovery. While this spirit was
+gaining strength in Europe, the wonderful powers of the magnet were
+revealed to the Western World.[27] The invention of the mariner's
+compass aided and extended navigation more than all the experience and
+adventure of preceding ages: the light of the stars, the guidance of the
+sea-coast, were no longer necessary; trusting to the mysterious powers
+of his new friend, the sailor steered out fearlessly into the ocean,
+through the bewildering mists or the darkness of night.
+
+The Spaniards were the first to profit by the bolder spirit and improved
+science of navigation. About the beginning of the fourteenth century,
+they were led to the accidental discovery of the Canary Islands,[28] and
+made repeated voyages thither, plundering the wretched inhabitants, and
+carrying them off as slaves.[29] Pope Clement VI. conferred these
+countries as a kingdom upon Louis de la Cerda, of the royal race of
+Castile; he, however, was powerless to avail himself of the gift, and it
+passed to the stronger hand of John de Bethancourt, a Norman baron.[30]
+The countrymen of this bold adventurer explored the seas far to the
+south of the Canary Islands, and acquired some knowledge of the coast of
+Africa.
+
+The glory of leading the career of systematic exploration belongs to the
+Portuguese:[31] their attempts were not only attended with considerable
+success, but gave encouragement and energy to those efforts that were
+crowned by the discovery of a world: among them the great Genoese was
+trained, and their steps in advance matured the idea, and aided the
+execution of his design. The nations of Europe had now begun to cast
+aside the errors and prejudices of their ancestors. The works of the
+ancient Greeks and Romans were eagerly searched for information, and
+former discoveries brought to light.[32] The science of the Arabians was
+introduced and cultivated by the Moors and Jews, and geometry,
+astronomy, and geography were studied as essential to the art of
+navigation.
+
+In the year 1412, the Portuguese doubled Cape Non, the limit of ancient
+enterprise. For upward of seventy years afterward they pursued their
+explorations, with more or less of vigor and success, along the African
+coast, and among the adjacent islands. By intercourse with the people of
+these countries they gradually acquired some knowledge of lands yet
+unvisited. Experience proved that the torrid zone was not closed to the
+enterprise of man.[33] They found that the form of the continent
+contracted as it stretched southward, and that it tended toward the
+east. Then they brought to mind the accounts of the ancient Phoenician
+voyagers round Africa,[34] long deemed fabulous, and the hope arose that
+they might pursue the same career, and win for themselves the
+magnificent prize of Indian commerce. In the year 1486 the adventurous
+Bartholomew Diaz[35] first reached the Cape of Good Hope; soon afterward
+the information gained by Pedro de Covilham, in his overland journey,
+confirmed the consequent sanguine expectations of success. The attention
+of Europe was now fully aroused, and the progress of the Portuguese was
+watched with admiration and suspense. But during this interval, while
+all eyes were turned with anxious interest toward the East, a little
+bark, leaky and tempest-tossed, sought shelter in the Tagus.[36] It had
+come from the Far West--over that stormy sea where, from the creation
+until then, had brooded an impenetrable mystery. It bore the richest
+freight[37] that ever lay upon the bosom of the deep--the tidings of a
+New World.[38]
+
+It would be but tedious to repeat here all the well-known story of
+Christopher Columbus;[39] his early dangers and adventures, his
+numerous voyages, his industry, acquirements, and speculations, and how
+at length the great idea arose in his mind, and matured itself into a
+conviction; then how conviction led to action, checked and interrupted,
+but not weakened, by the doubts of pedantic ignorance,[40] and the
+treachery,[41] coolness, or contempt of courts. On Friday,[42] the 3d
+of August, 1492, a squadron of three small, crazy ships, bearing ninety
+men, sailed from the port of Palos, in Andalusia. Columbus, the
+commander and pilot, was deeply impressed with sentiments of religion;
+and, as the spread of Christianity was one great object of the
+expedition, he and his followers before their departure had implored the
+blessing of Heaven[43] upon the voyage, from which they might never
+return.
+
+They steered at first for the Canaries, over a well-known course; but on
+the 6th of September they sailed from Gomera, the most distant of those
+islands, and, leaving the usual track of navigation, stretched westward
+into the unknown sea. And still ever westward for six-and-thirty days
+they bent their course through the dreary desert of waters; terrified by
+the changeless wind that wafted them hour after hour further into the
+awful solitude, and seemed to forbid the prospect of return; bewildered
+by the altered hours of day and night, and more than all by the
+mysterious variation of their only guide, for the magnetic needle no
+longer pointed to the pole.[44] Then strange appearances in the sea
+aroused new fears: vast quantities of weeds covered the surface,
+retarding the motion of the vessels; the sailors imagined that they had
+reached the utmost boundary of the navigable ocean, and that they were
+rushing blindly into the rocks and quicksands of some submerged
+continent.
+
+The master mind turned all these strange novelties into omens of
+success. The changeless wind was the favoring breath of the Omnipotent;
+the day lengthened as they followed the sun's course; an ingenious
+fiction explained the inconstancy of the needle; the vast fields of
+sea-weed bespoke a neighboring shore; and the flight of unknown
+birds[45] was hailed with happy promise. But as time passed on, and
+brought no fulfillment of their hopes, the spirits of the timid began to
+fail; the flattering appearances of land had repeatedly deceived them;
+they were now very far beyond the limit of any former voyage. From the
+timid and ignorant these doubts spread upward, and by degrees the
+contagion extended from ship to ship: secret murmurs rose to
+conspiracies, complaints, and mutiny. They affirmed that they had
+already performed their duty in so long pursuing an unknown and hopeless
+course, and that they would no more follow a desperate adventurer to
+destruction. Some even proposed to cast their leader into the sea.
+
+The menaces and persuasions that had so often enabled Columbus to
+overcome the turbulence and fears of his followers now ceased to be of
+any avail. He gave way to an irresistible necessity, and promised that
+he would return to Spain, if unsuccessful in their search for three days
+more. To this brief delay the mutineers consented. The signs of land now
+brought almost certainty to the mind of the great leader. The
+sounding-line brought up such soil as is only found near the shore:
+birds were seen of a kind supposed never to venture on a long flight. A
+piece of newly-cut cane floated past, and a branch of a tree bearing
+fresh berries was taken up by the sailors. The clouds around the setting
+sun wore a new aspect, and the breeze became warm and variable. On the
+evening of the 11th of October every sail was furled, and strict watch
+kept, lest the ships might drift ashore during the night.
+
+On board the admiral's vessel all hands were invariably assembled for
+the evening hymn; on this occasion a public prayer for success was
+added, and with those holy sounds Columbus hailed the appearance of that
+small, shifting light,[46] which crowned with certainty his
+long-cherished hope,[47] turned his faith into realization,[48] and
+stamped his name forever upon the memory of man.[49]
+
+It was by accident only that England had been deprived of the glory of
+these great discoveries. Columbus, when repulsed by the courts of
+Portugal and Spain, sent his brother Bartholomew to London,[50] to lay
+his projects before Henry VII., and seek assistance for their execution.
+The king, although the most penurious of European princes, saw the vast
+advantage of the offer, and at once invited the great Genoese to his
+court. Bartholomew was, however, captured by pirates on his return
+voyage, and detained till too late, for in the mean while Isabella of
+Castile had adopted the project of Columbus, and supplied the means for
+the expedition.
+
+Henry VII. was not discouraged by this disappointment: two years after
+the discoveries of Columbus became known in England, the king entered
+into an arrangement with John Cabot, an adventurous Venetian merchant,
+resident at Bristol, and, on the 5th of March, 1495, granted him letters
+patent for conquest and discovery. Henry stipulated that one fifth of
+the gains in this enterprise was to be retained for the crown, and that
+the vessels engaged in it should return to the port of Bristol. On the
+24th of June, 1497, Cabot discovered the coast of Labrador, and gave it
+the name of _Primavista_. This was, without doubt, the first visit of
+Europeans to the Continent of North America,[51] since the time of the
+Scandinavian voyages. A large island lay opposite to this shore: from
+the vast quantity of fish frequenting the neighboring waters, the
+sailors called it _Bacallaos_.[53] Cabot gave this country the name of
+St. John's, having landed there on St. John's day. Newfoundland has long
+since superseded both appellations. John Cabot returned to England in
+August of the same year, and was knighted and otherwise rewarded by the
+king; he survived but a very short time in the enjoyment of his fame,
+and his son Sebastian Cabot, although only twenty-three years of age,
+succeeded him in the command of an expedition destined to seek a
+northwest passage to the South Seas.
+
+Sebastian Cabot sailed in the summer of 1498: he soon reached
+Newfoundland, and thence proceeded north as far as the fifty-eighth
+degree. Having failed in discovering the hoped-for passage, he returned
+toward the south, examining the coast as far as the southern boundary of
+Maryland, and perhaps Virginia. After a long interval, the enterprising
+mariner again, in 1517, sailed for America, and entered the bay[54]
+which, a century afterward, received the name of Hudson. If prior
+discovery confer a right of possession, there is no doubt that the whole
+eastern coast of the North American Continent may be justly claimed by
+the English race.[55]
+
+Gaspar Cortereal was the next voyager in the succession of discoverers:
+he had been brought up in the household of the King of Portugal, but
+nourished an ardent spirit of enterprise and thirst for glory, despite
+the enervating influences of a court. He sailed early in the year 1500,
+and pursued the track of John Cabot as far as the northern point of
+Newfoundland; to him is due the discovery of the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence,[56] and he also pushed on northward, by the coast of
+Labrador,[57] almost to the entrance of Hudson's Bay. The adventurer
+returned to Lisbon in October of the same year. This expedition was
+undertaken more for mercantile advantage than for the advancement of
+knowledge; timber and slaves seem to have been the objects; no less than
+fifty-seven of the natives were brought back to Portugal, and doomed to
+bondage. These unhappy savages proved so robust and useful, that great
+benefits were anticipated from trading on their servitude;[58] the
+dreary and distant land of their birth, covered with snow for half the
+year, was despised by the Portuguese, whose thoughts and hopes were ever
+turned to the fertile plains, the sunny skies, and the inexhaustible
+treasures of the East.[59]
+
+But disaster and destruction soon fell upon these bold and merciless
+adventurers. In a second voyage, the ensuing year, Cortereal and all his
+followers were lost at sea: when some time had elapsed without tidings
+of their fate, his brother sailed to seek them; but he too, probably,
+perished in the stormy waters of the North Atlantic, for none of them
+were ever heard of more. The King of Portugal, feeling a deep interest
+in these brothers, fitted out three armed vessels and sent them to the
+northwest. Inquiries were made along the wild shores which Cortereal had
+first explored, without trace or tidings being found of the bold
+mariner, and the ocean was searched for many months, but the deep still
+keeps it secret.
+
+Florida was discovered in 1512 by Ponce de Leon, one of the most eminent
+among the followers of Columbus. The Indians had told him wonderful
+tales of a fountain called Bimini, in an island of these seas; the
+fountain possessed the power, they said, of restoring instantly youth
+and vigor to those who bathed in its waters. He sailed for months in
+search of this miraculous spring, landing at every point, entering each
+port, however shallow or dangerous, still ever hoping; but in the weak
+and presumptuous effort to grasp at a new life, he wasted away his
+strength and energy, and prematurely brought on those ills of age he had
+vainly hoped to shun. Nevertheless, this wild adventure bore its
+wholesome fruits, for Ponce de Leon then first brought to the notice of
+Europe that beautiful land which, from its wonderful fertility and the
+splendor of its flowers, obtained the name of Florida.[60]
+
+The first attempt made by the French to share in the advantages of these
+discoveries was in the year 1504. Some Basque and Breton fishermen at
+that time began to ply their calling on the Great Bank of Newfoundland,
+and along the adjacent shores. From them the Island of Cape Breton
+received its name. In 1506, Jean Denys, a man of Harfleur, drew a map of
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Two years afterward, a pilot of Dieppe, named
+Thomas Aubert, excited great curiosity in France by bringing over some
+of the savage natives from the New World: there is no record whence they
+were taken, but it is supposed from Cape Breton. The reports borne back
+to France by these hardy fishermen and adventurers were not such as to
+raise sanguine hopes of riches from the bleak northern regions they had
+visited: no teeming fertility or genial climate tempted the settler, no
+mines of gold or silver excited the avarice of the soldier;[61] and for
+many years the French altogether neglected to profit by their
+discoveries.
+
+In the mean time, Pope Alexander VI. issued a bull bestowing the whole
+of the New World upon the kings of Spain and Portugal.[62] Neither
+England nor France allowed the right of conferring this magnificent and
+undefined gift; it did not throw the slightest obstacle in the path of
+British enterprise and discovery, and the high-spirited Francis I. of
+France refused to acknowledge the papal decree.[63]
+
+In the year 1523, Francis I. fitted out a squadron of four ships to
+pursue discovery[64] in the west; the command was intrusted to Giovanni
+Verazzano, of Florence, a navigator of great skill and experience, then
+residing in France: he was about thirty-eight years of age, nobly born,
+and liberally educated; the causes that induced him to leave his own
+country and take service in France are not known. It has often been
+remarked as strange that three Italians should have directed the
+discoveries of Spain, England, and France, and thus become the
+instruments of dividing the dominions of the New World among alien
+powers, while their own classic land reaped neither glory nor advantage
+from the genius and courage of her sons. Of this first voyage the only
+record remaining is a letter from Verazzano to Francis I., dated 8th of
+July, 1524, merely stating that he had returned in safety to Dieppe.
+
+At the beginning of the following year Verazzano fitted out and armed a
+vessel called the Dauphine, manned with a crew of thirty hands, and
+provisioned for eight months. He first directed his course to Madeira;
+having reached that island in safety, he left it on the 17th of January
+and steered for the west. After a narrow escape from the violence of a
+tempest, and having proceeded for about nine hundred leagues, a long,
+low line of coast rose to view, never before seen by ancient or modern
+navigators. This country appeared thickly peopled by a vigorous race, of
+tall stature and athletic form; fearing to risk a landing at first with
+his weak force, the adventurer contented himself with admiring at a
+distance the grandeur and beauty of the scenery, and enjoying the
+delightful mildness of the climate. From this place he followed the
+coast for about fifty leagues to the south, without discovering any
+harbor or inlet where he might shelter his vessel; he then retraced his
+course and steered to the north. After some time Verazzano ventured to
+send a small boat on shore to examine the country more closely: numbers
+of savages came to the water's edge to meet the strangers, and gazed on
+them with mingled feelings of surprise, admiration, joy, and fear. He
+again resumed his northward course, till, driven by want of water, he
+armed the small boat and sent it once more toward the land to seek a
+supply; the waves and surf, however, were so great that it could not
+reach the shore. The natives assembled on the beach, by their signs and
+gestures, eagerly invited the French to approach: one young sailor, a
+bold swimmer, threw himself into the water, bearing some presents for
+the savages, but his heart failed him on a nearer approach, and he
+turned to regain the boat; his strength was exhausted, however, and a
+heavy sea washed him, almost insensible, up upon the beach. The Indians
+treated him with great kindness, and, when he had sufficiently
+recovered, sent him back in safety to the ship.[65]
+
+Verazzano pursued his examination of the coast with untiring zeal, narrowly
+searching every inlet for a passage through to the westward, until he
+reached the great island known to the Breton fishermen--Newfoundland. In
+this important voyage he surveyed more than two thousand miles of coast,
+nearly all that of the present United States, and a great portion of
+British North America.
+
+A short time after Verazzano's return to Europe, he fitted out another
+expedition, with the sanction of Francis I., for the establishment of a
+colony in the newly-discovered countries. Nothing certain is known of
+the fate of this enterprise, but the bold navigator returned to France
+no more; the dread inspired by his supposed fate[66] deterred the French
+king and people from any further adventure across the Atlantic during
+many succeeding years. In later times it has come to light that
+Verazzano was alive thirteen years after this period:[67] those best
+informed on the subject are of opinion that the enterprise fell to the
+ground in consequence of Francis I. having been captured by the Emperor
+Charles V., and that the adventurer withdrew himself from the service of
+France, having lost his patron's support.
+
+The year after the failure of Verazzano's last enterprise, 1525, Stefano
+Gomez sailed from Spain for Cuba and Florida; thence he steered
+northward in search of the long-hoped-for passage to India, till he
+reached Cape Race, on the south-eastern extremity of Newfoundland. The
+further details of his voyage remain unknown, but there is reason to
+suppose that he entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and traded upon its
+shores. An ancient Castilian tradition existed that the Spaniards
+visited these coasts before the French, and having perceived no
+appearance of mines or riches, they exclaimed frequently, "Aca
+nada;"[68] the natives caught up the sound, and when other Europeans
+arrived, repeated it to them. The strangers concluded that these words
+were a designation, and from that time this magnificent country bore the
+name of CANADA.[70]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: "La sphericite de la terre etant reconnue, l'etendue de la
+terre habitee en longitude determine, en meme temps la largeur de
+l'Atlantique entre les cotes occidentales d'Europe et d'Afrique et les
+cotes orientales d'Asie par differens degres de latitude. Eratosthene
+(Strabo, ii., p. 87, Cas.) evalue la circonference de l'equateur a
+252,000 stades, et la largeur de la _chlamyde_ du Cap Sacre (Cap Saint
+Vincent) a l'extremite de la grande ceinture de Taurus, pres de Thinae a
+70,000 stades. En prolongeant la distance vers le sud est jusque au cap
+des Coliaques qui, d'apres les idees de Strabon sur la configuration de
+l'Asie, represente notre Cap Comorin, et avance plus a l'est que la cote
+de Thinae, la combinaison des donnees d'Eratosthene offre 74,600 et meme
+78,000 stades. Or, en reduisant, par la difference de latitude, le
+perimetre equatorial au parallele de Rhodes, des portes Caspiennes et de
+Thinae c'est a dire, au parallele de 36 deg. 0' et non de 36 deg. 21', on trouve
+203,872 stades, et pour largeur de la terre habitee, par le parallele de
+Rhodes, 67,500 stades. Strabon dit par consequence avec justesse, dans
+le fameux passage ou il semble predire l'existence du Nouveau Continent,
+en parlant de deux terres habitees dans la meme zone temperee boreale
+que les terres occupent plus du tiers de la circonference du parallele
+qui passe par Thinae. Par cette supposition la distance de l'Iberie aux
+Indes est au dela de 236 deg. a peu pres 240 deg.. Ou peut etre surpris de voir
+que le resultat le plus ancien est aussi le plus exact de tous ceux que
+nous trouvons en descendant d'Eratosthene par Posidonius aux temps de
+Marin de Tyr et de Ptolemee. La terre habitee offre effectivement,
+d'apres nos connaissances actuelles, entre les 36 deg. et 37 deg. 130 degres
+d'etendue en longitude; il y a par consequent des cotes de la Chine au
+Cap Sacre a travers l'ocean de l'est a l'ouest 230 degres. L'accord que
+je nommerai accidentel de cette vraie distance et de l'evaluation
+d'Eratosthene atteint done dix degres en longitude. Posidonius
+'soupconne (c'est l'expression de Strabon, lib. ii., p. 102, Cas.), que
+la longueur de la terre habitee laquelle est, selon lui, d'environ
+70,000 stades, doit former la moitie du cercle entier sur lequel le
+mesure se prend, et qu' ainsi a partir de l'extremite occidentale de
+cette meme terre habitee, en naviguant avec un vent d'est continuel
+l'espace de 70,000 autres stades, ou arriverait dans l'Inde."--Humboldt's
+_Geographie du Nouveau Continent_.]
+
+[Footnote 3: "La longueur de la terre habitee comprise entre les
+meridiens des iles Fortunees et de Sera etoit, d'apres Marin de Tyr
+(Ptol., Geogr., lib. i., cap. 11) de 15 heures ou de 225 deg.. C'etoit
+avancer les cotes de la Chine jusqu'au meridien des iles Sandwich, et
+reduire l'espace a parcourir des iles Canaries aux cotes orientales de
+l'Asie a 135 deg., erreur de 86 deg. en longitude. La grande extension de
+23-1/2 deg. que les anciens donnoient a la mer Caspienne, contribuoit
+egalement beaucoup a augmenter la largeur de l'Asie. Ptolemee a laisse
+intacte, dans l'evaluation de la terre habitee, selon Posidonius, la
+distance des iles Fortunees au passage de l'Euphrate a Hierapolis. Les
+reductions de Ptolemee ne portent que sur les distances de l'Euphrate a
+_la Tour de Pierre_ et de cette tour a la metropole des Seres. Les 225 deg.
+de Marin de Tyr deviennent, selon l'Almagest (lib. ii., p. 1) 180 deg.,
+selon la Geographie de Ptolemee (lib. i., p. 12) 177-1/4 deg.. Les cotes des
+Sinae[4] reculent donc du meridien des iles Sandwich vers celui des
+Carolines orientales, et l'espace a parcourir par mer en longitude
+n'etoit plus de 135 deg., mais de 180 deg. a 182-3/4 deg.. Il etoit dans les
+interets de Christophe Colomb de preferer de beaucoup les calculs de
+Marin de Tyr a ceux de Ptolemee et a force de conjectures Colomb
+parvient a restreindre l'espace de l'Ocean qui lui restait a traverser
+des iles du cap Vert au Cathay de l'Asie orientale a 128 deg." (_Vida del
+Almirante_).--Humboldt's _Geographie du Nouveau Continent_, vol. ii., p.
+364.]
+
+[Footnote 4: In opposition to the opinion of Malte Brun and M. de
+Josselin, Mr. Hugh Murray is considered to have satisfactorily proved
+the correctness of Ptolemy's assertion that the Seres or Sinae are
+identical with the Chinese.--See _Trans. of the Royal Society of
+Edinburgh_, vol. viii., p. 171.]
+
+[Footnote 5: That the vast waters of the Atlantic were regarded with
+"awe and wonder, seeming to bound the world as with a chaos," needs no
+greater proof than the description given of it by Xerif al Edrizi, an
+eminent Arabian writer, whose countrymen were the boldest navigators of
+the Middle Ages, and possessed all that was then known of geography.
+"The ocean," he observes, "encircles the ultimate bounds of the
+inhabited earth, and all beyond it is unknown. No one has been able to
+verify any thing concerning it, on account of its difficult and perilous
+navigation, its great obscurity, its profound depth, and frequent
+tempests; through fear of its mighty fishes and its haughty winds; yet
+there are many islands in it, some peopled, others uninhabited. There is
+no mariner who dares to enter into its deep waters; or if any have done
+so, they have merely kept along its coasts, fearful of departing from
+them. The waves of this ocean, though they roll as high as mountains,
+yet maintain themselves without breaking; for if they broke it would be
+impossible for ship to plow them."--_Description of Spain_, by Xerif al
+Edrizi: Conde's Spanish translation. Madrid, 1799.--Quoted by Washington
+Irving.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Aristotle, Strabo, Pliny, and Seneca arrived at this
+conclusion. The idea, however, of an intervening continent never appears
+to have suggested itself.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 7: In the Atlantic Ocean, over against the Pillars of
+Hercules, lay an island larger than Asia and Africa taken together, and
+in its vicinity were other islands. The ocean in which these islands
+were situated was surrounded on every side by main-land; and the
+Mediterranean, compared with it, resembled a mere harbor or narrow
+entrance. Nine thousand years before the time of Plato this island of
+Atlantis was both thickly settled and very powerful. Its sway extended
+over Africa as far as Egypt, and over Europe as far as the Tyrrhenian
+Sea. The further progress of its conquests, however, was checked by the
+Athenians, who, partly with the other Greeks, partly by themselves,
+succeeded in defeating these powerful invaders, the natives of Atlantis.
+After this a violent earthquake, which lasted for the space of a day and
+a night, and was accompanied with inundations of the sea, caused the
+islands to sink; and for a long period subsequent to this, the sea in
+that quarter was impassable by reason of the slime and shoals.--Plato,
+_Tim._, 24-29, 296; _Crit._, 108-110, 39, 43. The learned Gessner is of
+opinion that the Isle of Ceres, spoken of in a poem of very high
+antiquity, attributed to Orpheus, was a fragment of Atlantis. Kircher,
+in his "Mundus Subterraneus," and Beckman, in his "History of Islands,"
+suppose the Atlantis to have been an island extending from the Canaries
+to the Azores; that it was really ingulfed in one of the convulsions of
+the globe, and that those small islands are mere fragments of it.
+Gosselin, in his able research into the voyages of the ancients,
+supposes the Atlantis of Plato to have been nothing more nor less than
+one of the nearest of the Canaries, viz, Fortaventura or Lancerote.
+Carli and many others find America in the Atlantis, and adduce many
+plausible arguments in support of their assertion.--Carli, _Letters
+Amer._; Fr. transl., ii., 180. M. Bailly, in his "Letters sur
+l'Atlantide de Platon," maintains the existence of the Atlantides, and
+their island Atlantis, by the authorities of Homer, Sanchoniathon, and
+Diodorus Siculus, in addition to that of Plato. Manheim maintains very
+strenuously that Plato's Atlantis is Sweden and Norway. M. Bailly, after
+citing many ancient testimonies, which concur in placing this famous
+isle in the north, quotes that of Plutarch, who confirms these
+testimonies by a circumstantial description of the Isle of Ogygia, or
+the Atlantis, which he represents as situated in the north of Europe.
+The following is the theory of Buffon: after citing the passage relating
+to the Atlantis, from Plato's "Timaeus," he adds, "This ancient tradition
+is not devoid of probability. The lands swallowed up by the waters were,
+perhaps, those which united Ireland to the Azores, and the Azores to the
+Continent of America; for in Ireland there are the same fossils, the
+same shells, and the same sea bodies as appear in America, and some of
+them are found in no other part of Europe."--Buffon's _Nat. Hist._, by
+Smellie, vol. i., p. 507.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The first authentic description of the Mar di Sargasso of
+Aristotle is due to Columbus. It spreads out between the nineteenth and
+thirty-fourth degrees of north latitude. Its chief axis lies about seven
+degrees to the westward of the Island of Corvo. The smaller bank, on the
+other hand, lies between the Bermudas and Bahamas. The winds and partial
+currents in different years slightly affect the position and extent of
+these Atlantic "sea-weed meadows." No other sea in either hemisphere
+displays a similar extent of surface covered by plants collected in this
+way. These meadows of the ocean present the wonderful spectacle of a
+collection of plants covering a space nearly seven times as large as
+France.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 9: See Appendix, No. II. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 10: See Aristotle, _De Mirab. Auscult._, cap. lxxxiv., 84, p.
+836, Bekk. This work, "A Collection of Wonderful Narratives," is
+attributed to Aristotle; the real compiler is unknown. According to
+Humboldt, it seems to have been written before the first Punic
+war.--Diodorus of Sicily, vol. xix. Aristotle attributes the discovery
+of the island to the Carthaginians; Diodorus to the Phoenicians. The
+occurrence is said to have taken place in the earliest times of the
+Tyrrhenian dominion of the sea, during the contest between the
+Tyrrhenian Pelasgi and the Phoenicians. The Island of the Seven Cities
+(see Appendix, No. II.) was identified with the island mentioned by
+Aristotle as having been discovered by the Carthaginians, and was
+inserted in the early maps under the name of Antilla. Paul Toscanelli,
+the celebrated physician of Florence, thus writes to Columbus: "From the
+Island of Antilia, which you call the Seven Cities, and of which you
+have some knowledge," &c. In the Middle Ages conjectures were
+religiously inscribed upon the maps, as is proved by Antilia, St.
+Borondon (see Appendix), the Hand of Satan, Green Island, Maida Island,
+and the exact form of vast southern regions. Humboldt refers the name of
+Antilia so far back as the fourteenth century. The earliest date given
+by Ferdinand Columbus is 1436. "Beyond the Azores, but at no great
+distance toward the west, occurs the Ysola de Antilia, which we may
+conclude, even allowing the date of the map to be genuine (in the
+library of St. Mark, at Venice, date 1436), to be a mere gratuitous or
+theoretic supposition, and to have received that strange name because
+the obvious and natural idea of antipodes has been anathematized by
+Catholic ignorance." He elsewhere says that "some Portuguese
+cosmographers have inserted the island described by Aristotle in maps
+under the name of Antilia."--_Hist. of the Discovery of America_, by Don
+Ferdinand Columbus, in Ker, vol. iii., p. 3-29.
+
+The origin of the name Antilla, or Antilia, is still a matter of
+conjecture. Humboldt attributes to a "litterateur distingue" the
+solution of the enigma, from a passage in Aristotle's "De Mundo," which
+speaks of the probable existence of unknown lands opposite to the mass
+of continents which we inhabit. These countries, be they small or great,
+whose shores are opposed to ours, were marked out by the word
+_porthornoi_, which in the Middle Ages was translated by _antinsulae_.
+Humboldt says that this translation is totally incorrect; however, the
+idea of the "litterateur distingue" is evidently the same as Ferdinand
+Columbus's. The following is the hypothesis favored by Humboldt:
+"Peut-etre meme le nom d'Antilia qui parait pour la premiere fois sur
+une carte Venitienne de 1436 n'est il qu'une forme Portuguaise donnee a
+un nom geographique des Arabes. L'etymologie que hasarde M. Buace me
+parait tres ingenieuse.... La syllabe initiale me parait la corruption
+de l'article Arabe. D'al Tinnin et d'Al tin on aura fait peu a peu
+Antinna et Antilla, comme par un deplacement analogue de consonnes, les
+Espagnols ont fait de crocodilo, corcodilo et cocodrilo. Le Dragon est
+_al Tin_, et l'Antilia est peut-etre, l'ile des dragons
+marins."--Humboldt's _Ex. Crit._, vol. ii., 211.
+
+Oviedo applies the relation of Aristotle to the Hesperian Islands, and
+asserts that they were the "India" discovered by Columbus. "Perche egli
+(Colombo) conobbe come era in effetto che queste terre che egli ben
+ritrovava scritte, erano del tutto uscite dalla memoria degli uomin; e
+io per me non dubito che si sapissero, e possedessero anticamente dalli
+Re de Spagna: e voglio qui dire quello che Aristotele in questo caso ne
+scrisse, &c.... io tengo che queste Indie siano quelle autiche e famose
+Isole Hesperide cose dette da Hespero 12 Re di Spagna. Or come la Spagna
+e l'Italia tolsero il nome da Hespero 12 Re di Spagna cosi anco da
+questo istesso ex torsero queste isole Hesperidi, che noi diciamo, _onde
+senza_ alcun dubbio si de tenere, che in quel tempe questo isole sotto
+la signoria della Spagna stessero, e sotto un medesmo Re, che fu (come
+Beroso dice) 1658 anni prima che il nostro Salvatore nascesse. E perche
+al presente siamo nel 1535 della salute nostra, ne segue che siano ora
+tre milo e cento novantatre anni che la Spagna e'l suo Re Hespero
+signoreggiavano queste Indie o Isole Hesperidi. E come cosa sua par che
+abbia la divina giustizia voluto ritornargliele."--_Hist. Gen. dell'
+Indie de Gonzalo Fernando d'Oviedo_, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 80.]
+
+[Footnote 11: "It is very possible that in the same temperate zone, and
+almost in the same latitude as Thinae (or Athens?), where it crosses the
+Atlantic Ocean, there are inhabited worlds, distinct from that in which
+we dwell."[12]--Strabo, lib. i., p. 65, and lib. ii., p. 118. It is
+surprising that this expression never attracted the attention of the
+Spanish authors, who, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, were
+searching every where in classical literature with the expectation of
+finding some traces of acquaintance with the New World.]
+
+[Footnote 12: "The idea of such a locality in a continuation of the long
+axis of the Mediterranean was connected with a grand view of the earth
+by Eratosthenes (generally and extensively known among the ancients),
+according to which the entire ancient continent, in its widest expanse
+from west to east, in the parallel of about thirty-six degrees, presents
+an almost unbroken line of elevation."--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 13: "D'Anville a dit avec esprit que la plus grande des
+erreurs dans la geographie de Ptolemee a conduit les hommes a la plus
+grande decouverte de terres nouvelles c'est, a dire la supposition que
+l'Asie s'etendait vers l'est, au dela du 180 degre de longitude."
+
+Both Strabo and Aristotle speak of "the same sea bathing opposite
+shores," Strabo, lib. i., p. 103; lib. ii., p. 162. Aristotle, _De
+Caelo_, lib. ii., cap. 14, p. 297. The possibility of navigating from the
+extremity of Europe to the eastern shores of Asia is clearly asserted by
+the Stagirite, and in the two celebrated passages of Strabo. Aristotle
+does not suppose the distance to be very great, and draws an ingenious
+argument in favor of his supposition from the geography of animals.
+Strabo sees no obstacle to passing from Iberia to India, except the
+immense extent of the Atlantic Ocean. It is to be remembered that
+Strabo, as well as Eratosthenes, extend the appellation of Atlantic Sea
+to every part of the ocean.--Humboldt's _Geog. du Nouveau Continent_.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See Appendix, No. III. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 15: "Au milieu de tant de discussions acerbes qu'une curieuse
+malignite et le gout d'une fausse erudition classique firent naitre sur
+le merite de Christophe Colomb, parmi ses contemporains, personne n'a
+pense aux navigations des Normands comme precurseurs des Genois. Cette
+idee ne se presenta que soixante quatre ans apres la mort du grand
+homme. On savait par ces propres recits 'qu'il etoit alle a Thule' mais
+alors ce voyage vers le nord ne fit naitre aucun soupcon sur la
+priorite, de la decouverte.... Le merite d'avoir reconnu la premiere
+decouverte de l'Amerique septentrionale par les Normands appartient
+indubitablement au geographe Ortelius, qui annonca cette opinion des
+l'annee 1570. 'Christophe Colomb, dit Ortelius, a seulement mis le
+Nouveau Monde en rapport durable de commerce et d'utilite avec l'Europe'
+(_Theatr. Orbis Terr._, on p. 5, 6). Ce jugement est beaucoup trop
+severe."--Humboldt's _Geog. du Nouveau Continent_.]
+
+[Footnote 16: "Biorn first saw land in the Island of Nantucket, one
+degree south of Boston, then in New Scotland, and lastly in
+Newfoundland."--Carl Christian Rafn, _Antiquitates Americanae_, 1845, p.
+4, 421; Humboldt's _Cosmos_.
+
+"The country called 'the good Vinland' (Vinland it goda) by Leif,
+included the shore between Boston and New York, and therefore parts of
+the present states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut,
+between the parallels of latitude of Civita, Vecchia and Terracina,
+where, however, the average temperature of the year is between 46 deg. and
+52 deg. (Fahr.). This was the chief settlement of the Normans. Their active
+and enterprising spirit is proved by the circumstance that, after they
+had settled in the south as far as 41 deg. 30' north latitude, they erected
+three pillars to mark out the boundaries near the eastern coast of
+Baffin's Bay, in the latitude of 72 deg. 55', upon one of the Women Islands
+northwest of the present most northern Danish colony of Upernavik. The
+Runic inscription upon the stone, discovered in the autumn of 1824,
+contains, according to Rask and Finn Magnusen, the date of the year
+1135. From this eastern coast of Baffin's Bay, the colonists visited,
+with great regularity, on account of the fishery, Lancaster Sound and a
+part of Barrow's Straits, and this occurred more than six centuries
+before the bold undertakings of Parry and Ross. The locality of the
+fishery is very accurately described; and Greenland priests, from the
+diocese of Gardar, conducted the first voyage of discovery in 1266.
+These northwestern summer stations were called the Kroksjardar, heathen
+countries. Mention was early made of the Siberian wood, which was then
+collected, as well as of the numerous whales, seals, walrus, and polar
+bears."--Rafn, _Antiq. Amer._, p. 20, 274, 415-418, quoted by Humboldt.]
+
+[Footnote 17: One of the objections brought forward by Robertson against
+the Norman discovery of America is, that the wild vine has never since
+been found so far north as Labrador; but modern travelers have
+ascertained that a species of wild vine grows even as far north as the
+shores of Hudson's Bay.[18] Since Robertson's time, however, the
+locality of the first Norman settlement has been moved further south,
+and into latitudes where the best species of wild vines are abundant.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Sir A. Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland, 1812. Preliminary
+Dissertation by Dr Holland, p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Rafn, _Antiq. Amer._]
+
+[Footnote 20: The Esquimaux were at that time spread much further south
+than they are at present.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 268.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Eric Upsi, a native of Iceland, and the first Greenland
+bishop, undertook to go to Vinland as a Christian missionary in 1121.]
+
+[Footnote 22: "The learned Grotius founds an argument for the
+colonization of America by the Norwegians on the similarity between the
+names of Norway and La Norimbegue, a district bordering on New
+England."--Grotius, _De Origine Gentium Americanarum_, in quarto, 1642.
+See, also, the Controversy between Grotius and Jean de Laet.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Accurate information respecting the former intercourse of
+the Northmen with the Continent of America reaches only as far as the
+middle of the fourteenth century. In the year 1349 a ship was sent from
+Greenland to Markland (New Scotland) to collect timber and other
+necessaries. Upon their return from Markland, the ship was overtaken by
+storms, and compelled to land at Straumfjord, in the west of Iceland.
+This is the last account of the "Norman America," preserved for us in
+the ancient Scandinavian writings. The settlements upon the west coast
+of Greenland, which were in a very flourishing condition until the
+middle of the fourteenth century, gradually declined, from the fatal
+influence of monopoly of trade, by the invasion of the Esquimaux, by the
+black death which depopulated the north from the year 1347 to 1351, and
+also by the arrival of a hostile fleet, from what country is not known.
+
+By means of the critical and most praiseworthy efforts of Christian
+Rafn, and the Royal Society for Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, the
+traditions and ancient accounts of the voyage of the Normans to
+Helluland (Newfoundland), to Markland (the mouth of the River St.
+Lawrence at Nova Scotia), and at Winland (Massachusetts), have been
+separately printed and satisfactorily commented upon. The length of the
+voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the rising and
+setting of the sun, are accurately laid down. The principal sources of
+information are the historical narrations of Erik the Red, Thorfinn
+Karlsefne, and Snorre Thorbrandson, probably written in Greenland
+itself, as early as the twelfth century, partly by descendants of the
+settlers born in Winland.--Rafn, _Antiq. Amer._, p. 7, 14, 16. The care
+with which the tables of their pedigrees was kept was so great, that the
+table of the family of Thorfinn Karlsefne, whose son, Snorre
+Thorbrandson, was born in America, was kept from the year 1007 to 1811.
+
+The name of the colonized countries is found in the ancient national
+songs of the natives of the Faroe Islands.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol.
+ii., p. 268-452.]
+
+[Footnote 24: See Appendix, No. IV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 25: See Appendix, No. V. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 26: See Appendix, No. VI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 27: See Appendix, No. VII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 28: The numerous data which have come down to us from
+antiquity, and an acute examination of the local relations, especially
+the great vicinity of the settlements upon the African coast, which
+incontestably existed, lead me to believe that Phoenicians,
+Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, and probably even the Etruscans, were
+acquainted with the group of the Canary Islands.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_,
+vol. ii., p. 414.
+
+"Porro occidentalis navigatio, quantum etiam fama assequi Plinius
+potuit, tantum ad Fortunatas Insulas cursum protendit, earumque
+praecipuam a multitudine canum Canariam vocatam refert."--Acosta, _De
+Natura Novi Orbis_, lib. i., cap. ii.
+
+Respecting the probability of the Semitic origin of the name of the
+Canary Islands, Pliny, in his Latinizing etymological notions,
+considered them to be _Dog Islands_! (Vide Credner's Biblical
+Representation of Paradise, in Illgen's Journal for Historical Theology,
+1836, vol. vi., p. 166-186.)--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 414.
+
+The most fundamental, and, in a literary point of view, the most complete
+account of the Canary Islands, that was written in ancient times, down to
+the Middle Ages, was collected in a work of Joachim Jose da Costa de
+Macedo, with the title "Memoria cem que se pretende provar que os Arabes
+nao connecerao as Canarias autes dos Portuguesques, 1844." (See, also,
+Viera y Clavigo, _Notic. de la Hist. de Canaria_.)--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 29: See Appendix, No. VIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 30: "Jean de Bethancourt knew that before the expedition of
+Alvaro Beccara, that is to say, before the end of the fourteenth
+century, Norman adventurers had penetrated as far as Sierra Leone (lat.
+8 deg. 30'), and he sought to follow their traces. Before the Portuguese,
+however, no European nation appears to have crossed the
+equator."--Humboldt.
+
+"Les Normands et les Arabes sont les seules nations qui, jusqu'au
+commencement du douzieme siecle, aient partage la gloire des grandes
+expeditions maritimes, le gout des aventures etranges, la passion du
+pillage et des conquetes ephemeres. Les Normands ont occupe
+successivement l'Islande et la Neustrie, ravage les sanctuaires de
+l'Italie, ravage la Pouille sur les Grecs, inscrit leurs caracteres
+runiques jusque sur les flancs d'un des lions que Morosini enleva au
+Piree d'Athenes pour en orner l'arsenal de Venise."--Humboldt's _Geog.
+du Nouveau Continent_, vol. ii., p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 31: "No nation," says Southey, "has ever accomplished such
+great things in proportion to its means as the Portuguese." Its early
+maritime history does, indeed, present a striking picture of enterprise
+and restless energy, but the annals of Europe afford no similar instance
+of rapid degeneracy. There was an age when less than forty thousand
+armed Portuguese kept the whole coasts of the ocean in awe, from Morocco
+to China; when one hundred and fifty sovereign princes paid tribute to
+the treasury of Lisbon. But in all their enterprises they aimed at
+conquest, and not at colonization. The government at home exercised
+little control over the arms of its piratical mariners; the mother
+country derived no benefit from their achievements. To the age of
+conquest succeeded one of effeminacy and corruption.--Merivale's
+_Lectures on Colonization_, vol. i., p. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 32: See Appendix, No. IX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 33: The zones were imaginary bands or circles in the heavens,
+producing an effect of climate on corresponding belts on the globe of
+the earth. The frigid zones, between the polar circles and the poles,
+were considered uninhabitable and unnavigable, on account of the extreme
+cold. The torrid zone, lying beneath the track of the sun, or rather the
+central part of it, immediately about the equator, was considered
+uninhabitable, unproductive, and impassable, on account of the excessive
+heat. The temperate zones, lying between the torrid and the frigid
+zones, were supposed to be the only parts of the globe suited to the
+purposes of life. Parmenides, according to Strabo, was the inventor of
+this theory of the five zones. Aristotle supported the same doctrine. He
+believed that there was habitable earth in the southern hemisphere, but
+that it was forever divided from the part of the world already known by
+the impassable zone of scorching heat at the equator. (Aristot., Met.,
+ii., cap. v.) Pliny supported the opinion of Aristotle concerning the
+burning zones. (Pliny, lib. i., cap. lxvi.) Strabo (lib. ii.), in
+mentioning this theory, gives it likewise his support; and others of the
+ancient philosophers, as well as the poets, might be cited, to show the
+general prevalence of the belief.--Cicero, _Somnium Scipionis_, cap.
+vi.; Geminus, cap. xiii., p. 31; ap. Petavii Opus de Doctr. Tempor. in
+quo Uranologium sive Systemata var. Auctorum. Amst., 1705, vol. iii.]
+
+[Footnote 34: See Appendix, No. X. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 35: Barros, Dec. I., lib. iii., cap. iv., p. 190, says
+distinctly, "Bartholomeu Diaz, e os de sua compantica per causa dos
+perigos, e tormentas, que em o dobrar delle passaram che puyeram nome
+Tormentoso." The merit of the first circumnavigation, therefore, does
+not belong to Vasco de Gama, as is generally supposed. Diaz was at the
+Cape in May, 1487, and, therefore, almost at the same time that Pedro de
+Covilham and Alonzo de Payva of Barcelona commenced their expedition. As
+early as December, 1487, Diaz himself brought to Portugal the account of
+his important discovery. The mission of Pedro Covilham and Alonzo de
+Payva, in 1487, was set on foot by King John II., in order to search for
+"the African priest Johannes." Believing the accounts which he had
+obtained from Indian and Arabian pilots in Calicut, Goa, Aden, as well
+as in Sofala, on the eastern coast of Africa, Covilham informed King
+John II., by means of two Jews from Cairo, that if the Portuguese were
+to continue their voyages of discovery upon the western coast in a
+southerly direction, they would come to the end of Africa, whence a
+voyage to the _Island of the Moon_, to Zanzibar, and the gold country of
+Sofala, would be very easy. Accounts of the Indian and Arabian trading
+stations upon the east coast of Africa, and of the form of the southern
+extremity of the Continent, may have extended to Venice, through Egypt,
+Abyssinia, and Arabia. The triangular form of Africa was actually
+delineated upon the map of Sanuto, made in 1306, and discovered in the
+"Portulano della Mediceo-Laurenziana," by Count Baldelli in 1351, and
+also in the chart of the world by Fra Mauro.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol.
+ii., p. 290, 461.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Faria y Sousa complains that "the admiral entered Lisbon
+with a vain-glorious exultation, in order to make Portugal feel, by
+displaying the tokens of his discovery, how much she had erred in not
+acceding to his propositions."--_Europa Portuguesa_, t. ii., p. 402,
+403.
+
+Ruy de Pina asserts that King John was much importuned to kill Columbus
+on the spot, since, with his death, the prosecution of the undertaking,
+as far as the sovereigns of Castile were concerned, would cease, from
+want of a suitable person to take charge of it; but the king had too
+much magnanimity to adopt the iniquitous measure proposed.--Vasconcellos,
+_Vida del Rie Don Juan II._, lib. vi,; Garcia de Resende, _Vide da Dom
+Joam II._; Las Casas, _Hist. Ind._, lib. i., cap. lxxiv.; MS. quoted
+by Prescott.]
+
+[Footnote 37: See Appendix, No. XI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 38: "A Castilla y a Leon Nuevo Mumto dio Colon," was the
+inscription on the costly monument that was raised over the remains of
+Columbus in the Carthusian Monastery of La Cuevas at Seville. "The like
+of which," says his son Ferdinand, with as much truth as simplicity,
+"was never recorded of any man in ancient or modern times."--_Hist. del
+Almirante_, cap. cviii.
+
+His ashes were finally removed to Cuba, where they now repose in the
+Cathedral church of its capital.--Navarrete, _Coleccion de Viages_, tom.
+ii.
+
+"E dandogli il titol di Don volsero che egli aggiungesse presso all'arme
+di casa sua quattro altre, cioe quelle del Regno de Castiglio di Leon, e
+il Mar Oceano con tutte l'isole e quattro anchore per dimostrare
+l'ufficio d'Almirante, con un motto d'intorno che dicea, 'Per Castiglia
+e per Leon, Nuovo Mundo trovo Colon.'"--Ramusio, _Discorio_, tom. iii.
+
+The heir of Columbus was always to bear the arms of the admiral, to seal
+with them, and in his signature never to use any other title than simply
+"the Admiral."]
+
+[Footnote 39: See Appendix, No. XII. (see Vol II)--In the Middle Ages
+the prevalent opinion was that the sea covered but one seventh of the
+surface of the globe; an opinion which Cardinal d'Ailly (Imago Mundi,
+cap. viii.) founded on the apocryphal fourth book of Ezra. Columbus, who
+always derived much of his cosmological knowledge from the cardinal's
+work, was much interested in upholding this idea of the smallness of the
+sea, to which the misunderstood expression of "the ocean-stream"
+contributed not a little. He was also accustomed to cite Aristotle, and
+Seneca, and St. Augustine, in confirmation of this opinion.--Humboldt's
+_Examen Critique de l'Hist. de la Geographie_, tom. i., p. 186.]
+
+[Footnote 40: See, especially, the details of the conference held at
+Salamanca (the great seat of learning in Spain), given in the fourth
+chapter of Washington Irving's "Columbus." One of the objections
+advanced was, that, admitting the earth to be spherical, and should a
+ship succeed in reaching in this way the extremity of India, she could
+never get back again; for the rotundity of the globe would present a
+kind of mountain, up which it would be impossible for her to sail with
+the most favorable wind.--_Hist. del Almirante_, cap. ii.; _Hist. de
+Chiapa por Remesel_, lib. ii., cap. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Columbus was required by King John II., of Portugal, to
+furnish a detailed plan of his proposed voyages, with the charts and
+other documents according to which he proposed to shape his course, for
+the alleged purpose of having them examined by the royal counselors. He
+readily complied; but while he remained in anxious suspense as to the
+decision of the council, a caravel was secretly dispatched with
+instructions to pursue the route designated in the papers of Columbus.
+This voyage had the ostensible pretext of carrying provisions to the
+Cape de Verde Islands; the private instructions given were carried into
+effect when the caravel departed thence. It stood westward for several
+days; but then the weather grew stormy, and the pilots having no zeal to
+stimulate them, and seeing nothing but an immeasurable waste of wild,
+trembling waves still extending before them, lost all courage to
+proceed. They put back to the Cape de Verde Islands, and thence to
+Lisbon, excusing their own want of resolution by ridiculing the project
+of Columbus. On discovering this act of treachery, Columbus instantly
+quitted Portugal.--_Hist. del Almirante_, cap. viii.; Herrera, Dec. I.,
+lib. i., cap. vii.; Munoz, _Hist. del Nuevo Mundo_, lib. ii.--Quoted by
+Prescott.]
+
+[Footnote 42: "Le Vendredi n'etant pas regarde dans la Chretiente comme
+un jour de bon augure pour le commencement d'une entreprise, les
+historiens du 17[me] siecle, qui gemissaient deja sur les maux dont,
+selon eux, l'Europe a ete accable par la decouverte de l'Amerique, on
+fait remarque que Colomb est parti pour la premiere expedition
+_vendredi_, 3 aout 1492, et que la premiere terre d'Amerique a ete
+decouverte _vendredi_ 12 Octobre de la meme annee. La reformation du
+calendrier appliquee au journal de Colomb, qui indique toujours a la
+fois, les jours de la semaine et la date du mois, feroit disparoitre le
+pronostic du jour fatal."--Humboldt's _Geog. du Nouveau Continent_, vol.
+iii., p. 160.]
+
+[Footnote 43: His first landing in the New World partook of the same
+character as his departure from the Old.
+
+"Christoforo Colombo--primo con una bandiera nella quale era figurato il
+nostro Signore Jesu Christo in croce, salto in terra, e quella pianto, e
+poi tutti gli alti smontarono, e inginocchiati baciarono la terra, tre
+volti piangendo di allegrezza. Di poi Colombo alzate le mani al cielo
+lagrimando disse, Signor Dio Eterno, Signore omnipotente, tu creasti il
+cielo, e la terra, e il mare con la tua santa parola, sia benedetto e
+glorificato il nome tuo, sia ringraziata la tua Maesta, la quale si e
+degnata per mano d' uno umil suo servo far ch' el suo santo nome sia
+conosciuto e divulgato in questa altra parte del mondo."--Pietro
+Martire, _Dell' Indie Occidentali_, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 2; Oviedo,
+_Hist. Gen. dell' India_.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Columbus not only has, incontestably, the merit of first
+discovering the line where there is no declination of the needle, but
+also of first inducing a study of terrestrial magnetism in Europe, by
+his observations concerning the increasing declination as he sailed in a
+westerly direction from that line. It had been already easily recognized
+in the Mediterranean, and in all places where, in the twelfth century,
+the declination was as much as eight or ten degrees, even though their
+instruments were so imperfect that the ends of a magnetic needle did not
+point exactly to the geographical north or south. It is improbable that
+the Arabs or Crusaders drew attention to the fact of the compass
+pointing to the northeast and northwest in different parts of the world,
+as to a phenomenon which had long been known. The merit which belongs to
+Columbus is, not for the first observance of the existence of the
+declination, which is given, for example, upon the map of Andrew Bianca,
+in 1436, but for the remark which he made on the 13th of September,
+1492, that about two degrees and a half to the east of the Island of
+Corvo the magnetic variation changed, and that it passed over from
+northeast to northwest. This discovery of a magnetic line without any
+variation indicates a remarkable epoch in nautical astronomy. It was
+celebrated with just praise by Oviedo, Casas, and Herrera. If with Livio
+Sanuto we ascribe it to the renowned mariner Sebastian Cabot, we forget
+that his first voyage, which was undertaken at the expense of some
+merchants of Bristol, and which was crowned with success by his touching
+the main-land of America, falls five years later than the first
+expedition of Columbus.--Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 318; Las
+Casas, _Hist. Ind._, lib. i., cap. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 45: "In sailing toward the West India Islands birds are often
+seen at the distance of two hundred leagues from the nearest
+coast."--Sloane's _Nat. Hist. of Jamaica_, vol. i., p. 30.
+
+Captain Cook says, "No one yet knows to what distance any of the Oceanic
+birds go to sea; for my own part, I do not believe that there is any one
+of the whole tribe that can be relied on in pointing out the vicinity of
+land."--_Voyage toward the South Pole_, vol. i., p. 275.
+
+The Portuguese, however, only keeping along the African coast and
+watching the flight of birds with attention, concluded that they did not
+venture to fly far from land. Columbus adopted this erroneous opinion
+from his early instructors in navigation.]
+
+[Footnote 46: "Puesto que el amirante a los diez de la noche vio lumbre
+... y era como una candelilla de cera que se alzaba y levantaba, lo cual
+a pocos pareciera ser indicio de tierra. Pero el amirante tuvo por
+cierto estar junto a la tierra. Por lo qual quando dijeron la 'Salve'
+que acostumbran decir y cantar a su manera todos los marineros, y de
+hallan todos, vogo y amonestolos el amirante que hiciesen buena guarda
+al castillo de proa, y mirasen bien por la tierra."--_Diar. de Colon.
+Prem. Viag. 11 de Oct._]
+
+[Footnote 47: "Let those who are disposed to faint under difficulties,
+in the prosecution of any great and worthy undertaking, remember that
+eighteen years elapsed after the time that Columbus conceived his
+enterprise before he was enabled to carry it into effect; that most of
+that time was passed in almost hopeless solicitation, amid poverty,
+neglect, and taunting ridicule; that the prime of his life had wasted
+away in the struggle, and that, when his perseverance was finally
+crowned with success, he was about in his fifty-sixth year. This example
+should encourage the enterprising never to despair."--Washington
+Irving's _Life of Columbus_, vol. i., p. 174.]
+
+[Footnote 48: "While Columbus lay on a sick-bed by the River Belem, he
+was addressed in a dream by an unknown voice, distinctly uttering these
+words: 'Maravillosamente Dios hizo sonar tu nombre en la tierra; de los
+atamientos de la Mar Oceana, que estaban cerradas con cadenas tan
+fuertes, te dio las llaves.' (Letter to the Catholic monarch, July 7th,
+1503.)"--Humboldt's _Cosmos_.]
+
+[Footnote 49: See Appendix, No. XIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 50: "The application to King Henry VII. was not made until
+1488, as would appear from the inscription on a map which Bartholomew
+presented to the king. Las Casas intimates, from letters and writings of
+Bartholomew Columbus, in his possession, that the latter accompanied
+Bartholomew Diaz in his voyage from Lisbon, in 1486, along the coast of
+Africa, in the course of which he discovered the Cape of Good
+Hope."--Las Casas, _Hist. Ind._, lib. i., cap. vii.]
+
+[Footnote 51: "The American Continent was first discovered under the
+auspices of the English, and the coast of the United States by a native
+of England (Sebastian Cabot told me that he was born in
+Bristowe)."--_History of the Travayles in the East and West Indies_, by
+R. Eden and R. Willes, 1577. fol. 267. Posterity hardly remembered that
+they[52] (the Cabots) had reached the American Continent nearly four
+months before Columbus, on his third voyage, came in sight of the
+main-land.--Bancroft's _Hist. of the United States_, vol. i., p. 11.
+Charlevoix's "Histoire de la Nouvelle France," and the "Fastes
+Chronologiques," endeavor to discredit the discoveries of John and
+Sebastian Cabot, but the testimonies of cotemporary authors are
+decisive. Unfortunately, no journal or relation remains of the voyages
+of the Cabots to North America, but several authors have handed down
+accounts of them, which they received from the lips of Sebastian Cabot
+himself. See Hakluyt, iii., 27; Galearius Butrigarius, in Ramusio, tom.
+ii.; Ramusio, Preface to tom. iii.; Peter Martyr ab Angleria, Dec. III.,
+cap. vi.; Gomara, _Gen. Hist. of the West Indies_, b. ii., c. vi. In
+Fabian's Chronicle, the writer asserts that he saw, in the sixteenth
+year of Henry VII., two out of three men who had been brought from
+"Newfound Island" two years before. The grant made by Edward VI. to
+Sebastian Cabot of a pension equal to L1000 per annum of our money,
+attests that "the good and acceptable service" for which it was
+conferred was of a very important nature. The words of the grant are
+handed down to us by Hakluyt, vol. iii., p. 31.--See _Life of Henry
+VII._, by Lord Bacon; Bacon's _Works_, vol. iii., p. 356, 357.]
+
+[Footnote 52: "The only immediate fruit of Cabot's first enterprise is
+said to have been the importation from America of the first turkeys ever
+seen in Europe. Why this bird received the name it enjoys in England has
+never been satisfactorily explained. By the French it was called 'Coq
+d'Inde,' on account of its American original, America being then
+generally termed Western India."--Graham's _Hist. of the United States_,
+vol. i., p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Baccalaos was the name given by the natives to the codfish
+with which these waters abounded. Pietro Martire, who calls Sebastian
+Cabot his "dear and familiar friend," speaks of Newfoundland as
+Baccalaos; also, Lopez de Gomara and Ramusio.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Mr. Bancroft pronounces this "fact to be indisputable,"
+though he acknowledges that "the testimony respecting this expedition is
+confused and difficult of explanation." Sebastian Cabot wrote "A
+Discourse of Navigation," in which the entrance of the strait leading
+into Hudson's Bay was laid down with great precision "on a card, drawn
+by his own hand."--Ortelius, _Map of America in Theatrum Orbis
+Terrarum_; Eden and Willis, p. 223; Sir H. Gilbert, in Hakluyt, vol.
+iii., p. 49, 50; Bancroft, vol. i., p. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 55: The learned and ingenious author of the "Memoirs of
+Sebastian Cabot" has brought forward strong arguments against the
+discovery of the Continent of America by Jean Vas Cortereal in
+1494.--Humboldt's _Geog. du Nouveau Continent_, vol. i., p. 279; vol.
+ii., p. 25.
+
+"The discoverer of the territory of our country was one of the most
+extraordinary men of his age. There is deep cause for regret that time
+has spared so few memorials of his career. He gave England a continent,
+and no one knows his burial-place."--Bancroft, vol. i., p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Ramusio, vol. iii., p. 417. This discovery is also
+attributed to Jacques Cartier, who entered the gulf on the 10th of
+August, 1535, and gave it the name of the saint whose festival was
+celebrated on that day.--Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 57: In an old map published in 1508, the Labrador coast is
+called Terra Corterealis.]
+
+[Footnote 58: It has been conjectured that the name Terra de Laborador
+was given to this coast by the Portuguese slave merchants, on account of
+the admirable qualities of the natives as laborers.--_Picture of
+Quebec_.]
+
+[Footnote 59: It was an idea entertained by Columbus, that, as he
+extended his discoveries to climates more and more under the torrid
+influence of the sun, he should find the productions of nature
+sublimated by its rays to more perfect and precious qualities. He was
+strengthened in this belief by a letter written to him, at the command
+of the queen, by one Jayme Ferrer, an eminent and learned lapidary, who,
+in the course of his trading for precious stones and metals, had been in
+the Levant and in various parts of the East; had conversed with the
+merchants of the remote parts of Asia and Africa, and the natives of
+India, Arabia, and Ethiopia, and was considered deeply versed in
+geography generally, but especially in the nature of those countries
+from whence the valuable merchandise in which he dealt was procured. In
+this letter Ferrer assured Columbus that, according to his experience,
+the rarest objects of commerce, such as gold, precious stones, drugs,
+and spices, were chiefly to be found in the regions about the
+equinoctial line, where the inhabitants were black, or darkly colored,
+and that until the admiral should arrive among people of such
+complexions, he did not think he would find those articles in great
+abundance.--Navarrete, _Coleccion_, tom. ii., Document 68.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Ramusio, vol. iii., p. 347; Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 36;
+see Osorio, History of the Portuguese, b. i.; Barrow's Voyages, p.
+37-48; Herrera, Dec. 1., lib. vii., cap. ix.; Ensayo Chronologico para
+la Historia general de la Florida. En Madrid, 1723.--Quoted by Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 61: "Les demandes ordinaires qu'on nous fait sont, 'Y a-t-il
+des tresors? Y a-t-il de l'or et de l'argent?' Et personne ne demande,
+'Ces peuples la sont il disposes a entendre la doctrine Chretienne?' Et
+quant aux mines, il y en a vraiment, mais il les faut fouiller avec
+industrie, labeur et patience. La plus belle mine que je sache, c'est du
+bled et du vin, avec la nourriture du bestial; qui a de ceci, il a de
+l'argent, et des mines, nous n'en vivons point."--Marc l'Escarbot.]
+
+[Footnote 62: This bold stretch of papal authority, so often ridiculed
+as chimerical and absurd, was in a measure justified by the event, since
+it did, in fact, determine the principle on which the vast extent of
+unappropriated empire in the eastern and western hemispheres was
+ultimately divided between two petty states of Europe. Alexander had not
+even the excuse that he thought he was disposing of uncultivated and
+uninhabited regions, since he specifies in his donation both towns and
+castles: "Civitates et castra in perpetuum tenore praesentium donamus."]
+
+[Footnote 63: "What," said Francis I., "shall the kings of Spain and
+Portugal divide all America between them, without suffering me to take a
+share as their brother? I would fain see the article in Adam's will that
+bequeaths that vast inheritance to them."--_Encyclopedia_, vol. iv., p.
+695.]
+
+[Footnote 64: "In the latter years of his life, Francis, by a strict
+economy of the public money, repaired the evils of his early
+extravagance, while, at the same time, he was enabled to spare
+sufficient for carrying on the magnificent public institutions he had
+undertaken, and for forwarding the progress of discovery, of the fine
+arts, and of literature."--Bacon's _Life and Times of Francis I._, p.
+399-401.]
+
+[Footnote 65: See Appendix, No. XIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 66: "Navigo anche lungo la detta terra l'anno 1524 un gran
+capitano del Re Christianissimo Francesco, detto Giovanni da Verazzano,
+Fiorentino, e scorse tutta la costa fino alla Florida, come per una sua
+lettera scritta al detto Re, particolarmente si vedia la qual sola
+abbiamo potuto avere perciocche l'altre si sono smarrite nelli travagli
+della povera citta di Fiorenza e nell' ultimo viaggio che esso fece,
+avendo voluto smontar in terra con alcuni compagni, furono tutti morti
+da quei popoli, e in presentia di coloro che erano rimasi nelle navi,
+furono arrostiti e mangeati." (Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 416.) The Baron La
+Houtan and La Potherie give the same account of Verazzano's end; they
+are not, however, very trustworthy authorities. Le Beau repeats the same
+story; but Charlevoix's words are, "Je ne trouve aucun fondement a ce
+que quelques uns ont publie, qu'ayant mis pied a terre dans un endroit
+ou il voulait batir un fort, les sauvages se jeterent sur lui, le
+massacrerent avec tous ses gens et le mangerent." A Spanish historian
+has asserted, contrary to all probability, that Verazzano was taken by
+the Spaniards, and hung as a pirate.--D. Andres Gonzalez de Barcia,
+_Ensayo Chronologico para la Historia della Florida_.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Tiraboschi, _Storia della Literatura Italiana_, vol. vii.,
+p. 261, 262.--Quoted in the _Picture of Quebec_, to which valuable work
+J.C. Fisher, Esq., president of the Literary and Historical Society of
+Quebec, largely contributed.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Signifying "here is nothing." The insatiable thirst of the
+Spanish discoverers for gold is justified by the greatest of all
+discoverers, the disinterested Columbus himself, on high religious
+principles. When acquainting their Castilian majesties with the
+abundance of gold[69] to be procured in the newly-found countries, he
+thus speaks, "El oro es excelentisimo, del oro se hace tesoro; y con el
+quien lo tiene hace quanto quiere en el mundo, y elega a que echa las
+animas al paraiso." (Navarrete, _Coleccion de los Viages_, vol. i., p.
+309.) A passage which the modern editor of his papers affirms to be in
+conformity with many texts of Scripture.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The historian Herrera, writing in the light of experience,
+makes use of the strong expression, that "mines were a lure devised by
+the evil spirit to draw the Spaniards on to destruction." "L'Espagne,"
+says Montesquieu, "a fait comme ce roi insense, qui demanda que tout ce
+qu'il toucheroit se convertit en or, et qui fut oblige de revenir aux
+Dieux, pour les prier de finir sa misere."--_Esprit des Loix_, lib.
+xxi., cap. 22.
+
+"Les mines du Perou et du Mexique ne valoient pas meme pour l'Espagne ce
+qu'elle auroit tire du son propre fonds en los cultivant. Avec tant de
+tresors Philippe II. fit banqueroute."--Millot. "Paturage et labourage,"
+said the wise Sully, "valent mieux que tout l'or du Perou."]
+
+[Footnote 70: Father Hennepin asserts that the Spaniards were the first
+discoverers of Canada, and that, finding nothing there to gratify their
+extensive desires for gold, they bestowed upon it the appellation of El
+Capo di Nada, "Cape Nothing," whence, by corruption, its present
+name.--_Nouvelle Description d'un tres grand pays situe dans l'Amerique
+entre le Nouveau Mexique et la Mer Glaciale, depuis l'an_ 1667 _jusqu'
+en_ 1670. _Par le Pere Louis Hennepin, Missionaire Recollet a Utrecht_,
+1697.
+
+La Potherie gives the same derivation. _Histoire de l'Amerique
+Septentrionale par M. de Bacqueville de la Potherie, a Paris_, 1722. The
+opinion expressed in a note of Charlevoix (Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France, vol. i., p. 13), is that deserving most credit. "D'autres
+derivent ce nom du mot Iroquois 'Kannata,' qui se prononce Cannada, et
+signifie un amas de cabanes." This derivation would reconcile the
+different assertions of the early discoverers, some of whom give the
+name of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Lawrence; others, equally
+worthy of credit, confine it to a small district in the neighborhood of
+Stadacona (now Quebec). _Seconda Relatione di Jacques Cartier_, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442, 447. "Questo popolo (di Hochelaga) non
+partendo mai del lore paese, ne essendo vagabondi, come quelli di Canada
+e di Saguenay benche dette di Canada sieno lor suggetti con otte o nove
+altri villaggi posti sopra detto fiume." Father du Creux, who arrived in
+Canada about the year 1625, in his "Historia Canadensis," gives the name
+of Canada to the whole valley of the St. Lawrence, confessing, however,
+his ignorance of the etymology: "Porro de Etymologia vocis Canada nihil
+satis certe potui comperire; priscam quidem esse, constat ex eo, quod
+illam ante annos prope sexaginta passim usurpari audiebam puer."
+
+Duponceau, in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of
+Philadelphia, founds his conjecture of the Indian origin of the name of
+Canada upon the fact that, in the translation of the Gospel of St.
+Matthew into the Mohawk tongue, made by Brandt, the Indian chief, the
+word Canada is always used to signify a village. The mistake of the
+early discoverers, in taking the name of a part for that of the whole,
+is very pardonable in persons ignorant of the Indian language. It is
+highly improbable that at the period of its discovery the name of Canada
+was extended over this immense country. The migratory habits of the
+aborigines are alone conclusive against it. They distinguished
+themselves by their different tribes, not by the country over which they
+hunted and rode at will. They more probably gave names to localities
+than adopted their own from any fixed place of residence. The Iroquois
+and the Ottawas conferred their appellations on the rivers that ran
+through their hunting grounds, and the Huron tribe gave theirs to the
+vast lake now bearing their name. It has, however, never been pretended
+that any Indian tribe bore the name of Canada, and the natural
+conclusion therefore is, that the word "Canada" was a mere local
+appellation, without reference to the country; that each tribe had their
+own "Canada," or collection of huts, which shifted its position
+according to their migrations.
+
+Dr. Douglas, in his "American History," pretends that Canada derives its
+name from Monsieur Kane or Cane, whom he advances to have been the first
+adventurer in the River St. Lawrence.--Knox's _Historical Journal_, vol.
+i., p. 303.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+
+In the year 1534, Philip Chabot, admiral of France, urged the king to
+establish a colony in the New World,[71] by representing to him in
+glowing colors the great riches and power derived by the Spaniards from
+their transatlantic possessions. Francis I., alive to the importance of
+the design, soon agreed to carry it out. JACQUES CARTIER, an experienced
+navigator of St. Malo, was recommended by the admiral to be intrusted
+with the expedition, and was approved of by the king. On the 20th of
+April, 1534, Cartier sailed from St. Malo with two ships of only sixty
+tons burden each, and one hundred and twenty men for their crews:[72] he
+directed his course westward, inclining rather to the north; the winds
+proved so favorable, that on the twentieth day of the voyage he made
+Cape Bonavista, in Newfoundland. But the harbors of that dreary country
+were still locked up in the winter's ice, forbidding the approach of
+shipping: he then bent to the southeast, and at length found anchorage
+at St. Catharine, six degrees lower in latitude. Having remained here
+ten days, he again turned to the north, and on the 21st of May reached
+Bird Island, fourteen leagues from the coast.
+
+Jacques Cartier examined all the northern shores of Newfoundland,
+without having ascertained that it was an island, and then passed
+southward through the Straits of Belleisle. The country appeared every
+where the same bleak and inhospitable wilderness;[73] but the harbors
+were numerous, convenient, and abounding in fish. He describes the
+natives as well-proportioned men, wearing their hair tied up over their
+heads like bundles of hay, quaintly interlaced with birds' feathers.[74]
+Changing his course still more to the south, he then traversed the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence, approached the main-land, and on the 9th of July
+entered a deep bay; from the intense heat experienced there, he named it
+the "Baye de Chaleurs." The beauty of the country, and the kindness and
+hospitality of his reception, alike charmed him; he carried on a little
+trade with the friendly savages, exchanging European goods for their
+furs and provisions.
+
+Leaving this bay, Jacques Cartier visited a considerable extent of the
+gulf coast; on the 24th of July he erected a cross thirty feet high,
+with a shield bearing the fleurs-de-lys of France, on the shore of Gaspe
+Bay.[75] Having thus taken possession[76] of the country for his king in
+the usual manner of those days, he sailed, the 25th of July, on his
+homeward voyage: at this place two of the natives were seized by
+stratagem, carried on board the ships, and borne away to France. Cartier
+coasted along the northern shores of the Gulf till the 15th of August,
+and even entered the mouth of the River St. Lawrence, but the weather
+becoming stormy, he determined to delay his departure no longer: he
+passed again through the Straits of Belleisle, and arrived at St. Malo
+on the 5th of September, 1534, contented with his success, and full of
+hope for the future.
+
+Jacques Cartier was received with the consideration due to the
+importance of his report. The court at once perceived the advantage of
+an establishment in this part of America, and resolved to take steps for
+its foundation. Charles de Moncy, Sieur de la Mailleraye, vice-admiral
+of France, was the most active patron of the undertaking; through his
+influence Cartier obtained a more effective force, and a new commission,
+with ampler powers than before. When the preparations for the voyage
+were completed, the adventurers all assembled in the Cathedral of St.
+Malo, on Whitsunday, 1535, by the command of their pious leader; the
+bishop then gave them a solemn benediction, with all the imposing
+ceremonials of the Romish Church.
+
+On the 19th of May Jacques Cartier embarked, and started on his voyage
+with fair wind and weather. The fleet consisted of three small ships,
+the largest being only one hundred and twenty tons burden. Many
+adventurers and young men of good family accompanied the expedition as
+volunteers. On the morrow the wind became adverse, and rose to a storm;
+the heavens lowered over the tempestuous sea; for more than a month the
+utmost skill of the mariners could only enable them to keep their ships
+afloat, while tossed about at the mercy of the waves. The little fleet
+was dispersed on the 25th of June: each vessel then made for the coast
+of Newfoundland as it best might. The general's vessel, as that of
+Cartier was called, was the first to gain the land, on the 7th of July,
+and there awaited her consorts; but they did not arrive till the 26th of
+the month. Having taken in supplies of fuel and water, they sailed in
+company to explore the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A violent storm arose on
+the 1st of August, forcing them to seek shelter. They happily found a
+port on the north shore, at the entrance of the Great River, where,
+though difficult of access, there was a safe anchorage. Jacques Cartier
+called it St. Nicolas, and it is now almost the only place still bearing
+the name he gave. They left their harbor on the 7th, coasting westward
+along the north shore, and on the 10th came to a gulf filled with
+numerous and beautiful islands.[77] Cartier gave this gulf the name of
+St. Lawrence, having discovered it on that saint's festival day.[78]
+
+On the 15th of August they reached a long, rocky island toward the
+south, which Cartier named L'Isle de l'Assumption, now called
+Anticosti.[79] Thence they continued their course, examining carefully
+both shores of the Great River,[80] and occasionally holding
+communication with the inhabitants, till, on the 1st of September, they
+entered the mouth of the deep and gloomy Saguenay. The entrance of this
+great tributary was all they had leisure to survey; but the huge rocks,
+dense forests, and vast body of water, forming a scene of somber
+magnificence such as had never before met their view, inspired them with
+an exalted idea of the country they had discovered. Still passing to the
+southwest up the St. Lawrence, on the 6th they reached an island
+abounding in delicious filberts, and on that account named by the
+voyagers Isle aux Coudres. Cartier, being now so far advanced into an
+unknown country, looked out anxiously for a port where his vessels might
+winter in safety. He pursued his voyage till he came upon another
+island, of great extent, fertility, and beauty, covered with woods and
+thick, clustering vines. This he named Isle de Bacchus:[81] it is now
+called Orleans. On the 7th of September, Donnacona, the chief of the
+country,[82] came with twelve canoes filled by his train, to hold
+converse with the strangers, whose ships lay at anchor between the
+island and the north shore of the Great River. The Indian chief
+approached the smallest of the ships with only two canoes, fearful of
+causing alarm, and began an oration, accompanied with strange and
+uncouth gestures. After a time he conversed with the Indians who had
+been seized on the former voyage, and now acted as interpreters. He
+heard from them of their wonderful visit to the great nation over the
+salt lake, of the wisdom and power of the white men, and of the kind
+treatment they had received among the strangers. Donnacona appeared
+moved with deep respect and admiration; he took Jacques Cartier's arm
+and placed it gently over his own bended neck, in token of confidence
+and regard. The admiral cordially returned these friendly
+demonstrations. He entered the Indian's canoe, and presented bread and
+wine, which they ate and drank together. They then parted in all amity.
+
+After this happy interview, Jacques Cartier, with his boats, pushed up
+the north shore against the stream, till he reached a spot where a
+little river flowed into a "goodly and pleasant sound," forming a
+convenient haven.[83] He moored his vessels here for the winter on the
+16th of September, and gave the name of St. Croix to the stream, in
+honor of the day on which he first entered its waters; Donnacona,
+accompanied by a train of five hundred Indians, came to welcome his
+arrival with generous friendship. In the angle formed by the tributary
+stream and the Great River, stood the town of Stadacona, the
+dwelling-place of the chief; thence an irregular slope ascended to a
+lofty height of table-land: from this eminence a bold headland frowned
+over the St. Lawrence, forming a rocky wall three hundred feet in
+height. The waters of the Great River--here narrowed to less than a mile
+in breath--rolled deeply and rapidly past into the broad basin beyond.
+When the white men first stood on the summit of this bold headland,
+above their port of shelter, most of the country was fresh from the hand
+of the Creator; save the three small barks lying at the mouth of the
+stream, and the Indian village, no sign of human habitation met their
+view. Far as the eye could reach, the dark forest spread; over hill and
+valley, mountain and plain; up to the craggy peaks, down to the blue
+water's edge; along the gentle slopes of the rich Isle of Bacchus, and
+even from projecting rocks, and in fissures of the lofty precipice, the
+deep green mantle of the summer foliage hung its graceful folds. In the
+dim distance, north, south, east, and west, where mountain rose above
+mountain in tumultuous variety of outline, it was still the same; one
+vast leafy vail concealed the virgin face of Nature from the stranger's
+sight. On the eminence commanding this scene of wild but magnificent
+beauty, a prosperous city now stands; the patient industry of man has
+felled that dense forest, tree by tree, for miles and miles around, and
+where it stood, rich fields rejoice the eye; the once silent waters of
+the Great River below now surge against hundreds of stately ships;
+commerce has enriched this spot, art adorned it; a memory of glory
+endears it to every British heart. But the name QUEBEC[85] still remains
+unchanged; as the savage first pronounced it to the white stranger, it
+stands to-day among the proudest records of our country's story.
+
+The chief Donnacona and the French continued in friendly intercourse,
+day by day exchanging good offices and tokens of regard. But Jacques
+Cartier was eager for further discoveries; the two Indian interpreters
+told him that a city of much larger size than Stadacona lay further up
+the river, the capital of a great country; it was called in the native
+tongue Hochelaga; thither he resolved to find his way. The Indians
+endeavored vainly to dissuade their dangerous guests from this
+expedition; they represented the distance, the lateness of the season,
+the danger of the great lakes and rapid currents; at length they had
+recourse to a kind of masquerade or pantomime, to represent the perils
+of the voyage, and the ferocity of the tribes inhabiting that distant
+land. The interpreters earnestly strove to dissuade Jacques Cartier from
+proceeding on his enterprise, and one of them refused to accompany him.
+The brave Frenchman would not hearken to such dissuasions, and treated
+with equal contempt the verbal and pantomimic warnings of the alleged
+difficulties. As a precautionary measure to impress the savages with an
+exalted idea of his power as a friend or foe, he caused twelve cannon
+loaded with bullets to be fired in their presence against a wood; amazed
+and terrified at the noise, and the effects of this discharge, they
+fled, howling and shrieking, away.
+
+Jacques Cartier sailed for Hochelaga on the 19th of September; he took
+with him the Hermerillon, one of his smallest ships, the pinnace, and
+two long-boats, bearing thirty-five armed men, with their provisions and
+ammunition. The two larger vessels and their crews were left in the
+harbor of St. Croix, protected by poles and stakes driven into the water
+so as to form a barricade. The voyage presented few of the threatened
+difficulties; the country on both sides of the Great River was rich and
+varied, covered with stately timber, and abounding in vines. The natives
+were every where friendly and hospitable; all that they possessed was
+freely offered to the strangers. At a place called Hochelai, the chief
+of the district visited the French, and showed much friendship and
+confidence, presenting Jacques Cartier with a girl seven years of age,
+one of his own children.
+
+On the 29th, the expedition was stopped in Lake St. Pierre by the
+shallows, not having hit upon the right channel. Jacques Cartier took
+the resolution of leaving his larger vessels behind and proceeding with
+his two boats; he met with no further interruption, and at length
+reached Hochelaga on the 2d of October, accompanied by De Pontbriand, De
+la Pommeraye, and De Gozelle, three of his volunteers. The natives
+welcomed him with every demonstration of joy and hospitality; above a
+thousand people, of all ages and sexes, come forth to meet the
+strangers, greeting them with affectionate kindness. Jacques Cartier, in
+return for their generous reception, bestowed presents of tin, beads,
+and other bawbles upon all the women, and gave some knives to the men.
+He returned to pass the night in the boats, while the savages made great
+fires on the shore, and danced merrily all night long. The place where
+the French first landed was probably about eleven miles from the city
+of Hochelaga, below the rapid of St. Mary.
+
+On the day after his arrival Jacques Cartier proceeded to the town; his
+volunteers and some others of his followers accompanied him, arrayed in
+full dress; three of the natives undertook to guide them on their way.
+The road was well beaten, and bore evidence of having been much
+frequented: the country through which it passed was exceedingly rich and
+fertile. Hochelaga stood in the midst of great fields of Indian corn; it
+was of a circular form, containing about fifty large huts, each fifty
+paces long and from fourteen to fifteen wide, all built in the shape of
+tunnels, formed of wood, and covered with birch bark; the dwellings were
+divided into several rooms, surrounding an open court in the center,
+where the fires burned. Three rows of palisades encircled the town, with
+only one entrance; above the gate, and over the whole length of the
+outer ring of defense, there was a gallery, approached by flights of
+steps, and plentifully provided with stones and other missiles to resist
+attack. This was a place of considerable importance, even in those
+remote days, as the capital of a great extent of country, and as having
+eight or ten villages subject to its sway.
+
+The inhabitants spoke the language of the great Huron nation, and were
+more advanced in civilization than any of their neighbors: unlike other
+tribes, they cultivated the ground and remained stationary. The French
+were well received by the people of Hochelaga; they made presents, the
+Indians gave fetes; their fire-arms, trumpets, and other warlike
+equipments filled the minds of their simple hosts with wonder and
+admiration, and their beards and clothing excited a curiosity which the
+difficulties of an unknown language prevented from being satisfied. So
+great was the veneration for the white men, that the chief of the town,
+and many of the maimed, sick, and infirm, came to Jacques Cartier,
+entreating him, by expressive signs, to cure their ills. The pious
+Frenchman disclaimed any supernatural power, but he read aloud part of
+the Gospel of St. John, made the sign of the cross over the sufferers,
+and presented them with chaplets and other holy symbols; he then prayed
+earnestly that the poor savages might be freed from the night of
+ignorance and infidelity. The Indians regarded these acts and words with
+deep gratitude and respectful admiration.
+
+Three miles from Hochelaga, there was a lofty hill, well tilled and very
+fertile;[86] thither Jacques Cartier bent his way, after having examined
+the town. From the summit he saw the river and the country for thirty
+leagues around, a scene of singular beauty. To this hill he gave the
+name of Mont Royal; since extended to the large and fertile island on
+which it stands, and to the city below. Time has now swept away every
+trace of Hochelaga; on its site the modern capital of Canada has arisen;
+fifty thousand people of European race, and stately buildings of carved
+stone, replace the simple Indians and the huts of the ancient town.
+
+Jacques Cartier, having made his observations, returned to the boats,
+attended by a great concourse; when any of his men appeared fatigued
+with their journey, the kind Indians carried them on their shoulders.
+This short stay of the French seemed to sadden and displease these
+hospitable people, and on the departure of the boats they followed their
+course for some distance along the banks of the river. On the 4th of
+October Jacques Cartier reached the shallows, where the pinnace had been
+left; he resumed his course the following day, and arrived at St. Croix
+on the 11th of the same month.
+
+The men who had remained at St. Croix had busied themselves during their
+leader's absence in strengthening their position, so as to secure it
+against surprise, a wise precaution under any circumstances among a
+savage people, but especially in the neighborhood of a populous town,
+the residence of a chief whose friendship they could not but distrust,
+in spite of his apparent hospitality.
+
+The day after Jacques Cartier's arrival, Donnacona came to bid him
+welcome, and entreated him to visit Stadacona. He accepted the
+invitation, and proceeded with his volunteers and fifty sailors to the
+village, about three miles from where the ships lay. As they journeyed
+on, they observed that the houses were well provided and stored for the
+coming winter, and the country tilled in a manner showing that the
+inhabitants were not ignorant of agriculture; thus they formed, on the
+whole, a favorable impression of the docility and intelligence of the
+Indians during this expedition.
+
+When the awful and unexpected severity of the winter set in, the French
+were unprovided with necessary clothing and proper provisions; the
+scurvy attacked them, and by the month of March twenty-five were dead,
+and nearly all were infected; the remainder would probably have also
+perished; but when Jacques Cartier was himself attacked with the
+dreadful disease, the Indians revealed to him the secret of its cure:
+this was the decoction of the leaf and bark of a certain tree, which
+proved so excellent a remedy that in a few days all were restored to
+health.[87]
+
+Jacques Cartier, on the 21st of April, was first led to suspect the
+friendship of the natives from seeing a number of strong and active
+young men make their appearance in the neighboring town; these were
+probably the warriors of the tribe, who had just then returned from the
+hunting grounds, where they had passed the winter, but there is now no
+reason to suppose that their presence indicated any hostility. However,
+Jacques Cartier, fearing treachery, determined to anticipate it. He had
+already arranged to depart for France. On the 3d of May he seized the
+chief, the interpreters, and two other Indians, to present them to
+Francis I.: as some amends for this cruel and flagrant violation of
+hospitality, he treated his prisoners with great kindness; they soon
+became satisfied with their fate. On the 6th of May he made sail for
+Europe, and, after having encountered some difficulties and delays,
+arrived safely at St. Malo the 8th of July, 1536.
+
+The result of Jacques Cartier's expedition was not encouraging to the
+spirit of enterprise in France; no mines had been discovered,[88] no
+rare and valuable productions found.[89] The miserable state to which
+the adventurers had been reduced by the rigorous climate and loathsome
+diseases, the privations they had endured, the poverty of their
+condition, were sufficient to cool the ardor of those who might
+otherwise have wished to follow up their discoveries. But, happily for
+the cause of civilization, some of those powerful in France judged more
+favorably of Jacques Cartier's reports, and were not to be disheartened
+by the unsuccessful issue of one undertaking; the dominion over such a
+vast extent of country, with fertile soil and healthy climate, inhabited
+by a docile and hospitable people, was too great an object to be lightly
+abandoned. The presence of Donnacona, the Indian chief, tended to keep
+alive an interest in the land whence he had come; as soon as he could
+render himself intelligible in the French language, he confirmed all
+that had been said of the salubrity, beauty, and richness of his native
+country. The pious Jacques Cartier most of all strove to impress upon
+the king the glory and merit of extending the blessed knowledge of a
+Savior to the dark and hopeless heathens of the West; a deed well worthy
+of the prince who bore the title of Most Christian King and Eldest Son
+of the Church.
+
+Jean Francois de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a gentleman of Picardy, was
+the most earnest and energetic of those who desired to colonize the
+lands discovered by Jacques Cartier; he bore a high reputation in his
+own province, and was favored by the friendship of the king. With these
+advantages he found little difficulty in obtaining a commission to
+command an expedition to North America; the title and authority of
+lieutenant general and viceroy was conferred upon him; his rule to
+extend over Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay, Newfoundland, Belle Isle,
+Carpon, Labrador, La Grand Baye, and Baccalaos, with the delegated
+rights and powers of the crown. This patent was dated the 15th of
+January, 1540. Jacques Cartier was named second in command. The orders
+to the leaders of the expedition enjoined them to discover more than had
+been hitherto accomplished, and, if possible, to reach the country of
+Saguenay, where, from some reports of the Indians, they still hoped to
+find mines of gold and silver. The port of St. Malo was again chosen for
+the fitting out of the expedition: the king furnished a sum of money to
+defray the expenses.[90]
+
+Jacques Cartier exerted himself vigorously in preparing the little fleet
+for the voyage, and awaited the arrival of his chief with the necessary
+arms, stores, and ammunition; Roberval was meanwhile engaged at Honfleur
+in fitting out two other vessels at his own cost, and being urged to
+hasten by the king, he gave his lieutenant orders to start at once, with
+full authority to act as if he himself were present. He also promised to
+follow from Honfleur with all the required supplies. Jacques Cartier
+sailed on the 23d of May, 1541, having provisioned his fleet for two
+years. Storms and adverse winds dispersed the ships for some time, but
+in about a month they all met again on the coast of Newfoundland, where
+they hoped Roberval would join them. They awaited his coming for some
+weeks, but at length proceeded without him to the St. Lawrence; on the
+23d of August they reached their old station near the magnificent
+headland of Quebec.
+
+Donnacona's successor as chief of the Indians at Stadacona came in state
+to welcome the French on their return, and to inquire after his absent
+countrymen. They told him of the chief's death, but concealed the fate
+of the other Indians, stating that they were enjoying great honor and
+happiness in France, and would not return to their own country. The
+savages displayed no symptoms of anger, surprise, or distrust at this
+news; their countenances exhibited the same impassive calm, their
+manners the same quiet dignity as ever; but from that hour their hearts
+were changed; hatred and hostility took the place of admiration and
+respect, and a sad foreboding of their approaching destruction darkened
+their simple minds. Henceforth the French were hindered and molested by
+the inhabitants of Stadacona to such an extent that it was deemed
+advisable to seek another settlement for the winter. Jacques Cartier
+chose his new position at the mouth of a small river three leagues
+higher on the St. Lawrence;[91] here he laid up some of his vessels
+under the protection of two forts, one on a level with the water, the
+other on the summit of an overhanging cliff; these strongholds
+communicated with each other by steps cut in the solid rock; he gave the
+name of Charlesbourg Royal to this new station. The two remaining
+vessels of the fleet he sent back to France with letters to the king,
+stating that Roberval had not yet arrived.
+
+Under the impression that the country of the Saguenay, the land of
+fabled wealth, could be reached by pursuing the line of the St.
+Lawrence, Jacques Cartier set forth to explore the rapids above
+Hochelaga on the 7th of September, 1541. The season being so far
+advanced, he only undertook this expedition with a view to being better
+acquainted with the route, and to being provided with all necessary
+preparations for a more extensive exploration in the spring. In passing
+up the Great River he renewed acquaintance with the friendly and
+hospitable chief of Hochelai, and there left two boys under charge of
+the Indians to learn the language. On the 11th he reached the sault or
+rapids above Hochelaga, where the progress of the boats was arrested by
+the force of the stream; he then landed and made his way to the second
+rapid. The natives gave him to understand that above the next sault
+there lay a great lake; Cartier, having obtained this information,
+returned to where he had left the boats; about four hundred Indians had
+assembled and met him with demonstrations of friendship; he received
+their good offices and made them presents in return, but still regarded
+them with distrust on account of their unusual numbers. Having gained
+as much information as he could, he set out on his return to
+Charlesbourg Royal, his winter-quarters. The chief was absent when
+Jacques Cartier stopped at Hochelai on descending the river; he had gone
+to Stadacona to hold counsel with the natives of that district for the
+destruction of the white men. On arriving at Charlesbourg Royal, Jacques
+Cartier found confirmation of his suspicions against the Indians; they
+now avoided the French, and never approached the ships with their usual
+offerings of fish and other provisions; a great number of men had also
+assembled at Stadacona. He accordingly made every possible preparation
+for defense in the forts, and took due precautions against a surprise.
+There are no records extant of the events of this winter in Canada, but
+it is probable that no serious encounter took place with the natives;
+the French, however, must have suffered severely from the confinement
+rendered necessary by their perilous position, as well as from want of
+the provisions and supplies which the bitter climate made requisite.
+
+Roberval, though high-minded and enterprising, failed in his engagements
+with Jacques Cartier: he did not follow his adventurous lieutenant with
+the necessary and promised supplies till the spring of the succeeding
+year. On the 16th of April, 1542, he at length sailed from Rochelle with
+three large vessels, equipped principally at the royal cost. Two hundred
+persons accompanied him, some of them being gentlemen of condition,
+others men and women purposing to become settlers in the New World. Jean
+Alphonse, an experienced navigator of Saintonge, by birth a Portuguese,
+was pilot of the expedition. After a very tedious voyage, they entered
+the Road of St. John's, Newfoundland, on the 8th of June, where they
+found no fewer than seventeen vessels engaged in the inexhaustible
+fisheries of those waters.
+
+While Roberval indulged in a brief repose at this place, the unwelcome
+appearance of Jacques Cartier filled him with disappointment and
+surprise. The lieutenant gave the hostility of the savages and the
+weakness of his force as reasons for having abandoned the settlement
+where he had passed the winter. He still, however, spoke favorably of
+the richness and fertility of the country, and gladdened the eyes of
+the adventurers by the sight of a substance that resembled gold ore, and
+crystals that they fancied were diamonds, found on the bold headland of
+Quebec. But, despite these flattering reports and promising specimens,
+Jacques Cartier and his followers could not be induced, by entreaties or
+persuasions, to return. The hardships and dangers of the last terrible
+winter were too fresh in memory, and too keenly felt, to be again
+braved. They deemed their portion of the contract already complete, and
+the love of their native land overcame the spirit of adventure, which
+had been weakened, if not quenched, by recent disappointment and
+suffering. To avoid the chance of an open rupture with Roberval, the
+lieutenant silently weighed anchor during the night, and made all sail
+for France. This inglorious withdrawal from the enterprise paralyzed
+Roberval's power, and deferred the permanent settlement of Canada for
+generations then unborn. Jacques Cartier died soon after his return to
+Europe.[92] Having sacrificed his fortune in the pursuit of discovery,
+his heirs were granted an exclusive privilege of trade to Canada for
+twelve years, in consideration of his sacrifices for the public good;
+but this gift was revoked four months after it was bestowed.
+
+Roberval determined to proceed on his expedition, although deprived of
+the powerful assistance and valuable experience of his lieutenant. He
+sailed from Newfoundland for Canada, and reached Cap Rouge, the place
+where Jacques Cartier had wintered, before the end of June, 1542. He
+immediately fortified himself there, as the situation best adapted for
+defense against hostility, and for commanding the navigation of the
+Great River. Very little is known of Roberval's proceedings during the
+remainder of that year and the following winter. The natives do not
+appear to have molested the new settlers; but no progress whatever was
+made toward a permanent establishment. During the intense cold, the
+scurvy caused fearful mischief among the French; no fewer than fifty
+perished from that dreadful malady during the winter. Demoralized by
+misery and idleness, the little colony became turbulent and lawless, and
+Roberval was obliged to resort to extreme severity of punishment before
+quiet and discipline were re-established.
+
+Toward the close of April the ice broke up, and released the French from
+their weary and painful captivity. On the 5th of June, 1543, Roberval
+set forth from Cap Rouge to explore the province of Saguenay, leaving
+thirty men and an officer to protect their winter-quarters: this
+expedition produced no results, and was attended with the loss of one of
+the boats and eight men. In the mean time the pilot, Jean Alphonse, was
+dispatched to examine the coasts north of Newfoundland, in hopes of
+discovering a passage to the East Indies; he reached the fifty-second
+degree of latitude, and then abandoned the enterprise; on returning to
+Europe, he published a narrative of Roberval's expedition and his own
+voyage, with a tolerably accurate description of the River St. Lawrence,
+and its navigation upward from the Gulf. Roberval reached France in
+1543; the war between Francis I. and the Emperor Charles V. for some
+years occupied his ardent spirit, and supplied him with new occasions
+for distinction, till the death of the king, his patron and friend, in
+1547. In the year 1549 he collected some adventurous men, and,
+accompanied by his brave brother, Achille, sailed once again for Canada;
+but none of this gallant band were ever heard of more. Thus, for many a
+year, were swallowed up in the stormy Atlantic all the bright hopes of
+founding a new nation in America:[93] since these daring men had failed,
+none others might expect to be successful.
+
+In the reign of Henry II., attention was directed toward Brazil;
+splendid accounts of its wealth and fertility were brought home by some
+French navigators who had visited that distant land. The Admiral Gaspard
+de Coligni was the first to press upon the king the importance of
+obtaining a footing in South America, and dividing the magnificent prize
+with the Portuguese monarch. This celebrated man was convinced that an
+extensive system of colonization was necessary for the glory and
+tranquillity of France. He purposed that the settlement in the New World
+should be founded exclusively by persons holding that Reformed faith to
+which he was so deeply attached, and thus would be provided a refuge for
+those driven from France by religious proscription and persecution. It
+is believed that Coligni's magnificent scheme comprehended the
+possession of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, gradually colonizing
+the banks of these great rivers into the depths of the Continent, till
+the whole of North America, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of
+Mexico, should be hemmed in by this gigantic line of French outposts.
+However, the first proposition was to establish a colony on the coast of
+Brazil; the king approved the project, and Durand de Villegagnon,
+vice-admiral of Brittany, was selected to command in 1555; the
+expedition, however, entirely failed, owing to religious differences.
+
+Under the reigns of Francis II. and Charles IX., while France was
+convulsed with civil war, America seemed altogether forgotten. But
+Coligni availed himself of a brief interval of calm to turn attention
+once more to the Western World. He this time bethought himself of that
+country to which Ponce de Leon had given the name of Florida, from the
+exuberant productions of the soil and the beauty of the scenery and
+climate. The River Mississippi[94] had been discovered by Ferdinand de
+Soto,[95] about the time of Jacques Cartier's last voyage, 1543;
+consequently, the Spaniards had this additional claim upon the
+territory, which, they affirmed, they had visited in 1512, twelve years
+before the date of Verazzano's voyage in 1524. However, the claims and
+rights of the different European nations upon the American Continent
+were not then of sufficient strength to prevent each state from pursuing
+its own views of occupation. Coligni obtained permission from Charles
+IX. to attempt the establishment of a colony in Florida,[96] about the
+year 1562. The king was the more readily induced to approve of this
+enterprise, as he hoped that it would occupy the turbulent spirits of
+the Huguenots, many of them his bitter enemies, and elements of discord
+in his dominions. On the 18th of February, 1562, Jean de Ribaut, a
+zealous Protestant, sailed from Dieppe with two vessels and a picked
+crew; many volunteers, including some gentlemen of condition, followed
+his fortunes. He landed on the coast of Florida, near St. Mary's River,
+where he established a settlement and built a fort. Two years afterward
+Coligni sent out a re-enforcement, under the command of Rene de
+Laudonniere; this was the only portion of the admiral's great scheme
+ever carried into effect: when he fell, in the awful massacre of Saint
+Bartholomew, his magnificent project was abandoned. (1568.) After six
+years of fierce struggle with the Spaniards, the survivors of this
+little colony returned to France.[97]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 71: Hist. de la Nouvelle France, par le Pere Charlevoix, de la
+Compagnie de Jesus, vol. i., p. 11; Fastes Chronologiques, 1534.]
+
+[Footnote 72: Prima Relatione de Jacques Cartier della Terra Nouva,
+detta la Nouva Francia, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 435.]
+
+[Footnote 73: "Se la terra fosse cosi buono; come vi sono buoni porti,
+sarebbe un gran bene, ma ella non si debba chiamar Terra Nouva, anzi
+sassi e grebani salvatichi, e proprij luoghi da fiere, per cio che in
+tutto l'isola di Tramontana--[translated by Hakluyt "the northern part
+of the island"]--io non vidi tanta terra che se ne potesse coricar un
+carro, e vi smontai in parecchi luoghi, e all' isola di Bianco Sabbione
+non v'e altro che musco, e piccioli spini dispersi, secchi, e morti, e
+in somma io penso che questa sia la terra che Iddio dette a Caino."--J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 436.
+
+The journal of the first two voyages of Cartier is preserved almost
+entire in the "Histoire de la Nouvelle France," by L'Escarbot; there is
+an Italian translation in the third volume of Ramusio. They are written
+in the third person, and it does not appear that he was himself the
+author.]
+
+[Footnote 74: "Sono uomini d'assai bella vita e grandezza ma indomiti e
+salvatichi: portano i capelli in cuna legati e stretti a guisa d'un
+pugno di fieno rivolto, mettendone in mezzo un legnetto, o altra cosa in
+vece di chiodo, e vi legano insieme certe penne d'uccelli."--J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 436.]
+
+[Footnote 75: De Laet., vol. i., p. 58.]
+
+[Footnote 76: This was ingeniously represented to the natives as a
+religious ceremony, and, as such, excited nothing but the "grandissima
+ammirazione" of the natives present; it was, however, differently
+understood by their chief. "Ma essendo noi ritornati alle nostra navi,
+venne il Capitano lor vestito d'im pella vecchia d'orso negro in una
+barca con tre suoi figliuoli, e ci fece un lungo sermone mostrandaci
+detta croce e facendo il segno della croce con due dita poi ci mostrava
+la terra tutta intorno di noi come s'avesse voluto dice che tutta era
+sua, e che noi non dovevamo piantar detta croce senza sua licenza."--J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 439.]
+
+[Footnote 77: "Trovavamo un molto bello e gran golfo pieno d'isole e
+buone entrate e passaggi, verso qual vento si possa fare."--J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 441.]
+
+[Footnote 78: "Carthier donna au golphe le nom de St. Laurent, ou plutot
+il le donna a une baye qui est entre l'isle d'Anticoste et la cote
+septentrionale, d'ou ce nom s'est etendu a tout le golphe dont cette
+baye fait partie."--_Hist. de la Nouvelle France_, tom. i., p. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 79: "Des sauvages l'appelloient Natiscotec, le nom d'Anticosti
+parait lui avoir ete donne par les Anglais."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p.
+16. This island is one hundred and twenty-five miles long, and in its
+widest part thirty miles, dividing the River St. Lawrence into two
+channels. Throughout its whole extent it has neither bay nor harbor
+sufficiently safe to shelter ships. It is uncultivated, being generally
+of an unprofitable soil, upon which any attempted improvements have met
+with very unpromising results. Since the year 1809, establishments have
+been formed on the island for the relief of shipwrecked persons; two men
+reside there, at two different stations, all the year round, furnished
+with provisions for the use of those who may have the misfortune to need
+them. Boards are placed in different parts describing the distance and
+direction to these friendly spots; instances of the most flagrant
+inattention have, however, occurred, which were attended with the most
+distressing and fatal consequences."--Bonchette, vol. i., p. 169.
+
+"At present the whole island might be purchased for a few hundred
+pounds. It belongs to some gentlemen in Quebec; and you might, for a
+very small sum, become one of the greatest land-owners in the world, and
+a Canadian _seigneur_ into the bargain."--Grey's _Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 80: This is the first discovery of the River St. Lawrence,
+called by the natives the River Hochelaga, or the River of Canada.
+Jacques Cartier accurately determined the breadth of its mouth ninety
+miles across. Cape Rosier, a small distance to the north of the point of
+Gaspe, is properly the place which marks the opening of the gigantic
+river. "V'e tra le terre d'ostro e quelle di tramontana la distantia di
+trenta leghe in circa, e piu di dugento braccia di fondo. Ci dissero
+anche i detti salvatichi e certificarono quivi essere il cammino e
+principio del gran fiume di Hochelaga e strada di Canada."--J. Cartier,
+in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442.
+
+J. Cartier always afterward speaks of the St. Lawrence as the River of
+Hochelaga, or Canada. Charlevoix says, "Parceque le fleuve qu'on
+appelloit auparavant la Riviere de Canada se decharge dans le Golphe de
+St. Laurent, il a insensiblement pris le nom de Fleuve de St. Laurent,
+qu'il porte aujourd'hui (1720)."]
+
+[Footnote 81: "Lorsque Jacques Carthier decouvrit cette ile, il la
+trouva toute remplie de vignes, et la nomma l'Ile de Bacchus. Ce
+navigateur etait Breton, apres lui sont venus des Normands qui ont
+arrache les vignes et a Bacchus ont substitute Pomone et Ceres. En effet
+elle produit de bon froment et d'excellent fruits."--_Journal
+Historique_, lettre ii., p. 102.
+
+Charlevoix also mentions that, when he visited the islands in 1720, the
+inhabitants were famed for their skill in sorcery, and were supposed to
+hold intercourse with the devil!
+
+The Isle of Orleans was, in 1676, created an earldom, by the title of
+St. Laurent, which, however, has long been extinct. The first Comte de
+St. Laurent was of the name of Berthelot.--Charlevoix, vol. v., p. 99.]
+
+[Footnote 82: "Il signor de Canada (chiamato Donnacona per nome, ma per
+signore il chiamano Agouhanna)."--J. Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p.
+442. Agouhanna signified chief or lord.
+
+Here, says Jacques Cartier, begins the country of Canada. "Il settimo
+giorno di detto mese la vigilia della Madonna, dopo udita la messa ci
+partimmo dall' isola de' nocellari per andar all'insu di detta fiume, e
+arrivamo a quattordici isole distanti dall' isola de Nocellari intorno
+setto in otto leghe, e quivi e il principio della provincia, e terra di
+Canada."--J. Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 442.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The writer of these pages adds the testimony of an
+eye-witness to the opinion of the ingenious author of the "Picture of
+Quebec," as to the localities here described. The old writers, even
+Charlevoix himself, have asserted that the "Port St. Croix was at the
+entrance of the river now called Jacques Cartier, which flows into the
+St. Lawrence about fifteen miles above Quebec." Charlevoix, indeed,
+mentions that "Champlain pretend que cette riviere est celle de St.
+Charles, mais," he adds, "il se trompe," &c. However, the localities are
+still unchanged; though three centuries have since elapsed, the
+description of Jacques Cartier is easily recognized at the present day,
+and marks out the mouth of the little River St. Charles[84] as the first
+winter station of the Europeans in Canada. The following are J.
+Cartier's words: "Per cercar luogo e porto sicuro da metter le nave, e
+andammo al contrario per detto fiume intorno di dieci leghe costezziando
+detta isola (di Bacchus) e in capo di quella trovammo un gorgo d'acqua
+bello e ameno ("the beautiful basin of Quebec," as it is called in the
+"Picture of Quebec")--nel quel luogo e un picciol fiume e porto, dove
+per il flusso e alta l'acqua intorno a tre braccia, ne parve questo
+luogo comodo per metter le nostre navi, per il che quivi le mettemmo in
+sicuro, e lo chiamammo Santa Croce, percio che nel detto giorno v' eramo
+giunti.... Alla riva e lito di quell' isola di Bacchus verso ponente v'e
+un goejo d'acque molto bello e dilettevole, e convenientemente da
+mettere navilij, dove e uno stretto del detto fiume molto corrente e
+profondo ma non e lungo piu d'un terzo di lega intorno, per traverso del
+quale vi e una terra tutta di colline di buona altezza ... quive e la
+stanza e la terra di Donnacona, e chiamasi il luogo Stadacona ... sotto
+la qual alta terra verso tramontana e il fiume e porto di Santa Croce,
+nel qual luogo e porto siamo stati dalli 15 di Settembre fino alli 16 di
+Maggio 1536, nel qual luogo le navi rimasero in secco." The "one place"
+in the River St. Lawrence, "deep and swift running," means, of course,
+that part directly opposite the Lower Town, and no doubt it appeared, by
+comparison, "very narrow" to those who had hitherto seen the noble river
+only in its grandest forms. The town of Stadacona stood on that part of
+Quebec which is now covered by the suburbs of St. Roch, with part of
+those of St. John, looking toward the St. Charles. The area, or ground
+adjoining, is thus described by Cartier, as it appeared three centuries
+ago: "terra Tanta buona, quanto sia possibile di vedere, e e molto
+fertile, piena di bellissimi arbori della sorte di quelli di Francia,
+come sarebbeno quercie, olmi, frassine, najare, nassi, cedri, vigne,
+specie bianchi, i quali producono il frutto cosi grosso come susine
+damaschini, e di molte altre specie d'arbori, sotto de quali vi nasce e
+cresce cosi bel canapo come quel di Francia, e nondimeno vi nasce senza
+semenza, e senza opera umana o lavoro alcuno."--Jacques Cartier, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 443, 449, 450.
+
+The exact spot in the River St. Charles where the French passed the
+winter is supposed, on good authority, to have been the site of the old
+bridge, called Dorchester Bridge, where there is a ford at low water,
+close to the Marine Hospital. That it was on the east bank, not far from
+the residence of Charles Smith, Esq., is evident from the river having
+been frequently crossed by the natives coming from Stadacona to visit
+the French.--_Picture of Quebec_, p. 43-46; 1834.]
+
+[Footnote 84: It received this name, according to La Potherie, in
+compliment to Charles des Boues, grand vicar of Pontoise, founder of the
+first mission of Recollets in New France. The River St. Charles was
+called Coubal Coubat by the natives, from its windings and
+meanderings.--Smith's _Canada_, vol. i., p. 104.]
+
+[Footnote 85: "Quebec en langue Algonquine signifie _retrecissement_.
+Les Abenaquis dont la langue est une dialecte Algonquine, le nomment
+Quelibec, qui veut dire _ce qui est ferme_, parceque de l'entree de la
+petite riviere de la Chaudiere par ou ces sauvages venaient a Quebec, le
+port de Quebec ne paroit qu'une grande barge."--Charlevoix, vol. i., p.
+50.
+
+"Trouvant un lieu le plus etroit de la riviere que les habitans du pays
+nomment Quebec;" "la pointe de Quebec, ainsi appellee des
+sauvages."--Champlain, vol. i., p. 115, 124.
+
+Others give a Norman derivation for the word: it is said that Quebec was
+so called after Caudebec, on the Seine.
+
+La Potherie's words are: "On tient que les Normands qui etoient avec J.
+Cartier a sa premiere decouverte, apercevant en bout de l'isle
+d'Orleans, un cap fort eleve, s'ecrierent 'Quel bec!' et qu' a la suite
+du tems la nom de Quebec lui est reste. Je ne suis point garant de cette
+etymologie." Mr. Hawkins terms this "a derivation entirely illusory and
+improbable," and asserts that the word is of Norman origin. He gives an
+engraving of a seal belonging to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk,
+dated in the 7th of Henry V., or A.D. 1420. The legend or motto is,
+"Sigillum Willielmi de la Pole, Comitis Suffolckiae, Domine de Hamburg et
+de Quebec." Suffolk was impeached by the Commons of England in 1450, and
+one of the charges brought against him was, his unbounded influence in
+Normandy, where he lived and ruled like an independent prince; it is
+not, therefore, improbable that he enjoyed the French title of Quebec in
+addition to his English honors.
+
+The Indian name Stadacona had perished before the time of Champlain,
+owing, probably, to the migration of the principal tribe and the
+succession of others. The inhabitants of Hochelaga, we are told by
+Jacques Cartier, were the only people in the surrounding neighborhood
+who were not migratory.]
+
+[Footnote 86: "In mezzo di quelle campagne, e posta la terra d'Hochelaga
+appresso e congiunta con una montagna coltivata tutta attorno e molto
+fertile, sopra la qual si vede molto lontano. Noi la chiamammo il Monto
+Regal.... Parecchi uomini e donne ci vennero a condur e menar sopra la
+montagna, qui dinanzi detta, la qual chiamammo Monte Regal, distante da
+detto luogo poco manco d'un miglio, sopra la quale essendo noi, vedemmo
+e avemmo notitia di piu di trenta leghe attorno di quella, e verso la
+parte di tramontana si vede una continuazione di montagne, li quali
+corrono avante e ponente, e altra tante verso il mezzo giorno, fra le
+quali montagna e la terra, piu bella che sia possibile a veder."--J.
+Cartier, in Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 447, 448.
+
+"Cartier donna le nom de Mont Royal a la montagne au pied de laquelle
+etoit la bourgade de Hochelaga. Il decouvrit de la une grande etendue de
+pays dont la vue le charma, et avec raison, car il en est peu au monde
+de plus beau et de meilleur."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 87: "This tree is supposed to have been the spruce fir, _Pinus
+Canadensis_. It is called 'Ameda' by the natives. Spruce-beer is known
+to be a powerful anti-scorbutic."--Champlain. part i., p. 124.
+
+Charlevoix calls the tree _Epinette Blanche_.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Any information given by the natives as to the existence
+of mines was vague and unsatisfactory, "Poscia ci mostrarono con segni,
+che passate dette tre cadute si poteva navigar per detto fiume il spazio
+di tre lune: noi pensammo che quello sia il fiume che passa per il passe
+di Saguenay, e senza che li facessimo dimanda presero la catena del
+subiotto del capitano che era d'argento, e il manico del pugnale di uno
+de nostre compagni marinari, qual era d'ottone giallo quanto l'oro, e ci
+mostrarono che quello veniva di sopra di detto fiume ... Il capitan
+mostro loro del rame rosso, qual chiamano _Caignetadze_ dimostrandoli
+con segni voltandosi verso detto paese li dimandava se veniva da quelle
+parti, e eglino cominciarono a crollar il capo, volendo dir no, ma ben
+ne significarono che veniva da _Saguenay_.
+
+"Piu ci hanno detto e fatto intendere, che in quel paese di _Saguenay_
+sono genti vestite di drappi come noi, ... e che hanno gran quantita
+d'oro e rame rosso ... e che gli nomini e donne di quella terra sono
+vestite di pelli come loro, noi li dimandammo se ci e oro e rame rosso,
+ci risposero di si. Io penso che questo luogo sia verso la Florida per
+quanto ho potuto intendere dalli loro segni e indicij."--J. Cartier, in
+Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 448-450.]
+
+[Footnote 89: The only valuable the natives seemed to have in their
+possession was a substance called _esurgny_, white as snow, of which
+they made beads and wore them about their necks. This they looked upon
+as the most precious gift they could bestow on the white men. The mode
+in which it was prepared is said by Cartier to be the following: When
+any one was adjudged to death for a crime, or when their enemies are
+taken in war, having first slain the person, they make long gashes over
+the whole of the body, and sink it to the bottom of the river in a
+certain place, where the esurgny abounds. After remaining ten or twelve
+hours, the body is drawn up and the esurgny or _cornibotz_ is found in
+the gashes. These necklaces of beads the French found had the power to
+stop bleeding at the nose. It is supposed that in the above account the
+French misunderstood the natives or were imposed upon by them; and there
+is no doubt that the "valuable substance" described by Cartier was the
+Indian wampum.]
+
+[Footnote 90: See Appendix, No. XIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 91: The precise spot on which the upper fort of Jacques
+Cartier was built, afterward enlarged by Roberval, has been fixed by an
+ingenious gentleman at Quebec at the top of Cape Rouge Height, a short
+distance from the handsome villa of Mr. Atkinson. A few months ago, Mr.
+Atkinson's workmen, in leveling the lawn in front of the house, and
+close to the point of Cape Rouge Height, found beneath the surface some
+loose stones which had apparently been the foundation of some building
+or fortification. Among these stones were found several iron balls of
+different sizes, adapted to the caliber of the ship guns used at the
+period of Jacques Cartier's and Roberval's visit. Upon the whole, the
+evidence of the presence of the French at Cape Rouge may be considered
+as conclusive. Nor is there any good reason to doubt that Roberval took
+up his quarters in the part which Jacques Cartier had left.--_Picture of
+Quebec_, p. 62-469.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Jacques Cartier was born at St. Malo about 1500. The day
+of his birth can not be discovered, nor the time and place of his death.
+Most probably he finished his useful life at St. Malo; for we find,
+under the date of the 29th of November, 1549, that the celebrated
+navigator with his wife, Catharine des Granges, founded an obit in the
+Cathedral of St. Malo, assigning the sum of four francs for that
+purpose. The mortuary registers of St. Malo make no mention of his
+death, nor is there any tradition on the subject.]
+
+[Footnote 93: The name of America was first given to the New World in
+1507. "L'opinion anciennement emise et encore tres repandue que Vespuce,
+dans l'exercice de son emploi de Piloto mayor, et charge de corriger les
+cartes hydrographiques de 1508 a 1512, ait profite de sa position pour
+appeler de son nom le Nouveau Monde, n'a aucun fondement. La
+denomination d'Amerique a ete proposee loin de Seville, en Lorraine, en
+1507, une annee avant la creation de l'office d'un Piloto mayor de
+Indias. Les Mappe Mondes qui portent le nom d'Amerique n'ont paru que 8
+our 10 ans apres la mort de Vespuce, et dans des pays sur lequels ni lui
+ni ses parents n'exercaient aucune influence. Il est probable que
+Vespuce n'a jamais su quelle dangereuse gloire on lui preparoit a Saint
+Die, dans un petit endroit, situe au pied des Vosges, et dont
+vraisembablement le nom meme lui etoit inconnu. Jusqu' a l'epoque de sa
+mort, le mot Amerique, employe comme denomination d'un continent ne
+s'est trouve imprime que dans deux seuls ouvrages, dans la Cosmographiae
+Introductio de Martin Waldseemuller, et dans le Globus Mundi (Argentor,
+1509). On n'a jusqu'ici aucun rapport direct de Waldseemuller
+imprimateur de Saint Die, avec le navigateur Florentin."--Humboldt's
+_Geogr. du Nouveau Continent_, vol. v., p. 206.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Nomoesi-Sipu, _Fish River_, Moesisip by corruption. This
+river is called Cucagna by Garcilasso.]
+
+[Footnote 95: For the romantic details of Ferdinand de Soto's perilous
+enterprise, see Vega Garcilasso de Florida del Ynca, b. i., ch. iii.,
+iv.; Herrera, Dec. VI., b. vii., ch. ix.; Purchas, 4, 1532; "Purchas,
+his Pilgrimage," otherwise called "Hackluytus Posthumus;" a voluminous
+compilation by a chaplain of Archbishop Abbot's, designed to comprise
+whatever had been related concerning the religion of all nations, from
+the earliest times.--Miss Aikin's _Charles I._, vol. i., p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 96: "La colonie Francaise etablie sous Charles IX. comprenoit
+la partie meridionnale de la Caroline Angloise, la Nouvelle Georgie,
+d'aujourd'hui (1740) San Matteo, appelle par Laudonniere Caroline en
+l'honneur du roi Charles, St. Augustin, et tout ce que les Espagnols ont
+sur cette cote jusqu'au Cap Francois, n'a jamais ete appellee autrement
+que la Floride Francaise, ou la Nouvelle France, ou la France
+Occidentale."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 383.]
+
+[Footnote 97: See Appendix, Nos. XV., XVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+
+Little or no effort was made to colonize any part of Canada for nearly
+fifty years after the loss of Roberval; but the Huguenots of France did
+not forget that hope of a refuge from religious persecution which their
+great leader, Coligni, had excited in their breasts. Several of the
+leaders of subsequent expeditions of trade and discovery to Canada and
+Acadia were Calvinists, until 1627, when Champlain, zealous for the
+Romish faith, procured a decree forbidding the free exercise of the
+Reformed religion in French America.
+
+Although the French seemed to have renounced all plan of settlement in
+America by the evacuation of Florida, the fishermen of Normandy and
+Brittany still plied their calling on the Great Bank and along the
+stormy shores of Newfoundland, and up the Gulf and River of St.
+Lawrence. By degrees they began to trade with the natives, and soon the
+greater gains and easier life of this new pursuit transformed many of
+these hardy sailors into merchants.
+
+When, after fifty years of civil strife, the strong and wise sway of
+Henry IV. restored rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery
+again arose. The Marquis de la Roche, a Breton gentleman, obtained from
+the king, in 1598, a patent granting the same powers that Roberval had
+possessed. He speedily armed a vessel, and sailed for Nova Scotia in the
+same year, accompanied by a skillful Norman pilot named Chedotel. He
+first reached Sable Island, where he left forty miserable wretches,
+convicts drawn from the prisons of France, till he might discover some
+favorable situation for the intended settlement, and make a survey of
+the neighboring coasts. When La Roche ever reached the Continent of
+America remains unknown; but he certainly returned to France, leaving
+the unhappy prisoners upon Sable Island to a fate more dreadful than
+even the dungeons or galleys of France could threaten. After seven years
+of dire suffering, twelve of these unfortunates were found alive, an
+expedition having been tardily sent to seek them by the king. When they
+arrived in France, they became objects of great curiosity; in
+consideration of such unheard-of suffering, their former crimes were
+pardoned, a sum of money was given to each, and the valuable furs
+collected during their dreary imprisonment, but fraudulently seized by
+the captain of the ship in which they were brought home, were allowed to
+their use. In the mean time, the Marquis de la Roche, who had so cruelly
+abandoned these men to their fate, harassed by lawsuits, overwhelmed
+with vexations, and ruined in fortune by the failure of his expedition,
+died miserably of a broken heart.
+
+The misfortunes and ruin of the Marquis de la Roche did not stifle the
+spirit of commercial enterprise which the success of the fur trade had
+excited. Private adventurers, unprotected by any especial privilege,
+began to barter for the rich peltries of the Canadian hunters. (1600.) A
+wealthy merchant of St. Malo, named Pontgrave, was the boldest and most
+successful of these traders; he made several voyages to Tadoussac, at
+the mouth of the Saguenay, bringing back each time a rich cargo of rare
+and valuable furs. He saw that this commerce would open to him a field
+of vast wealth, could he succeed in obtaining an exclusive privilege to
+enjoy its advantages, and managed to induce Chauvin, a captain in the
+navy, to apply to the king for powers such as De la Roche had possessed:
+the application was successful, a patent was granted to Chauvin, and
+Pontgrave admitted to partnership. (1602.) It was, however, in vain that
+they attempted to establish a trading post at Tadoussac:[98] after
+having made two voyages thither without realizing their sanguine
+expectations of gain, Chauvin died while once more preparing to try his
+fortune.
+
+At this time the great object of colonization was completely forgotten
+in the eager pursuit of the fur trade, till De Chatte, the governor of
+Dieppe, who succeeded to the privileges of Chauvin, founded a company of
+merchants at Rouen, for the further development of the resources of
+Canada. (1603.) An armament was fitted out under the command of the
+experienced Pontgrave; he was commissioned by the king to make further
+discoveries in the St. Lawrence, and to establish a settlement upon some
+suitable position on the coast. Samuel de Champlain, a captain in the
+navy, accepted a command in this expedition at the request of De
+Chatte; he was a native of Saintonge, and had lately returned to France
+from the West Indies, where he had gained a high name for boldness and
+skill. Under the direction of this wise and energetic man the first
+successful efforts were made to found a permanent settlement in the
+magnificent province of Canada, and the stain of the errors and
+disasters of more than seventy years was at length wiped away.
+
+Pontgrave and Champlain sailed for the St. Lawrence in 1603. They
+remained a short time at Tadoussac, where they left their ships; then,
+trusting themselves to a small, open boat, with only five sailors, they
+boldly pushed up the Great River to the sault St. Louis, where Jacques
+Cartier had reached many years before. By this time Hochelaga, the
+ancient Indian city, had, from some unknown cause, sunk into such
+insignificance that the adventurers did not even notice it, nor deem it
+worthy of a visit; but they anchored for a time under the shade of the
+magnificent headland of Quebec. On the return of the expedition to
+France, Champlain found, to his deep regret, that De Chatte, the worthy
+and powerful patron of the undertaking, had died during his absence.
+Pierre du Guast, sieur de Monts, had succeeded to the powers and
+privileges of the deceased, with even a more extensive commission.
+
+De Monts was a Calvinist, and had obtained from the king the freedom of
+religious faith for himself and his followers in America, but under the
+engagement that the Roman Catholic worship should be established among
+the natives. Even his opponents admitted the honesty and patriotism of
+his character,[99] and bore witness to his courage and ability; he was,
+nevertheless, unsuccessful; many of those under his command failed in
+their duty, and the jealousy excited by his exclusive privileges and
+obnoxious doctrines[100] involved him in ruinous embarrassments.
+
+The trading company established by De Chatte was continued and increased
+by his successor. With this additional aid De Monts was enabled to fit
+out a more complete armament than had ever hitherto been engaged in
+Canadian commerce. He sailed from Havre on the 7th of March, 1604, with
+four vessels. Of these, two under his immediate command were destined
+for Acadia. Champlain, Poutrincourt, and many other volunteers, embarked
+their fortunes with him, purposing to cast their future lot in the New
+World. A third vessel was dispatched under Pontgrave to the Strait of
+Canso, to protect the exclusive trading privileges of the company. The
+fourth steered for Tadoussac, to barter for the rich furs brought by the
+Indian hunters from the dreary wilds of the Saguenay.
+
+On the 6th of May De Monts reached a harbor on the coast of Acadia,
+where he seized and confiscated an English vessel, in vindication of his
+exclusive privileges. Thence he sailed to the Island of St. Croix, where
+he landed his people, and established himself for the winter. In the
+spring of 1605 he hastened to leave this settlement, where the want of
+wood and fresh water, and the terrible ravages of the scurvy, had
+disheartened and diminished the number of his followers. In the mean
+time Champlain had discovered and named Port Royal, now Annapolis, a
+situation which presented many natural advantages. De Monts removed the
+establishment thither, and erected a fort, appointing Pontgrave to its
+command. Soon afterward he bestowed Port Royal and a large extent of the
+neighboring country upon De Poutrincourt, and the grant was ultimately
+confirmed by letters patent from the king. This was the first concession
+of land made in North America since its discovery.
+
+When De Monts returned to France in 1605, he found that enemies had been
+busily and successfully at work in destroying his influence at court.
+Complaints of the injustice of his exclusive privileges poured in from
+all the ports in the kingdom. It was urged that he had interfered with
+and thwarted the fisheries, under the pretense of securing the sole
+right of trading with the Indian hunters. These statements were
+hearkened to by the king, and all the Sieur's privileges were revoked.
+De Monts bore up bravely against this disaster. He entered into a new
+engagement with De Poutrincourt, who had followed him to France, and
+dispatched a vessel from Rochelle on the 13th of May to succor the
+colony in Acadia. The voyage was unusually protracted, and the settlers
+at Port Royal, at length reduced to great extremities, feared that they
+had been abandoned to their fate. The wise and energetic Pontgrave did
+all that man could do to reassure them; but, finally, their supplies
+being completely exhausted, he was constrained to yield to the general
+wish, and embark his people for France. He had scarcely sailed, however,
+when he heard of the arrival of Poutrincourt and the long-desired
+supplies. He then immediately returned to Port Royal, where he found his
+chief already landed. Under able and judicious management,[101] the
+colony increased and prospered until 1614, when it was attacked and
+broken up by Sir Samuel Argall with a Virginian force.[102]
+
+The enemies of De Monts did not relax in their efforts till he was
+deprived of his high commission. A very insufficient indemnity was
+granted for the great expenses he had incurred. Still he was not
+disheartened: in the following year, 1607, he obtained a renewal of his
+privileges for one year, on condition that he should plant a colony upon
+the banks of the St. Lawrence. The trading company did not lose
+confidence in their principal, although his courtly influence had been
+destroyed; but their object was confined to the prosecution of the
+lucrative commerce in furs, for which reason they ceased to interest
+themselves in Acadia, and turned their thoughts to the Great River of
+Canada, where they hoped to find a better field for their undertaking.
+They equipped two ships at Honfleur, under the command of Champlain and
+Pontgrave, to establish the fur trade at Tadoussac. De Monts remained in
+France, vainly endeavoring to obtain an extension of his patent. Despite
+his disappointments, he fitted out some vessels in the spring of 1608,
+with the assistance of the company, and dispatched them to the River
+St. Lawrence on the 13th of April, under the same command as before.
+
+Champlain reached Tadoussac on the 3d of June; his views were far more
+extended than those of a mere merchant; even honest fame for himself,
+and increase of glory and power for his country, were, in his eyes,
+objects subordinate to the extension of the Catholic faith. After a
+brief stay, he ascended the Great River, examining the shore with minute
+care, to seek the most fitting place where the first foundation of
+French empire might be laid. On the 3d of July he reached QUEBEC, where,
+nearly three quarters of a century before, Jacques Cartier had passed
+the winter. This magnificent position was at once chosen by Champlain as
+the site of the future capital of Canada: centuries of experience have
+proved the wisdom of the selection; admirably situated for purposes of
+war or commerce, and completely commanding the navigation of the Great
+River, it stands the center of a scene of beauty that can nowhere be
+surpassed.
+
+On the bold headland overlooking the waters of the basin, he commenced
+his work by felling the trees, and rooting up the wild vines and tangled
+underwood from the virgin soil. Some rude huts were speedily erected for
+shelter; spots around them were cultivated to test the fertility of the
+land: this labor was repaid by abundant production. The first permanent
+work undertaken in the new settlement was the erection of a solid
+building as a magazine for their provisions. A temporary barrack on the
+highest point of the position, for the officers and men, was
+subsequently constructed. These preparations occupied the remainder of
+the summer. The first snow fell on the 18th of November, but only
+remained on the ground for two days: in December it again returned, and
+the face of nature was covered till the end of April, 1609. From the
+time of Jacques Cartier to the establishment of Champlain, and even to
+the present day, there has been no very decided amelioration of the
+severity of the climate; indeed, some of the earliest records notice
+seasons milder than many of modern days.
+
+The town of Stadacona, like its prouder neighbor of Hochelaga, seems to
+have dwindled into insignificance since the time when it had been an
+object of such interest and suspicion to Jacques Cartier. Some Indians
+still lived in huts around Quebec, but in a state of poverty and
+destitution, very different from the condition of their ancestors.
+During the winter of 1608, they suffered dire extremities of famine;
+several came over from the southern shores of the river, miserably
+reduced by starvation, and scarcely able to drag along their feeble
+limbs, to seek aid from the strangers. Champlain relieved their
+necessities and treated them with politic kindness. The French suffered
+severely from the scurvy during the first winter of their residence.
+
+On the 18th of April, 1609, Champlain, accompanied by two Frenchmen,
+ascended the Great River with a war party of Canadian Indians. After a
+time, turning southward up a tributary stream, he came to the shores of
+a large and beautiful lake, abounding with fish; the shores and
+neighboring forests sheltered, in their undisturbed solitude, countless
+deer and other animals of the chase. To this splendid sheet of water he
+gave his own name, which it still bears. To the south and west rose huge
+snow-capped mountains, and in the fertile valleys below dwelt numbers of
+the fierce and hostile Iroquois. Champlain and his savage allies pushed
+on to the furthest extremity of the lake, descended a rapid, and entered
+another smaller sheet of water, afterward named St. Sacrement. On the
+shore they encountered two hundred of the Iroquois warriors; a battle
+ensued; the skill and the astonishing weapons of the white men soon gave
+their Canadian allies a complete victory. Many prisoners were taken,
+and, in spite of Champlain's remonstrances, put to death with horrible
+and protracted tortures. The brave Frenchman returned to Quebec, and
+sailed for Europe in September, leaving Captain Pierre Chauvin, an
+experienced officer, in charge of the infant settlement. Henry IV.
+received Champlain with favor, and called him to an interview at
+Fontainebleau:[103] the king listened attentively to the report of the
+new colony, expressing great satisfaction at its successful foundation
+and favorable promise. But the energetic De Monts, to whom so much of
+this success was due, could find no courtly aid: the renewal of his
+privilege was refused, and its duration had already expired. By the
+assistance of the Merchant Company, he fitted out two vessels in the
+spring of 1610, under the tried command of Champlain and Pontgrave: the
+first was destined for Quebec, with some artisans, settlers, and
+necessary supplies for the colony; the second was commissioned to carry
+on the fur trade at Tadoussac. Champlain sailed from Honfleur on the 8th
+of April, and reached the mouth of the Saguenay in eighteen days, a
+passage which even all the modern improvements in navigation have rarely
+enabled any one to surpass in rapidity. He soon hastened on to Quebec,
+where, to his great joy, he found the colonists contented and
+prosperous; the virgin soil had abundantly repaid the labors of
+cultivation, and the natives had in no wise molested their dangerous
+visitors. He joined the neighboring tribes of Algonquin and Montagnez
+Indians, during the summer, in an expedition against the Iroquois.
+Having penetrated the woody country beyond Sorel for some distance, they
+came upon a place where their enemies were intrenched; this they took,
+after a bloody resistance. Champlain and another Frenchman were slightly
+wounded in the encounter.
+
+In 1612 Champlain found it necessary to revisit France; some powerful
+patron was wanted to forward the interests of the colony, and to provide
+the supplies and resources required for its extension. The Count de
+Soissons readily entered into his views, and delegated to him the
+authority of viceroy, which had been conferred upon the count.[104]
+Soissons died soon after, and the Prince of Conde became his successor.
+Champlain was wisely continued in the command he had so long and ably
+held, but was delayed in France for some time by difficulties on the
+subject of commerce with the merchants of St. Malo.
+
+Champlain sailed again from St. Malo on the 6th of March, 1613, in a
+vessel commanded by Pontgrave, and anchored before Quebec on the 7th of
+May. He found the state of affairs at the settlement so satisfactory
+that his continued presence was unnecessary; he therefore proceeded at
+once to Montreal, and, after a short stay at that island, explored for
+some distance the course of the Ottawa, which there pours its vast flood
+into the main stream of the St. Lawrence. The white men were filled with
+wonder and admiration at the magnitude of this great tributary, the
+richness and beauty of its shores, the broad lakes and deep rapids, and
+the eternal forests, clothing mountain, plain, and valley for countless
+leagues around. As they proceeded they found no diminution in the volume
+of water; and when they inquired of the wandering Indian for its source,
+he pointed to the northwest, and indicated that it lay in the unknown
+solitudes of ice and snow, to which his people had never reached. After
+this expedition Champlain returned with his companion Pontgrave to St.
+Malo, where they arrived in the end of August.
+
+Having engaged some wealthy merchants of St. Malo, Rouen, and Rochelle
+in an association for the support of the colony, through the assistance
+of the Prince of Conde, viceroy of New France, he obtained letters
+patent of incorporation for the company (1614). The temporal welfare of
+the settlement being thus placed upon a secure basis, Champlain, who was
+a zealous Catholic, next devoted himself to obtain spiritual aid. By his
+entreaties four Recollets were prevailed upon to undertake the mission.
+These were the first[105] ministers of religion settled in Canada. They
+reached Quebec in the beginning of April, 1615, accompanied by
+Champlain, who, however, at once proceeded to Montreal.
+
+On arriving at this island, he found the Huron and other allied tribes
+again preparing for an expedition against the Iroquois. With a view of
+gaining the friendship of the savages, and of acquiring a knowledge of
+the country, he injudiciously offered himself to join a quarrel in which
+he was in no wise concerned. The father Joseph Le Caron accompanied him,
+in the view of preparing the way for religious instruction, by making
+himself acquainted with the habits and language of the Indians.
+Champlain was appointed chief by the allies, but his savage followers
+rendered slight obedience to this authority. The expedition proved very
+disastrous: the Iroquois were strongly intrenched, and protected by a
+quantity of felled trees; their resistance proved successful; Champlain
+was wounded, and the allies were forced to retreat with shame and with
+heavy loss.
+
+The respect of the Indians for the French was much diminished by this
+untoward failure; they refused to furnish Champlain with a promised
+guide to conduct him to Quebec, and he was obliged to pass the winter
+among them as an unwilling guest. He, however, made the best use of his
+time; he visited many of the principal Huron and Algonquin towns, even
+those as distant as Lake Nipissing, and succeeded in reconciling several
+neighboring nations. At the opening of the navigation, he gained over
+some of the Indians to his cause, and, finding that another expedition
+against the Iroquois was in preparation, embarked secretly and arrived
+at Quebec on the 11th of July, 1616, when he found that he and the
+father Joseph were supposed to have been dead long since. They both
+sailed for France soon after their return from among the Hurons.
+
+In the following year, a signal service was rendered to the colony by a
+worthy priest named Duplessys: he had been engaged for some time at
+Three Rivers in the instruction of the savages, and had happily so far
+gained their esteem, that some of his pupils informed him of a
+conspiracy among all the neighboring Indian tribes for the utter
+destruction of the French; eight hundred chiefs and warriors had
+assembled to arrange the plan of action. Duplessys contrived, with
+consummate ability, to gain over some of the principal Indians to make
+advances toward a reconciliation with the white men, and, by degrees,
+succeeded in arranging a treaty, and in causing two chiefs to be given
+up as hostages for its observance.
+
+For several years Champlain was constantly obliged to visit France for
+the purpose of urging on the tardily provided aids for the colony. The
+court would not interest itself in the affairs of New France since a
+company had undertaken their conduct, and the merchants, always limited
+in their views to mere commercial objects, cared but little for the fate
+of the settlers so long as their warehouses were stored with the
+valuable furs brought by the Indian hunters. These difficulties would
+doubtless have smothered the infant nation in its cradle, had it not
+been for the untiring zeal and constancy of its great founder. At every
+step he met with new trials from the indifference, caprice, or
+contradiction of his associates, but, with his eye steadily fixed upon
+the future, he devoted his fortune and the energies of his life to the
+cause, and rose superior to every obstacle.
+
+In 1620, the Prince of Conde sold the vice-royalty of New France to his
+brother-in-law, the Marshal de Montmorenci, for eleven thousand crowns.
+The marshal wisely continued Champlain as lieutenant governor, and
+intrusted the management of colonial affairs in France to M. Dolu, a
+gentleman of known zeal and probity. Champlain being hopeful that these
+changes would favorably affect Canada, resolved now to establish his
+family permanently in that country. Taking them with him, he sailed from
+France in the above-named year, and arrived at Quebec in the end of May.
+In passing by Tadoussac, he found that some adventurers of Rochelle had
+opened a trade with the savages, in violation of the company's
+privileges, and had given the fatal example of furnishing the hunters
+with fire-arms in exchange for their peltries.
+
+A great danger menaced the colony in the year 1621. The Iroquois sent
+three large parties of warriors to attack the French settlements. This
+savage tribe feared that if the white men obtained a footing in the
+country, their alliance with the Hurons and Algonquins, of which the
+effects had already been felt, might render them too powerful. The first
+division marched upon Sault St. Louis, where a few Frenchmen were
+established. Happily, there was warning of their approach; the
+defenders, aided by some Indian allies, repulsed them with much loss,
+and took several prisoners. The Iroquois had, however, seized Father
+Guillaume Poulain, one of the Recollets, in their retreat; they tied him
+to a stake, and were about to burn him alive, when they were persuaded
+to exchange the good priest for one of their own chiefs, who had fallen
+into the hands of the French. Another party of these fierce marauders
+dropped down the river to Quebec in a fleet of thirty canoes, and
+suddenly invested the Convent of the Recollets, where a small fort had
+been erected; they did not venture to attack this little stronghold, but
+fell upon some Huron villages near at hand, and massacred the helpless
+inhabitants with frightful cruelty; they then retreated as suddenly as
+they had come. Alarmed by this ferocious attack, which weakness and the
+want of sufficient supplies prevented him from avenging, Champlain sent
+Father Georges le Brebeuf as an agent, to represent to the king the
+deplorable condition of the colony, from the criminal neglect of the
+company. The appeal was successful; the company was suppressed, and the
+exclusive privilege transferred to Guillaume and Emeric de Caen, uncle
+and nephew.
+
+The king himself wrote to his worthy subject Champlain, expressing high
+approval of his eminent services, and exhorting him to continue in the
+same career. This high commendation served much to strengthen his hands
+in the exercise of his difficult authority. He was embarrassed by
+constant disputes between the servants of the suppressed company, and
+those who acted for the De Caens; religious differences also served to
+embitter these dissensions, as the new authorities were zealous
+Huguenots.
+
+This year Champlain discovered that his ancient allies, the Hurons,
+purposed to detach themselves from his friendship, and unite with the
+Iroquois for his destruction. To avert this danger, he sent among them
+Father Joseph la Caron and two other priests, who appear to have
+succeeded in their mission of reconciliation. The year after, he erected
+a stone fort[108] at Quebec for the defense of the settlement, which
+then only numbered fifty souls of all ages and sexes. As soon as the
+defenses were finished, Champlain departed for France with his family,
+to press for aid from the government for the distressed colony.
+
+On his arrival, he found that Henri de Levi, duke de Ventadour, had
+purchased the vice-royalty of New France from the Marshal de
+Montmorenci, his uncle, with the view of promoting the spiritual welfare
+of Canada, and the general conversion of the heathen Indians to the
+Christian faith. He had himself long retired from the strife and
+troubles of the world, and entered into holy orders. Being altogether
+under the influence of the Jesuits, he considered them as the means
+given by heaven for the accomplishment of his views. The pious and
+exemplary Father Lallemant, with four other priests and laymen of the
+Order of Jesus, undertook the mission, and sailed for Canada in 1625.
+They were received without jealousy by their predecessors of the
+Recollets, and admitted under their roof on their first arrival.[109]
+The following year three other Jesuit fathers reached Quebec in a little
+vessel provided by themselves; many artisans accompanied them. By the
+aid of this re-enforcement, the new settlement soon assumed the
+appearance of a town.
+
+The Huguenot De Caens used their powerful influence to foment the
+religious disputes now raging in the infant settlement;[110] they were
+also far more interested in the profitable pursuit of the fur trade than
+in promoting the progress of colonization; for these reasons, the
+Cardinal de Richelieu judged that their rule was injurious to the
+prosperity of the country; he revoked their privileges, and caused the
+formation of a numerous company of wealthy and upright men; to this he
+transferred the charge of the colony. This body was chartered under the
+name of "The Company of One Hundred Associates:"[111] their capital was
+100,000 crowns; their privileges as follows: To be proprietors of
+Canada; to govern in peace and war; to enjoy the whole trade for
+fifteen years (except the cod and whale fishery), and the fur trade in
+perpetuity; untaxed imports and exports. The king gave them two ships of
+300 tons burden each, and raised twelve of the principal members to the
+rank of nobility. The company, on their part, undertook to introduce 200
+or 300 settlers during the year 1628, and 16,000 more before 1643,
+providing them with all necessaries for three years, and settling them
+afterward on a sufficient extent of cleared land for their future
+support. The articles of this agreement were signed by the Cardinal de
+Richelieu on the 19th of April, 1627, and subsequently approved by the
+king.
+
+At this time the Indians were a constant terror to the settlers in
+Canada: several Frenchmen had been assassinated by the ruthless savages,
+and their countrymen were too feeble in numbers to demand the punishment
+of the murderers. Conscious of their strength, the natives became daily
+more insolent; no white man could venture beyond the settlement without
+incurring great danger. Building languished, and much of the cleared
+land remained uncultivated. Such was the disastrous state of the colony.
+
+The commencement of the company's government was marked by heavy
+misfortune. The first vessels sent by them to America fell into the
+hands of the English, at the sudden breaking out of hostilities. In
+1628, Sir David Kertk, a French Calvinist refugee in the British
+service, reached Tadoussac with a squadron, burned the fur houses of the
+free traders, and did other damage; thence he sent to Quebec, summoning
+Champlain to surrender. The brave governor consulted with Pontgrave and
+the inhabitants; they came to the resolution of attempting a defense,
+although reduced to great extremities, and sent Kertk such a spirited
+answer that he, ignorant of their weakness, did not advance upon the
+town. He, however, captured a convoy under the charge of De Roquemont,
+with several families on board, and a large supply of provisions for the
+settlement. This expedition against Canada was said to have been planned
+and instigated by De Caen, from a spirit of vengeance against those who
+had succeeded to his lost privileges.
+
+In July, 1629, Lewis and Thomas, brothers of Sir David Kertk, appeared
+with an armament before Quebec. As soon as the fleet had anchored, a
+white flag with a summons to capitulate was sent ashore. This time the
+assailants were well informed of the defenders' distress, but offered
+generous terms if Champlain would at once surrender the fort. He, having
+no means of resistance, was fain to submit. The English took possession
+the following day, and treated the inhabitants with such good faith and
+humanity, that none of them left the country. Lewis Kertk remained in
+command at Quebec; Champlain proceeded with Thomas to Tadoussac, where
+they met the admiral, Sir David, with the remainder of the fleet. In
+September they sailed for England, and Champlain was sent on to France,
+according to treaty.[112]
+
+When the French received the news of the loss of Canada, opinion was
+much divided as to the wisdom of seeking to regain the captured
+settlement.[113] Some thought its possession of little value in
+proportion to the expense it caused, while others deemed that the fur
+trade and fisheries were of great importance to the commerce of France,
+as well as a useful nursery for experienced seamen. Champlain strongly
+urged the government not to give up a country where they had already
+overcome the principal difficulties of settlement, and where, through
+their means, the light of religion was dawning upon the darkness of
+heathen ignorance. His solicitations were successful, and Canada was
+restored to France at the same time with Acadia and Cape Breton, by the
+treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye[114] (1632). At this period the fort of
+Quebec, surrounded by a score of hastily-built dwellings and barracks,
+some poor huts on the island of Montreal, the like at Three Rivers and
+Tadoussac, and a few fishermen's log-houses elsewhere on the banks of
+the St. Lawrence, were the only fruits of the discoveries of Verazzano,
+Jacques Cartier, Roberval, and Champlain, the great outlay of La Roche
+and De Monts, and the toils and sufferings of their followers, for
+nearly a century.[115]
+
+By the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye the company were restored to all
+their rights and privileges, and obtained compensation for the losses
+they had sustained, but it was some time before the English could be
+effectually excluded from the trade which they had established with the
+Indians during their brief possession of the country. In 1633 Champlain
+was reappointed governor of New France, and on his departure for the
+colony took with him many respectable settlers: several Protestants were
+anxious to join him; this, however, was not permitted. Two Jesuits,
+Fathers de Brebeuf and Enemond Masse, accompanied the governor: they
+purposed to devote themselves to the conversion of the Indians to
+Christianity, and to the education of the youth of the colony. The
+Recollets had made but little progress in proselytism; as yet, very few
+of the natives had been baptized, nor were the Jesuits at first[116]
+much more successful: these persevering men were, however, not to be
+disheartened by difficulties, and they were supported by the hope that
+when they became better acquainted with the language and manners of
+their pupils, their instructions would yield a richer harvest.[117]
+
+As New France advanced in population and prosperity, the sentiments of
+religion became strengthened among the settlers. On the first arrival of
+the Jesuits, Rene Rohault, the eldest son of the Marquis de Gamache, and
+himself one of the order, adopted the idea of founding a college at
+Quebec for the education of youth and the conversion of the Indians, and
+offered 6000 crowns of gold as a donation to forward the object. The
+capture of the settlement by the English had, for a time, interrupted
+the execution of this plan; but Rohault at length succeeded in laying
+the foundation of the building in December, 1635, to the great joy of
+the French colonists.
+
+In the same month, to the deep regret of all good men, death deprived
+his country of the brave, high-minded, and wise Champlain. He was buried
+in the city of which he was the founder, where, to this day, he is
+fondly and gratefully remembered among the just and good. Gifted with
+high ability, upright, active, and chivalrous, he was, at the same time,
+eminent for his Christian zeal and humble piety. "The salvation of one
+soul," he often said, "is of more value than the conquest of an empire."
+To him belongs the glory of planting Christianity and civilization among
+the snows of those northern forests; during his life, indeed, a feeble
+germ, but, sheltered by his vigorous arm--nursed by his tender care--the
+root struck deep. Little more than two centuries have passed since the
+faithful servant went to rest upon the field of his noble toils. And now
+a million and a half of Christian people dwell in peace and plenty upon
+that magnificent territory, which his zeal and wisdom first redeemed
+from the desolation of the wilderness.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 98: "Parceque les relations et les voyageurs parloient
+beaucoup de Tadoussac, les Geographes ont suppose que e'etait une ville,
+mais il n'y a jamais eu qu'une maison Francaise, et quelques cabannes de
+sauvages, qui y venoient au tems de la traite, et qui emportoient
+ensuite leurs cabannes; comme on fait les loges d'une foire. Il est vrai
+que ce port a ete lontems l'abord de toutes les nations sauvages du
+nord et de l'est; que les Francois s'y rendoient des que la navigation
+etoit libre; soil de France, soil du Canada; que les missionnaires
+profitoient de l'occasion, et y venoient negocier pour le ciel.... Au
+reste Tadoussac est un bon port, et on m'a assure que vingt cinq
+vaisseaux de guerre y pouvoient etre a l'abri de tous les vents, que
+l'ancrage y est sur, et que l'entree en est facile."--Charlevoix, tom.
+v., p. 96, 1721.
+
+"Tadoussac, one hundred and forty miles below Quebec, is a post
+belonging to the Hudson Bay Company, and is the residence of one of its
+partners and an agent. They alone are allowed to trade with the Indians
+in the interior. At Tadoussac is a Roman Catholic chapel, a store and
+warehouse, and some eight or ten dwellings. Here is erected a
+flag-staff, surrounded by several pieces of cannon, on an eminence
+elevated about fifty feet, and overlooking the inner warehouse, where is
+a sufficient depth of water to float the largest vessels. This place was
+early settled by the French, who are said to have here erected the first
+dwelling built of stone and mortar in Canada, and the remains of it are
+still to be seen. The view is exceedingly picturesque from this point.
+The southern shore of the St. Lawrence may be traced, even with the
+naked eye, for many a league; the undulating line of snow-white cottages
+stretching far away to the east and west; while the scene is rendered
+gay and animated by the frequent passage of the merchant vessel plowing
+its way toward the port of Quebec, or hurrying upon the descending tide
+to the Gulf; while, from the summit of the hill upon which Tadoussac
+stands, the sublime and impressive scenery of the Saguenay rises to
+view."--_Picturesque Tourist_, p. 267 (New York, 1844).]
+
+[Footnote 99: "The colony that was sent to Canada this year was among
+the number of those things that had not my approbation; there was no
+kind of riches to be expected from all those countries of the New World
+which are beyond the fortieth degree of latitude. His majesty gave the
+conduct of this expedition to the Sieur de Monts."--_Memoirs of Sully_,
+b. xvi., p. 241, English translation.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The pious Romanist, Champlain, thus details the
+inconveniences caused by the different creeds of the Frenchmen composing
+the expedition of De Monts: "Il se trouva quelque chose a redire en
+cette entreprise, qui est en ce que deux religions contraires ne font
+jamais un grand fruit pour la gloire de Dieu parmi les infideles que
+l'on veut convertir. J'ai vu le ministre et notre cure s'entre battre a
+coups de poing, sur le differend de la religion. Je ne scais pas qui
+etoit le plus vaillant et qui donnoit le meilleur coup, mas je scais
+tres bien que le ministre se plaignoit quelquefois au Sieur de Monts
+d'avoir ete battue, et vuidoit en cette facon les points de
+controversie. Je vous laisse a penser si cela etoit beau a voir; les
+sauvages etoient tantot d'une partie, tantot d'une autre, et les
+Francois meles selon leurs diverses croyances, disoit pis que pendre de
+l'une et de l'autre religion, quoique le Sieur de Monts y apportat la
+paix le plus qu'il pouvoit."--_Voyages de la Nouvelle France
+Occidentale, dite Canada, faits par le Sieur de Champlain a Paris_,
+1632.]
+
+[Footnote 101: De Poutrincourt had been accompanied, in his last voyage
+from France, by Marc Lescarbot, well known as one of the best historians
+of the early French colonists. His memoirs and himself are thus
+described by Charlevoix: "Un avocat de Paris, nomme Marc L'Escarbot,
+homme d'esprit et fort attache a M. de Poutrincourt, avoit eu la
+curiosite de voir le Nouveau Monde. Il animoit les uns, il piequoit les
+autres d'honneur, il se faisoit aimer de tous, et ne s'epargnoit
+lui-meme en rien. Il inventoit tous les jours quelque chose de nouveau
+pour l'utilite publique, et jamais on ne comprit mieux de quelle
+ressource peut etre dans un nouvel etablissement, un esprit cultive par
+l'etude.... C'est a cet avocat, que nous sommes redevable des meilleurs
+memoires que nous ayons de ce qui s'est passe sous ses yeux. On y voit
+un auteur exact, judicieux, et un homme, qui eut ete aussi capable
+d'etablir une colonie que d'en ecrire une histoire." (Charlevoix, vol.
+i., p. 185.) The title of L'Escarbot's work is "Histoire de la Nouvelle
+France, par Marc L'Escarbot, Avocat en Parlement, temoin oculaire d'une
+partie des choses y recitees: a Paris, 1609."]
+
+[Footnote 102: "Argall se fondait sur une concession de Jacques I., qui
+avait permis a ses sujets de s'etablir jusqu'au quarante cinq degres, et
+il crut pouvoir profiter de la foiblesse des Francais pour les traitre
+en usurpateurs.... Si Poutrincourt avoit ete dans son fort avec trente
+hommes bien armes, Argall n'auroit pas meme eu l'assurance de l'attaquer
+... en deux heures de tems le fen consuma tout ce que les Francais
+possedoient dans une colonie ou l'on avait deja depense plus de cent
+mille ecus.... Celui qui y perdit davantage, fut M. de Poutrincourt qui,
+depuis ce tems la ne songea plus a l'Amerique. Il rentra dans le
+service, ou il s'etait deja par plusieurs belles actions et mourut au
+lit d'honneur."--Jean de Laet.
+
+In 1621, James I. conferred Acadia upon Sir William Alexander, who gave
+it the name of Nova Scotia. At the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, in
+1632, it was restored to the French; again taken by the English, it was
+again restored to France by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. In 1710, when
+Acadia was taken by General Nicholson, the English perceived its
+importance for their commerce. They obtained its formal and final
+cession at the treaty of Utrecht, 1713.]
+
+[Footnote 103: "It was at this time that the name of New France was
+first given to Canada."--Charlevoix. tom. i., p. 232.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Champlain, part i., p. 231; Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 236.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Seven or eight years before the arrival of the PP.
+Recollets at Quebec, Roman Catholic missionaries had found their way to
+Nova Scotia. They were Jesuits. It was remarkable that Henry IV., whose
+life had been twice attempted by the Jesuits,[106] should have earnestly
+urged their establishment in America. When Port Royal was ceded to
+Poutrincourt by De Monts, the king intimated to him that it was time to
+think of the conversion of the savages, and that it was _his desire_
+that the Jesuits should be employed in this work. Charlevoix
+acknowledges that De Poutrincourt was "un fort honnete homme, et
+sincerement attache a la religion Catholique"--nevertheless, his
+prejudices against Jesuits were so strong, that "il etoit bien resolu de
+ne les point mene au Port Royal." On various pretexts he evaded obeying
+the royal commands, and when, the year after, the Jesuits were sent out
+to him, at the expense of Madame de Gruercheville, and by the orders of
+the queen's mother, he rendered their stay at Port Royal as
+uncomfortable as was consistent with his noble and generous character,
+vigilantly guarding against their acquiring any dangerous influence. His
+former prejudices could not have been lessened by the assassination of
+Henry IV.[107] The two Jesuits selected by P. Cotton, Henry IV.'s
+confessor, for missionary labors in Acadia, were P. Pierre Biast and P.
+Enemond Masse. They were taken prisoners at the time of Argall's descent
+on Acadia, 1614, and conveyed to England.--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 189,
+216.]
+
+[Footnote 106: By Barriere in 1593; by Jean Chatel in 1594. He finally
+perished by the hand of Ravaillac, in 1610. See Sully's Memoirs, b. vi.,
+vii.; Cayet, Chron. Noven., b.v.; Pere de Chalons, tom. iii., p. 245,
+quoted by Sully.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Henri s' etait montre bienveillant pour les Jesuites,
+encore que les parlemens et tous ceux qui tenoient, a la magistrature
+ressentoient plus de prevention contre ces religieux que les Hugonots
+eux-memes.... Henri IV. fit abattre la pyramide qui avait ete elevee en
+memoire de l' attentat de Jean Chatel contre lui, parce que l'
+inscription qu' elle portait inculpait les Jesuites d'avoir excite a cet
+assassinat.--Sismondi: _Histoire des Francais_. See De Thou, tom. ix.,
+p. 696, 704; tom. x., p. 26 a 30.]
+
+[Footnote 108: When Champlain first laid the foundations of the fort in
+1623, to which he gave the name of St. Louis, it is evident that he was
+actuated by views, not of a political, but a commercial character. When
+Montmagny rebuilt the fort in 1635, it covered about four acres of
+ground, and formed nearly a parallelogram. Of these works only a few
+vestiges remain, except the eastern wall, which is kept in solid
+repair.--Bonchette.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 247.]
+
+[Footnote 110: "Ce fut Guillaume de Caen qui les conduisit (les
+Jesuites) a Quebec. Il avoit donne sa parole au Duc de Ventadour qu'il
+ne laisseroit les Jesuites manquer du rien; cependant, des qu'ils furent
+debarques, il leur declara que, si les PP. Recollets ne vouloient pas
+les recevoir et les loger chez eux, ils n'avoient point d'autre parti a
+prendre que retourner en France. Ils s'apercurent meme bientot qu'on
+avoit travaille a prevenir contre eux les habitans de Quebec, en leur
+mettant entre les mains les ecrits les plus injurieux, que les
+Calvinistes de France avoient publies contre leur compagnie. Mais leur
+presence eut bientot efface tous ces prejuges."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p.
+248.]
+
+[Footnote 111: Charlevoix highly extols this brilliant conception of the
+Cardinal de Richelieu, "et ne craint point d'avancer que la Nouvelle
+France seroit aujourd'hui la plus puissante colonie de l'Amerique, si
+l'execution avoit repondue a la beaute du projet, et si les membres de
+ce grand corps eussent profite des dispositions favorables du souverain
+et de son ministre a leur egard."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 250;
+_Memoires des Commissaires_, vol. i., p. 346.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Champlain's proposals of capitulation (Smith's Canada,
+vol. i., p. 22) sufficiently prove that, down to 1629, France had
+scarcely any permanent footing in the country. By stipulating for the
+removal of "all the French" in Quebec, Champlain seems to consider that
+the whole province was virtually lost to France, and "the single
+vessel," which was to furnish the means of removal, reduces "all the
+French" in Quebec to a very small number.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 273.]
+
+[Footnote 115: "L'ile au Cap Breton (c'etoit bien peu de choses que
+l'etablissement que nous avions alors dans cette ile) le fort de Quebec
+environne de quelques mechantes maisons et de quelques baraques, deux ou
+trois cabanes dans l'Ile de Montreal, autant peut-etre a Tadoussac, et
+en quelques autres endroits sur le fleuve St. Laurent, pour la commodite
+de la peche et de la Traite, un commencement d'habitation aux Trois
+Rivieres et les rivieres de Port Royal, voila en quoi consistoit la
+Nouvelle France et tout le fruit des decouvertes de Verazzani, de Jaques
+Cartier, de M. de Roberval, de Champlain, des grandes depenses de
+Marquis de la Roche, et de M. de Monts et de l'industrie d'un grand
+nombre de Francais qui auroient pu y faire un grand etablissement, s'ils
+eussent ete bien conduits."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 274.]
+
+[Footnote 116: See Appendix, No. XVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 117: The Jesuits always retained the superior position they
+held from the first among the Roman Catholic missionaries of Canada.
+There is a well-known Canadian proverb, "Pour faire un Recollet il faut
+une hachette, pour un Pretre un ciseau, mais pour un Jesuite il faut un
+pinceau." See Appendix, No. XVII., (see Vol II) for Professor Kalm's
+account of these three classes.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+
+Having followed the course of discovery and settlement in New France up
+to the death of the man who stamped the first permanent impression upon
+that country, it is now time to review its character and condition at
+the period when it became the abode of a civilized people. Champlain's
+deputed commission of governor gave him authority over all that France
+possessed or claimed on the continent and islands of North America;
+Newfoundland, Isle Royale, and Acadia, were each portions of this vast
+but vague territory; and those unknown, boundless solitudes of ice and
+snow, lying toward the frozen north, whose very existence was a
+speculation, were also, by the shadowy right of a European king, added
+to his wide dominion. Of that portion, however, called Canada, it is
+more especially the present subject to treat.
+
+Canada is a vast plain, irregular in elevation and feature, forming a
+valley between two ranges of high land; one of these ranges divides it,
+to the north, from the dreary territories of Hudson's Bay; the other, to
+the south, from the republic of the United States and the British
+province of New Brunswick. None of the hills rise to any great height;
+with one exception, Man's Hill, in the State of Maine, 2000 feet is
+their greatest altitude above the sea. The elevated districts are,
+however, of very great extent, broken, rugged, and rocky, clothed with
+dense forests, intersected with rapid torrents, and varied with
+innumerable lakes. The great plain of Canada narrows to a mere strip of
+low land by the side of the St. Lawrence, as it approaches the eastern
+extremity. From Quebec to the gulf on the north side, and toward Gaspe
+on the south, the grim range of mountains reaches almost to the water's
+edge; westward of that city the plain expands, gradually widening into a
+district of great beauty and fertility; again, westward of Montreal, the
+level country becomes far wider and very rich, including the broad and
+valuable flats that lie along the lower waters of the Ottawa. The rocky,
+elevated shores of Lake Huron bound this vast valley to the west; the
+same mountain range extends along the northern shore of Lake Superior;
+beyond lie great tracts of fertile soil, where man's industrious hand
+has not yet been applied.
+
+Canada may be described as lying between the meridians of 57 deg. 50' and
+90 deg. west; from the mouth of the Esquimaux River on the confines of
+Labrador, to the entrance of the stream connecting the waters of Lake
+Superior and the Rainy Lake, bordering on Prince Rupert's Land. The
+parallels of 42 deg. and 52 deg. inclose this country to the south and north.
+The greatest length is about 1300 miles, the breadth 700. A space of
+348,000 square miles is inclosed within these limits.
+
+The great lakes in Canada give a character to that country distinct from
+any other in the Old World or the New. They are very numerous; some far
+exceed all inland waters elsewhere in depth and extent; they feed,
+without apparent diminution, the great river St. Lawrence; the tempest
+plows their surface into billows that rival those of the Atlantic,[118]
+and they contain more than half of all the fresh water upon the surface
+of the globe.[119]
+
+Superior[120] is the largest and most elevated of these lakes: it is
+crescent-shaped, convex to the north; to the southeast and southwest its
+extremities are narrow points: the length through the curve is 360
+geographical miles, the breadth in the widest part 140, the
+circumference 1500. The surface of this vast sheet of fresh water is 627
+feet above the level of the Atlantic; from various indications upon the
+shores, there is good reason to conclude that at some remote period it
+was forty or fifty feet higher. The depth of Lake Superior varies much
+in different parts, but is generally very great; at the deepest it is
+probably 1200 feet. The waters are miraculously pure and transparent;
+many fathoms down, the eye can distinctly trace the rock and shingle of
+the bottom, and follow the quick movements of the numerous and beautiful
+fish inhabiting these crystal depths. No tides vary the stillness of
+this inland sea, but when a strong prevailing wind sweeps over the
+surface, the waves are lashed to fury, and the waters, driven by its
+force, crowd up against the leeward shore. When in the spring the warm
+sun melts the mountain snows, and each little tributary becomes an
+impetuous torrent pouring into this great basin, the level of the
+surface rises many feet. Although no river of any magnitude helps to
+supply Lake Superior, a vast number of small streams fall in from among
+clefts and glens along the rugged shores;[121] there are also many large
+islands; one, Isle Royale, is more than forty miles in length. In some
+places lofty hills[122] rise abruptly from the water's edge; in others
+there are intervals of lower lands for sixty or seventy miles, but every
+where stands the primeval forest, clothing height and hollow alike. At
+the south-eastern extremity of this lake, St. Mary's Channel carries the
+superabundant waters for nearly forty miles, till they fall into Lake
+Huron; about midway between, they rush tumultuously down a steep
+descent, with a tremendous roar, through shattered masses of rock,
+filling the pure air above with clouds of snowy foam.
+
+Lake Huron is the next in succession and the second in magnitude of
+these inland seas. The outline is very irregular, to the north and east
+formed by the Canadian territory, to the southwest by that of the United
+States. From where the Channel of St. Mary enters this lake to the
+furthest extremity is 240 miles, the greatest breadth is 220, the
+circumference about 1000; the surface is only 32 feet lower than that of
+Superior; in depth and in pure transparency the waters of this lake are
+not surpassed by its great neighbor. Parallel to the north shore runs a
+long, narrow peninsula called Cabot Head, which, together with a chain
+of islands, shuts in the upper waters so as almost to form a separate
+and distinct lake. The Great Manitoulin Island, the largest of this
+chain, is seventy-five miles in length. In the Indian tongue the name
+denotes it the abode of the Great Spirit,[123] and the simple savages
+regard these woody shores with reverential awe.
+
+To the north and west of Lake Huron the shores are generally rugged and
+precipitous; abrupt heights of from 30 to 100 feet rise from the water's
+edge, formed of clay, huge stones, steep rocks, and wooded acclivities;
+further inland, the peaks of the Cloche Mountains ascend to a
+considerable height. To the east, nature presents a milder aspect; a
+plain of great extent and richness stretches away toward the St.
+Lawrence. Many streams pour their flood into this lake; the principal
+are the Maitland, Severn, Moon, and French Rivers; they are broad and
+deep, but their sources lie at no great distance. By far the largest
+supply of water comes from the vast basin of Lake Superior, through the
+Channel of St. Mary. Near the northwestern extremity of Huron, a narrow
+strait[124] connects it with Lake Michigan in the United States; there
+is a slight difference of level between these two great sheets of water,
+and a current constantly sets into the southern basin: this lake is also
+remarkable for its depth and transparency.[125]
+
+At the southern extremity of Lake Huron, its overflow pours through a
+river about thirty miles in length into a small lake; both lake and
+river bear the name of St. Clair.[126] Thence the waters flow on,
+through the broad but shallow stream of the Detroit, until they fall
+into Lake Erie thirty miles below; on either side, the banks and
+neighboring districts are rich in beauty and abundantly fertile.
+
+Lake Erie is shallow and dangerous, the anchorage is bad, the harbors
+few and inconvenient. Long, low promontories project for a considerable
+distance from the main land, and embarrass the navigation; but the
+coasts, both on the Canadian and American side, are very fertile.[127]
+Lake Erie is about 265 miles long, and 63 wide at its greatest breadth;
+the circumference is calculated at 658 miles; its surface lies 30 feet
+below the level of Lake Huron.[128] The length of the lake stretches
+northeast, almost the same direction as the line of the River St.
+Lawrence.
+
+The Niagara River flows from the northeastern extremity of Lake Erie to
+Lake Ontario in a course of 33 miles, with a fall of not less than 334
+feet. About twenty miles below Lake Erie is the grandest sight that
+nature has laid before the human eye--the Falls of Niagara. A stream
+three quarters of a mile wide, deep and rapid, plunges over a rocky
+ledge 150 feet in height; about two thirds of the distance across from
+the Canadian side stands Goat Island, covered with stately timber: four
+times as great a body of water precipitates itself over the northern or
+Horse-shoe Fall as that which flows over the American portion. Above the
+cataract the river becomes very rapid and tumultuous in several places,
+particularly at the Ferry of Black Rock, where it rushes past at the
+rate of seven miles an hour; within the last mile there is a tremendous
+indraught to the Falls. The shores on both sides of the Niagara River
+are of unsurpassed natural fertility, but there is little scenic beauty
+around to divert attention from the one object. The simplicity of this
+wonder adds to the force of its impression: no other sight over the wide
+world so fills the mind with awe and admiration. Description may convey
+an idea of the height and breadth[129]--the vast body of
+water[130]--the profound abyss--the dark whirlpools--the sheets of
+foam[131]--the plumy column of spray[132] rising up against the sky--the
+dull, deep sound that throbs through the earth, and fills the air for
+miles and miles with its unchanging voice[133]--but of the magnitude of
+this idea, and the impression, stamped upon the senses by the reality,
+it is vain to speak to those who have not stood beside Niagara.
+
+Tho descent of the land from the shores of Lake Erie to those of Ontario
+is general and gradual,[134] and there is no feature in the
+neighborhood of the Falls to mark its locality. From the Erie boundary
+the river flows smoothly through a level but elevated plain, branching
+round one large and some smaller islands. Although the deep, tremulous
+sound of Niagara tells of its vicinity, there is no unusual appearance
+till within about a mile, when the waters begin to ripple and hasten on;
+a little further it dashes down a magnificent rapid, then again becomes
+tranquil and glassy, but glides past with astonishing swiftness. There
+are numberless points whence the fall of this great river may be well
+seen: the best is Table Rock, at the top of the cataract; the most
+wonderful is the recess between the falling flood and the cliff over
+which it leaps.
+
+For some length below Niagara the waters are violently agitated;
+however, at the distance of half a mile, a ferry plies across in safety.
+The high banks on both sides of the river extend to Queenston and
+Lewiston, eight miles lower, confining the waters to a channel of no
+more than a quarter of a mile in breadth, between steep and lofty
+cliffs; midway is the whirlpool,[135] where the current rushes
+furiously round within encircling heights. Below Queenston the river
+again rolls along a smooth stream, between level and cultivated banks,
+till it pours its waters into Lake Ontario.
+
+Ontario is the last[136] and the most easterly of the chain of
+lakes.[137] The greatest length is 172 miles; at the widest it measures
+59 miles across; the circumference is 467 miles, and the surface is 334
+feet below the level of Lake Erie. The depth of Ontario varies very much
+along the coast, being seldom more than from three to 50 fathoms; and in
+the center, a plummet, with 300 fathoms of line, has been tried in vain
+for soundings. A sort of gravel, small pieces of limestone, worn round
+and smooth by the action of water, covers the shores, lying in long
+ridges sometimes miles in extent. The waters, like those of the other
+great lakes, are very pure and beautiful, except where the shallows
+along the margin are stirred up by violent winds: for a few days in June
+a yellow, unwholesome scum covers the surface at the edge every year.
+There is a strange phenomenon connected with Ontario, unaccounted for by
+scientific speculation; each seventh year, from some inscrutable cause,
+the waters reach to an unusual height, and again subside, mysteriously
+as they arose. The beautiful illusion of the mirage spreads its dreamy
+enchantment over the surface of Ontario in the summer calms, mixing
+islands, clouds, and waters in strange confusion.[138]
+
+The outline of the shores is much diversified: to the northeast lie low
+lands and swampy marshes; to the north and northeast extends a bold
+range of elevated grounds; southward the coast becomes again flat for
+some distance inland, till it rises into the ridge of heights that marks
+the position of Niagara. The country bordering the lake is generally
+rich and productive, and was originally covered with forest. A ridge of
+lofty land runs from the beautiful Bay of Quinte, on the northwest of
+the lake, westward along the shore, at a distance of nine or more miles:
+from these heights innumerable streams flow into Ontario on one side,
+and into the lakes and rivers of the back country on the other. At
+Toronto the ridge recedes to the distance of twenty-four miles northeast
+from the lake, separating the tributary waters of Lakes Huron and
+Ontario; thence merging in the Burlington Heights, it continues along
+the southwest side from four to eight miles distant from the shore to
+the high grounds about Niagara.
+
+Besides the great stream of Niagara, many rivers flow into Ontario both
+on the Canadian and American sides. The bays and harbors are also very
+numerous, affording great facilities for navigation and commerce: in
+this respect the northern shore is the most favored--the Bays of Quinte
+and Burlington are especially remarkable for their extent and
+security.[139]
+
+The northeast end of Lake Ontario, where its waters pour into the St.
+Lawrence, is a scene of striking beauty;[140] numerous wooded islands,
+in endless variety of form and extent, divide the entrance of the Great
+River[141] into a labyrinth of tortuous channels, for twelve miles in
+breadth from shore to shore: this width gradually decreases as the
+stream flows on to Prescot, fifty miles below; a short distance beyond
+that town the rapids commence,[142] and thence to Montreal the
+navigation is interrupted for vessels of burden; boats, rafts, and small
+steamers, however, constantly descend these tumultuous waters, and not
+unfrequently are lost in the dangerous attempt. The most beautiful and
+formidable of these rapids is called the Cedars, from the rich groves of
+that fragrant tree covering numerous and intricate islands, which
+distort the rushing stream into narrow and perilous channels: the water
+is not more than ten feet deep in some places, and flows at the rate of
+twelve miles an hour. The river there widens into Lake St. Francis, and
+again into Lake St. Louis, which drains a large branch of the Ottawa at
+its south-western extremity. The water of this great tributary is
+remarkably clear and of a bright emerald color; that of the St. Lawrence
+at this junction is muddy, from having passed over deep beds of marl for
+several miles above its entrance to Lake St. Louis: for some distance
+down the lake the different streams can be plainly distinguished from
+each other. From the confluence of the first branches above Montreal
+these two great rivers seem bewildered among the numerous and beautiful
+islands, and, hurrying past in strong rapids, only find rest again in
+the broad, deep waters many miles below.
+
+The furthest sources of the Ottawa River are unknown.[143] It rises to
+importance at the outlet from Lake Temiscaming, 350 miles west of its
+junction with the St. Lawrence.[144] Beyond the Falls and Portage des
+Allumettes, 110 miles above Hull, this stream has been little explored.
+There it is divided into two channels by a large island fifteen miles
+long: the southernmost of these expands into the width of four or five
+miles, and communicates by a branch of the river with the Mud and Musk
+Rat Lakes. Twelve miles further south the river again forms two
+branches, including an extensive and beautiful island twenty miles in
+length; numerous rapids and cascades diversify this wild but lovely
+scene; thence to the foot of the Chenaux, wooded islands in picturesque
+variety deck the bosom of the stream, and the bright blue waters here
+wind their way for three miles through a channel of pure white marble.
+Nature has bestowed abundant fertility as well as beauty upon this
+favored district. The Gatineau River joins the Ottawa near Hull, after a
+course of great length. This stream is navigated by canoes for more than
+300 miles, traversing an immense valley of rich soil and picturesque
+scenery.
+
+At the foot of the Chenaux the magnificent Lake des Chats opens to
+view, in length about fifteen miles; the shores are strangely indented,
+and numbers of wooded islands stud the surface of the clear waters. At
+the foot of the lake there are falls and rapids;[145] thence to Lake
+Chaudiere, a distance of six miles, the channel narrows, but expands
+again to form that beautiful and extensive basin. Rapids again succeed,
+and continue to the Chaudiere Falls. The boiling pool into which these
+waters descend is of great depth: the sounding-line does not reach the
+bottom at the length of 300 feet. It is supposed that the main body of
+the river flows by a subterraneous passage, and rises again half a mile
+lower down. Below the Chaudiere Falls the navigation is uninterrupted to
+Grenville, sixty miles distant. The current is scarcely perceptible; the
+banks are low, and generally over-flowed in the spring; but the varying
+breadth of the river, the numerous islands, the magnificent forests, and
+the crystal purity of the waters, lend a charm to the somewhat
+monotonous beauty of the scene. At Grenville commences the Long Sault, a
+swift and dangerous rapid, which continues with intervals till it falls
+into the still Lake of the Two Mountains. Below the heights from whence
+this sheet of water derives its name, the well-known Rapids of St.
+Anne's discharge the main stream into the waters of the St.
+Lawrence.[146]
+
+Below the island of Montreal the St. Lawrence continues, in varying
+breadth and considerable depth, to Sorel, where it is joined by the
+Richelieu River from the south; thence opens the expanse of Lake St.
+Peter, shallow and uninteresting; after twenty-five miles the Great
+River contracts again, receives in its course the waters of the St.
+Maurice, and other large streams; and 180 miles below Montreal the vast
+flood pours through the narrow channel that lies under the shadow of
+Quebec.[147] Below this strait lies a deep basin, nearly four miles
+wide, formed by the head of the Island of Orleans: the main channel
+continues by the south shore. It would be wearisome to tell of all the
+numerous and beautiful islands that deck the bosom of the St. Lawrence
+from Quebec to the Gulf. The river gradually expands till it reaches a
+considerable breadth at the mouth of the Saguenay. There is a dark shade
+for many miles below where this great tributary pours its gloomy flood
+into the pure waters of the St. Lawrence: 120 miles westward it flows
+from a large, circular sheet of water, called Lake St. John; but the
+furthest sources lie in the unknown regions of the west and north. For
+about half its course, from the lake to Tadoussac at the mouth, the
+banks are rich and fertile; but thence cliffs rise abruptly out of the
+water to a lofty height--sometimes 2000 feet--and two or three miles
+apart. The depth of the Saguenay is very great, and the surrounding
+scenery is of a magnificent but desolate character.
+
+Below the entrance of the Saguenay the St. Lawrence increases to twenty
+miles across, at the Bay of Seven Islands to seventy, at the head of the
+large and unexplored island of Anticosti to ninety, and at the point
+where it may be said to enter the Gulf between Gaspe and the Labrador
+coast, reaches the enormous breadth of 120 miles. In mid-channel both
+coasts can be seen; the mountains on the north shore rise to a great
+height in a continuous range, their peaks capped with eternal snows.
+
+Having traced this vast chain of water communication from its remotest
+links, it is now time to speak of the magnificent territory which it
+opens to the commerce and enterprise of civilized man.
+
+Upper or Western Canada[148] is marked off from the eastern province by
+the natural boundary of the Ottawa or Grand River. It consists almost
+throughout of one uniform plain. In all those districts hitherto settled
+or explored, there is scarcely a single eminence that can be called a
+hill, although traversed by two wide ridges, rising above the usual
+level of the country. The greater of these elevations passes through
+nearly the whole extent of the province from southeast to northwest,
+separating the waters falling into the St. Lawrence and the great lakes
+from those tributary to the Ottawa: the highest point is forty miles
+north of Kingston, being also the most elevated level on that
+magnificent modern work, the Rideau Canal;[149] it is 290 feet above the
+Ottawa at Bytown, and 160 feet higher than the surface of Lake Ontario.
+Toward these waters the plain descends at the gradient of about four
+feet in the mile; this declivity is imperceptible to the eye, and is
+varied by gently undulating slopes and inequalities. Beyond the broad,
+rich valley lying to the north of this elevation there is a rocky and
+mountainous country; still farther north are seen snow-covered peaks of
+a great but unknown height; thence to the pole extends the dreary region
+of the Hudson Bay territory.
+
+The lesser elevation begins near the eastern extremity of Ontario, and
+runs almost parallel with the shores of the lake to a point about
+twenty-four miles northwest from Toronto, where it separates the streams
+flowing into Lakes Huron and Ontario: it then passes southeast between
+Lakes Erie and Ontario, and terminates on the Genesee in the United
+States. This has a more perceptible elevation than the southern ridge,
+and in some places rises into bold heights.
+
+The only portion of the vast plain of Western Canada surveyed or
+effectually explored is included by a line drawn from the eastern coast
+of Lake Huron to the Ottawa River, and the northern shores of the great
+chain of lake and river; this is, however, nearly as large as the whole
+of England.
+
+The natural features of Lower or Eastern Canada are unsurpassed by those
+of any other country in grace and variety: rivers, lakes, mountains,
+forests, prairies, and cataracts are grouped together in endless
+combinations of beauty and magnificence. The eastern districts,
+beginning with the bold sea-coast and broad waters of the St. Lawrence,
+are high, mountainous, and clothed with dark forests on both sides, down
+to the very margin of the river. To the north, a lofty and rugged range
+of heights runs parallel with the shore as far westward as Quebec;
+thence it bends west and southwest to the banks of the Ottawa. To the
+south, the elevated ridge, where it reaches within sixty miles of
+Quebec, turns from the parallel of the St. Lawrence southwest and south
+into the United States; this ridge, known by the name of the Alleganies,
+rises abruptly out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence at Perce, between the
+Baye de Chaleur and Gaspe Cape, and is more distant from the Great River
+than that upon the northern shore. Where the Alleganies enter the United
+States they divide the plains of the Atlantic coast from the basin of
+the Ohio; their greatest height is about 4000 feet above the level of
+the sea.
+
+The Valley of the St. Lawrence, lying between these two ranges of
+heights, is marked by great diversities of hill, plain, and valley. Both
+from the north and south numerous rivers pour their tributary flood into
+the great waters of Canada; of those eastward of the Saguenay little is
+known beyond their entrance; they flow through cliffs of light-colored
+sand, rocky, wooded knolls, or, in some places, deep, swampy moss-beds
+nearly three feet in depth. From the Saguenay to Quebec the mountain
+ridge along the shore of the St. Lawrence is unbroken, save where
+streams find their way to the Great River, but beyond this coast-border
+the country is in some places level, in others undulating, with hills of
+moderate height, and well-watered valleys. From Quebec westward to the
+St. Maurice, which joins the St. Lawrence at Three Rivers, the land
+rises in a gentle ascent from the banks of the Great River, and presents
+a rich tract of fertile plains and slopes: in the distance, a lofty
+chain of mountains protects this favored district from the bitter
+northern blast. Along the north bank of the St. Lawrence, from the St.
+Maurice, the country toward the Ottawa is slightly elevated into table
+ridges, with occasional abrupt declivities and some extensive plains. In
+this portion of Canada are included the islands of Montreal, Jesus, and
+Perrot, formed by the various branches of the Great River and the
+Ottawa, where their waters unite. Montreal is the largest and most
+fertile of these islands; its length is thirty-two miles and breadth
+ten; the general shape is triangular. Isle Jesus is twenty-one miles by
+six in extent, and also very rich; there are, besides, several other
+smaller islands of considerable fertility. Isle Perrot is poor and
+sandy. The remote country to the north of the Ottawa is but little
+known.
+
+On the south shore of the St. Lawrence, the peninsula of Gaspe is the
+most eastern district; this large tract of country has been very little
+explored: so far as it has been examined, it is uneven, mountainous, and
+intersected with deep ravines; but the forests, rivers, and lakes are
+very fine, and the valleys fertile. The sea-beach is low and hard,[150]
+answering the purposes of a road; at the Cape of Gaspe, however, there
+are some bold and lofty cliffs. Behind the beach the land rises into
+high, round hills, well wooded; sheltered from the Gaspe district to the
+Chaudiere River, the country is not so stern as on the northern side of
+the St. Lawrence; though somewhat hilly, it abounds in large and fertile
+valleys. The immediate shores of the river are flat; thence irregular
+ridges arise, till they reach an elevated table-land fifteen or twenty
+miles from the beach. From the Chaudiere River westward extends that
+rich and valuable country now known by the name of the Eastern
+Townships. At the mouth of the Chaudiere the banks of the St. Lawrence
+are bold and lofty, but they gradually lower to the westward till they
+sink into the flats of Baye du Febre, and form the marshy shores of Lake
+St. Peter, whence a rich plain extends to a great distance. This
+district contains several high, isolated mountains, and is abundantly
+watered by lakes and rivers. To the south lies the territory of the
+United States.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 118: "The sea (if it may be so termed) on Lake Ontario is so
+high during a sharp gale, that it was at first thought the smaller class
+steamboats could not live on it; and on Lake Superior, the waves almost
+rival those of the far-famed Cape of Storms, while the ground-swell,
+owing to the comparative shallowness, or little specific gravity of the
+fresh water, is such as to make the oldest sailor sick. Whether the
+water in the lowest depths of Lakes Superior and Ontario be salt or
+fresh, we can not ascertain; for the greater density of the former may
+keep it always below, or there may be a communication with the
+fathomless abysses of the ocean."--Montgomery Martin, p. 181.]
+
+[Footnote 119: "Beyond Lake Superior, stretching into the vast interior
+of North America, we find first a long chain of little lakes connected
+by narrow channels, and which, combined, form what in the early
+narratives and even treaties is called Long Lake. Next occur, still
+connected by the same channel, the larger expanses of Lake La Pluie and
+Lake of the Woods. Another channel of about 100 miles connects this last
+with the Winnipeg Lake, whose length from north to south is almost equal
+to the Superior; but in a few parts only it attains the breadth of 50
+miles. The whole of this wonderful series of lakes, separated by such
+small intervals, may almost be considered as forming one inland sea.
+There is nothing parallel to this in the rest of the globe. The Tzad,
+the great interior sea of Africa, does not equal the Ontario. The
+Caspian, indeed, is considerably greater than any of these lakes, almost
+equal to the whole united; but the Caspian forms the final receptacle of
+many great rivers, among which the Volga is of the first magnitude. But
+the northern waters, after forming this magnificent chain of lakes, are
+not yet exhausted, but issue forth from the last of them, to form one of
+the noblest river channels either in the old or new continent."--_History
+of Discoveries and Travels in North America_, by H. Murray, Esq.,
+vol. ii., p. 458.]
+
+[Footnote 120: "Lake Superior is called, also, Keetcheegahmi and
+Missisawgaiegon. It is remarkable, that while every other large lake is
+fed by rivers of the first order, this, the most capacious on the
+surface of the globe, does not receive a third or even fourth rate
+stream; the St. Louis, the most considerable, not having a course of
+more than 150 miles. But, whatever deficiency there may be in point of
+magnitude, it is compensated by the vast number which pour in their
+copious floods from the surrounding heights. The dense covering of wood
+and the long continuance of frost must also, in this region, greatly
+diminish the quantity drawn off by evaporation."--Bouchette, vol. i., p.
+127, 128. Darby's _View of the United States_ (1828), p. 200.]
+
+[Footnote 121: "The _Pictured_ Rocks (so called from their appearance)
+are situated on the south side of the lake, toward the east end, and are
+really quite a natural curiosity; they form a perpendicular wall 300
+feet high, extending about twelve miles, with numerous projections and
+indentations in every variety of form, and vast caverns, in which the
+entering waves make a tremendous sound. The Pictured Rocks of Lake
+Superior have been described as 'surprising groups of overhanging
+precipices, towering walls, caverns, waterfalls, and prostrate ruins,
+which are mingled in the most wonderful disorder, and burst upon the
+view in ever-varying and pleasing succession.' Among the more remarkable
+objects are the Cascade La Portaille and the Doric Arch. The Cascade
+consists of a considerable stream precipitated from a height of 70 feet
+by a single leap into the lake, and projected to such a distance that a
+boat may pass beneath the fall and the rock perfectly dry. The Doric
+Arch has all the appearance of a work of art, and consists of an
+isolated mass of sandstone, with four pillars supporting an entablature
+of stone, covered with soil, and a beautiful grove of pine and spruce
+trees, some of which are 60 feet in height."--Montgomery Martin's
+_History of Canada_, vol. i., p. 211.]
+
+[Footnote 122: "The Thunder Mountain is one of the most appalling
+objects of the kind that I have ever seen, being a bleak rock, about
+twelve hundred feet above the level of the lake, with a perpendicular
+face of its full height toward the west; the Indians have a
+superstition, which one can hardly repeat without becoming giddy, that
+any person who may scale the eminence, and turn round on the brink of
+its fearful wall, will live forever."--Simpson, vol. i., p. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 123: "The Indian appellation of 'Sacred Isles' first occurs at
+Lake Huron, and thence westward is met with in Superior, Michigan, and
+the vast and numerous lakes of the interior. Those who have been in
+Asia, and have turned their attention to the subject, will recognize the
+resemblance in sound between the North American Indian and the Tartar
+names."--Montgomery Martin's _History of Canada_, vol. i., p. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 124: "The remarkable post of Michillimackinack is a beautiful
+island or great rock, planted in the strait of the same name, which
+forms the connection between Lakes Huron and Michigan. The meaning of
+the Indian word Michillimackinack is _Great Turtle_. The island is
+crowned with a cap 300 feet above the surrounding waters, on the top of
+which is a fortification. If Quebec is the Gibraltar of North America,
+Mackinaw (the vulgar appellation for this fort) is only second in its
+physical character, and in its susceptibilities of improvement as a
+military post. It is also a must important position for the facilities
+it affords in the fur trade between New York and the Northwest."--Mr.
+Colton's _American Lakes_, vol. i., p. 92.
+
+The value of canals and steam navigation may be judged of from the fact
+that, in 1812, the news of the declaration of war against Great Britain
+by the United States did not reach the post of Michillimackinack (1107
+miles from Quebec) in a shorter time than two months; the same place is
+now within the distance of ten days' journey from the Atlantic.]
+
+[Footnote 125: "So clear are the waters of these lakes, that a white
+napkin, tied to a lead, and sunk thirty fathoms beneath a smooth
+surface, may be seen as distinctly as when immersed three
+feet."--Colton. vol. i., p. 93.]
+
+[Footnote 126: "The St. Clair (according to Dr. Bigsby) is the only
+river of discharge for Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, which cover
+a surface of thirty-eight and a half million of acres, and are fed by
+numerous large rivers. Other able observers are of opinion that the
+Missouri and the Mississippi receive some of the waters of Superior and
+Michigan. Many persons think that a subterraneous communication exists
+between all the great lakes, as is surmised to be the case between the
+Mediterranean and the Euxine."--Montgomery Martin.]
+
+[Footnote 127: "The Lake Erie is justly dignified by the illustrious
+name of Conti, for assuredly it is the finest lake upon earth. Its
+circumference extends to 230 leagues; but it affords every where such a
+charming prospect, that its banks are decked with oak-trees, elms,
+chestnut-trees, walnut-trees, apple-trees, plum-trees, and vines, which
+bear their fine clusters up to the very top of the trees, upon a sort of
+ground that lies as smooth as one's hand. Such ornaments as these are
+sufficient to give rise to the most agreeable idea of a landscape in the
+world."--La Hontan, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 343 (1683).
+
+"Le nom que le Lac Erie porte est celui d'une nation de la langue
+Huronne, qui etait etablie sur ses bords et que les Iroquois ont
+entierement detruite. Erie veut dire Chat, et les Eries sont nommes dans
+quelques relations la nation du Chat. Ce nom vient apparemment de la
+quantite de ces animaux qu'on trouve dans le pays. Quelqes cartes
+modernes ont donne au Lac Erie le nom de Conti, mais ce nom n'a pas fait
+fortune, non plus que ceux de Conde, de Tracy, et d'Orleans, donnes au
+Lac Huron, au Lac Superieur, et au Lac Michigan."--Charlevoix, tom. v.,
+p, 374 (1721).]
+
+[Footnote 128: "In extreme depth Lake Erie varies from forty to
+forty-five fathoms, with a rocky bottom. Lakes Superior and Huron have a
+stiff, clayey bottom, mixed with shells. Lake Erie reported to be the
+only one of the series in which any current is perceptible. The fact, if
+it is one, is usually ascribed to its shallowness; but the vast volume
+of its outlet--the Niagara River--with its strong current, is a much
+more probable cause than the small depth of its water, which may be far
+more appropriately adduced as the reason why the navigation is
+obstructed by ice much more than either of the other great lakes. As
+connected with trade and navigation, this lake is the most important of
+all the great chain, not only because it is bordered by older
+settlements than any of them except Ontario, but still more because from
+its position it concentrates the trade of the vast West. The Kingston
+Herald notices a most extraordinary occurrence on Lake Erie during a
+late storm (1836). A channel was made by the violence of the tempest
+through Long Point, N. Foreland, 300 yards wide, and from 11 to 15 feet
+deep. It had been in contemplation to cut a canal at this very spot, the
+expenses of which were estimated at L12,000. The York Courier confirms
+this extraordinary intelligence, stating that the storm made a breach
+through the point near the main land, converted the peninsula into an
+island, and actually made a canal 400 yards wide, and eight or ten feet
+deep, almost at the very point where the proposed canal was to be cut,
+and rendered nothing else now necessary in order to secure a safe
+channel for the vessels, and a good harbor on both sides, than the
+construction of a pier on the west side, to prevent the channel being
+filled up with sand."--Montgomery Martin.]
+
+[Footnote 129: "The Horse-shoe Cataract on the British side is the
+largest of the Falls. The curvatures have been geometrically computed at
+700 yards, and its altitude, taken with a plumb-line from the surface of
+the Table Rock, 149 feet; the American fall, narrowed by Goat Island,
+does not exceed 375 yards in curvilinear length (the whole irregular
+semicircle is nearly three quarters of a mile), its perpendicular height
+being 162 feet, or 13 feet higher than the top of the Great Fall, adding
+57 feet for the fall. The rapids thus give only a total of 219 feet,
+which is less than many other falls; but their magnificence consists in
+the volume of the water precipitated over them, which has been computed
+at 2400 millions of tons per day, 102 millions per hour! A calculation
+made at Queenston, below the Falls, is as follows: The river is here
+half a mile broad; it averages 25 feet deep; current three miles an
+hour; in one hour it will discharge a current of water three miles long,
+half a mile wide, and twenty-five feet deep, containing 1,111,400,000
+cubic feet, being 18,524,000 cubic feet, or 113,510,000 gallons of water
+each minute."--Montgomery Martin's _History of Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 130: "The total area of the four great lakes which pour forth
+their waters to the ocean over the Falls of Niagara is estimated at
+100,000 square miles."--Montgomery Martin.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Colonel Bouchette observes, that, according to the
+altitude of the sun, and the situation of the spectator, a distinct and
+bright iris is soon amid the revolving columns of mist that soar from
+the foaming chasm, and shroud the broad front of the gigantic flood.
+Both arches of the bow are seldom entirely elicited, but the interior
+segment is perfect, and its prismatic hues are extremely glowing and
+vivid. The fragments of a plurality of rainbows are sometimes to be seen
+in various parts of the misty curtain.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Symptoms of the Falls are discerned from a vast distance.
+From Buffalo, twenty miles off, two small fleecy specks are distinctly
+seen, appearing and disappearing at intervals. These are the clouds of
+spray arising from the Falls; it is even asserted that they have been
+seen from Lake Erie, a distance of fifty-four miles.--Weld, p. 374.]
+
+[Footnote 133: The sound of the Falls appears to have been heard at the
+distance of twenty or even forty miles: but these effects depend much on
+the direction of the wind, and the tranquil or disturbed state of the
+atmosphere. Mr. Weld mentions having approached the Falls within half a
+mile without hearing any sound, while the spray was but just
+discernible.--Weld, p. 374.]
+
+[Footnote 134: "The shores of Lake Erie, though flat, are elevated about
+400 feet above those of Lake Ontario. The descent takes place in the
+short interval between the two lakes traversed by the Niagara Channel.
+This descent is partly gradual, producing only a succession of rapids.
+It is at Queenston, about seven miles below the present site of the
+Falls, that a range of hills marks the descent to the Ontario level.
+Volney conceives it certain that this must have been the place down
+which the river originally fell, and that the continued and violent
+action of its waves must have gradually worn away the rocks beneath
+them, and in the course of ages carried the Fall back to its present
+position, from which it continues gradually receding. Mr. Howison
+confirms the statement, that, in the memory of persons now living in
+Upper Canada, a considerable change has been observed. The whole course
+of the river downward to Queenston is through a deep dell, bordered by
+broken and perpendicular steeps, rudely overhung by trees and shrubs,
+and the opposite strata of which correspond, affording thus the
+strongest presumption that it is a channel hewn out by the river
+itself."--H. Murray's _Historical Description of America_, vol. ii., p.
+466.
+
+"It is now considered that there is clear geological proof that the Fall
+once existed at Queenston. The 710,000 tons of water which each minute
+pour over the precipice of the Niagara, are estimated to carry away a
+foot of the cliff every year; therefore we must suppose a period of
+20,000 years occupied in the recession of the cataract to its present
+site."--Lyell's _Geology_.]
+
+[Footnote 135: "The mouth of the whirlpool is more than 1000 feet wide,
+and in length about 2000. Mr. Howison, in his sketches of Upper Canada,
+says that the current of the river has formed a circular excavation in
+the high and perpendicular banks, resembling a bay. The current, which
+is extremely rapid, whenever it reaches the upper point of this bay,
+forsakes the direct channel, and sweeps wildly round the sides of it;
+when, having made this extraordinary circuit, it regains its proper
+course, and rushes with perturbed velocity between two perpendicular
+precipices, which are not more than 400 feet asunder. The surface of the
+whirlpool is in a state of continual agitation. The water boils, mantles
+up, and wreaths in a manner that proves its fearful depth, and the
+confinement it suffers; the trees that come within the sphere of the
+current are swept along with a quivering, zigzag motion, which it is
+difficult to describe. This singular body of water must be several
+hundred feel deep, and has not hitherto been frozen over, although in
+spring the broken ice that descends from Lake Erie descends in such
+quantities upon its surface, and becomes so closely wedged together,
+that it resists the current, and remains till warm weather breaks it up.
+The whirlpool is one of the greatest natural curiosities in the Upper
+Province, and its formation can not be rationally accounted
+for."--Martin's _History of Canada_, p. 139.]
+
+[Footnote 136: "This inland sea, though the smallest of the great chain
+with which it is connected, is of such extent, that vessels in crossing
+it lose sight of land, and must steer their way by the compass; and the
+swell is often equal to that of the ocean. During the winter, the
+northeast part of Ontario, from the Bay of Quinte to Sacket's Harbor, is
+frozen across; but the wider part of the lake is frozen only to a short
+distance from the shore. Lake Erie is frozen still less; the northern
+parts of Huron and Michigan more; and Superior is said to be frozen to a
+distance of seventy miles from its coasts. The navigation of Ontario
+closes in October; ice-boats are sometimes used when the ice is _glare_
+(smooth). One, mentioned by Lieutenant de Roos, was twenty-three feet in
+length, resting on three skates of iron, one attached to each end of a
+strong cross-bar, fixed under the fore-feet, the remaining one to the
+stern, from the bottom of the rudder; the mast and sail those of a
+common boat: when brought into play on the ice, she could sail (if it
+may be so termed) with fearful rapidity, nearly twenty-three miles an
+hour. One has been known to cross from Toronto to Fort George or
+Niagara, a distance of forty miles, in little more than three quarters
+of an hour; but, in addition to her speed before the wind, she is also
+capable of beating well up to windward, requiring, however, an
+experienced hand to manage her, in consequence of her extreme
+sensibility of the rudder during her quick motion."--Martin's _History
+of Canada_.
+
+"The great earthquake that destroyed Lisbon happened on the 1st of
+November, 1755, and on Lake Ontario strong agitations of the water were
+observed from the month of October, 1755."--_Lettera Rarissima data
+nelle Indie nella Isola di Jamaica a 7 Julio del_ 1503 (Bassano, 1810,
+p. 29).
+
+"From some submarine center in the Atlantic, this earthquake spread one
+enormous convulsion over an area of 700,000 square miles, agitating, by
+a single impulse, the lakes of Scotland and Sweden, and the islands of
+the West Indian Sea. Not, however, by a simultaneous shock, for the
+element of time comes in with the distance of undulation; and, together
+with this, another complexity of action in the transmission of
+earthquake movements through the sea, arising from the different rate of
+progression at different depths. In the fact that the wave of the Lisbon
+earthquake reached Plymouth at the rate of 2.1 miles per minute, and
+Barbadoes at 7.3 miles per minute, there is illustration of the law that
+the velocity of a wave is proportional to the square root of its depth,
+and becomes a substitute for the sounding line in fixing the mean
+proportional depth of different parts of this great ocean."--Humboldt.]
+
+[Footnote 137: "There are two lakes in Lower Canada, Matapediac and
+Memphremagog. The former is about 16 miles long, and three broad in its
+greatest breadth, about 21 miles distant from the St. Lawrence River, in
+the county of Rimouski; amid the islands that separate the waters
+running into the St. Lawrence from those that run to the Bay of
+Chaleurs, it is navigable for rafts of all kinds of timber, with which
+the banks of the noble River Matapediac are thickly covered.
+Memphremagog Lake, in the county of Stanstead, stretching its south
+extremity into the State of Vermont, is of a semi-circular shape, 30
+miles long, and very narrow. It empties itself into the fine river St.
+Francis, by means of the River Magog, which runs through Lake
+Scaswaninepus. The Memphremagog Lake is said to be navigable for ships
+of 500 tons burden."--Martin's _History of Canada_, p. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 138: "It is worthy of remark, that the great lakes of Upper
+Canada are liable to the formation of the Prester or water-spout, and
+that several instances are recorded of the occurrence of that truly
+extraordinary phenomenon, the theory of which, however, is well known.
+Whether electricity be a cause or a consequence of this formidable
+meteor, appears, nevertheless, to be a question of some doubt among
+natural philosophers; Gassendi being disposed to favor the former
+opinion, while Cavallo espouses the latter."--Bouchette's _Topographical
+and Statistical Description of Upper and Lower Canada_, vol. i., p.
+346.]
+
+[Footnote 139: "The most considerable harbors on the English side are
+Toronto (York, the former name, has recently been changed to the Indian
+name of the place, Toronto) and Kingston. Toronto is situated near the
+head of Lake Ontario, on the north side of an excellent harbor or
+elliptical basin, of an area of eight or nine miles, formed by a long,
+low, sandy peninsula or island, stretching from the land east of the
+town to Gibraltar Point, abreast of a good fort. The town of Toronto, at
+that period York, was twice captured by the Americans, in April and
+August, 1813, owing to its defenseless state, and a large ship of war on
+the stocks burned. The Americans would not now find its capture such an
+easy task. Little more than forty years ago, the site whereon Toronto
+now stands, and the whole country to the north and west of it, was a
+perfect wilderness; the land is now fast clearing--thickly settled by a
+robust and industrious European-descended population, blessed with
+health and competence, and on all sides indicating the rapid progress of
+civilization. The other British town of importance on this shore is
+Kingston, formerly Cataraqui or Frontenac, distant from Toronto 184
+miles, and from Montreal 180 miles. It is, next to Quebec and Halifax,
+the strongest British post in America, and, next to Quebec and Montreal,
+the first in commercial importance. It is advantageously situated on the
+north bank of Lake Ontario, at the head of the River St. Lawrence, and
+is separated from Points Frederic and Henry by a bay, which extends a
+considerable distance to the northwest beyond the town, where it
+receives the water of a river flowing from the interior. Point Frederic
+is a long, narrow peninsula, extending about half a mile into the lake,
+distant from Kingston about three quarters of a mile on the opposite
+side of its bay. This peninsula forms the west side of a narrow and deep
+inlet called Navy Bay, from its being our chief naval depot on Lake
+Ontario."--Martin's _History of Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 140: "The channel of the St. Lawrence is here so spacious that
+it is called the Lake of the Thousand Islands. The vast number implied
+in this name was considered a vague exaggeration, till the commissioners
+employed in fixing the boundary with the United States actually counted
+them, and found that they amounted to 1692. They are of every imaginable
+size, shape, and appearance; some barely visible, others covering
+fifteen acres; but, in general, their broken outline presents the most
+picturesque combinations of wood and rock. The navigator, in steering
+through them, sees an ever-changing scene: sometimes he is inclosed in a
+narrow channel; then he discovers before him twelve openings, like so
+many noble rivers; and, soon after, a spacious lake seems to surround
+him on every side."--Bouchette, vol. i., p. 156; Howison's _Sketches of
+Canada_, p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 141: "The St. Lawrence traverses the whole extent of Lower
+Canada, as the lakes every where border and inclose Upper Canada. There
+is a difficulty in tracing its origin, or, at least, which of the
+tributaries of Lake Superior is to be called the St. Lawrence. The
+strongest claim seems to be made by the series of channels which connect
+all the great upper lakes, though, strictly speaking, till after the
+Ontario, there is nothing which can very properly be called a river.
+There are only a number of short canals connecting the different lakes,
+or, rather, separating one immense lake into a number of great branches.
+It seems an interesting question how this northern center of the
+continent, at the precise latitude of about 50 deg., should pour forth so
+immense and overwhelming a mass of waters; for through a great part of
+its extent it is quite a dead flat, though the Winnepeg, indeed, draws
+some tributaries from the Rocky Mountains. The thick forests with which
+the surface is covered, the slender evaporation which takes place during
+the long continuance of cold, and, at the same time, the thorough
+melting of the snows by the strong summer heat, seem to be the chief
+sources of this profuse and superabundant moisture."--H. Murray's
+_Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in North America_, vol.
+ii., p. 459, 1829.]
+
+[Footnote 142: "The statements laid before Parliament thus enumerate and
+describe the five rapids of the St. Lawrence, which are impassable by
+steam, and occur between Montreal and Kingston, a distance, by the St.
+Lawrence River, of 171 miles, and by the Rideau Canal, 267 miles. The
+rapids vary in rapidity, intricacy, depth and width of channel, and in
+extent, from half a mile to nine miles. The Cedar Rapid, twenty-four
+miles from La Chine, is nine miles long, very intricate, running from
+nine to twelve miles an hour, and in some places only from nine to ten
+feet water in the channel. The Coteau du Lac Rapid, six miles above the
+former, is two miles long, equally intricate in channel, and in some
+places only sixteen feet wide. Long Sault, forty-five miles above the
+preceding, is nine or ten miles long, with generally the same depth of
+water throughout. It is intersected by several islands, through whose
+channels the water rushes with great velocity, so that boats are carried
+through it, or on it, at the rate of twenty-seven miles an hour; at the
+foot of the rapid the water takes a sudden leap over a slight precipice,
+whence its name. From the Long Sault to Prescot is forty-one miles shoal
+water, running from six to eight miles an hour, and impassable by
+steamboats. Then the Rapid du Plas, half a mile long, and Rapid Galoose,
+one and half a mile long, intervene."]
+
+[Footnote 143: "According to Mr. M'Gregor (_Brit. Amer._, vol. ii., p.
+525), the Ottawa, or Grand River, is said to have its source near the
+Rocky Mountains, and to traverse in its windings a distance of 2500
+miles. The more sober statement of Bouchette attributes to the Ottawa a
+course of about 450 miles before joining the St. Lawrence."--Bouchette,
+vol. i., p. 187.
+
+"A tremendous scene is presented at the eastern part of Lake St. Louis,
+where the St. Lawrence and its grand tributary, the Ottawa, rush down at
+once and meet in dreadful conflict. The swell is then equal to that
+produced by a high gale in the British Channel, and the breakers so
+numerous, that all the skill of the boatmen is required to steer their
+way. The Canadian boatmen, however, are among the most active and hardy
+races in the world, and they have boats expressly constructed for the
+navigation of these perilous channels. The largest of these, called, it
+is not known why, the Durham boat, is used both here and in the rapids
+of the Mohawk. It is long, shallow, and nearly flat-bottomed. The chief
+instrument of steerage is a pole ten feet long, shod with iron, and
+crossed at short intervals with small bars of wood like the feet of a
+ladder. The men place themselves at the bow, two on each side, thrust
+their poles into the channel, and grasping successively the wooden bars,
+work their way toward the stern, thus pushing on the vessel in that
+direction. At other times, by the brisk and vigorous use of the oar,
+they catch and dash through the most favorable lines of current. In this
+exhausting struggle, however, it is needful to have frequent pauses for
+rest, and in the most difficult passages there are certain positions
+fixed for this purpose, which the Canadians call _pipes_."--H. Murray's
+_Hist. Descr. of America_, vol. ii., p. 473.]
+
+[Footnote 144: "From the sea to Montreal, this superb river is called
+the St. Lawrence; from thence to Kingston, in Upper Canada, the
+Cataraqui or Iroquois; between Lakes Ontario and Erie, the Niagara;
+between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, the Detroit; between Lakes St. Clair
+and Huron, the St. Clair; and between Lakes Huron and Superior, the
+distance is called the Narrows, or Falls of St. Mary. The St. Lawrence
+discharges to the ocean annually about 4,277,880 millions of tons of
+fresh water, of which 2,112,120 millions of tons may be reckoned melted
+snow; the quantity discharged before the thaw comes on, being 4512
+millions of tons per day for 240 days, and the quantity after the thaw
+begins, being 25,560 millions per day for 125 days, the depths and
+velocity when in and out of flood being duly considered: hence a ton of
+water being nearly equal to 55 cubic yards of pure snow, the St.
+Lawrence frees a country of more than 2000 miles square, covered to the
+depth of three feet. The embouchure of this first-class stream is that
+part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence where the island of Anticosti divides
+the mouth of the river into two branches. According to Mr. M'Taggart, a
+shrewd and humorous writer, the solid contents in cubic feet of the St.
+Lawrence, embracing Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario,
+is estimated at 1,547,792,360,000 cubic feet, and the superficial area
+being 72,930 square miles, the water therein would form a cubic column
+of nearly 22 miles on each side!"--Montgomery Martin's _History of
+Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 145: "Kinnel Lodge, the residence of the celebrated Highland
+chieftain M'Nab, is romantically situated on the south bank of the lake,
+about five miles above the head of the Chats Rapids, which are three
+miles long, and pass amid a labyrinth of varied islands, until the
+waters of the Ottawa are suddenly precipitated over the Falls of the
+Chats, which, to the number of fifteen or sixteen, form a curved line
+across the river, regularly divided by woody islands, the falls being in
+depth from sixteen to twenty feet."--M. Martin's _History of Canada_.]
+
+[Footnote 146: See Appendix, No. XIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 147: "At Quebec, the River St. Lawrence narrows to 1314 yards;
+yet the navigation is completely unobstructed, while there is formed
+near the city a capacious harbor. About twenty-one miles lower, its
+waters, beginning to mingle with those of the sea, acquire a saline
+taste, which increases till, at Kamauraska, seventy-five miles nearer
+its mouth, they become completely salt. Yet custom, with somewhat
+doubtful propriety, considers the river as continued down to the island
+of Anticosti, and bounded by Cape Rosier on the southern, and Mingau
+settlement on the northern shore."--Bouchette's _Top. and Stat. Descr.
+of Canada_, vol. i., p. 164-169.]
+
+[Footnote 148: See Appendix, No. XX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 149: "The Falls of the Rideau are about fifty feet in height
+and 300 in breadth, being, at the time we saw them, more magnificent
+than usual, by reason of the high state of the waters. It is from their
+resemblance to a curtain that they are distinguished by the name of
+Rideau, and they also give this name to the river that feeds them, which
+again lends the same appellation to the canal that connects the Ottawa
+with Lake Ontario."--Simpson, vol. i., p. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 150: Modern alluvial accumulations are rapidly increasing on
+some points of this coast, owing to the enormous mass of fresh water,
+charged with earthy matter, that here mingles with the sea. The surface
+of the water at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, where the depth is 100
+fathoms, is stated by Bayfield to be turbid from this cause: yet that
+this discoloration is superficial is evident, for in the wake of a ship
+moving through the turbid surface, the clear blue waters of the sea are
+seen below.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+
+Upon the surface of Canada are found manifest indications of that
+tremendous deluge, the effects of which are so plainly visible in the
+Old World. Huge bowlder stones[151] abound in almost every part of the
+province; sometimes they are seen rounded, piled in high heaps on
+extensive horizontal beds of limestone, swept together by the force of
+some vast flood. Masses of various kinds of shells lie in great
+quantities in hollows and valleys, some of them hundreds of feet above
+the level of Lake Ontario. Near to great rivers, and often where now no
+waters are at hand, undulations of rocks are seen like those found in
+the beds of rapids where the channels are waved. These have evidently,
+at some remote period, been the courses of floods now no longer
+existing. On the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence detached bowlder
+stones appear, some of enormous size, many tons in weight; they must
+have come from a great distance, for nowhere in that region is there any
+rock of similar material. In the upper strata of the country are
+abundant fossil remains of distinct animal existences now unknown; they
+are blended with the limestone in which they lie.
+
+It seems certain that the whole of Canada has been violently convulsed
+by some effort of nature since the floods of the deluge passed away; the
+mountains are abrupt and irregular in outline, and in some places cleft
+with immense chasms; the rivers also show singular contortions. North of
+Quebec and in St. Paul's Bay are many traces of volcanic eruptions, and
+vast masses of alluvial rocks, bearing marks of vitrification,
+frequently appear on the surface of the earth. There is, besides, strong
+evidence that the American Continent has lain for unknown ages beneath
+the great deep, or that it is of later formation than Europe or Asia.
+
+As far as it has been explored, the general geological structure of
+Canada exhibits a granite country, with some calcareous rocks of a soft
+texture in horizontal strata. The lower islands in the St. Lawrence are
+merely inequalities of the vast granite strata which occasionally stand
+above the level of the waters; the whole neighboring country appears as
+if the Great River had at one time covered it. The banks of the St.
+Lawrence are in many places formed of a schistus substance in a decaying
+state, but still granite is every where found in strata, inclined, but
+never parallel to the horizon. In the Gaspe District, many beautiful
+quartz, and a great variety of cornelians, agates, copals, and jaspers
+have been found, and traces of coal have also been observed.[152]
+
+The north shore of the St. Lawrence, from thirty miles below Quebec
+eastward, and along the coast of Labrador, is generally of the primitive
+formations. Except in the marshes and swamps, rocks obtrude upon the
+surface in all quarters; in many places, deep fissures of from six
+inches to two feet wide are seen bearing witness to volcanic violence;
+the Indians describe some of these rents as several miles long, and
+forty or fifty deep; when covered with the thick underwood, they are, at
+times, very dangerous to the traveler. These chasms are probably owing
+to some great subterranean action; there is a manuscript in the Jesuits'
+College at Quebec which records the occurrence of an earthquake on the
+5th of February, 1663, at about half past 5 P.M., felt through the whole
+extent of Canada: trees in the forests were torn up and dashed against
+each other with inconceivable violence; mountains were raised from their
+foundations and thrown into valleys, leaving awful chasms behind; from
+the openings issued dense clouds of smoke, dust, and sand; many rivers
+disappeared, others were diverted from their course, and the great St.
+Lawrence became suddenly white as far down as the mouth of the Saguenay.
+The first shock lasted for more than half an hour, but the greatest
+violence was only for fifteen minutes. At Tadoussac, a shower of
+volcanic ashes descended upon the rivers, agitating the waters like a
+tempest. This tremendous earthquake extended simultaneously over
+180,000 square miles of country, and lasted for nearly six months almost
+without intermission.[153]
+
+In the neighborhood of Quebec, a dark clay slate generally appears, and
+forms the bed of the St. Lawrence as far as Lake Ontario, and even at
+Niagara; bowlders and other large masses of rock, however, of various
+kinds, occur in detached portions at many different places. The great
+elevated ridge of broken country running toward the Ottawa River, at the
+distance of from fifty to one hundred miles from the north shore of Lake
+Ontario, and the course of the St. Lawrence, is rich in silver, lead,
+copper, and iron. On the north shore of the Saguenay, the rugged
+mountains abound in iron to such an extent as to influence the mariner's
+compass. The iron mines of St. Maurice[154] have been long known, and
+found abundantly productive of an admirable metal, inferior to none in
+the world; it is remarkably pliant and malleable, and little subject to
+oxydation. In 1667, Colbert sent M. de la Potardiere, an experienced
+mineralogist, to examine these mines; he reported the iron very
+abundant, and of excellent quality, but it was not till 1737 that the
+forges were established by the French: they failed to pay the expenses
+of the speculation; the superintendent and fourteen clerks, however,
+gained fortunes by the losses of their employers.
+
+There is no doubt that immense mineral resources remain undiscovered
+among the rocky solitudes of Lower Canada. Marble of excellent quality,
+and endless variety of color, is found in different parts of the
+country, and limestone is almost universal. Labrador produces a
+beautiful and well-known spar of rich and brilliant tints, ultra-marine,
+greenish yellow, red, and some of a fine pearly gray.
+
+In Upper Canada, the country north of Lake Ontario is generally
+characterized by a limestone subsoil resting on granite. The rocks about
+Kingston are usually a very compact limestone, of a bluish-gray color,
+having a slight silicious admixture, increasing as the depth increases,
+with occasional intrusions of quartz or hornstone. The limestone strata
+are horizontal, with the greatest dip when nearest to the elder rock on
+which it rests; their thickness, like the depths of the soil, varies
+from a few feet to a few inches: in these formations many minerals are
+observed; genuine granite is seldom or never found.
+
+West of Lake Ontario, the chasm at the Falls of Niagara shows the strata
+of the country to be limestone, next slate, and lowest sandstone.
+Limestone and sandstone compose the secondary formations of a large
+portion of Canada, and of nearly all that vast extent of country in the
+United States drained by the Mississippi. At Niagara the interposing
+structure of slate is nearly forty feet thick, and fragile, like shale
+crumbling away from under the limestone, thus strengthening the opinion
+that there has been for many ages a continual retrocession of the Great
+Falls. Around Lake St. Clair, masses of granite, mica slate, and quartz
+are found in abundance. The level shores of Lake Huron offer little
+geological variety; secondary limestone, filled with the usual reliquiae,
+is the general structure of the coast, but detached blocks of granite
+and other primitive rocks are occasionally found: this district appears
+poor in minerals. The waters of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior have
+evidently, at some remote period, formed one vast sheet, which probably
+burst its bounds by a sudden action of nature, and subsided into the
+present divisions, all lower than the former general level: the
+separating ridges of these waters are but slightly elevated; great
+masses of rock and huge bowlders of granite are found rolled at least
+100 miles from their original situations, and immense alluvial beds of
+fresh-water shells, apparently formed since the deluge, but when the
+waters were still of a vast depth and extent, are found in the east of
+Lake Huron.
+
+Little or nothing is known of the dreary solitudes beyond Lake Superior;
+enormous muddy ponds and marshes are succeeded by open, dry, sandy
+plains; then forests of hemlock and spruce arise, again swamp, bog,
+windfalls, and stagnant water succeed; in the course of many miles there
+may not be one dry spot found for a resting-place. The cold is intense
+in this desolate region; in winter spirits freeze into a consistency
+like honey; and even in the height of summer the thermometer only shows
+thirty-six degrees at sunrise. Part of the north and east shore of this
+greatest of the lakes present old formations--sienite, stratified
+greenstone, more or less chloritic, and alternating five times with vast
+beds of granite--the general direction east, with a north or
+perpendicular dip. Great quantities of the older shell limestone are
+found strewn in rolled masses on the beach. Amygdaloid occupies also a
+very large tract to the north, mingled with porphyries, conglomerates,
+and various other substances. From Thunder Mountain westward, trappose
+greenstone is the prevailing rock: it gives rise to some strange
+pilastered precipices near Fort William. Copper[155] abounds in this
+region to an extent, perhaps, unsurpassed any where in the world. At the
+Coppermine River, three hundred miles from the Sault de St. Marie, this
+metal, in a pure state, nearly covers the face of a serpentine rock, and
+is also found within the stone in solid masses. Iron is abundant in many
+parts of Upper Canada; at Charlotteville, eight miles from Lake Erie,
+the metal produced is of a very fine quality. The Marmora Iron Works,
+about thirty-two miles north of the Bay of Quinte, on the River Trent,
+are situated on an extensive white rocky flat, apparently the bed of
+some dried-up river; the ore is found on the surface, and is very rich,
+yielding ninety-two per cent.: the necessary assistants, lime and fuel,
+abound close at hand. Various other minerals have also been found there;
+among the rest, small specimens of a metal like silver.
+
+There are many strong mineral springs in different parts of Canada; the
+most remarkable of these is the Burning Spring above Niagara; its waters
+are black, hot and bubbling, and emit, during the summer, a gas that
+burns with a pure bright flame; this sulphureted hydrogen is used to
+light a neighboring mill. Salt springs are also numerous; gypsum is
+obtained in large quantities, with pipe and potter's clay; yellow ocher
+sometimes occurs; and there are many kinds of valuable building stones.
+It is gathered from the Indians that there are incipient volcanoes in
+several parts of these regions, particularly toward the Chippewa hunting
+grounds.
+
+The soil of Lower Canada is generally fertile; about Quebec it is light
+and sandy in some parts, in others it is a mixture of loam and clay.
+Above the Richelieu Rapids, where the great valley of the St. Lawrence
+begins to widen, the low lands consist of a light and loose dark earth,
+with ten or twelve inches of depth, lying on a stratum of cold clay, all
+apparently of alluvial formation. Along the banks of the Ottawa there is
+a great extent of rich alluvial soil; each year develops large districts
+of fertile land, before unknown. The soils of Upper Canada are various;
+brown clay and loam, intermixed with marl, predominates, particularly in
+the rich district between the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa: north of
+Ontario it is more clayey and extremely fertile. A rich black mold
+prevails in the district between Lakes Ontario and Erie. There is in
+this upper country an almost total absence of stone or gravel for
+building and other common purposes. So great is the fertility of the
+soil in Canada, that fifty bushels of wheat an acre are frequently
+produced, even where the stumps of trees still occupy a considerable
+portion of the ground: near Toronto one hundred bushels of wheat have
+been grown upon a single acre, and in some districts the land has
+yielded rich crops of that grain for twenty successive years, without
+being manured.
+
+The quality of the soil in wild lands may be known by the timber growing
+upon it. Hard-wood trees, those that shed their leaves during winter,
+show the best indication, such as maple, bass-wood, elm, black walnut,
+hickory, butternut, iron-wood, hemlock, and a giant species of nettle.
+A mixture of beech is good, but where it stands alone the soil is
+generally light. Oak is uncertain as an indication, being found on
+various bottoms. Soft or evergreen wood, such as pine, fir, larch, and
+others of the species, are considered decisive of a very light soil. The
+larch or tamarack on wide, flat plains, indicates sand upon a substratum
+of marly clay, which the French Canadians hold in high estimation. It
+is, however, right to add, that some very respectable authorities
+dispute that the nature of the timber can be fully relied on as a guide
+to the value of the land. The variety of trees found in the Canadian
+forest is astonishing, and it is supposed that many kinds still remain
+unknown. Of all these, none is more beautiful and useful than the maple;
+its brilliant foliage, changing with each season of the year, is the
+richest ornament of the forest. The timber is valuable for many
+purposes, and from the sap might be produced an immense quantity of
+excellent sugar. A great deal is at present made, but, like all the
+other resources of this magnificent country, it is very partially turned
+to the use of man: the sap of the maple is valuable also for
+distillation.
+
+There is a considerable variety of climate in Canada, from the
+northeast, chilled by the winds of the Atlantic,[156] to the southwest,
+five degrees lower, and approaching the center of the continent; the
+neighborhood of ranges of bare and rugged mountains,[157] has also a
+marked effect upon the temperature of different localities. However, in
+all parts the winters are very severe, while the heat of summer is
+little inferior to that of the tropics. But, on the whole, the clear
+blue sky, unobscured by fog or mist, and the pure elastic air, bespeak
+the salubrity of these provinces in all seasons.
+
+In Lower Canada the extreme severity of the winter is, in a measure,
+caused by the vicinity of the range of lofty and rugged mountains, as
+well as by its more northern position. The fall of snow commences in
+November, but seldom remains long on the ground till December; in that
+month constantly successive falls of snow rapidly cover the whole
+surface of the country. Toward the end of December the heavy clouds
+disperse, and the rude storm is followed by a perfect calm; the air
+becomes pure and frosty, and the skies of a clear and beautiful azure.
+The River St. Lawrence[158] is frozen over every winter from Montreal to
+the Richelieu Rapids, but from thence to Quebec only once in about five
+years; at other times, however, enormous fields and masses of ice drift
+up and down with the changing tides, increasing or diminishing with the
+severity or mildness of the weather; where the Island of Orleans divides
+the Great River into two branches, the northern channel is narrow and
+less acted upon by tides; here these huge frozen masses are forced
+together by the winds and waters, and form an enormous bridge from shore
+to shore. The greatest degree of cold prevails toward the end of
+January, for a few days occasionally so intense that the human frame can
+scarcely endure exposure to it for any length of time. When winter has
+set in nearly every bird disappears, and few wild animals are any longer
+to be seen; some, like the bear, remain torpid, others change their
+color to a snowy white, and are rarely observed. Rocks of the softer
+kinds are often rent asunder, as if with the explosion of gunpowder, by
+the irresistible expansive power of the frost.[159] Dogs become mad
+from the severity of the cold, and polished iron or other metal, when
+exposed in the air for a little time, _burns_ the hand at the touch as
+if it were red hot.[160] During the still nights of intense frost the
+woods send forth a creaking sound, like the noise of chopping with
+thousands of hatchets. Sometimes a brief thaw occurs in the middle of
+winter, when a very extraordinary effect, called by the Canadians _ver
+glas_, is occasionally produced upon the bare trees: they are covered
+with an incrustation of pure ice from the stem to the extremities of the
+smallest branches; the slight frost of the night freezes the moisture
+that covered the bark during the day; the branches become at last unable
+to bear their icy burden, and when a strong wind arises, the destruction
+among trees of all kinds is immense. When the sun shines upon the forest
+covered with this brilliant incrustation, the effect is indescribably
+beautiful.
+
+The months of March and April are usually very hot, and the power of the
+sun's rays is heightened by the reflection of the ice and snows. Toward
+the end of April or the beginning of May, the dreary winter covering has
+altogether disappeared; birds of various kinds return from their wintery
+exile; the ice accumulated in the great lakes and streams that are
+tributary to the St. Lawrence breaks up with a tremendous noise, and
+rushes down in vast quantities toward the ocean, till again the tides of
+the Gulf drive them back. Sometimes the Great River is blocked up from
+shore to shore with these frozen masses; the contending currents force
+them together with terrible violence, and pile them over each other in
+various fantastic forms. The navigation of the river is not fairly
+practicable till all these have disappeared, which is generally about
+the 10th of May.
+
+When the young summer fairly sets in, nothing can be more charming than
+the climate--during the day bright and genial, with the air still pure
+and clear; the transition from bare brown fields and woods to verdure
+and rich green foliage is so rapid, that its progress is almost
+perceptible. Spring has scarcely begun before summer usurps its place,
+and the earth, awakened from nature's long, wintery sleep, gives forth
+her increase with astonishing bounty. This delightful season is usually
+ushered in by moderate rains, and a considerable rise in the meridian
+heat; but the nights are still cool and refreshing. In June, July, and
+August, the heat becomes great, and for some days intense; the roads and
+rocks at noon are so hot as to be painful to the touch, and the direct
+rays of the sun possess almost tropical power; but the night brings
+reinvigorating coolness, and the breezes of the morning are fresh and
+tempered as in our own favored land. September is usually a delightful
+month, although at times oppressively sultry. The autumn or fall rivals
+the spring in healthy and moderate warmth, and is the most agreeable of
+the seasons. The night-frosts destroy the innumerable venomous flies
+that have infested the air through the hot season, and, by their action
+on the various foliage of the forest, bestow an inconceivable richness
+of coloring to the landscape.
+
+During the summer there is a great quantity of electric fluid in the
+atmosphere, but storms of thunder and lightning are not of very frequent
+occurrence. When they do take place, their violence is sometimes
+tremendous, and serious damage often occurs. These outbursts, however,
+usually produce a favorable effect upon the weather and temperature.
+
+The most remarkable meteoric phenomenon that has occurred in Canada
+since the country became inhabited by civilized man, was first seen in
+October, 1785, and again in July, 1814. At noonday a pitchy darkness, of
+a dismal and sinister character, completely obscured the light of the
+sun, continuing for about ten minutes at a time, and being frequently
+repeated during the afternoon. In the interval between each mysterious
+eclipse dense masses of black clouds, streaked with yellow, drove
+athwart the darkened sky, with fitful gusts of wind; thunder,
+lightning, black rain, and showers of ashes added to the terrors of the
+scene; and, when the sun appeared, its color was a bright red. The
+Indians ascribe this wonderful phenomenon to a vast volcano in the
+unknown regions of Labrador. The testimony of M. Gagnon gives
+corroboration to this idea. In December, 1791, when at St. Paul's Bay,
+in the Saguenay country, he saw the flames of an immense volcano,
+mingled with black smoke, rising to a great height in the air. Several
+violent shocks, as of an earthquake, accompanied this strange
+appearance.
+
+The prevailing winds of Lower Canada are the northeast, northwest, and
+southwest, and these exercise considerable influence on the temperature
+of the atmosphere and the state of the weather. The southwest wind, the
+most prevalent, is generally moderate, accompanied by clear, bright
+skies; the northeast and east wind bring rain in summer, and snow in
+winter, from the dreary regions of Labrador; and the northwest blast is
+keen and dry, from its passage over the vast frozen solitudes that lie
+between the Rocky Mountains[161] and Hudson's Bay. Winds from the north,
+south, or west are seldom felt: the currents of the neighboring air are
+often affected by the direction of the tidal streams, which act as far
+as 400 miles from the mouth of the Great River.
+
+The effect of a long continuance of snow upon the earth is favorable to
+vegetation; were the surface exposed to the intense severity of wintery
+frosts, unprotected by this ample covering, the ground could not regain
+a proper degree of heat, even under a Canadian sun, before the autumn
+frosts had again chilled the energies of nature. The natural heat of the
+earth is about 42 deg.; the surface waters freeze at 32 deg., and thus present a
+non-conducting incrustation to the keen atmosphere; then the snow
+becomes a warm garment till the April sun softens the air above; the
+latent heat of the earth begins to be developed; the snow melts, and
+penetrates the ground through every pore, rendering friable the stiffest
+soil. For a month or more before the visible termination of the
+Canadian winter, vegetation is in active progress on the surface of the
+earth, even under snow several feet thick.
+
+In Upper Canada the climate does not present such extremes of heat and
+cold as in the Lower Province. In the Newcastle District, between
+latitude 44 deg. and 45 deg., the winter is little more severe than in England,
+and the warmth of summer is tempered by a cool and refreshing southwest
+breeze, which blows throughout the day from over the waters of the great
+lakes. In spring and autumn the southwest wind brings with it frequent
+rains; the northwest wind prevails in winter, and is dry, cold, and
+elastic; the south-eastern breezes are generally accompanied by thaw and
+rain: from the west, south, or north, the wind rarely blows. The most
+sudden changes of weather consequent upon varying winds are observed
+from the northwest, when the air becomes pure and cool; thunder storms
+generally clear away with this wind: the heaviest falls of snow, and the
+most continued rains, come with the eastern breezes.
+
+The great lakes are never frozen in their centers, but a strong border
+of thick ice extends for some distance from the shore: in severe
+weather, a beautiful evaporation in various fantastic shapes ascends
+from the vast surfaces of these inland seas, forming cloudy columns and
+pyramids to a great height in the air: this is caused by the water being
+of a higher temperature than the atmosphere above. The chain of shallow
+lakes from Lake Simco toward the midland district are rarely frozen over
+more than an inch in thickness till about Christmas, and are free from
+ice again by the end of March. The earth in Upper Canada is seldom froze
+more than twelve or eighteen inches deep, and the general covering of
+the snow is about a foot and a half in thickness.
+
+In Canada the Indian summer is perhaps the most delightful period of the
+year. During most of November the weather is mild and serene; a soft,
+dry haze pervades the air, thickening toward the horizon; in the
+evenings the sun sets in a rich crimson flush, and the temperature is
+mild and genial: the birds avail themselves of the Indian summer for
+their migration. A phenomenon called the "tertian intervals" has excited
+much interest, and is still unexplained: at the end of the third day
+the greatest intensity of frost is always remittent, and succeeded by
+several days of mild weather. The climate is so dry that metals rarely
+are rusted by exposure to the air. This absence of humidity prevents the
+extremes of heat and cold from being so powerful here in their effect
+upon the sensations of the human frame as in other countries.
+
+The Aurora Borealis, or northern lights,[162] appear with great
+brilliancy in the clear Canadian sky, especially during the winter
+nights. Starting from behind the distant horizon, they race up through
+the vault of heaven, spreading over all space one moment, shrinking to a
+quivering streak the next, shooting out again where least expected, then
+vanishing into darkness deeper than before; now they seem like vast
+floating banners of variegated flame, then as crescents, again as
+majestic columns of light, ever changing in form and color. It is said
+that a rustling sound like that of silk accompanies this beautiful
+appearance.
+
+The climate of Canada has undergone a slight change since the discovery
+of the country; especially from the year 1818, an amelioration has been
+perceptible, partly owing to the motion of the magnetic poles, and
+partly to the gradual cultivation and clearing of the country. The
+winters are somewhat shorter and milder, and less snow falls than of
+old; the summers are also hotter.[163] The felling of the forests, the
+draining of the morasses, partial though it may still be, together with
+the increasing population, have naturally some effect. The thick
+foliage, which before interposed its shade between the sun and the
+earth, intercepting the genial warmth from the lower atmosphere, has now
+been removed in many extensive tracts of country: the cultivated soil
+imbibes the heat, and returns it to the surrounding air in warm and
+humid vapors. The exhalations arising from a much increased amount of
+animal life, together with the burning of so many combustibles, are not
+altogether without their influence in softening the severity of the
+climate.[164]
+
+Canada abounds in an immense and beautiful variety of trees[165] and
+shrubs. Among the timber trees, the oak, pine, fir, elm, ash, birch,
+walnut, beech, maple, chestnut, cedar, and aspen, are the principal. Of
+fruit-trees and shrubs there are walnut, chestnut, apple, pear, cherry,
+plum, elder, vines,[166] hazel, hickory, sumach, juniper, hornbeam,
+thorn, laurel, whortleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, raspberry,
+blackberry, blueberry, sloe, and others; strawberries of an excellent
+flavor are luxuriantly scattered over every part of the country.
+Innumerable varieties of useful and beautiful herbs and grasses enrich
+the forests, whose virtues and peculiarities are as yet but little known
+to Europeans.[167] In many places, pine-trees grow to the height of 120
+feet and upward, and are from nine to ten feet in circumference.[170]
+Of this and of the fir species there are many varieties, some of them
+valuable from their production of pitch, tar, and turpentine. The
+American oak[171] is quicker in its growth and less durable than that of
+England; one species, however, called the live oak, grown in the warmer
+parts of the continent, is said to be equal, if not superior, to any in
+Europe for ship-building. The white oak is the best found in the
+Canadian settlements, and is in high repute. Another description is
+called the scrubby oak--it resembles the British gnarled oak, and is
+remarkably hard and durable. The birch[173] tribe is very numerous: the
+bark is much used by the Indians in making canoes,[174] baskets, and
+roofings; the wood is of a useful quality, and the sap, when extracted
+in the spring, produces by fermentation a pleasant but weak wine. The
+maple[175] is one of the most variable and beautiful of all the forest
+trees, and is adopted as the emblem of Canadian nationality.
+
+Two plants, formerly of great importance in these counties, are now
+almost extirpated, or little noticed as articles of commerce--ginseng[176]
+and capillaire. The first was found in great abundance by the French in
+their earlier settlement of the colony, and large quantities were exported
+to Europe, from whence it was forwarded to China. The high value it then
+possessed in that distant market induced the Canadians to collect the roots
+prematurely; and the Indians also gathered them wherever they could be
+found; consequently, this useful production was soon exhausted, and is now
+rarely seen. The capillaire[177] is now either become rare or neglected
+for other objects; a small quantity is, however, still exported. In the
+woods there is a vast variety of wild plants and flowers, many of them very
+beautiful. The sweet garlic especially deserves notice: two large
+pale-green leaves arise from the root; between them stands the delicate
+stem, about a foot in height, bearing a cluster of graceful flowers,
+resembling blue-bells in shape and color. The wild turnip is also very
+beautiful. There are, besides, many valuable herbs and roots, which the
+Indians use for various purposes. The reindeer moss[178] often serves
+for support and refreshment to the exhausted hunter; when boiled down
+into a liquid, it is very nourishing; and an herb called Indian tea
+produces a pleasant and wholesome draught, with a rich aromatic flavor.
+Wild oats and rice[179] are found in some of the marshy lands. The soil
+and climate are also favorable to the production of hops and a mild
+tobacco, much esteemed for the manufacture of snuff. Hemp[180] and flax
+are both indigenous in America. Father Hennepin, in the seventeenth
+century, found the former growing wild in the country of the Illinois;
+and Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in his travels to the western coast, met
+with flax in the interior, where no European was ever known to have been
+before. The Indian hemp[181] is seen in abundance upon the Canadian
+soil, particularly in light and sandy places; the bark is so strong that
+the natives use it for bow-strings; the pod bears a substance that
+rivals down in softness and elasticity; the culture is easy; the root,
+penetrating deep into the earth, survives the frosts of winter, and
+shoots out fresh stalks every spring. When five or six years old it
+attains the greatest perfection. It may be added that in these favored
+provinces all European plants, fruits, vegetables, grain,[182] legumes,
+and every other production of the earth required for the subsistence or
+luxury of man, yield their increase even more abundantly than in the old
+continents.
+
+The animals originally belonging to America appear to be of an inferior
+race--neither so robust, fierce, or numerous as those of the other
+continents: some are peculiar to the New World; but there is reason to
+suppose that several species have become utterly extinct, and the spread
+of cultivation, and increase of the human race rapidly extirpate many of
+those that still remain. America gives birth to no creature of equal
+bulk to the elephant and rhinoceros, or of equal strength and ferocity
+to the lion and tiger. The particular qualities in the climate, stinting
+the growth and enfeebling the spirit of the native animals, have also
+proved injurious to such as have been transported to the Canadas by
+their present European inhabitants. The soil, as well as temperature, of
+the country seems to be rather unfavorable to the development of
+strength and perfection in the animal creation.[183] The general quality
+of the natural grasses covering those boundless pastures is not good or
+sufficiently nutritious.[184]
+
+The native animals of Canada are the buffalo, bison, and musk bull,
+belonging to the ox kind. The buffalo is still found in herds of
+immense numbers upon the prairies of the remote western country, where
+they have wandered from the hated neighborhood of civilized man: the
+skin[185] is invaluable to the Canadians as a protection from the keen
+wintery air, and is abundantly supplied to them by the hunters of the
+Hudson's Bay Company.[186] This animal is about the size of an ox, with
+the head disproportionably large; he is of a lighter color, less
+ferocious aspect, and inferior strength to those of the Old World. Both
+the bison and musk ox are varieties of the domestic cow, with a covering
+of shaggy hair; they possess considerable strength and activity. There
+are different descriptions of deer: the black and gray moose or elk, the
+caribou or reindeer,[187] the stag[188] and fallow deer.[189] The moose
+deer[190] is the largest wild animal of the continent; it is often seen
+upward of ten feet high, and weighing twelve hundred weight; though
+savage in aspect, the creature is generally timid and inoffensive even
+when attacked by the hunter, and, like the sheep, may be easily
+domesticated: the flesh and skin are both of some value.
+
+The black and brown bear[191] is found in various parts of America, but
+chiefly in the northwest: some few are seen in the forests to the north
+of Quebec. This animal chooses for his lurking-place the hollow trunk of
+an old tree, which he prepares with sticks and branches, and a coating
+of warm moss; on the approach of the cold season he retires to his lair,
+and sleeps through the long winter till the return of spring enables him
+again to seek his prey. The bear is rather shy than fierce, but very
+powerful and dangerous when driven to extremities; he displays a strong
+degree of instinct, and is very dexterous and cunning in procuring food:
+the flesh is considered a delicacy, and the skin highly prized for
+beauty and warmth. Foxes[192] are numerous; they are of various colors
+and very cunning. Hares[193] are abundant, and turn white in winter like
+those of Norway. The wolverine or carcajou is called by the hunters
+beaver-eater, and somewhat resembles a badger; the skin is soft and
+handsome. A species of porcupine or urchin is found to the northward,
+and supplies the Indians with quills about four inches long, which, when
+dyed, are worked into showy ornaments. Squirrels[194] and various other
+small quadrupeds with fine furs are abundant in the forests. The animals
+of the cat kind are the cougar or American lion, the loup-cervier, the
+catamount, and the manguay or lynx.
+
+Beavers[195] are numerous in North America; these amphibious animals are
+about two feet nine inches in length, with very short fore feet and
+divided toes, while the hinder are membranous, and adapted for swimming;
+the body is covered with a soft, glossy, and valuable fur; the tail is
+oval, scaly, destitute of hair, and about a foot long. These industrious
+creatures dam up considerable streams, and construct dwellings of many
+compartments, to protect them from the rigor of the climate, as well as
+from their numerous enemies; their winter food, consisting of poplar
+logs, pieces of willows, alder, and fragments of other trees, is
+collected in autumn, and sunk in the water near the habitation. The
+beaver exhibits an extraordinary degree of instinct, and may be easily
+tamed; when caught or surprised by the approach of an enemy, it gives
+warning to its companions by striking the water with the flat of its
+tail. The musk rat and otter resemble the beaver in some of their
+habits, but are inferior in ingenuity, and of less value to the hunter.
+
+The walrus has now disappeared from the frequented waters of the Gulf of
+St. Lawrence, but is still found on the northern coasts of Labrador; in
+shape he somewhat resembles the seal, but is of much greater size,
+sometimes weighing 4000 pounds; when protecting their young, or when
+wounded, they are dangerous from their immense tusks; when out of the
+water, however, they are very helpless.
+
+Nearly all these wild animals are pursued by the Indians, and the
+hunters of the Hudson's Bay Company,[196] for their skins; they are
+consequently growing rarer, and their haunts become more remote each
+succeeding year: probably, at no distant time, they will be altogether
+extinct.
+
+The birds of Canada differ little from those of the same names in
+Europe, but the severe climate is generally uncongenial to them. There
+are eagles, vultures, hawks, falcons, kites, owls, ravens, crows, rooks,
+jays, magpies, daws, cuckoos, woodpeckers, hoopers, creepers,
+humming-birds, thrushes, blackbirds, linnets, finches, sparrows,
+fly-catchers, pigeons, turkeys, ducks, geese, swans, grouse, ptarmigans,
+snipes, quails, and many others. The plumage of the American birds is
+very brilliant; but the sweet voices that fill the European woods with
+melody are never heard. Many of the birds of Lower Canada are migratory;
+the water-fowl seek the cooler north during the heat of summer, and
+other species fly to the south to shun the wintery frosts. In the milder
+latitudes of Upper Canada, birds are more numerous. They are known by
+the same names as those of corresponding species in England, but differ
+from them to some extent in plumage and character.
+
+In Lower Canada the reptiles are few and innocuous, and even these are
+not met with in the cultivated parts of the country. In the Upper
+Province, however, they are more numerous; some species are very
+dangerous, others harmless and exquisitely beautiful. Two kinds of
+rattlesnakes[197] are found here: one of a deep brown and yellow color,
+and seldom more than thirty inches in length; it frequents marshes and
+low meadows, and is very dangerous to cattle, often fastening its fangs
+upon their lips while grazing. The other is a bright greenish yellow
+clouded with brown, and twice the size of the former. These reptiles are
+thicker in proportion to their length than any others; the rattle is at
+the end of the tail, and consists of a number of dry, horny shells
+inclosed within each other. When wounded or enraged, the skin of the
+rattlesnake assumes a variety of beautiful colors; the flesh is white as
+that of the most delicate fish, and is esteemed a great luxury by the
+Indians. Cold weather weakens or destroys their poisonous qualities. In
+the spring, when they issue from their place of winter concealment, they
+are harmless till they have got to water, and at that time emit a
+sickening smell so as to injure those who hunt them. In some of the
+remoter districts they are still numerous, but in the long-settled parts
+of the country they are now rarely or never seen.
+
+Several varieties of lizards and frogs abound; the latter make an
+astonishing noise in marshy places during the summer evening by their
+harsh croaking. The land crab is found on the northern shore of Lake
+Erie. A small tortoise, called a terrapin,[198] is taken in some rivers,
+creeks, and swampy grounds, and is used as an article of food. Seals
+have been occasionally seen on the islands in Lake Ontario.
+
+Insects[199] are very numerous and various, some of them both
+troublesome and mischievous: locusts or grasshoppers have been known to
+cause great destruction to the vegetable world. Musquitoes and
+sand-flies infest the woods, and the neighborhood of water, in
+incredible numbers, during the hot weather. There are many moths and
+butterflies resembling those seen in England. The beautiful fire-fly is
+very common in Canada, their phosphorescent light shining with wonderful
+brightness through the shady forests in the summer nights.
+
+The lakes and rivers of Upper Canada abound in splendid fish of almost
+every variety known in England, and others peculiar to the country:
+sturgeon of 100 lbs. weight are frequently taken, and a giant species of
+pike, called the maskenongi, of more than 60 lbs. The trout of the upper
+lakes almost rivals the sturgeon in size, but not in flavor. The
+delicious white-fish, somewhat resembling a shad, is very plentiful, as
+is also the black bass, which is highly prized. A fresh-water herring
+abounds in great shoals, but is inferior in delicacy to the
+corresponding species of the salt seas. Salmon are numerous in Lake
+Ontario, but above the Falls of Niagara they are never seen.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 151: "The neighborhood of Quebec, as well as Canada in
+general, is much characterized by bowlders, and the size and position of
+some of them is very striking. There are two crowning the height which
+overlooks the domain farm at Beauport, whose collective weight is little
+short, by computation, of forty tons. The Heights of Abraham also are,
+or rather were, crowded with them; and it should never be forgotten that
+it was upon one of these hoary symbols, the debacles of the deluge, as
+they are supposed to be, that the immortal and mortal parts of two
+heroes separated from each other. It has often occurred to us, that one
+of the most suitable monuments to the memory of Wolfe and Montcalm might
+have been erected with these masses, in the form of a pyramid or pile of
+shot, instead of burying them, as in many instances has been done, in
+order to clear the ground."--_Picture of Quebec_, p. 456.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Gray says, in 1809, that "no coal has ever yet been found
+in Canada, probably because it has never been thought worth searching
+after. It is supposed that coal exists in the neighborhood of Quebec; at
+any rate, there can be no doubt that it exists in great abundance in the
+island of Cape Breton, which may one day become the Newcastle of
+Canada."--P. 287.
+
+"No idea can be formed of the importance of the American coal seams
+until we reflect on the prodigious area over which they are continuous.
+The elliptical area occupied by the Pittsburg seam is 225 miles in its
+largest diameter, while its maximum breadth is about 100 miles, its
+superficial extent being about 14,000 square miles.
+
+"The Apalachian coal-field extends for a distance of 720 miles from
+northeast to southwest, its greatest width being about 180 miles.
+
+"The Illinois coal-field is not much inferior in dimensions to the whole
+of England."--Lyell's _America_, vol. ii., p. 31.
+
+"It was the first time I had seen the true coal in America, and I was
+much struck with its surprising analogy in mineral and fossil characters
+to that of Europe; ... the whole series resting on a coarse grit and
+conglomerate, containing quartz pebbles, very like our millstone grit,
+and often called by the Americans, as well as the English miners, the
+'Farewell Rock,' because, when they have reached it in their borings,
+they take leave of all valuable fuel."--_Ibid._, vol. i., p. 61.]
+
+[Footnote 153: See Appendix, No. XXI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 154: Professor Kalm visited the iron-works of St. Maurice in
+1748, eleven or twelve years after their first establishment. "The
+iron-work, which is the only one in the country, lies three miles to the
+west of Trois Rivieres. Here are two great forges, besides two lesser
+ones to each of the great ones, and under the same roof with them. The
+bellows were made of wood, and every thing else as in the Swedish
+forges. The ore is got two and a half miles from the iron-works, and is
+carried thither on sledges. It is a kind of moor-ore (Tophus Tubalcaini:
+_Linn. Syst. Nat._, lib. iii., p. 187, note 5), which lies in veins
+within six inches or a foot from the surface of the ground. Each vein is
+from six to eighteen inches deep, and below it is a white sand. The
+veins are surrounded with this sand on both sides, and covered at the
+top with a thin mold. The ore is pretty rich, and lies in loose lumps in
+the veins of the size of two fists, though there are a few which are
+near eighteen inches thick. These lumps are full of holes which are
+filled with ocher. The ore is so soft that it may be crushed between the
+fingers. They make use of a gray limestone, which is broke in the
+neighborhood, for promoting the fusibility of the ore; to that purpose
+they likewise employ a clay marl, which is found near this place.
+Charcoals are to be had in great abundance here, because the country
+round this place is covered with wood which has never been stirred. The
+charcoals from evergreen trees, that is, from the fir kind, are best for
+the forge, but those of deciduous trees are best for the smelting-oven.
+The iron which is here made was to me described as soft, pliable, and
+tough, and is said to have the quality of not being attacked by rust so
+easily as other iron. This iron-work was first founded in 1737 by
+private persons, who afterward ceded it to the king; they cast cannon
+and mortars here of different sizes, iron stoves, which are in use all
+over Canada, kettles, &c. They have likewise tried to make steel here,
+but can not bring it to any great perfection, because they are
+unacquainted with the best method of preparing it. Here are many
+officers and overseers, who have very good houses built on purpose for
+them. It is agreed on all hands that the resources of the iron-work do
+not pay the expenses which the king must every year be at in maintaining
+it. They lay the fault on the bad state of population, and say that the
+few inhabitants in the country have enough to do with agriculture, and
+that it therefore costs great trouble and large sums to get a sufficient
+number of workmen. But, however plausible this may appear, yet it is
+surprising that the king should be a loser in carrying on this work, for
+the ore is easily broken, being near the iron-work, and very fusible.
+The iron is good; and this is, moreover, the only iron-work in the
+country, from which every body must supply himself with tools, and what
+other iron he wants. But the officers and servants belonging to the
+iron-work appear to be in very affluent circumstances. A river runs down
+from the iron-work into the River St. Lawrence, by which all the iron
+can be sent in boats throughout the country at a low rate."--Kalin in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 631.
+
+"M. Dantic, after a number of experiments to class the different kinds
+of iron, discovered that the iron of Styria was the best, and that the
+iron of North America, of Danemara in Sweden, of Spain, Bayonne,
+Roussillon, Foix, Berri, Thierache in Sweden, the communes of France,
+and Siberia, was the next class."--Abbe Raynal, vol. iii., p. 268.
+
+Weld and Heriot mention that the bank of iron ore at the forges of St.
+Maurice was nearly exhausted in their time; new veins, however, have
+been since discovered.
+
+Charlevoix says, in 1720: "Il est certain que ces mines de fer, que
+l'oeil percant de M. Colbert et la vigilance de M. Talon avoit fait
+decouvrir, apres avoir presqu entierement disparu pendant plus de
+soixante dix ans, viennent d'etre retrouvees par les soins de ceux qui
+occupent aujourd'hui leur place."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 166.]
+
+[Footnote 155: Henry and others speak of a rock of pure copper, from
+which the former out off 100 lbs. weight. W. Schoolcraft examined the
+remainder of the mass in 1820, and found it of irregular shape; in its
+greatest length three feet eight inches, greatest breadth three feet
+four inches, making about eleven cubic feet, and containing, of metallic
+matter, about 2200 lbs.; but there were many marks of chisels and axes
+upon it, as if a great deal had been carried off. The surface of the
+block, unlike most metals which have suffered a long exposure to the
+atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy.--Martin's _History of
+Canada_, p. 175.
+
+Weld mentions having seen in the possession of a gentleman at Niagara a
+lump of copper, of several ounces weight, apparently as pure as if it
+had passed through the fire, which had been struck off with a chisel
+from a piece equally pure, growing on one of the islands in Lake
+Superior. Rich veins of copper are visible in almost all the rocks on
+these islands near the shore; and copper ore, resembling copperas, is
+likewise found in deep beds near the water.--Weld, p. 346.
+
+In Charlevoix's time (1720), "on trouvoit sur les bords du Lac Superieur
+et autour de certains isles, de grosses pieces de cuivre qui sont
+l'objet de cette superstition des sauvages; ils les regardent avec
+veneration comme un present des Dieux qui habitent sous les eaux; ils en
+ramassent les plus petits fragmens et les conservent avec soin, mais ils
+n'en font aucune usage. J'ai connu un de nos freres lequel etoit orfevre
+de son metier, et qui, pendant qu'il etoit dans la mission du Sault
+Sainte Marie, en etoit alle chercher la, et en avoit fait des
+chandeliers, des croix, et des encensoirs, car ce cuivre est souvent
+presque tout pur."--Tom. v., p. 415.
+
+Kalm says that the copper found is so pure that it does not require
+melting over again, but is fit for working immediately.--Kalm in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 691 (1748).
+
+"Before saying good-by to Lake Superior, let me add, that since the date
+of my visit, the barren rocks which we passed have become an object of
+intense interest, promising to rival, in point of mineral wealth, the
+Altai chain and the Uralian Mountains. Iron had long been known to
+abound on the northern shore, two mines having been at one time worked
+and abandoned, chiefly on account of temporary obstacles, which the
+gradual advance of agriculture and civilization was sure to remove; and,
+more recently, the southern shore, though of a much less favorable
+character in that respect, was found to possess rich veins of copper and
+silver. Under these circumstances, various enterprising persons in
+Canada have prosecuted investigations which appear to have
+satisfactorily proved that, in addition to their iron, the forbidding
+wastes of the northern shore contain inexhaustible treasures, both of
+the precious and of the useful metals, of gold and of silver, of copper
+and tin, and already have associations been formed to reap the teeming
+harvest."--Sir G. Simpson's _Journey round the World_, vol. i., p. 35
+(1841).
+
+The following extract is from a Quebec newspaper, bearing date 25th
+June, 1848:
+
+"THE COPPER REGION: SINGULAR DISCOVERY.--A correspondent of the Buffalo
+Express, writing under date June 14, from Ontonagon, Lake Superior,
+says:
+
+"'Mr. Knapp, of the Vulcan Mining Company, has lately made some very
+singular discoveries here in working one of the veins which he lately
+found. He worked into an old cave which has been excavated centuries
+ago. This led them to look for other works of the same sort, and they
+have found a number of sinks in the earth which they have traced a long
+distance. By digging into those sinks they find them to have been made
+by the hand of man. It appears that the ancient miners went on a
+different principle from what they do at the present time. The greatest
+depth yet found in these holes is thirty feet: after getting down to a
+certain depth, they drifted along the vein, making an open cut. These
+cuts have been filled nearly to a level by the accumulation of soil; and
+we find trees of the largest growth standing in this gutter, and also
+find that trees of a very large growth have grown up and died, and
+decayed many years since; in the same places there are now standing
+trees of over three hundred years' growth. Last week they dug down into
+a new place, and about twelve feet below the surface found a mass of
+copper that will weigh from eight to ten tons. This mass was buried in
+ashes, and it appears they could not handle it, and had no means of
+cutting it, and probably built fire to melt or separate the rock from
+it, which might be done by heating, and then dashing on cold water. This
+piece of copper is as pure and clean as a new cent; the upper surface
+has been pounded clear and smooth. It appears that this mass of copper
+was taken from the bottom of a shaft, at the depth of about thirty feet.
+In sinking this shaft from where the mass now lies, they followed the
+course of the vein, which pitches considerably: this enabled them to
+raise it as far as the hole came up with a slant. At the bottom of a
+shaft they found skids of black oak, from eight to twelve inches in
+diameter: these sticks were charred through, as if burned: they found
+large wooden wedges in the same situation. In this shaft they found a
+miner's gad and a narrow chisel made of copper. I do not know whether
+these copper tools are tempered or not, but their make displays good
+workmanship. They have taken out more than a ton of cobble-stones, which
+have been used as mallets. These stones were nearly round, with a score
+cut around the tenter, and look as if this score was cut for the purpose
+of putting a withe round for a handle. The Chippewa Indians all say that
+this work was never done by Indians. This discovery will lead to a new
+method of finding veins in this country, and may be of great benefit to
+some. I suppose they will keep finding new wonders for some time yet, as
+it is but a short time since they first found the old mine. There is
+copper here in abundance, and I think people will begin to dig it in a
+few years. Mr. Knapp has found considerable silver during the past
+winter.'"]
+
+[Footnote 156: Acosta is the first philosopher who endeavored to account
+for the different degrees of heat in the Old and New Continents by the
+agency of the winds which blow in each, (_Hist. Moral._, lib. ii. and
+iii.) M. de Buffon adopted the same theory, and illustrated it with many
+new observations. "The prevailing winds, both in Upper and Lower Canada,
+are the northeast, northwest, and southwest, which all have a
+considerable influence on the temperature of the atmosphere and the
+state of the weather. The southwest wind is the most prevalent, but it
+is generally moderate, and accompanied by clear skies; and the northeast
+and easterly winds usually bring with them continued rain in summer, and
+snow in winter; the northwest is remarkable for its dryness and
+elasticity, and, from its gathering an intense degree of frigor as it
+sweeps over the frozen plains and ice-bound hills in that quarter of the
+continent, invariably brings with it a perceptible degree of cold. Winds
+from due north, south, or west are not frequent. At Quebec, the
+direction of the wind often changes with the tide, which is felt for
+nearly sixty miles higher up the stream of the St. Lawrence."--Bonchette,
+vol. i., p. 343.
+
+"The northwest wind is uncommonly dry, and brings with it fresh
+animation and vigor to every living thing. Although this wind is so very
+piercing in winter, yet the people never complain so much of cold as
+when the northeast wind blows. The northeast wind is also cold, but it
+renders the air raw and damp. That from the southeast is damp, but warm.
+Rain or snow usually falls when the wind comes from any point toward the
+east. The northwest wind, from coming over such an immense tract of
+land, must necessarily be dry; and, coming from regions eternally
+covered with mounds of snow and ice, it must also be cold. The northeast
+wind, from traversing the frozen seas, must be cold likewise; but, from
+passing over such a large portion of the watery main afterward, it
+brings damp and moisture with it. All those from the northeast are damp,
+and loaded with vapors from the same cause. Southerly winds, from
+crossing the warm regions between the tropics, are attended with heats;
+and the southwest wind, from passing, like the northwest, over a great
+extent of land, is dry at the same time."--Weld's _Travels in America_,
+4th ed., p. 184.
+
+Kalm says, p. 748, that he was assured that "the northeast wind, when it
+is very violent in winter, pierces through walls of a moderate
+thickness, so that the whole wall on the inside of the house is covered
+with snow, or a thick hoar frost. The wind damages severely the houses
+that are built of stone, so that the owners are frequently obliged to
+repair them on the northeast side. In summer the north wind is generally
+attended with rain."--Kalm in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 651.]
+
+[Footnote 157: "Many of these mountains are very high. During my stay in
+Canada, I asked many people who have traveled much in North America
+whether they ever met with mountains so high that the snow never melts
+on them in summer, to which they always answered in the negative. They
+say that the snow sometimes stays on the highest, viz., on some of those
+between Canada and the English colonies during a part of the summer, but
+that it melts as soon as the great heat begins."--Kalm, p. 671.]
+
+[Footnote 158: "It is worthy of remark, and not a little surprising,
+that so large a river as the St. Lawrence, in latitude 47 deg., should be
+shut up with ice as soon, and continue as long shut up, as the
+comparatively small river, the Neva, in latitude 60 deg.."--Gray's _Canada_,
+p. 320.]
+
+[Footnote 159: "The following curious experiments were made some years
+ago at Quebec, by Major Williams, of the Artillery. Iron shells of
+different sizes, from the thirteen-inch shell to the cohorn of four
+inches diameter, were nearly filled with water, and an iron plug was
+driven in at the fuse-hole by a sledge-hammer. It was found, however,
+that the plug could never be driven so firmly into the fuse-hole as to
+resist the expanding ice, which pushed it out with great force and
+velocity, and a bolt or cylinder of ice immediately shot up from the
+hole; but when a plug was used that had springs which would expand and
+lay hold of the inside of the cavity, so that it could not possibly be
+pushed out, the force of expansion split the shell. The amazing force of
+expansion is also shown from the distance to which these iron plugs are
+thrown out of the fuse-hole. A plug of two pounds and a half weight was
+thrown no less than 415 feet from the shell; the fuse axis was at an
+angle of 45 deg.; the thermometer showed 51 deg. below the freezing point. Here
+you see ice and gunpowder performing the same operations. That similar
+effects should proceed from such dissimilar causes is very
+extraordinary."--Gray's _Canada_, p. 309.]
+
+[Footnote 160: See Appendix, No. XXII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 161: "These mountains were known to the French missionaries by
+the name of Montagnes des Pierres Brillantes."--Chateaubriand.]
+
+[Footnote 162: See Appendix, No. XXIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 163: See Appendix, No. XXIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 164: See Appendix, No. XXV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 165: "In Europe, in Asia, in Africa, and even in South
+America, the primeval trees, however much their magnitude may arrest
+admiration, do not grow in the promiscuous style that prevails in the
+general character of the North American woods. Many varieties of the
+pine, intermingled with birch, maple, beech, oak, and numerous other
+tribes, branch luxuriantly over the banks of lakes and rivers, extend in
+stately grandeur along the plains, and stretch proudly up to the very
+summits of the mountains. It is impossible to exaggerate the autumnal
+beauty of these forests; nothing under heaven can be compared to its
+effulgent grandeur. Two or three frosty nights in the decline of autumn
+transform the boundless verdure of a whole empire into every possible
+tint of brilliant scarlet, rich violet, every shade of blue and brown,
+vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexorable fir tribes
+alone maintain their eternal somber green. All others, in mountains or
+in villages, burst into the most glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit
+the most splendid and most enchanting panorama on earth."--M'Gregor, p.
+79, 80.
+
+Mr. Weld says, "The varied hues of the trees at this season of the year
+(autumn) can hardly be imagined by those who never have had an
+opportunity of observing them; and, indeed, as others have often
+remarked before, were a painter to attempt to color a picture from them,
+it would be condemned in Europe as totally different from any thing that
+ever existed in nature."--Weld, p. 510.
+
+"I can only compare the brightness of the faded leaves, scarlet, purple,
+and yellow, to that of tulips."--Lyell's _America_, vol. i., p. 107.]
+
+[Footnote 166: See Appendix, No. XXVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 167: "One of the most striking features in the vegetation of
+Canada is the number of species belonging to the _genera_ Solidago,
+Aster, Quercus, and Pinus. It is also distinguished for the many plants
+contained in the Orders, or natural families--Grossulaceae, Onograceae,
+Hypericaceae, Aceraceae, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, and Vacciniaceae; and for
+the presence of the peculiar families--Podophyllae, Sarraceniaceae, and
+Hydrophyllaceae. There is, on the contrary, the climate being considered,
+a remarkable paucity of Cruciferae and Umbelliferae, and, what is most
+extraordinary, a total absence of the genus Erica (heath),[168] which
+covers so many thousands of acres in corresponding latitudes in Europe.
+Mrs. Butler mentions, in her Journal, 'that some poor Scotch peasants,
+about to emigrate to Canada, took away with them some roots of the
+"bonny blooming heather," in hopes of making this beloved adorner of
+their native mountains the cheerer of their exile. The heather, however,
+refused to grow in the Canadian soil. The person who told me this said
+that the circumstance had been related to him by Sir Walter Scott, whose
+sympathy with the disappointment of these poor children of the romantic
+heather-land betrayed itself even in tears.'
+
+"Canada is not rich in roses; only three species occur throughout the
+two provinces. Among the Ribes and the Ericaceae, however, are found many
+of the most beautiful ornaments of the English garden: Andromedas,
+Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and Kalmias belong to the latter order. The
+Azalea was thus described by one of the earlier European botanical
+travelers. Professor Kalm[169] (in 1748): 'the Mayflowers, as the Swedes
+call them, were plentiful in the woods wherever I went to-day,
+especially on a dry soil, or one that is somewhat moist. The Swedes have
+given them this name because they are in full blossom in May. Some of
+the Swedes and the Dutch call them "Pinxter Bloem" (Whitsunday flowers),
+as they are in blossom about Whitsuntide. The English call them wild
+honeysuckles, and at a distance they really have a resemblance to the
+honeysuckle or lonicera. Dr. Linnaeus and other botanists call it an
+Azalea (Azalea Nudiflora, _Linn. Spec. Plant._, p. 214.) Its flowers
+were now open, and added a new ornament to the woods, being little
+inferior to the flowers of the honey-suckle and hedysarum. They sit in a
+circle round the stem's extremity, and have either a dark red or lively
+red color; but by standing some time, the sun bleaches them, and at last
+they get a whitish hue. The height of the bush is not always alike. Some
+were as tall as a full-grown man, and taller; others were but low, and
+some were not above a palm from the ground; yet they were all full of
+flowers. They have some smell, but I can not say it is very pleasant.
+However, the beauty of the color entitles them to a place in every
+flower garden.'"--_Travels in North America_, by Professor Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 557.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Seven hours' journey above the sources of the Bow River,
+Sir George Simpson mentions meeting with "an unexpected reminiscence of
+my own native hills, in the shape of a plant which appeared to me to be
+the very heather of the mountains of Scotland; and I might well regard
+the reminiscence as unexpected, inasmuch as in all my wanderings, of
+more than twenty years, I had never found any thing of the kind in North
+America. As I took a considerable degree of interest in the question of
+the supposed identity, I carried away two specimens, which, however,
+proved, on a minute comparison, to differ from the genuine staple of the
+brown heaths of the 'Land o' Cakes.'"--Vol. i., p. 120.
+
+"We missed, also, the small 'crimson-tipped daisy' on the green lawns,
+and were told that they have been often cultivated with care, but are
+found to wither when exposed to the dry air and bright sun of this
+climate. When weeds so common with us can not be reared here, we cease
+to wonder at the dissimilarity of the native Flora of the New World.
+Yet, wherever the aboriginal forests are cleared, we see orchards,
+gardens, and arable lands filled with the same fruit-trees, the same
+grain and vegetables, as in Europe, so bountifully has Nature provided
+that the plants most useful to man should be capable, like himself, of
+becoming cosmopolites."--Lyell's _Travels in North America_, vol. i., p.
+5.]
+
+[Footnote 169: The Kalmias were so named by Linnaeus in honor of
+Professor Kalm, a favorite pupil of the great botanist.]
+
+[Footnote 170: See Appendix, No. XXVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 171: The oak from the dense forests of Canada, into which the
+sun's rays never penetrate, is more porous, more abundant in sap, and
+more prone to the dry rot than the oak grown in any other country.
+Canadian timber has increased in value since the causes of its former
+rapid decay have been more fully understood. Mr. Nathaniel Gould asserts
+that the wane of the moon is now universally considered the best season
+for felling timber, both in the United States and in Canada. The
+Americans contract for their ship timber to be felled or girdled between
+the 20th of October and the 12th of February. Dry rot being probably
+caused by the natural moisture or sap being left in the wood, the less
+there is in the tree when cut, the longer it will keep sound. As regards
+the Canadian oak, it is stated by Mr. M'Taggart (the engineer, who so
+ably distinguished himself while in the colony), that it is not so
+durable as that of the British, the fiber not being so compact and
+strong; it grows in extensive groves near the banks of large lakes and
+rivers, sometimes found growing to 50 feet in length by 2 feet 6 inches;
+its specific gravity is greater than water, and therefore, when floated
+down in rafts, it is rendered buoyant with cross bars of pine. It is
+easily squared with the hatchet, and answers well for ship-building and
+heavy work; will endure the seasons for about fifteen years,[172] and
+does not decay in England so soon as in Canada.--Montgomery Martin's
+_Canada_, p. 257; Gray's _Canada_, p. 207.]
+
+[Footnote 172: Kalm says, in 1748, "They were now building several ships
+below Quebec for the king's account. However, before my departure, an
+order arrived from France prohibiting the further building of ships of
+war, because they had found that the ships built of American oak do not
+last so long as those of European oak. Near Quebec is found very little
+oak, and what grows there is not fit for use, being very small;
+therefore they are obliged to fetch their oak timber from those parts of
+Canada which border upon New England. But all the North American oaks
+have the quality of lasting longer, and withstanding putrefaction
+better, the further north they grow."--Kalm, p. 663.]
+
+[Footnote 173: The most useful American plants in the small order
+Betulaceae are the birches, of which Canada contains six species. The
+most celebrated is Betula Papyracea, the canoe birch, so called from the
+use made of the bark in the construction of the Indian boats. It extends
+from the shore of the Hudson in New York to a considerable range of
+country northward of Canada. The bark is obtained with facility in large
+pieces, and is sewed together with the tough and slender roots of the
+pine-tree. La Hontan relates a characteristic story respecting the birch
+bark: "I remember I have seen, in a certain library in France, a
+manuscript of the Gospel of St. Matthew, written in Greek upon this sort
+of bark; and which is yet more surprising, I was there told that it had
+been written above a thousand years; and, at the same time, I dare swear
+that it was the genuine birch bark of New France, which, in all
+appearance, was not then discovered."--La Hontan, in Pinkerton, vol.
+xiii., p. 361.
+
+Mr. Weld says that "the bark resembles in some degree that of the
+cork-tree, but it is of a closer grain, and also much more pliable, for
+it admits of being rolled up the same as a piece of cloth. The Indians
+of this part of the country always carry large rolls of it in their
+canoes when they go on a hunting party, for the purpose of making
+temporary huts. The bark is spread on small poles over their heads, and
+fastened with strips of elm bark, which is remarkably tough, to stakes,
+so as to form walls on the sides."--Weld, p. 311.]
+
+[Footnote 174: See Appendix, No. XXVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 175: See Appendix, No. XXIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 176: The ginseng belongs to the small order Araliaceae. The
+botanical name is Panax quinquefolium: it was called Aureliana
+Canadensis by Lafitau, who was the first to bring it from Canada to
+France.--(Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 309, fig. 13.) It was discovered in
+the forests of Canada in 1718. It is herbaceous, scarcely a foot and a
+half in height, and toward the upper part of the stem arise three
+quinate-digitate leaves, from the center of which springs the flower
+stalk. The root is fusiform and fleshy, and is the part most valued. We
+are informed that among the Chinese many volumes have been written upon
+its virtues; and that, besides the name already mentioned, it is known
+by several others, expressive of the high estimation in which it is
+universally held throughout the Celestial Empire: two of these
+appellations are, 'the pure spirit of the earth,' and 'the plant that
+gives immortality.' An ounce of ginseng bears the surprising price of
+seven or eight ounces of silver at Pekin. When the French botanists in
+Canada first saw a figure of it, they remembered to have seen a similar
+plant in this country. They were confirmed in their conjecture by
+considering that several settlements in Canada lie under the same
+latitude with those parts of Chinese Tartary and China where the true
+ginseng grows wild. They succeeded in their attempt, and found the same
+ginseng wild and abundant in several parts of North America, both in
+French and English plantations, in plain parts of the woods. It is fond
+of shade, and of a deep, rich mold, and of land which is neither wet nor
+high. It is not every where very common, for sometimes one may search
+the woods for the space of several miles without finding a single plant
+of it; but in those spots where it grows it is always found in great
+abundance. It flowers in May and June, and its berries are ripe at the
+end of August. The trade which is carried on with it here is very brisk,
+for they gather great quantities of it, and send them to France, from
+whence they are brought to China, and sold there to great advantage. The
+Indians in the neighborhood of Montreal were so taken up with the
+business of collecting ginseng, that the French farmers were not able
+during that time to hire a single Indian, as they commonly do, to help
+them in the harvest. The ginseng formerly grew in abundance round
+Montreal, but at present there is not a single plant of it to be found,
+so effectually have they been rooted out. This obliged the Indians this
+summer to go far within the English boundaries to collect these roots.
+After the Indians have sold the fresh roots to the merchants, the latter
+must take a great deal of pains with them. They are spread on the floor
+to dry, which commonly requires two months and upward, according as the
+season is wet or dry. During that time they must be turned once or twice
+every day, lest they should putrefy or molder. The roots prepared by the
+Chinese are almost transparent, and look like horn in the inside; and
+the roots which are fit for use are heavy and compact in the inside. No
+one has ever discovered the Chinese method of preparing it. It is
+thought, among other preparations, they dip the roots in a decoction of
+the leaves of ginseng. Kalm wrote thus of the ginseng in 1749 (Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 639). Mr. Heriot mentions that "one article of
+commerce the Canadians had, by their own imprudence, rendered altogether
+unprofitable. From the time that Canada ginseng had been imported to
+Canton, and its quality pronounced equal to that of Corea or Tartary, a
+pound of this plant, which before sold in Quebec for twenty pence,
+became, when its value was once ascertained, worth one pound and
+tenpence sterling. The export of this article amounted in 1752 to
+L20,000 sterling. But the Canadians, eager suddenly to enrich
+themselves, reaped this plant in May when it should not have been
+gathered until September, and dried it in ovens when its moisture should
+have been gradually evaporated in the shade. This fatal mistake, arising
+from cupidity, and in some measure from ignorance, ruined the sale of
+their ginseng among the only people on earth who are partial to its use,
+and at an early period cut off from the colony a new branch of trade,
+which, under proper regulations, might have been essentially
+productive."--Heriot's _Travels through the Canadas_, p. 99, 1807.
+
+"Mountainous woods in Tartary are mentioned as the place where the
+ginseng is produced in the greatest abundance. In 1709, the emperor
+ordered an army of ten thousand men to collect all the ginseng they
+could find, and each person was to give him two ounces of the best,
+while for the remainder payment was to be made in silver, weight for
+weight. It was in the same year that Father Jartoux, a Jesuit missionary
+in China, prepared a figure and accurate description of the plant, in
+which he bears testimony to the beneficial effects of the root. He tried
+it in many instances himself, and always with the same result,
+especially when exhausted with fatigue. His pulse was increased, his
+appetite improved, and his whole frame invigorated. Judging from the
+accounts before us, we should say that the Chinese were extravagant in
+their ideas of the virtues of this herb; but that it is undoubtedly a
+cordial stimulant, to be compared, perhaps, in some degree, with the
+aromatic root of Meum athamanticum, so much esteemed by the Scottish
+Highlanders. It has nevertheless disappeared from our Materia
+Medica."--Murray's _Canada_, vol. iii., p. 308. Charlevoix, tom. vi., p.
+24.
+
+"Ginseng a veritablement la vertu de soutenir, de fortifier, et de
+rappeller les forces epuisees."--Lafitau, tom. ii., p. 142.]
+
+[Footnote 177: In La Hontan's time (1683), he speaks of "maiden-hair"
+being as common in the forests of Canada as fern in those of France, and
+is esteemed beyond that of other countries, insomuch that the
+inhabitants of Quebec prepare great quantities of its syrup, which they
+send to Paris, Nantes, Rouen, and several other cities of France.
+Charlevoix gives a figure of the maiden-hair (tom. iv., p. 301), under
+the name of Adiantum Americanum.--"Cette plante a la racine fort petite,
+et enveloppee de fibres noires, fort deliees; sa tige est d'un pourpre
+fonce, et s'eleve en quelques endroits a trois ou quatre pieds de haut;
+il en sort des branches, qui se courbent en tous sens. Les feuilles sont
+plus larges que celles de notre Capillaire de France, d'un beau verd
+d'un cote, et de l'autre, semees de petits points obscurs; nulle part
+ailleurs cette plante n'est si haute ni si vive, qu'en Canada. Elle n'a
+aucune odeur tandis qu'elle est sur pied, mais quand elle a ete
+renfermee, elle repand une odeur de violette, qui embaume. Sa qualite
+est aussi beaucoup au-dessus de tous les autres capillaires."
+
+The Herba capillaris is the Adiantum pedatum of Linnaeus (Sp. Pl., p.
+1557). Cornutus, in his _Canadens. Plant. Historia_, p. 7, calls it
+Adiantum Americanum, and gives a figure of it, p. 6. Kalm says that "it
+grows in all the British colonies of America, and likewise in the
+southern parts of Canada, but I never found it near Quebec. It grows in
+the woods in shady places, and in a good soil. Several people in Albany
+and Canada assured me that its leaves were very much used instead of tea
+in consumptions, coughs, and all kinds of pectoral diseases. This they
+have learned from the Indians, who have made use of it for these
+purposes from time immemorial. This American maiden-hair is reckoned
+preferable in surgery to that which we have in Europe, and therefore
+they send a great quantity of it to France every year. Commonly the
+price at Quebec is between five and fifteen sols a pound. The Indians
+went into the woods about this time (August), and traveled far above
+Montreal in quest of this plant."--Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p.
+641.]
+
+[Footnote 178: "This moss is called by the Canadian voyageurs, _Tripe de
+Roche_; it belongs to the order Gyrophara. They who have perused the
+affecting narrative of the sufferings of Captain Franklin and his
+gallant party, on their return from their first journey to the Arctic
+Sea, will remember that it was on _Tripe de Roche_ that they depended,
+under God, for their very existence. 'We looked,' says Captain Franklin,
+'with humble confidence to the Great Author and giver of all good, for a
+continuance of the support which had been hitherto always supplied to us
+at our greatest need,' and he was not disappointed."--Murray's _Canada_,
+vol. iii., p. 330. "Parmi les sauvages errans, et qui ne cultivent point
+du tout la terre, lorsque la chasse et la peche leur manquent, leur
+unique ressource est une espece de mousse, qui croit sur certains
+rochers, et que nos Francais ont nommee Tripe de Roche; rien n'est plus
+insipide que ce mets, lequel n'a pas meme beaucoup de substance, c'est
+bien la etre reduit au pur necessaire pour ne pas mourir de
+faim."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 24.]
+
+[Footnote 179: See Appendix, No. XXX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 180: See Appendix, No. XXXI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 181: "The Swedes gave the name of Indian hemp to Apocynum
+cannabinum, because the Indians apply it to the same purposes as the
+Europeans do hemp; for the stalk may be divided into filaments, and is
+easily prepared. This plant grows in abundance in old corn grounds, in
+woods, on hills, and on high glades. The Indians make ropes of this
+Apocynum, which the Swedes buy, and employ them as bridles, and for
+nets. These ropes are stronger, and kept longer in water than such as
+were made of common hemp. The Swedes commonly got fourteen yards of
+these ropes for one piece of bread. On my journey through the country of
+the Iroquois, I saw the women employed in manufacturing this hemp. The
+plant is perennial, which renders the annual planting of it altogether
+unnecessary. Out of the root and stalk of this plant, when it is fresh,
+comes a white, milky juice, which is somewhat poisonous. Sometimes the
+fishing tackle of the Indian consists entirely of this hemp."--Kalm, in
+Pinkerton, vol xiii., p. 544.]
+
+[Footnote 182: See Appendix, No. XXXII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 183: Buffon, Hist. Nat., tom. ix., p. 13, 203; Acosta, Hist.,
+lib. iv., cap. xxxiv.; Pisonis Hist., p. 6; Herrera, Dec. IV., lib. iv.,
+cap. i.; lib. x., cap. xiii.]
+
+[Footnote 184: Canada has not the fine natural pastures of Ireland,
+England, Holland, and other countries enjoying a cool, moist, and
+equable climate. Artificial grasses, now a most valuable branch of
+British husbandry, are peculiarly important in Canada, where so large a
+quantity of hay should be stored for winter use. They are also most
+useful in preparing the soil for grain crops, but have the disadvantage
+of requiring to stand the severe winter, so trying to all except annual
+plants. Clover, which is supposed to yield three times the produce of
+natural grass, grows luxuriantly; but in the second year its roots are
+often found to have been destroyed by frost. For this reason, it is
+necessary to have recourse to the species named Timothy, which is
+extremely hardy, and will set at defiance even a Canadian
+winter.--Talbot, vol. i., p. 301, Gould, p. 67.]
+
+[Footnote 185: "In the western parts of Lower Canada, and throughout
+Upper Canada, where it is customary for travelers to carry their own
+bedding with them, these skins are very generally made use of for the
+purpose of sleeping upon. For upward of two months we scarcely ever had
+any other bed than one of the skins spread on the floor and a blanket to
+each person. The skins are dressed by the Indians with the hair on, and
+they are rendered by a peculiar process as pliable as cloth. When the
+buffalo is killed in the beginning of the winter, at which time he is
+fenced against the cold, the hair resembles very much that of a black
+bear; it is then long, straight, and of a blackish color; but when the
+animal is killed in the summer, the hair is short and curly, and of a
+light brown color, owing to its being scorched by the rays of the
+sun."--Weld, p. 313.]
+
+[Footnote 186: Charlevoix says, "que la peau, quoique tres forte,
+devient souple et moelleuse comme le meilleur chamois. Les sauvages en
+font des boucliers, qui sont tres legers, et que les bals de fusil ne
+percent pas aisement."--Tom. v., p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 187: The height of the domesticated reindeer is about three
+feet; of the wild ones, four. It lives to the age of sixteen years. The
+reindeer is a native of the northern regions only. In America it does
+not extend further south than Canada. The Indians often kill numbers for
+the sake of their tongue only; at other times they separate the flesh
+from the bones, and preserve it by drying it in the smoke. The fat they
+sell to the English, who use it for frying instead of butter. The skins,
+also, are an article of extensive commerce with the English.--Rees's
+_Cyclopaedia_, art. Cervus Tarandus.
+
+Charlevoix says that the Canadian _caribou_ differs in nothing from the
+_Renne_ of Buffon except in the color of its skin, which is brown or
+reddish.--Tom. v., p. 191. La Hontan calls the _caribou_ a species of
+wild ass; and Charlevoix says that its form resembles that of the ass,
+but that it at least equals the stag in agility.]
+
+[Footnote 188: Pennant is persuaded that the stag is not a native of
+America, and considers the deer known in that country by the name of
+stag as a distinct species. The American stag is the Cervus Canadensis
+of Erxleben. The Americans hunt and shoot those animals not so much for
+the sake of the flesh as of the fat, which serves as tallow in making
+candles, and the skins, which they dispose of to the Hudson's Bay
+Company. They are caught principally in the inland parts, near the
+vicinity of the lakes.--Rees's _Cyclopaedia_, art. Cervus Elaphus.
+
+Charlevoix says that "le Cerf en Canada est absolument le meme qu'en
+France, peut etre communement un peu plus grand."--Tom. v., p. 189.]
+
+[Footnote 189: The fallow deer in America have been introduced there
+from Europe; for the animal called the American fallow is of a very
+different kind, and is peculiar to the New Continent. This, the _Cervus_
+Virginianus, inhabits all the provinces south of Canada.--Rees's
+_Cyclopaedia_, art. Cervus Virginianus.]
+
+[Footnote 190: See Appendix, No. XXXIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 191: See Appendix, No. XXXIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 192: See Appendix, No. XXXV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 193: See Appendix, No. XXXVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 194: See Appendix, No. XXXVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 195: See Appendix, No. XXXVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 196: See Appendix, No. XXXIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 197: See Appendix, No. XL. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 198: "While we were roaming along the shore of Lake Ontario we
+caught a species of tortoise (testudo picta), which was a gayly-colored
+shell, and I carried it a day's journey in the carriage, and then turned
+it out, to see whether, as I was told, it would know its way back to
+Lake Ontario. I am bound to admit that its instinct on this occasion did
+not fail, for it made directly for a ravine, in the bottom of which was
+a stream that would lead it in time to the Genesee River, and this would
+carry it to its native lake if it escaped destruction at the Falls below
+Rochester, where the celebrated diver, Sam Patch, perished, after he had
+succeeded in throwing himself with impunity down several other great
+waterfalls. There is a fresh-water tortoise in Europe (Terrapena
+Europea) found in Hungary, Prussia, and Silesia, as far north as
+latitude 50 deg. to 52 deg.. It also occurs near Bordeaux, and in the north of
+Italy, 44 deg. and 45 deg. north latitude, which precisely corresponds with the
+latitude of Lake Ontario."--Lyell's _Travels in North America_, vol. i.,
+p. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 199: "To the Malacodermous division belongs the remarkable
+genus Lampyris, which contains the insects commonly called glow-worms.
+The substance from which the luminous property results has been the
+subject of frequent experiment and observation. It is obviously under
+the control of the animal, which, when approached, may frequently be
+observed to diminish or put out its light. The only species with which
+we are acquainted in British America is Lampyris corusca. It occurs in
+Canada, and has been taken at least as far north as latitude 54 deg.. It was
+originally described by Simmons as a native of Finland and Russia, on
+the authority of Uddman, but has not since been found there."--Murray,
+vol. iii., p. 277.
+
+"We saw numerous yellow butterflies, very like a British species.
+Sometimes forty of them clustering on a small spot resembled a plot of
+primroses, and as they rose altogether, and flew off slowly on every
+side, it was like the play of a beautiful fountain."--Lyell's _America_,
+vol. i., p. 25.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+
+Perhaps the saddest chapter in the history of the sons of Adam is
+furnished by the Red Man of America. His origin is unknown; no records
+tell the tale of his ancient deeds. A foundling in the human family,
+discovered by his stronger brethren wandering wild through the forests
+and over the prairies of the western desert, no fraternal welcome
+greeted this lost child of nature; no soothing voice of affection fell
+upon his ear; no gentle kindness wooed him from his savage isolation.
+The hand of irresistible power was stretched out, not to raise him from
+his low estate and lead him into the brotherhood of civilized man, but
+to thrust him away with cruel and unjust disdain.
+
+Little more than three centuries and a half have elapsed since the
+Indian first gazed with terror and admiration upon the white strangers,
+and already three fourths of his inheritance are rent away, and three
+fourths of his race have vanished from the earth; while the sad remnant,
+few and feeble, faint and weary, "are fast traveling to the shades of
+their fathers, toward the setting sun."[200] Year by year they wither
+away; to them the close breath of civilized man is more destructive than
+the deadliest blight.[202] The arts and appliances which the accumulated
+ingenuity of ages has provided to aid the labor and enhance the
+enjoyments of others, have been but a curse to these children of the
+wilderness. That blessed light which shines to the miserable of this
+world through the vista of the "shadowy valley," cheering the fainting
+spirit with the earnest of a glorious future, sheds but a few dim and
+distorted rays upon the outskirts of the Red Man's forest land.
+
+All the relations of Europeans to the Indian have been alike fatal to
+him, whether of peace or war; as tyrants or suppliants; as conquerors
+armed with unknown weapons of destruction; as the insidious purchasers
+of his hunting-grounds, betraying him into an accursed thirst for the
+deadly fire-water; as the greedy gold-seekers, crushing his feeble frame
+under the hated labors of the mine; as shipwrecked and hungry wanderers,
+while receiving his simple alms, marking the fertility and
+defenselessness of his lands; as sick men enjoying his hospitality,
+and, at the same time, imparting that terrible disease[203] which has
+swept off whole nations; as woodmen in his forest, and intrusive tillers
+of his ground, scaring away to the far West those animals of the chase
+given by the Great Spirit for his food: there is to him a terrible
+monotony of result. In the delicious islands of the Caribbean Sea, and
+in the stern and magnificent regions of the northeast, scarcely now
+remains a mound, or stone, or trace even of tradition, to point out the
+place where any among the departed millions sleep.
+
+The discovery of the American Indians brought to light not only a new
+race, but also a totally new condition of men. The rudest form of human
+society known in the Old World was far advanced beyond that of the
+mysterious children of the West, in arts, knowledge, and government.
+Even among the simplest European and Asiatic nations the principle of
+individual possession was established; the beasts of the field were
+domesticated to supply the food and aid the labors of man, and large
+bodies of people were united under the sway of hereditary chiefs. But
+the Red Man roamed over the vast forests and prairies of his
+undiscovered continent, accompanied by few of his fellows, unassisted by
+beasts of burden,[204] and trusting alone to his skill and fortune in
+the chase for a support. The first European visitors to the New World
+were filled with such astonishment at the appearance and complexion of
+the Red Man, that they hastily concluded he belonged to a different
+species from themselves. As the native nations became better known,
+their warriors, statesmen, and orators commanded the admiration of the
+strangers. Especially in the northern people, every savage virtue was
+conspicuous; they were gentle in peace, but terrible in war; of a proud
+and noble bearing, honest, faithful, and hospitable, loving order though
+without laws, and animated by the strongest and most devoted loyalty to
+their tribe. At the same time, while willingly recording their high and
+admirable qualities, pity for the devoted race must not blind us to
+their ferocious and degrading vices.
+
+It was not until the end of the seventeenth century that the manners and
+characteristics of this strange race attracted to any considerable
+degree the attention of philosophers and theorists; a chasm in human
+history then seemed about to be filled. Eager to throw light upon the
+subject, but too impatient to inquire into the facts necessary for the
+formation of opinions, the conclusions formed were often unjust to the
+native dignity of the Red Indian,[205] and have been proved erroneous by
+subsequent and more perfect information. On the other hand, one of the
+most gifted but dangerous of modern philosophers would exalt these
+untutored children of nature to a higher degree of honor and excellence
+than civilization and knowledge can confer. He deemed that the elevation
+and independence of mind, resulting from the rude simplicity of savage
+life, is sought in vain among the members of refined and organized
+societies.[206]
+
+Every thing tended to render inquiry into the state of the rude tribes
+of America difficult and obscure. In the generality of cases they
+presented characteristics of a native simplicity, elsewhere unknown; and
+even in the more favored districts, where a degree of civilization
+appeared, it had assumed a form and direction totally different from
+that of the Old World.[207]
+
+The origin of this mysterious people has been the subject of an immense
+variety of speculations, and has involved the question, whether all men
+are the sons of Adam, or whether the distinctions of the human race were
+owing to the several sources from whence its members sprung? The skeptic
+supposition that each portion of the globe gave its own original type of
+man to the human family at once solves the difficulty of American
+population; but as both Christianity and philosophy alike forbid
+acceptance of this view,[208] it becomes necessary to consider the
+relative probabilities in favor of the other different theories which
+enthusiasm, ingenuity, and research have contributed to lay before the
+world.
+
+Without referring to the most sacred and ancient of authorities, we may
+find existing natural evidence abundantly sufficient to establish the
+belief of the common descent of our race. There are not in the human
+form differences such as distinguish separate species of the brute
+creation. All races of men are nearly of like stature and size, varying
+only by the accidents of climate and food favorable or adverse to their
+full development. The number, shape, and uses of limbs and extremities
+are alike, and internal construction is invariably the same. These are
+circumstances the least acted upon by situation and temperature, and
+therefore the surest tests of a particular species. Color is the most
+obvious and the principal indication of difference in the human
+families, and is evidently influenced to a great extent by the action of
+the sun,[209] as the swarthy cheek of the harvest laborer will witness.
+Under the equator we find the jet black of the negro; then the
+olive-colored Moors of the southern shores of the Mediterranean; again,
+the bronzed face of the Spaniard and Italian; next, the Frenchman,
+darker than those who dwell under the temperate skies of England; and,
+last, the bleached and pallid visages of the north. Along the arctic
+circle, indeed, a dusky tint again appears: that, however, may be fairly
+attributed to the scorching power of the sun, constantly over the
+horizon, through the brief and fiery summer. The natives remain
+generally in the open air during this time, fishing, or in the chase;
+and the effect of exposure stamps them with a complexion which even the
+long-continued snows can not remove. In the rigorous winter season, the
+people of those dreary countries pass most of their time in wretched
+huts or subterranean dwellings, where they heap up large fires to warm
+their shivering limbs. The smoke has no proper vent in these
+ill-constructed abodes; it fills the confined air, and tends to darken
+the complexions of those constantly exposed to its influence.
+
+The difference of color in the human race is doubtless influenced by
+many causes, modifying the effect of position with regard to the
+tropics. The great elevation of a particular district, its proximity to
+the sea, the shades of a vast forest, the exhalations from extensive
+marshes, all tend to diminish materially the power of a southern
+sun.[210] On the other hand, intensity of heat is aggravated by the
+neighborhood of arid and sandy deserts, or rocky tracts. The action of
+long-continued heat creates a more permanent effect than the mere
+darkening of the outer skin: it alters the character of those subtile
+juices that display their color through the almost transparent
+covering.[211] We see that, from a constitutional peculiarity in
+individuals, the painful variety of the albino is sometimes produced in
+the hottest countries. Certain internal diseases, and different
+medicines, change the beautiful bloom of the young and healthy into
+repulsive and unnatural tints. A peculiar secretion of the carbon
+abounding in the human frame produces the jet black of the negro's skin,
+and enables him to bear without inconvenience the terrible sultriness of
+his native land.[212] The dark races, inferior in animal and
+intellectual powers to the white man, are yet nearly free from the
+deformities he so often exhibits, perhaps on account of a less
+susceptible and delicate structure. The Caucasian or European races,
+born and matured under a temperate climate, manifestly enjoy the highest
+gifts of man. Wherever they come in contact with their colored brother,
+he ultimately yields to the irresistible superiority, and becomes,
+according to the caprice of their haughty will, the victim, the
+dependent, or the slave.[213]
+
+There are other characteristics different from, but generally combined
+with color, which are influenced by constitutional varieties. The hair
+usually harmonizes with the complexion, and, like it, shows the
+influence of climate. In cold countries, the natural covering of every
+animal becomes rich and soft; the plentiful locks and manly beard of the
+European show a marked contrast to the coarse and scanty hair of the
+inhabitants of tropical countries. The development of mental power and
+refined habits of life have also a strong but slow effect upon the
+outward form.[214] Certain African nations of a higher intelligence and
+civilization than their rude neighbors, show much less of the
+peculiarities of the negro features. The refined Hindoo displays a
+delicate form and expression under his dark complexion. The black color
+and the negro features are accidentally not necessarily connected, and
+it seems to require both climate and inferiority of intellect to unite
+them in the same race.
+
+When circumstances of climate or situation have effected peculiar
+appearances in a nation or tribe, the results will long survive the
+causes when people are removed to widely-different latitudes: a dark
+color is not easily effaced, even under the influence of moderate
+temperature and heightened civilization. For these reasons, there appear
+many cases where the complexion of the inhabitants and the climate of
+the country do not correspond, but the original characteristics will be
+found undergoing the process of gradual change, ultimately adapting
+themselves to their new country and situation.[215] The marked and
+peculiar countenances of the once "chosen people" vary, in color at
+least, wherever they are seen over the world, although uninfluenced by
+any admixture of alien blood. In England the children of Israel and the
+descendant of the Saxon are alike of a fair complexion, and on the banks
+of the Nile the Jew and the Egyptian show the same swarthy hue.[216]
+
+At first sight this American race would appear to offer evidence against
+the supposed influence of climate upon color, as one general form and
+complexion prevail in all latitudes of the New World, from the tropics
+to the frozen regions of the north. Great varieties, however, exist in
+the shade of the red or copper[217] color of the Indians. There are two
+extremes of complexion among mankind--those of the northern European and
+the African negro; between these there is a series of shades, that of
+the American Indian being about midway. The structure of the New World,
+and the circumstances of its inhabitants, may account for the generally
+equal color of their skin. The western Indian never becomes black, even
+when dwelling directly under the equator. He lives among stupendous
+mountain ranges, where cool breezes from the snowy heights sweep
+through the valleys and over the plains below. The vast rivers springing
+from under those lofty peaks inundate a great extent of country, and
+turn it into swamps, whence perpetual exhalations arise and lower the
+temperature. There are no fiery deserts to heat the passing wind and
+reflect the rays of the sun; a continual forest, with luxuriant foliage,
+and a dense underwood, spreads a pleasant shade over the surface of the
+earth. America, under the same latitudes, especially on the eastern
+coast, is every where colder than the Old World. The nearest approach to
+a black complexion is seen in the people of Brazil, a country
+comparatively low, and immediately under the equator. The inhabitants of
+the lofty Mexican table-land are also very dark, and on those arid
+plains the sun pours down its scorching rays upon a surface almost
+devoid of sheltering vegetation.
+
+The habits of savage life, and the constant exposure to the elements,
+seem sufficient to cause a dark tint upon the human skin even in the
+temperate regions of America, where the cold is far greater than in the
+same latitude in Europe. The inhabitants of those immense countries are
+badly clothed, imperfectly defended against the weather, miserably
+housed; wandering in war or in the chase, exposed for weeks at a time to
+the mercy of the elements, they soon darken into the indelible red or
+copper color of their race. On the northwest coasts, about latitude 50 deg.,
+in Nootka Sound, and a number of other smaller bays, dwell a people more
+numerous and better provided with food and shelter than their eastern
+neighbors. They are free from a great part of the toils and hardships of
+the hunter, and from the vicissitudes of the season. When cleansed from
+their filthy and fantastic painting, it appears that their complexion
+and features resemble those of the European.[218]
+
+Modern discoveries have to a great extent dispelled the mystery of the
+Indian origin, and proved the fallacy of the numerous and ingenious
+theories formerly advanced with so much pertinacity and zeal. Since the
+northwest coasts of America and the northeast of Asia have been
+explored, little difficulty remains on this subject. The two continents
+approach so nearly in that direction that they are almost within sight
+of each other, and small boats can safely pass the narrow strait. Ten
+degrees further south, the Aleutian and Fox Islands[219] form a
+continuous chain between Kamtschatka and the peninsula of Alaska, in
+such a manner as to leave the passage across a matter of no difficulty.
+The rude and hardy Tschutchi, inhabiting the northeast of Asia,
+frequently sail from one continent to the other.[220] From the remotest
+antiquity, this ignorant people possessed the wonderful secret of the
+existence of a world hidden from the wisest and most adventurous of
+civilized nations. They were unconscious of the value of their vast
+discovery; they passed over a stormy strait from one frozen shore to
+another, as stern and desolate as that they had left behind, and knew
+not that they had crossed one of the great boundaries of earth. When
+they first entered upon the wilderness of America, probably the most
+adventurous pushed down toward the genial regions of the south, and so
+through the long ages of the past the stream of population flowed slowly
+on, wave by wave, to the remotest limits of the east and south. The
+Indians resemble the people of northeastern Asia in form and feature
+more than any other of the human race. Their population is most dense
+along the districts nearest to Asia; and among the Mexicans, whose
+records of the past deserve credence, there is a constant tradition that
+their Aztec and Toultec chiefs came from the northwest. Every where but
+to the north, America is surrounded with a vast ocean unbroken by any
+chain of islands that could connect it with the Old World. Most
+probably no living man ever crossed this immense barrier before the time
+of Columbus. It is certain that in no part of America have any authentic
+traces been found of European civilization; the civilization of America,
+such as it was, arose, as it flourished, in the fertile plains of
+Mexico[221] and in the delightful valleys of Peru;[222] there, where the
+bounty of nature supplied an abundance of the necessaries of life, the
+population rapidly multiplied, and the arts became objects of
+cultivation.
+
+There is something almost mysterious in the total difference between
+the languages of the Old and New World.[223] All the tongues of
+civilized nations spring from a few original roots, somewhat analogous
+to each other; but it would seem that, among wandering tribes, dispersed
+over a vast extent of country, carrying on but little intercourse, and
+having no written record or traditionary recital to preserve any fixed
+standard, language undergoes a complete change in the course of ages.
+The great varieties of tongues in America, and their dissimilarity to
+each other, tend to confirm this supposition.
+
+In various parts of America, remains are found which place beyond a
+doubt the ancient existence of a people more numerous, powerful, and
+civilized than the present race of Indians; but the indications of this
+departed people are not such as to bespeak their having been of very
+remote antiquity: the ruined cities of Central America, concealed by the
+forest growth of centuries, and the huge mounds of earth[224] in the
+Valley of the Mississippi and upon the table-lands of Mexico, their
+dwellings and mausoleums, although long swept over by the storm of
+savage conquest, afford no proofs of their having existed very far back
+into those dark ages when the New World was unknown to Europe. The
+history of these past races of men will probably forever remain a sealed
+book, but there is no doubt that a great population once covered those
+rich countries which the first English visitors found the wild
+hunting-grounds for a few savage tribes.[225] Probably the existing race
+of Red Men were the conquerors and exterminators of the feeble but
+civilized aboriginal nations, and as soon as they possessed the land
+they split into separate and hostile communities, waging perpetual war
+with each other so as constantly to diminish their numbers.
+
+Far up the Mississippi and the Missouri the exploration of the country
+brings to light incontestable proofs of the existence of the mysterious
+aboriginal race: wells artificially walled, and various other structures
+for convenience or defense, are frequently seen; ornaments of silver,
+copper, and even brass are found, together with various articles of
+pottery and sculptured stone; sepulchers filled with vast numbers of
+human bones have often been discovered, and human bodies in a state of
+preservation are sometimes exhumed. On one of these the hair was yellow
+or sandy, and it is well known that an unvarying characteristic of the
+present red race is the lank black hair. A splendid robe of a kind of
+linen, made apparently from nettle fibers, and interwoven with the
+beautiful feathers of the wild turkey, encircled this long-buried mummy.
+The number and the magnitude of the mounds bear evidence that the
+concurrent labors of a vast assembly of men were employed in their
+construction.[226]
+
+In the progress of early discovery and settlement, striking views were
+presented of savage life among the Red Men inhabiting the Atlantic
+coast; but later researches along the banks of the Mississippi and its
+tributaries, and by the great Canadian lakes, exhibited this people
+under a still more remarkable aspect. The most prominent among the
+natives of the interior for power, policy, and courage, were the
+Iroquois or Five Nations.[227] Their territory extended westward from
+Lake Champlain, to the farthest extremity of Ontario, along the southern
+banks of the St. Lawrence, and of the Great Lake. Although formed by the
+alliance of five independent tribes, they always presented a united
+front to their foes, whether in defense or aggression. Their enemies,
+the Algonquins, held an extensive domain on the northern bank of the St.
+Lawrence; these last were at one time the masters of all that portion of
+America, and were the most polished and mildest in manners of the
+northern tribes. They depended altogether for subsistence on the produce
+of the chase, and disdained those among their neighbors who attempted
+the cultivation of the soil. The Hurons[228] were a numerous nation,
+generally allied with the Algonquins, inhabiting the immense and
+fertile territory extending westward to the Great Lake, from which they
+take their name: they occupied themselves with a rude husbandry, which
+the fertile soil of the west repaid, by affording them an abundant
+subsistence; but they were more effeminate and luxurious than their
+neighbors, and inferior in savage virtue and independence. The
+above-named nations were those principally connected with the events of
+Canadian history.
+
+Man is less affected by climate in his bodily development than any other
+animal; his frame is at the same time so hardy and flexible, that he
+thrives and increases in every variety of temperature and situation,
+from the tropic to the pole; nevertheless, in extremes such as these,
+his complexion, size, and vigor usually undergo considerable
+modifications.[229] Among the Red Men of America, however, there is a
+remarkable similarity of countenance, form, manners, and habits, in
+every part of the continent. No other race can show people speaking
+different languages, inhabiting widely different climates, and
+subsisting on different food, who are so wonderfully alike.[231] There
+are, indeed, varieties of stature, strength, intellect, and self-respect
+to be found among them; but the savage of the frozen north, and the
+Indian of the tropics, have the same stamp of person, and the same
+instincts.[232] There is a language of signs common to all, conveying
+similar ideas, and providing a means of mutual intelligence to every Red
+Man from north to south.
+
+The North American Indians are generally of a fair height and
+proportion. Deformities or personal defects[233] are rare among them;
+and they are never seen to fall into corpulency. Their features,
+naturally pleasing and regular, are often distorted by absurd attempts
+to improve their beauty, or render their appearance more terrible. They
+have high cheek bones, sharp and rather aquiline noses, and good teeth.
+Their skin is generally described as red or copper-colored, approaching
+to the tint of cinnamon bark, a complexion peculiar to the inhabitants
+of the New World. The hair of the Americans, like that of their
+Mongolian ancestors, is coarse, black, thin, but strong, and growing to
+a great length. Many tribes of both these races remove it from every
+part of the head except the crown, where a small tuft is left, and
+cherished with care. It is a universal habit among the tribes of the New
+World to eradicate every symptom of beard: hence the early travelers
+were led to conclude that the smoothness of their faces resulted from a
+natural deficiency. One reason for the adoption of this strange custom
+was to enable them to paint themselves with greater ease. Among old men,
+who have become indifferent to their appearance, the beard is again seen
+to a small extent.[234]
+
+On the continent, especially toward the north, the natives were of
+robust and vigorous constitution. Their sole employment was the chase of
+the numerous wild animals of the forest and prairies: from their
+continual activity, their frame acquired firmness and strength;[235] but
+in the islands, where game was rare, and the earth supplied
+spontaneously an abundant subsistence, the Indians were comparatively
+feeble, being neither inured to the exertions of the chase nor the
+labors of cultivation. Generally, the Americans were more remarkable for
+agility than strength, and are said to have been more like beasts of
+prey than animals formed for labor. Toil was hateful, and even
+destructive to them; they broke down and perished under tasks that would
+not have wearied a European. Experience proves that the physical
+strength of civilized man exceeds that of the savage.[236] Hand to hand
+in war, in wrestling, leaping, and even in running for a short distance,
+this superiority usually appears. In a long journey, however, the
+endurance of the Indian has no parallel among Europeans. A Red Man has
+been known to travel nearly eighty miles between sunrise and sunset,
+without apparent fatigue. He performs a long journey, bearing a heavy
+burden, and indulging in no refreshment or repose; an enemy can not
+escape his persevering pursuit, even when mounted on a strong horse.
+
+It has been already observed that the Americans are rarely or never
+deformed, or defective in their senses, while in their wild state, but
+in those districts where the restraints of law are felt, an
+extraordinary number of blind, deaf, dwarfs, and cripples, are observed.
+The terrible custom among the savage tribes of destroying those
+children who do not promise a vigorous growth, accounts for this
+apparent anomaly. Infancy is so long and helpless that it weighs as a
+heavy burden upon a wandering people; food is scanty and uncertain of
+supply, hunters and their families must range over extensive countries,
+and often remove from place to place. Judging that children of feeble or
+defective formation are not likely to survive the hardships of this
+errant life, they destroy all such unpromising offspring,[237] or desert
+them to a slower and more dreadful fate. The lot of all is so hard that
+few born with any great constitutional defect could long survive, and
+arrive at maturity.
+
+In the simplicity of savage life, where labor does not oppress, nor
+luxury enervate the human frame, and where harassing cares are unknown,
+we are led to expect that disease and suffering should be comparatively
+rare, and that the functions of nature should not reach the close of
+their gradual decay till an extreme old age. The decrepit and shriveled
+forms of many American Indians would seem to indicate that they had long
+passed the ordinary time of life. But it is difficult or impossible to
+ascertain their exact age, as the art of counting is generally unknown
+among them, and they are strangely forgetful and indifferent to the
+past. Their longevity, however, varies considerably, according to
+differences of climate and habits of life. These children of nature are
+naturally free from many of the diseases afflicting civilized nations;
+they have not even names in their language to distinguish such ills, the
+offspring of a luxury to them unknown. The diseases of the savage,
+however, though few, are violent and fatal; the severe hardships of his
+mode of life produce maladies of a dangerous description. From
+improvidence they are often reduced for a considerable time to a state
+bordering on starvation. When successful in the chase, or in the seasons
+when earth supplies her bounty, they indulge in enormous excesses. These
+extremes of want and abundance prove equally pernicious, for, although
+habit and necessity enable them at the time to tolerate such sudden
+transitions, the constitution is ultimately injured: disorders arising
+from these causes strike down numbers in the prime and vigor of youth,
+and are so common that they appear the necessary consequences of their
+mode of life. The Indian is likewise peculiarly subject to consumption,
+pleurisy, asthma, and paralysis, engendered by the fatigues and
+hardships of the chase and war, and constant exposure to extremes of
+heat and cold. Experience supports the conclusion that the average life
+is greater among people in an advanced condition of society than among
+those in a state of nature; among savages, all are affected by
+circumstances of over-exertion, privation, and excess, but in civilized
+societies the diseases of luxury only affect the few.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 200: "Driven by the European populations toward the northwest
+of North America,[201] the savage tribes are returning, by a singular
+destiny, to expire on the same shore where they landed, in unknown ages,
+to take possession of America. In the Iroquois language, the Indians
+gave themselves the appellation of _Men of Always_ (Ongoueonoue); these
+_men of always_ have passed away, and the stranger will soon have left
+to the lawful heirs of a whole world nothing but the mold of their
+graves."--Chateaubriand's _Travels in America_ (Eng. trans.), vol. ii.,
+p. 93.]
+
+[Footnote 201: De Tocqueville calculated that along the borders of the
+United States, from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico, extending a
+distance of more than 1200 miles, as the bird flies, the whites advance
+every year at a mean rate of seventeen miles; and he truly observes that
+there is a grandeur and solemnity in this gradual and continuous march
+of the European race toward the Rocky Mountains. He compares it to "a
+deluge of men rising, unabatedly, and daily driven onward by the hand of
+God."--_Democracy in America_, vol. ii., cap. x., Sec.4; Lyell, vol. ii.,
+p. 77.]
+
+[Footnote 202: See Appendix, No. XLI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 203: See Appendix, No. XLII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 204: "Generally speaking, the American races of mankind were
+characterized by a want of domestic animals, and this had considerable
+influence on their domestic life." (_Cosmos_, note, vol. ii., p. 481.)
+Contrasting the Bedouin with the Red Indian, Volney observes, "the
+American savage is, on the contrary, a hunter and a butcher, who has had
+daily occasion to kill and slay, and in every animal has beheld nothing
+but a fugitive prey, which he must be quick to seize. He has thus
+acquired a roaming, wasteful, and ferocious disposition; has become an
+animal of the same kind with the wolf and tiger; has united in bands or
+troops, but not into organized societies."]
+
+[Footnote 205: On ne prit pas d'abord les Americains pour des hommes,
+mais pour des orang-otangs, pour des grands singes, qu'on pouvoit
+detruire sans remords et sans reproche. Un pape fit une Bulle originale
+dans laquelle il declara qu' ayant envie de fonder des Eveches dans les
+plus riches contrees de l'Amerique, il plaisoit a lui et au Saint Esprit
+de reconnoitre les Americains pour des hommes veritables; de sorte que,
+sans cette decision d'une Italien, les habitans du Nouveau Monde
+seroient encore maintenant, aux yeux des fideles, une race d'animaux
+equivoques.... Qui auroit cru que malgre cette sentence de Rome, on eut
+agite violemment au conseil de Lima, 1583, si les Americains avoient
+assez d'esprit pour etre admis aux sacrements de l'Eglise. Plusieurs
+eveques persisterent a les leur refuser pendant que les Jesuites
+faisoient communier tous les jours leurs Indiens esclaves au Paraquai,
+afin de les accoutumer, disoient-ils, a la discipline, et pour les
+detourner de l'horrible coutume de se nourrir de chair humain.--_Recherches
+Philosophiques sur les Americains_, De Pauw, tom. i., p. 35.]
+
+[Footnote 206: Rousseau, opposed by Buffon, Volney, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 207: "Notwithstanding the striking analogies existing between the
+nations of the New Continent and the Tartar tribes who have adopted the
+religion of Bouddah, I think I discover in the mythology of the Americans,
+in the style of their paintings, in their languages, and especially in
+their external conformation, the descendants of a race of men, which, early
+separated from the rest of mankind, has followed for a lengthened series of
+years a peculiar road in the unfolding of its intellectual faculties, and
+in its tendency toward civilization."--Humboldt's _Ancient Inhabitants of
+America_, vol. i., p. 200.
+
+"It can not be doubted that the greater part of the nations of America
+belong to a race of men who, isolated ever since the infancy of the
+world from the rest of mankind, exhibit in the nature and diversity of
+language, in their features, and the conformation of their skull,
+incontestable proofs of an early and complete civilization."--_Ibid._,
+vol. i., p. 250.
+
+On the American races in general, Humboldt refers to the beautiful work
+of Samuel George Morton, _Craniae Americanae_, 1839, p. 62-86; and an
+account of the skulls brought by Pentland from the Highlands of
+Titicaca, in the '_Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science_,'
+vol. v., p. 475, 1834; also, Alcide d'Orbigny, _L'Homme Americain
+considere sous ses Rapports Physiol. et Mor._, p. 221, 1839; and,
+further, the work, so full of delicate ethnographical observations, of
+Prinz Maximilian of Wied, _Reise in das Innere von Nordamerika_, 1839.]
+
+[Footnote 208: "With regard to their origin, I have no doubt,
+independent of theological considerations, but that it is the same with
+ours. The resemblance of the North American savages to the Oriental
+Tartars renders it probable that they originally sprang from the same
+stock."--Buffon, Eng. trans., vol. iii., p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 209: "The Ethiopians," sings the old tragedian, Theodectes of
+Phaselis, "are dyed by the near sun-god in his course with a dark and
+sooty luster; the sun's heat crisps and dries up their hair." The
+expeditions of Alexander, which were so influential in exciting ideas of
+the physical cosmography, first fanned the dispute on the uncertain
+influence of climate upon races of men. Humboldt's _Cosmos_, vol. i., p.
+386. Volney, p. 506, and Oldmixon, vol. i., p. 286, assert that the
+savages are born white, and in their infancy continue so. An intelligent
+Indian said to Volney, "Why should there be any difference of color
+between us and them? (some Spaniards who had been bronzed in America).
+In them, as in us, it is the work of _the father of colors_, the sun,
+that burns us. You whites yourselves compare the skin of your faces with
+that of your bodies." This brought to my remembrance that, on my return
+from Turkey, when I quitted the turban, half my forehead above the
+eyebrows was almost like bronze, while the other half next the hair was
+as white as paper. If, as natural philosophy demonstrates, there be no
+color but what originates from light, it is evident that the different
+complexions of people are owing entirely to the various modifications of
+this fluid with other elements that act on our skin, and even compose
+its substance. Sooner or later it will be proved that the blackness of
+the African has no other source.--P. 408.
+
+"Vespuce decrit les indigenes du Nouveau Continent dans sa premiere
+lettre comme des hommes a face large et a physionomie _tartare_, dont la
+couleur rougeatre n'etoit due qu'a l'habitude de ne pas etre vetus. Il
+revient a cette meme opinion en examinant les Bresiliens." (Canovai, p.
+87, 90.) "Leur teint, dit il, est rougeatre, ce qui vient de leur nudite
+absolue et de l'ardeur du soleil auquel ils sont constamment exposes.
+Cette erreur a ete partagee par un des voyageurs modernes les plus
+spirituels, mais des plus systematiques, par Volney." (_Essai Politique
+sur la Mexique._) Humboldt's _Geog. du Nouv. Continent_, vol. v., p.
+25.]
+
+[Footnote 210: On the influence of humidity much stress has been laid by
+M. D'Orbigny and Sir R. Schomburgh, each of whom has made the remark as
+the result of personal and independent observation on the inhabitants of
+the New World, that people who live under the damp shade of dense and
+lofty forests are comparatively fair.]
+
+[Footnote 211: See Appendix, No. XLI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 212: Mr. Jarrold asserts that the negro becomes the most
+perfect specimen of the human species, in consequence of his possessing
+the coarsest and most impassive integument.--_Anthropologia._]
+
+[Footnote 213: See Appendix, No. XLII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 214: "It is intellectual culture which contributes most to
+diversify the features. Barbarous nations have rather a physiognomy of
+tribe or horde than one peculiar to such or such an individual. The
+savage and civilized man are like those animals of the same species,
+several of which rove in the forest, while others connected with us
+share in the benefits and evils that accompany civilization. The
+varieties of form and color are frequent only in domestic animals. How
+great is the difference with respect to mobility of feature and variety
+of physiognomy between dogs again become savage in the New World, and
+those whose slightest caprices are indulged in the houses of the
+opulent. Both in men and animals the emotions of the soul are reflected
+in the features; and the features acquire the habit of mobility in
+proportion as the emotions of the mind are more frequent, more varied,
+and more durable. In every condition of man, it is not the energy or the
+transient burst of the passions which give expression to the features;
+it is rather that sensibility of the soul which brings us continually
+into contact with the external world, multiplies our sufferings and our
+pleasures, and reacts at once on the physiognomy, the manners, and the
+language. If the variety and mobility of the features embellish the
+domain of animated nature, we must admit also that both increase by
+civilization without being produced by it alone. In the great family of
+nations, no other race unites these advantages to a higher degree than
+that of Caucasus or the European. It must be admitted that this
+insensibility of the features is not peculiar to every race of men of a
+very dark complexion: it is much less apparent in the African than in
+the natives of America."--Humboldt's _Personal Narrative_, vol. iii., p.
+230.]
+
+[Footnote 215: Tacitus, in his speculations on the peopling of Britain,
+distinguishes very beautifully between what may belong to the ultimate
+influences of the country, and what may pertain to an old, unalterable
+type in the immigrated race. "Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerunt,
+indigenae an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus
+corporis varii, atque ex eo argumenta; namque rutilae Caledoniam
+habitantium comae, magni artus Germanicam originem adseverant. Silurum
+colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania,
+Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes occupasse fidem faciunt: proximi
+Gallis et similes sunt, seu durante originis vi; seu, procurrentibus in
+divisa terris, positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit."--_Agricola_,
+cap. ii.
+
+"No ancient author has so clearly stated the two forms of reasoning by
+which we still explain in our days the differences of color and figure
+among neighboring nations as Tacitus. He makes a just distinction
+between the influence of climate and hereditary dispositions, and, like
+a philosopher persuaded of our profound ignorance of the origin of
+things, leaves the question undecided."--Humboldt's _Personal
+Narrative_.]
+
+[Footnote 216: See Smith on _The Variety of Complexion of the Human
+Species_.]
+
+[Footnote 217: Mr. Lawrence's precise definition is "an obscure orange
+or rusty-iron color, not unlike the bark of the cinnamon-tree." Among
+the early discoverers, Vespucius applies to them the epithet
+"rougeatre." Verazzano says, "sono di color berrettini e non molto dalli
+Saracini differenti."]
+
+[Footnote 218: Cook's Narrative calls their color an _effete_ white,
+like that of the southern nations of Europe. Meares expressly says that
+some of the females, when cleaned, were found to have the fair
+complexions of Europe.
+
+Somewhat further north, at Cloak Bay, in lat. 54 deg. 10', Humboldt remarks,
+that "in the midst of copper-colored Indians, with small, long eyes,
+there is a tribe with large eyes, European features, and a skin less
+dark than that of our peasantry."--_New Spain_, vol. i., p. 145.
+
+Humboldt considers this as the strongest argument of an original
+diversity of race which has remained unaffected by climate.]
+
+[Footnote 219: See Appendix. No. XLV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 220: Cochrane's _Pedestrian Journey_.]
+
+[Footnote 221: Prescott remarks, that the progress made by the Mexicans
+in astronomy, and especially the fact of their having a general board
+for education and the fine arts, proves more in favor of their
+advancement than the noble architectural monuments which they and their
+kindred tribes erected. "Architecture," he observes, "is a sensual
+gratification, and addresses itself to the eye; it is the form in which
+the resources of a semi-civilized people are most likely to be
+lavished."--_Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 155; Lyell's _America_,
+vol. i., p. 115.]
+
+[Footnote 222: Dans les regions anciennement agricoles de l'Amerique
+meridionale les conquerans Europeens n'ont fait que suivre les traces
+d'une culture indigene. Les Indiens sont restes attaches au sol qu'ils
+ont defriche depuis des siecles. Le Mexique seul compte un million sept
+cent mille indigenes de race pure, dont le nonbre augmente avec la meme
+rapidite que celui des autres castes. Au Mexique, a Guatemala, a Quito,
+au Perou, a Bolivia, la physionomie du pays, a l'exception de quelques
+grandes villes, est essentiellement Indienne; dans les campagnes la
+variete des langues s'est conservee avec les moeurs, le costume et les
+habitudes de la vie domestiqne. Il n'y a de plus que des troupeaux de
+vaches et de brebis, quelques cereales nouvelles et les ceremonies d'une
+culte qui se mele a d'antiques superstitions locales. Il faut avoir vecu
+dans les hautes plaines de l'Amerique Espagnole ou dans la confederation
+Anglo-Americain pour sentir vivement combien ce contraste entre des
+peuples chasseurs et des peuples agricoles, entre des pays longtemps
+barbares ou des pays offrant d'anciennes institutions politiques et une
+legislation indigene tres developpee, a facilite ou entrave la conquete,
+influe sur les formes des premiers etablissement europeens, conserve
+meme de nos jours aux differentes parties de l'Amerique independante, un
+caractere ineffacable. Deja le pere Joseph Acosta qui a etudie sur les
+lieux memes les suites du grand drame sanguinaire de la conquete a bien
+saisi ces differences frappantes de civilisation progressive et
+d'absence entiere d'ordre social qu'offrait le nouveau-monde a l'epoque
+de Christopher Colomb, ou peu de tems apres la colonisation par les
+Espagnols.--_Hist. Nat. y Moral._ lib. vi., cap. ii.; Humboldt's
+_Geographie du Nouveau Continent_, tom. i., p. 130.]
+
+[Footnote 223: See Appendix, No. XLVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 224: "In both Americas it is a matter of inquiry what was the
+intention of the natives when they raised so many artificial hills,
+several of which appear to have served neither as mounds, nor
+watch-towers, nor the base of a temple. A custom established in Eastern
+Asia may throw some light on this important question. Two thousand three
+hundred years before our era, sacrifices were offered in China to the
+Supreme Being, Chan-Ty, on four great mountains called the Four Yo. The
+sovereigns, finding it inconvenient to go thither in person, caused
+eminences representing these mountains to be erected by the hands of men
+near their habitations."--_Voyage of Lord Macartney_, vol. i., p. 58;
+Hager, _Monument of Yu_, p. 10, 1802.]
+
+[Footnote 225: Mr. Flint asserts, "that the greatest population clearly
+has been in those positions where the most dense future population will
+be."--P. 166.]
+
+[Footnote 226: "The bones of animals and snakes have sometimes been
+found mixed with human bones in these tumuli, and out of one near
+Cincinnati were dug two large marine shells, one of which was the
+_Cassis cornulus_ of the Asiatic islands, the other the _Fulgur
+perversus_ of the coast of Georgia and East Florida; and this is an
+additional argument used in favor of the alleged intercourse existing
+anciently between the Indians of this part of North America and the
+inhabitants of Asia, and between them and those of the Atlantic. Many
+circumstances still existing give probability to the popular belief that
+the American Indians had their origin in Asia. In their persons, color,
+and reserved disposition, they have a strong resemblance to the Malays
+of the Oriental Archipelago--that is to say, to some of the Tartar
+tribes of Upper Asia; and it is a remarkable circumstance, that, like
+those, they shave the head, leaving only a single lock of hair. The
+picture language of the Mexicans, as corresponding with the ancient
+picture language of China, and the quipos of Peru with the knotted and
+party-colored cords which the Chinese history informs us were in use in
+the early period of the empire, may also be adduced as corroborative
+evidence. The high cheek bones and the elongated eye of the two people,
+besides other personal resemblances, suggest the probability of a common
+origin."--_Quarterly Review_, No. LVII., p. 13.
+
+"The Iroquois and Hurons made hieroglyphic paintings on wood, which bear
+a striking resemblance to those of the Mexicans."--Lafitau, vol. ii., p.
+43, 225; La Houtan, p. 193.
+
+"A long struggle between two religious sects, the Brahmans and the
+Buddhists, terminated by the emigration of the Chamans to Thibet.
+Mongolia, China, and Japan. If tribes of the Tartar race have passed
+over to the northwest coast of America, and thence to the south and the
+east, toward the banks of Gila, and those of the Missouri, as
+etymological researches serve to indicate, we should be less surprised
+at finding among the semi-barbarous nations of the New Continent idols
+and monuments of architecture, a hieroglyphical writing, and exact
+knowledge of the duration of the year, and traditions respecting the
+first state of the world, recalling to our minds the arts, the sciences,
+and religious opinions of the Asiatic nations."--Humboldt's
+_Researches_.
+
+In his description of a Mexican painting, Humboldt observes, "The slave
+on the left is like the figure of those saints which we see frequently
+in Hindoo paintings, and which the navigator Roblet found on the
+northwest coast of America, among the hieroglyphical paintings of the
+natives of Cox's Channel."--Merchant's _Voyage_, vol. i., p. 312.
+
+"It is probably by philosophical and antiquarian researches in Tartary
+that the history of those civilized nations of North America, of whose
+great works only the wreck remains, will alone be elucidated."--See
+Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. iii., chap. xxii.; and
+Stephens's _Central America_, vol. i., p. 96; vol. ii., chap, xxvi., p.
+186, 357, 413, 433. See Appendix, No. XLVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 227: "The five nations were the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the
+Cayugas, the Onondagas, and the Senecas. The Dutch called them Maquas,
+the French Iroquois; their appellation at home was the Mingoes, and
+sometimes the Aganuschion, or United People."--Governor Clinton's
+_Discourse before New York Historical Society_, 1811.
+
+The Iroquois have often, among Europeans, been termed the Romans of the
+West. "Le nom d'Iroquois est purement francois, et a ete forme du terme
+_Hiro_, qui signifie, _J'ai dit_, par lequel ces sauvages finissent tout
+leur discours, comme les Latins faisaient autrefois par leur _Dixi_; et
+_de Koue_, qui est un cri, tantot de tristesse, lorsqu' on le prononce
+en trainant, et tantot de joie, lorsqu'on le prononce plus court. Leur
+nom propre est Agonnonsionni, qui veut dire, _Faiseurs de Cabannes_;
+parcequ'ils les batissent beaucoup plus solides, que la plupart des
+autres sauvages."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 421.
+
+Lafitau gives the Iroquois the same name of Agonnonsionni; they used to
+say of themselves that the five nations of which they were composed
+formed but one "Cabane."]
+
+[Footnote 228: "Le Pere Brebeuf comptoit environ trente mille ames de
+vrais Hurons, distribues en vingt villages de la nation. Il y avoit
+outre cela, douze nations sedentaires et nombreuses, qui parloient leur
+langue. La plupart de ces nations ne subsistent plus, les Iroquois ces
+ont detruites. Les vrais Hurons sont reduits aujourd'hui a la petite
+mission de Lorette, qui est pres de Quebec, ou l'on voit le
+Christianisme fleurir avec l'edification de tous les Francais, a la
+nation des Tionnontates qui sont etablis au Detroit, et a une autre
+nation qui s'est refugiee a la Carolina."--Charlevoix, 1721.
+
+"The Tionnontates mentioned above now bear the name of Wyandots, and are
+a striking exception to the degeneracy which usually attends the
+intercourse of Indians with Europeans. The Wyandots have all the energy
+of the savage warrior, with the intelligence and docility of civilized
+troops. They are Christians, and remarkable for orderly and inoffensive
+conduct; but as enemies, they are among the most dreadful of their race.
+They were all mounted (in the war of 1812-13), fearless, active,
+enterprising; to contend with them in the forest was hopeless, and to
+avoid their pursuit, impossible.
+
+"It is worthy of remark, that the Wyandots are the only part of the
+Huron nation who ever joined in alliance with the English. The mass of
+the Hurons were always the faithful friends of the French during the
+times of the early settlement of Canada."--_Quarterly Review_.]
+
+[Footnote 229: The extremes of heat and cold are as unfavorable to
+intellectual as to physical superiority,[230] a fact which may be easily
+traced throughout the vast and varied extent of the two Americas. "As
+far as the parallel of 53 deg., the temperature of the northwest coast of
+America is milder than that of the eastern coasts: we are led to expect,
+therefore, that civilization had anciently made some progress in this
+climate, and even in higher latitudes. Even in our own times, we
+perceive that in the 59th degree of latitude, in Cox's Channel and
+Norfolk Sound, the natives have a decided taste for hieroglyphical
+paintings on wood."--Humboldt _on the Ancient Inhabitants of America_.
+
+It has been ascertained that this western coast is populous, and the
+race somewhat superior to the other Indians in arts and
+civilization.--Ramusio, tom. iii., p. 297-303; Venegas's _California_,
+Part ii., Sec.ii.
+
+"From the happy coincidence of various circumstances, man raises himself
+to a certain degree of cultivation, even in climates the least favorable
+to the development of organized beings. Near the polar circle, in
+Iceland, in the twelfth century, we know the Scandinavians cultivated
+literature and the arts with more success than the inhabitants of
+Denmark and Prussia."--Humboldt.]
+
+[Footnote 230: The most temperate climate lies between the 40th and 50th
+degree of latitude, and it produces the most handsome and beautiful
+people. It is from this climate that the ideas of the genuine color of
+mankind and of the various degrees of beauty ought to be derived. The
+two extremes are equally remote from truth and from beauty. The
+civilized countries situated under this zone are Georgia, Circassia, the
+Ukraine, Turkey in Europe, Hungary, the south of Germany, Italy,
+Switzerland, France, and the northern parts of Spain. The natives of
+these territories are the most handsome and most beautiful people in the
+world.--Buffon, English trans., vol. iii., p. 205.]
+
+[Footnote 231: Mr. Flint says. "I have inspected the northern, middle,
+and southern Indians for a length of ten years; my opportunities of
+observation have, therefore, been considerable, and I do not undertake
+to form a judgment of their character without, at least, having seen
+much of it. I have been forcibly struck by a general resemblance in
+their countenance, make, conformation, manners, and habits. I believe
+that no race of men can show people who speak different languages,
+inhabit different climes, and subsist on different food, and who are yet
+so wonderfully alike."--(1831.)
+
+Don Antonio Ulloa, who had extensive opportunities of forming an opinion
+on the natives of both the continents of America, asserts that "If we
+have seen one American, we may be said to have seen all, their color and
+make are so nearly the same."--_Notic. Americanas_, p. 308. See,
+likewise, Garcia, _Origin de los Indios_, p. 55-242; Torquemada,
+_Monarch. Indiana_, vol. ii., p. 571.
+
+"If we except the northern regions, where we find men similar to the
+Laplanders, all the rest of America is peopled with inhabitants among
+whom there is little or no diversity. This great uniformity among the
+natives of America seems to proceed from their living all in the same
+manner. All the Americans were, or still are, savages; the Mexicans and
+Peruvians were so recently polished that they ought not to be regarded
+as an exception. Whatever, therefore, was the origin of those savages,
+it seems to have been common to the whole. All the Americans have sprung
+from the same source, and have preserved, with little variation, the
+characters of their race; for they have all continued in a savage state,
+and have followed nearly the same mode of life. Their climates are not
+so unequal with regard to heat and cold as those of the ancient
+continent, and their establishment in America has been too recent to
+allow those causes which produce varieties sufficient time to operate so
+as to render their effects conspicuous."--Buffon, Eng. trans., vol.
+iii., p. 188.]
+
+[Footnote 232: See Appendix, No. XLVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 233: See Appendix, No. XLIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 234: There would never have been any difference of opinion
+between physiologists, as to the existence of the beard among the
+Americans, if they had paid attention to what the first historians of
+the conquest of their country have said on this subject; for example,
+Pigafetta, in 1519, in his Journal preserved in the Ambrosian library at
+Milan, and published (in 1800) by Amoretti, p. 18.--Benzoni, _Hist. del
+Mundo Nuovo_, p. 35, 1572; Bembo, _Hist. Venet._, p. 86, 1557;
+Humboldt's _Personal Narrative_, vol. iii., p. 235.
+
+"The Indians have no beard, because they use certain receipts to
+extirpate it, which they will not communicate."--Oldmixon, vol. i., p.
+286.
+
+"Experience has made known that these receipts were little shells which
+they used as tweezers; since they have become acquainted with metals,
+they have invented an instrument consisting of a piece of brass wire
+rolled round a piece of wood the size of the finger, so as to form a
+special spring; this grasps the hairs within its turns, and pulls out
+several at once. No wonder if this practice, continued for several
+generations, should enfeeble the roots of the beard. Did the practice of
+eradicating the beard, originate from the design of depriving the enemy
+of such a dangerous hold on the face? This seems to me probable."--Volney,
+p. 412.]
+
+[Footnote 235: When the statue of Apollo Belvedere was shown to Benjamin
+West on his first arrival at Rome, he exclaimed, "It is a model from a
+young North American Indian."--_Ancient America._]
+
+[Footnote 236: "It is a notorious fact, that every European who has
+embraced the savage life has become stronger and better inured to every
+excess than the savages themselves. The superiority of the people of
+Virginia and Kentucky over them has been confirmed, not only in troop
+opposed to troop, but man to man, in all their wars."--Volney, p. 417.]
+
+[Footnote 237: Yet infanticide is condemned among the Red Indians both
+by their theology and their feelings. Dr. Richardson relates that those
+tribes who hold the idea that "the souls of the departed have to
+scramble up a great mountain, at whose top they receive the reward of
+their good or bad deeds, declare that women who have been guilty of
+infanticide never reach the top of this mountain at all. They are
+compelled instead to travel around the scenes of their crimes with
+branches of trees tied to their legs. The melancholy sounds which are
+heard in the still summer evenings, and which the ignorance of the white
+people looks upon as the screams of the goat-suckers, are really,
+according to my informant, the moanings of these unhappy
+beings"--Franklin's _Journey to the Polar Seas_, p. 77, 78.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+
+The Indian is endowed with a far greater acuteness of sense than the
+European. Despite the dazzling brightness of the long-continued snows,
+and the injurious action of the smoke of burning wood to which he is
+constantly exposed, he possesses extraordinary quickness of sight. He
+can also hear and distinguish the faintest sounds, alike through the
+gentle rustling of the forest leaves and in the roar of the storm; his
+power of smell is so delicate that he scents fire long before it becomes
+visible. By some peculiar instinct the Indian steers through the
+trackless forests, over the vast prairies, and even across wide sheets
+of water with unerring certainty. Under the gloomiest and most obscure
+sky, he can follow the course of the sun[238] as if directed by a
+compass. These powers would seem innate in this mysterious race; they
+can scarcely be the fruit of observation or practice, for children who
+have never left their native village can direct their course through
+pathless solitudes as accurately as the experienced hunter.
+
+In the early stages of social progress, when the life of man is rude and
+simple, the reason is little exercised, and his wants and wishes are
+limited within narrow bounds; consequently, his intellect is feebly
+developed, and his emotions are few but concentrated. These conditions
+were generally observable among the rudest tribes of the American
+Indians.
+
+There are, however, some very striking peculiarities in the intellectual
+character of the Red Men. Without any aid from letters or education,
+some of the lower mental faculties are developed in a remarkable degree.
+As orators, strategists, and politicians, they have frequently exhibited
+very great power.[240] They are constantly engaged in dangerous and
+difficult enterprises, where ingenuity and presence of mind are
+essential for their preservation. They are vigorous in the thought which
+is allied to action, but altogether incapable of speculation, deduction,
+or research. The ideas and attention of a savage are confined to the
+objects relating to his subsistence, safety, or indulgence: every thing
+else escapes his observation or excites little interest in his mind.
+Many tribes appear to make no arrangement for the future; neither care
+nor forethought prevents them from blindly following a present impulse,
+regardless of its consequences.
+
+The natives of North America were divided into a number of small
+communities; in the relation of these to each other, war or negotiation
+was constantly carried on; revolutions, conquests, and alliances
+frequently occurred among them. To raise the power of his tribe, and to
+weaken or destroy that of his enemy, was the great aim of every Indian.
+For these objects schemes were profoundly laid, and deeds of daring
+valor achieved: the refinements of diplomacy were employed, and plans
+arranged with the most accurate calculation. These peculiar
+circumstances also developed the power of oratory to an extraordinary
+degree.[241] Upon all occasions of importance, speeches were delivered
+with eloquence, and heard with deep attention. When danger threatened,
+or opportunity of aggrandizement or revenge offered itself, a council of
+the tribe was called, where those most venerable from age and
+illustrious for wisdom deliberated for the public good. The composition
+of the Indian orator is studied and elaborate; the language is vigorous,
+and, at the same time, highly imaginative; all ideas are expressed by
+figures addressed to the senses; the sun and stars, mountains and
+rivers, lakes and forests, hatchets of war and pipes of peace, fire and
+water, are employed as illustrations of his subject with almost Oriental
+art and richness. His eloquence is unassisted by action or varied
+intonation, but his earnestness excites the sympathy of the audience,
+and his persuasion sinks into their hearts.[242]
+
+The want of any written or hieroglyphic records of the past among the
+Northern Indians was, to some extent, supplied by the accurate memories
+of their old men; they were able to repeat speeches of four or five
+hours' duration, and delivered many years before, without error or even
+hesitation, and to hand them down from generation to generation with
+equal accuracy, their recollection being only assisted by small pieces
+of wood corresponding to the different subjects of discourse. On great
+and solemn occasions, belts of wampum were used as aid to recollection
+whenever a conference was held with a neighboring tribe, or a treaty or
+compact is negotiated. One of these belts, differing in some respects
+from any other hitherto used, was made for the occasion; each person who
+speaks holds this in his hand by turns, and all he says is recorded in
+the "living books" of the by-standers' memory in connection with the
+belt. When the conference ends, this memorial is deposited in the hands
+of the principal chief. As soon as any important treaty is ratified, a
+broad wampum belt of unusual splendor is given by each contracting party
+to the other, and these tokens are deposited among the other belts, that
+form, as it were, the archives of the nation. At stated intervals they
+are reproduced before the people, and the events which they commemorate
+are circumstantially recalled. Certain of the Indian women are intrusted
+with the care of these belts: it is their duty to relate to the children
+of the tribe the circumstances of each treaty or conference, and thus is
+kept alive the remembrance of every important event.
+
+On the matters falling within his limited comprehension, the Indian
+often displays a correct and solid judgment; he pursues his object
+without hesitation or diversion. He is quickly perceptive of simple
+facts or ideas, but any artificial combination, or mechanical
+contrivance he is slow to comprehend, especially as he considers every
+thing beneath his notice which is not necessary to his advantage or
+enjoyment. It is very difficult to engage him in any labor of a purely
+mental character, but he often displays vivacity and ardor in matters
+that interest him, and is frequently quick and happy in repartee.[243]
+
+The Red Man is usually characterized by a certain savage elevation of
+soul and calm self-possession, that all the aid of religion and
+philosophy can not enable his civilized brethren to surpass. Master of
+his emotions, the expression of his countenance rarely alters for a
+moment even under the most severe and sudden trials. The prisoner,
+uncertain as to the fate that may befall him, preparing for his dreadful
+death, or racked by agonizing tortures, still raises his unfaltering
+voice in the death song, and turns a fearless front toward his
+tormentors.[245]
+
+The art of numbering was unknown in some American tribes, and even among
+the most advanced it was very imperfect; the savage had no property to
+estimate, no coins to count, no variety of ideas to enumerate. Many
+nations could not reckon above three, and had no words in their language
+to distinguish a greater number; some proceeded as far as ten, others to
+twenty; when they desired to convey an idea of a larger amount, they
+pointed to the hair of the head, or declared that it could not be
+counted. Computation is a mystery to all rude nations; when, however,
+they acquire the knowledge of a number of objects, and find the
+necessity of combining or dividing them, their acquaintance with
+arithmetic increases; the state of this art is therefore, to a
+considerable extent, a criterion of their degree of progress. The wise
+and politic Iroquois had advanced the farthest, but even they had not
+got beyond one thousand; the smaller tribes seldom reached above ten.
+
+The first ideas are suggested to the mind of man by the senses: the
+Indian acquires no other. The objects around him are all important; if
+they be available for his present purposes, they attract his attention,
+otherwise they excite no curiosity: he neither combines nor arranges
+them, nor does he examine the operations of his own mind upon them; he
+has no abstract or universal ideas, and his reasoning powers are
+generally employed upon matters merely obvious to the senses. In the
+languages of the ruder tribes there were no words to express any thing
+that is not material, such as faith, time, imagination, and the like.
+When the mind of the savage is not occupied with matters relating to his
+animal existence, it is altogether inactive. In the islands, and upon
+the exuberant plains of the south, where little exertion of ingenuity
+was required to obtain the necessaries of life, the rational faculties
+were frequently dormant, and the countenance remained vacant and
+inexpressive. Even the superior races of the north loiter away their
+time in thoughtless indolence, when not engaged in war or the chase,
+deeming other objects unworthy of their consideration. Where reason is
+so limited in a field for exertion, the mind can hardly acquire any
+considerable degree of vigor or enlargement. In civilized life men are
+urged to activity and perseverance by a desire to gratify numerous
+artificial wants; but the necessities of the Indian are few, and
+provided for by nature almost spontaneously. He detests labor, and will
+sometimes sit for whole days together without uttering a word or
+changing his posture. Neither the hope of reward nor the prospect of
+future want can overcome this inveterate indolence.
+
+Among the northern tribes, however, dwelling under a rigorous climate,
+some efforts are employed, and some precautions taken, to procure
+subsistence; but the necessary industry is even there looked upon as a
+degradation: the greater part of the labor is performed by women, and
+man will only stoop to those portions of the work which he considers
+least ignominious. This industry, so oppressive to one half of the
+community, is very partial, and directed by a limited foresight. During
+one part of the year they depend upon fishing for a subsistence, during
+another upon the chase, and the produce of the ground is their resource
+for the third. Regardless of the warnings of experience, they neglect to
+apportion provision for their wants, or can so little restrain their
+appetites, that, from imprudence or extravagance, they often are exposed
+to the miseries of famine like their ruder neighbors. Their sufferings
+are soon forgotten, and the horrors of one year seem to teach no lesson
+of providence for the next.
+
+The Indians, for the most part, are very well acquainted with the
+geography of their own country. When questioned as to the situation of
+any particular place, they will trace out on the ground with a stick, if
+opportunity offer, a tolerably accurate map of the locality indicated.
+They will show the course of the rivers, and, by pointing toward the
+sun, explain the bearings of their rude sketch. There have been recorded
+some most remarkable instances of the accuracy with which they can
+travel toward a strange place, even when its description had only been
+received through the traditions of several generations, and they could
+have possessed no personal knowledge whatever of the surrounding
+country.
+
+The religion of the natives of America can not but be regarded with an
+interest far deeper than the gratification of mere curiosity. The forms
+of faith, the rites, the ideas of immortality; the belief in future
+reward, in future punishment; the recognition of an invisible Power,
+infinitely surpassing that of the warrior or the chief; the dim
+traditions of a first parent, and a general deluge--all these, among a
+race so long isolated from the rest of the human family, distinct in
+language, habits, form, and mind, and displaying, when societies began
+to exist, a civilization utterly dissimilar from any before known,
+afford subject for earnest thought and anxious inquiry. Those who in the
+earlier times of American discovery supplied information on these
+points, were generally little qualified for the task. Priests and
+missionaries alone had leisure or inclination to pursue the subject;
+and their minds were often so preoccupied with their own peculiar
+doctrines, that they accommodated to them all that fell under their
+observation, and explained it by analogies which had no existence but in
+their own zealous imaginations. They seldom attempted to consider what
+they saw or heard in relation to the rude notions of the savages
+themselves. From a faint or fancied similarity of peculiar Indian
+superstitions to certain articles of Christian faith, some missionaries
+imagined they had discovered traces of an acquaintance with the divine
+mysteries of salvation: they concluded that the savage possessed a
+knowledge of the doctrine of the Trinity,[247] of the Incarnation, of
+the sacrifice of a Saviour, and of sacraments, from their own
+interpretation of certain expressions and ceremonies.[248] But little
+confidence can be placed in any evidence derived from such sources.
+
+The earlier travelers in the interior of the New World received the
+impression that the Indians had no religious belief; they saw neither
+priests, temples, idols, nor sacrifices among any of the various and
+numerous tribes. A further knowledge of this strange people disproved
+the hastily-formed opinion, and showed that their whole life and all
+their actions were influenced by a belief in the spiritual world.[249]
+It is now known that the American Indians were pre-eminent among savage
+nations for the superior purity of their religious faith,[250] and,
+indeed, over even the boasted elegance of poetical mythology. From the
+reports of all those worthy of credence, who have lived intimately among
+these children of the forest, it is certain that they firmly believe in
+the power and unity of the Most High God, and in an immortality of
+happiness or misery. They worship the Great Spirit, the Giver of life,
+and attribute to him the creation of the world, and the government of
+all things with infinite love, wisdom, and power. Of the origin of their
+religion they are altogether ignorant. In general they believe that,
+after the world was created and supplied with animal life by the Great
+Spirit, he formed the first red man and woman, who were very large of
+stature, and lived to an extreme old age; that he often held council
+with his creatures, gave them laws and instructed them, but that the red
+children became rebels against their Great Father, and he then withdrew
+himself in sorrowful anger from among them, and left them to the
+vexations of the Bad Spirit. But still this merciful Father, from afar
+off, where he may be seen no more, showers down upon them all the
+blessings they enjoy. The Indians are truly filial and sincere in their
+devotions; they pray for what they need, and return hearty thanks for
+such mercies as they have enjoyed.[251] They supplicate him to bestow
+courage and skill upon them in the battle; the endurance which enables
+them to mock the cruel tortures of their enemies is attributed to his
+aid; their preparation for war is a long-continued religious ceremony;
+their march is supposed to be under omnipotent guidance, and their
+expeditions in the chase are held to be not unworthy of divine
+superintendence. They reject all idea of chance on the fortune of war,
+and believe firmly that every result is the decision of a Superior
+Power.[252] Although this elevated conception of the One God[253] is
+deeply impressed upon the Indian's mind, it is tainted with some of the
+alloy which ever must characterize the uninspired faith. Those who have
+inquired into the religious opinions of the uneducated and laborious
+classes of men, even in the most enlightened and civilized communities,
+find that their system of belief is derived from instruction, and not
+from instinct or the results of their own examination: in savage life
+it is vain to expect that men should reason accurately, from cause to
+effect, and form a just idea of the Creator from the creation. The
+Indian combines the idea of the Great Spirit with others of a less
+perfect nature. The word used by him to indicate this Sovereign Being
+does not convey the notion of an immaterial nature; it signifies with
+him some one possessed of lofty and mysterious powers, and in this sense
+may be applied to men and even to animals.
+
+To the first inquirers into the religious faith of the native Americans,
+the subject of their mythology presented very great difficulties and
+complications; those Indians who attempted to explain it to Europeans
+had themselves no distinct or fixed opinions. Each man put forward
+peculiar notions, and was constantly changing them, without attempting
+to reconcile his self-contradictions.
+
+Some of the southern tribes, who were more settled in their religious
+faith, exhibited a remarkable degree of bigotry and spiritual pride.
+They called the Europeans "men of the accursed speech," while they
+styled themselves "the beloved of the Great Spirit." The Canadian and
+other northern nations, however, were less intolerant, and at any time
+easily induced to profess the recantation of their heathen errors for
+some small advantage. Among these latter, the hare was deemed to possess
+some mystic superiority over the rest of the animal creation; it was
+even raised to be an object of worship, and the Great Hare was
+confounded in their minds with the Great Spirit. The Algonquins believed
+in a Water God, who opposes himself to the benevolent designs of the
+Great Spirit; it is strange that the name of the Great Tiger should be
+given to this Deity, as the country does not produce such an animal, and
+from this it appears probable that the tradition of his existence had
+come from elsewhere. They have also a third Deity, who presides over
+their winter season. The gods of the Indians have bodies like the sons
+of men, and subsist in like manner with them, but are free from the
+pains and cares of mortality; the term "spirit" among them only
+signifies a being of a superior and more excellent nature than man.
+However, they believe in the omnipresence of their deities, and invoke
+their aid in all times and places.
+
+Besides the Great Spirit and the lesser deities above mentioned, every
+Indian has his own Manitou, Okki, or guardian power; this divinity's
+presence is represented by some portable object, often of the most
+insignificant nature, such as the head, beak, or claw of a bird, the
+hoof of a deer or cow. No youth can be received among the brotherhood of
+warriors till he has placed himself, in due form, under the care of this
+familiar. The ceremony is deemed of great importance: several days of
+strict fasting are always observed in preparation for the important
+event, and the youth's dreams are carefully noted during this period.
+While under these circumstances, some object usually makes a deep
+impression upon his mind; this is then chosen for his Manitou or
+guardian spirit, and a specimen, of it is procured. He is next placed
+for some time in a large vapor bath, and having undergone the process of
+being steamed, is laid on the ground, and the figure of the Manitou is
+pricked on his breast with needles of fish-bone dipped in vermilion; the
+intervals between the scars are then rubbed with gunpowder, so as to
+produce a mixture of red and blue. When this operation is performed, he
+cries aloud to the Great Spirit, invoking aid, and praying to be
+received as a warrior.
+
+The Indian submits with resignation to the chastening will of the Great
+Spirit. When overtaken by any disaster, he diligently examines himself
+to discover what omission of observance or duty has called down the
+punishment, and endeavors to atone for past neglect by increased
+devotion. But if the Manitou be deemed to have shown want of ability or
+inclination to defend him, he upbraids the guardian power with
+bitterness and contempt, and threatens to seek a more effectual
+protector. If the Manitou continue useless, this threat is fulfilled.
+Fasting and dreaming are again resorted to in the same manner as before,
+and the vision of another Manitou is obtained. The former representation
+is then, as much as possible, effaced, and the figure of the
+newly-adopted amulet painted in its place. All the veneration and
+confidence forfeited by the first Manitou is now transferred to the
+successor.[254]
+
+It is also part of the Indian's religious belief that there are inferior
+spirits to rule over the elements, under the control of the Supreme
+Power, he being so great that he must, like their chiefs, have
+attendants to execute his behests. These inferior spirits see what
+passes on earth, and report it to their Great Ruler: the Indian,
+trusting to their good offices, invokes those spirits of the air in
+times of peril, and endeavors to propitiate them by throwing tobacco or
+other simple offerings to the winds or upon the waters. But, amid all
+these corrupt and ignorant superstitions, the One Spirit, the Creator
+and Ruler of the World, is the great object of the Red Man's adoration.
+On him they rest their hopes; to him they address their daily prayers,
+and render their solemn sacrifice.
+
+The worship of the Indians, although frequently in private, is generally
+little regulated either by ceremonies or stated periodical devotions.
+But there are, at times, great occasions, when the whole tribe assembles
+for the purpose,[255] such as in declaring war or proclaiming peace, or
+when visited by storms or earthquakes. Their great feasts all partake of
+a religious character; every thing provided must be consumed by the
+assembly, as being consecrated to the Great Spirit. The Ottawas seem to
+have had a more complicated mythology than any other tribe: they held a
+regular festival in honor of the sun; and, while rendering thanks for
+past benefit, prayed that it might be continued to the future. They have
+also been observed to erect an idol in their village, and offer it
+sacrifice: this ceremony was, however, very rare. Many Western tribes
+visit the spring whence they have been supplied with water during the
+winter, at the breaking up of the ice, and there offer up their grateful
+worship to the Great Spirit for having preserved them in health and
+safety, and having supplied their wants. This pious homage is performed
+with much ceremony and devotion.
+
+Among this rude people, who were at one time supposed to have been
+without any religion, habitual piety may be considered the most
+remarkable characteristic: every action of their lives is connected with
+some acknowledgment of a Superior Power. Many have imagined that the
+severe fasts sometimes endured by the Indians were only for the purpose
+of accustoming themselves to support hunger; but all the circumstances
+connected with these voluntary privations leave no doubt that they were
+solemn religious exercises. Dreams and visions during these fasts were
+looked upon as oracular, and respected as the revelations of Heaven. The
+Indian frequently propitiates the favor of the inferior spirits by vows;
+when for some time unsuccessful in the chase, or suffering from want in
+long journeys, he promises the genius of the spot to bestow upon one of
+his chiefs, in its honor, a portion of the first fruits of his
+success;[256] if the chief be too distant to receive the gift, it is
+burned in sacrifice.
+
+The belief of the Indian in a future state, although deeply cherished
+and sincere, can scarcely be regarded as a defined idea of the
+immortality of the soul.[257] There is little spiritual or exalted in
+his conception. When he attempts to form a distinct notion of the
+spirit, he is blinded by his senses; he calls it the shadow or image of
+his body, but its acts and enjoyments are all the same as those of its
+earthly existence. He only pictures to himself a continuation of present
+pleasures. His Heaven is a delightful country, far away beyond the
+unknown Western seas, where the skies are ever bright and serene, the
+air genial, the spring eternal, and the forests abounding in game; no
+war, disease, or torture are known in that happy land; the sufferings of
+life are endured no more, and its sweetest pleasures are perpetuated and
+increased; his wife is tender and obedient, his children dutiful and
+affectionate. In this country of eternal happiness, the Indian hopes to
+be again received into the favor of the Great Spirit, and to rejoice in
+his glorious presence.[258] But in his simple mind there is a deep and
+enduring conviction that admission to this delightful country of souls
+can only be attained by good and noble actions in this mortal life. For
+the bad men there is a fate terribly different--endless afflictions,
+want, and misery; a land of hideous desolation; barren, parched, and
+dreary hunting-grounds, the abode of evil and malignant spirits, whose
+office is to torture, whose pleasure is to enhance the misery of the
+condemned. It is also almost universally believed that the Great Spirit
+manifests his wrath or his favor to the evil and the good in their
+journey to the land of souls. After death the Indian believes that he is
+supplied with a canoe; and if he has been a virtuous warrior, or
+otherwise worthy, he is guided across the vast deep to a haven of
+eternal happiness and peace by the hand of the Great Spirit; but if his
+life be stained with cowardice, vice, or negligence of duty, he is
+abandoned to the malignity of evil genii, driven about by storms and
+darkness over that unknown sea, and at length cast ashore on the barren
+land, where everlasting torments are his portion.[259]
+
+The Indians generally believe in the existence of a Spirit of Evil, and
+occasionally pray to him in deprecation of his wrath. They do not doubt
+his inferiority to the Great Spirit, but they believe that he has the
+power to inflict torments and punishments upon the human race, and that
+he has a malignant delight in its exercise.
+
+The souls of the lower animals are also held by the Red Man to be
+immortal: he recognizes a certain portion of understanding in them, and
+each creature is supposed to possess a guardian spirit peculiar to
+itself. He only claims a superiority in degree of intelligence and power
+over the beasts of the field, Man is but the king of animals. In the
+world of souls are to be found the shades of every thing that breathes
+the breath of life. However, he takes little pains to arrange or develop
+these strange ideas. The enlightened heathen philosophers of antiquity
+were not more successful.
+
+To penetrate the mysteries of the future has always been a favorite
+object of superstition,[260] and has been attempted by a countless
+variety of means. The Indian trusts to his dreams for this revelation,
+and invariably holds them sacred. Before he engages in any important
+undertaking, particularly in war, diplomacy, or the chase, the dreams of
+his principal chiefs are carefully watched and examined; by their
+interpretation his conduct is guided. In this manner the fate of a whole
+nation has often been decided by the chance visions of a single man. The
+Indian considers that dreams are the mode by which the Great Spirit
+condescends to hold converse with man; thence arises his deep veneration
+for the omens and warnings they may shadow forth.[261]
+
+Many other superstitions, besides those of prognostics from dreams, are
+cherished among the Indians. Each remarkable natural feature, such as a
+great cataract, a lake, or a difficult and dangerous pass, possesses a
+spirit of the spot, whose favor they are fain to propitiate by votive
+offerings: skins, bones, pieces of metal, and dead dogs are hung up in
+the neighborhood, and dedicated to its honor. Supposed visions of ghosts
+are sometimes, but rarely, spoken of: it is, however, generally believed
+that the souls of the dead continue for some time to hover round the
+earthly remains: dreading, therefore, that the spirits of those they
+have tortured watch near them to seek opportunity of vengeance, they
+beat the air violently with rods, and raise frightful cries to scare the
+shadowy enemy away.
+
+Among some of the Indian tribes, an old man performed the duty of a
+priest at their religious festivals; he broke the bread and cast it in
+the fire, dedicated the different offerings, and officiated in the
+sacrifice. It was also his calling to declare the omens from dreams and
+other signs, as the warnings of Heaven. These religious duties of the
+priest were totally distinct from the office of the juggler, or
+"medicine-man," although some observers have confounded them together.
+There were also vestals in many nations of the continent who were
+supposed to supply by their touch a precious medicinal efficacy to
+certain roots and simples.
+
+The "medicine-men," or jugglers, undertook the cure of diseases, the
+interpretation of omens, the exorcising of evil spirits, and magic in
+all its branches. They were men of great consideration in the tribe, and
+were called in and regularly paid as physicians; but this position could
+only be attained by undergoing certain ordeals, which were looked upon
+as a compact with the spirits of the air. The process of the vapor bath
+was first endured; severe fasting followed, accompanied by constant
+shouting, singing, beating a sort of drum, and smoking. After these
+preliminaries the jugglers were installed by extravagant ceremonies,
+performed with furious excitement and agitation. They possessed,
+doubtless, some real knowledge of the healing art; and in external
+wounds or injuries, the causes of which are obvious, they applied
+powerful simples, chiefly vegetable, with considerable skill. With
+decoctions from ginseng, sassafras, hedisaron, and a tall shrub called
+bellis, they have been known to perform remarkable cures in cases of
+wounds and ulcers. They scarified the seat of inflammation or rheumatic
+pain skillfully with sharp-pointed bones, and accomplished the cupping
+process by the use of gourd shells as substitutes for glasses. For all
+internal complaints, their favorite specific was the vapor bath, which
+they formed with much ingenuity from their rude materials. This was
+doubtless a very efficient remedy, but they attached to it a
+supernatural influence, and employed it in the ceremonies of solemn
+preparation for great councils.
+
+All cases of disease, when the cause could not be discovered, were
+attributed to the influence of malignant spirits. To meet these, the
+medicine-man, or juggler, invested himself with his mysterious
+character, and endeavored to exorcise the demon by a great variety of
+ceremonies, a mixture of delusion and imposture. For this purpose, he
+arrayed himself in a strange and fanciful dress, and on his first
+arrival began to sing and dance round the sufferer, invoking the
+spirits with loud cries. When exhausted with these exertions, he
+attributed the hidden cause of the malady to the first unusual idea that
+suggested itself to his mind, and in the confidence of his supposed
+inspiration, proclaimed the necessary cure. The juggler usually
+contrived to avoid the responsibility of failure by ordering a remedy
+impossible of attainment when the patient was not likely to recover. The
+Iroquois believed that every ailment was a desire of the soul, and, when
+death followed, it was from the desire not having been accomplished.
+
+Among many of the Indian tribes, the barbarous custom of putting to
+death those who were thought past recovery, existed, and still exists.
+Others abandoned these unfortunates to perish of hunger and thirst, or
+under the jaws of the wild beasts of the forest. Some nations put to
+death all infants who had lost their mother, or buried them alive in her
+grave, under the impression that no other woman could rear them, and
+that they must perish by hunger. But the dreadful custom of deserting
+the aged and emaciated among the wandering tribes is universal.[262]
+When these miserable creatures become incapable of walking or riding,
+and there is no means of carrying them, they themselves uniformly insist
+upon being abandoned to their fate, saying that they are old and of no
+further use--they left their fathers in the same manner--they wish to
+die, and their children must not mourn for them. A small fire and a few
+pieces of wood, a scanty supply of meat, and perhaps a buffalo skin, are
+left as the old man's sole resources. When in a few months the wandering
+tribe may revisit the spot where he was deserted, a skull and a few
+scattered bones will be all that the wolves and vultures have left as
+tokens of his dreadful fate.
+
+The Indian father and mother display great tenderness for their
+children,[263] even to the weakness of unlimited indulgence; this
+affection, however, appears to be merely instinctive, for they use no
+exertion whatever to lead their offspring to the paths of virtue.
+Children, on their part, show very little filial affection, and
+frequently treat their parents, especially their father, with indignity
+and violence. This vicious characteristic is strongly exemplified in the
+horrible custom above described.
+
+When the Indian believes that his death is at hand, his conduct is
+usually stoical and dignified. If he still retain the power of speech,
+he harangues those who surround him in a funeral oration, advising and
+encouraging his children, and bidding them and all his friends farewell.
+During this time, the relations of the dying man slay all the dogs they
+can catch, trusting that the souls of these animals will give notice of
+the approaching departure of the warrior for the world of spirits; they
+then take leave of him, wish him a happy voyage, and cheer him with the
+hope that his children will prove worthy of his name. When the last
+moment arrives, all the kindred break into loud lamentations, till some
+one high in consideration desires them to cease. For weeks afterward,
+however, these cries of grief are daily renewed at sunrise and sunset.
+In three days after death the funeral takes place, and the neighbors are
+invited to a feast of all the provisions that can be procured, which
+must be all consumed. The relations of the deceased do not join in the
+banquet; they cut off their hair, cover their heads, blacken their
+faces, and for a long time deny themselves every amusement.[264]
+
+The deceased is buried with his arms and ornaments, and a supply of
+provisions for his long journey; the face is painted, and the body
+arrayed in the richest robes that can be obtained; it is then laid in
+the grave in an upright posture, and skins are carefully placed around,
+that it may not touch the earth. At stated intervals of eight, ten, or
+twelve years, the Indians celebrate the singular ceremony of the
+Festival of the Dead; till this has been performed, the souls of the
+deceased are supposed still to hover round their earthly remains. At
+this solemn festival, the people march in procession to the
+burial-ground, open the tombs, and continue for a time gazing on the
+moldering relics in mournful silence. Then, while the women raise a loud
+wailing, the bones of the dead are carefully collected, wrapped in fresh
+and valuable robes, and conveyed to the family cabin.[265] A feast is
+then held for several days, with dances, games, and prize combats. The
+relics are next carried to the council-house of the nation, where they
+are publicly displayed, with the presents destined to be interred with
+them. Sometimes the remains are even carried on bearers from village to
+village. At length they are laid in a deep pit, lined with rich furs;
+tears and lamentations are again renewed, and for some time fresh
+provisions are daily laid, by this simple people, upon the graves of
+their departed friends.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 238: "At night the savages direct their course by the polar
+star; they call it the _motionless star_. It is a curious coincidence
+that the constellation of the Bear should be called by the savages the
+Bear. This is certainly a very ancient name among them, and given long
+before any Europeans visited the country. They turn into ridicule the
+large imaginary tail which astronomers have given to an animal that has
+scarcely any such appendage, and they call the three stars that compose
+the tail of the Bear, three hunters who are in pursuit of it. The second
+of these stars has a very small one very close to it. This, they say, is
+the kettle of the second hunter, who is the bearer of the baggage and
+the provision belonging to all three.[239] The savages also call the
+Pleiades 'the Dancers,' and Hygin tells us that they were thus called by
+the ancients, because they seem, from the arrangement of their stars, to
+be engaged in a circular dance."--Lafitau, vol. ii., p. 236. Hygin.,
+lib. ii., art. Taurus.]
+
+[Footnote 239: "Even at the present time" (1720), Lafitau writes, "these
+three stars are called in Italy, _i tre cavalli_"--the three knights--on
+the celestial globe of Caronelli.]
+
+[Footnote 240: See Appendix, No. L. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 241: Charlevoix says that the eloquence of the savages was
+such as the Greeks admired in the barbarians, "strong, stern,
+sententious, pointed, perfectly undisguised."
+
+Decanesora's oratory was greatly admired by the most cultivated among
+the English: his bust was said to resemble that of Cicero. The
+celebrated address of Logan is too well known to be cited here. Mr.
+Jefferson says of it, "I may challenge the whole orations of Demosthenes
+and Cicero, and of any other more eminent orator, if Europe has
+furnished more eminent, to produce a single passage superior to the
+speech of Logan." An American statesman and scholar, scarcely less
+illustrious than the former, has expressed his readiness to subscribe to
+this eulogium.--Clinton's _Historical Discourse_, 1811.]
+
+[Footnote 242: Catlin gives the following account of a native preacher,
+known by the name of the Shawnee Prophet: "I soon learned that he was a
+very devoted Christian, regularly holding meetings in his tribe on the
+Sabbath, preaching to them, and exhorting them to a belief in the
+Christian religion, and to an abandonment of the fatal habit of
+whisky-drinking. I went on the Sabbath to hear this eloquent man preach,
+when he had his people assembled in the woods; and although I could not
+understand his language, I was surprised and pleased with the natural
+case, and emphasis, and gesticulation which carried their own evidence
+of the eloquence of his sermon. I was singularly struck with the noble
+efforts of this champion of the mere remnant of a poisoned race, so
+strenuously laboring to rescue the remainder of his people from the
+deadly bane that has been brought among them by enlightened Christians.
+It is quite certain that his exemplary endeavors have completely
+abolished the practice of drinking whisky in his tribe."--Catlin, vol.
+ii., p. 98.]
+
+[Footnote 243: "Whatever may be the estimate of the Indian character in
+other respects, it is with me an undoubting conviction, that they are by
+nature a shrewd and intelligent race of men, in no wise, as regards
+combination of thought or quickness of apprehension, inferior to
+uneducated white men. This inference I deduce from having instructed
+Indian children.[244] I draw it from having seen the men and women in
+all situations calculated to try and call forth their capacities. When
+they examine any of our inventions, steamboats, steam-mills, and cotton
+factories, for instance; when they contemplate any of our institutions
+in operation, by some quick analysis or process of reasoning, they seem
+immediately to comprehend the principle or the object. No spectacle
+affords them more delight than a large and orderly school. They scorn
+instinctively to comprehend, at least they explained to me that they
+felt, the advantages which this order of things gave our children over
+theirs."--Flint's _Ten Years in the Valley of the Mississippi_, 1831.
+
+Mr. Flint, an experienced and intelligent observer, takes so dark a view
+of the moral character of the Red Indian that his favorable opinion of
+their mental faculties may be looked upon as probably accurate, though
+differing strongly from that more generally held. On the other side of
+the question, among the early writers may be cited M. Bouguer, _Voyage
+au Perou_, p. 102; _Voyage d'Ulloa_, tom. i., p. 335-337. "They seem to
+live in a perpetual infancy," is the striking expression of De la
+Condamine, _Voyage de la Riv. Amazon_, p. 52, 53. Chauvelon, _Voyage a
+la Martinique_, p. 44, 50. P. Venegas, _Hist. de la Californie_.]
+
+[Footnote 244: All those who have expressed an opinion on the subject
+seem to agree that _children_ of most native races are fully, or more
+than a match, for those of Europeans, in aptitude for intellectual
+acquirement. Indeed, it appears to be a singular law of Nature, that
+there is less precocity in the European race than almost any other. In
+those races in which we seem to have reason for believing that the
+intellectual organization is lower, perception is quicker, and maturity
+earlier.--Merivale _On Colonization_, vol. ii., p. 197.]
+
+[Footnote 245: "Thus, on the whole, it may be said that the virtues of
+the savages are reducible to intrepid courage in danger, unshaken
+firmness amid tortures, contempt of pain and death, and patience under
+all the anxieties and distresses of life. No doubt these are useful
+qualities, but they are all confined to the individual, all selfish, and
+without any benefit to the society. Farther, they are proofs of a life
+truly wretched, and a social state so depraved or null, that a man,
+neither finding nor hoping any succor or assistance from it, is obliged
+to wrap himself up in despair, and endeavor to harden himself against
+the strokes of fate. Still it may be urged that these men, in their
+leisure hours, laugh, sing, play, and live without care for the past as
+well as for the future. Will you then deny that they are happier than
+we? Man is such a pitiable and variable creature, and habits have such a
+potent sway over him, that in the most disastrous situations he always
+finds some posture that gives him ease, something that consoles him,
+and, by comparison with past suffering, appears to him well-being and
+happiness; but if to laugh, sing, or play constitute bliss, it must
+likewise be granted that soldiers are perfectly happy beings, since
+there are no men more careless or more gay in dangers or on the eve of
+battle. It must be granted, too, that during the Revolution, in the most
+fatal of our jails, the Conciergerie, the prisoners were very happy,
+since they were, in general, more careless and gay than their keepers,
+or than those who only feared the same fate. The anxieties of those who
+were at large were as numerous as the enjoyments they wished to
+preserve; they who were in the other prisons felt but one, that of
+preserving their lives. In the Conciergerie, where a man was condemned
+in expectation or in reality, he had no longer any care; on the
+contrary, every moment of life was an acquisition, the gain of a good
+that was considered as lost. Such is nearly the situation of a soldier
+in war, and such is really that of the savage throughout the whole
+course of his life. If this be happiness, wretched indeed must be the
+country where it is an object of envy. In pursuing my investigation, I
+do not find that I am led to more advantageous ideas of the liberty of
+the savage; on the contrary, I sees in him only the slave of his wants,
+and of the freaks of a sterile and parsimonious nature. Food he has not
+at hand; rest is not at his command; he must run, weary himself, endure
+hunger and thirst, heat and cold, and all the inclemency of the elements
+and seasons; and as the ignorance in which he was born and bred gives
+him or leaves him a multitude of false and irrational ideas and
+superstitious prejudices, he is likewise the slave of a number of errors
+and passions, from which civilized man is exempted by the science and
+knowledge of every kind that an improved state of society has
+produced."--Volney's _Travels in the United States_, p. 467.
+
+"Their impassible fortitude and endurance of suffering are, after all,
+in my mind, the result of a greater degree of physical insensibility. It
+has been told me, and I believe it, that in amputation and other
+surgical operations, their nerves do not shrink, do not show the same
+tendency to spasm with those of the whites. When the savage, to explain
+his insensibility to cold, called upon the white man to recollect how
+little his own face was affected by it, in consequence of its constant
+exposure, he added, 'My body is all face.'[246] This increasing
+insensibility, transmitted from generation to generation, finally
+becomes inwrought with the whole web of animal nature, and the body of
+the savage seems to have little more sensibility than the hoofs of
+horses."--Flint's _Ten Years in the Valley of the Mississippi_. See,
+also, Ulloa's _Notic. Amer._, p. 313.
+
+Charlevoix quotes a passage from Cicero to the effect that "l'habitude
+au travail donne de la facilite a supporter la douleur."--2 _Tusc._,
+25.]
+
+[Footnote 246: Delicacy of skin is observed to be in proportion to
+civilization among nations, in proportion to degrees of refinement among
+individuals.--Sharon Turner.]
+
+[Footnote 247: Conical stones, wrapped up in 100 goat skins, were the
+idols preserved in the temple of the Natchez. Many authors assert that
+the Amazons and many Eastern people had nothing in their temples but
+these pyramidal stones, which represented to them the Divinity....
+"Peut-etre aussi vouloient ils (les fondateurs des Pyramides) figurer en
+meme tems la Divinite, et ce qui leur restoit d'idees du mystere de la
+Sainte Trinite, dans les trois faces de ces pyramides. Du moins est ce
+ainsi qu'aux Indes un Brame paroissoit concevoir les choses et
+s'expliquer d'apres les anciennes. 'Il faut,' disoit il, 'se representer
+Dieu et ses trois noms differents qui repondent a ces trois principaux
+attributs, a peu pres sous l'idee de ces Pyramides triangulaires qu'on
+voit elevees devant la poste de quelques temples."--_Lettre du Pere
+Bouchet a M. Huet, Eveque d'Avranches._ Three logs are always employed
+to keep up the fire in the Natchez temple.--Lafitau, vol. i., p. 167.
+
+Extract from a dialogue between John Wesley and the Chickasaw Indians:
+
+"_Wesley._ Do you believe there is One above who is over all things?
+
+"_Answer._ We believe there are four beloved things above--the clouds,
+the sun, the clear sky, and He that lives in the clear sky.
+
+"_Wesley._ Do you believe there is but One who lives in the clear sky?
+
+"_Answer._ We believe there are two with Him, three in all."--Wesley's
+_Journal_, No. 1., p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 248: See Stephens's "Incidents of Travel in Central America,"
+vol. ii., p. 346.
+
+"Les croix qui ont tant excite la curiosite des conquistadores a
+Coqumel, a Yucatan, et dans d'autres contrees de l'Amerique ne sont pas
+'des contes de moines,' et meritent, comme tout ce qui a rapport au
+culte des peuples indigenes du Nouveau Continent, un examen plus
+serieux. Je me sers du mot culte, car un relief conserve dans les ruines
+de Palenque, de Guatemala, et dont je possede une copie, ne me parait
+laisser ancun doute qu'une figure symbolique en forme de croix etoit un
+objet d'adoration. Il faut faire observer cependant qu'a cette croix
+manque le prolongement superieur, et qu'elle forme plutot la lettre
+_tau_. Des idees qui n'ont ancun rapport avec le Christianisme ont pu
+etre symboliquement attachees a cet embleme Egyptien d'Hermes, si
+celebre parmi les Chretiens depuis la destruction du temple de Serapis a
+Alexandrie sous Theodose le Grand. (Rufinus, _Hist. Eccles._, lib. ii.,
+cap. xxix., p. 294; Zozomenes, _Eccl. Hist._, lib. iii., cap. xv.) Un
+baton termine par une croix se voit dans la main d'Astarte sur les
+monnaies de Sidon au 3me siecle avant notre ere. En Scandinavie, un
+signe de l'alphabet _runique_ figurait le _marteau de Thor_, tres
+semblable a la croix du relief de Palenque. On marquoit de cette _rune_,
+dans les tems payens, les objets qu'on vouloit sanctifier." (Voyez
+l'excellent Traite de M. Guillaume Grimm. _Ueber Deutsche Runen_, p.
+242.)--Humboldt, _Geographie de Nouveau Continent_, vol. ii., p. 356.
+
+"Laet avoue qu' Herrera parle d'une espece de bapteme, et de confession
+usitee dans Yucatan et dans les isles voisines, mais il ajoute qu'il est
+bien plus naturel d'attribuer toutes ces marques equivoques de
+Christianisme qu'on a cru apercevoir en plusieurs provinces du Nouveau
+Monde au demon qui a toujours affecte de contrefaire le culte du vrai
+Dieu." Charlevoix adds, "Cette remarque est de tous les bons auteurs qui
+out parle de la religion des peuples nouvellement decouverts, et fondee
+sur l'autorite des peres de l'Eglise."--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 249: See Appendix, No. LI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 250: "The most sensual, degraded, and least intellectual
+tribes of Northern Asia and America have purer notions of a Spiritual
+Deity than were possessed of old by the worshipers of Jupiter and Juno
+under Pericles."--_Progression by Antagonism._ This, according to Lord
+Lindsay's theory, is to be accounted for by the absence of imagination,
+these nations being only governed by Sense and Spirit, to the exclusion
+of intellect in either of its manifestations, Imagination, or
+Reason.--P. 21, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 251: "At the breaking up of the winter," says Hunter, "after
+having supplied ourselves with such things as were necessary and the
+situation afforded, all our party visited the spring from which we had
+procured our supplies of water, and there offered up our orisons to the
+Great Spirit for having preserved us in health and safety, and for
+having supplied all our wants. This is the constant practice of the
+Osages, Kansas, and many other nations of Indians on breaking up their
+encampments, and is by no means an unimportant ceremony." The habitual
+piety of the Indian mind is remarked by Heckewelder, and strongly
+insisted upon by Hunter, and it is satisfactorily proved by the whole
+tenor of his descriptions, where he throws himself back, as it were,
+into the feelings peculiar to Indian life. And, indeed, after hearing at
+a council the broken fragments of an Indian harangue, however
+imperfectly rendered by an ignorant interpreter, or reading the few
+specimens of Indian oratory which have been preserved by translation, no
+one can fail to remark a perpetual and earnest reference to the power
+and goodness of the Deity. "Brothers! we all belong to one family; we
+are all children of the Great Spirit," was the commencement of
+Tecumthe's harangue to the Osages; and he afterward tells them: "When
+the white men first set foot on our grounds, they were hungry; they had
+no places on which to spread their blankets or to kindle their fires.
+They were feeble; they could do nothing for themselves. Our fathers
+commiserated their distress, and shared freely with them whatever the
+Great Spirit has given to his red children."--_Quarterly Review._]
+
+[Footnote 252: On the remarkable occasion on which our forces were
+compelled, in 1813, to evacuate the Michigan territory, Tecumthe, in the
+name of his nation, refused to consent to retreat; he closed his denial
+with these words: "Our lives are in the hand of the Great Spirit: He
+gave the lands which we possess to our fathers; if it be his will, our
+bones shall whiten upon them, but we will never quit them." An old
+Oneida chief, who was blind from years, observed to Heckewelder, "I am
+an aged hemlock; the winds of one hundred years have whistled through my
+branches; I am dead at the top. Why I yet live, the great, good Spirit
+only knows." This venerable father of the forest lived long enough to be
+converted to Christianity.--_Quarterly Review._]
+
+[Footnote 253: A Huron woman under the instruction of a missionary, who
+detailed to her the perfections of God, exclaimed, in a species of
+ecstasy, "I understand, I understand; and I always felt convinced that
+our Areskoui was exactly such a one as the God you have described to
+me."--Lafitau, tom. i., p. 127. The Great Spirit was named Areskoui
+among the Huron, Agriskone among the Iroquois, Manitou among the
+Algonquins.]
+
+[Footnote 254: See Appendix, No. LII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 255: Every spring the Arkansas go in a body to some retired
+place, and there turn up a large space of land, which they do with the
+drums beating all the while. After this they call it the _Desart_, or
+the Field of the Spirit, and thither they go when they are in their
+enthusiastic fits, and there wait for inspiration from their pretended
+deity. In the mean while, as they do this every year, it proves of no
+small advantage to them, for by this means they turn up all their land
+by degrees, and it becomes abundantly more fruitful.--Tonti.]
+
+[Footnote 256: Lafitau asserts that the first beast killed by a young
+hunter was always offered in sacrifice.--Vol. i., p. 515. See Catlin's
+description of the sacrifices and ceremonies practiced when the first
+fruits of corn are ripe.--Catlin, vol. i., p. 189.]
+
+[Footnote 257: Peter Martyr speaks of the general opinion among the
+early discoverers that the Indians believed in a species of immortality.
+"They confess the soul to be immortal; having put off the bodily
+clothing, they imagine it goeth forth to the woods and the mountains,
+and that it liveth there perpetually in caves; nor do they exempt it
+from eating or drinking, but that it should be fed there. The answering
+voices heard from caves and hollows, which the Latines call echoes, they
+suppose to be the souls of the departed wandering through those
+places."--Peter Martyr, Decad. VIII., cap. ix., M. Lock's translation,
+1612.]
+
+[Footnote 258: "Une jeune sauvagesse voyant sa soeur mourante, par la
+quantite de cigue qui elle avoit pris dans un depit, et determine a ne
+faire aucun remede pour se garantir de la mort, pleuroit a chaudes
+larmes, et s'efforcoit de la toucher par les liens du sang, et de
+l'amitie qui les unissoit ensemble. Elle lui disoit sans cesse, 'C'en
+est donc fait; in veux que nous ne nous retrouvions jamais plus, et que
+nous ne nous revoyions jamais?' Le missionnaire, frappe de ces paroles,
+lui en demanda la raison. 'Il me semble,' dit-il, 'que vous avez un pays
+des ames, ou vous devez tous vous reunir a vos ancetres; pourquoi donc
+est ce que tu parles ainsi a la soeur?' 'Il est vrai,' reprit-elle, 'que
+nous allons tous au pays des ames; mais les mechants, et ceux en
+particulier, qui se sont detruits eux-memes par un mort violente, y
+portent la peine de leur crime; ils y sont separes des autres, et n'ont
+point de communication avec eux: c'est la le sujet de mes
+peines.'"--Lafitau, tom. i., p. 404. See Appendix, LII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 259: Hunter gives the following view of the Indian mythology,
+while describing his own and his companions' first sight of the Pacific
+Ocean: "Here the surprise and astonishment of our whole party was
+indescribably great. The unbounded view of waters, the incessant and
+tremendous dashing of the waves along the shore, accompanied with a
+noise resembling the roar of loud and distant thunder, filled our minds
+with the most sublime and awful sensation, and fixed on them as
+immutable truths the tradition we had received from our old men, that
+the great waters divide the residence of the Great Spirit from the
+temporary abodes of his red children. We have contemplated in silent
+dread the immense difficulties over which we should be obliged to
+triumph after death before we could arrive at those delightful
+hunting-grounds, which are unalterably destined for such only as do
+good, and love the Great Spirit. We looked in vain for the stranded and
+shattered canoes of those who had done wickedly; we could see none, and
+were led to hope they were few in number. We offered up our devotions,
+or, I might say, our minds were serious, and our devotions continued all
+the time we were in this country, for we had ever been taught to believe
+that the Great Spirit resided on the western side of the Rocky
+Mountains; and this idea continued throughout the journey,
+notwithstanding the more specific boundary assigned to Him by our
+traditionary dogmas."--_Memoirs of a Captivity among the North American
+Indians from Childhood to the Age of Nineteen_. By John D. Hunter, p.
+69. 1824.--See Appendix, No. LIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 260: See Appendix, No. LIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 261: See Appendix, No. LV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 262: See Appendix, No. LVI. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 263: "While I remained among the Indians, a couple, whose tent
+was adjacent to mine, lost a son of four years of age. The parents were
+so much affected at the death of their child, that they observed the
+usual testimonies of grief with such extreme rigor as through the weight
+of sorrow and loss of blood to occasion the loss of the father. The
+woman, who had hitherto been inconsolable, no sooner saw her husband
+expire than she dried up her tears, and appeared cheerful and resigned.
+I took an opportunity of asking her the reason of so extraordinary a
+transition, when she informed me that her child was so young it would
+have been unable to support itself in the world of spirits, and both she
+and her husband were apprehensive that its situation would be far from
+happy. No sooner, however, did she behold her husband depart for the
+same place, who not only loved the child with the tenderest affection,
+but was a good hunter, and would be able to provide plentifully for its
+support, than she ceased to mourn. She said she had now no reason to
+continue her tears, as the child on whom she doted was under the care
+and protection of a fond father, and she had now only one wish remaining
+ungratified, that of herself being with them."--Carver.]
+
+[Footnote 264: Captain Franklin says of the Chippewyans, "No article is
+spared by these unhappy men when a near relative dies; their clothes and
+tents are cut to pieces, their guns broken, and every other weapon
+rendered useless if some person do not remove these articles from their
+sight."
+
+"When the French missionaries asked the Indians why they deprived
+themselves of their most necessary articles in favor of the dead, they
+answered, 'that it was not only to evidence their love for their
+departed relatives, but that they might avoid the sight of objects
+which, having been used by them, would continually renew their grief.'
+The same delicacy of feeling, so inconsistent with the coarseness of the
+Red Man's nature, was manifested in their custom of never uttering the
+names of the dead; and if these names were borne by any of the other
+members of the family, they laid them aside during the whole of their
+mourning. And it was esteemed the greatest insult that could be offered
+to say to any one, 'Your father is dead, your mother is
+dead.'"--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 109.]
+
+[Footnote 265: Pere Brebeuf, _Relation de la Nouvelle France_;
+Charlevoix; Lafitau. Catlin describes the same ceremonies.
+
+It has been often said that the care taken by the Indians for the
+deceased corpses of their ancestors was in consequence of a universally
+received tradition that these corpses were to rise again to immortal
+life.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+
+In the warmer and milder climates of America, none of the rude tribes
+were clothed; for them there was little need of defense against the
+weather, and their extreme indolence indisposed them to any exertion not
+absolutely necessary for their subsistence. Others were satisfied with a
+very slight covering, but all delighted in ornaments. They dressed their
+hair in different forms, stained their skins, and fastened bits of gold,
+or shells, or bright pebbles in their noses and cheeks. They also
+frequently endeavored to alter their natural form and feature; as soon
+as an infant was born, it was subjected to some cruel process of
+compression, by which the bones of the skull while still soft, were
+squeezed into the shape of a cone, or flattened, or otherwise
+distorted.[266] But in all efforts to adorn or alter their persons, the
+great object was to inspire terror and respect. The warrior was
+indifferent to the admiration of woman, whom he enslaved and despised,
+and it was only for war or the council that he assumed his choicest
+ornaments, and painted himself with unusual care. The decorations of the
+women were few and simple; all those that were precious and splendid
+were reserved for their haughty lords. In several tribes, the wives had
+to devote much of their time to adorning their husbands, and could
+bestow little attention upon themselves. The different nations remaining
+unclothed show considerable sagacity in anointing themselves in such a
+manner as to provide against the heat and moisture of the climate. Soot,
+the juices of herbs having a green, yellow, or vermilion tint, mixed
+with oil and grease, are lavishly employed upon their skin to adorn it
+and render it impervious. By this practice profuse perspiration is
+checked, and a defense is afforded against the innumerable and
+tormenting insects that abound every where in America.[268] Black and
+red are the favorite colors for painting the face. In war, black is
+profusely laid on, the other colors being only used to heighten its
+effect, and give a terrible expression to the countenance.[269] The
+breast, arms, and legs of the Indian are tattooed with sharp needles or
+pointed bones, the colors being carefully rubbed in. His Manitou, and
+the animal chosen as the symbol of his tribe, are first painted, then
+all his most remarkable exploits, and the enemies he has slain or
+scalped, so that his body displays a pictorial history of his life.[270]
+
+In the severe climate of the north the Indian's dress is somewhat more
+ample. Instead of shoes he wears a strip of soft leather wrapped round
+the foot, called the moccasin. Upward to the middle of the thigh, a
+piece of leather or cloth, fitting closely, serves instead of pantaloons
+and stockings: it is usually sewed on to the limb, and is never removed.
+Two aprons, each about a foot square, are fastened to a girdle round the
+waist, and hang before and behind. This is their permanent dress. On
+occasions of ceremony, however, and in cold weather, they also wear a
+short shirt, and over all a loose robe, closed or held together in
+front. Now, an English blanket is generally used for this garment; but,
+before the produce of European art was known among them, the skins of
+wild animals furnished all their covering. The chiefs usually wear a
+sort of breast-plate, covered with shells, pebbles, and pieces of
+glittering metal. Those who communicate with Europeans display beads,
+rings, bracelets, and other gauds instead. The ear, too, is cumbrously
+ornamented with showy pendents, and the tuft of hair on the crown of the
+head is interwoven with feathers, the wings of birds, shells, and many
+fantastic ornaments. Sometimes the Indian warrior wears buffalo
+horns,[271] reduced in size and polished, on his head: this, however, is
+a distinction only for those renowned in war or in the council. The
+dress of the women varies but little from that of the men, except in
+being more simple. They wear their hair long and flowing, and richly
+ornamented, whenever they can procure the means.
+
+The dwellings of the Indians usually receive much less attention than
+their personal appearance. Even among tribes comparatively far advanced
+in civilization, the structure of their houses or cabans was very rude
+and simple. They were generally wretched huts, of an oblong or circular
+form, and sometimes so low that it was always necessary to preserve a
+sitting or lying posture while under their shelter. There were no
+windows; a large hole in the center of the roof allowed the smoke to
+escape; and a sort of curtain of birch bark occupied the place of the
+door. These dwellings are sometimes 100 feet long, when they accommodate
+several families. Four cabans generally form a quadrangle, each open to
+the inside, with the fire in the center common to all. The numerous and
+powerful tribes formerly inhabiting Canada and its borders usually dwelt
+in huts of a very rude description. In their expeditions, both for war
+and the chase, the Indians erect temporary cabans in a remarkably short
+space of time. A few poles, raised in the shape of a cone, and covered
+with birch bark, form the roof, and the tops of pine branches make a
+fragrant bed. In winter the snow is cleared out of the place where the
+caban is to be raised, and shaped into walls, which form a shelter from
+the wind. The permanent dwellings were usually grouped in villages,
+surrounded with double and even triple rows of palisades, interlaced
+with branches of trees, so as to form a compact barrier, and offering a
+considerable difficulty to an assailing foe.
+
+The furniture in these huts was very scanty. The use of metal being
+unknown, the pots or vessels for boiling their food were made of coarse
+earthen-ware, or of soft stone hollowed out with a hatchet. In some
+cases they were made of wood, and the water was boiled by throwing in a
+number of heated stones.
+
+The Indian displays some skill in the construction of canoes, and they
+are admirably adapted for his purpose. They are usually made of the bark
+of a single tree, strengthened by ribs of strong wood. These light and
+buoyant skiffs float safely on stormy or rapid waters under the
+practiced guidance of the Indian, and can with ease be borne on his
+shoulder from one river or lake to another. Canoes formed out of the
+trunk of a large tree are also sometimes used, especially in winter, for
+the purpose of crossing rivers when there is floating ice, their great
+strength rendering them capable of enduring the collision with the
+floating masses, to which they are liable.
+
+Even among the rudest Indian tribes a regular union between man and wife
+was universal, although not attended with ceremonials. The marriage
+contract is a matter of purchase. The man buys his wife of her parents;
+not with money, for its value is unknown, but with some useful and
+precious article, such as a robe of bear or other handsome skin, a
+horse, a rifle, powder and shot. When the Indian has made the bargain
+with his wife's parents, he takes her home to his caban, and from that
+time she becomes his slave. There are several singular modes of
+courtship among some of the tribes, but generally much reserve and
+consideration are exhibited.[272] In many respects, however, the morals
+and manners of the Indians are such as might be expected in communities
+where the precepts of Christianity are unknown, and where even the
+artificial light of civilization is wanting. There are occasionally
+instances of a divorce being resorted to from mere caprice; but,
+usually, the marriage tie is regarded as a perpetual covenant. As the
+wife toils incessantly, and procures a great part of the subsistence,
+she is considered too valuable a servant to be lightly lost. Among the
+chiefs of the tribes to the west and south, polygamy is general, and the
+number of these wife-servants constitute the principal wealth; but among
+the northern nations this plurality is very rarely possessed. The Indian
+is seldom seen to bestow the slightest mark of tenderness upon his wife
+or children: he, however, exerts himself to the utmost for their
+welfare, and will sacrifice his life to avenge their wrongs. His
+indomitable pride prompts him to assume an apparent apathy, and to
+control every emotion of affection, suffering, or sorrow.
+
+Parents perform few duties toward their children beyond procuring their
+daily bread. The father is by turns occupied in war and the chase, or
+sunk in total indolence, while the mother is oppressed by the toils of
+her laborious bondage, and has but little time to devote to her maternal
+cares. The infant is fastened to a board, cushioned with soft moss, by
+thongs of leather, and is generally hung on the branch of a tree, or, in
+traveling, carried on the mother's back.[273] When able to move, it is
+freed from this confinement, and allowed to make its way about as it
+pleases. It soon reaches some neighboring lake or river, and sports
+itself in the water all day long. As the child advances in years it
+enjoys perfect independence; it is rarely or never reproved or
+chastised. The youths are early led to emulate the deeds of their
+fathers; they practice with the bow, and other weapons suited to a
+warrior's use; and, as manhood approaches, they gradually assume the
+dignified gravity of the elders. In some tribes the young men must pass
+through a dreadful ordeal when they arrive at the age of manhood, which
+is supposed to prepare them for the endurance of all future sufferings,
+and enables the chiefs to judge of their courage, and to select the
+bravest among them to lead in difficult enterprises.
+
+During four days previous to this terrible torture the candidates
+observe a strict fast, and are denied all sleep. When the appointed day
+arrives, certain strange ceremonies of an allegorical description are
+performed, in which all the inhabitants of the village take part. The
+candidates then repair to a large caban, where the chiefs and elders of
+the tribe are assembled to witness the ordeal. The torture commences by
+driving splints of wood through the flesh of the back and breasts of the
+victim: he is next hoisted off the ground by ropes attached to these
+splints, and suspended by the quivering flesh, while the tormentors
+twist the hanging body slowly round, thus exquisitely enhancing the
+agony, till a death-faint comes to the relief of the candidate: he is
+then lowered to the ground and left to the care of the Great Spirit.
+When he recovers animation, he rises and proceeds on his hands and feet
+to another part of the caban: he there lays the little finger of the
+left hand upon a buffalo skull, as a sacrifice to the Great Spirit, and
+another Indian chops it off. The fore-finger is also frequently offered
+up in the same manner: this mutilation does not interfere with the use
+of the bow, the only weapon for which the left hand is required. Other
+cruel tortures are inflicted for some time, and at length the wretched
+victim, reeling and staggering from the intensity of his suffering,
+reaches his own dwelling, where he is placed under the care of his
+friends. Some of the famous warriors of the tribe pass through this
+horrible ordeal repeatedly, and the oftener it is endured, the greater
+is their estimation among their people. No bandages are applied to the
+wounds thus inflicted, nor is any attention paid to their cure; but,
+from the extreme exhaustion and debility caused by want of sustenance
+and sleep, circulation is checked, and sensibility diminished; the
+bleeding and inflammation are very slight, and the results are seldom
+injurious.
+
+The native tribes are engaged in almost perpetual hostility against each
+other. War is the great occupation of savage life, the measure of merit,
+the high road of ambition, and the source of its intensest
+joy--revenge.[274] In war the Indian character presents the darkest
+aspect; the finer and gentler qualities are vailed or dormant, and a
+fiendish ferocity assumes full sway. It is waged to exterminate, not to
+reduce. The enemy is assailed with treachery, and, if conquered, treated
+with revolting cruelty. The glory and excitement of war are dear to the
+Indian, but when the first drop of blood is shed, revenge is dearer
+still. He thirsts to offer up the life of an enemy to appease the
+departed spirit of a slaughtered friend. Thus each contest generates
+another even more embittered than itself. The extension or defense of
+the hunting-grounds is often a primary cause of hostility among the
+native nations, and the increase of the power of their tribe by
+incorporating with them such of the vanquished as they may spare from a
+cruel death is another frequent motive. The savage pines and chafes in
+long-continued peace, and the prudence of the aged can with difficulty
+restrain the fierce impetuosity of the young. Individual quarrels and a
+thirst for fame often lead a single savage to invade a hostile territory
+against the counsels of his tribe; but, when war is determined by the
+general voice, more enlarged views, and a desire of aggrandizement guide
+the proceedings.
+
+As soon as the determination of declaring war is formed, he who is
+chosen by the nation as the chief enters on a course of solemn
+preparation, entreating the aid and guidance of the Great Spirit. As a
+signal of the approaching strife, he marches three times round his
+winter dwelling, bearing a large blood-red flag, variegated with deep
+tints of black. When this terrible emblem is seen, the young warriors
+crowd around to hearken to the words of their chief. He then addresses
+them in a strain of impassioned, but rude and ferocious eloquence,
+calling upon them to follow him to glory and revenge. When he concludes
+his oration, he throws a wampum belt on the ground, which is
+respectfully lifted up by some warrior of high renown, who is judged
+worthy of being second in command. The chief now paints himself black,
+and commences a strict fast, only tasting a decoction of consecrated
+herbs to assist his dreams, which are strictly noted and interpreted by
+the elders. He then washes off the black paint. A huge fire is lighted
+in a public place in the village, and the great war-caldron set to boil:
+each warrior throws something into this vessel, and the allies who are
+to join the expedition also send offerings for the same purpose. Lastly,
+the sacred dog is sacrificed to the God of War, and boiled in the
+caldron to form the chief dish at a festival, to which only the warriors
+and men great in council are admitted.
+
+During these ceremonies the elders watch the omens with deep anxiety,
+and if the promise be favorable, they prepare for immediate departure.
+The chief then paints himself in bright and varied colors, to render his
+appearance terrible, and sings his war song, announcing the nature of
+the projected enterprise. His example is followed by all the warriors,
+who join a war-dance, while they proclaim with a loud voice the glory of
+their former deeds, and their determination to destroy their enemies.
+Each Indian now seizes his arms: the bow and quiver hang over the left
+shoulder, the tomahawk from the left hand, and the scalping-knife[275]
+is stuck in the girdle. A distinguished chief is appointed to take
+charge of the Manitous or guardian powers of each warrior; they are
+collected, carefully placed in a box, and accompany the expedition as
+the ark of safety. Meanwhile the women incite the warriors to vengeance,
+and eagerly demand captives for the torture, to appease the spirits of
+their slaughtered relatives, or sometimes, indeed, to supply their
+place. When the war party are prepared to start, the chief addresses his
+followers in a short harangue; they then commence the march, singing,
+and shouting the terrible war-whoop. The women proceed with the
+expedition for some distance; and when they must return, exchange
+endearing names with their husbands and relations, and express ardent
+wishes for victory. Some little gift of affection is usually exchanged
+at parting.
+
+Before striking the first blow the Indians make open declaration of war.
+A herald, painted black, is sent, bearing a red tomahawk, on one side of
+which are inscribed figures representing the causes of hostilities. He
+reaches the enemy's principal village at midnight, throws down the
+tomahawk in some conspicuous place, and disappears silently. When once
+warning is thus given, every stratagem that cunning can suggest is
+employed for the enemy's destruction.
+
+As long as the expedition continues in friendly countries, the warriors
+wander about in small parties for the convenience of hunting, still,
+however, keeping up communication by means of sounds imitating the cries
+of birds and beasts. None ever fail to appear at the appointed place of
+meeting upon the frontier, where they again hold high festival, and
+consult the omens of their dreams. When they enter the hostile territory
+a close array is observed, and a deep silence reigns. They creep on all
+fours, walk through water, or upon the stumps of trees, to avoid leaving
+any trace of their route. To conceal their numbers they sometimes march
+in a long single file, each stepping on the foot-print of the man before
+him. They sometimes even wear the hoofs of the buffalo or the paws of
+the bear, and run for miles in a winding course to imitate the track of
+those animals. Every effort is made to surprise the foe, and they
+frequently lure him to destruction by imitating from the depths of the
+forest the cries of animals of the chase.
+
+If the expedition meet with no straggling party of the enemy, it
+advances with cautious stealth toward some principal village; the
+warriors creep on their hands and feet through the deep woods, and often
+even paint themselves the color of dried leaves to avoid being perceived
+by their intended victims. On approaching the doomed hamlet, they
+examine it carefully, but rapidly, from some tree-top or elevated
+ground, and again conceal themselves till nightfall in the thickest
+covert. Strange to say, these subtle warriors neglect altogether the
+security of sentinels, and are satisfied with searching the surrounding
+neighborhood for hidden foes; if none be discovered, they sleep in
+confidence, even when hostile forces are not far off. They weakly trust
+to the protecting power of their Manitous. When they have succeeded in
+reaching the village, and concealing themselves unobserved, they wait
+silently, keeping close watch till the hour before dawn, when the
+inhabitants are in the deepest sleep. Then crawling noiselessly, like
+snakes, through the grass and underwood, till they are upon the foe, the
+chief raises a shrill cry, and the massacre begins. Discharging a shower
+of arrows, they finish the deadly work with the club and tomahawk. The
+great object, however, of the conquerors is to take the enemy alive, and
+reserve him to grace their triumph and rejoice their eyes by his
+torture. When resistance is attempted, this is often impossible, and an
+instant death saves the victim from the far greater horrors of captivity
+and protracted torment. When an enemy is struck down, the victor places
+his foot upon the neck of the dead or dying man, and with a horrible
+celerity and skill tears off the bleeding scalp.[276] This trophy is
+ever preserved with jealous care by the Indian warriors.
+
+After any great success the war party always return to their villages,
+more eager to celebrate the victory than to improve its advantages.
+Their women and old men await their return in longing expectation. The
+fate of the war is announced from afar off by well-known signs; the bad
+tidings are first told. A herald advances to the front of the returning
+party, and sounds a death-whoop for each of their warriors who has
+fallen in the fray. Then, after a little time, the tale of victory is
+told, and the number of prisoners and of the slain declared. All
+lamentations are soon hushed, and congratulations and rejoicing succeed.
+During the retreat, if the war party be not hard pressed by the enemy,
+prisoners are treated with some degree of humanity, but are very closely
+guarded. When the expedition has returned to the village, the old men,
+women, and children form themselves into two lines; the prisoners are
+compelled to pass between them, and are cruelly bruised with sticks and
+stones, but not vitally injured by their tormentors.
+
+A council is usually held to decide the fate of the prisoners: the
+alternatives are, to be adopted into the conquering nation, and received
+as brothers, or to be put to death in the most horrible torments, thus
+either to supply the place of warriors fallen in battle, or to appease
+the spirits of the departed by their miserable end. The older warriors
+among the captives usually meet the hardest fate; the younger are most
+frequently adopted by the women, their wounds are cured, and they are
+thenceforth received in every respect as if they belonged to the tribe.
+The adopted prisoners go out to war against their former countrymen,
+and the new tie is held even more binding than the old.
+
+The veteran warrior, whose tattooed skin bears record of slaughtered
+enemies, meets with no mercy: his face is painted, his head crowned with
+flowers as if for a festival, black moccasins are put upon his feet, and
+a flaming torch is placed above him as the signal of condemnation. The
+women take the lead in the diabolical tortures to which he is subjected,
+and rage around their victim with horrible cries. He is, however,
+allowed a brief interval to sing his death-song, and he often continues
+it even through the whole of the terrible ordeal. He boasts of his great
+deeds, insults his tormentors, laughing at their feeble efforts, exults
+in the vengeance that his nation will take for his death, and pours
+forth insulting reproaches and threats. The song is then taken up by the
+woman to whose particular revenge he has been devoted. She calls upon
+the spirit of her husband or son to come and witness the sufferings of
+his foe. After tortures too various and horrible to be particularized,
+some kind wound closes the scene in death, and the victim's scalp is
+lodged among the trophies of the tribe. To endure with unshaken
+fortitude[277] is the greatest triumph of an Indian warrior, and the
+highest confusion to his enemies, but often the proud spirit breaks
+under the pangs that rack the quivering flesh, and shouts of intolerable
+agony reward the demoniac ingenuity of the tormentors.
+
+Many early writers considered that the charge of cannibalism[278]
+against the Indians was well founded: doubtless, in moments of fury,
+portions of an enemy's flesh have been rent off and eaten. To devour a
+foeman's heart is held by them to be an exquisite vengeance. They have
+been known to drink draughts of human blood, and, in circumstances of
+scarcity, they do not hesitate to eat their captives. It is certain that
+all the terms used by them in describing the torture of prisoners relate
+to this horrible practice; yet, as they are so figurative in every
+expression, these may simply mean the fullest gratification of revenge.
+The evidence upon this point is obscure and contradictory; the Indian
+can not be altogether acquitted or found guilty of this foul imputation.
+
+The brief peace that affords respite amid the continual wars of the
+Indian tribes is scarcely more than a truce. Nevertheless, it is
+concluded with considerable form and ceremony. The first advance toward
+a cessation of hostilities is usually made through the chief of a
+neutral power. The nation proposing the first overture dispatches some
+men of note as embassadors, accompanied by an orator, to contract the
+negotiation. They bear with them the calumet[279] of peace as the
+symbol of their purpose, and a certain number of wampum belts[280] to
+note the objects and conditions of the negotiation. The orator explains
+the meaning of the belts to the hostile chiefs, and if the proposition
+be received, the opposite party accept the proffered symbols, and the
+next day present others of a similar import. The calumet is then
+solemnly smoked, and the burial of a war hatchet for each party and for
+each ally concludes the treaty. The negotiations consist more in
+presents, speeches, and ceremonies, than in any demands upon each other;
+there is no property to provide tribute, and the victors rarely or never
+require the formal cession of any of the hunting-grounds of the
+vanquished. The unrestrained passions of individuals, and the satiety of
+long continued peace, intolerable to the Indian, soon again lead to the
+renewal of hostility.
+
+The successful hunter ranks next to the brave warrior in the estimation
+of the savage. Before starting on his grand expeditions, he prepares
+himself by a course of fasting, dreaming, and religious observances, as
+if for war. He hunts with astonishing dexterity and skill, and regards
+this pursuit rather as an object of adventure and glory than as an
+industrious occupation.
+
+With regard to cultivation and the useful arts, the Indians are in the
+very infancy of progress.[283] Their villages are usually not less than
+eighteen miles apart, and are surrounded by a narrow circle of
+imperfectly-cleared land, slightly turned up with a hoe, or scraped with
+pointed sticks,[284] scarcely interrupting the continuous expanse of
+the forest. They are only acquainted with the rudest sorts of clay
+manufactures, and the use of the metals (except by European
+introduction) is altogether unknown.[285] Their women, however, display
+considerable skill in weaving fine mats, in staining the hair of
+animals, and working it into brilliant colored embroideries. The wampum
+belts are made with great care and some taste. The calumet is also
+elaborately carved and ornamented; and the painting and tattooing of
+their bodies sometimes presents well-executed and highly descriptive
+pictures and hieroglyphics. They construct light and elegant baskets
+from the swamp cane, and are very skillful in making bows and arrows;
+some tribes, indeed, were so rude as not to have attained even to the
+use of this primitive weapon, and the sling was by no means generally
+known.
+
+Most of the American nations are without any fixed form of government
+whatever. The complete independence of every man is fully recognized. He
+may do what he pleases of good or evil, useful or destructive, no
+constituted power interferes to thwart his will. If he even take away
+the life of another, the by-standers do not interpose. The kindred of
+the slain, however, will make any sacrifice for vengeance. And yet, in
+the communities of these children of nature there usually reigns a
+wonderful tranquillity. A deadly hostility exists between the different
+tribes, but among the members comprising each the strictest union
+exists. The honor and prosperity of his nation is the leading object of
+the Indian. This national feeling forms a link to draw him closely to
+his neighbor, and he rarely or never uses violence or evil speech
+against a countryman. Where there is scarcely such a thing as individual
+property, government and justice are necessarily very much simplified.
+There exists almost a community of goods. No man wants while another has
+enough and to spare. Their generosity knows no bounds. Whole tribes,
+when ruined by disasters in war, find unlimited hospitality among their
+neighbors; habitations and hunting-grounds are allotted to them, and
+they are received in every respect as if they were members of the nation
+that protects them.
+
+As there is generally no wealth or hereditary distinction among this
+people, the sole claim to eminence is founded on such personal qualities
+as can only be conspicuous in war, council, or the chase. During times
+of tranquillity and inaction all superiority ceases. Every man is
+clothed and fares alike. Relations of patronage and dependence are
+unknown. All are free and equal, and they perish rather than submit to
+control or endure correction. During war, indeed, or in the chase, they
+render a sort of obedience to those who excel in character and conduct,
+but at other times no form of government whatever exists. The names of
+magistrate and subject are not in their language. If the elders
+interpose between man and man, it is to advise, not to decide. Authority
+is only tolerated in foreign, not in domestic affairs.
+
+Music and dancing express the emotions of the Indian's mind. He has his
+songs of war and death, and particular moments of his life are appointed
+for their recital. His great deeds and the vengeance he has inflicted
+upon his enemies are his subjects; the language and music express his
+passions rudely but forcibly. The dance[286] is still more important:
+it is the grand celebration at every festival, and alternately the
+exponent of their triumph, anger, or devotion. It is usually pantomimic,
+and highly descriptive of the subject to which it is appropriate.
+
+The Indians are immoderately fond of play as a means of excitement and
+agitation. While gaming, they, who are usually so taciturn and
+indifferent, become loquacious and eager. Their guns, arms, and all that
+they possess are freely staked, and at times where all else is lost,
+they will trust even their personal safety to the hazard of the
+die.[287] The most barbarous of the tribes have unhappily succeeded in
+inventing some species of intoxicating liquor: that from the root of the
+maize was in general use; it is not disagreeable to the taste, and is
+very powerful. When the accursed fire-water is placed before the
+Indians, none can resist the temptation. The wisest, best, and bravest
+succumb alike to this odious temptation: and when their unrestrained
+passions are excited by drinking, they are at times guilty of enormous
+outrages, and the scenes of their festivities often become stained with
+kindred blood. The women are not permitted to partake of this fatal
+pleasure; their duty is to serve the guests, and take care of their
+husbands and friends when overpowered by the debauch. This exclusion
+from a favorite enjoyment is evidence of the contempt in which females
+are held among the Indians.
+
+In the present day, he who would study the character and habits of these
+children of Nature must travel far away beyond the Rocky Mountains,
+where the murrain of perverted civilization has not yet spread. There he
+may still find the virtues and vices of the savage, and lead among those
+wild tribes that fascinating life of liberty which few have ever been
+known to abandon willingly for the restraints and luxuries of
+civilization and refinement.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 266: "The custom of squeezing and flattening the head is still
+strictly adhered to among the Chinooks. The people bearing the name of
+Flat Heads are very numerous, but very few among them actually practice
+the custom. Among the Chinooks it is almost universal. The process is
+thus effected: The child is placed on a thick plank, to which it is
+lashed with thongs to a position from which it can not escape, and the
+back of the head supported by a sort of pillow made of moss or
+rabbit-skins, with an inclined piece resting on the forehead of the
+child. This is every day drawn down a little tighter by means of a cord,
+which holds it in its place, until at length it touches the nose, thus
+forming a straight line from the crown of the head to the end of the
+nose. This process is seemingly a cruel one, though I doubt whether it
+causes much pain, as it is done in earliest infancy, while the bones are
+soft and cartilaginous, and easily pressed into this distorted shape by
+forcing the occipital up and the frontal down, so that the skull at the
+top in profile will show a breadth of not more than an inch and a half
+or two inches, when in a front view it exhibits a great expansion on the
+sides, making it at the top nearly the width of one and a half natural
+heads. By this remarkable operation the brain is singularly changed from
+its natural state, but in all probability not in the least diminished or
+injured in its natural functions. This belief is drawn from the
+testimony of many credible witnesses who have closely scrutinized them,
+and ascertained that those who have the head flattened are in no way
+inferior in intellectual powers to those whose heads are in their
+natural shapes. This strange custom existed precisely the same until
+recently among the Choctaws and Chickasaws, who occupied a large part of
+the states of Mississippi and Alabama, where they have laid their bones,
+and hundreds of their skulls have been procured, bearing marks of a
+similar treatment, with similar results."--Catlin's _American Indians_,
+vol. ii., p. 112.
+
+With respect to the origin of this singular custom, Humboldt is inclined
+to think that it may be traced from the natural inclination of each race
+to look upon their own personal peculiarities as the standard of beauty.
+He observes that the pointed form of the heads is very striking in the
+Mexican drawings, and continues thus: "If we examine osteologically the
+skulls of the natives of America, we see that there is no race on the
+globe in which the frontal bone is more flattened or which have less
+forehead.[267] (Blumenbach, _Decas Quinta Craniorum_, tab. xlvi., p. 14,
+1808.) This extraordinary flattening exists among people of the
+copper-colored race, who have never been acquainted with the custom of
+producing artificial deformities, as is proved by the skulls of Mexican,
+Peruvian, and Aztec Indians, which M. Bonpland and myself brought to
+Europe, and several of which are deposited in the Museum of Natural
+History at Paris. The negroes prefer the thickest and most prominent
+lips, the Calmucks perceive the line of beauty in turned-up noses. M.
+Cuvier observes (_Lecons d'Anatomie Comparee_, tom. ii., p. 6) that the
+Grecian artists, in the statues of heroes, raised the facial line from
+85 deg. to 100 deg., or beyond the natural form. I am led to think that the
+barbarous custom, among certain savage tribes in America, of squeezing
+the heads of children between two planks, arises from the idea that
+beauty consists in this extraordinary compression of the bone by which
+Nature has characterized the American race. It is no doubt from
+following this standard of beauty that even the Aztec people, who never
+disfigured the heads of their children, have represented their heroes
+and principal divinities with heads much flatter than any of the Caribs
+I saw on the Lower Orinoco."--Humboldt's _Researches on the Ancient
+Inhabitants of America_.]
+
+[Footnote 267: "L'anatomie comparee en offre une autre confirmation dans
+la proportion constante du volume des lobes cerebrales avec le degre
+d'intelligence des animaux."--Cuvier's _Report to the Institute on
+Flouren's Experiments in 1822_.]
+
+[Footnote 268: "Ces huiles leur sont absolument necessaires, et ils sont
+manges de vermine quand elles leur manquent."--Lafitau, tom. i., p. 59.
+
+It is supposed by Volney that the fatal effects of the small-pox among
+the Indians are to be attributed to the obstacle that a skin thus
+hardened opposes to the eruption.--P. 416. In the most detailed account
+given of the ravages of this disease, Catlin particularly mentions that
+no eruption was visible in any of the bodies of the dead. Forster, the
+English translator of Professor Kalm's _Travels in America_, held the
+same opinion as Volney.
+
+"When the Kalmucks in the Russian dominions get the small-pox, it has
+been observed that very few escape. Of this, I believe, no other reason
+can be alleged than that the small-pox is always dangerous, either when
+the open pores of the skin are too numerous, which is caused by opening
+them in a warm-water bath, or when they are too much closed, which is
+the case with all the nations that are dirty and greasy. All the
+American Indians rub their body with oils; the Kalmucks rub their bodies
+and their fur coats with grease; the Hottentots are also, I believe,
+patterns of filthiness: this shuts up all the pores, hinders
+perspiration entirely, and makes the small-pox always fatal among these
+nations."--_Note_ by the translator of Kalm, p. 532.
+
+"The ravages which the small-pox made this year (1750) among their
+Mohawk friends was a source of deep concern to these revered
+philanthropists. These people having been accustomed from early
+childhood to anoint themselves with bear's grease, to repel the
+innumerable tribes of noxious insects in summer, and to exclude the
+extreme cold ill winter, their pores are so completely shut up that the
+small-pox does not rise upon them, nor have they much chance of recovery
+from any acute disorder."--_Memoirs of an American Lady_, vol. i., p.
+322.]
+
+[Footnote 269: M. de Tracy, when governor of Canada, was told by his
+Indian allies that, with his good-humored face, he would never inspire
+the enemy with any degree of awe. They besought him to place himself
+under their brush, when they would soon make him such that his very
+aspect would strike terror.--Creuxius, _Nova Francia_, p. 62;
+Charlevoix, tom, vi., p. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 270: St. Isidore of Seville, and Solinus, give a similar
+description of the manner of painting the body in use among the Picts.
+"The operator delineates the figures with little points made by the
+prick of a needle, and into those he insinuates the juice of some native
+plants, that their nobility, thus written, as it were, upon every limb
+of their body, might distinguish them from ordinary men by the number of
+the figures they were decorated with."--Isidor., _Origin_, lib. xix.,
+cap. xxiii.; Solin., _De Magna Britannia_, cap. xxv.]
+
+[Footnote 271: "These horns are made of about a third part of the horn
+of a buffalo bull, the horn having been split from end to end, and a
+third part of it taken, and shaved thin and light, and highly polished.
+They are attached to the top or the head-dress on each side, in the same
+place as they rise and stand on the head of a buffalo, rising out of a
+mat of ermine skins and tails, which hangs over the top of the
+head-dress somewhat in the form that the large and profuse locks of hair
+hang and fall over the head of a buffalo bull. This custom is one which
+belongs to all northeastern tribes, and is no doubt of very ancient
+origin, having purely a classic meaning. No one wears the head-dress
+surmounted with horns except the dignitaries who are very high in
+authority, and whose exceeding valor, worth, and power is admitted by
+all the nation. This head-dress is used only on certain occasions, and
+they are very seldom: when foreign chiefs, Indian agents, or other
+important personages visit a tribe, or at war parades. Sometimes, when a
+chief sees fit to send a war party to battle, he decorates his head with
+this symbol of power, to stimulate his men, and throws himself into the
+foremost of the battle, inviting the enemy to concentrate his shafts
+upon them. The horns upon these head-dresses are but loosely attached at
+the bottom, so that they easily fall backward or forward; and by an
+ingenious motion of the head, which is so slight as to be almost
+imperceptible, they are made to balance to and fro, and sometimes one
+backward and the other forward like a horse's ears, giving a vast deal
+of expression and force of character to the appearance of the chief who
+is wearing them. This is a remarkable instance, like hundreds of others,
+of a striking similarity to Jewish customs, to the kerns (or _keren_, in
+Hebrew), the horns worn by the Abyssinian chiefs and Hebrews as a symbol
+of power and command--worn at great parades and celebrations of
+victories."--Catlin, vol. i., p. 104.]
+
+[Footnote 272: "When a young Indian becomes attached to a female, he
+does not frequent the lodge of her parents, or visit her elsewhere,
+oftener, perhaps, than he would provided no such attachment existed.
+Were he to pursue an opposite course before he had acquired either the
+reputation of a warrior or a hunter, and suffer his attachment to be
+known or suspected by any personal attention, he would become the
+derision of the warriors and the contempt of the squaws. On meeting,
+however, she is the first, excepting the elderly people, who engages his
+respectful and kind inquiries; after which, no conversation passes
+between them, except it be with the language of the eyes, which, even
+among savages, is eloquent, and appears to be well understood. The next
+indication of serious intentions on the part of the young hunter is the
+assumption of more industrious habits. He rises by daybreak, and, with
+his gun or bow, visits the woods and prairies, in search of the most
+rare and esteemed game. He endeavors to acquire the character of an
+expert and industrious hunter, and, whenever success has crowned his
+efforts, never fails to send the parents of the object of his affections
+some of the choicest he has procured. His mother is generally the
+bearer, and she is sure to tell from what source it comes, and to dilate
+largely on the merits and excellences of her son. The girl, on her part,
+exercises all her skill in preparing it for food, and when it is cooked,
+frequently sends some of the most delicious pieces, accompanied by other
+small presents, such as nuts, moccasins, &c., to her lover. These
+negotiations are usually carried on by the mothers of the respective
+parties, who consider them confidential, and seldom divulge even to the
+remaining parents, except one or both of the candidates should be the
+offspring of a chief, when a deviation from this practice is exacted,
+and generally observed. After an Indian has acquired the reputation of a
+warrior, expert hunter, or swift runner, he has little need of minor
+qualifications, or of much address or formality in forming his
+matrimonial views. The young squaws sometimes discover their attachment
+to those they love by some act of tender regard, but more frequently
+through the kind offices of some confidante or friend. Such overtures
+generally succeed: but should they fail, it is by no means considered
+disgraceful, or in the least disadvantageous to the female; on the
+contrary, should the object of her affections have distinguished himself
+especially in battle, she is the more esteemed on account of the
+judgment she displayed in her partiality for a respectable and brave
+warrior."--Hunter, p. 235-237.]
+
+[Footnote 273: See Appendix, No. LVII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 274: "They firmly believe that the spirits of those who are
+killed by the enemy without equal revenge of blood, find no rest, and at
+night haunt the houses of the tribe to which they belonged; but when
+that kindred duty of retaliation is justly executed, they immediately
+get ease and power to fly away."--Adair's _Account of the American
+Indians._]
+
+[Footnote 275: "The modern scalping-knife is of civilized manufacture
+made expressly for Indian use, and carried into the Indian country by
+thousands and tens of thousands, and sold at an enormous price. In the
+native simplicity of the Indian, he shapes out his rude hatchet from a
+piece of stone, heads his arrows and spears with flints, and his knife
+is a sharpened bone or the edge of a broken silex. His untutored mind
+has not been ingenious enough to design or execute any thing so savage
+or destructive as these civilized refinements on Indian barbarity. The
+scalping-knife, in a beautiful scabbard which is carried under the belt,
+is generally used in all Indian countries where knives have been
+introduced. It is the size and shape of a butcher's knife with one edge,
+manufactured at Sheffield perhaps for sixpence, and sold to the poor
+Indians in these wild regions for a horse. If I should ever cross the
+Atlantic, with my collection, a curious enigma would be solved for the
+English people who may inquire for a scalping-knife, when they find that
+every one in my collection (and hear, also, that nearly every one that
+is to be seen in the Indian country, to the Rocky Mountains and the
+Pacific Ocean) bears on its blade, the impress of G.R."--Catlin's
+_American Indians_, vol. i., p. 236.]
+
+[Footnote 276: See Appendix, No. LVIII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 277: The savage Cantabrians and the first inhabitants of Spain
+sang songs of triumph as they were led to death and while they hung on
+the cross. Strabo mentions this as a mark of their ferocity and
+barbarism.--Strabo, lib. iii., p. 114.]
+
+[Footnote 278: The American word "cannibal," of a somewhat doubtful
+signification, is probably derived from the language of Hayti or that of
+Porto Rico. It has passed into the languages of Europe, since the end of
+the fifteenth century, as synonymous with that of Anthropophagi, "Edaces
+humanarum carnium novi heluones Anthropophagi, Caribes, alias Canibales
+appellati," says Peter Martyr of Anghiera, in the third decade of his
+_Oceanics_, dedicated to Pope Leo X. "We were assured by all the
+missionaries whom we had an opportunity of consulting, that the
+Caribbees are perhaps the least anthropophagous nation of the New
+Continent. We may conceive that the fury and despair with which the
+unhappy Caribbees defended themselves against the Spaniards when, in
+1704, a royal decree declared them slaves, may have contributed to the
+reputation they have acquired of ferocity. The licendiado Rodrigo de
+Figuera was appointed by the court in 1520 to decide which of the tribes
+of South America might be regarded as of Caribbee race, or as
+_Cannibals_, and which were Guatiaos, that is, Indians of peace, and
+friends of the Castilians. Every nation that could be accused of having
+devoured a prisoner after a battle was arbitrarily declared of Caribbee
+race. All the tribes designated by Figuera as Caribbees wore condemned
+to slavery, and might at will be sold or exterminated in
+war."--Humboldt's _Personal Narrative_, vol. vi., p. 35.
+
+Charlevoix and Lafitau speak of the cannibalism of the North American
+Indians as a generally acknowledged fact: Lafitau mentions the Abenaquis
+as the only tribe who held it in detestation.--Lafitau, vol. ii., p.
+307.]
+
+[Footnote 279: "On ne peut gueres douter que les sauvages en faisant
+fumer dans le calumet ceux dont ils recherchent l'alliance ou le
+commerce, n'ayent intention de prendre le soleil pour temoin et en
+quelque facon pour garant de leurs traites, car ils ne manquent jamais
+de pousser la fumee vers cette astre: ... Fumer donc dans la meme pipe,
+en signe d'alliance, est la meme chose que de boire dans la meme coupe,
+comme il s'est de tout tems pratique dans plusieurs nations."--Charlevoix,
+tom. v., p. 313.
+
+Calumet in general signifies a pipe, being a Norman word, derived from
+_chalumeau_. The savages do not understand this word, for it was
+introduced into Canada by the Normans when they first settled there, and
+has still continued in use among the French planters. The calumet, or
+pipe, is called in the Iroquois language _ganondaoe_, and by the other
+savage natives, _poagau_.
+
+Embassadors were never safe among any of the savage tribes who do not
+smoke the calumet.--Lafitau, vol. ii., p. 313. At the time of the early
+French writers on Indian customs, the calumet, since almost universally
+in use, was only known among the tribes inhabiting Louisiana, who in
+many respects were more advanced in civilization than those of the cold
+northern regions.]
+
+[Footnote 280: Wampum is the Indian name of ornaments manufactured by
+the Indians from vari-colored shells[281] which they get on the shore of
+the fresh-water streams, and file or cut into bits of half an inch, or
+an inch in length, and perforate, giving them the shape of pieces of
+broken pipe-stems, which they string on deer's sinews, or weave them
+ingeniously into war-belts for the waist. The wampum is evidently meant
+in the description of the _esurgny_ or _cornibolz_, given by Verazzano
+in Ramusio, which has so much puzzled translators and commentators.
+Lafitau and Charlevoix both describe it under the name of _porcelaine_.
+
+"La porcelaine dont nous parlons ici, est bien differente de ces
+ouvrages de porcelaine qu'on apporte de la Chine ou du Japan[282] dont
+la matiere est une terre beluttee et preparee. Celle ci est tiree de
+certains coquillages de mer, connues en generale sous le nom de
+porcelaines--celles dont nos sauvages se servent sont canelees, et
+semblable pour leur figure aux coquilles de St. Jacques. Il y a de
+porcelaine de deux sortes, l'une est blanche, et c'est la plus commune.
+L'autre est d'un violet obscur; plus elle tire sur le noir plus elle est
+estimee. La porcelaine qui sert pour les affaires d'etat est toute
+travaillee au petits cylindres de la longueur d'un quart de pouce et
+gros a proportion. On les distribue en deux manieres, en branches et en
+colliers. Les branches sont composees de cylindres enfiles sans ordre, a
+la suite les uns des autres comme des grains de chapelet. La porcelaine
+en est ordinairement toute blanche, et on ne s'en sert que pour des
+affaires d'une legere consequence. Les colliers sont de larges
+ceintures, ou les petits cylindres blancs et pourpre sont disposes par
+rangs et assujettes par de petites bandelettes de cuir, dont on fait un
+tissu assez propre. Leur longeur, leur largueur et les grains de couleur
+se proportionnent a l'importance de l'affaire. Les colliers communs et
+ordinaires sont de onze rangs de cent quatre-vingt grains chacun. Le
+fisc, ou le tresor public consiste principalement en ces sortes de
+colliers.... Les sauvages n'ont rien de plus precieux que leur
+Porcelaine: ce sont leurs bijoux, leurs pierreries. Ils en comptent
+jusqu' aux grains, et cela leur tient lieu de toute richesse."--Lafitau,
+1720.
+
+Catlin writes thus in 1842: "Among the numerous tribes who have formerly
+inhabited the Atlantic coast, wampum has been invariably manufactured
+and highly valued as a circulating medium (instead of coins, of which
+the Indians have no knowledge), so many strings, or so many hands'
+breadth, being the fixed value of a horse, a gun, a robe, &c. It is a
+remarkable fact, that after I passed the Mississippi I saw but very
+little wampum used, and on ascending the Missouri, I do not recollect to
+have seen it worn at all by the Upper Missouri Indians, although the
+same materials for its manufacture are found in abundance in those
+regions. Below the Lions and along the whole of our western frontier,
+the different tribes are found loaded and beautifully ornamented with
+it, which they can now afford to do, for they consider it of little
+value, as the fur traders have ingeniously introduced an imitation of
+it, manufactured by steam or otherwise, of porcelain or some composition
+closely resembling it, with which they have flooded the whole Indian
+country, and sold at so reduced a price as to cheapen, and consequently
+destroy, the value and meaning of the original wampum, a string of which
+can now but very rarely be found in any part of the country."--Catlin,
+vol. i., p. 223.]
+
+[Footnote 281: "Among the numerous shells which are found on the
+sea-shore, there are some which by the English here are called clams,
+and which bear some resemblance to the human ear. They have a
+considerable thickness, and are chiefly white, excepting the pointed
+end, which both within and without hath a blue color, between purple and
+violet. The shells contain a large animal, which is eaten both by
+Indians and Europeans. The shells of these clams are used by the Indians
+as money, and make what they call their wampum; they likewise serve
+their women for an ornament when they intend to appear in full dress.
+These wampums are properly made of the purple part of the shells, which
+the Indians value more than the white parts. A traveler who goes to
+trade with the Indians, and is well stocked with them, may become a
+considerable gainer, but if he take gold coin or bullion he will
+undoubtedly be a loser; for the Indians who live farther up the country
+put little or no value on the metals which we reckon so precious, as I
+have frequently observed in the course of my travels. The Indians
+formerly made their own wampums, though not without a great deal of
+trouble; but at present the Europeans employ themselves in that way, and
+get considerable profit by it."--Kalm in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 455.]
+
+[Footnote 282: "Marsden et la Comte Baldelli ont rappelle, dans leur
+savans commentaires du Milione de Marco Polo, que c'est la nom de la
+coquille du genere Cypraea a dos bombe (porcellanor, de porcello, en
+latin porcellus, pourcelaine du pere Trigault) qui a donne lieu a la
+denomination de _porcelaine_ par laquelle les peuples occidentaux ont
+designe les _Vasa Sinica_. Marco Polo se sert du mot porcellane, et pour
+les coquilles _karis_, ou _couries_, employees comme monnaie dans
+l'Inde, et pour la poterie fine de la Chine. ... La blancheur lustree de
+plusieurs especes de la famille des Buccinoides, appellees de
+pourcelaines au moine age, a sans doute suffi pour faire donner aux
+beaux vases ceramiques de la Chine une denomination analogue. Ces
+coquilles ne sont pas entrees dans la composition de la
+porcelaine."--Humboldt, _Geog. du Nouveau Continent_, tom, v., p. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 283: "Avant d'avoir l'usage des moulins, ils brisaient leurs
+grains dans les piles, ou des mortiers de bois, avec des pilons de meme
+matiere. Hesiode nous donne la mesure de la pile et du pilon des
+anciens, et de nos sauvages, dans ces paroles, 'Coupez moi une pile de
+trois pieds de haut, et un pilon de la longueur de trois coudees.'
+(Hesiod, _Opera et Dies_, lib. v., 411; Servius in lib. ix., AEneid.
+Init.) Caton met aussi la pile et le pilon, au nombre des meubles
+rustiques de son temps. Les Pisons prirent leur nom de cette maniere de
+piler le bled."--Lafitau.]
+
+[Footnote 284: "Il leur suffit d'un morceau de bois recourbe de trois
+doigts de largeur, attache a un long mouche qui leur sert a sarcler la
+terre, et a la remuer legerement."--Lafitau, tom. ii., p. 76.
+
+Catlin says that the tribe of Mandans raise a great deal of corn. This
+is all done by the women, who make their hoes of the shoulder-blades of
+the buffalo or elk, and dig the ground over instead of plowing it, which
+is consequently done with a vast deal of labor.--Vol. i., p. 121.]
+
+[Footnote 285: "Nothing so distinctly marks the uncivilized condition of
+the North American Indian as his total ignorance of the art of
+metallurgy. Forged iron has been in use among the inhabitants of our
+hemisphere from time immemorial; for, though the process employed for
+obtaining the malleability of a metal in its malleable state is very
+complicated, yet M. de Marian has clearly proved that the several eras
+at which writers have pretended to fix the discovery are entirely
+fabulous."--_Lettres sur la Chine._
+
+Consequently the weapons of brass and other instruments of metal found
+in the dikes of Upper Canada, Florida, &c., are among the strongest
+indications of the superiority of those ancient races of America who
+have now entirely passed away.
+
+"Know, then," says Cotton Mather, "that these doleful creatures are the
+veriest ruins of mankind. They live in a country full of metals, but the
+Indians were never owners of so much as a knife till we came among them.
+Their name for an Englishman was 'knife-man.'"]
+
+[Footnote 286: Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 233; Charlevoix.
+
+"The dances of the Red Indians form a singular and important feature
+throughout the customs of the aborigines of the New World. In these are
+typified, by signs well understood by the initiated, and, as it were, by
+hieroglyphic action, their historical events, their projected enterprises,
+their hunting, their ambuscades, and their battles, resembling in some
+respects the Pyrrhic dances of the ancients."--Washington Irving's
+_Columbus_, vol. ii., p. 122.
+
+"In the province of Pasto, on the ridge of the Cordillera, I have seen
+masked Indians, armed with rattles, performing savage dances around the
+altar, while a Franciscan monk elevated the host."--Humboldt's _Nouveau
+Espagne_, vol. i., p. 411.
+
+See, also, Lafitau's Moeurs _des Sauvages Ameriquains compares aux
+moeurs des premiers temps_, tom. i., p. 526. He refers to Plutarch, _in
+Lycurgo_, for an account of similar Spartan dances.]
+
+[Footnote 287: Charlevoix; Lafitau; Boucher, _Histoire du Canada_.
+
+"The players prepare for their ruin by religious observances; they fast,
+they watch, they pray."--Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 240. See Appendix,
+No. LIX. (see Vol II)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+
+While the French were busied in establishing themselves upon the banks
+of the St. Lawrence, their ancient rivals steadily progressed in the
+occupation of the Atlantic coasts of North America.
+
+Generally speaking, the oldest colonies of England were founded by
+private adventurers, at their own expense and risk. In most cases, the
+soil of the new settlements was granted to powerful individuals or
+companies of merchants, and by them made over in detail to the actual
+emigrants for certain considerations. Where, however, as often occurred,
+the emigrants had settled prior to the grant, or were in a condition to
+disregard it, they divided the land according to their own interests and
+convenience. These unrecognized proprietors prospered more rapidly than
+those who were trammeled by engagements with non-resident authorities.
+The right of government, as well as the nominal possession of the soil,
+was usually granted in the first instance, and the new colonies were
+connected with the crown of Great Britain by little more than a formal
+recognition of sovereignty. But the disputes invariably arising between
+the nominal proprietors and the actual settlers speedily caused, in most
+cases, a dissolution of the proprietary government, and threw the
+colonies one by one under royal authority.
+
+The system then usually adopted was to place the colony under the rule
+of an English governor, assisted by an upper House of Parliament, or
+Council, appointed by himself, and a Lower House, possessing the power
+of taxation, elected by the people. All laws, however, enacted by these
+local authorities were subject to the approbation of the British crown.
+This was the outline of colonial constitutions in every North American
+settlement, except in those established under peculiar charters. The
+habit of self-government bore its fruit of sturdy independence and
+self-reliance among our transatlantic brethren, and the prospect of
+political privileges offered a special temptation to the English
+emigrant to embark his fortunes in the New World. At their commencement
+trade was free in all, and religion in most of the new colonies; and it
+was only by slow degrees that their fiscal regulations were brought
+under the subordination of the mother country.
+
+Although a general sketch of British colonization in North America is
+essential to the illustration of Canadian history, it is unnecessary to
+detail more than a few of the leading features of its nature and
+progress, and of the causes which placed its interests in almost
+perpetual antagonism with those of French settlement. This subject is
+rendered not a little obscure and complicated by the contradictory
+claims and statements of proprietors, merchant adventurers, and
+settlers; the separation of provinces; the abandonment of old, and the
+foundation of new settlements.[288]
+
+Sir Humphrey Gilbert,[289] of Compton, in Devonshire, formed the first
+plan of British colonization in America. Queen Elizabeth, who then wore
+the crown, willingly granted a patent conveying most ample gifts and
+powers to her worthy and distinguished subject. He was given forever all
+such "heathen and barbarous countries" as he might discover, with
+absolute authority therein, both by sea and land. Only homage, and a
+fifth part of the gold and silver that might be obtained, was reserved
+for the crown.
+
+The first expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert failed in the very
+commencement. The adventurers were unfortunately selected; many deserted
+the cause, and others engaged in disastrous quarrels among themselves.
+The chief was ultimately obliged to set out with only a few of his own
+tried friends.[290] He encountered very adverse weather, and was driven
+back with the loss of a ship and one of his trustiest companions[291]
+(1580). This disaster was a severe blow to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, as most
+of his property was embarked in the undertaking. However, with unshaken
+determination, and aided by Sir George Peckham, Sir Walter Raleigh,[292]
+and other distinguished men, he again equipped an expedition, and put to
+sea in the year 1583.
+
+The force with which this bold adventurer undertook to gain possession
+of a new continent was miserably small. The largest vessel was but of
+200 tons burden: the Delight, in which he himself sailed, was only 120
+tons, and the three others composing the little fleet were even much
+smaller. The crew and adventurers numbered altogether 260 men, most of
+them tradesmen, mechanics, and refiners of metal. There was such
+difficulty in completing even this small equipment, that some captured
+pirates were taken into the service.
+
+The expedition sailed from Concert Bay on the 11th of May, 1583. Three
+days afterward, the Raleigh,[293] the largest ship of the fleet, put
+back to land, under the plea that a violent sickness had broken out on
+board, but, in reality, from the indisposition of the crew to risk the
+enterprise. The loss of this vessel was a heavy discouragement to the
+brave leaders. After many delays and difficulties from the weather and
+the misconduct of his followers, Sir Humphrey Gilbert reached the shores
+of Newfoundland, where he found thirty-six vessels engaged in the
+fisheries. He, in virtue of his royal patent, immediately assumed
+authority over them, demanding and obtaining all the supplies of which
+he stood in need: he also proclaimed his own and the queen's possession
+of the country. Soon, however, becoming sensible that this rocky and
+dreary wilderness offered little prospect of wealth, he proceeded with
+three vessels, and a crew diminished by sickness and desertion, to the
+American coast. Owing to his imprudence in approaching the foggy and
+dangerous shore too closely, the largest vessel[294] struck, and went to
+pieces. The captain and many of the crew were lost; some of the
+remainder reached Newfoundland in an open boat, after having endured
+great hardships.
+
+Sir Humphrey Gilbert altogether failed in reaching any part of the main
+land of America. The weather became very bad, the winter approached, and
+provisions began to fail: there was no alternative but to return, and
+with bitter regret and disappointment he adopted that course. The two
+remaining vessels proceeded in safety as far as the meridian of the
+Azores; there, however, a terrible tempest assailed them. On the
+afternoon of the 9th of September the smaller of the two boats was
+observed to labor dangerously. Sir Humphrey Gilbert stood upon her deck,
+holding a book in his hand, encouraging the crew. "We are as near to
+heaven by sea as by land," he called out to those on board the other
+vessel, as it drifted past just before nightfall. Darkness soon
+concealed his little bark from sight; but for hours one small light was
+seen to rise and fall, and plunge about among the furious waves. Shortly
+after midnight it suddenly disappeared, and with it all trace of the
+brave chief and his crew. One maimed and storm-tossed ship returned to
+England of that armament which so short a time before had been sent
+forth to take possession of a New World.[295]
+
+The English nation was not diverted from the pursuit of colonial
+aggrandizement by even this disastrous failure. The queen, however, was
+more ready to assist by grants and patents than by pecuniary supplies.
+Many plausible schemes of settlement were put forward; but the
+difficulty of obtaining sufficient means of carrying them into effect,
+prevented their being adopted. At length the illustrious Sir Walter
+Raleigh undertook the task of colonization at his own sole charge, and
+easily obtained a patent similar to that conferred upon Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert. He soon sent out two small vessels, under skillful naval
+officers, to search for his new government. Warned by the disasters of
+their predecessors, they steered a more southerly course. When soundings
+indicated an approach to land, they already observed that the breeze
+from the shore was rich with delicious odors of fruits and flowers. They
+proceeded very cautiously, and presently found that they had reached a
+long, low coast, without harbors. The shore was flat and sandy; but
+softly undulating green hills were seen in the interior, covered with a
+great profusion of rich grapes. This discovery proved to be the island
+of Okakoke, off North Carolina. (1584.) The English were well received
+by the natives, and obtained from them many valuable skins in exchange
+for trinkets. Some limited explorations were made, after which the
+expedition returned to England, bearing very favorable accounts of the
+new country,[296] which filled Raleigh with joy, and raised the
+expectations of the whole kingdom. In honor of England's maiden queen,
+the name of Virginia was given to this land of promise.
+
+Sir Walter Raleigh now embarked nearly all his fortune in another
+expedition, consisting of seven small ships, which he placed under the
+able command of Sir Richard Greenville, surnamed "the Brave." The little
+fleet reached Virginia on the 29th of June, 1585, and the colony was at
+once landed. The principal duties of settlement were intrusted to Mr.
+Ralph Lane, who proved unequal to the charge. The coast, however, was
+explored for a considerable distance, and the magnificent Bay of
+Chesapeake discovered.
+
+Lane penetrated to the head of Roanoke Sound; there, without
+provocation, he seized a powerful Indian chief and his son, and retained
+the latter a close prisoner, in the hope, through him, of ruling the
+father. The natives, exasperated at this injury, deceived the English
+with false reports of great riches to be found in the interior. Lane
+proceeded up the river for several days with forty men, but, suffering
+much from the want of provisions, and having been once openly attacked
+by the savages, he returned disheartened to the coast, where he found
+that the Indians were prepared for a general rising against him, in a
+confederacy formed of the surrounding tribes, headed by a subtle chief
+called Pemisapan. In the mean time, however, the captive became attached
+to the English, warning them of the coming danger, and naming the day
+for the attack. Lane, resolving to strike the first blow, suddenly
+assailed the Indians and dispersed them; afterward, at a parley, he
+destroyed all the chiefs with disgraceful treachery. Henceforth the
+hatred of the savages to the English became intense, and they ceased to
+sow any of the lands near the settlement, with the view of starving
+their dangerous visitors.
+
+The colonists were much embarrassed by the hostilities of the Indians;
+the time appointed by Raleigh and Greenville for sending them supplies
+had passed; a heavy despondency fell upon their minds, and they began
+earnestly to wish for a means of returning home. But, suddenly, notice
+was given that a fleet of twenty-three sail was at hand, whether
+friendly or hostile no one could tell: to their great joy, it proved to
+be the armament of Sir Francis Drake. Lane and his followers immediately
+availed themselves of this opportunity, and with the utmost haste
+embarked for England, totally abandoning the settlement. (1586.) A few
+days after this unworthy flight, a vessel of 100 tons, amply provided
+with aid for the colony, arrived upon its deserted shores; the crew in
+vain searched the coast and neighborhood for their fellow-countrymen,
+and then steered for England. A fortnight after Sir Richard Greenville
+arrived with three well-appointed ships, and found a lonely desert where
+he had expected a flourishing colony: he also returned to England in
+deep disappointment, leaving, however, a small party to hold possession
+of the country till he should return with ampler resources.
+
+The noble Raleigh was not discouraged by this unhappy complication of
+errors and disasters; he immediately dispatched another expedition, with
+three ships under the command of John White. But a terrible sight
+presented itself on their arrival: the fort razed to the ground, the
+houses ruined and overgrown with grass, and a few scattered bones, told
+the fate of their countrymen. The little settlement had been assailed by
+300 Indians, and all the colonists destroyed or driven into the interior
+to an unknown fate. By an unfortunate error, White attacked one of the
+few tribes that were friendly to the English, in the attempt to revenge
+the cruel massacre. After this unhappy exploit, he was compelled, by the
+discontent of his followers, to return to England, for the purpose of
+procuring them supplies.[297] From various delays, it was not till 1590
+that another expedition reached Virginia. But again silence and
+desolation reigned upon that fatal shore. The colony left by White had
+been destroyed like its predecessor. Raleigh at last abandoned the
+scheme of settlement that had proved ruinously disastrous to him and all
+concerned, and the brave Sir Richard Greenville was soon after slain.
+(1591.)[298]
+
+The interest of the public in Virginia remained suspended till the year
+1602, when Captain Bartholomew Gosnold undertook a voyage thither, and
+brought back such brilliant reports of the beauty and fertility of the
+country, that the dormant attention of the English toward this part of
+the world was again aroused. In 1606, Arundel, Lord Wardour, sent out a
+vessel under the command of Captain Weymouth, to make further
+discoveries. The report of this voyage more than confirmed that of the
+preceding.
+
+The English nation were now at length prepared to make an efficient
+attempt to colonize the New World. In London, and at Plymouth and
+Bristol, the principal maritime cities of the kingdom, the scheme found
+numerous and ardent supporters. James I., however, only granted such
+powers to the adventurers as suited his own narrow and arbitrary views:
+he refused to sanction any sort of representative government in the
+colony, and vested all power in a council appointed by himself.[299]
+Virginia was, about that time, divided somewhat capriciously into two
+parts: the southern portion was givens to a merchant company of London,
+the northern to a merchant company of Bristol and Plymouth.[301]
+
+The southern, or London Company, were the first to commence the work of
+colonization with energy. On the 19th of December, 1606, they
+dispatched an expedition of three vessels, commanded by Captain Newport,
+comprising a number of people of rank and distinction. Among these was
+Captain John Smith, whose admirable qualities were afterward so
+conspicuously and usefully displayed. The expedition met with such
+delays and difficulties that it was at one time on the point of
+returning to England. At length, however, they descried an unknown cape,
+and soon afterward entered Chesapeake Bay, where the beauty and
+fertility of the shores even surpassed their expectations.[302] On first
+landing, they met the determined hostility of the savages, but when the
+fleet proceeded to Cape Comfort, they there received a more friendly
+reception, and were invited ashore. The Indians spread their simple
+stores of dainties before the strangers, smoked with them the calumet of
+peace, and entertained them with songs and dances. As the expedition
+moved higher up the bay, where no English had been before seen, it met
+with a still more cordial welcome.
+
+Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement established in
+America, although it has not since risen to very great importance. The
+site was chosen by this expedition about forty miles above the entrance,
+upon the banks of James River, where the emigrants at once proceeded to
+establish themselves. They suffered great distress from the commencement
+on account of the bad quality of the provisions, furnished under
+contract by Sir Thomas Smith, one of the leading members of the company.
+Disease soon followed want, and in a short time fifty of the settlers
+died. Under these difficult circumstances, the energy and ability of
+Captain John Smith pointed him out as the only person to command, and by
+the consent of all he was invested with absolute authority. He arranged
+the internal affairs of the colony as he best could, and then set out to
+collect supplies in the neighboring country. The Indians met him with
+derision, and refused to trade with him; he therefore, urged by
+necessity, drove them away, and took possession of a village well
+stocked with provisions. The Indians soon returned in force and attacked
+him furiously, but were easily repulsed. After their defeat they opened
+a friendly intercourse, and furnished the required supplies. Smith made
+several further excursions. On returning to the colony, he found that a
+conspiracy had been formed among his turbulent followers to break up the
+settlement and sail for England; this he managed to suppress, and soon
+again started to explore the country. In this expedition he rashly
+exposed himself unprotected to the assaults of the Indians, and was
+taken prisoner after a most gallant attempt at escape. He was led about
+in triumph for some time from village to village, and at length
+sentenced to die. His head was laid upon a stone, and the executioner
+stood over him with a club, awaiting the signal to slay, when
+Pocahontas, daughter of the Indian chief, implored her father's mercy
+for the white man. He was inexorable, and ordered the execution to
+proceed; but the generous girl laid her head upon that of the intended
+victim, and vowed that the death blow should strike her first. The
+savage chief moved by his daughter's devotion, spared the prisoner's
+life.[303] Smith was soon afterward escorted in safety to Jamestown, and
+given up on a small ransom being paid to the Indians.[304] (1608.)
+
+Smith found, on his arrival, that the colonists were fitting out a
+pinnace to return to England. He, with ready decision, declared that the
+preparations should be discontinued immediately, or he would sink the
+little vessel. His prompt determination was successful, and the people
+agreed to remain. Through the generous kindness of Pocahontas, supplies
+of provisions were furnished to the settlement, till the arrival of a
+vessel from England, replenished its stores. Soon after his happy
+escape from the hands of the savages, Smith again started fearlessly
+upon an expedition to explore the remainder of Chesapeake Bay. He sailed
+in a small barge, accompanied only by twelve men, and with this slender
+force completed a voyage of 3000 miles along an unknown coast, among a
+fierce and generally hostile people, and depending on accident and his
+own ingenuity for supplies. During several years Pocahontas continued to
+visit the English, but her father was still hostile, and once endeavored
+to surprise Smith and slay him in the woods; but again the generous
+Indian girl saved his life at the hazard of her own: in a dark night she
+ran for many miles through the forest, evading the vigilance of her
+fierce countrymen, and warned him of the threatened danger. An open war
+now ensued between the English and the Indians, and was continued with
+great mutual injury, till a worthy gentleman named Thomas Rolfe, deeply
+interested by the person and character of Pocahontas, made her his wife;
+a treaty was then concluded with the Indian chief, which was henceforth
+religiously observed. (1613.)
+
+The colony[305] meanwhile proceeded with varied fortunes. The emigrants
+had been very badly selected for their task: "poor gentlemen, tradesmen,
+serving-men, libertines, and such like, ten times more fit to spoil a
+commonwealth than either to begin or maintain one." These men were
+tempted into the undertaking by hopes of sudden wealth, and were
+altogether disinclined to even the slight labor of tilling that
+exuberant soil, when only a subsistence was to be their reward. In 1619
+James commenced the system of transporting malefactors, by sending 100
+"dissolute persons" to Virginia. These men were used as laborers, or
+rather slaves, but tended seriously to lower the character of the
+voluntary emigration.[306] In 1625 only 1800 convicts remained alive out
+of 9000 who had been transported at a cost of L15,000.[308] The
+contracted and arbitrary system of the exclusive company was felt as a
+great evil in the colony.[309] This body was at length superseded by the
+forfeiture of its charter, and the crown assumed the direction of
+affairs. Many years of alternate anarchy and tyranny followed. During
+the rebellion of Bacon in 1676, the most remarkable event in this early
+period of Virginian history, English troops were first introduced into
+the American colonies. Sir William Berkeley, who was appointed governor
+in 1642, visited the insurrectionists with a terrible vengeance, when
+the death of the leader, Bacon, left them defenseless. "The old fool,"
+said Charles II. (with truth), "has taken away more lives in that naked
+country than I for the murder of my father." But, though the complaints
+of the oppressed were heard in England with impartiality, and Berkeley
+was hunted to death by public opinion on his return there to defend
+himself, the permanent results of Bacon's rebellion were disastrous to
+Virginia: all the measures of reform which had been attempted during
+its brief success were held void, and every restrictive feature that had
+been introduced into legislation by the detested governor was
+perpetuated.
+
+Among the first settlers in Virginia, gold was the great object, it was
+every where eagerly sought, but in vain. Several ships were loaded with
+a sort of yellow clay, and sent to England under the belief that it
+contained the most precious of metals, but it was found to be utterly
+worthless. The colonists next turned their attention to the cultivation
+of tobacco.[310] This speedily became so profitable that it was pursued
+even to the exclusion of all other industry.
+
+There yet remains to be told one terrible incident in the earlier story
+of Virginia, an incident that resulted in the total destruction of the
+Indian race. The successor to the father of Pocahontas had conceived a
+deadly enmity against the English: this was embittered from day to day,
+as he saw the hated white men multiplying and spreading over the hunting
+grounds of his fathers. Then a fierce determination took possession of
+his savage heart. For years he matured his plans, and watched the
+favorable moment to crush every living stranger at a blow. He took all
+his people into counsel, and such was their fidelity, and so deep the
+wile of the Indian chief, that, during four years of preparation, no
+warning reached the intended victims. To the last fatal moment, a
+studied semblance of cordial friendship was observed; some Englishmen,
+who had lost their way in the woods were kindly and carefully guided
+back again.
+
+One Friday morning (March 22d, 1622) the Indians came to the town in
+great numbers, bearing presents, and finding their way into every house.
+Suddenly the fierce shout of the savages broke the peaceful silence, and
+the death-shriek of their victims followed. In little more than a
+minute, three hundred and forty-seven, of all ages and sexes, were
+struck down in this horrid massacre. The warning of an Indian converted
+to Christianity saved Jamestown. The surviving English assembled there,
+and began a war of extermination against the savages. By united force,
+superior arms, and, it must be added, by treachery as black as that of
+their enemies, the white men soon swept away the Indian race forever
+from the Virginian, soil.[311]
+
+As has been before mentioned, the northern part of Virginia was bestowed
+by royal grant upon a Merchant Company of Plymouth, and other southern
+and western sea-ports. The first effort to take possession of the new
+territory was feeble and disastrous. Twenty-nine Englishmen and two
+Indians were sent out in a little bark of only fifty-five tons burden
+(1606); they were taken by the Spaniards off the coast of Hispaniola,
+who treated them with great cruelty. Some time after this ill-fated
+expedition had failed, another colony of 100 men, led by Captains Popham
+and Gilbert, settled on the River Sagadahock, and built a fort called by
+them St. George. (1607.) They abandoned the settlement, however, the
+following year, and returned to England. The next project of British
+North American colonization was set on foot by Captain John Smith,
+already so highly distinguished in transatlantic history. (1614.) After
+much difficulty, he effected the equipment of two vessels, and sailed
+for the Virginian shore; but, although successful as a trading
+speculation, the only permanent fruits of the voyage was a map of the
+coast, which he presented to Charles I. The king, always interested in
+maritime affairs, listened favorably to Smith's accounts of the New
+World, but proved either unable or unwilling to render him any useful
+assistance. The next year this brave adventurer again crossed the seas
+in a small vessel containing only sixteen emigrants. The little
+expedition was captured by the French, and the leader, with great
+difficulty, effected his return to England.
+
+Meanwhile, a man named Hunt, who had been left in charge of one of the
+ships in Smith's first expedition, committed an outrage upon the natives
+that led to deplorable results (1616); he inveigled thirty of them on
+board, carried them suddenly away, and sold them into slavery. The
+savages rose against the next English party that landed upon their
+coast, and killed and wounded several in revenge. Captain Dormer, a
+prudent and conciliatory person, with one of the betrayed natives, was
+sent by the company to explain to the furious Indians that Hunt's crime
+was the act of an individual, and not of the nation: this commission was
+well and wisely executed. For about two years Dormer frequently repeated
+his visits with advantage to his employers, but finally was attacked by
+strange savages and wounded fatally.
+
+But still, through all these difficulties and disasters, adventurers
+pressed on to the fertile Western desert, allured by liberal grants of
+land from the chartered companies. The undefined limits of these
+concessions led to constant and mischievous quarrels among the settlers,
+often attended with violence and bloodshed; from these causes the early
+progress of the colony was very slow. One hundred and twenty years after
+England had discovered North America, she only possessed a few scattered
+fishing huts along the shore. But events were now at hand which at once
+stamped a peculiar character upon the colonization of this part of the
+New World,[312] and which were destined to exercise an influence upon
+the human race of an importance even yet incalculable.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 288: See Preface to Bancroft's _History of the United
+States_.]
+
+[Footnote 289: "Sir Humphrey had published, in 1576, a treatise
+concerning a northwest passage to the East Indies, which, although
+tinctured with the pedantry of the age, is full of practical sense and
+judicious argument."--P.F. Tytler's _Life of Sir Walter Raleigh_, p.
+26.]
+
+[Footnote 290: "Sir Walter Raleigh, step-brother to Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert, was one of his companions in this enterprise, and, although it
+proved unsuccessful, the instructions of Sir Humphrey could not fail to
+be of service to Raleigh, who at this time was not much above
+twenty-five, while the admiral must have been in the maturity of his
+years and abilities."--Tytler, p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 291: "On its homeward passage, the small squadron of Gilbert
+was dispersed and disabled by a Spanish fleet, and many of the company
+were slain; but, perhaps owing to the disastrous issue of the fight, it
+has been slightly noticed by the English historians."--Oldy's _Life of
+Raleigh_, p. 28, 29.]
+
+[Footnote 292: Raleigh, who had by this time risen into favor with the
+queen, did not embark on the expedition, but he induced his royal
+mistress to take so deep an interest in its success, that, on the eve of
+its sailing from Plymouth, she commissioned him to convey to Sir H.
+Gilbert her earnest wishes for his success, with a special token of
+regard--a little trinket representing an anchor guided by a lady. The
+following was Raleigh's letter, written from the court: "Brother--I have
+sent you a token from her majesty, an anchor guided by a lady, as you
+see; and, further, her highness willed me to send you word that she
+wished you as great good hap and safety to your ship as if she herself
+were there in person, desiring you to have care of yourself as of that
+which she tendereth; and therefore, for her sake, you must provide for
+it accordingly. Farther, she commandeth that you leave your picture with
+me. For the rest, I leave till our meeting, or to the report of this
+bearer, who would needs be the messenger of this good news. So I commit
+you to the will and protection of God, who sends us such life and death
+as he shall please or hath appointed. Richmond, this Friday morning.
+Your true brother, WALTER RALEIGH."--This letter is indorsed as having
+been received March 18, 1582-3, and it may be remarked that it settles
+the doubt as to the truth of Prince's story of the golden anchor,
+questioned by Campbell in his _Lives of the Admirals_. In the
+_Heroologia Angliae_, p. 65, there is a fine print of Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert, taken evidently from an original picture; but, unlike the
+portrait mentioned by Granger, it does not bear the device mentioned in
+the text. Raleigh's letter explains this difference. When Sir Humphrey
+was at Plymouth, on the eve of sailing, the queen commands him, we see,
+to leave his picture with Raleigh. This must allude to a portrait
+already painted; and, of course, the golden anchor then sent could not
+be seen in it. Now, he perished on the voyage. The picture at Devonshire
+House, mentioned by Granger, which bears this honorable badge, must,
+therefore have been painted _after_ his death.--Tytler's _Raleigh_, p.
+45; Granger's _Biographical History_, vol. i., p. 246; Cayley, vol. i.,
+p. 31; Prince's _Worthies of Devonshire_.]
+
+[Footnote 293: "This ship was of 200 tons burden: it had been built
+under Raleigh's own eye, equipped at his expense, and commanded by
+Captain Butler, her master being Thomas Davis, of Bristol."--Tytler, p.
+44.]
+
+[Footnote 294: The _Delight_. The _Swallow_ had, a short time before,
+been sent home with some of the crew, who were sick. The remaining barks
+were the _Golden Hind_ and the _Squirrel_, the first of forty, the last
+of ten tons burden. For what reason does not appear, the admiral
+insisted, against the remonstrances of his officers and crew, in having
+his flag in the _Squirrel_. It was a fatal resolution. The larger
+vessel, the _Golden Hind_, arrived at Falmouth on the 22d September,
+1583.]
+
+[Footnote 295: See Captain Edward Haies's _Narrative of the Expedition
+of Sir Humphrey Gilbert_; Hakluyt, vol. iii., p. 143-159.]
+
+[Footnote 296: Oldy's _Life of Raleigh_, p. 58. The description given of
+Virginia by the two captains in command of the expedition (Captains
+Philip Amadas and Walter Barlow) was, that "the soil is the most
+plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all the world. We found the
+people most gentle, loving, faithful, void of all guile and treason, and
+such as lived after the manner of the Golden Age."]
+
+[Footnote 297: Unfortunately, on White's arrival in England, the nation
+was wholly engrossed by the expected invasion of the Spanish Armada, and
+Sir Richard Greenville, who was preparing to sail for Virginia, received
+notice that his services were wanted at home. Raleigh, however,
+contrived to send out White with two more vessels; but they were
+attacked by a Spanish ship of war, and so severely shattered that they
+were obliged to return. Another expedition could not be undertaken until
+1590; and no trace could then, or ever after, be found of the
+unfortunate colony left by White.
+
+"Robertson reproaches Raleigh with levity in now throwing up his scheme
+of a Virginian colony. But, really, when we consider that in the course
+of four years he had sent out seven successive expeditions, each more
+unfortunate than the other, and had spent L40,000--nearly his whole
+fortune--without the least prospect of a return, it can not be viewed as
+a very unaccountable caprice that he should get sick of the business,
+and be glad to transfer it into other hands."--Murray, vol. i., p. 254.]
+
+[Footnote 298: For an account of Sir Richard Greenville's death, see
+Appendix, No. LX. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 299: "The fundamental idea, of the older British colonial
+policy appears to have been, that wherever a man went, he carried with
+him the rights of an Englishman, whatever these were supposed to be. In
+the reign of James I., the state doctrine was, that most popular rights
+were usurpations; and the colonists of Virginia, sent out under the
+protection of government, were therefore placed under that degree of
+control which the state believed itself authorized to exercise at home.
+The Puritans exalted civil franchise to a republican pitch: their
+colonies were therefore republican; there was no such notion as that of
+an intermediate state of tutelage or semi-liberty. Hence the entire
+absence of solicitude on the part of the mother country to interfere
+with the internal government of the colonies arose not altogether from
+neglect, but partly from principle. This is remarkably proved by the
+fact that representative government was seldom expressly granted in the
+early charters; _it was assumed by the colonists as a matter of right_.
+Thus, to use the odd expression of the historian of Massachusetts, 'A
+house of burgesses broke out in Virginia,' in 1619,[300] almost
+immediately after its second settlement; and although the constitution
+of James contained no such element, it was at once acceded to by the
+mother country as a thing of course. No thought was ever seriously
+entertained of supplying the colonies with the elements of an
+aristocracy. Virginia was the only province of old foundation in which
+the Church of England was established; and there it was abandoned, with
+very little help, to the caprice or prejudices of the colonists, under
+which it speedily decayed. The Puritans enjoyed, undisturbed, their
+peculiar notions of ecclesiastical government. 'It concerned New England
+always to remember that they were originally a plantation religious, not
+a plantation of trade. And if any man among us make religion as twelve,
+and the world as thirteen, such an one hath not the spirit of a true New
+Englandman.' And when they chose to illustrate this noble principle by
+decimating their own numbers by persecution, and expelling from their
+limits all dissenters from their own establishment, the mother country
+never exerted herself to protect or prohibit. The only ambition of the
+state was to regulate the trade of its colonies: in this respect, and
+this only, they were fenced round with restrictions, and watched with
+the most diligent jealousy. They had a right to self-government and
+self-taxation; a right to religious freedom, in the sense which they
+chose themselves to put upon the word; a right to construct their
+municipal polity as they pleased; but no right to control or amend the
+slightest fiscal regulation of the imperial authority, however
+oppressively it might bear upon them.
+
+"Such, I say, were the general notions prevailing in England on the
+subject of colonial government during the period of the foundation and
+early development of our transatlantic colonies--the notions by which
+the practice of government was regulated--although I do not assert that
+they were framed into a consistent and logical theory. Perhaps we shall
+not be far wrong in regarding Lord Chatham as the last distinguished
+assertor of these principles, in an age when they had begun to be
+partially superseded by newer speculations."--Merivale _On
+Colonization_, vol. i., p. 102.]
+
+[Footnote 300: Hutchinson's _History of Massachusetts_, p. 94.]
+
+[Footnote 301: "In the spring of 1606, James I. by patent divided
+Virginia into two colonies. The _southern_ included all lands between
+the 34th and 41st degrees of north latitude. This was granted to the
+London Company. The _northern_ included all lands between the 38th and
+45th degrees of north latitude, and was granted to the Plymouth Company.
+To prevent disputes about territory, the colonies were forbidden to
+plant within a hundred miles of each other. There appears an
+inconsistency in these grants, as the lands lying between the 38th and
+41st degrees are covered by both patents.
+
+"In the month of August, 1615, Captain John Smith arrived in England,
+where he drew a map of the northern part of Virginia, and called it New
+England. From this time the name of Virginia was confined to the
+southern part of the colony."--Winterbottom's _History of America_, vol.
+iv., p. 165. See Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. i., p.
+120.]
+
+[Footnote 302: Percy, in Purchas, iv., 1687.]
+
+[Footnote 303: "This celebrated scene is preserved in a beautiful piece
+of sculpture over the western door of the Rotundo of the Capitol at
+Washington. The group consists of five figures, representing the precise
+moment when Pocahontas, by her interposition, saved Smith from being
+executed. It is the work of Capellano, a pupil of Canova's."--Thatcher's
+_Indian Biography_, vol. i., p. 22. See Appendix, No. LXI., (see Vol II)
+for the History of Pocahontas.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Smith, in Pinkerton, xiii., 51-55. "The account is fully
+contained in the oldest book printed in Virginia, in our Cambridge
+library. It is a thin quarto, in black letter, by John Smith, printed in
+1608."--Bancroft's _Hist. of the United States_, vol. i., p. 132.]
+
+[Footnote 305: In the year 1610, the South Virginian or London Company
+sealed a patent to Lord Delawarr, constituting him Governor and
+Captain-General of South Virginia. His name was given to a bay and
+river, and to the Indians who dwelt in the surrounding country, called
+in their own tongue Lenni-Lenape, which name signifies THE ORIGINAL
+PEOPLE. Lord Delawarr's health was ruined by the hardships and anxieties
+he was exposed to in Virginia, and he was obliged to return to England
+in little more than a year.]
+
+[Footnote 306: Captain Smith says of Virginia, "that the number of
+felons and vagabonds did bring such evil character on the place, that
+some did choose to be hanged rather than go there, and _were_."--Graham's
+_Rise and Progress of the United States_, vol. i., p. 71
+
+"England adopted in the seventeenth century the system of transportation
+to her North American plantations, and the example was propagated by
+Cromwell, who introduced the practice of selling his political captives
+as slaves to the West Indians. But the number of regular convicts was
+too small, and that of free laborers too large, in the old provinces of
+North America, to have allowed this infusion of a convict population to
+produce much effect on the development of those communities, either in
+respect of their morals or their health.[307] Our own times are the
+first which have witnessed the phenomena of communities, in which the
+bulk of the working people consists of felons serving out the period of
+their punishment."--Merrivale, vol. ii., p. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 307: It must be remembered that the crimes of the convicts
+were chiefly political. The number transported to Virginia for social
+crimes was never considerable--scarcely enough to sustain the sentiment
+of pride in its scorn of the laboring population--certainly not enough
+to affect its character.--Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 191.]
+
+[Footnote 308: Stith's _Hist. of Virginia_, p. 167, 168; Chalmers's
+_Annals of the United Colonies_, p. 69.]
+
+[Footnote 309: Stith's _Hist. of Virginia_, p. 307.]
+
+[Footnote 310: It is asserted by Camden that tobacco was first brought
+into England by Mr. Ralph Lane, who went out as chief governor of
+Virginia in the first expedition commanded by Sir Richard Greenville.
+There can be little doubt that Lane was desired to import it by his
+master, Sir Walter Raleigh, who had seen it used in France during his
+residence there.--Camden, in Kennet, vol. ii., p. 509.
+
+"There is a well-known tradition that Sir Walter first began to smoke it
+privately in his study, and the servant coming in with his tankard of
+ale and nutmeg, as he was intent upon his book, seeing the smoke issuing
+from his mouth, threw all the liquor in his face by way of extinguishing
+the fire, and, running down stairs, alarmed the family with piercing
+cries that his master, before they could get up, would be burned to
+ashes."--Oldy's _Life of Raleigh_, p. 74.
+
+"King James declared himself the enemy of tobacco, and drew against it
+his royal pen. In the work which he entitled 'Counterblast to Tobacco,'
+he poured the most bitter reproaches on this 'vile and nauseous weed.'
+He followed it up by a proclamation to restrain 'the disorderly trading
+in tobacco,' as tending to a general and new corruption of both men's
+bodies and minds. Parliament also took the fate of this weed into their
+most solemn deliberation. Various members inveighed against it, as a
+mania which infested the whole nation; that plowmen took it at the plow;
+that it 'hindered' the health of the whole nation, and that thousands
+had died of it. Its warmest friends ventured only to plead that, before
+the final anathema was pronounced against it, a little pause might be
+granted to the inhabitants of Virginia and the Somer's Isles to find
+some other means of existence and trade. James's enmity did not prevent
+him from endeavoring to fill his coffers by the most enormous imposts
+laid upon tobacco, insomuch that the colonists were obliged for some
+time to send the whole into the ports of Holland. The government of New
+England, more consistently, passed a complete interdict against tobacco,
+the smoke of which they compared to that of the bottomless pit. Yet
+tobacco, like other proscribed objects, throve under persecution, and
+achieved a final triumph over all its enemies. Indeed, the enmity
+against it was in some respects beneficial to Virginia, as drawing forth
+the most strict prohibitions against 'abusing and misemploying the soil
+of this fruitful kingdom' to the production of so odious an article.
+After all, as the impost for an average of seven years did not reach a
+hundred and fifty thousand pounds, it could not have that mighty
+influence, either for good or evil, which was ascribed to it by the
+fears and passions of the age."--Chalmers. b. i., ch. iii., with notes.
+Massaire, p. 210. Wives, p. 197, quoted by Murray.
+
+"Frenchmen they call those tobacco plants whose leaves do not spread and
+grow large, but rather spire upward and grow tall; these plants they do
+not tend, not being worth their labor."--Mr. Clayton's _Letter to the
+Royal Society_, 1688. _Miscellanea Curiosa_, vol. iii., p. 303-310.]
+
+[Footnote 311: The colonists of Virginia, in a kind of manifesto
+published in 1622, expressed their satisfaction at some late warlike
+excursions of the Indians as a pretext for robbing and subjugating them.
+"Now these cleared grounds in all their villages, which live situated in
+the fruitfullest parts of the land, shall be inhabited by us, whereas
+heretofore the grubbing of woods was the greatest labor. The way of
+conquering them is much more easy than that of civilizing them by fair
+means; for they are a rude, barbarous, and naked people, scattered in
+small companies, which are helps to victory, but hinderances to
+civility."--_Tracts relating to Virginia in the British Museum_, quoted
+by Merrivale. See Appendix, No. LXII. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 312: "Il faut envisager surtout l'influence qu'a exercee le
+Nouveau Continent sur les destinees du genre humain sous le rapport des
+institutions sociales. La tourmente religieuse du seizieme siecle, en
+favorisant l'essor d'une libre reflexion, a prelude a la tourmente
+politique des temps dans lesquels nous vivons. Le premier de ces
+mouvemens a coincide avec l'epoque de l'etablissement des colonies
+Europeennes en Amerique; le second s'est fait sentir vers la fin du
+dix-huitieme siecle, et a fini par briser les liens de dependance qui
+unissaient les deux mondes. Une circonstance sur laquelle on n'a
+peut-etre pas assez fixe l'attention publique et qui tient a ces causes
+mysterieuses dont a dependu la distribution inegale du genre humain sur
+le globe, a favorisee, on pourrait dire, a rendre possible l'influence
+politique que je viens de signaler. Une moitie du globe est restee si
+faiblement peuple que, malgre le long travail d'une civilisation
+indigene, qui a eu lieu entre les decouvertes de Lief et de Colomb, sur
+les cotes Americaines opposees a l'Asie, d'immenses pays dans la partie
+orientale n'offroient au quinzieme siecle que des tribus eparses de
+peuples chasseurs. Cet etat de depopulation dans des pays fertiles et
+eminemment aptes a la culture de nos cereales, a permis aux Europeens
+d'y fonder des etablissemens sur une echelle qu'aucune colonisation de
+l'Asie et de l'Afrique n'a pu atteindre. Les peuples chasseurs ont ete
+refoules des cotes orientales vers l'interieur, et dans le nord de
+l'Amerique, sous des climats et des aspects de vegetation tres analogues
+a ceux des iles Britanniques, il s'est forme par emigration, des la fin
+de l'annee 1620, des communautes dont les institutions se presentent
+comme le reflet des institutions libres de la mere patrie. La Nouvelle
+Angleterre n'etoit pas primitivement un etablissement d'industrie et de
+commerce, comme le sont encore les factoreries de l'Afrique; ce n'etoit
+pas une domination sur les peuples agricoles d'une race differente,
+comme l'empire Britannique dans l'Inde, et pendant longtemps, l'empire
+Espagnole au Mexique et au Perou. La Nouvelle Angleterre, qui a recu une
+premiere colonisation de quatre mille familles de puritains, dont
+descend aujourd'hui un tiers de la population blanche des Etats Unis,
+etoit un etablissement religieux. La liberte civile s'y montrait des
+l'origine inseparable de la liberte du culte. Or l'histoire nous revele
+que les institutions libres de l'Angleterre, de la Hollande, et de la
+Suisse, malgre leur proximite, n'ont pas reagi sur les peuples de
+l'Europe latine, comme ce reflet de formes de gouvernemens entierement
+democratiques qui, loin de tout ennemi exterieur, favorises par une
+tendance uniforme et constante de souvenirs et de vielles moeurs, ont
+pris dans un calme longtemps prolonge, des developpemens inconnus aux
+temps modernes. C'est ainsi que le manque de population dans des regions
+des Nouveau Continent opposees a l'Europe, et le libre et prodigieux
+accroissement d'une colonisation Anglaise audela de la grande vallee de
+l'Atlantique, a puissamment contribue a changer la face politique et les
+destinees de l'ancien continent. On a affirme que si Colomb n'avoit pas
+change, selon les conseils d'Alonzo Pinzon,[313] le 7 Octobre, 1492, la
+direction de sa route, qui etoit de l'est a l'ouest, et gouverne vers le
+sud-ouest, il seroit entre dans le courant d'eau chaude ou Gulf Stream,
+et auroit ete porte vers la Floride, et de la peut-etre vers le cap
+Hatteras et la Virginie, incident d'une immense importance, puisqu'il
+auroit pu donner aux Etats Unis, en lieu d'une population Protestante
+Anglaise, une population Catholique Espagnole."--Humboldt's _Geog. du
+Nouveau Continent_, tom. iii., p. 163.]
+
+[Footnote 313: Alonzo s'etoit ecrie "que son coeur lui disoit que pour
+trouver la terre, il falloit gouverner vers le sud-ouest." L'inspiration
+d'Alonzo etoit moins mysteriuse qu'elle peut le paraitre au premier
+abord. Pinzon avoit vu dans la soiree passer des perroquets, et il
+savoit que ces oiseaux n'alloient pas sans motif du cote du sud. Jamais
+vol d'oiseau n'a eu des suites plus graves.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+
+The Protestant Reformation was eminently suited to the spirit of the
+English people, although forced upon them in the first instance by the
+absolute power of a capricious king, and unaccompanied by any
+acknowledgment of those rights of toleration and individual judgment
+upon which its strength seemed mainly to depend. The monarch, when
+constituted the head of the Church, exacted the same spiritual obedience
+from his subjects as they had formerly rendered to the Pope of Rome.
+Queen Elizabeth adopted her father's principles: she favored the power
+of the hierarchy, and the pomp and ceremony of external religious
+observances. But the English people, shocked by the horrors of Mary's
+reign, and terrified by the papal persecutions on the Continent, were
+generally inclined to favor the extremes of Calvinistic simplicity, as a
+supposed security against another reaction to the Romish faith. The
+stern and despotic queen, encouraged by the counsels of Archbishop
+Whitgift, assumed the groundless right of putting down the opinions of
+the Puritans by force. (1583.) Various severities were exercised against
+those who held the obnoxious doctrines; but, despite the storm of
+persecution, the spirit of religious independence spread rapidly among
+the sturdy people of England. At length a statute was passed of a nature
+now almost incredible--secession from the Church was punishable by
+banishment, and by death in case of refusal on return.[314] (1593.)
+
+The Puritans were thus driven to extremity.[315] The followers of an
+enthusiastic seceder named Brown[316] formed the first example of an
+independent system: each congregation was in itself a Church, and the
+spiritual power was wholly vested in its members. This sect was
+persecuted to the uttermost: the leader was imprisoned in no less than
+thirty-two different places, and many of his followers suffered death
+itself for conscience' sake. Some of the Brownists took refuge in
+Holland[317] (1598); but, impelled by a longing for an independent home,
+or perhaps urged by the mysterious impulse of their great destiny, they
+cast their eyes upon that stern Western shore, where the untrodden
+wilderness offered them at least the "freedom to worship God." They
+applied to the London Company for a grant of land, declaring that they
+were "weaned from the delicate milk of their native country, and knit
+together in a strict and sacred band, whom small things could not
+discourage, nor small discontents cause to wish themselves home again."
+After some delay they accomplished their object; however, the only
+security they could obtain for religious independence was a promise
+that, as long they demeaned themselves quietly, no inquiry should be
+made.[318]
+
+Much of the history of nations may be traced through the foundation and
+progress of their colonies. Each particular era has shown, in the
+settlements of the time, types of the several mother countries, examples
+of their systems, and the results of their exigencies. At one time this
+type is of an adventurous, at another of a religious character; now
+formed by political, again by social influences. The depth and
+durability of this impress may be measured by the strength of the first
+motives, and the genius of the people from whom the emigration
+flows.[319] The ancient colonies of Asia Minor displayed the original
+characteristics of the mother country long after her states had become
+utterly changed. The Roman settlements in Italy raised upon the ruins of
+a subjugated nation a fabric of civilization and power that can never be
+forgotten. The proud and adventurous, but ruthless spirit that
+distinguished the Spanish nation at the time of their wonderful
+conquests in the New World, is still exhibited in the haughty tyranny of
+Cuba, and the sanguinary struggles of the South American republics. The
+French Canadian of to-day retains most or many of the national
+sentiments of those who crossed the Atlantic to extend the power of
+France and of her proudest king. And still, in that great Anglo-Saxon
+nation of the West, through the strife of democratic ambition, and amid
+the toils and successes of an enormous commerce, we trace the
+foundations, overgrown perhaps, but all unshaken, of that stern edifice
+of civil and religious liberty[322] which the Pilgrim fathers raised
+with their untiring labor, and cemented with their blood.
+
+The peculiar nature of the first New England emigration was the result
+of those strong tendencies of the British people soon afterward
+strengthened into a determination sufficiently powerful to sacrifice
+the monarch and subvert the Church and State.
+
+The Brownists, or, as they are more happily called, the Pilgrim fathers,
+set sail on the 12th of July, 1620, in two small vessels. There were in
+all 120 souls, with a moderate supply of provisions and goods. On the
+9th of November they reached Cape Cod, after a rough voyage; they had
+been obliged to send one of their ships back to England. From ignorance
+of the coast and from the lateness of the season, they could not find
+any very advantageous place of settlement; they finally fixed upon New
+Plymouth,[323] where they landed on the 21st of December. During the
+remainder of the winter they suffered terribly from cold, want, and
+sickness; no more than fifty remained alive when spring came to mitigate
+their sufferings. The after progress of the little colony was for some
+time slow and painful. The system of common property[324] had excited
+grievous discontent; this tended to create an aversion to labor that was
+to be productive of no more benefit to the industrious than to the idle;
+in a short time it became necessary to enforce a certain degree of
+exertion by the punishment of whipping. They intrusted all religious
+matters to the gifted among their brethren, and would not allow of the
+formation of any regular ministry. However, the unsuitableness of these
+systems to men subject to the usual impulses and weakness of human
+nature soon became obvious, and the first errors were gradually
+corrected. In the course of ten years the population reached to 300, and
+the settlement prospered considerably.
+
+King James was not satisfied with the slow progress of American
+colonization. (1620.) In the same year that the Pilgrim fathers landed
+at Plymouth, he formed a new company under the title of the Grand
+Council of Plymouth,[325] and appointed many people of rank and
+influence to its direction. Little good, however, resulted from this
+step. Though the council itself was incapable of the generous project of
+planting colonies, it was ever ready to make sale of patents, which
+sales, owing to Parliamentary opposition to their claims, soon became
+their only source of revenue.[326] They sold to some gentlemen of
+Dorchester a belt of land stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
+and extending three miles south of the River Charles, and three miles
+north of _every_ part of the River Merrimac. Other associates in the
+enterprise were sought and found in and about London: Winthrop, Johnson,
+Pinchon, Eaton, Saltonstall, Billingham, famous in colonial annals.
+Endicott, the first governor of the new colony, was one of the original
+purchasers of the patent. They were all kindred spirits, men of
+religious fervor, uniting the emotions of enthusiasm with unbending
+resolution in action.
+
+The first winter brought to these colonists the usual privation,
+suffering, and death, but a now rapidly-increasing emigration more than
+filled up the places of all casualties. From this period, many men of
+respectability and talent,[327] especially ministers of the Gospel,
+sought that religious freedom[328] in America which was denied them at
+home. A general impulse was given among the commercial and industrious
+classes; vessels constantly crowded from the English ports across the
+Atlantic, till at length the court took the alarm. A proclamation was
+issued "to restrain the disorderly transportation of his majesty's
+subjects, because of the many idle and refractory humors, 'whose only or
+principal end is to live beyond the reach of authority.'" It has long
+been a popular story that eight emigrant ships were seized when on the
+point of sailing for America, and the passengers forced to land; among
+whom were John Hampden,[329] Sir Arthur Hazlerig, and Oliver Cromwell.
+This tale has, however, been proved untrue by modern historians.[330]
+
+Notwithstanding these unjust and mischievous prohibitions, a
+considerable number of emigrants still found their way across the
+Atlantic. But when the outburst of popular indignation swept away all
+the barriers raised by a short-sighted tyranny against English freedom,
+many flocked hack again to their native country to enjoy its
+newly-acquired liberty. (1648.) The odious and iniquitous persecution of
+the Puritans resulted in a great benefit to the human race, and gave the
+first strong impulse to the spirit of resistance that ultimately
+overthrew oppression. It caused, also, the colonization of New England
+to be effected by a class of men far superior in industry, energy,
+principle, and character to those who usually left their English homes
+to seek their fortunes in new countries. That religion, for which they
+had made so great a sacrifice, was the main-spring of all their social
+and political systems. They were, however, too blindly zealous to
+discriminate between the peculiar administration of a theocracy and the
+catholic and abiding principles of the Gospel. If they did not openly
+profess that the judicial law of Moses was still in force, they at any
+rate openly practiced its stern enactments.
+
+The intolerance of these martyrs of intolerance is a sad example of
+human waywardness.[331] In their little commonwealth, seceders from the
+established forms of faith were persecuted with an unholy zeal.
+Imprisonment, banishment, and even death itself, were inflicted for that
+free exercise of religious opinions which the Pilgrim fathers had
+sacrificed all earthly interests to win for themselves. In those dark
+days of fanatic faith or vicious skepticism, the softening influence of
+true Christianity was but little felt. The stern denunciations and
+terrible punishments of the Old Testament were more suited to the iron
+temper of the age than the gentle dispensations of the New--the fiery
+zeal of Joshua than the loving persuasiveness of St. John.
+
+As the tenets of each successive sect rose into popularity and
+influenced the majority, they became state questions,[332] distracted
+the Church, and threatened the very existence of the colony. The first
+schism that disturbed the peace of the settlements was raised by Roger
+Williams at Salem. (1635.) This worthy and sincere enthusiast held many
+just and sound views among others that were wild and injurious: he
+stoutly upheld freedom of conscience, and inconveniently contested the
+right of the British crown to bestow Indian lands upon Englishmen. On
+the other hand, he contrived to raise a storm of fanatic hatred against
+the red cross in the banner of St. George, which seriously disturbed
+the state,[333] and led to violent writings and altercations. At length
+Williams was banished as a distractor of the public peace, but a popular
+uproar attended his departure, and the greater part of the inhabitants
+were with difficulty dissuaded from following him. He retired to
+Providence, Rhode Island[334] (1636), where a little colony soon settled
+round him, and he there lived and died in general esteem and
+regard.[335]
+
+The Antinomian sect shortly after excited a still more dangerous
+commotion in the colony. (1637.) Mrs. Hutchinson, a Lincolnshire lady of
+great zeal and determination, joined by nearly the whole female
+population, adopted these views in the strongest manner. The ministers
+of the church, although decided Calvinists, and firmly opposed to the
+Romish doctrines of salvation by works, earnestly pressed the
+reformation of heart and conduct as a test of religion. Mrs. Hutchinson
+and her followers held that to inculcate any rule of life or manners was
+a crime against the Holy Spirit; in their actual deportment, however, it
+must be confessed that their bitterest enemies could not find grounds of
+censure. With the powerful advocacy of female zeal, these doctrines
+spread rapidly, and the whole colony was soon divided between "the
+covenant of works and the covenant of grace;" the ardor and obstinacy of
+the disputants being by no means proportioned to their full
+understanding of the point[336] in dispute. Sir Harry Vane,[337] whose
+rank and character had caused him to be elected governor in spite of
+his youth, zealously adopted Antinomian opinions, and, in consequence,
+was ejected from office by the opposite party at the ensuing election,
+Mrs. Hutchinson having failed to secure in the country districts that
+superiority which she possessed in the town of Boston.[338] After some
+ineffectual efforts to reconcile the seceders to the Church, the new
+governor and the ministers summoned a general synod of the colonial
+clergy to meet at Cambridge, where, after some very turbulent
+proceedings, the whole of the Antinomian doctrines were condemned.
+
+As might have been supposed, this condemnation had but little effect.
+The obnoxious principles were preached as widely and zealously as
+before, till the civil authority resorted to the rude argument of force,
+banished Mr. Wheelwright, one of the leaders, with two of his followers,
+from the colony, and fined and disfranchised others. Mrs. Hutchinson was
+ultimately accused, condemned, and ordered to leave the colony in six
+months. Although she made a sort of recantation of her errors, her
+inexorable judges insisted in carrying out the sentence.[339] The
+unhappy lady removed to Rhode Island, where her husband, through her
+influence, was elected governor, and where she was followed by many of
+her devoted adherents. (1638.) Thus the persecutions in the old
+settlement of Massachusetts had the same effect as those in England--of
+elevating a few stubborn recusants into the founders of states and
+nations. After her husband's death Mrs. Hutchinson removed into a
+neighboring Dutch settlement, where she and all her family met with a
+dreadful fate; they were surprised by the Indians, and every one
+destroyed. (1643.)
+
+Although by these violent and unjust punishments, and by disarming the
+disaffected, the Antinomian spirit was for a time put down, unity was by
+no means restored. Pride and the love of novelty continually gave birth
+to new sects. Ministers, who had possessed the highest reputation in
+England, saw with sorrow that their colonial churches were neglected for
+the sake of ignorant and mischievous enthusiasts. Even common
+profligates and rogues, when other lesser villainies had failed, assumed
+the hypocritical semblance of some peculiar religion, and enjoyed their
+day of popularity.
+
+The Anabaptists next carried away the fickle affections of the
+multitude, and excited the enmity of their rulers. (1643.) This schism
+first became perceptible by people leaving the church when the rites of
+baptism were being administered; but at length private meetings for
+worship were held, attended by large congregations. The magistrates, as
+usual, practiced great severities against these seceders, first by fine,
+imprisonment, and even whipping; finally by banishment. The Anabaptists
+were, however, not put down by the arm of power, but were speedily
+forgotten in the sudden appearance of a stranger sect than any that had
+hitherto appeared even in New England.
+
+The people called Quakers had lately made their appearance in the north
+of England. (1648.) They soon found their way to America, where they
+were received with bitter hostility from the commencement. (1656.) The
+dangerous enthusiasts who first went forth to preach the doctrines of
+this strange sect were very different men from those who now command the
+respect and good will of all classes by their industry, benevolence, and
+love of order. The original propagandists believed that the divine
+government was still administered on earth by direct and special
+communication, as in the times chronicled by Holy Writ: they therefore
+despised and disregarded all human authorities. To actual force, indeed,
+they only opposed a passive resistance; and their patience and
+obstinacy in carrying out this principle must excite astonishment, if
+not admiration. But their language was most violent and abusive against
+all priests and ministers, governors and magistrates.[340] The women of
+this novel persuasion were even more fanatic than the men. Several
+leaving their husbands and children in England, crossed the seas to bear
+witness to their inspiration at Boston. They were, however, rudely
+received, their books burned, and themselves either imprisoned or
+scourged and banished. Nowise intimidated by these severities, several
+other women brought upon themselves the vengeance of the law by frantic
+and almost incredible demonstrations; and a man named Faubord endeavored
+to sacrifice his first-born son under a supposed command from Heaven.
+
+The ministers and magistrates came to the conclusion that the colony
+could never enjoy peace while the Quakers continued among them. These
+sectarians were altogether unmanageable by the means of ordinary power
+or reason; they would neither pay fines nor work in prison, nor, when
+liberated, promise to amend their conduct. The government now enacted
+still more violent laws against them, one, among others, rendering them
+liable to have their ears cut off for obstinacy; and yet this strange
+fanaticism increased from day to day. At length the Quakers were
+banished from the colony, under the threat of death in case of return.
+They were, however, scarcely beyond the borders when a supposed
+inspiration prompted them to retrace their steps to Boston: scarcely had
+their absence been observed, when their solemn voices were again heard
+denouncing the city of their persecutors.
+
+The horrible law decreeing the punishment of death against the Quakers
+had only been carried by a majority of thirteen to twelve in the
+Colonial Court of Deputies, and after a strong opposition; but, to the
+eternal disgrace of the local government, its atrocious provisions were
+carried into effect, and four of the unhappy fanatics were judicially
+murdered. The tidings of these executions filled England with horror.
+Even Charles II. was moved to interpose the royal power for the
+protection of at least the lives of the obnoxious sectarians. He issued
+a warrant on the 9th of September, 1661, absolutely prohibiting the
+punishment of death against Quakers, and directing that they should be
+sent to England for trial. In consequence of this interference, no more
+executions took place, but other penalties were continued with unabated
+severity.
+
+While the persecution of the Quakers and Anabaptists raged in New
+England, an important addition to the numbers of the colonists was
+gained, a large body of Nonconformists having fled across the Atlantic
+from a fresh assault commenced against their liberties by Charles II.
+This Puritan emigration was regarded with great displeasure by the king.
+He speedily took an opportunity of arbitrarily depriving the colony of
+its charter, and sent out Sir Edmund Andros to administrate as absolute
+governor. The country soon felt painfully the despotic tyranny of their
+new ruler; and the establishment of an English Church, with the usual
+ritual, spread general consternation. When James ascended the throne, a
+proclamation of tolerance somewhat allayed the fears of the settlers;
+but the administration of temporal affairs became ruinously oppressive.
+On the pretense that the titles of all land obtained under the old
+charter had become void by its abrogation, new and exorbitant fees were
+exacted, heavy and injudicious taxes arbitrarily imposed, and all right
+of representation denied to the colonists. At length, in the year 1689,
+a man, named Winslow, brought from Virginia the joyful news of the
+Prince of Orange's proclamation; he was immediately arrested for
+treason; but the people rose tumultuously, imprisoned the governor, and
+re-established the authority of their old magistrates. On the 26th of
+May, a vessel arrived with the intelligence that William and Mary had
+been proclaimed in England. Although the new monarch declared himself
+favorably disposed toward the colonists, he did not restore their
+beloved charter. He, however, granted them a Constitution nearly similar
+to that of the mother country, which rendered the people of New England
+tolerably contented.
+
+The colony was now fated to suffer from a delusion more frantic and
+insane than any it had hitherto admitted, and which compromised its very
+existence. The New Englanders had brought with them the belief in
+witchcraft prevalent among the early reformers, and the wild and savage
+wilderness where their lot was now cast tended to deepen the impressions
+of superstition upon their minds. Two young girls, of the family of Mr.
+Paris, minister of Salem, were suddenly afflicted with a singular
+complaint, probably of an hysterical character, which baffled the united
+skill of the neighboring physicians; till one, more decided than the
+rest, declared that the sufferers were bewitched. From this time prayers
+and fasting were the remedies adopted, and the whole town of Salem at
+length joined in a day of humiliation. The patients, however, did not
+improve, till an Indian servingwoman denounced another, named Tituba, as
+the author of the evil. Mr. Paris assailed the accused, and tortured her
+in the view of extracting a confession of guilt, which she at length
+made, with many absurd particulars, hoping to appease her persecutor.
+From this time the mischievous folly spread wider; a respectable
+clergyman, Mr. Burroughs, was tried for witchcraft on the evidence of
+five women, and condemned to death, his only defense being that he was
+accused of that which had no existence, and was impossible. New charges
+multiplied daily; the jails of Salem were full of the accused, and
+prisoners were transferred to other towns, where the silly infection
+spread, and filled the whole colony with alarm.
+
+Nothing could afford stronger proof of the hold which this sad delusion
+had taken of the popular mind than the readiness so constantly displayed
+by the accused to confess the monstrous imputation, whose punishment was
+infamy and death. Many detailed long consultations held with Satan for
+the purpose of overthrowing the kingdom of heaven. In some cases these
+confessions were the result of distempered understandings; but,
+generally, they may be attributed to the hope of respite and ultimate
+reprieve, as none but the supposed impenitent sorcerers were executed.
+Thus only the truthful and conscientious suffered from the effects of
+this odious insanity. Some among the wretched people who had confessed
+witchcraft showed a subsequent disposition to retract. A man named
+Samuel Wardmell, having solemnly recanted his former statement, was
+tried, condemned, and executed. Despite this terrible warning, a few
+others followed the conscientious but fatal example. Every one of the
+sufferers during this dreadful period protested their innocence to the
+last. It seems difficult to discover any adequate motives for these
+atrocious and constant accusations. There is too much reason to believe
+that the confiscation of the condemned persons' property, malice against
+the accused, a desire to excite the public mind, and gain the notice and
+favor of those in power, were generally the objects of the witnesses.
+
+The evil at length attained such a frightful magnitude that the firmest
+believers in witchcraft began to waver. In two months nineteen unhappy
+victims had been executed, eight more remained under sentence of death,
+150 accused were still in prison, and there was no more room for the
+crowds daily brought in. No character or position was a shield against
+these absurd imputations; all lay at the mercy of a few mad or malignant
+beings. The first mitigation of the mischief was effected by the
+governor assembling the ministers to discuss whether what was called
+specter evidence should be held sufficient for the condemnation of the
+accused. The assembly decided against that particular sort of evidence
+being conclusive; but, at the same time, exhorted the governor to
+persevere in the vigorous prosecution of witchcraft, "according to the
+wholesome statutes of the English nation."[341] Public opinion,
+however, soon began to run strongly against those proceedings, and
+finally the governor took the bold step of pardoning all these under
+sentence for witchcraft, throwing open all the prisons, and turning a
+deaf ear to every accusation (January, 1693). From that time the
+troubles of the afflicted were heard of no more. Those who had confessed
+came forward to retract or disclaim their former statements, and the
+most active judges and persecutors publicly expressed contrition for the
+part they had taken in the fatal and almost incredible insanity. In the
+reaction that ensued, many urged strict inquiry into the fearful
+prejudices that had sacrificed innocent lives; but so general had been
+the crime, that it was deemed wisest to throw a vail of oblivion over
+the whole dreadful scene.[342]
+
+While the settlers of New England were distracted by their own madness
+and intolerance, they had to contend with great external difficulties
+from the animosity of the Indians. The native races in this part of the
+continent appear to have been in some respects superior to those
+dwelling by the shores of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lake. They
+acknowledged the absolute power of a sachem or king, which gave a
+dangerous vigor and unity to their actions. They at first received the
+English with hospitality and kindness, and the colonists, on their part,
+passed laws to protect not only the persons of the natives, but to
+insure them an equitable price for their lands. The narrowed limits of
+their hunting-grounds, however, and the rapid advance of the white men,
+soon began to alarm the Indians.[343] When their jealousy was thus
+aroused, occasions of quarrel speedily presented themselves; the baneful
+influence of strong liquors, largely furnished in spite of the strictest
+prohibitions, increased their excitement. Some Englishmen were slain;
+the murderers were seized, tried, and executed by the colonial
+government, according to British law. These proceedings kindled a deep
+resentment among the savages, and led to measures of retaliation at
+their hands.
+
+It has been an unfortunate feature of European settlement in America,
+that the border population, those most in contact with the natives, have
+been visually men of wild and desperate character, the tainted foam of
+the advancing tide of civilization. Those reckless adventurers were
+little scrupulous in their dealings with the simple savage; they utterly
+disregarded those rights which his weakness could not defend, and by
+intolerable provocation excited him to a bloody but futile resistance.
+The Indians naturally confounded the whole English race with these
+contemptuous oppressors, and commenced a war that resulted in their own
+extermination. They did not face the English in the field, but hovered
+round the border, and, with sudden surprise, overwhelmed detached posts
+and settlements in a horrible destruction. The astute colonists soon
+adopted the policy of forming alliances, and taking advantage of ancient
+enmities to stir up hostilities among them. By this means they
+accomplished the destruction of the warlike Pequods,[344] their
+bitterest foes. Other enemies, however, soon came into the field, and
+at length, the original allies of the English, jealous of the
+encroaching power of the white strangers, also took arms against them.
+The Indian chiefs, after a time, began to adopt European tactics of war,
+and for many years kept the colony in alarm by their formidable attacks:
+they were, however, finally driven altogether from the field.
+
+The New England settlers showed more sincerity than other adventurers in
+endeavoring to accomplish their principal professed object of
+colonization, that of teaching Christianity to the Indians.[345] They
+appointed zealous and pious ministers for the mission,[346] and
+established a seminary for the education of the natives, whence some
+scholars were to be selected to preach the Gospel among their savage
+countrymen. Great obstacles were encountered in this good work; the
+Indians showed a bigoted attachment to their own strange religious
+conceits, and their priests and conjurers used all their powerful
+influence against Christianity, denouncing in furious terms all who
+forsook their creed for the English God. Despite these difficulties, a
+number of savages were induced to form themselves in villages, and lead
+a civilized[347] and Christian life, under the guidance of ministers of
+their own race.[348] In a few years thirty congregations of "praying
+Indians,"[349] their numbers amounting to 3000, were established in
+Massachusetts.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 314: 35 Eliz., c. 1, stat. 4, p. 841-843; _Parl. Hist._, p.
+863; Strype's _Whitgift_, p. 414, &c.; Neale's _Puritans_, vol. i., p.
+526, 527, quoted by Bancroft, vol. i., p. 290.]
+
+[Footnote 315: "The _Gospel Advocate_ asserts that 'the judicial law of
+Moses being still in force, no prince or law ought to save the lives of
+(_inter alios_) heretics, willful breakers of the Sabbath, neglecters of
+the sacrament without just reason.' Well may the historian of the
+Puritans (Neale) say, 'Both parties agreed in asserting the necessity of
+a uniformity of public worship, _and of using the sword of the
+magistrate in support of their respective principles_.' It should never
+be forgotten by those who are inclined to blame the severe laws passed
+against these Nonconformists, that the English government was dealing
+with men whose avowed wish and object it was not simply to be tolerated,
+but to subvert existing institutions in Church and State, and set up in
+their place those approved by themselves."--Godley's _Letters from
+America_, vol. ii., p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 316: "The most noisy advocate of the new opinions was Brown, a
+man of rashness, possessing neither true courage nor constancy. He has
+acquired historical notoriety because his hot-headed indiscretion urged
+him to undertake the defense of separation.... Brown eventually
+purchased a living in the English Church by conformity."--Bancroft's
+_History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 287.]
+
+[Footnote 317: "But, although Holland is a country of the greatest
+religious freedom, they were not better satisfied there than in England.
+They were tolerated, indeed, but watched. Their zeal began to have
+dangerous languor for want of opposition, and being without power and
+influence, they grew tired of the indolent security of their sanctuary.
+They were desirous of removing to a country where they should see no
+superior."--Russell's _Modern Europe_, vol. ii., p. 427.
+
+"They were restless from the consciousness of ability to act a more
+important part on the theater of the world ... they were moved by an
+enlightened desire of improving their condition ... the honorable
+ambition of becoming the founders of a state."--Bancroft's _History of
+the United States_, vol. i., p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 318: This was a promise from James I., who had now succeeded
+to the throne of England.]
+
+[Footnote 319: "A strongly-marked distinction exists between the
+Southern and Northern Americans. The two extremes are formed by the New
+Englanders[320] and the Virginians. The former are certainly the more
+respectable. They are industrious, frugal, enterprising, regular in
+their habits, pure in their manners, and strongly impressed with
+sentiments of religion. The name Yankee, which we apply as one of
+reproach and derision to Americans in general, is assumed by them as
+their natural and appropriate designation.[321] It is a common proverb
+in America, that a Yankee will live where another would starve. Their
+very prosperity, however, with a certain reserve in their character, and
+supposed steady attention to small gains, renders them not excessively
+popular with those among whom they settle. They are charged with a
+peculiar species of finesse, called 'Yankee tricks,' and the character
+of being 'up to every thing' is applied to them, we know not exactly
+how, in a sense of reproach. The Virginian planter, on the contrary, is
+lax in principle, destitute of industry, eager in the pursuit of rough
+pleasures, and demoralized by the system of negro slavery, which exists
+in almost a West Indian form. Yet, with all the Americans who attempt to
+draw the parallel, he seems rather the favorite. He is frank,
+open-hearted, and exercising a splendid hospitality. Both Cooper and
+Judge Hall report him as a complete gentleman; by which they evidently
+mean, not the finished courtier, but the English country gentleman or
+squire, though the opening afforded by the political constitution of his
+country causes him to cultivate his mind more by reading and inquiry. A
+large proportion of the most eminent and ruling statesmen in
+America--Washington, Jefferson, Madison--were Virginians. Surrounded
+from their infancy with ease and wealth, accustomed to despise, and to
+see despised, money on a small scale, and no laborious exertions made
+for its attainment, they imbibe from youth the habits and ideas of the
+higher classes. Luxurious living, gaming, horse-racing, cock-fighting,
+and other rough, turbulent amusements, absorb a great portion of their
+life. Although, therefore, the leisure enjoyed by them, when well
+improved, may have produced some very elevated and accomplished
+characters, they can not, taken at the highest, be considered so
+respectable a class as their somewhat despised northern brethren; and
+the lower ranks are decidedly in a state of comparative moral
+debasement."--Murray, vol. ii., p. 394.]
+
+[Footnote 320: Descendants of the Puritans.]
+
+[Footnote 321: "The word Yankees (which is the Indian corruption of
+English _Yengeese_) is both offensive and incorrect as applied to any
+but New Englanders."--Godley's _Letters from America_.]
+
+[Footnote 322: "James I. ranked among their party, as much as he was
+able by severe usage, all those who stood up in defense even of civil
+liberty."--Bolingbroke's _Remarks upon English History_, p. 283.]
+
+[Footnote 323: "In memory of the hospitalities which the company had
+received at the last English port from which they had sailed, this
+oldest New England colony obtained the name of Plymouth. The two vessels
+which conveyed the Pilgrim fathers from Delft Haven were the _Mayflower_
+and the _Speedwell_. The Mayflower alone proceeded to America."--Bancroft,
+vol. i., p. 313.]
+
+[Footnote 324: "Under the influence of this wild notion, the colonists
+of New Plymouth, in imitation of the primitive Christians, threw all
+their property into a common stock."--Robertson's _America_, book x. One
+of the many errors with which the volume of Robertson teems. There was
+no attempt at imitating the primitive Christians; the partnership was a
+consequence of negotiation with British merchants; the colonists
+preferred the system of private property, and acted upon it, as far and
+as soon as was possible.--Bancroft's _History of the United States_,
+vol. i., p. 306.]
+
+[Footnote 325: "The remonstrances of the Virginia corporation and a
+transient regard for the rights of the country could delay, but could
+not defeat, a measure that was sustained by the personal favorites of
+the monarch. King James issued to forty of his subjects, some of them
+members of his household and his government, the most wealthy and
+powerful of the English nobility, a patent, which in American annals,
+and even in the history of the world, has but one parallel. The
+territory conferred on the patentees in absolute property, with
+unlimited jurisdiction, the sole powers of legislation, the appointment
+of all officers and all forms of government, comprised, and at the time
+was believed to comprise, much more than a million of square miles: it
+was, by a single signature of King James, given away to a corporation
+within the realm, composed of but forty individuals."--Bancroft, vol.
+i., p. 273.]
+
+[Footnote 326: "The very extent of the grant rendered it of little
+value. The results which grew out of the concession of this charter form
+a new proof, if any were wanting, of that mysterious connection of
+events by which Providence leads to ends that human councils had not
+conceived."--Bancroft, vol. i., p. 273.
+
+The Grand Council of Plymouth resigned their charter in 1635.]
+
+[Footnote 327: "The circumstance which threw a greater luster on the
+colony than any other was the arrival of Mr. John Cotton, the most
+esteemed of all the Puritan ministers in England. He was equally
+distinguished for his learning, and for a brilliant and figurative
+eloquence. He was so generally beloved that his nonconformity to the
+ritual of the Established Church, of which he was a minister, was for a
+considerable time disregarded. At last, however, he was called before
+the ecclesiastical commission, and he determined upon emigration, 'Some
+reverend and renowned ministers of our Lord' endeavored to persuade him
+that the forms to which he refused obedience were 'sufferable trifles,'
+and did not actually amount to a breach of the second commandment. Mr.
+Cotton, however, argued so forcibly on the opposite side, that several
+of the most eminent became all that he was, and afterward followed his
+example. There went out with him Mr. Hooker and Mr. Stone, who were
+esteemed to make 'a glorious triumvirate,' and were received in New
+England with the utmost exultation. It was doubtless a severe trial to
+these ministers, who appear really to have been, as they say, 'faithful,
+watchful, painful, serving their flock daily with prayers and tears,'
+who possessed such a reputation at home and over Europe, to find that no
+sooner did any half-crazed enthusiast spring up or arrive in the colony,
+that the people could be prevented only by the most odious compulsion
+from deserting their churches and flocking to him in a mass. Vainly did
+Mr. John Cotton strive to persuade Roger Williams, the sectary, that the
+red cross on the English banner, or his wife's being in the room while
+he said grace, were 'sufferable trifles,' and 'Mrs. Hutchinson and her
+ladies' treated his advice and exhortations with equal disregard and
+contempt. One of them sent him a pound of candles to intimate his need
+of more spiritual light. This was then the freedom for which his church
+and his country had been deserted."--Mather; Neale; Hutchinson.]
+
+[Footnote 328: "Robertson is astonished that Neale (see Neale, p. 56)
+should assert that freedom of religious worship was granted, when the
+charter expressly asserts the king's supremacy. But this, in fact, was
+never the article at which they demurred; for the spirit of loyalty was
+still very strong. It seems quite clear, from the confidence with which
+they went, and the manner in which they acted when there, that, though
+there was no formal or written stipulation, the most full understanding
+existed that very ample latitude was to be allowed in this respect. We
+have seen on every occasion the vast sacrifices which kings were willing
+to make in order to people their distant possessions; and the necessity
+was increased by the backwardness hitherto visible."--Murray's
+_America_, vol. i., p. 249.]
+
+[Footnote 329: During the year 1635 we find the name of John Hampden
+joined with those of six other gentlemen of family and fortune, who
+united with the Lords Say and Brooke in making a purchase from the Earl
+of Warwick of an extensive grant of land in a wide wilderness then
+called Virginia, but which now forms a part of the State of Connecticut.
+That these transatlantic possessions were designed by the associates
+ultimately, or under certain contingencies, to serve as an asylum to
+themselves and a home to their posterity, there is no room to doubt; but
+it is evident that nothing short of circumstances constituting a moral
+necessity would have urged persons of their rank, fortunes, and habits
+of life to encounter the perils, privations, and hardships attendant
+upon the pioneers of civilization in that inhospitable clime.
+Accordingly, they for the present contented themselves with sending out
+an agent to take possession of these territories and to build a fort.
+This was done, and the town called Saybrook, from the united names of
+the two noble proprietors, still preserves the memory of the enterprise.
+They finally abandoned the whole design, and sold the land in 1636,
+probably.--Miss Aikin's _Life of Charles I._, p. 471. Bancroft, vol. i.,
+p. 384.]
+
+[Footnote 330: "In one of these embargoed ships had actually embarked
+for their voyage across the Atlantic two no less considerable personages
+than John Hampden and his kinsman, Oliver Cromwell."--_Life of Hampden_,
+by Lord Nugent, vol. i., p. 254. London, 1832.
+
+Lord Nugent has fallen into the vulgar error, an invention, probably, of
+the Puritan historian, and unanswerably disproved by a reference to
+Parliamentary records. See Miss Aikin's _Life of Charles I._, vol. i.,
+p. 472; Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 411. The
+exultation of the Puritan writers on the subject is excessive. They
+ascribe all the subsequent misfortunes of Charles I. in connection with
+the scheme of Providence to this tyrannical edict, as they call
+it.--Russell's _Modern Europe_, vol. ii., p. 237. See Bancroft's
+_History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 412.
+
+"Nothing could be more barbarous than this! To impose laws on men which
+in conscience they thought they could not comply with, to punish them
+for their noncompliance, and continually revile them as undutiful and
+disobedient subjects by reason thereof, and yet not permit them
+peaceably to depart and enjoy their own opinions in a distant part of
+the world, yet dependent on the sovereign: to do all this was base,
+barbarous, and inhuman. But persecutors of all ages and nations are near
+the same; they are without the feelings and the understandings of men.
+Cromwell or Hampden could have given little opposition to the measures
+of Charles in the wilds of North America. In England they engaged with
+spirit against him, and he had reason to repent his hindering their
+voyage. May such at all times be the reward of those who attempt to rule
+over their fellow-men with rigor: may they find that they will not be
+slaves to kings or priests, but that they know the rights by nature
+conferred on them, and will assert them! This will make princes cautious
+how they give themselves up to arbitrary counsels, and dread the
+consequences of them."--Harris's _Life of Cromwell_, p. 56.]
+
+[Footnote 331: "Mr. Dudley, one of the most respectable of the
+governors, was found, at his death, with a copy of verses in his pocket,
+which included the following couplet:
+
+   "'Let men of God in court and churches watch
+   O'er such as do a toleration hatch'"--CHALMERS.]
+
+[Footnote 332: "The cutting the hair very close, which seemed supported
+by St. Paul's authority, was the chief outward symbol of a Puritan. In
+the case of a minister, it was considered essential that the ear should
+be thoroughly uncovered. Even after the example of Dr. Owen and other
+eminent divines had given a sanction to letting the hair grow, and even
+to periwigs, a numerous association was formed at Boston (where Mr. John
+Cotton was pastor), with Mr. Endicot, the governor, at their head, the
+members of which bound themselves to stand by each other in resisting
+long hair to the last extremity. Vane, a young man of birth and fashion,
+continued for some time a recusant against the uncouth test of his
+principles, but at last we find a letter congratulating him on having
+'glorified God by cutting his hair.'"--Hutchinson's _Massachusetts_,
+quoted by Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 333: One of Williams's disciples, who held some command, cut
+the cross out, and trampled it under foot. This red cross had nearly
+subverted the colony. One part of the trained bands would not march
+with, another would not march without it.--Mather, Neale, &c., quoted by
+Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 334: The town of Providence, now the capital of Rhode Island,
+was founded by Williams. The Indian name was Mooshausick, but he changed
+it to Providence in commemoration of his wonderful escape from
+persecution.--Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 224.]
+
+[Footnote 335: Mather, vol. vii., ch. ii.; Neale, ch. i., p. 138;
+Hutchinson, p. 37, 39.]
+
+[Footnote 336: _Ibid._]
+
+[Footnote 337: "Mr. Controller, Sir Harry Vane's eldest son, hath left
+his father, his mother, his country, and that fortune which his father
+would have left him here, and is for conscience' sake gone into New
+England, there to lead the rest of his days, being about twenty years of
+age. He had abstained two years from taking the sacrament in England,
+because he could get nobody to administer it to him standing."--_Strafford
+Letters_, September, 1635, quoted by Miss Aikin, _Life of Charles I._,
+vol. i., p. 479.
+
+"Sir Harry Vane returned to England immediately after the loss of his
+election. His personal experience of the uncharitableness and
+intolerance exercised upon one another by men who had themselves been
+the victims of a similar spirit at home, seems to have produced for some
+time a tranquilizing effect upon the mind of Vane. He was reconciled to
+his father, married by his direction a lady of family, obtained the
+place of joint treasurer of the navy, and exhibited for some time no
+hostility to the measures of the government. But his fire was smothered
+only, not extinguished."--Miss Aikin's _Life of Charles I._, vol. i., p.
+481.
+
+"After the Restoration of Charles II., Sir Harry Vane suffered death
+upon the block. (See Hallam, vol. ii., p. 443.) The manner of his death
+was the admiration of his times."--Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 338: Boston was the capital of Massachusetts, and the center
+of the most fervent Puritanism.
+
+"Boston may be ranked as the seat of the Unitarians, as Baltimore is
+that of the Roman Catholics, and Philadelphia that of the Quakers.... No
+axiom is more applicable to the pensive, serious, scrutinizing
+inhabitant of the New England States than this: 'What I do not
+understand, I reject as worthless and false;' so said one of the most
+learned men of Boston to me. 'Why occupy the mind with that which is
+incomprehensible? Have we not enough of that which appears clear and
+plain around us?' ... The greater part of the Bostonians, including
+every one of wealth, talents, and learning, have adopted this
+doctrine."--Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 179.
+
+"In Boston all the leading men are Unitarians, a creed peculiarly
+acceptable to the pride and self-sufficiency of our nature, asserting,
+as it does, the independence and perfectibility of man, and denying the
+necessity of atonement or sanctification by supernatural influences.
+
+"Though every where in New England the greatest possible decency and
+respect with regard to morals and religion is still observed, I have no
+hesitation in saying that I do not think the New Englanders a
+_religious_ people. The assertion, I know, is paradoxical, but it is
+nevertheless true, that is, if a strong and earnest belief be a
+necessary element in a religious character: to me it seems to be its
+very essence and foundation. I am not now speaking of belief in _the
+truth_, but belief in something or any thing which is removed from the
+action of the senses.... I am not trusting to my own limited observation
+in arriving at this conclusion; I find in M. de Tocqueville's work an
+assertion of the same fact. He accounts for it, indeed, in a different
+way.... What I complain of is, not the absence of nominal, but of real,
+heartfelt, unearthly religion, such as led the Puritan Nonconformists to
+sacrifice country and kindred, and brave the dangers of the ocean and
+the wilderness for the sake of what they believed God's truth. In my
+opinion, those men were prejudiced and mistaken, and committed great and
+grievous faults; but there was, at least, a redeeming element in their
+character--that of high conscientiousness. There was no compromise of
+truth, no sacrifice to expediency about them; they believed in the
+invisible, and they acted on that belief. Every where the tone of
+religious feeling, since that time, has been altered and relaxed, but
+perhaps nowhere so much as in the land where the descendants of those
+Pilgrims lived."--Godley's _Letters from America_, vol. ii., p. 90,
+133.]
+
+[Footnote 339: "The arbitrary will of the single tyrant, the excesses of
+the prerogative, seem light when compared with their (the Puritans')
+more intolerant, more arbitrary, and more absolute power."--_Commentaries
+on the Life and Reign of Charles I._, vol. iii., p. 28, by I. D'Israeli.
+London, 1830.]
+
+[Footnote 340: Mather affirms that the Quakers used to go about saying,
+"We deny thy Christ: we deny thy God, whom thou callest Father, Son, and
+Spirit; thy Bible is the word of the devil." They used to rise up
+suddenly in the midst of a sermon, and call upon the preacher to cease
+his abomination. One writer says, "For hellish reviling of the painful
+ministers of Christ, I know no people can match them." The following
+epithets bestowed by Fisher on Dr. Owen are said to be fair specimens of
+their usual addresses: "Thou green-headed trumpeter! thou hedgehog and
+grinning dog! thou tinker! thou lizard! thou whirligig! thou firebrand!
+thou louse! thou mooncalf! thou ragged tatterdemalion! thou livest in
+philosophy and logic, which are of the devil." Even Penn is said to have
+addressed the same respected divine as, "Thou bane of reason and beast
+of the earth." When the governor or any magistrate came in sight, they
+would call out, "Woe to thee, thou oppressor," and in the language of
+Scripture prophecy would announce the judgments that were about to fall
+upon their head.--Neale, cap. i., p. 341-345. Mather, b. vii., cap. iv.
+Hutchinson, p. 196-205.]
+
+[Footnote 341: "Sir Matthew Hale burned two persons for witchcraft in
+1664. Three thousand were executed in England during the Long
+Parliament. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 1705.
+In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged nine, were hanged at
+Huntingdon. The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The
+laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an
+ignorant person attempting to revive them by finding a bill against a
+poor old woman in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they were
+repealed, 10 George II., 1736."--Viner's _Abridgement_.]
+
+[Footnote 342: Neale, vol. ii., p. 164-170. Mather, vol. ii., p. 62-64.
+
+Arfwedson says, "Close to the town of Salem is Beverley, a small,
+insignificant place, remarkable only in the annals of history as having
+formerly contained a superstitious population. Many lives have here been
+cruelly sacrificed, and the barren hill is still in existence where
+persons accused of witchcraft were hung upon tall trees. Tradition
+points out the place where the witches of old resided. Cotton Mather
+records in a work, truly original for that age, that the good people who
+lived near Massachusetts Bay were every night roused from their slumbers
+by the sound of a trumpet, summoning all the witches and
+demons."--Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_; Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 186.
+
+   "And thrice that night the trumpet rang,
+     And rock and hill replied;
+   And down the glen strange shadows sprang--
+   Mortal and fiend--a wizard gang,
+     Seen dimly, side by side.
+
+   "They gathered there from every land
+     That sleepeth in the sun;
+   They came with spell and charm in hand,
+   Waiting their master's high command--
+     Slaves to the Evil One."--_Legends of New England._]
+
+[Footnote 343: "During the war with Philip, the Indians took some
+English alive, and set them upright in the ground, with this sarcasm:
+'You English, since you came into this country, have grown considerably
+above ground; let us now see how you will grow when planted into the
+ground.'"--_Narrative of the Wars in New England_, 1675.-_Harleian
+Miscellany_, vol. v., p. 400.]
+
+[Footnote 344: "The Pequods were a powerful nation on the Connecticut
+border, who could muster a thousand warriors. The English might have
+found it difficult to withstand them but for an alliance with the second
+most powerful people, the Narragansets, whose ancient enmity to the
+Pequods for a time prevailed over their jealousy of the foreigners. But
+at length, when the Pequods were nearly exterminated, the Narragansets,
+seeing the power of the strangers paramount, began to side with their
+enemies. The Indian chiefs began to imitate the English mode of
+fighting, and even to assume English names, with some characteristic
+epithet. One-eyed John, Stone-wall John, and Sagamore Sam, kept the
+colony in perpetual alarm. But their most deadly and formidable enemy
+was Philip, sachem of the Wampanoags. No Indian was ever more dreaded by
+civilized man. A century and a half has now elapsed since this hero of
+Pokanoket fell a victim to his own race, but even to this day his name
+is respected, and the last object supposed to have been touched by him
+in his lifetime is considered by every American as a valuable relic.
+This extraordinary man, whose real name was Metacom, succeeded his
+brother in the government of the Wampanoags. The wrongs and grievances
+suffered by this brother, added to those which he had himself
+experienced from the English colonists, induced him to engage in a war
+against them. The issue might, perhaps, have been less doubtful, had not
+one of his followers defeated his plans by a premature explosion before
+he had time to summon and concentrate his warriors and allies. From this
+time no smiles were seen on his face. But though he soon perceived that
+the great enterprise he had formed was likely to be frustrated, he never
+lost that elevation of soul which distinguished him to the last moments
+of his life. By his exertions and energy, all the Indian nations
+occupying the territory between Maine and the River Connecticut, a
+distance of nearly 200 miles, took up arms. Every where the name of King
+Philip was the signal for massacre and flames. But fraud and treason
+soon accomplished what open warfare could not effect; his followers gave
+way to numbers; his nearest relations and friends forsook him, and a
+treacherous ball at last struck his heart. His head was carried round
+the country in triumph, and exposed as that of a traitor; but posterity
+has done him justice. Patriotism was his only crime, and his death was
+that of a hero."--Arfwedson, vol. i., p. 229.]
+
+[Footnote 345: "This was not the case in the earlier and more northern
+settlements, where Mather mentions a clergyman who, from the pulpit,
+alluded to this as the main object of his flock's coming out, when one
+of the principal members rose and said, 'Sir, you are mistaken; our main
+object was to catch fish.'"--Murray's _America_.
+
+"To this day the Council of Massachusets, in the impress of their public
+seal, have an Indian engraven, with these words: 'Come over and help
+us,' alluding to Acts, xv., 9."--_Narrative of the Wars in New England_,
+1675. _Harleian Miscellany_, vol. v., p. 400.]
+
+[Footnote 346: "Among these was the celebrated Eliot. Notwithstanding
+the almost incredible hardships endured by Eliot during his missionary
+labors, he lived to the age of eighty-six. He expired in 1690, and has
+ever since been known by the well-earned title of Apostle to the
+Indians."--_Missionary Records_, p. 34.
+
+Dr. Dwight says of him, "He was naturally qualified beyond almost any
+other man for the business of a missionary. In promoting among the
+Indians agriculture, health, morals, and religion, this great and good
+man labored with constancy, faithfulness, and benevolence which place
+his name not unworthily among those who are arranged immediately after
+the apostles of our Divine Redeemer." Eliot translated the Holy
+Scriptures into the Indian language. In 1661, the New Testament,
+dedicated to Charles II., was printed at Cambridge, in New England, and
+about three years afterward, it was followed by the Old Testament. This
+was the first Bible ever printed in America; and, though the impression
+consisted of 2000 copies, a second edition was required in
+1685.--_Ibid._, p. 27.
+
+"When at Harvard College, a copy of the Bible was shown me by Mr. Jared
+Sparks, translated by the missionary, Father Eliot, into the Indian
+tongue. It is now a dead language, although preached for several
+generations to crowded congregations."--Lyell's _America_, vol. i., p.
+260.
+
+"Eliot had become an acute grammarian by his studies at the English
+university of Cambridge. Having finished his laborious and difficult
+work, the Indian grammar, at the close of it, under a full sense of the
+difficulties he had encountered, and the acquisition he had made, he
+said, 'Prayers and pains, through faith in Christ Jesus, do any
+thing.'"--_Life of Eliot_, p. 55.
+
+"The Honorable Robert Boyle often strengthened Eliot's hands and
+encouraged him in his work--he who was not more admirable among
+philosophers for his discoveries in science, than he was beloved by
+Christians for his active kindness and his pious spirit."--_Ibid._, p.
+64.
+
+"Nor was Eliot alone. In the islands round Massachusetts, and within the
+limits of the Plymouth patent, missionary zeal and missionary enterprise
+were active; and the gentle Mayhew, forgetting the pride of learning,
+endeavored to win the natives to a new religion. At a later day, he took
+passage for New England to awaken interest there, and the ship in which
+he sailed was never more heard of. But such had been the force of his
+example, that his father, though bowed down with the weight of seventy
+years, resolved on assuming the office of the son whom he had lost, and
+till beyond the age of fourscore years and twelve, continued to instruct
+the natives, and with the happiest results. The Indians within his
+influence, though twenty times more numerous than the whites in their
+immediate neighborhood, preserved an immutable friendship with
+Massachusetts."--Bancroft's _Hist of the United States_, vol. ii., p.
+97. See _Missionary Records_; _Life of Eliot_; Mayhew's _Indian
+Converts_; T. Prince's _Account of English Ministers_.]
+
+[Footnote 347: "History has no example to offer of any successful
+attempt, however slight, to introduce civilization among savage tribes
+in colonies or in their vicinity, except through the influence of
+religious missionaries. This is no question of a balance of
+advantages--no matter of comparison between opposite systems. I repeat
+that no instance can be shown of the reclaiming of savages by any other
+influence than that of religion. There are two obvious reasons why such
+should be the case: the first, that religion only can supply a motive to
+the governors, placed in obscure situations, and without the reach of
+responsibility, to act with zeal, perseverance, and charity; the other,
+that it alone can supply a motive to the governed to undergo that
+alteration of habits through which the reclaimed savage must pass, and
+to which the hope of mere temporal advantage will very rarely induce him
+to consent." This position is well stated in the words of Southey: 'The
+wealth and power of governments may be vainly employed in the endeavor
+to conciliate and reclaim brute man, if religious zeal and Christian
+charity, in the true import of the word, be wanting.'--Merivale _on
+Colonization_, vol. i., p. 289.]
+
+[Footnote 348: "The attempt to organize an Indian priesthood at this
+period failed altogether, the converts possessing neither the steadiness
+nor the sobriety requisite for the holy office. The duty, therefore,
+devolved upon European teachers, who in many cases scarcely obtained the
+wages of a day laborer, and that very precariously. The formation,
+however, of a society in England for the propagation of the Gospel in
+this settlement, and pretty liberal contributions raised in the
+principal towns, in some degree remedied these evils. After the lapse of
+a few more generations, the Indian character, in its slow but steady
+upward progress under the teaching of devoted and enlightened Christian
+ministers, underwent a change so effectual, that the native teachers and
+preachers of the present day may well bear comparison in zeal, piety,
+and eloquence with their European colleagues."--Catlin's _American
+Indians_; Cotton's _American Lakes_.]
+
+[Footnote 349: "The Indians about this time (1653) obtained the
+appellation of 'Praying Indians,' and the court appointed Major Daniel
+Gookin their ruler."--_Life of Eliot_, p. 53.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+
+The principal characteristics of that colonization by which the vast
+republic of the West was formed, have been exhibited in the settlement
+of Virginia and Massachusetts. The other states were stamped with the
+impress of the two first, and in a great measure peopled from them.
+Rhode Island and the rest of the New England states were founded by
+those who had fled from the religious persecutions of Massachusetts,
+with the exception of Connecticut, which owes its origin chiefly to the
+spirit of adventure and the search for unoccupied lands. The first
+settlers divided this last-named state among themselves without the
+sanction of any authority, and then proceeded to form a constitution of
+unexampled liberality. They had to bear the chief burden in the Indian
+war, on account of their advanced and exposed position; but Connecticut
+prospered in spite of every obstacle. Several Puritans of distinction
+sought its shore from England. Charles II., on his restoration granted a
+most liberal charter, and it continued to enjoy the benefits of complete
+self-government till Massachusetts was deprived of her charter by James
+II., when Connecticut shared the same fate. At the Revolution, the
+younger state, more fortunate than her neighbor, was restored to all the
+privileges formerly enjoyed.
+
+The states of New Hampshire and Maine were originally founded on
+Loyalist and Church of England principles. Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John
+Mason, the most energetic member of the Council of Plymouth, undertook
+the colonization of these districts, but their tyrannical and
+injudicious conduct stunted the growth of the infant colonies, and
+little progress was made till the religious dissensions of Boston
+swelled their population. Violent and even fatal dissensions, however,
+distracted this incongruous community, till the government of
+Massachusetts assumed the sway over it, and re-established order and
+prosperity. Gorges and Mason disputed for many years the rights of
+authority with the new rulers; nor was the question finally settled till
+Massachusetts was deprived of her charter, when a royal government was
+established in New Hampshire.
+
+The important state of New York was founded under very different
+auspices from those of its neighbors. In 1609, Henry Hudson, while
+sailing in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the
+magnificent stream which now bears his name. A small colony was soon
+sent out from Holland[350] to settle the new country, and a trading
+post established at the mouth of the river. Sir Samuel Argall, governor
+of Virginia, conceived that this foreign settlement trenched upon the
+rights granted by the English crown to its subjects, and by a display of
+superior force constrained the Dutch colony to acknowledge British
+sovereignty (1613);[351] but this submission became a dead letter some
+years later, when large bodies of emigrants arrived from the Low
+Countries (1620);[352] the little trading post soon rose into a town,
+and a fort was erected for its defense. The site of this establishment
+was on the island of Manhattan;[353] the founders called it New
+Amsterdam. When it fell into the possession of England, the name was
+changed to New York. Albany[354] was next built, at some distance up the
+Hudson, as a post for the Indian trade, and thence a communication was
+opened for the first time with the Northern Indian confederacy of the
+Iroquois, or the Five Nations.
+
+Charles II., from hatred to the Dutch, as well as from the desire of
+aggrandizement, renewed the claims of England upon the Hudson
+settlements, and in 1664 dispatched an armament of 300 men to enforce
+this claim. Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor,[355] was totally unprepared
+to resist the threatened attack, and after a short parley agreed to
+surrender. The settlers were, however, secured in property and person,
+and in the free exercise of their religion, and the greater part
+remained under their new rulers. In the long naval war subsequently
+carried on between England and Holland, the colony again passed for a
+time under the sway of the Dutch, but at the peace was finally restored
+to Great Britain. James, then Duke of York, had received from his
+brother a grant of the district which now constitutes the State of New
+York. On assuming authority, he appointed governors with arbitrary
+power, but the colonists in assertion of their rights as Englishmen,
+stoutly resisted, and even sent home Dyer, the collector of customs,
+under a charge of high treason, for attempting to levy taxes without
+legal authority. (1681.) The duke judged it expedient to conciliate his
+sturdy transatlantic subjects, and yielded them a certain form of
+representative government. In 1682, Mr. Dongan was sent out with a
+commission to assemble a council of ten, and a house of assembly of
+eighteen popular deputies. The new governor soon rendered himself
+beloved and respected by all, although at first distrusted and disliked,
+as professing the Romish faith. New York was not allowed to enjoy these
+fortunate circumstances for any length of time; the capricious and
+arbitrary duke, on his accession to the crown, abrogated the colonial
+constitution; shortly afterward the state was annexed to Massachusetts,
+the beloved governor recalled, and the despotic Andros established in
+his stead. (1686.) At the first rumor of the Revolution of 1688, the
+inhabitants, led by a merchant of the name of Leisler, rose in arms,
+proclaimed William and Mary, and elected a house of representatives. The
+new monarch sent out a Colonel Slaughter as governor, whose authority
+was disputed by Leisler; however, the bold merchant was soon overcome,
+and with quick severity tried and executed. (1691.) The English
+Parliament, more considerate of his useful services, subsequently
+reversed his attainder, and restored the forfeited estates to his
+family. (1695.) With the view of aiding the resources and progress of
+the colony, 3000 German Protestants, called Palatines, were subsequently
+conveyed to the banks of the Hudson, and subsisted for three years, at a
+great expense, by England. These sober and industrious men proved a most
+valuable addition to the population.[356]
+
+New Jersey was formed from a part of the original territory of New York.
+Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret were the proprietors, by grant
+from James (1664): they founded the new state with great judgment and
+liberality, establishing the power of self-government and taxation. The
+Duke of York, however, on the reconquest of the country from the Dutch,
+took the opportunity of abrogating the Constitution: the colonists
+boldly appealed against this tyranny, and with such force, that the duke
+was led to refer the question to the judgment of the learned and upright
+Sir William Jones, who gave it against him. (1681.) James was obliged to
+acquiesce in this decision till he ascended the throne, when he swept
+away all the rights of the colony, and annexed it, like its neighbors,
+to the government of Massachusetts. After the accession of William, New
+Jersey was entangled for ten years in a web of conflicting claims but
+was finally established under its own independent Legislature.
+
+The State of Maryland was so named in honor of Henrietta Maria, the
+beautiful queen of Charles I., to whose influence the early settlers
+were much indebted. Religious persecution in England drove forth the
+founders of the colony; but in this case the Protestants were the
+instigators, and the cruel laws of Queen Elizabeth's reign against the
+Roman Catholics were the instruments. Lord Baltimore, an Irish peer, and
+other men of distinction in the popish body, obtained from Charles I.,
+as an asylum in the New World, a grant of that angle of Virginia lying
+on both sides of the River Chesapeake, a district rich in soil, genial
+in climate, and admirably situated for commerce. An expedition of 200
+Roman Catholics, many among them men of good birth, was sent under Mr.
+Calvert, Lord Baltimore's brother, to take possession of this favored
+tract. (1634.) Their first care was to conciliate the Indians, in which
+they eminently succeeded. The natives were even prevailed upon to
+abandon their village and their cleared lands around to the strangers,
+and to remove themselves contentedly to another situation.
+
+Maryland was most honorably distinguished in the earliest times by
+perfect freedom of religious opinion. Many members of the Church of
+England, as well as Roman Catholics, fled thither from the persecutions
+of the Puritans. The Baltimore family at first displayed great
+liberality and judgment in their rule; but, as they gained confidence
+from the secret support of the king to their cherished faith, their
+wise moderation seems to have diminished. However, the principal
+grievance brought against them was, that they had not provided by public
+funds for Church of England clergymen as fully as for those of their own
+faith, although by far the larger portion of the population belonged to
+the flock of the former. The unsatisfactory state of morals, manners,
+and religion in the colony was attributed to this neglect. At the
+Revolution, the inhabitants of Maryland rose with tumultuous zeal
+against their Roman Catholic lords, and published a manifesto in
+justification of their proceedings, accusing Lord Baltimore's government
+of intolerable tyranny. These statements, whether true or false,
+afforded King William an opportunity to assume the colonial power in his
+own hands, 1691, and to deprive the Calverts of all rights over the
+country, except the receipt of some local taxes.[357]
+
+For a long time but few settlers had established themselves in that part
+of North America now called Carolina;[358] of these, some were men who
+had fled from the persecutions of New England, and formed a little
+colony round Cape Fear (1661); others were Virginians, attracted by the
+rich unoccupied lands. After the restoration of Charles, however, the
+energies of the British nation, no longer devoted to internal quarrels,
+turned into the fields of foreign and colonial adventure. Charles
+readily bestowed upon his followers vast tracts of an uncultivated
+wilderness which he had never seen; and Monk, duke of Albemarle, the
+Earl of Clarendon, Lords Berkeley and Ashley, Sir George Carteret, and a
+few others, were created absolute lords of the new province of
+Carolina. (1663.) Great exertions were then made to attract settlers;
+immunity from prosecution for debt was secured to them for five years,
+and, at the same time, a liberal Constitution was granted, with a
+popular House of Assembly. The proprietors, anxious to perfect the work
+of colonization, prevailed upon the celebrated Locke to draw up a system
+of government for the new state, which, however excellent in theory,
+proved practically a signal failure.[359] The principal characteristic
+of the scheme was the establishment of an aristocracy with fantastic
+titles of nobility,[360] who met with the deputies in a Parliament,
+where, however, the council solely possessed the power of proposing new
+laws. The whole colonial body was subject to the Court of Proprietors in
+England, which was presided over by a chief called the Palatine,[361]
+possessing nearly supreme power. The sturdy colonists neglected, or
+deferred for future consideration, every portion of this new
+Constitution that appeared unsuitable to their condition, alleging that
+its provisions were in violation of the promises that had induced them
+to adopt the country.
+
+Carolina for a long time progressed but slowly. The colonists had no
+fixed religion,[362] and their general morals and industry were very
+indifferent. They drew largely upon the resources of the proprietors
+without giving any return, and when at length that supply was stopped,
+they resorted to every idle and iniquitous mode of raising funds. They
+hunted the Indians, and sold them as slaves to the West Indies, and
+their sea-ports became the resort of pirates. These atrocious and
+ruinous pursuits soon reduced them to a state of miserable poverty, and
+the baneful influence of a series of profligate governors completed the
+mischief. One of these, named Sette Sothel,[363] was especially
+conspicuous for rapacity and injustice. (1683.) His misrule at length
+goaded the people into insurrection; they seized him, and were about to
+send him as a prisoner to England, but released him on a promise of
+renouncing the government, and leaving the colony for a time. After
+these and some other commotions, they succeeded in re-establishing their
+ancient charter in its original simplicity.
+
+Carolina now began to improve rapidly, from the influx of a large and
+valuable immigration. The religious freedom that had been secured under
+the old charter was continued unrestricted even under Mr. Locke's
+complicated Constitution. Many Puritans flocked in from Britain to seek
+refuge from the persecutions of Charles II., and by their steadiness
+and industry soon attained considerable wealth. New England had also
+furnished her share to the new settlement of useful and energetic men
+who had been expelled by her Calvinistic intolerance. But the
+narrow-minded jealousy of the original emigrants soon interrupted the
+prosperity of the colony. Under the hypocritical plea of zeal for the
+Church of England, to which their conduct and morals were a scandal,
+they obtained, by violent means, a majority of one in the Assembly, and
+expelled all dissenters from the Legislature and government. They even
+passed a law to depose all sectarian clergy, and devote their churches
+to the services of the established religion. The oppressed Dissenters
+appealed to the British Parliament for protection. In the year 1705, an
+address was voted to the queen by the House of Commons, declaring the
+injustice of these acts, but nothing was done to relieve the colony till
+in 1721, when the people rose in insurrection, established a provisional
+government, and prayed that the king, George I., would himself undertake
+their rule. He granted their petition, and soon afterward purchased the
+rights of the proprietors. (1727.)[364]
+
+In the year 1732 a plan was formed for relieving the distress then
+severely pressing upon England by colonizing the territory still
+remaining unoccupied to the south of the Savannah. Twenty-three
+trustees, men of rank and influence, were appointed for this purpose,
+and the sum of L15,000 was placed at their disposal by Parliament and by
+voluntary subscription. With the aid of these funds about 500 people
+were forwarded to the new country, and some others went at their own
+expense. In honor of the reigning king, the name of Georgia was given to
+the new settlement. The lands were granted to the emigrants on
+conditions of military service, and a large proportion, of them were
+selected from among the hardy Scottish Highlanders and the veterans of
+some German regiments. Besides being the advance guard of civilization
+in the Indian country, the colony was threatened with the rival claims
+of the Spaniards in Florida, the boundaries of whose territory were very
+vague and uncertain. Happily for Georgia, Mr. Oglethorpe, the original
+founder of the settlement, succeeded in establishing a lasting
+friendship with the powerful Creek Indians, the natives of the country;
+but the Spaniards never ceased to alarm and threaten the colony till
+British arms had won the whole Atlantic coast. Owing to this
+disadvantage, and still more to certain humane restrictions upon the
+Indian trade,[365] no great influx of population took place until 1763,
+when peace restored confidence, and men and money were freely introduced
+from England.
+
+One of the most important of the great American states that declared
+their independence in 1783, was, with the exception of Georgia, the
+latest in its origin. Under the wise and gentle influence of the
+founders, however, it progressed more rapidly than any other. When time
+and reflection had cooled the ardor and softened the fanaticism of the
+early Quakers, the sect attracted general and just admiration by the
+mild and persevering philanthropy of its most distinguished members. The
+pure benevolence and patient courage of William Penn was a tower of
+strength to this new creed; well born, and enjoying a competent
+fortune, he possessed the means as well as the will powerfully to aid in
+its advancement. He endured with patience, but with unflinching
+constancy, a continual series of legal persecutions, and even the anger
+of his father, until the unspotted integrity of his life and his
+practical wisdom at length triumphed over prejudice and hostility, and
+he was allowed the privilege of pleading before the British Parliament
+in the cause of his oppressed brethren.
+
+William Penn inherited from his father a claim against the government
+for L16,000, which King Charles gladly paid by assigning to him the
+territory in the New World now called Pennsylvania,[367] in honor of the
+first proprietor.[368] This was a large and fertile expanse of inland
+country partly taken from New York, New Jersey, and Maryland. It was
+included between the 40th and 43d degrees of latitude, and bounded on
+the east by the Delaware River. The enlightened and benevolent
+proprietor bestowed upon the new state a Constitution that secured, as
+far as human ordinance was capable, freedom of faith, thought, and
+action. He formed some peculiar institutions for the promotion of peace
+and good will among his brethren, and for the protection of the widow
+and the orphan. By his wise and just dealings with the Indians,[369] he
+gained their important confidence and friendship: he sent commissioners
+to treat with them for the sale of their lands, and in the year 1682 met
+the assembled chiefs near the spot where Philadelphia now stands. The
+savages advanced to the place of meeting in great numbers and in warlike
+guise, but as the approach of the English was announced, they laid aside
+their weapons and seated themselves in quiet groups around their
+chiefs.[370] Penn came forward fearlessly with a few attendants, all
+unarmed, and in their usual grave and simple attire; in his hand he held
+a parchment on which were written the terms of the treaty. He then spoke
+in a few plain words of the friendship and justice that should rule the
+actions of all men, and guide him, and them, and their children's
+children. The Indians answered that they would live in peace with him
+and his white brothers as long as the sun and moon shall endure. And in
+the Quaker's parchment and the Indian's promise was accomplished the
+peaceful conquest of that lovely wilderness, a conquest more complete,
+more secure and lasting, than any that the ruthless rigor of Cortes or
+the stern valor of the Puritans had ever won.
+
+The prosperity of Pennsylvania advanced with unexampled rapidity.[371]
+The founder took out with him two thousand well-chosen emigrants, and a
+considerable number had preceded him to the new country. The orderly
+freedom that prevailed,[372] and the perpetual peace with the
+Indians,[373] gave a great advantage to this colony; emigration flowed
+thither more abundantly than to any other settlement, and thus, although
+of such recent origin, this state soon equaled the most successful of
+its older neighbors.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 350: "On Hudson's return according to the English historians,
+he sold his title to the Dutch."--_British Encyc._, vol. ii., p. 236.
+Chalmers questions, apparently on good grounds, the validity of this odd
+transaction. If, as Forster asserts, Hudson not only sailed from the
+Texel, but was equipped at the expense of the Dutch East India Company,
+there was no room for sale or purchase of any kind to constitute the
+region Dutch.--Chalmers, vol. ii., p. 568; Charlevoix. tom. i., p. 221.]
+
+[Footnote 351: "The English jurists, referring to the wide grants of
+Elizabeth, according to which Virginia extended far to the north of this
+region, insist that there had long ceased to be room for any claim to it
+founded on discovery. But the Dutch, who are somewhat slow in
+comprehension, could not see the right which Elizabeth could have to
+bestow a vast region, of the very existence of which she was ignorant.
+They therefore sent out the small colony, 1613, which was soon after
+compelled by Argall to acknowledge the sovereignty of England."--Murray's
+_America_, vol. i., p. 331; _Fastes Chronologiques_, 1613.]
+
+[Footnote 352: The Dutch West Indian Company was established in 1620,
+and sent out colonists on a large scale.]
+
+[Footnote 353: "Juet, the traveling companion of Hudson, called the
+island on which New York is situated Manna Hatta, which means the island
+of manna; in other words, a country where milk and honey flow. The name
+Manhattoes is said to be derived from the great Indian god Manetho, who
+is stated to have made this island his favorite place of residence on
+account of its peculiar attractions."--Knickerbocker's _New York_, vol.
+v., p. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 354: "Albany bore the name of Orange when it was originally
+founded by the Dutch; and as a great number of this people remained in
+the city after it passed into the possession of England, they continued
+to call it Orange, and the French Canadians give it no other
+name."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 222.
+
+"Albany received that name from the Scottish title of the Duke of
+York."--Bancroft.]
+
+[Footnote 355: Nine years before (1655), Stuyvesant had attacked the
+happy and contented little colony of Swedes who were settled on the
+banks of the Delaware, and after a sanguinary contest, the Swedish
+governor, John Rising, was obliged to submit to the Dutch authority.
+Such was the end of New Sweden, which had only maintained an independent
+existence for seventeen years. Thus the Swedish settlements passed into
+the hands of the English at the same time as those of the Dutch. The
+first Swedish colonization had been projected and encouraged by the
+great Gustavus Adolphus in 1638. They gave their settlement on the banks
+of the Delaware, the name of the Land of Canaan, and to the spot where
+they first landed that of Canaan, so inviting and delightful did this
+part of the New World first appear to them. The only thing now known of
+this terrestrial paradise is, that its situation was near Cape Henlopen,
+a short distance from the sea. The colonists purchased tracts of lands
+of the Indians, and threw up a few fortifications; of the city they
+founded, Christina, there is now no trace. It was situated near
+Wilmington, twenty-seven miles south of Philadelphia. The Dutch, whose
+principal city was then New Amsterdam, pretended that the country round
+the Delaware belonged to them, having paid it a visit before the arrival
+of the Swedes. This insinuation, moreover, did not prevent the latter
+from settling, and, according to Charlevoix, the two nations lived in
+amity with each other until Stuyvesant's aggression, the Dutch being
+wholly devoted to commerce and the Swedes to agriculture. The Swedish
+settlement was at first called New Sweden, afterward New Jersey.]
+
+[Footnote 356: "The entire cost of this transportation amounted to
+L78,533, which, amid the ferments of party, was declared by a subsequent
+vote of Parliament to be not only an extravagant and unreasonable charge
+to the kingdom, but of dangerous consequence to the Church."--_Brit.
+Emp. Amer._, vol. i., p. 249, 250.
+
+"Swabia, with the old Palatinate, has contributed very largely to the
+present population of America. From the end of Queen Anne's reign to
+1753, it is said that from 4 to 8000 went annually to Pennsylvania
+alone."--Sadler, b. iv., cap. v.]
+
+[Footnote 357: "King William, impatient of judicial forms, by his own
+act constituted Maryland a royal government. The arbitrary act was
+sanctioned by a legal opinion from Lord Holt. The Church of England was
+established as the religion of the state.... In the land which Catholics
+had opened to Protestants, the Catholic inhabitant was the sole victim
+to Anglican intolerance. Mass might not be said publicly.... No Catholic
+might teach the young.... The disfranchisement of the proprietary Lord
+Baltimore related to his creed, not to his family. To recover the
+inheritance of authority, Benedict, the son of the proprietary,
+renounced the Catholic Church for that of England. The persecution never
+crushed the faith of the humble colonists."--Bancroft, vol. iii., p.
+33.]
+
+[Footnote 358: This name was given in honor of Charles II.]
+
+[Footnote 359: "The system framed by Locke was called 'the Fundamental
+Constitutions of Carolina.' ... Locke was undoubtedly well acquainted
+with human nature, and not ignorant of the world; but he had not taken a
+sufficiently comprehensive view of the history of man, nor were
+political speculators yet duly aware of the necessity of adapting
+constitutions to those for whom they were destined. The grand
+peculiarity consisted in forming a high and titled nobility, which might
+rival the splendor of those of the Old World. But as the dukes and earls
+of England would have considered their titles degraded by being shared
+with a Carolina planter, other titles of foreign origin were adopted.
+That of landgrave was drawn from Germany. (Locke himself was created a
+landgrave.) But these princely denominations, applied to persons who
+were to earn their bread by the labor of their hands, could confer no
+real dignity. The reverence for nobility, which can only be the result
+of long-continued wealth and influence, could never be inspired by mere
+titles, especially of such an exotic and fantastic character.... The
+sanction of negro slavery was a deep blot in this boasted system.... The
+colonists, who felt perfectly at ease under their rude early
+regulations, were struck with dismay at the arrival of this
+philosophical fabric of polity."--Murray's _America_, vol. i., p. 343.]
+
+[Footnote 360: "It was insisted that there should be some landgraves and
+some caciques when many other parts of 'the Fundamental Constitutions'
+were given up; but these great nobles never struck any root in the
+Western soil, and have long since disappeared "--_Hist. Acc. of the
+Colonization of South Carolina and Georgia_, London, 1779, vol. i., p.
+44-46; Chalmers, p. 326. quoted by Murray.]
+
+[Footnote 361: Monk, duke of Albemarle, was constituted palatine.]
+
+[Footnote 362: "It is remarkable that the philosopher's colony seems to
+have been the only one founded before the eighteenth century, except
+Virginia, in which the Church of England was expressly established; but
+this clause is said to have been introduced against his will."--Merivale
+_on Colonization_, vol. i., p. 88-92.]
+
+[Footnote 363: "Mr. Chalmers makes the very bold assertion that the
+annals of delegated authority do not present a name so branded with
+merited infamy, and that there never had taken place such an
+accumulation of extortion, injustice, and rapacity as during the five
+years that he misruled the colony. He had been made prisoner in his way
+out, and kept in close captivity at Algiers, where he took, it appears,
+not warning, but lessons. (Sette Sothel had purchased the rights of Lord
+Clarendon, one of the eight original proprietaries.)"--Murray, vol. i.,
+p. 345.]
+
+[Footnote 364: "The rights of the proprietors were sold to the king for
+about the sum of L20,000. Lord Carteret alone, joining in the surrender
+of the government, received an eighth share in the soil."--_Hist.
+Account_, &c., vol. i., p. 255-321.]
+
+[Footnote 365: "The importation and use of negroes were prohibited; no
+rum was allowed to be introduced, and no one was permitted to trade with
+the Indians without special license. The colonists complained that
+without negroes it was impossible to clear the grounds and cut down the
+thick forests, though the honest Highlanders always reprobated the
+practice, and denied that any necessity for it existed."[366]--Murray,
+vol. i., p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 366: "Slavery," says Oglethorpe, "is against the Gospel, as
+well as the fundamental law of England. We refused, as trustees, to make
+a law permitting such a horrid crime."--_Memoirs of Sharpe_, vol. i., p.
+234; _Stephen's Journal_, quoted by Bancroft. In 1751, however, after
+Oglethorpe had finally left Georgia, his humane restrictions were
+withdrawn. Whitefield, who believed that God's providence would
+certainly make slavery terminate for the advantage of the Africans,
+pleaded before the trustees in its favor. At last even the Moravians
+(who in a body emigrated to Georgia in 1733) began to think that negro
+slaves might be employed in a Christian spirit, and it was agreed that
+if the negroes are treated in a Christian manner, their change of
+country would prove to them a benefit. A message from Germany served to
+crush their scruples: "If you take slaves in faith, and with the intent
+of conducting them to Christ, the action will not be a sin, but may
+prove a benediction."--Urlsperger, vol. iii., p. 479, quoted by
+Bancroft, vol. iii., p. 448.]
+
+[Footnote 367: "He accepted this grant, because it secured them against
+any other claimant from Europe. It gave him a title in the eyes of the
+Christian world, but he did not believe that it gave him any other
+title."--_Colonization and Civilization_, p. 358.]
+
+[Footnote 368: "Etablissement de la Pennsylvanie, dans le pays qui avoit
+porte le nom de Nouvelle Suede: Cette colonie a recu son nom de son
+fondateur, le Chevalier Guillaume Penn, Anglais a qui Charles II., Roi
+de la Grande Bretagne, conceda ce pays en 1680 et qui cette annee 1681,
+y mena les Quakers ou trembleurs d'Angleterre, dont il etoit le chef.
+Lorsqu'il y arriva, il y trouva un grand nombre de Hollandois et de
+Suedois. Les premiers, pour la plupart, occupoient les endroits situes
+le long du golphe, et les seconds, les bords de la Riviere De la Warr,
+ou du midi. Il paroit par une de ses lettres, qu'il n'etoit pas content
+des Hollandois; mais il dit que les Suedois etoient une nation simple,
+sans malice, industrieuse, robuste, se souciant peu de l'abondance et se
+contentant du necessaire."--_Fastes Chronologiques_, 1681.]
+
+[Footnote 369: "Even Penn, however, did not fully admit into his scheme
+of colonization the notion of retaining for the Indians a property in a
+part of the soil they once occupied. He gave the natives free leave to
+settle in certain parts of his territory, but, unfortunately, he did not
+treat any definite tract of the soil as their property, which would rise
+in value along with other tracts, and thus afford a stimulus to their
+gradual improvement. It was the want of systematic views in this and
+other respects, which rendered the benevolent intentions of Penn toward
+the natives of little ultimate avail; so that, after all, the chief good
+which he effected was by setting an example of benevolence and justice
+in the principle of his dealings with them."--Merivale _on
+Colonization_, vol. ii., p. 173.]
+
+[Footnote 370: "William Penn of course came unarmed, in his usual plain
+dress, without banners, or mace, or guard, or carriages, and only
+distinguished from his companions by wearing a blue sash of silk
+net-work (which, it seems, is still preserved by Mr. Kett, of Seething
+Hall, near Norwich), and by having in his hand a roll of parchment, on
+which was engrossed the confirmation of the treaty of purchase and
+amity."--_Edinburgh Review of Clarkson's Life of William Penn_, p. 358.
+
+"The scene at Shachamaxon, quoted by Howitt, forms the subject of one of
+the pictures of West. Thus ended this famous treaty, of which Voltaire
+has remarked with so much truth and severity, 'That it was the only one
+ever concluded which was not ratified by an oath, and the only one that
+never was broken.'"--Howitt. p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 371: "In three years from its foundation, Philadelphia gained
+more than New York had done in half a century."--Bancroft's _History of
+the United States_, vol. ii., p. 394.]
+
+[Footnote 372: "Virtue had never, perhaps, inspired a legislation better
+calculated to promote the fidelity of mankind. The opinions, the
+sentiments, and the morals corrected whatever might be deficient in
+it."--Raynal, vol. vii., p. 292.
+
+"Beautiful," said the philosophic Frederick of Prussia, when he read the
+account of the government of Pennsylvania; "it is perfect, if it can
+endure."--Herder, p. 13, 116. Quoted by Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 392.]
+
+[Footnote 373: "Their conduct to the Indians never altered for the
+worse. Pennsylvania, while under the administration of the Quakers,
+never became, as New England, a slaughter-house of the Indians."--Howitt,
+p. 366.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+
+Having noticed the principal features of the origin and progress of the
+English colonies--the powerful and dangerous neighbors of the French
+settlements in the New World--it is now time to return to the course of
+Canadian history subsequent to the death of the illustrious founder of
+Quebec.
+
+Monsieur de Montmagny succeeded Champlain as governor, and entered with
+zeal into his plans, but difficulties accumulated on all sides. Men and
+money were wanting, trade languished, and the Associated Company in
+France were daily becoming more indifferent to the success of the
+colony. Some few merchants and inhabitants of the outposts, indeed,
+were enriched by the profitable dealings of the fur-trade, but their
+suddenly-acquired wealth excited the jealousy rather than increased the
+general prosperity of the settlers. The work of religious institutions
+was alone pursued with vigor and success in those times of failure and
+discouragement. At Sillery, one league from Quebec, an establishment was
+founded for the instruction of the savages and the diffusion of
+Christian light. (1637.) The Hotel Dieu owed its existence to the
+Duchesse d'Aiguillon two years afterward, and the Convent of the
+Ursulines was founded by the pious and high-born Madame de la
+Peltrie.[374]
+
+The partial success and subsequent failure of Champlain and his Indian
+allies in their encounters with the Iroquois had emboldened these brave
+and politic savages. They now captured several canoes belonging to the
+Hurons, laden with furs, which that friendly people were conveying to
+Quebec. Montmagny's military force was too small to allow of his
+avenging this insult; he, however, zealously promoted an enterprise to
+build a fort and effect a settlement on the island of Montreal, which he
+fondly hoped would curb the audacity of his savage foes. The Associated
+Company would render no aid whatever to this important plan, but the
+religious zeal of the Abbe Olivier overcame all difficulties. He
+obtained a grant of Montreal from the king, and dispatched the Sieur de
+Maisonneuve and others to take possession. On the 17th of May, 1641, the
+place destined for the settlement was consecrated by the superior of the
+Jesuits.[375]
+
+At the same time the governor erected a fort at the entrance of the
+River Richelieu, then called the Iroquois. The workmen employed at this
+labor were constantly exposed to the harassing warfare of the Indians,
+but at length completely repulsed them. A garrison, such as could be
+spared from the scanty militia of the colony, was placed in the little
+stronghold for its defense. Although the minds of the fierce Iroquois
+were fixed upon the utter destruction of the French, and in their
+confident boastings they declared that they could drive the white men
+into the sea, they indicated from time to time a desire for peace.
+Montmagny was compelled by weakness and the difficulties of his
+situation, to accept overtures which he could not but dread as insidious
+and treacherous, and he assumed an air of confidence which he by no
+means felt. His native allies were also eagerly anxious for the
+blessings of peace, and, through their means, an opportunity for opening
+negotiations soon offered. The governor and the friendly native chiefs
+met the deputies of the Iroquois nation at Three Rivers to arrange the
+terms of the proposed treaty. (1645.) After various orations, songs,
+dances, and exchanges of presents, peace was concluded to the
+satisfaction of both parties; and for the time at least, with apparent
+good faith, for the following winter the French and their new allies
+joined together in the chase, and mixed fearlessly in friendly
+intercourse.
+
+M. de Montmagny was superseded as governor of Canada by M. d'Ailleboust
+in the year 1647. He had proved himself a man of judgment, courage, and
+virtue, and had gained the love of the settlers and Indians, as well as
+the approval of the court. But, in consequence of the governor of the
+American islands having recently refused to surrender office to a person
+appointed by the king, it was decreed that no one should hold the
+government of a colony for more than three years. M. d'Ailleboust was a
+man of ability and worth, and, having held the command at Three Rivers
+for some time, was also experienced in colonial affairs, but he received
+no more support from home than his predecessor; and, despite his best
+efforts, New France continued to languish under his rule.
+
+The colony, however, was now free from the scourge of savage hostility.
+The Indians turned their subtle craft and terrible energy to the chase
+instead of war. From the far-distant hunting-grounds of the St. Maurice
+and of the gloomy Saguenay, they crowded to Three Rivers and Tadoussac
+with the spoils of the forest animals. At those settlements the trade
+went briskly on, and many of the natives became domesticated among their
+white neighbors. The worthy priests were not slow to take advantage of
+this favorable opportunity; many of the hunters from the north, who were
+attracted to the French villages by the fur trade, were told the great
+tidings of redemption; and usually, when they returned the following
+year, they were accompanied by others, who desired, with them, to
+receive the rites of baptism.[376]
+
+The most numerous and pious of the proselytes were of the Huron tribe,
+an indolent and unwarlike race, against whom the bold and powerful
+Iroquois held deadly feud, which the existing peace only kept in
+abeyance till opportunity might arise for effective action. The little
+settlement of St. Joseph was the place where first an Indian
+congregation assembled for Christian worship; the Father Antoine Daniel
+was the pastor; the flock were of the Huron tribe. Faith in treaties and
+long-continued tranquillity had lulled this unhappy people into a fatal
+security, and all cautions were forgotten,[377] when, on the morning of
+the 4th of July, 1648, while the missionary was performing service,
+there suddenly arose a cry of terror that the Iroquois were at hand.
+None but old men, women, and children were in the village at the time;
+of this the crafty enemy were aware; they had crept silently through the
+woods, and lain in ambush till morning gave them light for the foul
+massacre. Not one of the inhabitants escaped, and last of all, the good
+priest was likewise slain.
+
+During this year the first communication passed between the French and
+British North American colonies. An envoy arrived at Quebec from New
+England, bearing proposals for a lasting peace with Canada, not to be
+interrupted even by the wars of the mother countries. M. d'Ailleboust
+gladly entertained the wise proposition, and sent a deputy to Boston
+with full powers to treat, providing only that the English would consent
+to aid him against the Iroquois. But the cautious Puritans would not
+compromise themselves by this stipulation. They were sufficiently remote
+from the fierce and formidable savages of the Five Nations to be free
+from present apprehension, and to their steady and industrious habits
+the plow was more suitable than the sword. The negotiation, therefore,
+totally failed, which was probably of little consequence, for it is
+difficult to perceive how these remote and feeble colonies could have
+preserved a neutrality in the contentions of England and France, which
+was impossible even to powerful states.
+
+After a treacherous calm of some six months' duration, the unhappy
+Hurons again relapsed into a fatal security; the terrible lessons of the
+past were forgotten in the apparent tranquillity of the present. Watch
+and ward were relaxed, and again they lay at the mercy of their ruthless
+enemies. When least expected, 1000 Iroquois warriors started up from the
+thick coverts of a neighboring forest, and fell fiercely upon the
+defenseless Hurons, burned two of their villages, exterminated the
+inhabitants, and put two French missionaries to death with horrible
+tortures. Then the remnant of the defeated tribe despaired; the alliance
+of the French had only embittered the hostility of their enemies without
+affording protection; therefore they arose and deserted their villages
+and hunting grounds, wandering away, some into the northern forests,
+others as suppliants among neighboring nations.
+
+The greater body of the Hurons, however, attached themselves to the
+fortunes of the missionaries, and under them formed a settlement on the
+island of St. Joseph, but they neglected to cultivate the land. As the
+autumn advanced, the resources of the chase became exhausted, and the
+horrors of famine commenced. They were shortly reduced to the most
+dreadful extremities of suffering; every direst expedient that
+starvation could prompt and despair execute was resorted to for a few
+days' prolonging of life. Then came the scourge of contagious fever,
+sweeping numbers away with desolating fury. While these terrible
+calamities raged among the Hurons, the Iroquois seized the opportunity
+of again invading them. The village of St. John, containing nearly 3000
+souls, was the first point of attack. The feeble inhabitants offered no
+resistance, and, with their missionary, were totally destroyed. Most of
+the remnant of this unhappy tribe then took the resolution of presenting
+themselves to their conquerors, and were received into the Iroquois
+nation. The few who still remained wandering in the forests were hunted
+down like wolves, and soon exterminated.
+
+The terror of the Iroquois name now spread rapidly along the shores of
+the great lakes and rivers of the north. The fertile banks of the
+Ottawa, once the dwelling-place of numerous and powerful tribes, became
+suddenly deserted, and no one could tell whither the inhabitants had
+fled.
+
+About this time was introduced among the Montagnez, and the other tribes
+of the Saguenay country, an evil more destructive than even the tomahawk
+of the Iroquois--the "accursed fire-water;" despite the most earnest
+efforts of the governor, the fur traders at Tadoussac supplied the
+Indians with this fatal luxury. In a short time, intoxication and its
+dreadful consequences became so frequent, that the native chiefs prayed
+the governor to imprison all drunkards. At Three Rivers, however, the
+wise precautions of the authorities preserved the infant settlement from
+this monstrous calamity.
+
+In the year 1650 M. d'Ailleboust was worthily succeeded by M. de Lauson,
+one of the principals of the Associated Company. The new governor found
+affairs in a very discouraging condition, the colony rapidly declining,
+and the Iroquois, flushed by their sanguinary triumphs, more audacious
+than ever. These fierce savages intruded fearlessly among the French
+settlements, despising forts and intrenchments, and insulting the
+inhabitants with impunity. The island of Montreal suffered so much from
+their incursions, that M. de Maisonneuve, the governor, was obliged to
+repair to France to seek succors, for which he had vainly applied by
+letter. He returned in the year 1653 with a timely re-enforcement of 100
+men.
+
+Although the Iroquois had now overcome or destroyed all their native
+enemies, and proved their strength even against the Europeans, some of
+their tribes were more than ever disposed to a union with the white men.
+The Onnontagues dispatched an embassy to Quebec to request that the
+governor would send a colony of Frenchmen among them. He readily acceded
+to the proposition, and fifty men were chosen for the establishment,
+with the Sieur Dupuys for their commander. Four missionaries were
+appointed to found the first Iroquois church; and to supply temporal
+wants, provisions for a year, and sufficient seed to sow the lands about
+to be appropriated, were sent with the expedition. This design excited
+the jealousy of the other Iroquois tribes; the Agniers even tried to
+intercept the colonists with a force of 400 warriors; they, however,
+only succeeded in pillaging a few of the canoes that had fallen behind.
+The same war party soon after made an onslaught upon ninety Hurons,
+working on the Isle of Orleans under French protection, slew six, and
+carried off the rest into captivity. As they passed before Quebec they
+made their unhappy prisoners sing aloud, insultingly attracting the
+attention of the garrison. The marauders were not pursued; they dragged
+the prisoners to their villages, burned the chiefs, and condemned the
+rest to a cruel bondage. M. de Lauson can hardly be excused for thus
+suffering his allies to be torn from under his protection without an
+effort to save them from their merciless enemies. These unfortunates had
+been converted to Christianity, which increased the rage and ferocity of
+the captors against them. One brave chief, whose tortures had been
+prolonged for three days as a worshiper of the God of the white men,
+bore himself faithfully to the last, and died with the Saviour's blessed
+name upon his quivering lip.
+
+In the mean time the expedition to the country of the Onnontagues
+suffered great privations, and only escaped starvation by the generosity
+of the natives. Their spiritual mission was, however, at first eminently
+successful, the whole nation seeming disposed to adopt the Christian
+faith. But the allied tribes having carried their insolence to an
+intolerable degree, and massacred three Frenchmen near Montreal, the
+commandant at Quebec seized all the Iroquois within his reach, and
+demanded redress. The answer of the haughty savages was, to prepare for
+war. Dupuys and his little colony were now in a most perilous position:
+there was no hope of aid from Quebec, and but little chance of being
+able to escape from among their dangerous neighbors. They labored
+diligently and secretly to construct a sufficient number of canoes to
+carry them away in case some happy opportunity might arise, and found
+means to warn the people of Quebec of the coming danger. By great
+industry and skill the canoes were completed, and stored with the
+necessary provisions; through an ingenious stratagem, the French escaped
+in safety, while the savages slept soundly after one of their solemn
+feasts. In fifteen days the fugitives arrived at Montreal, where they
+found alarm on every countenance. The Iroquois swarmed over the island,
+and committed great disorders, although still professing a treacherous
+peace. The savages soon, however, threw off the mask, and broke into
+open war.
+
+On the 11th of July, 1658, the Viscompte d'Argenson landed at Quebec as
+governor. The next morning the cry "to arms" echoed through the town.
+The Iroquois had made a sudden onslaught upon some Algonquins under the
+very guns of the fortress, and massacred them without mercy. Two hundred
+men were instantly dispatched to avenge this insult, but they could not
+overtake the wily marauders. In the same year, however, a party of the
+Agniers met with a severe check in a treacherous attempt to surprise
+Three Rivers. The lesson was not lost, and the colony for some time
+enjoyed a much-needed repose. The missionaries seized this interval of
+tranquillity to recommence their sacred labors: they penetrated into
+many remote districts where Europeans had never before reached, and
+discovered several routes to the dreary shores of Hudson's Bay. In the
+year 1659, the exemplary Francois de Laval, abbe de Montigny, arrived at
+Quebec to preside over the Canadian Church as the first American
+bishop.[378]
+
+The temporal affairs of the colony were falling into a lamentable
+condition; no supplies arrived from France, and the local production was
+far from sufficient. Terror of the Indians kept the settlers almost
+blockaded in the forts, and cultivation was necessarily neglected. It
+was proposed by many that all the settlements should be abandoned, and
+that they should again seek the peaceful shores of their native country.
+Many individuals were massacred by the savages, and two armed parties,
+one of thirty and the other of twenty-six men, were totally destroyed.
+But some of the Indians, too, began to weary of this murderous war, and
+to long again for Christian instruction and peaceful commerce. The new
+governor was at first little inclined to negotiate with his fierce and
+capricious enemies; but, influenced by the miserable state of the
+colony, which even a brief truce might improve, he at length agreed to
+an exchange of prisoners and a peace.
+
+In 1662 the King of France was at last induced to hearken to the prayers
+of his Canadian subjects. M. de Monts[379] was sent out to inquire into
+the condition of the country, and 400 troops added to the strength of
+the garrison. But these encouraging circumstances were more than
+neutralized on account of the permission then granted by the new
+governor, Baron d'Avaugour, for the sale of ardent spirits.[380] The
+disorder soon rose to a lamentable height, and the clergy in vain
+opposed their utmost influence to its pernicious progress. At length the
+worthy bishop hastened to France, and represented to the king the
+dreadful evil that afflicted the colony. His remonstrances were
+effectual; he succeeded in obtaining such powers as he deemed necessary
+to stop the ruinous commerce.
+
+The year 1663 was rendered memorable by a tremendous earthquake, spoken
+of in a preceding chapter. In the same year the Associated Company
+remitted to the crown all their rights over New France, which the king
+again transferred to the West India Company.[381] Courts of law were
+for the first time established, and many families of valuable settlers
+found their way to the colony. Up to this period extreme simplicity and
+honesty seems to have prevailed in the little community, and it was not
+till then that a Council of State was appointed by the crown to
+co-operate with the governor in the conduct of affairs.[382] The king
+sent out the Sieur Gaudais to inquire into the state of his
+newly-acquired dependency, and to investigate certain complaints
+preferred against the Baron d'Avaugour, who had himself prayed to be
+recalled. The sieur performed his invidious task to the satisfaction of
+all parties: he made valuable reports as to the general character of the
+colonial clergy, of the advantages and disadvantages of the local
+administration of government, and imputed no fault to the Baron
+d'Avaugour, but a somewhat too rigid and stern adherence to the letter
+of the law, and the severity of justice. The baron then joyfully
+returned to France, but soon afterward fell in the defense of the fort
+of Serin against the Turks, while, with the permission of the French
+king, serving the emperor.
+
+M. de Mesy succeeded as governor, upon the recommendation of the Bishop
+of Canada, whose complaints on the subject of the sale of spirituous
+liquors had been the principal cause of the Baron d'Avaugour's recall.
+The new appointment proved far from satisfactory to those by whose
+influence it was made. M. de Mesy at once raised up a host of enemies by
+his haughty and despotic bearing. He thwarted the Jesuits to the utmost
+extent of his power; the council supported them, alleging that their
+influence over the native race was essential to the well-being of the
+colony. Various representations of these matters were made to the court
+of France, and the final result was, that the governor was recalled.
+
+Alexandre de Prouville, marquis de Tracy, was next appointed viceroy in
+America by the king, with ample powers to establish, destroy, or alter
+the institutions of the Canadian colony. Daniel de Remi, seigneur de
+Courcelles, the new governor, and M. Talon, the intendant, were
+conjoined with the viceroy in a commission to examine into the charges
+against M. de Mesy. (1665.) M. de Tracy was the first to arrive at
+Quebec; he bore with him the welcome re-enforcement of some companies of
+the veteran regiment of Carignan-Salieres.[383] He sent a portion of
+this force at once against the Iroquois, accompanied by the allied
+savages. The country was speedily cleared of every enemy, and the
+harvest gathered in security. The remaining part of the regiment arrived
+soon after, with the viceroy's colleagues; a large number of families,
+artisans, and laborers; the first horses that had ever been sent to New
+France; cattle, sheep; and, in short, a far more complete colony than
+that which they came to aid.
+
+Being now established in security, and confident in strength, the
+viceroy led a sufficient force to the mouth of Richelieu River, where he
+erected three forts[384] to overawe the turbulent Iroquois.[385] These
+works were rapidly and skillfully executed, and for a time answered
+their purpose; but the wily savages soon perceived that there were other
+routes by which they could enter the settlements. In the mean time M.
+Talon remained at Quebec, collecting much valuable information
+concerning the country and its native inhabitants. He was spared,
+however, the task of inquiring into the conduct of M. de Mesy, for that
+gentleman died before the news of his recall reached Canada.
+
+Toward the end of December, 1665, three tribes of the Iroquois nation
+dispatched envoys to the viceroy at Quebec with proposals for peace and
+for an exchange of prisoners. The terms were readily complied with. M.
+de Tracy received the Indians with politic kindness and attention, and
+sent them back with valuable presents. But the formidable tribes of the
+Agniers and Onneyouths still kept sullenly apart from the French
+alliance; it was, therefore, determined to give them a severe lesson for
+their former insolence and treachery, and make them feel the supremacy
+of France. M. de Courcelles and M. de Sorel were sent with two corps to
+humble the haughty savages. The hostile Indians, alarmed at the
+preparations for their destruction, now sent deputies to Quebec to avert
+the threatening storm, although some of their war parties still infested
+the settlements, and had lately put to death three French officers,
+among them M. de Chasy, the viceroy's nephew. One of the Indian deputies
+boasted at M. de Tracy's table that he had slain the French officers
+with his own hands. He was immediately seized and strangled, and the
+negotiations broken off.
+
+The two French expeditions found the hostile country altogether
+deserted, and returned without effecting any thing, having suffered
+great fatigue and hardship. M. de Tracy then took the field in person,
+at the head of 1200 French and 600 friendly Indians, with two pieces of
+cannon. As he was setting out on the march, chiefs again came from the
+Agniers and Onneyouths to pray for peace; but he would hear of no
+accommodation, and even imprisoned the deputies. The French army marched
+on the 14th of September, 1666; provisions soon failed in the solitary
+desert through which they had to pass; in their greatest necessity,
+however, they entered a wood abounding in chestnut-trees, whose fruit
+supplied them with sustenance till they gained the first village of the
+enemy. The warriors had abandoned the old men, women, and children, and
+ample stores of food, and retired through the forest. The French found
+the Indian cabans larger and better than any they had seen elsewhere,
+and in ingeniously contrived magazines, sunk under the ground,
+sufficient grain was discovered to supply the whole colony for two
+years. The invaders burned and utterly destroyed all the villages, and
+carried away, as captives, all the inhabitants that remained, but they
+could not succeed in overtaking the warriors to force them to action.
+They then retraced their steps, strengthening the settlements on the
+River St. Lawrence as they passed. When M. de Tracy reached Quebec, he
+caused some of the prisoners to be put to death as a warning, and
+dismissed the remainder. Having established the authority of the West
+India Company instead of that of "The Hundred Associates," he returned
+to France the following spring.
+
+The humiliation of the Iroquois restored profound peace to New France.
+Then the wisdom and energy of M. Talon were directed to the development
+of the resources of the country. Scientific men were sent to examine the
+mineral resources of several districts where promising indications had
+been observed. The clearing of land proceeded rapidly, and invariably
+discovered a rich and productive soil. The population increased in
+numbers, and enjoyed abundant plenty: all were in a condition to live in
+comfort. According to the perhaps partial authority of the Jesuit
+missionaries, the progress in morality and attention to religious
+observances kept pace with the temporal prosperity of this happy colony.
+
+Although M. de Courcelles showed little activity in conducting the
+internal government of the colony, which was principally directed by M.
+Talon, he was highly energetic and vigorous in his relations with the
+Indians. Having learned that the Iroquois were intriguing with the
+Ottawas to direct their fur trade to the English colonies, thus probably
+to ruin the commerce of New France, he resolved to visit the Iroquois,
+and impress them with an idea of his power. For this purpose he took the
+route of the deep and rapid St. Lawrence, making his way in bateaux for
+130 miles above Montreal. His health, however, suffered so much in this
+difficult expedition that he was obliged to demand his recall.
+
+On his return to Quebec he found that several atrocious murders and
+robberies had been committed upon Iroquois and Mahingan Indians by
+Frenchmen, which filled the savages with indignation, and roused them
+to a fury of revenge. They attacked and burned a house in open day, and
+a woman perished in the flames. Numbers of the two injured nations and
+their savage allies hovered round Montreal, awaiting an opportunity for
+vengeance. M. de Courcelles, with his wonted vigor in emergencies,
+hastened to the threatened settlement, and called upon the Indian chiefs
+to hold parley. They assembled, and hearkened with attention while he
+enumerated the advantages that both parties derived from the existing
+peace. He then caused those among the murderers who had been convicted
+of the crime to be led out and executed on the spot. The Indians were at
+once appeased by this prompt administration of justice, and even
+lamented over the malefactors' wretched fate; they were also fully
+indemnified for the stolen property. The assembly then broke up with
+mutual satisfaction.
+
+But soon again, the repose of the country was threatened by the Iroquois
+and Ottawas, who had begun to make incursions upon each other. M. de
+Courcelles promptly interfered to quell this growing animosity,
+declaring that he would punish with the greatest severity either party
+that would not submit to reasonable conditions. He required them to send
+deputies to state their wrongs, and the grounds of dispute, and took
+upon himself to do justice to both parties. He was obeyed: the chiefs of
+the contending tribes repaired to Quebec, and by the firmness and
+judgment of the governor, the breach was healed, and peace secured.
+
+At this time a scourge more terrible than even savage war visited the
+red race of Canada. The small-pox first appeared among the northern
+tribe of the Attikamegues, and swept them totally away: many of their
+neighbors shared the same fate. Tadoussac, where 1200 Indians usually
+assembled to barter their rich furs at the end of the hunting season,
+was deserted. Three Rivers, once crowded with the friendly Algonquins,
+was now never visited by a red man, and a few years after the frightful
+plague first appeared, the settlement of Sillery, near Quebec, was
+attacked; 1500 savages took the fatal contagion, and not one survived.
+The Hurons, who had been always most intimately associated with the
+French, suffered least among the native nations from the malady. In 1670
+Father Chaumonat assembled the remnant of this once powerful tribe in
+the neighborhood of Quebec, and established them in the village of
+Lorette,[386] where a mixed race of their descendants remains to this
+day.
+
+Even the presence of the dreadful infliction of the small-pox and the
+fear of French power could not long restrain the savage impulse for war.
+The most distant tribe of the Iroquois became engaged in a sanguinary
+quarrel with a neighboring nation, and took a number of prisoners. The
+governor immediately sent to warn these turbulent savages that if they
+did not desist from war, and return their prisoners, he would destroy
+their villages as he had those of the Agniers. This peremptory message
+raised the indignation of the Iroquois, they at first proudly disclaimed
+the right of the French to dictate to the free people of the forest, and
+vowed that they would perish rather than bow down to the strangers'
+will; but, finally, the wisdom of the old men prevailed in the council:
+they knew that they were not prepared to meet the power of the
+Europeans; it was therefore decided that they should send a portion of
+their prisoners to the governor. He either believed, or pretended to
+believe, that they had fully complied with his demands, deeming it
+prudent not to drive the Indians to extremities.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 374: Among the Ursulines who accompanied Madame de la Peltrie
+to Quebec was Marie de l'Incarnation, "the Theresa of France," and Marie
+de St. Joseph. The sanctity of these remarkable women and the miracles
+they performed are the favorite theme of the Jesuit historians of
+Canada. Several lives of the former have been published, one of them by
+Charlevoix. A quarto volume of her letters was also published (a Paris,
+chez Louis Billaine, 1681): they are highly extolled as "worthy of her
+high reputation for sanctity, ability, and practical good sense in the
+business of life." They record many historical facts which occurred
+during the thirty-two years that she passed in Canada, where she arrived
+in 1640. When the Ursulines and the "Filles Hospitalieres" landed at
+Quebec, they were received with enthusiasm. "It was held as a festival
+day; all work was forbidden; and the shops were shut. The governor
+received these heroines upon the shore at the head of the troops, who
+were under arms, the guns firing a salute. After the first greeting he
+led them to the church, accompanied by the acclamations of the people;
+here the Te Deum was chanted."--Charlevoix.
+
+"The venerable ash tree still lives beneath which Mary of the
+Incarnation, so famed for chastened piety, genius, and good judgment,
+toiled, though in vain, for the culture of Huron children."--Bancroft's
+_History of the United States_. vol. iii., p. 127.]
+
+[Footnote 375: "Cette ville a ete nominee Ville Marie par ses
+fondateurs, mais ce nom n'a pu passer dans l'usage ordinaire; il n'a
+lieu que dans les actes publics, et parmi les seigneurs, qui en sont
+fort jaloux."--Charlevoix. When the foundations of the city of Montreal
+were first laid, the name given to it was Ville Marie. Bouchette, vol.
+i., p. 215; La Hontan, vol. xiii., p. 266.
+
+Charlevoix gives the following account of the formation and progress of
+the remarkable settlement at Montreal: "Quelques personnes puissantes,
+et plus recommandable encore par leur piete et par leur zele pour la
+religion, formerent donc une societe, qui se proposa de faire en grand a
+Montreal, ce qu'on avoit fait en petit a Sillery. Il devoit y avoir dans
+cette isle une bourgade Francoise, bien fortifiee, et a l'abri de toute
+insulte. Les pauvres y devoient etre recus, et mis en etat de subsister
+de leur travail. On projetta de faire occuper tout le reste de l'isle
+par des sauvages, de quelque nation qu'ils fussent, pourvu qu'ils
+fissent profession du Christianisme, ou qu'ils voulussent se faire
+instuire de nos mysteres, et l'on etoit d'autant plus persuade qu'ils y
+viendraient en grand nombre qu' outre un asile assure contre les
+poursuites de leurs ennemis, ils pouvoient se promettre des secours
+toujours prompts dans leurs maladies, et contre la disette. On se
+proposoit meme de les policer avec le tems, et de les accoutumer a ne
+plus vivre que du travail de leurs mains. Le nombre de ceux qui
+entroient dans cette association fut de trente-cinq; des cette annee
+1640, en vertu de la concession que le roi lui fit de l'isle, elle en
+fit prendre possession a la fin d'une messe solennelle, qui fut celebree
+sous une tente. Le quinzieme d'Octobre l'annee suivante, M. de
+Maisonneuve fut declare gouverneur de l'isle. Le dix-septieme de May
+suivant, le lieu destine a l'habitation Francoise fut beni par le
+Superieur des Jesuites, qui y celebra les saints mysteres, dedia a la
+mere de Dieu une petite chapelle, qu'on avoit batie, et il y laissa le
+St. Sacrement. Cette ceremonie avoit ete precede d'une autre, trois mois
+auparavant, c'est a dire vers la fin de Fevrier: tous les Associes
+s'etant rendus un Jeudi matin a Notre Dame de Paris, ceux qui etoient
+pretres, y dirent la messe, les autres communierent a l'autel de la
+Vierge et tous supplierent la reine des anges de prendre l'isle de
+Montreal sous sa protection. Enfin le quinze d'Aout, la fete de
+l'Assomption de la mere de Dieu fut solemnisee dans cette isle avec un
+concours extraordinaire de Francois et de sauvages. On ne negligea rien
+dans cette occasion pour interesser le ciel en faveur d'un etablissement
+si utile, et pour donner aux infideles une haute idee de la religion
+Chretienne."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 345.
+
+In the year 1644 Charlevoix says, "L'isle de Montreal se peuploit
+insensiblement, et la piete de ces nouveaux colons disposoit peu a peu
+les sauvages qui les approchoient a se soumettre au jong de la foi." In
+1657, however, it was considered that "les premiers possesseurs de
+l'isle n'avoient pas pousse l'etablissement autant qu'on avoit d'abord
+espere." and it was therefore ceded to the Seminary of St. Sulpice in
+Paris. From that time the establishment made a rapid progress, M. de
+Maisonneuve still continuing its governor, after it had changed masters.
+He was a man of ability and piety: under his auspices the order of
+"Filles de la Congregation" was established at Montreal by Margaret
+Bourgeois, who had accompanied the first settlers on the island from
+France. For the details of this admirable institution see Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 94. He speaks of it with justice as one of the brightest
+ornaments of New France.
+
+"Jusqu' en l'annee 1692, la justice particuliere de Montreal appartenoit
+a Messieurs du Seminaire de St. Sulpice, en qualite de seigneurs. Ils en
+donnerent alors leur demission au roi, a condition que l'exercice leur
+en resteroit dans l'enclos de leur seminaire, et dans leur ferme de St.
+Gabriel, avec la propriete perpetuelle et incommutable du Greffe de la
+justice royale, qui seroit etablie dans l'isle, et la nomination du
+premier juge."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 376: The kindness of the missionaries has been one of the
+causes that has perpetuated a kindly feeling toward the French. Among
+the American Indians, "a person, even in times of hostility, speaking
+French will find security from the attachment of the people to every
+thing that is French."--Imlay, p. 8.
+
+"To do justice to truth, the French missionaries in general have
+invariably distinguished themselves every where by an exemplary life,
+befitting their profession. Their religious sincerity, their apostolic
+charity, their insinuating kindness, their heroic patience, their
+remoteness from austerity and fanaticism, fix in these countries
+memorable epochs in the annals of Christianity; and while the memory of
+a Del Vilde, a Vodilla, &c., will be held in everlasting execration by
+all truly Christian hearts, that of a Daniel, a Brebeuf, &c., will never
+lose any of that veneration which the history of discoveries and
+missions has so justly conferred upon them. Hence that predilection
+which the savages manifest for the French, a predilection which they
+naturally find in the recesses of their souls, cherished by the
+traditions which their fathers have left in favor of the first apostles
+of Canada, then called New France."--Beltrami's _Travels_, 1823. The
+authority of this passage, Chateaubriand observes, is the stronger, as
+the writer is severe in his condemnation of the modern Jesuit.]
+
+[Footnote 377: "Ce n'etoit pas la faute de leurs missionnaires, s'ils
+s'endormaient de la sorte; mais ces religieux ne pouvant gagner sur
+leurs neophytes qu'ils prissent pour leur surete les precautions que la
+prudence exigeoit, redoublerent leurs soins pour achever de les
+sanctifier, et pour les preparer a tout ce qui pourroit arriver. Ils les
+trouverent sur cet article d'une docilite parfaite; ils n'eurent aucune
+peine a les faire entrer dans les sentimens les plus convenables a la
+triste situation ou ils se reduisaient eux-memes par une indolence, et
+un aveuglement, qu'on ne pouvoit comprendre et qui n'a peut-etre point
+d'exemple dans l'histoire. Ce qui consoloit les pasteurs, c'est qu'ils
+les voyoient dans l'occasion braver la mort avec un courage, qui les
+animoit eux-memes a mourir en heros Chretiens."--Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 378: The Abbe de Montigny was titular Bishop of Petraea, and
+had received from the pope a brief as vicar apostolic. The Church of
+Quebec was not erected into a bishop's see until 1670, when its bishop
+was no longer called titular Bishop of Petraea, but Bishop of Quebec. "Ce
+qui avoit fait trainer la cause si fort en longueur, c'est qu'il y eut
+de grandes contestations sur la dependance immediate du Saint Siege,
+dont le pape ne voulut point se relacher. Cela n'empeche pourtant pas
+que l'Eveche de Quebec ne soit en quelque facon uni au clerge de France,
+en la maniere de celui du Puy, lequel releve aussi immediatement de
+Rome."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 189; _Petits Droits_, &c., tom. ii., p.
+492.
+
+"When the bishopric of Quebec was erected, Louis XIV. endowed it with
+the revenue of two abbacies, those of Benevent and L'Estrio. About
+thirty years ago, the then bishop, finding it difficult, considering the
+distance, to recover the revenues of them, by consent of Louis XV.,
+resigned the same to the clergy of France, to be united to a particular
+revenue of theirs, styled the economats, applied to the augmentation of
+small livings, in consideration of which, the bishop of this see has
+ever since received yearly 8000 livres out of the said revenues. A few
+years before the late bishop's death, the clergy of France granted him,
+for _his_ life only, a further pension of 2000 livres; the bishop had no
+estate whatever, except his palace at Quebec, destroyed by our
+artillery, a garden, and the ground-rent of two or three houses
+adjoining it, and built on some part of the lands."--Governor Murray's
+_Report on the Ancient Government and Actual State of the Province of
+Quebec in_ 1762.]
+
+[Footnote 379: Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 120.]
+
+[Footnote 380: "Jusques-la, les gouverneurs generaux avoient assez tenue
+la main a faire executer les ordres qu'ils avoient eux-memes donnes, de
+ne point vendre d'eau de vie aux sauvages; et le baron d'Avaugour avoit
+decerne des peines tres severes contre ceux qui contreviendroient a ses
+ordonnances sur ce point capital. Il arriva qu'une femme de Quebec fut
+surprise en y contrevenant, et, sur le champ, conduite en prison. Le P.
+Lallemant, a la priere de ses amis, crut pouvoir sans consequence
+interceder pour elle. Il alla trouver le general, qui le recut tres mal,
+et qui sans faire reflexion qu'il n'y a point d'inconsequence dans les
+ministres d'un Dieu qui a donne sa vie pour detruire le peche et sauver
+le pecheur, a agir avec zele pour reprimer le vice, et a demander grace
+pour le criminel, lui repondit brusquement, que puisque la traite de
+l'eau de vie n'etoit pas une faute punissable pour cette femme, elle ne
+le seroit desormais pour personne.... il ne consulta que sa mauvaise
+humeur et sa droiture mal entendue; et ce qu'il y eut de pis, c'est
+qu'il se fit un point d'honneur de ne point retracter l'indiscrete
+parole qui lui etoit echappee. Le peuple en fut bientot instruit et le
+desordre devint extreme."--Charlevoix. tom. ii., p. 121.]
+
+[Footnote 381: Petit, vol. i., p. 24. _Colony Records._ There are no
+books of record in the secretary's office before this period. The old
+records were either carried to France, or destroyed at the fire, when
+the intendant's palace was burned down in 1725.
+
+"The company, 'des Cents Associes,' formed in 1628, though one of the
+most powerful, according to Charlevoix, that had ever existed, with
+respect to the number, the rank, and the accorded privileges of its
+members, had allowed the colony to fall into a deplorable state of
+weakness. In 1662, when it relinquished its rights to Louis XIV., the
+original number of 100 had diminished to 45."--Charlevoix, ii., p. 149.
+
+The East India Company was erected by the great Colbert in 1664. This
+company, having fallen into decay, was united with the West Indian
+Company, which was founded by law in 1718, and survived the ruin of its
+projector.]
+
+[Footnote 382: "Jusques-la il n'y avoit point eu proprement de cour de
+justice en Canada; les gouverneurs generaux jugeant les affaires d'une
+maniere assez souveraine; on ne s'avisoit point d'appeller de leurs
+sentences; mais ils ne rendoient ordinairement des arrets, qu'apres
+avoir inutilement tentes les voies de l'arbitrage, et l'on convient que
+leurs decisions etoient toujours, dictees par le bon sens, et selon les
+regles de la loi naturelle, qui est au-dessus de toutes les autres.
+D'ailleurs les Creoles du Canada, quoique de race Normande, pour la
+plupart n'avoient seulement l'esprit processif, et aimoient mieux pour
+l'ordinaire ceder quelque chose de leur bon droit, que de perdre le tems
+a plaider. Il sembloit meme que tous les biens fussent communes dans
+cette colonie, du moins on fut assez long tems sans rien fermee sous la
+clef, et il etoit inoui qu'on s'en abusat. Il est bien etrange et bien
+humiliant pour l'homme que les precautions qu'un prince sage prit pour
+eviter la chicane et faire regner la justice, aient presque ete l'epoque
+de la naissance de l'une, et de l'affoiblissement de l'autre.... La
+justice est rendue selon les ordonnances du royaume et la coutume de
+Paris. Au mois de Juin, 1679, le roi autorisa par un edit quelques
+reglemens du conseil de Quebec, et c'est ce qu'on appelle dans le pays
+la reduction du Code ... par un autre edit en 1685 le conseil fut
+autorise a juger les causes criminelles au nombre de cinq juges ...
+c'est sur le modele du conseil superieur a Quebec, qu'on a depuis etabli
+ceux de la Martinique, de St. Domingue, et de Louisiane. Tous ses
+conseils sont d'epee."--Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 383: "The regiment de Carignan-Salieres was just arrived from
+Hungary, where it had distinguished itself greatly in the war against
+the Turks."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 150.]
+
+[Footnote 384: "M. de Sorel, a captain in the Regiment De Carignan, was
+employed on the erection of the first fort, on the same site as the fort
+De Richelieu, built by M. de Montmagny, now quite in ruins. De Sorel
+gave his own name to the fort, and in time the river Richelieu, or
+Iroquois, acquired it also.
+
+"The second fort was called St. Louis; but, as M. de Chambly, captain in
+the same regiment, had superintended the erection, and afterward
+acquired the land on which it was situated, the whole district, and the
+stone fort, which has been erected since upon the ruins of the former
+one, have acquired and retained the name of Chambly. This was a very
+important fortress, as it protected the colony on the side of New York,
+and the lower Iroquois.
+
+"The third fort was built under the direction of M. de Salieres, the
+colonel of the regiment De Carignan. He named it St. Theresa, because it
+was finished on that saint's day."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 152.]
+
+[Footnote 385: "Every omen was now favorable, except the conquest of New
+Netherlands (New York) by the English in 1664. That conquest eventually
+made the Five Nations (Iroquois) a dependance on the English nation; and
+if for twenty-five years England and France sued for their friendship
+with unequal success, yet afterward, in the grand division of parties
+throughout the world, the Bourbons found in them implacable
+opponents."--Bancroft's _History of the United States_, vol. ii., p.
+149.]
+
+[Footnote 386: "La chapelle a Lorette est batie sur le modele et avec
+toutes les dimensions de la Santa Case d'Italie, d'ou l'on a envoye a
+nos neophytes une image de la vierge, semblable a celle, que l'on voit
+dans ce celebre sanctuaire. On ne pouvoit guere choisir pour placer
+cette mission, un lieu plus sauvage."--Charlevoix.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+
+Taking advantage of the profound peace which now blessed New
+France,[387] M. Talon, the intendant, dispatched an experienced
+traveler, named Nicholas Perrot, to the distant northern and western
+tribes, for the purpose of inducing them to fix a meeting at some
+convenient place with a view of discussing the rights of the French
+crown. This bold adventurer penetrated among the nations dwelling by the
+great lakes, and with admirable address induced them all to send
+deputies to the Falls of St. Mary, where the waters of Lake Superior
+pour into Lake Huron. The Sieur de St. Lusson met the assembled Indian
+chiefs at this place in May, 1671; he persuaded them to acknowledge the
+sovereignty of his king, and erected a cross bearing the arms of France.
+
+M. de Courcelles was succeeded by the able and chivalrous Louis de
+Buade, comte de Frontenac. The new governor was a soldier of high rank,
+and a trusty follower of the great Henry of Navarre; his many high
+qualities were, however, obscured by a capricious and despotic temper.
+His plans for the advancement of the colony were bold and judicious, his
+representations to the government of France fearless and effectual, his
+personal conduct and piety unimpeachable, but he exhibited a bitterness
+and asperity to those who did not enter into his views little suited to
+the better points of his character, and it is said that ambition and the
+love of authority at times overcame his zeal for the public good.[388]
+
+M. Talon, the intendant, was at this time recalled by his own wish, but
+before he departed from the scenes of his useful labors he planned a
+scheme of exploration more extensive than any that had yet been
+accomplished in New France. From the rumors and traditions among the
+savages of the far West, with which the meeting at St. Mary's had made
+the French acquainted, it was believed that to the southwest of New
+France there flowed a vast river, called by the natives Mechasepe, whose
+course was neither toward the great lakes to the north, nor the Atlantic
+to the east. It was therefore surmised that this unknown flood must pour
+its waters either into the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean. The wise
+intendant was impressed with the importance of possessing a channel of
+navigation to the waters of the south and west, and before his departure
+from America made arrangements to have the course of the mysterious
+stream[389] explored. He intrusted the arduous duty to Father Marquette,
+a pious priest, who was experienced in Indian travel, and an adventurous
+and able merchant of Quebec, named Jolyet. (1673.) The Comte de
+Frontenac gave hearty aid to this expedition, and in the mean time he
+himself extended the line of French settlement to the shores of Lake
+Ontario,[390] built there the fort that still bears his name, and opened
+communication with the numerous tribes westward of the Allegany
+Mountains.
+
+The exploring party, led by Marquette[391] and Jolyet, consisted of
+only six men, in two little bark canoes: at the very outset the Indians
+of the lakes told them that great and terrible dangers would beset their
+path, and recounted strange tales of supernatural difficulties and
+perils for those who had ventured to explore the mysterious regions of
+the West. Hearkening carefully to whatever useful information the
+natives could bestow, but despising their timid warnings, these
+adventurous men hastened on over the great lakes to the northwestern
+extremity of the deep and stormy Michigan, now called Green Bay.
+Numerous Indian tribes wandered over the surrounding country; among
+others, the Miamis, the most civilized and intelligent of the native
+race that they had yet seen. Two hunters of this nation undertook to
+guide the expedition to one of the tributaries of the great river of
+which they were in search. The French were struck with wonder at the
+vast prairies that lay around their route on every side, monotonous, and
+apparently boundless as the ocean.
+
+The Fox River was the stream to which the Miamis first led them.
+Although it was broad at its entrance into the lake the upper portion
+was divided by marshes into a labyrinth of narrow channels; as they
+passed up the river, the wild oats grew so thickly in the water that the
+adventurers appeared to row through fields of corn. After a portage of a
+mile and a half, they launched their canoes in the Wisconsin River, a
+tributary of the Mississippi, and the guides left them to find their way
+into the unknown solitudes of the West. Their voyage down the tributary
+was easy and prosperous, and at length, to their great joy, they reached
+the magnificent stream of the Mississippi. The banks were rich and
+beautiful, the trees the loftiest they had yet seen, and wild bulls and
+other animals roamed in vast herds over the flowery meadows.[393]
+
+For more than 200 miles Marquette and his companions continued their
+course through verdant and majestic solitudes, where no sign of human
+life appeared. At length the foot-prints of men rejoiced their sight,
+and, by following up the track, they arrived at a cluster of inhabited
+villages, where they were kindly and hospitably received. Their hosts
+called themselves Illinois, which means "men" in the native tongue, and
+is designed to express their supposed superiority over their neighbors.
+Marquette considered them the most civilized of the native American
+nations.
+
+Neither fear for the future nor the enjoyment of present comfort could
+damp the ardor of the French adventurers; they soon again launched their
+little canoes on the Father of Waters, and followed the course of the
+stream. They passed a number of bold rocks that rose straight up from
+the water's edge; on one of these, strange monsters were curiously
+painted in brilliant colors. Soon after they came to the place where the
+great Missouri pours its turbid and noisy flood into the Mississippi;
+and next they reached a lofty range of cliffs, that stretched nearly
+across from bank to bank, breasting the mighty stream. With great
+difficulty and danger they guided their little canoes through these
+turbulent waters. They passed the entrance of the Ohio,[394] and were
+again astonished at the vast size of the tributaries which fed the flood
+of the mysterious river. The inhabitants of the villages on the banks
+accepted the calumet of peace, and held friendly intercourse with the
+adventurers; and although, after passing the mouth of the Arkansas
+River, a proposition was made in the council of one tribe to slay and
+rob them, the chief indignantly overruled the cruel suggestion, and
+presented them with the sacred pipe.
+
+At the village where they were threatened with this great danger they
+were inaccurately informed that the sea was only distant five days'
+voyage. From this the travelers concluded that the waters of the
+Mississippi poured into the Gulf of Mexico, and not, as they had fondly
+hoped, into the Pacific Ocean. Fearing, therefore, that by venturing
+further they might fall into the hands of the Spaniards, and lose all
+the fruits of their toils and dangers, they determined to re-ascend the
+stream and return to Canada. After a long and dreary voyage, they
+reached Chicago, on Lake Michigan, where the adventurers separated.
+Father Marquette remained among the friendly Miamis, and Jolyet hastened
+to Quebec to announce their discoveries. Unfortunately, their
+enlightened patron, M. Talon, had already departed for France.
+
+There chanced, however, to be at Quebec at that time a young Frenchman,
+of some birth and fortune, named Robert Cavalier, sieur de la Salle,
+ambitious, brave, and energetic. He had emigrated to America with a hope
+of gaining fame and wealth in the untrodden paths of a new world. The
+first project that occupied his active mind was the discovery of a route
+to China[395] and Japan, by the unexplored regions of the west of
+Canada. The information brought by Jolyet to Quebec excited his sanguine
+expectations. Impressed with the strange idea that the Missouri would
+lead to the Northern Ocean, he determined to explore its course, and
+having gained the sanction of the governor, sailed for France to seek
+the means of fitting out an expedition. In this he succeeded by the
+favor of the Prince of Conti. The Chevalier de Tonti, a brave officer,
+who had lost an arm in the Sicilian wars, was associated with him in the
+enterprise.
+
+On the 14th of July, 1678, La Salle and Tonti embarked at Rochelle with
+thirty men, and in two months arrived at Quebec. They took Father
+Hennepin with them, and hastened on to the great lakes,[396] where they
+spent two years in raising forts and building vessels of forty or fifty
+tons burden, and carrying on the fur trade with the natives. The party
+then pushed forward to the extremity of Michigan. Their friendly
+relations with the Indians were here interrupted by a party of the
+Outagamis having robbed them of a coat. The French held a council to
+devise means of deterring the savages from such depredations, and it was
+somewhat hastily determined to demand restitution of the coat under the
+threat of putting the offending chief to death. The Outagamis, having
+divided the stolen garment into a number of small pieces for general
+distribution, found it impossible to comply with this requisition, and
+thinking that no resource remained, presented themselves to the French
+in battle array. However, through the wise mediation of Father Hennepin,
+the quarrel was arranged, and a good understanding restored.
+
+La Salle now set out with a party of forty-four men and three Recollets,
+to pursue his cherished object of exploring the course of the
+Mississippi. He descended the stream of the Illinois, and was charmed
+with the beauty and fertility of the banks: large villages rose on each
+side; the first, containing 500 wooden huts, they found deserted, but in
+descending the river they suddenly perceived that two large bodies of
+Indians were assembled on opposite banks, in order of battle. After a
+parley, however, the Indians presented the calumet of peace, and
+entertained the strangers at a great feast.
+
+The discontents among his own followers proved far more dangerous to La
+Salle than the caprice or hostility of the savages. They murmured at
+being led into unknown regions, among barbarous tribes, to gratify the
+ambition of an adventurer, and determined to destroy him and return to
+France. They were base enough to tell the natives that La Salle was a
+spy of the Iroquois, their ancient enemies, and it required all his
+genius and courage to remove this idea from the minds of the ignorant
+savages. Failing in this scheme, they endeavored to poison him and all
+his faithful adherents at a Christmas dinner; by the use of timely
+remedies, however, the intended victims recovered, and the villains,
+having fled, were in vain pursued over the trackless deserts.
+
+La Salle was obliged to return to the forts for aid, on account of the
+desertion of so many of his followers; but he sent Father Hennepin, with
+Dacan and three other Frenchmen, to explore the sources of the
+Mississippi, and left Tonti in the command of a small fort, erected on
+the Illinois, which he, however, was soon obliged to desert, in
+consequence of the hostility of the Iroquois. La Salle collected twenty
+men, with the necessary arms and provisions, and, unshaken by
+accumulated disasters, determined at once to make his way to the Gulf of
+Mexico down the course of the Mississippi. He passed the entrance of the
+swollen and muddy Missouri, and the beautiful Ohio, and, still
+descending, traversed countries where dwelt the numerous and friendly
+Chickasaw and Arkansaw Indians. Next he came to the Taencas, a people
+far advanced beyond their savage neighbors in civilization, and obeying
+an absolute prince. Farther on, the Natchez received him with
+hospitality; but the Quinipissas, who inhabited the shores more to the
+south, assailed him with showers of arrows. He wisely pursued his
+important journey without seeking to avenge the insult. Tangibao, still
+lower down the stream, had just been desolated by one of the terrible
+irruptions of savage war: the bodies of the dead lay piled in heaps
+among the ruins of their former habitations. For leagues beyond, the
+channel began to widen, and at length became so vast that one shore was
+no longer visible from the other. The water was now brackish, and
+beautiful sea-shells were seen strewn along the shore. They had reached
+the mouth of the Mississippi, the Father of Rivers.
+
+La Salle celebrated the successful end of his adventurous voyage with
+great rejoicings. Te Deum was sung, a cross was suspended from the top
+of a lofty tree, and a shield, bearing the arms of France, was erected
+close at hand. They attempted to determine the latitude by an
+observation of the sun, but the result was altogether erroneous.
+
+The country immediately around the outlet of this vast stream was
+desolate and uninteresting. Far as the eye could teach, swampy flats and
+inundated morasses filled the dreary prospect. Under the ardent rays of
+the tropical sun, noisome vapors exhaled from the rank soil and
+sluggish waters, poisoning the breezes from the southern seas, and
+corrupting them into the breath of pestilence. Masses of floating trees,
+whose large branches were scathed by months of alternate immersion and
+exposure, during hundreds of leagues of travel, choked up many of the
+numerous outlets of the river, and, cemented together by the alluvial
+deposits of the muddy stream, gradually became fixed and solid, throwing
+up a rank vegetation.[397] Above this dreary delta, however, the country
+was rich and beautiful, and graceful undulations succeeded to the
+monotonous level of the lower banks.
+
+After a brief repose, La Salle proceeded to re-ascend the river toward
+Canada, eager to carry the important tidings of his success to France.
+His journey was beset with difficulties and dangers. The course of the
+stream, though not rapid, perpetually impeded his progress. Provisions
+began to fail, and dire necessity drove him to perilous measures for
+obtaining supplies. Having met with four women of the hostile tribe of
+the Quinipissas, he treated them with great kindness, loading them with
+such gifts as might most win their favor. The chief of the savages then
+came forward and invited the French to his village, offering them the
+much-needed refreshments which they sought. But a cruel treachery lurked
+under this friendly seeming, and the adventurers were only saved from
+destruction by the careful vigilance of their leader. At daybreak the
+following morning, the Indians made a sudden attack upon their guests;
+the French, however, being thoroughly on the alert, repulsed the
+assailants, and slew several of the bravest warriors. Infuriated by the
+treachery of the savages, the victors followed the customs of Indian
+warfare, and scalped those of the enemy who fell into their power.
+
+As they ascended the river they were again endangered by the secret
+hostility of the Natchez,[398] from the effects of which a constant
+front of preparation alone preserved them. After several months of
+unceasing toil and watchfulness, with many strange and romantic
+adventures, but no other serious obstruction, the hardy travelers at
+length joyfully beheld the headland of Quebec.
+
+Immediately after his arrival, La Salle hastened to France to announce
+his great discovery,[399] and reap the distinction justly due to his
+eminent merits. (1682.) He was received with every honor, and all his
+plans and suggestions were approved by the court. Under his direction
+and command, an expedition was fitted out, consisting of four vessels
+and 280 men, for the purpose of forming a settlement at the mouth of the
+Mississippi, and thence establishing a regular communication with
+Canada, along the course of the Great River. At the same time, he
+received the commission of governor over the whole of the vast country
+extending between the lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The little squadron
+sailed from La Rochelle on the 24th of July, 1684, along with the West
+India fleet, and having touched at St. Domingo and Cuba by the way,
+arrived in safety on the coast of Florida.
+
+La Salle was involved in great perplexity by ignorance of the longitude
+of the river's mouth. Not having descended so far in his former
+expedition as to be able to judge of its appearance from the sea, he
+passed the main entrance of the Mississippi unawares, and proceeded 200
+miles to the westward, where he found himself in a bay, since called St.
+Bernard's. Attracted by the favorable appearance of the surrounding
+country, La Salle here founded the fort which was to be the basis of his
+future establishment. But difficulties and misfortunes crowded upon him;
+the vessel containing his stores and utensils was sunk through the
+negligence or treachery of her commander, and a great portion of the
+cargo lost or seized by the Indians. The violent measures he adopted to
+compel restitution of the plundered goods kindled a deep resentment in
+the minds of this fierce and haughty tribe, the Clamcoets by name. They
+made a sudden midnight attack upon the settlement, slew two of the
+French, and wounded several, and whenever opportunity offered afterward,
+repeated their assaults. The tropical climate, however, proved a far
+deadlier foe than even the savage, and at length the spirit of the
+colonists gave way under accumulated difficulties.
+
+Meanwhile Tonti, who had descended the Mississippi to join La Salle,
+sought him in vain at the mouth of the river, and along the coast for
+twenty leagues at either side. Having found no trace or tidings of the
+expedition, he relinquished the search in despair, and sailed upward
+again to the Canadian Lakes.
+
+La Salle bore up with noble courage and energy against the difficulties
+that surrounded him. His subordinates thwarted him on every occasion,
+and at length broke out into a violent mutiny, which he, however,
+vigorously suppressed. But when he discovered that the settlement
+founded and sustained by his unceasing labors was not, as he had fondly
+supposed, at the mouth of the Great River, he experienced the bitterest
+disappointment. The surrounding country, though fertile, offered no
+brilliant prospect of sudden wealth or hopes of future commerce. He
+determined, therefore, once again to explore the vast streams of the
+Mississippi and Illinois, and to endeavor to gain a greater knowledge of
+the interior of the continent. He took with him on this expedition his
+nephew, a worthy but impetuous youth, named Moranger, and about twenty
+men. This young man's haughty spirit excited a savage thirst of
+vengeance in the minds of his uncle's lawless followers; they watched
+their opportunity, and in a remote and dreary solitude in the depths of
+the new continent, La Salle and Moranger were both slain by their
+murderous hands. Thus sadly perished, in a nameless wilderness, one of
+the most daring and gifted among those wonderful men to whom the
+discovery of the New World had opened a field of glory. His temper was,
+doubtless, at times, violent and overbearing,[400] but he was dearly
+loved by his friends, respected by his dependents, and fondly revered by
+those among the Indians who came within his influence. His greatest
+difficulties arose from those who were placed under his command,
+abandoned and ungovernable men, the very refuse of society, and amenable
+to no laws, human or divine.
+
+It has been already mentioned that La Salle had sent Dacan and Father
+Hennepin to explore the Mississippi, on his first return from the
+Illinois to Lake Michigan. They descended that great river almost to the
+sea; but their followers, becoming alarmed at the idea of falling into
+the hands of the Spaniards, compelled them to return without having
+perfected their expedition. They re-ascended the stream, and passed the
+mouths of the Illinois and Wisconsin, and even reached beyond those
+magnificent falls to which the adventurous priest has given the name of
+St. Anthony. Continual danger threatened these travelers, from the
+caprice or hostility of the Indians; they were held for a long time in a
+cruel captivity, forced to accompany their captors through the most
+difficult countries, at a pace of almost incredible rapidity, till, with
+their feet and limbs cut and bleeding, they were well-nigh incapable of
+moving any further. After some time Hennepin was adopted by a chief as
+his son, and treated with much kindness; when winter came on, however,
+and a great scarcity of provisions arose, the Indians, being unable any
+longer to support their captives, allowed them to depart. The father and
+his companions used this liberty to continue their explorations down the
+Mississippi. After many other perils and adventures, they at length met
+the Sieur de Luth, who commanded a party sent in search of them, and
+with further instructions to form a settlement on the Great River.
+Hennepin at first turned back with the sieur, but found so many
+obstacles and difficulties that he determined for the present to return
+to Canada.
+
+The disasters attending the expeditions of La Salle and Hennepin for
+some time deterred others from venturing to explore the dangerous
+regions of the West, and the government totally neglected to occupy the
+splendid field which the adventure of those men had opened to French
+enterprise. It was left to the love of gain or glory, or the religious
+zeal of individuals, to continue the explorations of this savage but
+magnificent country. The Baron la Hontan was one of the first and most
+conspicuous of these dauntless travelers.[401] He had gone to Canada in
+early life with a view of retrieving the broken fortunes of his ancient
+family, and had obtained employment upon the lakes under the French
+government. While thus occupied, he became intimately acquainted with
+the life and customs of the savages, and, from his intercourse with
+them, formed the idea of penetrating into the interior of their country,
+where the white man's foot had never before trodden. His actual
+discoveries were probably not very important, and his record of them is
+confused and imperfect; but he was the first to learn the existence of
+the Rocky Mountains, and of that vast ocean which separates the western
+coast of North America from the continent of Asia.[402]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 387: "On esperoit beaucoup de la Compagnie des Indes
+Occidentales, mais elle ne prit guere plus a coeur les interets de la
+Nouvelle France, que n'avoit fait la precedente, ainsi que M. Talon
+avoit prevu. Cependant comme les secours que le Canada avait recus les
+dernieres annees, l'avoient mis sur un assez bon pied, il s'y conserva
+quelque tems, et il n'est pas meme retombe depuis dans l'etat de
+foiblesse et d'epuisement dont le roi venoit de le tirer."--Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 161.]
+
+[Footnote 388: "Le peuple adoroit Frontenac a cause de sa bonte."--La
+Potherie, tom. iv., p. 110; Charlevoix, tom ii., p. 246.]
+
+[Footnote 389: The Mississippi.]
+
+[Footnote 390: "Ce lac a porte quelque tems le nom de St. Louis, on lui
+donna ensuite celui de Frontenac, aussi bien qu'au fort de Catarocoui
+dont le Comte de Frontenac fut le fondateur, mais insensiblement le lac
+a repris son ancien nom, qui est Huron ou Iroquois, et le fort celui du
+lieu ou il est bati (1721)."--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 287.]
+
+[Footnote 391: "Le Pere J. Marquette, natif de Laon en Picardie, a ete
+un des plus illustres missionnaires du la Nouvelle France; il en a
+parcouru presque toutes les contrees, et il y a fait plusieurs
+decouvertes dont la derniere est celle du Micissipi. Deux ans apres
+cette decouverte, comme il alloit a Michillimackinack, il entra le 18me
+de May, 1675, dans la riviere dont il s'agit; il dressa son autel sur le
+terrein bas, qu'on lassia a droite en y entrant, et il y dit la messe.
+Il s'eloigna, ensuite un peu pour faire son action de graces, et pria
+les hommes qui conduisoient son canot, de le laisser seul pendant une
+demie heure. Ce tems passe, ils allerent le chercher, et furent tres
+surpris de le trouver mort, ils se souvinrent neanmoins qu'en entrant
+dans la riviere, il lui etoit echappe de dire qu'il finiroit la son
+voyage. Aujourd'hui les sauvages n'appellent cette riviere autrement que
+la riviere de la robe noire;[392] les Francois lui ont donne le nom du
+Pere Marquette, et ne manquent jamais de l'invoquer, quand ils se
+trouvent en quelque danger sur le Lac Michigan. Plusieurs ont assure
+qu'ils se croyoient redevables a son intercession, d'avoir echappe a de
+tres grands perils."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 392: "Les sauvages appellent ainsi les Jesuites. Ils nomment
+les Pretres, les Collets blancs, et les Recollets, les Robes grises."]
+
+[Footnote 393: Relation de Marquette: Recueil de Thevenot, tom. i.]
+
+[Footnote 394: The signification of the word Ohio is "Beautiful River."
+According to Bancroft, it was called the Wabash in La Salle's time, and
+long afterward.]
+
+[Footnote 395: "La Chine is a fine village three French miles to the
+southeast of Montreal, but on the same side, close to the River St.
+Lawrence. Here is a church of stone, with a small steeple, and the whole
+place has a very agreeable situation. Its name is said to have had the
+following origin: As the unfortunate M. de Sales was here, who was
+afterward murdered by his own countrymen further up the country, he was
+very intent on discovering a shorter road to China by means of the River
+St. Lawrence. He talked of nothing at that time but his now short way to
+China; but, as his project of undertaking this journey in order to make
+this discovery was stopped by an accident which happened to him here,
+and he did not at that time come any nearer China, this place got its
+name, as it were, by way of joke."--Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p.
+699.]
+
+[Footnote 396: See Appendix. No. LXIV. (see Vol II)]
+
+[Footnote 397: "This is the site of New Orleans. New Orleans, holding,
+from its position, the command of all the immense navigable
+river-courses of interior America, is making the most rapid progress of
+any American city, and will doubtless one day become the greatest in
+that continent--perhaps even in the world. A formidable evil, however,
+exists in the insalubrity of the air, arising from the extensive marshes
+and inundated grounds which border the lower part of the Mississippi.
+The terrible malady that bears the name of the yellow fever, makes its
+first appearance in the early days of August, and continues till
+October. During that era New Orleans appears like a deserted city; all
+who possibly can, fly to the north or the upper country; most of the
+shops are shut; and the silence of the streets is only interrupted by
+the sound of the hearse passing through them. In one year two thousand
+died of this fever. Since the morasses have been partially cleared, its
+ravages have been less destructive; and, as this work is going on, the
+city may hope, in time, to be almost free from this terrible
+scourge."--Murray's _America_, vol. ii., p. 428.]
+
+[Footnote 398: "Garcilasso de la Vega parle de cette nation comme d'un
+peuple puissant, et il n'y a pas six ans qu'on y comptoit quatre mille
+guerriers. Aujourd'hui les Natchez ne pourroient pas mettre sur pied
+deux mille combattans (1714)."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 399: "La Louisiane est le nom que M. de la Sale a donne au
+pays qu'arrose le Mississippi audessous de la Riviere des Illinois et
+qu'il a conserve jusqu'a present. C'etoit en l'honneur de Louis XIV.,
+qui regnoit alors en France."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 436.]
+
+[Footnote 400: Charlevoix thus speaks of the selection of M. de la Salle
+by M. de Seignelay: "Il n'est point de vertu qui ne soit melee de
+quelque defaut: c'est le sort ordinaire de l'humanite. Ce qui met le
+comble a notre humiliation, c'est que les plus grands defauts
+accompagnent souvent les plus eminentes qualites, et que la jalousie que
+celles-ci inspirent trouve presque toujours dans ceux-la un specieux
+pretexte pour couvrir ce que cette passion a de bas et d'injuste. C'est
+a ceux qui sont etablis pour gouverner les hommes a se faire jour pour
+sortir de cette labyrinthe, a degager le vrai des tenebres dont la
+passion veut l'offusquer, et a connoitre si bien ceux dont ils veulent
+se servir, qu'en leur donnent lieu de faire usage de ce qu'ils ont de
+bon, ils se precautionnent sur ce qu'ils ont de mauvais."--Charlevoix,
+tom. ii., p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 401: _Memoires de l'Amerique Septentrionale par M. le Baron de
+la Hontan_: a Amsterdam, 1705. For the character of these memoirs, see
+Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 408. They are translated in Pinkerton, vol.
+xiii.]
+
+[Footnote 402: The North Pacific Ocean. The South Pacific Ocean had been
+discovered by the Spaniard Balboa in 1513.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+
+An embittered disagreement between the governor general, Comte de
+Frontenac, and the intendant, M. de Cheneau, M. Talon's successor,
+rendered it necessary to recall both those officers from the colony. The
+French court attributed the greater share of blame to the governor, but
+the haughty and unbending disposition of the intendant was probably a
+principal cause of those untoward disputes. M. le Fevre de la Barre and
+M. de Meules succeeded them in their respective offices, with special
+recommendation from the king to cultivate friendly relations with each
+other, and with M. de Blenac, the governor general of the French
+American islands.
+
+New France had for many years remained in a state of great confusion,
+and had made but little progress in prosperity or population, and now
+the prospects of a disastrous war darkened the future of the colonists.
+Various causes had united to revive the hostility of the Iroquois, their
+ancient and powerful foes. Since New York had fallen into English hands,
+the savages found it more advantageous to carry their trade thither than
+to barter their furs with the privileged company of France. The falling
+off of commercial intercourse soon led to further alienation, which the
+death of an Iroquois chief by the hands of an Illinois, in the territory
+of the Ottawas, then allies of the white men, soon turned into open
+hostility. The Comte de Frontenac had failed in his attempts to
+negotiate with the savages; and on the arrival of his successor, an
+invasion of the colony was hourly expected. M. de la Barre at once
+perceived the dangerous state of affairs; he therefore summoned an
+assembly of all the leading men in the country, ecclesiastical, civil,
+and military, and demanded counsel from them in the emergency.
+
+The assembly was of opinion that the Iroquois aimed at the monopoly of
+all the trade of Canada, by the instigation of the English and Dutch of
+New York, who were also supposed to incite them to enmity against the
+French, and that, consequently, those nations should be held hostile. It
+was also believed that the savages had only endeavored to gain time by
+their negotiations, while they either destroyed the tribes friendly to
+the colonists, or seduced them from their alliance. With this view they
+had already assailed the Illinois, and it was therefore the duty of the
+French to save that nation from this attack, whatever might be the cost
+or danger of the enterprise. For that purpose the colony could only
+furnish 1000 men; and to procure even this number, it was necessary that
+the labors of husbandry should be suspended. Re-enforcements of troops
+and a supply of laborers were therefore urgently required for the very
+existence of the settlements; and an earnest appeal for such assistance
+was forwarded to the king, as the result of the deliberations of the
+assembly. This application was immediately answered by the dispatch of
+200 soldiers to New France, and by a remonstrance addressed to the King
+of Great Britain, who instructed Colonel Dongan, the English governor of
+New York, to encourage more friendly relations with his French
+neighbors.
+
+While M. de la Barre pushed on his preparations for war against the
+Iroquois, he still kept up the hope of treating with them for peace in
+such a manner as not to forfeit the dignity of his position. In the mean
+time, however, he received intimation that a formidable expedition of
+1500 warriors had assembled, ostensibly to wage war with the Illinois,
+but in reality for the destruction of the Miamis and Ottawas, both
+allies of the French. The governor promptly dispatched an envoy, who
+arrived at the village where the Iroquois had mustered on the evening of
+the day appointed for the beginning of their campaign. The envoy was
+received with dignity and kindness; and he succeeded in obtaining a
+promise that the expedition should be deferred, and that they would send
+deputies to Montreal to negotiate with the French chief. But the wily
+savages had promised only to deceive; and in the month of May following,
+the governor received intelligence that 700 of these fierce warriors
+were on their march to attack his Miami and Ottawa allies, while
+another force was prepared to assail the settlements of the French
+themselves. He attributed these dangerous hostilities to the instigation
+of the English.
+
+The governor made urgent representations to the minister at home as to
+the necessity of crushing two of the Iroquois tribes, the most hostile
+and the most powerful. For this purpose, he demanded that a
+re-enforcement of 400 men should be sent to him from France as soon as
+possible, and that an order should be obtained from the Duke of York, to
+whom New York then belonged, to prevent the English from interfering
+with or thwarting the expedition.
+
+The Iroquois found the free trade with the English and Dutch more
+advantageous than that with the French, which was paralyzed by an
+injudicious monopoly; but they were still unwilling to come to an open
+rupture with their powerful neighbors. They therefore sent deputies to
+Montreal to make great but vague professions of attachment and good
+will. For many reasons, De la Barre placed but little confidence in
+these addresses: their object was obviously to gain time, and to throw
+the French off their guard. He, however, received the deputies with
+great distinction, and sent them back enriched with presents. But a few
+months after this, however, a small detachment of Frenchmen was assailed
+by the Iroquois, and plundered of merchandise which they were bearing to
+traffic with the Illinois.
+
+After this flagrant outrage, nothing remained for M. de la Barre but
+war. He had received intelligence that the Iroquois were making great
+preparations for an onslaught upon the French settlements, and that they
+had sent embassadors to the Indians of the south for the purpose of
+insuring peace in that quarter, while they threw all their power into
+the struggle with the hated pale faces. The governor promptly determined
+to adopt the bolder but safer course of striking the first blow, and
+making the cantons of his savage enemies the field of battle. As yet,
+few and small were the aids he had received from France, and a
+considerable time must elapse ere the further supplies he anticipated
+could arrive: he was, therefore, unwillingly compelled to avail himself
+of the assistance of his Indian allies. The native tribes dwelling
+around the shores of Lake Michigan entertained a deep and ancient
+jealousy of the powerful confederacy of the Iroquois or Five Nations,
+who aspired to universal dominion over the Northern Continent; they,
+therefore, held themselves equally interested with the French in the
+destruction of those formidable warriors. M. de la Durantaye, who
+commanded the fort on the far-distant shores of Lake Michigan, announced
+to his Indian neighbors that his countrymen were about to march against
+the Iroquois, and requested that all the native warriors friendly to the
+white men should meet them in the middle of August at Niagara. He was
+not, however, very successful in making levies, and with difficulty led
+500 warriors to the place of meeting, where, to his dismay, he found
+that the French had not arrived: his followers were not easily
+reconciled to this disappointment.
+
+In the mean time, M. de la Barre had, on the 9th of July, 1683, marched
+from Quebec to Montreal, where he appointed the troops to assemble for
+the expedition. No precautions to insure success were neglected. He
+dispatched a message to the English governor of New York to invite him
+to join in the attack, or, at least, to secure his neutrality. He also
+sent belts and presents to three of the Iroquois tribes, to induce them
+to refrain from joining in the quarrel of those among their confederates
+who alone had injured him and his nation. He arrived at Montreal on the
+21st, with 700 Canadians, 130 soldiers, and 200 Indians: his force was
+organized in three divisions. After a brief stay he continued his march
+westward.
+
+The governor had not proceeded far when he received intelligence that
+the other Iroquois tribes had obliged the Tsonnonthouans, his especial
+enemies, to accept of their mediation with the French, and that they
+demanded the Sieur le Moyne, in whom they placed much confidence, to
+conduct the negotiation. At the same time, he learned that the tribe he
+proposed to assail had put all their provisions into a place of
+security, and were prepared for a protracted and harassing resistance.
+His appeals both to the remaining Iroquois tribes and to the English had
+also failed, for the former would assuredly make common cause against
+him in case of his refusing their mediation, and the latter had actually
+offered to aid his enemies with 400 horse, and a like force of infantry.
+Influenced by these untoward circumstances, he dispatched M. le Moyne to
+treat, and agreed to await the Iroquois deputies on the shores of Lake
+Ontario. In the mean time, M. de la Barre and his army underwent great
+privations from the scarcity and bad quality of their provisions; they
+could with difficulty hold their ground till the arrival of the savages,
+and such was their extremity that the name of the Bay of Famine was
+given to the scene of their sufferings.
+
+The savage deputies met the French chief with great dignity, and, well
+aware of the advantage given them by the starvation and sickness of the
+white men, carried their negotiations with a high hand. They guaranteed
+that the Tsonnonthouans should make reparation, for the injuries
+inflicted on the French, but at the same time insisted that the governor
+and his army should retire the very next day. With this ignoble
+stipulation M. de la Barre was fain to agree. On his return to Quebec,
+he found, to his chagrin, that considerable re-enforcements had just
+arrived from France, which would have enabled him to dictate instead of
+submitting to dictation. The new detachment was commanded by MM.
+Monterlier and Desnos, captains of marine, who were commissioned by the
+king to proceed to the most advanced and important posts, and to act
+independently of the governor's authority. They were further instructed
+to capture as many of the Iroquois as possible, and to send them to
+France to labor in the galleys. In this same year the Chevalier de
+Callieres, an officer of great merit, was sent from France to assume the
+duties of governor of the Montreal district, as successor to M. Perrot,
+who had embroiled himself with the members of the powerful Order of St.
+Sulpicius.
+
+In the year 1685, the Marquis de Denonville arrived at Quebec as
+governor general in succession to M. de la Barre, whose advanced age and
+failing health unfitted him for the arduous duties of the office. The
+new governor was selected by the king for his known valor and prudence;
+a re-enforcement of troops was placed at his disposal, and it was
+determined to spare no effort to establish the colony in security and
+peace. Denonville lost not a moment in proceeding to the advanced posts
+on the lakes, and, at the same time, he devoted himself to a diligent
+study of the affairs of Canada and the character of the Indians. His
+keen perception promptly discovered the impossibility of the Iroquois
+being reconciled and assimilated to the French, and he at once saw the
+necessity of extirpating, or at least thoroughly humbling, these haughty
+savages. But beyond the present dangers and difficulties of Indian
+hostility, this clear-sighted politician discerned the far more
+formidable evils that threatened the power of his country from the
+advancing encroachments of the hardy traders and fearless adventurers of
+the English colonies. He urged upon the king the advantage of building
+and garrisoning a fort at Niagara to exclude the British from the
+traffic of the lakes, and interrupt their communications with the
+Iroquois, and also to check the desertion of the French, who usually
+escaped by that route, and transferred the benefits of their experience
+and knowledge of the country to the rival colonies. The Northwest
+Company of merchants at Quebec earnestly desired this establishment, and
+engaged to pay an annual rent of 30,000 livres to the crown for the
+privilege of exclusive trade at the proposed station.
+
+The suspicions of the Marquis de Denonville as to English encroachments
+were soon confirmed. He received a letter from the governor of New York,
+dated 29th of May, 1686, demanding explanations of the preparations
+which were being made against the Iroquois--the subjects of England--as
+any attack upon them would be a breach of the peace then existing
+between England and France. The British governor also expressed surprise
+that the French should contemplate erecting a fort at Niagara, "because
+it should be known in Canada that all that country was a dependency of
+New York." M. de Denonville, in reply, denied the pretensions of the
+English to sovereignty in New France, and pointed out the impropriety of
+hostile communications between inferiors, while the kings whom they
+served remained on amicable terms. He rendered, however, some sort of
+evasive explanation on the subject of his preparations against the
+Iroquois.
+
+The following year the governor general received from the court the
+notification of a most important agreement between England and France,
+that, "notwithstanding any rupture between the mother countries, the
+colonies on the American continent should remain at peace."
+Unfortunately, however, the force of national prejudice, and the
+clashing of mutual interests, rendered this wise and enlightened
+provision totally fruitless.
+
+In the summer of 1687, M. de Denonville marched toward Lake Ontario with
+a force of 2000 French and 600 Indians, having already received all the
+supplies and re-enforcements which he had expected from France. His
+first act of aggression was one that no casuistry can excuse, no
+necessity justify--one alike dishonorable and impolitic. He employed two
+missionaries, men of influence among the savages, to induce the
+principal Iroquois chiefs to meet him at the fort of Cataracouy, under
+various pretenses; he there treacherously seized the unsuspecting
+savages, and instantly dispatched them to Quebec, with orders that they
+should be forwarded to France to labor in the galleys. The missionaries
+who had been instrumental in bringing the native chiefs into this
+unworthy snare were altogether innocent of participation in the outrage,
+never for a moment doubting the honorable intentions of their countrymen
+toward the Indian deputies. One, who dwelt among the Onneyouths, was
+immediately seized by the exasperated tribe, and condemned to expiate
+the treachery of his nation, and his own supposed guilt, in the flames.
+He was, however, saved at the last moment by the intervention of an
+Indian matron, who adopted him as her son. The other--Lamberville by
+name--was held in great esteem among the Onnontagues, to whose
+instruction he had devoted himself. On the first accounts of the outrage
+at Cataracouy, the ancients assembled and called the missionary before
+them. They then declared their deep indignation at the wrong which they
+had suffered; but, at the moment when their prisoner expected to feel
+the terrible effects of their wrath, a chief arose, and with a noble
+dignity addressed him:
+
+"Thou art now our enemy--thou and thy race. We have held counsel, and
+can not resolve to treat thee as an enemy. We know thy heart had no
+share in this treason, though thou wert its tool. We are not unjust; we
+will not punish thee, being innocent, and hating the crime as much as we
+do ourselves. But depart from among us; there are some who might seek
+thy blood; and when our young men sing the war-song, we may be no longer
+able to protect thee." The magnanimous savages then furnished him with
+guides, who were enjoined to convey him to a place of safety.
+
+M. de Denonville halted for some time at Cataracouy, and sent orders to
+the commanders of the distant western posts to meet him on the 10th of
+July at the River Des Sables, to the eastward of the country of the
+Tsonnonthouans, against whom they were first to act. The governor
+marched upon this point with his army, and, by an accident of favorable
+presage, he and the other detachments arrived at the same time. They
+immediately constructed an intrenchment, defended by palisades, in a
+commanding situation over the river, where their stores and provisions
+were safely deposited. M. d'Orvilliers, with a force of 400 men, was
+left for the protection of this depot, and to insure the rear of the
+advancing army.
+
+On the 13th the French pushed into the hostile country, and passed two
+deep and dangerous defiles without opposition, but at a third they were
+suddenly assailed by 800 of the Iroquois, who, after the first volley,
+dispatched 200 of their number to outflank the invaders, while they
+continued the front attack with persevering courage. The French were at
+first thrown into some confusion by this fierce and unexpected
+onslaught; but the allied savages, accustomed to the forest warfare,
+boldly held their ground, and effectually covered the rallying of the
+troops. The Iroquois, having failed in overpowering their enemies by
+surprise, and conscious of their inferiority in numbers and arms, after
+a time broke their array and dispersed among the woods. The French lost
+five men killed and twenty wounded; the Iroquois suffered far
+more--forty-five were left dead upon the field, and sixty more disabled
+in the conflict. The Ottawas, serving under M. de Denonville, who had
+been by no means forward in the strife, with savage ferocity mangled and
+devoured the bodies of the slain. The Hurons, and the Iroquois
+Christians following the French standard, fought with determined
+bravery.
+
+The army encamped in one of the four great villages of the
+Tsonnonthouans, about eight leagues from the fort at the River Des
+Sables: they found it totally deserted by the inhabitants, and left it
+in ashes. For ten days they marched through the dense forest with great
+hardship and difficulty, and met with no traces of the enemy, but they
+marked their progress with ruin: they burned about 400,000 bushels of
+corn, and destroyed a vast number of hogs. The general, fearing that his
+savage allies would desert him if he continued longer in the field, was
+then constrained to limit his enterprise. He, however, took this
+opportunity of erecting a fort at Niagara, and left the Chevalier de la
+Troye with 100 men in garrison. Unfortunately, a deadly malady soon
+after nearly destroyed the detachment, and the post was abandoned and
+dismantled. The constant and harassing enmity of the savages combined
+with the bad state of the provisions left in the fort, to render the
+disease which had broken out so fatal in its results.
+
+The French had erected a fort called Chambly,[403] in a strong position
+on the left bank of the important River Richelieu.[404] This little
+stronghold effectually commanded the navigation of the stream, and
+through it, the communication between Lake Champlain and the southern
+districts with the waters of the St. Lawrence. On the 13th of November,
+1687, a formidable party of the Iroquois suddenly attacked the fort; the
+little garrison made a stout defense, and the assailants abandoned the
+field with the morning light; the settlement which had grown up in the
+neighborhood was, however, ravaged by the fierce Indians, and several of
+the inhabitants carried away into captivity. The French attributed this
+unexpected invasion to the instigation of their English neighbors, and
+it would appear with reason, for, on the failure of the assault, the
+governor of New York put his nearest town into a state of defense, as if
+in expectation of reprisals.
+
+In this same year there fell upon Canada an evil more severe than Indian
+aggression or English hostility. Toward the end of the summer a deadly
+malady visited the colony, and carried mourning into almost every
+household. So great was the mortality, that M. de Denonville was
+constrained to abandon, or rather defer, his project of humbling the
+pride and power of the Tsonnonthouans. He had also reason to doubt the
+faith of his Indian allies; even the Hurons of the far West, who had
+fought so stoutly by his side on the shores of Lake Ontario, were
+discovered to have been at the time in treacherous correspondence with
+the Iroquois.
+
+While doubt and disease paralyzed the power of the French, their
+dangerous enemies were not idle. Twelve hundred Iroquois warriors
+assembled at Lake St. Francis, within two days' march of Montreal, and
+haughtily demanded audience of the governor, which was immediately
+granted. Their orator proclaimed the power of his race and the weakness
+of the white men with all the emphasis and striking illustration of
+Indian eloquence. He offered peace on terms proposed by the governor of
+New York, but only allowed the French four days for deliberation.
+
+This high-handed diplomacy was backed by formidable demonstrations. The
+whole country west of the River Sorel, or Richelieu, was occupied by a
+savage host, and the distant fort of Cataracouy, on the Ontario shore,
+was with difficulty held against 800 Iroquois, who had burned the farm
+stores with flaming arrows, and slain the cattle of the settlers. The
+French bowed before the storm they could not resist, and peace was
+concluded on conditions that war should cease in the land, and all the
+allies should share in the blessings of repose. M. de Denonville further
+agreed to restore the Indian chiefs who had been so treacherously torn
+from their native wilds, and sent to labor in the galleys of France.
+
+But, in the mean time, some of the savage allies, disdaining the
+peaceful conclusions of negotiation, waged a merciless war. The
+Abenaquis, always the fiercest foes of the Iroquois confederacy, took
+the field while yet the conferences pended, and fell suddenly upon the
+enemy by the banks of the Sorel. They left death behind them on their
+path, and pushed on even into the English settlements, where they slew
+some of the defenseless inhabitants, and carried away their scalps in
+savage triumph. On the other hand, the Iroquois of the Rapids of St.
+Louis and the Mountain, made a deadly raid into the invaders'
+territories.
+
+The Hurons of Michillimakinack were those among the French allies who
+most dreaded the conclusion of a treaty of which they feared to become
+the first victims. Through the extraordinary machinations and cunning of
+their chief, Kondiaronk, or the Rat, they continued to reawaken the
+suspicions of the Iroquois against the French, and again strove to stir
+up the desolating flames of war.
+
+In the midst of these renewed difficulties M. de Denonville was recalled
+to Europe, his valuable services being required in the armies of his
+king. In colonial administration he had shown an ardent zeal for the
+interests of the sovereign and the country under his charge, and his
+plans for the improvement of Canada were just, sound, and comprehensive,
+but he was deficient in tenacity of purpose, and not fortunate or
+judicious in the selection of those who enjoyed his confidence. His
+otherwise honorable and useful career can, however, never be cleansed
+from the fatal blot of one dark act of treachery. From the day when that
+evil deed was done, the rude but magnanimous Indian scorned as a broken
+reed the sullied honor of the French.
+
+The Comte de Frontenac was once again selected for the important post of
+governor of New France, and arrived at Montreal on the 27th of October,
+1689, where his predecessor handed over the arduous duties of office.
+The state of New France was such as to demand the highest qualities in
+the man to whose rule it was intrusted: trade languished, agriculture
+was interrupted by savage aggression, and the very existence of the
+colony threatened by the growing power of the formidable Iroquois
+confederacy. At the same time, a plan for the reduction of New York was
+being organized in Paris, which would inevitably call for the
+co-operation of the colonial subjects of France, and, in the event of
+failure, leave them to bear the brunt of the dangerous quarrel. M. de
+Frontenac was happily selected in this time of need.
+
+Impelled by the treacherous machinations of the Huron chief Kondiaronk,
+the Iroquois approached the colony in very different guise from that
+expected. While M. de Denonville remained in daily hopes of receiving a
+deputation of ten or twelve of the Indians to treat for peace, he was
+astounded by the sudden descent of 1200 warriors upon the island of
+Montreal.[405] Terrible indeed was the devastation they caused; blood
+and ashes marked their path to within three leagues of the territory,
+where they blockaded two forts, after having burned the neighboring
+houses. A small force of 100 soldiers and 50 Indians, imprudently sent
+against these fierce marauders, was instantly overpowered, and taken or
+destroyed. When the work of destruction was completed, the Iroquois
+re-embarked for the Western lakes, their canoes laden with plunder, and
+200 prisoners in their train.
+
+This disastrous incursion filled the French with panic and astonishment.
+They at once blew up the forts of Cataracouy and Niagara, burned two
+vessels built under their protection, and altogether abandoned the
+shores of the Western lakes. The year was not, however, equally
+unfortunate in all parts of New France. While the island of Montreal was
+swept by the storm of savage invasion, M. d'Iberville supported in the
+north the cause of his country, and the warlike Abenaquis avenged upon
+the English settlers the evils which their Iroquois allies had inflicted
+upon, Canada. Upon his arrival, the Comte de Frontenac determined to
+restore the falling fortunes of his people by means of his great
+personal influence among the triumphant Iroquois, backed as he was with
+the presence of those prisoners who had been so treacherously seized by
+his predecessor, but whose entire confidence and good-will he had
+acquired while bringing them back to their native country. A chief named
+Oureouhare, the most distinguished among the captives, undertook to
+negotiate with his countrymen--a duty which was performed more honestly
+than efficiently: an exchange of prisoners took place, but nothing
+further was accomplished.
+
+The Northern Indians, allies of the French, had long desired to share
+the benefits of English commerce with the Iroquois; it had, however,
+been the policy of the Canadian government to keep these red tribes
+continually at war, with the view of interrupting the communications of
+traffic through their country. But the allied savages soon began to see
+the necessity of making peace with the Iroquois, in order to establish
+relations with the traders of the British settlements. With this view
+the Ottawas sent embassadors to the cantons of the Five Nations,
+restoring the prisoners captured in the war, and proffering peace and
+amity. The agents and missionaries of the French strongly remonstrated
+against these proceedings, but in vain; their former allies replied by
+insulting declarations of independence, and contemptuous scoffs at their
+want of power and courage to meet the enemy in the field; their
+commerce, too, was spoken of as unjust, injurious, and inferior to that
+of the English, of which they had endeavored to deprive those whom they
+could not protect in war; the French were also accused of endeavoring to
+shelter themselves under a dishonorable treaty, regardless of the safety
+and interests of the Indians who had fought and bled in their cause.
+
+When M. de Frontenac became aware of this formidable disaffection, he
+boldly determined to strike a blow at the English power that should
+restore the military character of France among the savages, and deprive
+the recreant Indians of their expected succor. He therefore organized
+three expeditions to invade the British settlements by different
+avenues. The first, consisting of 110 men, marched from Montreal,
+destined for New York, but only resulted in the surprise and destruction
+of the village of Corlar,[407] or Schenectady, and the massacre and
+capture of some of the inhabitants. They retreated at noon the following
+day, bearing with them forty prisoners; after much suffering from want
+of provisions, they were obliged to separate into small parties, when
+they were attacked by their exasperated enemies, and sustained some
+loss. Many would have perished from hunger in this retreat, but that
+they found a resource in living upon horse flesh: their cavalry, from
+fifty, was reduced to six by the time they regained the shelter of
+Montreal.
+
+The second invading division was mustered at Three Rivers, and only
+numbered fifty men, half being Indians. They reached an English
+settlement, called Sementels (Salmon Falls), after a long and difficult
+march and succeeded in surprising and destroying the village, with most
+of its defenders. In their retreat they were sharply attacked, but
+succeeded in escaping, through the aid of an advantageous post, which
+enabled them to check the pursuers at a narrow bridge. They soon after
+fell in with M. de Mamerval, governor of Acadia, with the third party,
+and, thus re-enforced, assailed the fortified village of Kaskebe upon
+the sea-coast, which surrendered after a heavy loss of the defenders.
+
+To regain the confidence of his Indian allies, M. de Frontenac saw the
+necessity of rendering them independent of English commerce, and safe
+from the hostility of the Iroquois. To accomplish these objects, he
+dispatched a large convoy to the west, escorted by 143 men, and bearing
+presents to the savage chiefs. On the way they encountered a party of
+the Five Nations, and defeated them after a sanguinary engagement.
+
+All these vigorous measures produced a marked effect: the convoy arrived
+at Michillimackinack at the time when the embassadors of the French
+allies were on the point of departing to conclude a treaty with the
+Iroquois. When, however, the strength of the detachment was seen, and
+the valuable presents and merchandise were displayed, the French
+interests again revived with the politic savages, and they hastened to
+give proofs of their renewed attachment: 110 canoes, bearing furs to the
+value of 100,000 crowns, and manned by 300 Indians, were dispatched soon
+after for Montreal, to be laid before the governor general. He dismissed
+the escort with presents, and exhorted them and their nation to join
+with him in humbling their mutual and deadly foe. They departed well
+pleased with their reception, and renewed professions of friendship for
+the French.
+
+In the mean time the terrible war-cry of the Iroquois was never silent
+in the Canadian settlements. Bands of these fierce and merciless
+warriors suddenly emerged from the dense forests when least expected,
+and burst upon isolated posts and villages with more or less success,
+but always with great loss of life to the assailants and assailed,[408]
+and with great destruction of the fruits of industry. These disastrous
+events caused much disquietude to the governor. He called to his
+counsels the Iroquois chief Oureouhare, who still remained attached to
+him by the closest bonds of friendship and esteem, and complained of the
+bitter hostility of his nation: "You must either not be a true friend,"
+said M. de Frontenac, "or you must be powerless in your nation, to
+permit them to wage this bitter war against me." The generous chief was
+mortified at this discourse, and answered that his remaining with the
+French, instead of returning to his own hunting grounds, where he was
+ardently beloved, was a proof of his fidelity, and that he was ready to
+do any thing that might be required of him, but that it would certainly
+need time and the course of circumstances to allay the fury of his
+people against those who had treacherously injured them. The governor
+could not but acknowledge the justice of Oureouhare's reply; he gave him
+new marks of esteem and friendship, and determined more than before to
+confide in this wise and important ally.[409]
+
+But now the greatest danger that had ever yet menaced the power of
+France upon the American continent hung over the Canadian shores. The
+men of New England were at last aroused to activity by the constant
+inroads and cruel depredations of their northern neighbors, and in
+April, 1690, dispatched a small squadron from Boston, which took
+possession of Port Royal and all the province of Acadia. In a month the
+expedition returned, with sufficient plunder to repay its cost.
+Meanwhile the British settlers deputed six commissioners to meet at New
+York in council for their defense. On the first of May, 1690, these
+deputies assembled, and promptly determined to set an expedition on foot
+for the invasion of Canada. Levies of 800 men were ordered for the
+purpose, the contingents of the several states fixed, and general rules
+appointed for the organization of their army. A fast-sailing vessel was
+dispatched to England with strong representations of the defenseless
+state of the British colonies, and with an earnest appeal for aid in the
+projected invasion of New France; they desired that ammunition and other
+warlike stores might be supplied to their militia for the attempt by
+land, and that a fleet of English frigates should be directed up the
+River St. Lawrence to co-operate with the colonial force. But at that
+time England was still too much weakened by the unhealed wounds of
+domestic strife to afford any assistance to her American children, and
+they were thrown altogether on their own resources.
+
+New York and New England boldly determined, unaided, to prosecute their
+original plans against Canada. General Winthrop, with 800 men, was
+marched by the way of Lake Champlain, on the shores of which he was to
+have met 500 of the Iroquois warriors; but, through some unaccountable
+jealousy, only a small portion of the politic savages came to the place
+of muster. Other disappointments also combined to paralyze the British
+force: the Indians had failed to provide more than half the number of
+canoes necessary for the transport of the troops across the lake, and
+the contractor of the army had imprudently neglected to supply
+sufficient provisions. No alternative remained for Winthrop but to fall
+back upon Albany for subsistence.
+
+In the mean time, Major Schuyler, who had before crossed Lake Champlain
+with a smaller British force, pushed on against the French post of La
+Prairie de la Madeleine, and attacked it with spirit. He soon overcame
+the handful of Canadian militia and Indians who formed the garrison, and
+compelled them to fall back upon Chambly, a fort further to the north.
+Having met M. de Sanermes and a considerable force advancing to their
+relief, they turned and faced their pursuers. Schuyler rashly ventured
+to attack this now superior enemy; he was soon forced to retire, with
+the loss of nearly thirty men. The French, however, suffered much more
+severely in this affair, no less than thirteen officers and nearly
+seventy of their men having been killed and wounded.
+
+The naval expedition against Quebec was assembled in Nantasket Road,
+near Boston, and consisted of thirty-five vessels of various size, the
+largest being a 44-gun frigate. Nearly 2000 troops were embarked in this
+squadron, and the chief command was confided by the people of New
+England to their distinguished countryman, Sir William Phipps, a man of
+humble birth, whose own genius and merit had won for him honor, power,
+and universal esteem. The direction of the fleet was given to Captain
+Gregory Sugars. The necessary preparations were not completed, and the
+fleet did not get under way till the season was far advanced; contrary
+winds caused a still further delay; however, several French posts on the
+shores of Newfoundland and of the Lower St. Lawrence were captured
+without opposition, and the British force arrived at Tadoussac, on the
+Saguenay, before authentic tidings of the approaching danger had reached
+Quebec.
+
+When the brave old Frontenac learned from his scouts that Winthrop's
+corps had retreated, and that Canada was no longer threatened by an
+enemy from the landward side, he hastened to the post of honor at
+Quebec, while by his orders M. de Ramsey and M. de Callieres assembled
+the hardy militia of Three Rivers and the adjoining settlements to
+re-enforce him with all possible dispatch. The governor found that Major
+Provost, who commanded at Quebec before his arrival, had made vigorous
+preparation to receive the invaders;[410] it was only necessary,
+therefore, to continue the works, and confirm the orders given by his
+worthy deputy. A party, under the command of M. de Longueuil, was sent
+down the river to observe the motions of the British, and, if possible,
+to prevent their landing. At the same time, two canoes were dispatched
+by the shallow channel north of the island of Orleans to seek for some
+ships with supplies, which were daily expected from France, and to warn
+them of the presence of the hostile fleet.
+
+The Comte de Frontenac continued the preparations for defense with
+unwearied industry. The regular soldiers and militia were alike
+constantly employed upon the works, till in a short time Quebec was
+tolerably secure from the chances of a sudden assault. Lines of strong
+palisades, here and there armed with small batteries, were formed round
+the crown of the lofty headland, and the gates of the city were
+barricaded with massive beams of timber and casks filled with earth. A
+number of cannon were mounted on advantageous positions, and a large
+wind-mill of solid masonry was fitted up as a cavalier. The lower town
+was protected by two batteries each of three guns, and the streets
+leading up the steep, rocky face of the height were embarrassed with
+several intrenchments and rows of "chevaux de frise." Subsequently
+during the siege two other batteries were erected a little above the
+level of the river. The commanding natural position of the stronghold,
+however, offered far more serious obstacles to the assailants than the
+hasty and imperfect fortifications.
+
+At daylight on the 5th of October the white sails of the British fleet
+were seen rounding the headland of Point Levi, and crowding to the
+northern shore of the river, near the village of Beauport; at about ten
+o'clock they dropped anchor, lowered their canvas, and swung round with
+the receding tide. There they remained inactive till the following
+morning. On the 6th, Sir William Phipps sent a haughty summons to the
+French chief, demanding an unconditional surrender in the name of King
+William of England, and concluding with this imperious sentence: "Your
+answer positive in an hour, returned with your own trumpet, with the
+return of mine, is required upon the peril that will ensue."
+
+The British officer who bore the summons was led blind-fold through the
+town, and ushered into the presence of Comte Frontenac in the
+council-room of the castle of Quebec. The bishop, the intendant, and all
+the principal officers of the government surrounded the proud old noble.
+"Read your message," said he. The Englishman read on, and when he had
+finished, laid his watch upon the table with these words: "It is now
+ten; I await your answer for one hour." The council started from their
+seats, surprised out of their dignity by a burst of sudden anger. The
+comte paused for a time ere he could restrain his rage sufficiently to
+speak, and then replied, "I do not acknowledge King William, and I well
+know that the Prince of Orange is a usurper, who has violated the most
+sacred rights of blood and religion ... who wishes to persuade the
+nation that he is the saviour of England and the defender of the faith,
+though he has violated the laws and privileges of the kingdom, and
+overturned the Church of England: this conduct, the Divine Justice to
+which Phipps appeals will one day severely punish."
+
+The British officer, unmoved by the storm of indignation which his
+message had aroused, desired that this fierce reply should be rendered
+to him in writing for the satisfaction of his chief. "I will answer your
+master by the mouth of my cannon," replied the angry Frenchman, "that he
+may learn that a man of my rank is not to be summoned in this manner."
+Thus ended the laconic conference.
+
+On the return of the messenger, Sir William Phipps called a council of
+war: it was determined at once to attack the city. At noon, on the 8th,
+1300 men were embarked in the boats of the squadron, under the command
+of Major Walley, and landed without opposition at La Canardiere, a
+little to the east of the River St. Charles. While the main body was
+being formed on the muddy shore, four companies pushed on toward the
+town, in skirmishing order, to clear the front; they had scarcely begun
+the ascent of the sloping banks when a sharp fire was poured upon them
+by 300 of the Canadian militia, posted among the rocks and bushes on
+either flank, and in a small hamlet to the right. Some of the British
+winced under this unexpected volley, fired, and fell back; but the
+officers, with prompt resolution, gave the order to charge, and
+themselves gallantly led the way; the soldiers followed at a rapid pace,
+and speedily cleared the ground. Major Walley then advanced with his
+whole force to the St. Charles River, still, however, severely harassed
+by dropping shots from the active light troops of the French: there he
+bivouacked for the night, while the enemy retreated into the garrison.
+
+Toward evening of the same day the four largest vessels of Phipps's
+squadron moved boldly up the river, and anchored close against the town.
+They opened a spirited but ineffectual fire; their shot, directed
+principally against the lofty eminence of the Upper Town, fell almost
+harmless, while a vigorous cannonade from the numerous guns of the
+fortress replied with overwhelming power. When night interrupted the
+strife, the British ships had suffered severely, their rigging was torn
+by the hostile shot, and the crews had lost many of their best men. By
+the first light of morning, however, Phipps renewed the action with
+pertinacious courage, but with no better success. About noon the contest
+became evidently hopeless to the stubborn assailants; they weighed
+anchor, and, with the receding tide, floated their crippled vessels down
+the stream, beyond the reach of the enemy's fire.[411]
+
+The British troops, under Major Walley, although placed in battle array
+at daylight, remained inactive, through some unaccountable delay, while
+the enemy's attention was diverted by the combat with Phipps's squadron.
+At length, about noon, they moved upon the formidable stronghold along
+the left bank of the River St. Charles. Some allied savages plunged into
+the bush in front to clear the advance, a line of skirmishers protected
+either flank, and six field-pieces accompanied the march of the main
+body. After having proceeded for some time without molestation, they
+were suddenly and fiercely assailed by 200 Canadian volunteers under M.
+de Longueuil; the Indians were at once swept away, the skirmishers
+overpowered, and the British column itself was forced back by their
+gallant charge. Walley, however, drew up his reserve in some brushwood a
+little in the rear, and finally compelled the enemy to retreat. During
+this smart action, M. de Frontenac, with three battalions, placed
+himself upon the opposite bank of the river, in support of the
+volunteers, but showed no disposition to cross the stream. That night,
+the English troops, harassed, depressed, diminished in numbers, and
+scantily supplied, again bivouacked upon the marshy banks of the stream:
+a severe frost, for which they were but ill prepared, chilled the weary
+limbs of the soldiers and enhanced their sufferings.
+
+On the 10th, Walley once more advanced upon the French positions, in the
+hope of breaching their palisades by the fire of his field pieces; but
+this attempt was altogether unsuccessful. His flanking parties fell into
+ambuscades, and were very severely handled, and his main body was
+checked and finally repulsed by a heavy fire from a fortified house on a
+commanding position which he had ventured to attack. Utterly dispirited
+by this failure, the British fell back in some confusion to the
+landing-place, yielding up in one hour what they had so hardly won. That
+night many of the soldiers strove to force their way into the boats, and
+order was with great difficulty restored; the next day they were
+harassed by a continual skirmish. Had it not been for the gallant
+conduct of "Captain March, who had a good company, and made the enemy
+give back," the confusion would probably have been irretrievable. When
+darkness put an end to the fire on both sides, the English troops
+received orders to embark in the boats, half a regiment at a time. But
+all order was soon lost; four times as many as the boats could sustain
+crowded down at once to the beach, rushed into the water, and pressed on
+board. The sailors were even forced to throw some of these
+panic-stricken men into the river, lest all should sink together. The
+noise and confusion increased every moment, despite the utmost exertions
+of the officers, and daylight had nearly revealed the dangerous posture
+of affairs before the embarkation was completed. The guns were
+abandoned, with some valuable stores and ammunition. Had the French
+displayed, in following up their advantages, any portion of the energy
+and skill which had been so conspicuous in their successful defense, the
+British detachment must infallibly have been either captured or totally
+destroyed.
+
+Sir William Phipps, having failed by sea and land, resolved to withdraw
+from the disastrous conflict. After several ineffectual attempts to
+recover the guns and stores which Major Walley had been forced to
+abandon, he weighed anchor and descended the St. Lawrence to a place
+about nine miles distant from Quebec, whence he sent to the Comte de
+Frontenac to negotiate for an exchange of prisoners. Humbled and
+disappointed, damaged in fortune and reputation, the English chief
+sailed from the scene of his defeat; but misfortune had not yet ceased
+to follow him, for he left the shattered wrecks of no less than nine of
+his ships among the dangerous shoals of the St. Lawrence. The government
+of Massachusetts was dismayed at the disastrous news of which Phipps was
+himself the bearer. He arrived at Boston on the 19th of November, with
+the remains of his fleet and army, his ships damaged and weather beaten,
+and his men almost in a state of mutiny from having received no pay. In
+these straits the colonial government found it impracticable to raise
+money, and resorted to "bills of credit," the first paper money which
+had ever been issued on the American continent.
+
+Great indeed was the joy and triumph of the French when the British
+fleet disappeared from the beautiful basin of Quebec. With a proud heart
+the gallant old Comte de Frontenac penned the dispatch which told his
+royal master of the victory. He failed not to dwell upon the
+distinguished merit of the colonial militia, by whose loyalty and
+courage the arms of France had been crowned with success. In grateful
+memory of this brave defense, the French king caused a medal to be
+struck, bearing the inscription, "FRANCIA IN NOVO ORBE VICTRIX: KEBECA
+LIBERATA.--A.D., M.D.C.X.C." In the lower town a church was built by the
+inhabitants to celebrate their deliverance from the British invaders,
+and dedicated to "Notre Dame de la Victoire."
+
+On the 12th of November, the vessels, long expected from France, arrived
+in safety at Quebec, having escaped the observation of the English fleet
+by ascending for some distance the land-locked waters of the Saguenay.
+Their presence, however, only tended to increase a scarcity then
+pressing upon the colony, the labor of the fields in the preceding
+spring having been greatly interrupted by the harassing incursions of
+the Iroquois. The troops were distributed into those parts of the
+country where supplies could most easily be obtained, and were
+cheerfully received by those who had through their valor been protected
+from the hated dominion of the stranger.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 403: Afterward called Sorel.]
+
+[Footnote 404: The River Iroquois, or Sorel. "Dans les premieres annees
+de notre etablissement en Canada les Iroquois, pour faire des courses
+jusque dans le centre de nos habitations, descenderent cette riviere a
+laquelle pour cette raison on donna le nom de riviere des Iroquois. On
+l'a depuis appelle la Riviere de Richelieu, a cause d'un fort qui
+portoit ce nom et qu'on avoit construit a son embouchure. Ce fort ayant
+ete ruine, M. de Sorel en fit construire un autre auquel on donna son
+nom; ce nom s'est communique a la riviere qui le conserve encore
+aujourd'hui, quoique le fort ne subsiste plus depuis longtemps
+(1721)."--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 221.
+
+"There is another Iroquois river marked on the French maps, falling into
+the Teakiki. It received this name from a defeat experienced by the
+Iroquois from the Illinois, a race whom they had always
+despised."--Charlevoix, vol. vi., p. 118.]
+
+[Footnote 405: Charlevoix says of Montreal in 1721, "Elle n'est point
+fortifiee, une simple palisade bastionnee et assez mal entretenue fait
+toute sa defence, avec une assez mauvaise redoute sur un petit tertre,
+qui sert de boulevard, et va se terminer en douce pente a une petite
+place quarree. C'est ce qu'on rencontre d'abord en arrivant de Quebec.
+Il n'y a pas meme quarante ans, que la ville etoit toute ouverte, et
+tous les jours exposee a etre brulee par les sauvages ou par les
+Anglois. Ce fut le Chevalier de Callieres, frere du plenipotentiaire de
+Riswick, qui la fit fermer, tandis qu'il en etoit gouverneur. On
+projette depuis quelques annees de l'environner de murailles,[406] mais
+il ne sera pas aise d'engager les habitans a y contribuer. Ils sont
+braves et ils ne sont pas riches: on les a deja trouve difficiles a
+persuader de la necessite de cette depense, et fort convaincus que leur
+valeur est plus que suffisante pour defendre leur ville centre quiconque
+osoit l'attaquer."]
+
+[Footnote 406: "Ce projet est presentement execute 1740."]
+
+[Footnote 407: "Corlar was the name of a Dutchman of consideration, who
+founded the village of Schenectady. This man enjoyed great influence
+with the Indians, who, after his death, always addressed the governor of
+New York with the title of Corlar, as the name most expressive of
+respect with which they were acquainted."--Graham, vol. ii., p. 288.
+
+"Au-dessus de la ville d'Orange il y a un fort avec une bourgade, qui
+confinent avec les cantons Iroquois, el qu'on appelle Corlar, d'ou ces
+sauvages se sont accoutumes a donner le nom de Corlar au gouverneur de
+New York."--Charlevoix, tom. i., p. 222.]
+
+[Footnote 408: "Colden relates that, during the war between the French
+and Iroquois, two old men were cut to pieces, and put into the
+war-kettle for the Christian Indians to feast on."--Colden, vol. i., p.
+81.
+
+"Frontenac stands conspicuous among all his nation for deeds of cruelty
+to the Indians. Nothing was more common than for his Indian prisoners to
+be given up to his Indian allies to be tormented. One of the most
+horrible of these scenes on record was perpetrated under his own eye at
+Montreal in 1691."--Colden, vol. i., p. 441, quoted by Howitt.
+
+"Les habitans en firent bruler, persuades que le seul moyen de corriger
+ces barbares de leurs cruantes, etoit de les trailer eux-meme comme ils
+traitoient les autres."--Charlevoix, _Jesuite_, tom., iii., p. 139.]
+
+[Footnote 409: "Oureouhare mourut en vrai Chretien, l'an 1697. Le
+missionnaire qui l'assista pendant sa maladie, lui parlant un jour des
+opprobres et des ignominies de la passion du Sauveur des hommes; il
+entra dans un si grand mouvement d'indignation centre les Juifs, qu'il
+s'ecria, 'Que n'etois-je la? je les aurois bien empeche de traiter ainsi
+mon Dieu.' The similar exclamation of the Frank monarch, Clovis, is well
+known."--Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 332.]
+
+[Footnote 410: "It does not appear that the fortifications of Quebec
+were of much importance till after the year 1690, when eleven stone
+redoubts which served as bastions, were erected in different parts of
+the heights of the Upper Town. The remains of several of these redoubts
+are still in existence. They were connected with each other by a strong
+line of cedar picketing, ten or twelve feet high, banked up with earth
+on the inside. This proved sufficient to resist the attacks of the
+hostile Indians for several years."--Lambert's _Travels_, vol. i., p.
+39.
+
+"In 1720 a more extensive system of fortification was commenced, under
+the direction of M. de Lery."--Smith's _Canada_, vol. i., p. 184.]
+
+[Footnote 411: The flag of the rear admiral was shot away, and, drifting
+toward the shore, a Canadian swam out into the stream and brought it in
+triumphantly. For many years the precious trophy was hung up in the
+parish church of Quebec.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+
+In May, 1691, the Iroquois, to the number of about 1000 warriors, again
+poured down upon the settlements near Montreal, and marked their course
+with massacre and ruin. Other bands, less numerous, spread themselves
+over the fertile and beautiful banks of the Richelieu River, burning the
+happy homesteads and rich store-yards of the settlers. At length, the
+Sieur de la Mine, with a detachment of militia, surprised a party of
+these fierce marauders at Saint Sulpice, and slew them without mercy.
+Twelve of the Iroquois escaped into a ruinous house, where they held
+out for a time with courage and success; but the French set fire to the
+building, and they were obliged to abandon it: some were killed in their
+efforts to escape, but five fell alive into the hands of their
+exasperated enemies, and were burned, with a savage cruelty such as they
+themselves would have exhibited.
+
+Intelligence now arrived that a formidable force of English, Iroquois,
+and Mahingan Indians were advancing upon Montreal by the River Richelieu
+or Sorel; 800 men led by the Chevalier de Callieres, were sent to oppose
+their progress, and encamped on the Prairie de la Madeleine,[412] by the
+borders of the St. Lawrence. Before daylight, the following morning, the
+invaders carried an important position by surprise, slaying several of
+the defenders, and finally retreated in good order and with little loss.
+On falling back into the woods, they met and destroyed a small French
+detachment, and boldly faced a more considerable force under M. de
+Valrenes. For an hour and half these formidable warriors withstood the
+fire, and repelled the charges of the Canadian troops; but at length
+they were overpowered and dispersed, not, however, before inflicting a
+loss of no less than 120 men upon their conquerors. An Englishman
+captured in the engagement declared that the invaders had purposed to
+destroy the harvest, which would have reduced the colony to the last
+extremity. The design, in a great measure, failed, and an abundant crop
+repaid the industry and successful courage of the French.
+
+At the first news of this alarming inroad, M. de Frontenac hastened to
+the post of danger, but tranquillity had already been restored, and the
+toils of the husbandman were again plied upon the scene of strife. At
+Montreal he found a dispatch from the governor of New England, proposing
+an exchange of prisoners and a treaty of neutrality with Canada,
+notwithstanding the war then carried on between the mother countries.
+The Canadian governor mistrusted the sincerity of the English proposals,
+and they were not productive of any result. During the remainder of the
+year the Iroquois continued to disturb the repose of the colony by
+frequent and mischievous irruptions, and many valuable lives were lost
+in repelling those implacable savages.
+
+The war continued with checkered results and heavy losses on both sides
+in the two following years. An invasion of the canton of the Agniers, by
+the French, was at first successful, but in the retreat the colonists
+suffered great privation, and most of their prisoners escaped, while any
+of their number that strayed or fell in the rear were immediately cut
+off by their fierce pursuers. The fur trade was also much injured by
+these long-continued hostilities, for the vigilant enmity of the
+Iroquois closed up the communication with the Western country by the
+waters of the St. Lawrence and its magnificent tributaries.
+
+We have seen that for a long period the history of the colony is a mere
+chronicle of savage and resultless combats, and treacherous truces
+between the French and the formidable Iroquois confederacy. This almost
+perpetual warfare gave a preponderance to the military interests among
+the settlers, not a little injurious to their advance in material
+prosperity. The Comte de Frontenac had, by his vigorous administration,
+and haughty and unbending character, rendered himself alike respected
+and feared by his allies and enemies. But, while all acknowledged his
+courage and ability, his system of internal government bore upon the
+civil inhabitants with almost intolerable severity; upon them fell all
+the burden and labor of the wars; they were ruined by unprofitable toil,
+while the soldiers worked the lands for the benefit of the military
+officers whom he desired to conciliate. He also countenanced, or at
+least tolerated, the fatal trade in spirituous liquors, which his
+authority alone could have suppressed. Owing to these causes, the colony
+made but little progress, commerce languished, and depression and
+discontent fell upon the hearts of the Canadian people.
+
+In the year 1695, M. de Frontenac re-established the fort of
+Catarocouy, despite the universal disapprobation of the settlers and the
+positive commands of the king. The object was, however, happily and ably
+accomplished by M. de Crisasy in a very short time, and without the loss
+of a man. This brave and active officer made good use of his powerful
+position. He dispatched scouts in all directions, and, by a judicious
+arrangement of his small forces, checked the hostilities of the Iroquois
+upon the Canadian settlements.
+
+The Sieur de Reverin, a man of enlightened and enterprising mind, had
+long desired to develop the resources of the Canadian waters, and in
+1697 at length succeeded in associating several merchants with himself,
+and establishing a fishery at the harbor of Mount Louis, among the
+mountains of Notre Dame, half way between Quebec and the extremity of
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the southern side. The situation was well
+chosen, the neighboring soil fertile, and the waters abounded in fish.
+But, where nature had provided every thing that industry could require,
+the hand of man interfered to counteract her bounty. The hostility of
+the English embarrassed the infant settlement and alarmed its founders.
+Despite of these difficulties, a plentiful harvest and successful
+fishing at first rewarded the adventurers; subsequently, however, they
+were less fortunate, and the place was for some time neglected and
+almost forgotten.[413]
+
+Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac, died in the seventy-eighth year of
+his age, 1698, having to the last preserved that astonishing energy of
+character which had enabled him to overcome the difficulties and dangers
+of his adventurous career. He died as he had lived, beloved by many,
+respected by all; with the unaided resources of his own strong mind, he
+had preserved the power of France on the American continent
+undiminished, if not increased, through years of famine, disaster, and
+depression. He loved patronage and power, but disdained the
+considerations of selfish interest. It must, however, be acknowledged
+that a jealous, sullen, and even vindictive temper obscured in some
+degree the luster of his success, and detracted from the dignity of his
+nature. The Chevalier de Callieres, governor of Montreal, was appointed
+his successor, to the satisfaction of all classes in the colony.
+
+The new governor[414] applied himself vigorously to the difficult task
+of establishing the tranquillity of his territories. He endeavored to
+procure the alliance of all the Indian tribes within reach of French
+intercourse or commerce, but the high price charged by the Canadian
+merchants for their goods proved a constant difficulty in the way of
+negotiation, and ever afforded the savages a pretext for disaffection
+and complaint. In the midst of his useful labors, this excellent chief
+was suddenly cut off by death; his upright and judicious administration
+won the esteem of all the colonists, and the truth and honesty of his
+dealings with the native tribes gave him an influence over them which
+none of his predecessors had ever won. On the petition of the
+inhabitants of Canada, the king willingly appointed the Marquis de
+Vaudreuil to the vacant government. Soon after his accession a
+deputation of the Iroquois arrived at Quebec, and for the first time
+formally acknowledged the sovereignty of France, and claimed the
+protection of her flag.
+
+M. de Raudot, the intendant, introduced various important judicial and
+fiscal improvements in the affairs of the colony at this time; by his
+influence and mediation he effectually checked a litigious spirit which
+had infused itself among the Canadians to a ruinous extent, and by
+strong representations induced the king to remove the cruel restrictions
+placed upon colonial industry by the jealousy of the mother country.
+
+In the spring of 1708 a council was held at Montreal to deliberate upon
+the course to be pursued in checking the intrigues of the English among
+the allied savages: the chiefs of all the Christian Indians and the
+faithful and warlike Abenaquis were present on the occasion. It was
+resolved that a blow should be struck against the British colonies, and
+a body of 400 men, including Indians, was formed for the expedition, the
+object of which was kept secret. After a march of 150 leagues across an
+almost impracticable country, the French attacked the little fort and
+village of Haverhill, garrisoned by thirty New Englandmen, and carried
+them after a sharp struggle; many of the defenders were killed or
+captured, and the settlement destroyed. The neighboring country was,
+however, soon aroused, and the assailants with difficulty effected a
+retreat, losing thirty of their men.
+
+Intelligence reached the French in the following year that Colonel
+Vetch, who, during a residence of several years at Quebec, had contrived
+to sound all the difficult passages of the River St. Lawrence, had
+successfully instigated the Queen of England to attempt the conquest of
+New France; that a fleet of twenty ships was being prepared for the
+expedition, and a force of 6000 regular troops were to sail under its
+protection, while 2000 English and as many Indians, under the command of
+General Nicholson, were to march upon Montreal by the way of Lake
+Champlain. M. de Vaudreuil immediately assembled a council of war to
+meet the emergency, where some bold measures were planned, but a
+misunderstanding between the governor general and one of his principal
+officers paralyzed their execution. Finally, indeed, a considerable
+force was marched to anticipate the British attack; but the dissensions
+of the leaders, the insubordination of the troops, and the want of
+correct intelligence, embarrassed their movements, and drove them to an
+inglorious retreat. On the other hand, the English, mistrusting the
+faith of their Indian allies, and suffering from a frightful mortality,
+burned their canoes and advanced posts, and retreated from the frontier.
+The perfidious Iroquois, while professing the closest friendship, had
+poisoned the stream hard by the British camp, and thus caused the fatal
+malady which decimated their unsuspecting allies. The fleet destined
+for the attack of Quebec never crossed the Atlantic: it was sent to
+Lisbon instead, to support the falling fortunes of Portugal against the
+triumphant arms of Castile.
+
+In the following year, another abortive expedition was undertaken by the
+English against Canada. Intelligence was brought to M. de Vaudreuil that
+ten ships of war of 50 guns each and upward had arrived from England,
+and were assembled at Boston, together with 35 transports capable of
+conveying 3000 men, while a force of provincial militia and Indians of
+New York, nearly 2000 strong, were collected in that state to assail him
+by land. The French governor immediately called together the Iroquois
+deputies, and successfully urged their neutrality in the approaching
+struggle. He also secured the somewhat doubtful allegiance of the allied
+tribes, but only accepted the proffered services of a few warriors of
+each nation, and this more as hostages than for the purpose of
+increasing his strength.
+
+M. de Vaudreuil then hastened from Montreal to Quebec, where he found
+that his lieutenant, M. de Boucourt, had effectually executed his orders
+to strengthen the defenses. The settlements along the coast below that
+important stronghold were sufficiently guarded to render a hostile
+debarkation difficult and dangerous. The governor immediately
+re-ascended the St. Lawrence, and formed a corps of 3000 men under M. de
+Longueiul, at Chambly, to await the approach of the English. The
+invading army, however, retreated without coming to action, having
+received information of a great disaster which had befallen their fleet.
+The British admiral had neglected the warnings of an experienced French
+navigator, named Paradis, who accompanied him, and approached too near a
+small island in the narrow and dangerous channel of the Traverse; a
+sudden squall from the southeast burst upon him at that critical moment,
+and his own, with seven other ships of the fleet, were driven on the
+rocky shore, and utterly destroyed: very few men escaped from these
+ill-fated vessels.[415]
+
+The generosity and loyalty of the merchants of Quebec furnished the
+governor with 50,000 crowns, to strengthen the fortifications of their
+town, on the occasion of a rumor that the English were again preparing
+an invasion of Canada, in 1712, aided by the Iroquois, to whom they had
+become reconciled. At the same time, a new enemy entered the field--the
+fiercest and bravest of the native tribes; this people, called Outagamis
+or Foxes, joined in a confederacy with the Five Nations, and undertook
+to burn the French fort at Detroit,[416] and destroy the inhabitants. A
+large force of their warriors advanced upon the little stronghold, but
+Du Buisson, the able and gallant commandant, having summoned the
+neighboring allies to the assistance of his garrison of twenty
+Frenchmen, defeated the dangerous invaders after a series of conflicts
+almost unparalleled for obstinacy in Indian war, and destroyed more than
+a thousand of their best and bravest.[417]
+
+These important successes, however, could not secure to the French an
+equality in trade with their English rivals; their narrow and
+injudicious commercial system limited the supply of European goods to be
+exchanged for the spoils of the Red Man's forests; the fur trade,
+therefore, fell almost wholly into the hands of British merchants, and
+even those native tribes in closest alliance with the Canadian governor
+obtained their scanty clothing from the looms of Yorkshire, and their
+weapons of the chase from the industrious hands of our colonists.
+
+By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Louis the Magnificent ceded away
+forever, with ignorant indifference, the noble province of Acadia,[418]
+the inexhaustible fisheries of Newfoundland, and his claims to the vast
+but almost unknown regions of Hudson's Bay; his nominal sovereignty over
+the Iroquois was also thrown into the scale,[419] and thus a
+dearly-purchased peace restored comparative tranquillity to the remnant
+of his American empire.[420]
+
+The fierce Outagamis, more incensed than weakened by their losses at
+Detroit, made savage and murderous reprisals upon all the nations allied
+to the French. Their vindictive vigilance rendered the routes between
+the distant posts of Canada, and those southward to Louisiana,[421] for
+many years almost impracticable. At one time, indeed, when overwhelmed
+by a successful invasion, these implacable savages made a formal cession
+of their territories to M. de Vaudreuil; but, the moment opportunity
+offered, they renewed hostilities, and, although beaten in repeated
+encounters, having united the remnant of their tribe to the powerful
+Sioux and Chichachas,[423] they continued for a long time to harass the
+steps of their detested conquerors.
+
+On the 10th of April, 1725, M. de Vaudreuil closed his useful career.
+For one-and-twenty years he had discharged his important duties with
+unswerving loyalty, ability, and vigilance. Good fortune crowned him
+with well-merited success, and he went to rest from his earthly labors
+with the blessings of a grateful people, who, under his wise rule, had
+rapidly progressed to prosperity.
+
+The Marquis de Beauharnois, captain of the marine, succeeded to the
+government of the now tranquil colony. His anxiety was aroused, however,
+the year after his accession, by the vigorous efforts of the English to
+extend their commerce even into the heart of the Canadian territories.
+Governor Burnet, of New York, had erected a fort and trading post at
+Oswego, with the view of monopolizing the rich traffic of the Western
+lakes. To counteract this design, M. de Beauharnois sent the Baron de
+Longueuil to negotiate with the Indians in the neighborhood of Niagara,
+for their consent to the erection of a French fort and establishment
+upon the banks of their magnificent river, where it enters the waters of
+Ontario. After many difficulties in reconciling the jealousy of the
+native tribes, the French succeeded in effecting their object. On the
+other hand, the men of New York strengthened their defenses at Oswego,
+and increased the garrison. Angry communications then passed between the
+French and English governors in peremptory demands for its abandonment
+by the one, and prompt refusals by the other. Each was well aware of the
+importance of the position: it served as a means of diverting nearly all
+the Indian trade by Albany and the channel of the Hudson into the
+British colonies, and also formed a frontier protection to those
+numerous and flourishing settlements which Anglo-Saxon industry and
+courage were rapidly forming in the wilderness.
+
+In the vain hope of checking the irrepressible energies of rival
+colonization, Beauharnois erected a fort at Crown Point, on Lake
+Champlain, commanding its important navigation, and also serving to hold
+in terror the settlers on the neighboring banks of the Hudson and
+Connecticut. The English remonstrated without effect against this
+occupation, and the French remained in peaceable possession of their
+establishment. The next war that broke out between the mother countries
+spread rapine and destruction over the colonial frontiers, without any
+real result beyond mutual injury and embittered hatred. From this fort
+at Crown Point, and other posts held by the Canadians, marauding parties
+poured upon the British settlements, and destroyed them with horrid
+barbarity. A party of French and Indians even penetrated to Saratoga,
+within forty miles of Albany, attacked and burned the fort, and slew or
+carried into captivity the unhappy defenders.
+
+For many subsequent years the history of Canada is but a chronicle of
+the accession of governors and the registration of royal edicts. In
+comparison with her southern rivals, the progress in material prosperity
+was very slow. Idleness and drunkenness, with all their attendant evils,
+were rife to a most injurious extent. The innumerable fetes, or holidays
+of the Church, afforded opportunities to the dissolute, and occasioned
+frequent instances of serious disorders, till the king was urged to
+interfere: the number of these fete-days was then very much reduced, to
+the great benefit of the colony. The feudal system of tenure also
+operated most unfavorably upon the development of agricultural
+resources, and the forced partition of lands tended to reduce all the
+landholders to a fraternity of pauperism. The court of France endeavored
+vainly to remedy these evils, without removing the causes, and passed
+various edicts to encourage the further clearance of wild land, and to
+stimulate settlement.
+
+In 1745, the year when the power of France in Europe was exalted by the
+splendid victory of Fontenoy, a dangerous blow was struck at her
+sovereignty in America by the capture of Louisburg, and with it the
+whole island of Cape Breton,[424] by the New Englanders under Mr.
+Pepperel,[425] aided by Admiral Warren's squadron. This disaster was no
+sooner known in Paris[430] than an extensive armament was equipped under
+the command of the Duc d'Anville, an officer of known valor and ability.
+The wounded pride of the French hurried on rapidly the preparations for
+this expedition, which they confidently hoped would redeem the
+tarnished honor of their arms in the Western world. Early in May the
+fleet was already completely appointed; but the elements did not second
+these energetic preparations, and contrary winds detained the armament
+till the 22d of June. Then it at last put to sea, in the formidable
+strength of eleven ships of the line, thirty smaller vessels of war, and
+transports containing 3000 regular soldiers. Nova Scotia, the
+Acadia[431] of other days, was their destination. There it was expected
+that the old French settlers, who had unwillingly submitted to English
+conquest, would readily range themselves once more under the
+fleur-de-lys: Canada had already sent her contingent of 1700 men under
+M. de Ramsay to aid the enterprise, and M. de Conflans, with four ships
+of the line from the West Indies, was directed to join the squadron.
+
+This formidable fleet was but a short time at sea when the ships
+separated and fell into hopeless confusion. On the 12th of September,
+indeed, the Duc d'Anville reached the Western continent in the
+Northumberland, accompanied by a few other vessels, but there no laurels
+awaited the gallant admiral: he was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and
+in four days his body was committed to the deep. The vice admiral
+immediately proposed returning to France, on account of the absence of
+the greater part of his force; but other officers strongly opposed this
+desponding counsel, and urged a bold attack upon Nova Scotia[432] rather
+than an inglorious retreat. The more vigorous course was adopted by a
+council of war, which threw the vice admiral into such a state of
+frantic excitement that he ran himself through the body, fancying he had
+fallen into the hands of the enemy. De la Jonquiere succeeded to the
+command, and, although more than three-score years of age, acted with
+unimpaired energy. But the elements were again hostile to France; the
+fleet was dispersed by a violent storm off Cape Sable, and the shattered
+remnant of the expedition returned ingloriously to their country,
+without having accomplished any of the objects for which they had been
+sent forth.
+
+The government at Paris was, however, by no means cast down by these
+untoward occurrences, and the armament was speedily equipped to renew
+their efforts against the English colonies. The expedition was prepared
+at Brest, under the command of M. de la Jonquiere, and, at the same
+time, a squadron under M. de St. George was armed with a view to
+threaten the coasts of British India.
+
+The English ministry, early informed of all the movements of their
+opponents, resolved to intercept both these squadrons, which they had
+been apprised would sail from port at the same time. Admiral Anson and
+Rear-admiral Warren were ordered upon this enterprise with a formidable
+fleet, and, taking their departure from Plymouth, steered for Cape
+Finisterre, on the Gallican coast. On the third of May, 1746, they fell
+in with the French squadrons of six large men-of-war, as many frigates,
+four armed East Indiamen, and a valuable convoy of thirty ships. The
+enemy's heavier vessels immediately formed in order of battle, while the
+merchantmen made all sail away, under the protection of the frigates.
+The British were also ready for action, and a severe combat ensued.
+Before night all the French line of battle ships were captured after a
+spirited defense, but two thirds of the convoy escaped through the
+darkness of the night. A considerable quantity of bullion fell into the
+hands of the victors, and their grateful sovereign rewarded the courage
+and good fortune of the admirals by raising Anson to the peerage, and
+decorating Warren with the ribbon of the Bath.
+
+Admiral de la Jonquiere, the newly-appointed governor of Canada, was
+among the numerous captives who graced the triumph of the British fleet.
+When the news of this event reached Paris, the king appointed to the
+vacant dignity the Comte de la Galissoniere,[433] an officer of
+distinguished merit and ability. The wisdom of this selection was
+speedily displayed; the new governor no sooner entered upon the duties
+of office than his active zeal found employment in endeavoring to
+develop the magnificent resources of his province. He made himself
+thoroughly acquainted with the face of the country, the climate,
+population, agriculture, and commerce, and then presented an able
+statement to the French court of the great importance of the colony, and
+a system which, had it been adopted in time, might have secured it
+against English aggression.
+
+The Comte de la Galissoniere proposed that M. du Quesne, a skillful
+engineer, should be appointed to establish a line of fortifications
+through the interior of the country, and, at the same time, urged the
+government of France to send out 10,000 peasants to form settlements on
+the banks of the great lakes and southern rivers. By these means he
+affirmed that the English colonies would be restricted within the narrow
+tract lying eastward from the Allegany Mountains, and in time laid open
+to invasion and ruin. His advice was, however, disregarded, and the
+splendid province of Canada soon passed forever from under the sway of
+France.[434]
+
+Under the impression that the expected peace between the mother
+countries would render it important to define the boundaries of their
+colonial possessions, the active governor of Canada dispatched M. de
+Celeron de Bienville, with 300 men, to traverse the vast wilderness
+lying from Detroit southeast to the Apalachian Mountains. Assuming this
+range as the limit of the British colonies, he directed that leaden
+plates, engraved with the arms of France, should be buried at particular
+places in the western country, to mark the territories of France, and
+that the chief of the expedition should endeavor to secure a promise
+from the Indians to exclude for the future all English traders. At the
+same time, he gave notice to the governor of Pennsylvania that he was
+commanded by the King of France to seize all British merchants found in
+those countries, and to confiscate their goods. De Celeron fulfilled his
+difficult commission to the best of his powers, but the forms of
+possession which he executed excited the jealous apprehension of the
+Indians, who concluded that he designed to subject or even enslave them.
+
+When M. de la Galissoniere failed in his endeavor to obtain the aid of
+an extensive immigration from France, he turned his thoughts toward the
+Acadian settlers[435] (whom the treaty of Utrecht had transferred to
+the British crown), with the object of forming a new colony. The
+readiest expedient to influence this simple and pious people was,
+obviously, by gaining over their clergy; the Abbe le Loutre was selected
+as the fittest embassador to induce them to withdraw from allegiance to
+the English government. This politic and unscrupulous priest appealed to
+their interests, nationality, and religion as inducements to abandon the
+conquered country, and to establish themselves under the French crown in
+a new settlement which he proposed to form on the Canadian side of
+Acadia. Le Loutre's persuasions influenced many of these primitive
+people to proceed to the French posts, where every protection and
+attention was bestowed upon them.
+
+Animated by the success of this measure, and sanguine that large numbers
+of the Acadians would follow the first seceders, De la Galissoniere
+induced the home government to appoint a considerable sum yearly to
+carrying out his views; but, in the midst of his patriotic exertions, he
+was obliged to hand over the reins of government to M. de la Jonquiere,
+who had now arrived to claim the post so ably held by another during his
+captivity with the English. Galissoniere, however, before he sailed for
+France, magnanimously furnished his successor with the best information
+on colonial matters, and pointed out the most promising plans for the
+improvement of the province.[436] De la Jonquiere unwisely rejected
+such as related to the Acadian settlements; but the King of France
+disapproved of his inaction, and reprimanded him for not having
+continued the course of his predecessor. Instructions were given him to
+take immediate possession of the neighboring country, to build new forts
+for its retention, and to occupy it with troops; he was also desired to
+aid Le Loutre in all his proceedings, and to forward his designs. In
+obedience to these orders, M. de Boishebert was dispatched with a body
+of troops and some peasants, to take post near the mouth of the River
+St. John, which was looked upon as an important post for the defense of
+the new settlement.
+
+These measures inevitably aroused the jealousy of the English governor
+of Nova Scotia, who made repeated remonstrances on the subject, but with
+no other effect than that of causing De la Jonquiere to warn his
+officers to avoid all possible grounds of dispute, as he expected the
+limits of the rival powers would be speedily arranged.
+
+(1749.) Supplies for the new post at St. John's could only be obtained
+from Quebec, and transmitted by the long and difficult circuit of the
+whole Acadian peninsula. M. de Vergor was sent on this mission in an
+armed sloop, containing military and other stores for the French and
+Indians. He was ordered to avoid all English vessels, but, if he could
+no longer shun pursuit, to fight to the last. This stern command was not
+obeyed, for he surrendered without an effort to Captain Rous, who,
+apprised of his design, had intercepted him on the coast. On the news of
+the capture of this sloop, M. de la Jonquiere empowered the governor of
+Louisburg[437] to make reprisals upon all English vessels that might
+enter his port.
+
+General Cornwallis, governor of Halifax,[438] sent a detachment of
+British troops, under Major Lawrence, to watch the movements of La
+Corne, the French commander, who had been directed to build a fort on
+the Bay of Fundy, called Beau-sejour.[439] As soon as Le Loutre became
+aware of the arrival of the English, he caused the houses and homesteads
+of those unfortunate Acadians who remained faithful to England to be
+burned. Soon after this cruel severity the French and English leaders
+held a conference, and agreed to erect forts opposite to each other on
+each side of the River Beau-bassin,[440] but to remain at peace till
+they received further instructions.
+
+While occasions of dispute were thus arising on the Nova Scotia
+peninsula, a still more dangerous difficulty threatened the cause of
+peace in the far West. The governors of the British colonies continued
+to grant license to their merchants to trade on the banks of the Ohio,
+in contempt of the haughty pretensions of French sovereignty. By the
+orders of La Jonquiere, three of these adventurers were seized, with all
+their goods, and carried captive to Montreal: after a long examination,
+however, they were discharged.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 412: "Vis a vis de Montreal, du cote du sud est un endroit qu'
+on appelle la Prairie de la Madeleine."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 233.
+
+"Le Cap de la Madeleine a eu son nom de l'Abbe de la Madeleine, un des
+membres de la Compagnie des cent Associes." The name of the Prairie had
+probably the same origin.--Charlevoix, tom. v., p. 167.]
+
+[Footnote 413: There was a flourishing settlement at Mount Louis in
+1758, which was destroyed by General Wolfe.]
+
+[Footnote 414: "Sans avoir le brilliant de son predecesseur, il en avait
+tout le solide; des vues droites et desinteresses, sans prejuge et sans
+passion; une fermete toujours d'accord avec la raison, une valeur, que
+le flegme scavoit moderer et rendre utile: un grand sens, beaucoup de
+probite et d'honneur, et une penetration d'esprit, a laquelle une grande
+application et une longue experience avoient ajonte tout ce que
+l'experience peut donner de lumieres. Il avoit pris des les commencemens
+un grand empire sur les sauvages, qui le connoisoient exacte a tenir sa
+parole, et ferme a vouloir qu' on lui gardat celles qu' on lui avoient
+donnees. Les Francois de leur cote etaient convaincus qu'il n'
+exigeroient jamais rien d'eux, que de raisonnable; que pour n' avoir ni
+la naissance, ni les grandes alliances du Comte de Frontenac, ni le rang
+de lieutenant general des armees du roi, il ne scauroit pas moins se
+faire obeir que lui."--Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 353.]
+
+[Footnote 415: "Enfin la retraite des deux armees Anglaises qui devaient
+attaquer en meme tems la Nouvelle France par terre et par mer, et
+diviser ses forces en les occupant aux deux extremites de la colonie, n'
+etant plus douteuse, et le bruit s' etant repandu que la premiere avait
+fait naufrage dans le fleuve St. Laurent vers les Sept Isles, M. de
+Vaudreuil y envoya plusieurs barques. Elles y trouverent les carcasses
+de huit gros vaisseaux, dont on avoit enleve les canons et les meilleurs
+effets, et pres de trois mille personnes noyees, dont les corps etoient
+etendus sur le rivage. On y reconnut deux compagnies entieres des Gardes
+de la Reine, qu' on distingua a leurs casaques rouges, et plusieurs
+familles Ecossoises, destinees a peupler le Canada, mais quoique le
+reste de la flotte eut reste mouille plusieurs jours au meme endroit,
+pour enlever toute la charge des vaisseaux brises, on ne laissa point d'
+y faire un assez grand butin."--Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 82.]
+
+[Footnote 416: The city of Detroit dates its history from July, 1701. At
+that time M. de la Motte Cadillac, with one hundred men, and a Jesuit,
+carrying with them every thing necessary for the commencement and
+support of the establishment meditated, reached this place. "How
+numerous and diversified," said a public literary document, "are the
+incidents compressed within the history of this settlement. No place in
+the United States presents such a series of events interesting in
+themselves and permanently affecting, as they occurred, its progress and
+prosperity. Five times its flag has changed; three different
+sovereignties have claimed its allegiance; and since it has been held by
+the United States, its government has been thrice transferred. Twice it
+has been besieged by the Indians, once captured in war, and once burned
+to the ground."
+
+"Detroit has long been considered as the limit of civilization toward
+the northwest. This town, or commercial port, is dignified by the name,
+and enjoys the chartered rights of a city, although its population at
+present does not exceed three thousand. The banks of the river above and
+below the city are lined with a French population, descendants of the
+first European traders among the Indians in that quarter, and extending
+from Lake Erie to Lake St. Clair, increasing in density as they approach
+the town, and averaging, perhaps, one hundred per mile. This place, but
+a little while ago so distant, is now brought within four days of the
+city of New York, the track pursued being seven hundred and fifty miles.
+Here, at Detroit, some of the finest steamers in North America come and
+go every day, connecting it with the east, and have begun already to
+search out the distant west and north."--Colton's _Tour to the American
+Lakes_, vol. i., p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 417: "Le fruit de sa victoire (Da Buisson) fut que les Anglois
+desespererent de s' etablir au Detroit, ce qui auroit ete la ruine entiere
+de la Nouvelle France, non seulement a cause de la situation de ce lieu,
+qui est le centre et le plus beau pays du Canada, mais encore parcequ'il
+ne nous auroit plus ete possible d'entretenir la moindre communication
+avec les sauvages d'en haut ni avec la Louisiane."--Charlevoix, vol.
+iv., p. 105.]
+
+[Footnote 418: "Le roi tres Chretien cede a la reine d'Angleterre a
+perpetuite, l'Acadie, ou Nouvelle Ecosse, en entier, conformement a ses
+anciennes limites, comme aussi la ville de Port Royal, maintenant
+appellee Annapolis Royale."--_Article XII. du Traite d'Utrecht_, 1713.]
+
+[Footnote 419: "Ce dernier article ne nous ota rien de reel, et ne donna
+non plus rien aux Anglais, parceque les cantons renouvellerent les
+protestations, qu'ils avoient deja faites plus d'une fois contre les
+pretentions reciproques de leurs voisins et ont tres bien scu se
+maintenir dans la possession de leur liberte et da leur
+independance."--Charlevoix.]
+
+[Footnote 420: "Il (Prior) etoit pareillement autorise a traite sur les
+limites de l'Amerique septentrionale, et s'il plaisoit au roi, ces deux
+articles pouvoient etre regles en peu de tems."--_Memoires de Torcy sur
+la Paix d'Utrecht_, vol. iii., p. 426.]
+
+[Footnote 421: It is hardly remembered at the present day that the
+French nation once claimed, and had begun to colonize the whole region
+which lies at the back of the thirteen original United States, from the
+mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi, comprising both
+the Canadas and the vast fertile valley of the Ohio, and had actually
+occupied the two outlets of this whole region by its ports at Quebec and
+New Orleans.[422] Canada, the oldest French colony, and the only one on
+the continent to which that nation has sent any considerable number of
+settlers, was under the management of an exclusive company, from 1663 to
+the downfall of what was called the Mississippi Scheme, in 1720; and
+this circumstance, still more, perhaps, than the vicious system of
+granting the land to non-resident proprietors, to be held by seignorial
+tenure, checked its progress. Louisiana, with more sources of surplus
+wealth from climate and soil, was never a very thriving colony, and was
+surrendered to Spain with little reluctance, from which last power its
+dominion passed to the United States.
+
+The French traders and hunters intermarried and mixed with the Indians
+at the back of our settlements, and extended their scattered posts along
+the whole course of the two vast rivers of that continent. Even at this
+day, far away on the upper waters of these mighty streams, and beyond
+the utmost limits reached by the backwoodsman, the traveler discovers
+villages in which the aspect and social usages of the people, their
+festivities and their solemnities, in which the white and red man mingle
+on equal terms, strangely contrast with the habits of the
+Anglo-American, and announce to him, on his first approach, their Gallic
+origin.--Merivale, vol. i., p. 58; Sismondi, _Etudes sur L'Ecole
+Politique_, vol. ii., p. 200; Latrobe.]
+
+[Footnote 422: "La ville de Nouvelle Orleans fut fondee dans l'annee
+1717. M. de Bienville fit choix de la situation. On a nomme cetto
+fameuse ville la Nouvelle Orleans. Ceux qui lui ont donne ce nom
+croyoient qu' Orleans est du genre feminin, mais qu' importe? l'usage
+est etabli et il est au-dessus des regles de la grammaire. Cette ville
+est la premiere qu' un des plus grands fleuves du monde ait vu s'elever
+aur ses bords."--Charlevoix, vol. viii., p. 192.]
+
+[Footnote 423: "Garcilasso de la Vega parle des Chichachas dans son
+histoire de la conquete de la Floride, et il les place a peu pres au
+meme endroit ou ils sont encore presentement.... Ce sont encore les plus
+braves soldats de la Louisiane, mais ils etoient beaucoup plus nombreux
+du tem de Ferdinand de Soto.... C'est notre alliance aves les Illinois
+qui nous a mis en guerre avec les Chichachas et les Anglois de la
+Caroline attisent le feu. Notre etablissement dans la Louisiane fait
+grand mal au coeur a ceux-ci; c'est une barriere que nous mettons entre
+leurs puissantes colonies de l'Amerique septentrionale, et le
+Mexique.... Les Espagnols qui nous voyent avec des yeux si jaloux nous
+fortifier dans ce pays, ne sentent pas encore l'importance du service
+que nous leur rendons."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 160.]
+
+[Footnote 424: From the year 1706 the name of Cape Breton was changed to
+Ile Royale. Louisburg was called le Havre a l'Anglais.]
+
+[Footnote 425: "The importance of the colonies[426] was too little
+considered until the commencement of the last war. The reduction of Cape
+Breton by the people of New England was an acquisition so unexpected and
+fortunate, that America became, on that remarkable event, a more general
+topic of conversation. Mr. Shirley, the governor of Massachusetts Bay,
+was the principal projector of that glorious enterprise; an enterprise
+which reduced to the obedience of his Britannic majesty the _Dunkirk_ of
+North America. Of such consequence to the French was the possession of
+that important key to their American settlements, that its restitution
+was, in reality, the purchase of the last general peace of
+Europe."[427]--_A Review of the Military Operations in North America, in
+a Letter to a Nobleman_, p. 4 (London, 1757).
+
+"The plan of the invasion of Cape Breton was laid at Boston, and New
+England[428] bore the expense of it. A merchant named Pepperel,[429] who
+had excited, encouraged, and directed the enterprise, was intrusted with
+the command of the army of 6000 men, which had been levied for this
+expedition. Though these forces, convoyed by a squadron from Jamaica,
+brought the first news to Cape Breton of the danger that threatened it;
+though the advantage of a surprise would have secured the landing
+without opposition; though they had but six hundred regular troops to
+encounter, and eight hundred inhabitants hastily armed, the success of
+the undertaking was still precarious. What great exploits, indeed, could
+have been expected from militia suddenly assembled, who had never seen a
+siege or faced an enemy, and were to act under the direction of
+sea-officers only? These inexperienced troops stood in need of the
+assistance of some fortunate accident, with which they were indeed
+favored in a singular manner. The construction and repair of the
+fortifications had always been left to the care of the garrison at
+Louisburg. The soldiers were eager to be employed on these works, as the
+means of procuring a comfortable subsistence. When they found that those
+who were to have paid them appropriated to themselves the profits of
+their labors, they demanded justice: it was denied them, and they
+determined to assert their right. As the depredations had been shared
+between the chief persons of the colony and the subaltern officers, the
+soldiers could obtain no redress. They had, in consequence, lived in
+open rebellion for above six months when the English appeared before the
+place. This was the time to conciliate the minds of both parties; the
+soldiers made the first advances, but their commanders distrusted a
+generosity of which they themselves were incapable. It was firmly
+believed that the soldiers were only desirous of sallying out that they
+might have an opportunity of deserting, and their own officers kept them
+in a manner prisoners, until a defense so ill managed had reduced them
+to the necessity of capitulating. The whole island shared the fate of
+Louisburg, its only bulwark. This valuable possession, restored to
+France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, was again attacked by the
+English in 1748, and taken. The possession was confirmed to Great
+Britain by the peace in 1763, since which the fortifications have been
+blown up, and the town of Louisburg dismantled."--Winterbottom's
+_History of America_, vol. iv., p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 426: "L'ile de Cap Breton n'etoit pas alors (at the time of
+the treaty of Ryswick), un objet, et l'etablissement que nous y avions
+n'avoit rien qui put exciter la jalousie des Anglais: elle nous
+demeura."--Charlevoix, tom. iii., p. 349.]
+
+[Footnote 427: "The island of Cape Breton, of which the French were
+shamefully left in possession at the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, through
+the negligence or corruption of the British ministry, when Great Britain
+had the power of giving law to her enemies."--Russell's _Modern Europe_,
+vol. iii., p. 223.
+
+"Only three years after Cape Breton was taken by the New Englanders,
+England was obliged reluctantly to resign her favorite conquest of Cape
+Breton, in order to obtain the restitution of Madras. This was by the
+treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. The final conquest took place in
+1758, by the English, under Amherst and Wolfe."--Belsham, vol. ii., p.
+333.]
+
+[Footnote 428: "The sum of L235,749 was granted by the British
+Parliament to the provinces of New England, to reimburse them for the
+expense of reducing Cape Breton."--Smollett, vol. iii., p. 224.]
+
+[Footnote 429: "The news of this victory being transmitted to England,
+Mr. Pepperel was preferred to the dignity of a baronet of Great
+Britain."--Ibid., vol. iii., p. 154.]
+
+[Footnote 430: "When Marshal Belleisle was told of the taking of Cape
+Breton, he said he could believe that, because the ministry had no hand
+in it. We are making bonfires for Cape Breton, and thundering over
+Genoa, while our army in Flanders is running away."--Walpole's _Letters
+to Sir Horace Mann_, July 26, 1745.]
+
+[Footnote 431: "The tract of country known by the name of Nova Scotia,
+or New Scotland, was in 1784 divided into two provinces, viz., New
+Brunswick on the southwest, and Nova Scotia on the southeast. The former
+comprehends that part of the old province of Nova Scotia which lies to
+the northward and westward of a line drawn from the mouth of the River
+St. Croix, through the center of the Bay of Fundy to Baye Verte, and
+thence into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, including all lands within six
+leagues of the coast. The rest is the province of Nova Scotia, to which
+is annexed the island of St. John's, which lies north of it in the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence. The modern Nova Scotia is the French Acadia. The modern
+New Brunswick is the French Nouvelle Ecosse. This name was given by Sir
+William Alexander, to whom the first grant of lands was given by James
+I.; since then the country has frequently changed hands, from the French
+to the English nation, backward and forward. It was not confirmed to the
+English till the peace of Utrecht. Three thousand families were
+transported into this country in 1749, at the charge of the government,
+and they built and settled the town of Halifax."--Winterbottom's
+_History of America_, vol. iv., p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 432: "La cour de France avoit extremement a coeur de recouvrer
+cette province (Acadia); les efforts reiteres des Anglois pour l'avoir
+en leur puissance, et plus encore, leur triomphe apres l'avoir conquise,
+avoit enfin ouvert les yeux aux Francois sur la grandeur de la perte
+qu'ils avoient faite. M. de Pontchartrain ecrivit ainsi a M. de
+Beaubarnois: 'Je vous ai fait assez connoitre combien il est important
+de reprendre ce poste (le Port Royal) avant que les ennemies y soient
+solidement etablis. La conservation de toute l'Amerique septentrionale,
+et le commerce des Peches le demandent egalement: ce sont deux objets
+qui me touchent vivement.'"--Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 90.]
+
+[Footnote 433: "Roland Michel Barrin, marquis de la Galissoniere,
+remplit la poste de gouverneur comme s'il ne se fut toute sa vie occupe
+que de cet objet.... Il etablit a Quebec un arsenal maritime, et un
+chantier de construction, ou l'on n'employa que les bois des pays. Il
+concut, proposa, et fit adopter le vaste plan dont il commenca
+l'execution, de joindre le Canada et la Louisiana par une chaine de
+forts et d'etablissements, le long de l'Ohio et des Mississippi, a
+travers les regions desertes qui separaient ces deux colonies a l'ouest
+des lacs. A l'avantage d'etablir entre elles une communication moins
+penible et moins long que par le nord, se joignoit celui de pouvoir
+faire parvenir les depeches en France, en hiver par la Louisiane, tandis
+que l'embouchure du fleuve St. Laurent est fermee par les glaces; enfin
+celui de resserrer les Anglais entre les montagnes et la mer.... Il
+emporta tous les regrets quand il revint en France, en 1749.... La
+defaite de l'amiral Anglais, Byng, et la prise de Minorque que fut le
+fruit de cette victoire decisive, couronnerent sa carriere. Il avoit
+entrepris cette derniere expedition contre l'avis des medecins qui lui
+avoient annonce sa mort comme prochaine, s'il se rembarquoit.... Il
+cacha ses maux tant qu'il put, mais il fut enfin oblige de se demettre
+du commandement. Il revint en France et se mit en route pour
+Fontainebleau ou etoit alors le roi. Les forces lui manquerent
+totalement a Nemours, ou il mourut le 26 Octobre, 1756.... A ses talens
+eminens comme marin, la Galissoniere unissoit une infinite de
+connaissances.... Serieux et ferme, mais en meme tems doux, modere,
+affable, et integre, il se faisito respecter et cherir de tous ceux qui
+servoient sous ses ordres.... Tant de belles qualites etoient cachees
+sous un exterieur peu avantageux. La Galissoniere etoit de petite taille
+et bossu. Lorsque les sauvages vinrent le saluer a son arrivee au
+Canada, frappes de son peu d'apparence, ils lui parlerent en ces termes,
+'Il faut que tu aies une bien belle ame, puisqu' avec un si vilain
+corps, le grand chef notre pere t'a envoye ici pour nous commander.' Ils
+ne tarderent pas a reconnaitre la justice de leur opinion, et
+entourerent de leur amour et de leur veneration, en l'appellant du nom
+de pere, l'homme qui ne se servit du pouvoir que pour ameliorer leur
+sort."--_Biographie Universelle_, art. Galissoniere.]
+
+[Footnote 434: "In observing on old maps the extent of the ancient
+French colonies in America, I was haunted by one painful idea. I asked
+myself how the government of my country could have left colonies to
+perish which would now be to us a source of inexhaustible prosperity.
+From Acadia and Canada to Louisiana, from the mouth of the St. Lawrence
+to that of the Mississippi, the territories of New France surrounded
+what originally formed the confederation of the thirteen United States.
+The eleven other states, the district of Columbia, the Michigan,
+Northwest, Missouri, Oregon, and Arkansas territories, belonged, or
+would have belonged to us, as they now belong to the United States, by
+the cession of the English and Spaniards, our first heirs in Canada and
+in Louisiana. More than two thirds of North America would acknowledge
+the sovereignty of France.... We possessed here vast countries which
+might have offered a home to the excess of our population, an important
+market to our commerce, a nursery to our navy. Now we are forced to
+confine in our prisons culprits condemned by the tribunals, for want of
+a spot of ground whereon to place these wretched creatures. We are
+excluded from the New World, where the human race is recommencing. The
+English and Spanish languages serve to express the thoughts of many
+millions of men in Africa, in Asia, in the South Sea Islands, on the
+continent of the two Americas; and we, disinherited of the conquests of
+our courage and our genius, hear the language of Racine, of Colbert, and
+of Louis XIV. spoken merely in a few hamlets of Louisiana and Canada,
+under a foreign sway. There it remains, as though but for an evidence of
+the reverses of our fortune and the errors of our policy. Thus, then,
+has France disappeared from North America, like those Indian tribes with
+which she sympathized, and some of the wrecks of which I have
+beheld."--Chateaubriand's _Travels in America_, vol. ii., p. 207.]
+
+[Footnote 435: From the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, 1632, till 1654,
+the French had quiet possession of Acadia; then Cromwell sent Major
+Sedgwick to attack it, with orders to expel all who would not
+acknowledge themselves subjects of England. Sedgwick executed his
+commission, and Cromwell passed a grant of Acadia to one De la Tour, a
+French refugee, who had purchased Lord Sterling's title to that country;
+and De la Tour soon after transferred his right to Sir William Temple.
+
+Nova Scotia was ceded to France at the treaty of Breda, in 1670. In 1690
+it was retaken by Sir William Phipps on his way to Quebec. It was given
+back to France by the treaty of Ryswick; retaken by General Nicholson
+(who gave the name of Annapolis to Port Royal) in 1710, during the War
+of the Succession. It was formally and finally ceded to England at the
+peace of Utrecht. The undefined limits of Nova Scotia were a constant
+source of dispute between the French and English nations.]
+
+[Footnote 436: Professor Kalm thus speaks of La Galissoniere, who was
+the governor of Quebec at the time of his travels through Canada. "He
+was of a low stature and somewhat hump-backed. He has a surprising
+knowledge in all branches of science, and especially in natural history,
+in which he is so well versed, that, when he began to speak to me about
+it, I imagined I saw our great Linnaeus under a new form. When he spoke
+of the use of natural history, of the method of learning, and employing
+it to raise the state of a country, I was astonished to see him take his
+reasons from politics, as well as natural philosophy, mathematics, and
+other sciences. I own that my conversation with this nobleman was very
+instructive to me, and I always drew a great deal of useful knowledge
+from it. He told me several ways of employing natural history to the
+purposes of politics, and to make a country powerful in order to depress
+its envious neighbors. Never has natural history had a greater promotion
+in this country, and it is very doubtful whether it will ever have its
+equal here. As soon as he got the place of governor general, he began to
+take those measures for getting information in natural history which I
+have mentioned before. When he saw people who had for some time been in
+a settled place of the country, especially in the more remote parts, he
+always questioned them about the trees, plants, earths, stones, ores,
+animals, &c., of the place. Those who seemed to have clearer notions
+than the rest were obliged to give him circumstantial descriptions of
+what they had seen. He himself wrote down all the accounts he received,
+and by this great appreciation, so uncommon among persons of his rank,
+he soon acquired a knowledge of the most distant parts of America. The
+priests, commandants of forts and of several distant places, are often
+surprised by his questions, and wonder at his knowledge when they come
+to Quebec to pay their visits to him, for he often tells them that near
+such a mountain, or on such a shore, &c., where they often went a
+hunting, there are some particular plants, trees, earths, ores, &c., for
+he had got a knowledge of these things before. From hence it happened
+that some of the inhabitants believed he had a preternatural knowledge
+of things, as he was able to mention all the curiosities of places,
+sometimes near 200 Swedish miles from Quebec, though he never was there
+himself. Never was there a better statesman than he, and nobody can take
+better measures, and choose more proper means for improving a country
+and increasing its welfare. Canada was scarcely acquainted with the
+treasure it possessed in the person of this nobleman when it lost him
+again; the king wanted his services at home, and could not have him so
+far off."--Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 679.]
+
+[Footnote 437: Louisburg, together with the whole island of Cape Breton,
+had been restored to the French by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in
+1748.]
+
+[Footnote 438: "In the year after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the land
+forces of Great Britain were reduced to little more than 18,000 men;
+those in Minorca, Gibraltar, and the American plantations, to 10,000;
+while the sailors retained in the royal navy were under
+17,000."--_Commons' Journals_, Nov. 23, 1749, and Jan. 19, 1750.
+
+"From the large number both of soldiers and seamen suddenly discharged,
+it was found that they might be either driven to distress or tempted to
+depredation. Thus, both for their own comfort and for the quiet of the
+remaining community, emigration seemed to afford a safe and excellent
+resource. The province of Nova Scotia was fixed upon for this
+experiment, and the freehold of fifty acres was offered to each settler,
+with ten acres more for every child brought with him, besides a free
+passage, and an exemption from all taxes during a term of ten years.
+Allured by such advantages, above 4000 persons, with their families,
+embarked under the command of Colonel Cornwallis, and landed at the
+harbor of Chebuctow. The new town which soon arose from those labors
+received its name from the Earl of Halifax, who presided at the Board of
+Trade, and who had the principal share in the foundation of this colony.
+In the first winter there were but 300 huts of wood, surrounded by a
+palisade; but Halifax at present deserves to be ranked among the most
+thriving dependencies of the British crown."--Lord Mahon's _History of
+England_, vol. iv., p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 439: "As it was the intention of the government to build a
+strong fort at Beau-sejour, Chaussegros de Lery, son of the engineer who
+traced the fortifications of Quebec, was sent for that purpose. De
+Vassan, who succeeded La Corne in the command of this post, was
+instructed, as his predecessor had been, to pay the utmost attention to
+the Abbe le Loutre, and to avoid all disputes with the English. De
+Vassan's penetration soon led him to discover Le Loutre's true
+character; but, not wishing to have any misunderstanding with him, he
+left him full scope in the management of the affairs of the Acadians.
+These unhappy people had from the first felt the iron hand of his
+tyranny; neither the provisions nor clothing furnished by the crown
+could be obtained without repeated supplications and prayers, and in
+every instance he showed a heart steeled against every sentiment of
+humanity."--Smith's _History of Canada_, vol. i., p. 217.]
+
+[Footnote 440: "We soon after came to anchor in the basin, called by the
+French, with much propriety, Beau-bassin, where a hundred ships of the
+line may ride in safety without crowding, and from the time we entered
+this bay we found water enough every where for a first-rate ship of war.
+It is about five miles from Beau-sejour, now Fort Cumberland."--Knox's
+_Historical Journal_, vol. i., p. 35.]
+
+END OF VOL. I.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Conquest of Canada (Vol. 1 of 2), by
+George Warburton
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