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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/24346-0.txt b/24346-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d850287 --- /dev/null +++ b/24346-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2938 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hints towards the formation of a more +comprehensive theory of life. by Samuel Taylor Coleridge + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Hints towards the formation of a more comprehensive theory of life. + +Author: Samuel Taylor Coleridge + +Release Date: January 17, 2008 [Ebook #24346] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** + + + + + + *Hints Towards the Formation of a More Comprehensive Theory Of Life* + + *by S. T. Coleridge* + + *Edited by Seth B. Watson, M.D.* + + Of St. John’s College, + + And Formerly One of the Physicians to the Hospital at Oxford + + Magna sunt opera Domini exquisita in omnes voluntates ejus. + + London: John Churchill, Princes Street, Soho + + MDCCCXLVIII. + + *C. and J. Adlard, Printers, Bartholomew Close* + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Physiology Of Life. +The Nature Of Life. +Advertisements. +Footnotes + + + + + + +ADVERTISEMENT. + + +The Editor takes this opportunity of returning his best acknowledgments to +Sir JOHN STODDART, LL.D., to the Rev. JAMES GILLMAN, Incumbent of Trinity, +Lambeth, and to HENRY LEE, Esq., Assistant Surgeon to King’s College +Hospital, for their great kindness, in regard to this publication. + +_16, Norfolk Street, Park Lane._ + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The accompanying pages contain the unfinished Sketch of a Theory of Life +by S. T. Coleridge. Everything that fell from the pen of that +extraordinary man bore latent, as well as more obvious indications of +genius, and of its inseparable concomitant—originality. To this general +remark the present Essay is far from forming an exception. No one can +peruse it, without admiring the author’s comprehensive research and +profound meditation; but at the same time, partly from the exuberance of +his imagination, and partly from an apparent want of method (though, in +truth, he had a method of his own, by which he marshalled his thoughts in +an order perfectly intelligible to himself), a first perusal will, to many +readers, prove unsatisfactory, unless they are prepared for it by an +introduction of a more popular character. This purpose, therefore, I shall +endeavour to accomplish; it being to be understood that I by no means make +myself responsible either for Mr. Coleridge’s speculations, or for the +manner in which they are enunciated; and that, on the contrary, I shall +occasionally indicate views from which I dissent, and expressions which +perhaps the author himself, on revision, would have seen reason to +correct. + +It is clear that Mr. Coleridge considers the unity of human nature to +result from two combined elements, Body and Soul; that he regards the +latter as the principle of Reason and of Conscience (both which he has +largely treated in his published works), and that the “Life,” which he +here investigates, concerns, in relation to mankind, only the Body. He is +far, however, from confining the term “Life” to its action on the human +body; on the contrary, he disclaims the division of all that surrounds us +into things with life, and things without life; and contends, that the +term Life is no less applicable to the irreducible _bases_ of chemistry, +such as sodium, potassium, &c., or to the various forms of crystals, or +the geological strata which compose the crust of our globe, than it is to +the human body itself, the acme and perfection of animal organization. I +admit that there are certain great powers, such as magnetism, electricity, +and chemistry, whose action may be traced, even by the limited means which +science at present possesses, in admirable gradation, from purely +unorganized to the most highly organized matter: and, I think, that Mr. +Coleridge has done this with great ingenuity and striking effect; but what +I object to is, that he applies to the combined operation of these powers, +in all cases, the term _Life_. If we look back to the early history of +language, we shall probably find that this word, and its synonymes in +other tongues, were first employed to denote _human_ life, that is, the +duration of a human being’s existence from birth to the grave. As this +existence was marked by actions, many of which were common to man with +other animals, those animals also were said to “live;” but the extension +of the notion of Life to the vegetable creation is comparatively a recent +usage,—and hitherto (in this country at least) no writer before Mr. +Coleridge, so far as I know, has maintained that rocks and mountains, nay, +“the great globe itself,” share with mankind the gift of Life. On the +other hand, there are well known and energetic uses of the word “Life,” to +which Mr. Coleridge’s speculations, as contained in the accompanying +pages, are wholly inapplicable. Almost all nations, even the most savage, +agree in the belief that individuals of the human race, after they have +ceased to exist in this mortal life, will exist in another state, to which +also the word Life is universally applied; but to this latter Mr. +Coleridge’s views of magnetism, electricity, &c., can hardly be thought +applicable. Still less can they apply to “Life” in its spiritual sense; +as, when Moses says to the Jews, “the words of the law are your _life_,” +(Deut. xxxii, 47,) and when our Saviour says, “the words that I speak unto +you, they are spirit, and they are _life_;” (John, vi, 63;) and again, “I +am the resurrection and the life,” (John, xi, 25.) Upon the whole, +therefore, I think it would have been advisable in Mr. Coleridge to have +adopted a different phraseology, in tracing the operation of certain +natural agencies first on unorganized, and then on organized bodies. + +Another word, of which I consider an improper use to be made in this +Essay, is “Nature.” I find this imaginary being introduced on all +occasions, and invested with attributes of personality, which may be +extremely apt to make a false impression on young or thoughtless minds. At +one time, “the life of Nature” is spoken of; then we are informed that +“Nature has succeeded. _She_ has created the intermediate link between the +vegetable world and the animal.” Again, it is said that “Nature seems to +fall back, and to reexert _herself_ on the lower ground, which _she_ had +before occupied;”—and elsewhere we are told that “Nature never loses what +_she_ has once learnt; though in the acquirement of each new power _she_ +intermits or performs less energetically the act immediately preceding. +_She_ often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up again. _She_ +may seem forgetful and absent; but it is only to recollect _herself_ with +additional as well as recruited vigour in some after and higher state.” +Now the word “Nature,” in any intelligible sense, means nothing but that +method and order by which the Almighty regulates the common course of +things. Nature is not a person; it is not active; it neither creates nor +performs actions more or less energetically, nor learns, nor forgets, nor +reexerts itself, nor recruits its vigour. Perhaps it will be said that all +this is merely figurative language. Figurative language is very much +misplaced in strict philosophical investigations; and these particular +figures, which might be quite consistent with the atheistical philosophy +of Lucretius, sound ill in the mouth of a pious Christian, which Mr. +Coleridge undoubtedly was. He probably adopted them unconsciously from +Bacon; but Bacon’s use of the word Nature ought rather to have served as a +warning than an example; for it has contributed, in no small degree, to +the atheistical philosophy of recent times. + +The prevalent natural philosophy of the present day is that which is +called _corpuscular_, because it assumes the existence of a first matter, +consisting of _corpuscula_ or atoms, which are supposed to be definite, +though extremely small, _quantities_, invested with the _qualities_ of +extension, impenetrability, and the like; and from certain combinations of +these qualities, Life is considered, by some persons, to be a necessary +result. This philosophy Mr. Coleridge combats. The supposed atoms, he +says, are mere abstractions of the mind; and Life is not a thing, the +result of atomic arrangement or action, but is itself an act, or process. +He refutes various definitions of Life, such as, that it is the sum of all +the functions by which death is resisted; or, that it depends on the +faculty of nutrition, or of anti-putrescence. His own definition he +proposes merely as an hypothesis. Life, he says, is “the principle of +Individuation,” that is to say, it is a power which discloses itself from +within, combining many qualities into one individual thing. This +individualising principle unites, as he conceives, with the cooperating +action of magnetism, electricity, and chemistry. At least, such is the +inference to be drawn from the present state of science; though it is +easily conceivable that future discoveries may bring us acquainted with +powers more directly connected with Life. The most general law governing +the action of Life, as a tendency to individuation, is here designated +_polarity_; for instance, the power termed magnetism (not meaning that +there is necessarily an actual tangible magnet in the case) has two poles, +the negative, answering to attraction, rest, carbon, &c., and the +positive, answering to repulsion, mobility, azote, &c.; and as the +magnetic needle which points to the north necessarily indicates thereby +the south, so the power disposing to rest has necessarily a counteracting +influence disposing to mobility, between which lies the point of +indifference. Now this quality, to which Mr. Coleridge gives the name of +polarity, is in truth nothing more than an exemplification of the doctrine +of opposites, the πρός ἂλληλα ἀντικειμένω ἀντίθεσις, which the Eleatic +Philosopher, in Plato’s “Sophist,” applies to the idea of existence and +non-existence, and which accompanies every other idea as its shadow, +whether in physics, in intellect, or in morals; for the finite is opposed +to the infinite, the false to the true, the evil to the good, and so +forth; which we say, not to derogate from the value of Mr. Coleridge’s +application of the doctrine, of which he has very ably availed himself; +but merely to explain the term polarity, by referring it, as a species, to +a higher genus of intellectual conceptions. + +Reverting to the three powers before mentioned, it is not to be +understood, that on Mr. Coleridge’s hypothesis of Life, they ever act +separately; but in the different modifications of Life, at one time the +power of magnetism predominates, at another that of electricity, and at +another that of chemistry. Magnetism is stated to act as a line, +electricity as a surface, and chemistry as a solid; for all which Mr. +Coleridge refers to certain physical experiments. The predominance of +magnetism is characterised by reproduction, that of electricity by +irritability; and irritability, which first appears as muscle, gradually +rises into sensibility as nerve. The limits of a mere introduction will +not permit me to examine Mr. Coleridge’s first principles more in detail; +and I can but briefly notice their application to the successive stages of +ascent, from the first rudiments of individualised Life, in the lowest +classes of the mineral, vegetable, and animal creation, to its crown and +consummation in the human body. Beginning with magnetism, by which, in its +widest sense, he means what he improperly calls the first and simplest +differential act of _Nature_ (he should rather have said the first and +simplest conception that we can form of a differential act of God, in the +work of creation), he supposes the pre-existence of chaos, not, indeed, in +the Miltonic sense— + +“For hot, cold, moist, and dry, four champions fierce, +Strive _there_ for mast’ry, and to battle bring +Their embryon atoms,—” + +but rather as one vast homogeneous fluid, and even _that_ he suggests not +as a historical fact, but as the appropriate symbol of a great fundamental +truth. The first effort of magnetic power, the first step from +indifference to difference, from formless homogeneity to independent +existence, is seen in the tranquil deposition of crystals; and an +increasing tendency to difference is observable in the increasing +multitude of strata, till we come to organic life; of which the vegetable +and animal worlds may be regarded as opposite poles; carbon prevailing in +the former and azote in the latter; and vegetation being characterised by +the predominance of magnetism in its highest power, as reproduction; +whilst the animal tribes evince the power of electricity, as shown in +irritability and sensibility. Passing over the forms of vegetation, we +come to the polypi, corallines, &c., in which individuality appears in its +first dawn; for a multitude of animals form, as it were, a common animal, +and different genera pass into each other, almost indistinguishably. The +tubipora of the corals connects with the serpula of the conchylia. In the +_mollusca_ the separation of organs becomes more observable; in the higher +species there are rudiments of nerves, and an exponent, though scarcely +distinguishable, of sensibility. In the snail, and muscle, the separation +of the fluid from the solid is more marked, yet the prevalence of the +carbonic principle connects these and the preceding classes, in a certain +degree, with the vegetable creation. “But the _insect_ world, taken at +large (says Mr. Coleridge) appears as an intense _Life_, that has +struggled itself loose, and become emancipated from vegetation—_Floræ +liberti, et libertini_!” In insects we first find the distinct +commencement of a separation between the muscular system, that is, organs +of irritability, and the nervous system, that is, organs of sensibility; +the former, however, maintaining a pre-eminence throughout, and the nerves +themselves being probably subservient to the motory power. With the fishes +begins an internal system of bones, but these are the results of a +comparatively imperfect formation, being in general little more than mere +gristle. In birds we find a sort of synthesis of the powers of fish and +insects. In all three, the powers are under the predominance of +irritability; but sensibility, which is dormant in the insect, begins to +awaken in the fish, and, though still subordinate, is quite awake in the +bird, of which no better proof can be given than its power of sound, with +the rudiments of modulation, in the large class of singing birds, and in +some others a tendency to acquire and to imitate articulate speech. The +next step of ascent brings us to the _mammalia_; and in these, including +beasts and men, the complete and universal presence of a nervous system +raises sensibility to its due place and rank among the animal powers. +Finally, in Man the whole force of organic power attains an inward and +centripetal direction, and the “apex of the living pyramid”becomes a fit +receptacle for Reason and Conscience. + + * * * * * + +It is much to be regretted, that the estimable Author did not live to put +a finishing hand to this Essay; but the part completed involves +speculations of so interesting a nature, and presents such striking marks +of deep and original thought, that the Editor, to whose hands it was +committed, did not feel himself justified in withholding it from the +judgment of the public. + + + + + +PHYSIOLOGY OF LIFE. + + + Introduction. + + +When we stand before the bust of John Hunter, or as we enter the +magnificent museum furnished by his labours, and pass slowly, with +meditative observation, through this august temple, which the genius of +one great man has raised and dedicated to the wisdom and uniform working +of the Creator, we perceive at every step the guidance, we had almost +said, the inspiration, of those profound ideas concerning Life, which dawn +upon us, indeed, through his written works, but which he has here +presented to us in a more perfect language than that of words—the language +of God himself, as uttered by Nature. + +That the true idea of Life existed in the mind of John Hunter I do not +entertain the least doubt; but it may, perhaps, be doubted whether his +incessant occupation, and his stupendous industry in the service, both of +his contemporaries and of posterity, added to his comparatively slight +acquaintance with the arts and aids of logical arrangement, permitted him +fully to unfold and arrange it in distinct, clear, and communicable +conceptions. Assuredly, however, I may, without incurring the charge of +arrogance or detraction, venture to assert that, in his writings the light +which occasionally flashes upon us seems at other times, and more +frequently, to struggle through an unfriendly medium, and even sometimes +to suffer a temporary occultation. At least, in order to dissipate the +undeniable obscurities, and to reconcile the apparent contradictions found +in his works,—to distinguish, in short, the numerous passages in which +without, perhaps, losing sight internally of his own peculiar belief, he +yet falls into the phraseology and mechanical solutions of his age,—we +must distinguish such passages from those in which the form corresponds to +the substance, and in which, therefore, the nature and essential laws of +vital action are expressed, as far as his researches had unveiled them to +his own mind, without disguise. To effect this, we must, as it were, climb +up on his shoulders, and look at the same objects in a distincter form, +because seen from the more commanding point of view furnished by himself. +This has, indeed, been more than once attempted already, and, in one +instance, with so evident a display of power and insight as announces in +the assertor and vindicator of the Hunterian Theory a congenial intellect, +and a disciple in whom Hunter himself would have exulted. Would that this +attempt had been made on a larger scale, that the writer to whom I +refer(1) had in consequence developed his opinions systematically, and +carried them yet further back, even to their ultimate principle! + +But this the scientific world has yet to expect; or it is more than +probable that the present humble endeavour would have been superseded, or +confined, at least, to the task of restating the opinion of my predecessor +with such modifications as the differences that will always exist between +men who have thought independently, and each for himself, have never +failed to introduce, even on problems of far easier and more obvious +solution. + +Without further preface or apology, therefore, I shall state at once my +objections to all the definitions that have hitherto been given of Life, +as meaning too much or too little, with an exception, however, in favour +of those which mean nothing at all; and even these last must, in certain +cases, receive an honour they do not merit, and be confuted, or rather +detected, on account of their too general acceptance, and the incalculable +power of words over the minds of men in proportion to the remoteness of +the subject from the cognizance of the senses. + +It would be equally presumptuous and unreasonable should I, with a late +writer on this subject, “exhort the reader to be particularly on his guard +against loose and indefinite expressions;” but I perfectly agree that they +are the bane of all science, and have been remarkably injurious in the +different departments of physiology. + + + + + +THE NATURE OF LIFE. + + + On The Definitions Of Life Hitherto Received. Hints Towards A More + Comprehensive Theory. + + +The attempts to explain the nature of Life, which have fallen within my +knowledge, presuppose the arbitrary division of all that surrounds us into +things with life, and things without life—a division grounded on a mere +assumption. At the best, it can be regarded only as a hasty deduction from +the first superficial notices of the objects that surround us, sufficient, +perhaps, for the purpose of ordinary discrimination, but far too +indeterminate and diffluent to be taken unexamined by the philosophic +inquirer. The positions of science must be tried in the jeweller’s scales, +not like the mixed commodities of the market, on the weigh-bridge of +common opinion and vulgar usage. Such, however, has been the procedure in +the present instance, and the result has been answerable to the coarseness +of the process. By a comprisal of the _petitio principii_ with the +_argumentum in circulo_,—in plain English, by an easy logic, which begins +with begging the question, and then moving in a circle, comes round to the +point where it began,—each of the two divisions has been made to define +the other by a mere reassertion of their assumed contrariety. The +physiologist has luminously explained Y plus X by informing us that it is +a somewhat that is the antithesis of Y minus X; and if we ask, what then +is Y-X? the answer is, the antithesis of Y+X,—a reciprocation of great +service, that may remind us of the twin sisters in the fable of the Lamiæ, +with but one eye between them both, which each borrowed from the other as +either happened to want it; but with this additional disadvantage, that in +the present case it is after all but an eye of glass. The definitions +themselves will best illustrate our meaning. I will begin with that given +by Bichat. “Life is the sum of all the functions by which death is +resisted,” in which I have in vain endeavoured to discover any other +meaning than that life consists in being able to live. This author, with a +whimsical gravity, prefaces his definition with the remark, that the +nature of life has hitherto been sought for in _abstract_ considerations; +as if it were possible that four more inveterate abstractions could be +brought together in one sentence than are here assembled in the words, +life, death, function, and resistance. Similar instances might be cited +from Richerand and others. The word Life is translated into other more +learned words; and this _paraphrase_ of the _term_ is substituted for the +_definition_ of the _thing_, and therefore (as is always the case in every +_real_ definition as contra-distinguished from a _verbal_ definition,) for +at least a partial _solution_ of the _fact_. Such as these form the +_first_ class.—The second class takes some one particular function of Life +common to all living objects,—nutrition, for instance; or, to adopt the +phrase most in vogue at present, assimilation, for the purposes of +reproduction and growth. Now this, it is evident, can be an appropriate +definition only of the very lowest species, as of a Fungus or a Mollusca; +and just as comprehensive an idea of the mystery of Life, as a Mollusca +might give, can this definition afford. But this is not the only +objection. For, _first_, it is not pretended that we begin with seeking +for an organ evidently appropriated to nutrition, and then infer that the +substance in which such an organ is found _lives_. On the contrary, in a +number of cases among the obscurer animals and vegetables we infer the +organ from the pre-established fact of its life. _Secondly_, it identifies +the process itself with a certain range of its forms, those, namely, by +which it is manifested in animals and vegetables. For this, too, no less +than the former, presupposes the arbitrary division of all things into not +living and lifeless, on which, as I before observed, all these definitions +are grounded. But it is sorry logic to take the proof of an affirmative in +one thing as the proof of the negative in another. All animals that have +lungs breathe, but it would be a childish oversight to deduce the +converse, viz. all animals that breathe have lungs. The theory in which +the French chemists organized the discoveries of Black, Cavendish, +Priestly, Scheele, and other English and German philosophers, is still, +indeed, the reigning theory, but rather, it should seem, from the absence +of a rival sufficiently popular to fill the throne in its stead, than from +the continuance of an implicit belief in its own stability. We no longer +at least cherish that intensity of faith which, before Davy commenced his +brilliant career, had not only identified it with chemistry itself, but +had substituted its nomenclature, even in common conversation, for the far +more philosophic language which the human race had abstracted from the +laboratory of Nature. I may venture to prophecy that no future Beddoes +will make it the corival of the mathematical sciences in demonstrative +evidence. I think it a matter of doubt whether, during the period of its +supposed infallibility, physiology derived more benefit from the +extension, or injury from the misdirection, of its views. Enough of the +latter is fresh in recollection to make it but an equivocal compliment to +a physiological position, that it must stand or fall with the corpuscular +philosophy, as modified by the French theory of chemistry. Yet should it +happen (and the event is not impossible, nor the supposition altogether +absurd,) that more and more decisive facts should present themselves in +confirmation of the metamorphosis of elements, the position that life +consists in assimilation would either cease to be distinctive, or fall +back into the former class as an identical proposition, namely, that Life, +meaning by the word that sort of growth which takes place by means of a +peculiar organization, consists in that sort of growth which is peculiar +to organized life. _Thirdly_, the definition involves a still more +egregious flaw in the reasoning, namely, that of _cum hoc, ergo propter +hoc_ (or the assumption of causation from mere coexistence); and this, +too, in its very worst form. For it is not _cum hoc solo, ergo propter +hoc_, which would in many cases supply a presumptive proof by induction, +but _cum hoc, et plurimis aliis, ergo propter hoc_! Shell, of some kind or +other, is common to the whole order of testacea, but it would be absurd to +define the _vis vitæ_ of testaceous animals as existing in the shell, +though we know it to be the constant accompaniment, and have every reason +to believe the constant effect, of the specific life that acts in those +animals. Were we (_argumenti __ causá_) to imagine shell coextensive with +the organized creation, this would produce no abatement in the falsity of +the reasoning. Nor does the flaw stop here; for a physiological, that is a +real, definition, as distinguished from the verbal definitions of +lexicography, must consist neither in any single property or function of +the thing to be defined, nor yet in all collectively, which latter, +indeed, would be a history, not a definition. It must consist, therefore, +in the _law_ of the thing, or in such an _idea_ of it, as, being admitted, +all the properties and functions are admitted by implication. It must +likewise be so far _causal_, that a full insight having been obtained of +the law, we derive from it a progressive insight into the necessity and +_generation_ of the phenomena of which it is the law. Suppose a disease in +question, which appeared always accompanied with certain symptoms in +certain stages, and with some one or more symptoms in all stages—say +deranged digestion, capricious alternation of vivacity and languor, +headache, dilated pupil, diminished sensibility to light, &c.—Neither the +man who selected the one constant symptom, nor he who enumerated all the +symptoms, would give the scientific definition _talem scilicet, quali +scientia fit vel datur_, but the man who at once named and defined the +disease hydrocephalus, producing pressure on the brain. For it is the +essence of a scientific definition to be causative, not by introduction of +imaginary somewhats, natural or supernatural under the name of causes, but +by announcing the law of action in the particular case, in subordination +to the common law of which all the phenomena are modifications or results. + +Now in the definition on which, as the representative of a whole class, we +are _now_ animadverting, a single effect is given as constituting the +cause. For nutrition by digestion is certainly necessary to life, only +under certain circumstances, but that life is previously necessary to +digestion is absolutely certain under all circumstances. Besides, what +other phenomenon of Life would the conception of assimilation, _per se_, +or as it exists in the lowest order of animals, involve or explain? How, +for instance, does it include sensation, locomotion, or habit? or if the +two former should be taken as distinct from life, _toto genere_, and +supervenient to it, we then ask what conception is given of _vital_ +assimilation as contradistinguished from that of the nucleus of a crystal? + +_Lastly_, this definition confounds the Law of Life, or the primary and +universal form of vital agency, with the conception, Animals. For the +kind, it substitutes the representative of its degrees and modifications. +But the first and most important office of science, physical or +physiological, is to contemplate the power in kind, abstracted from the +degree. The ideas of caloric, whether as substance or property, and the +conceptions of latent heat, the heat in ice, &c., that excite the wonder +or the laughter of the vulgar, though susceptible of the most important +practical applications, are the result of this abstraction; while the only +purpose to which a definition like the preceding could become subservient, +would be in supplying a nomenclature with the character of the most common +species of a genus—its _genus generalissimum_, and even this would be +useless in the present instance, inasmuch as it presupposes the knowledge +of the things characterised. + +The third class, and far superior to the two former, selects some property +characteristic of all living bodies, not merely found in all _animals_ +alike, but existing equally in all parts of all living things, both +animals and plants. Such, for instance, is the definition of Life, as +consisting in anti-putrescence, or the power of resisting putrefaction. +Like all the others, however, even this confines the idea of Life to those +degrees or concentrations of it, which manifest themselves in organized +beings, or rather in those the organization of which is apparent to us. +Consequently, it substitutes an abstract term, or generalization of +effects, for the idea, or superior form of causative agency. At best, it +describes the _vis vitá_ by one only of its many influences. It is +however, as we have said before, preferable to the former, because it is +not, as they are, altogether unfruitful, inasmuch as it attests, less +equivocally than any other sign, the presence or absence of that degree of +the _vis vitá_ which is the necessary condition of organic or +self-renewing power. It throws no light, however, on the law or principle +of action; it does not increase our insight into the other phenomena; it +presents to us no _inclusive_ form, out of which the other forms may be +developed, and finally, its defect as a definition may be detected by +generalizing it into a higher formula, as a power which, during its +continuance, resists or subordinates heterogeneous and adverse powers. Now +this holds equally true of chemical relatively to the mechanical powers; +and really affirms no more of Life than may be equally affirmed of every +form of being, namely, that it tends to preserve itself, and resists, to a +certain extent, whatever is incompatible with the laws that constitute its +particular state for the time being. For it is not true only of the great +divisions or classes into which we have found it expedient to distinguish, +while we generalize, the powers acting in nature, as into intellectual, +vital, chemical, mechanical; but it holds equally true of the degrees, or +species of each of these genera relatively to each other: as in the +decomposition of the alkalies by heat, or the galvanic spark. Like the +combining power of Life, the copula here resists for awhile the attempts +to dissolve it, and then yields, to reappear in new phenomena. + +It is a wonderful property of the human mind, that when once a momentum +has been given to it in a fresh direction, it pursues the new path with +obstinate perseverance, in all conceivable bearings, to its utmost +extremes. And by the startling consequences which arise out of these +extremes, it is first awakened to its error, and either recalled to some +former track, or receives some fresh impulse, which it follows with the +same eagerness, and admits to the same monopoly. Thus in the 13th century +the first science which roused the intellects of men from the torpor of +barbarism, was, as in all countries ever has been, and ever must be the +case, the science of _Metaphysics_ and _Ontology_. We first seek what can +be found at home, and what wonder if truths, that appeared to reveal the +secret depths of our own souls, should take possession of the whole mind, +and all truths appear trivial which could not either be evolved out of +similar principles, by the same process, or at least brought under the +same forms of thought, by perceived or imagined analogies? And so it was. +For more than a century men continued to invoke the oracle of their own +spirits, not only concerning its own forms and modes of being, but +likewise concerning the laws of external nature. All attempts at +philosophical explication were commenced by a mere effort of the +understanding, as the power of abstraction; or by the imagination, +transferring its own experiences to every object presented from without. +By the former, a class of phenomena were in the first place abstracted, +and fixed in some general term: of course this could designate only the +impressions made by the outward objects, and so far, therefore, having +been thus metamorphosed, they were effects of these objects; but then made +to supply the place of their own causes, under the name of occult +qualities. Thus the properties peculiar to gold, were abstracted from +those it possessed in common with other bodies, and then generalized in +the term _Aureity_: and the inquirer was instructed that the Essence of +Gold, or the cause which constituted the peculiar modification of matter +called gold, was the power of aureity. By the latter, _i.e._ by the +imagination, thought and will were superadded to the occult quality, and +every form of nature had its appropriate Spirit, to be controlled or +conciliated by an appropriate ceremonial. This was entitled its +SUBSTANTIAL FORM. Thus, physic became a sort of dull poetry, and the art +of medicine (for physiology could scarcely be said to exist) was a system +of magic, blended with traditional empiricism. Thus the forms of thought +proceeded to act in their own emptiness, with no attempt to fill or +substantiate them by the information of the senses, and all the branches +of science formed so many sections of logic and metaphysics. And so it +continued, even to the time that the Reformation sounded the second +trumpet, and the authority of the schools sank with that of the hierarchy, +under the intellectual courage and activity which this great revolution +had inspired. Power, once awakened, cannot rest in one object. All the +sciences partook of the new influences. The world of experimental +philosophy was soon mapped out for posterity by the comprehensive and +enterprising genius of Bacon, and the laws explained by which experiment +could be dignified into experience.(2) But no sooner was the impulse +given, than the same propensity was made manifest of looking at all things +in the one point of view which chanced to be of predominant attraction. +Our Gilbert, a man of genuine philosophical genius, had no sooner +multiplied the facts of magnetism, and extended our knowledge concerning +the property of magnetic bodies, but all things in heaven, and earth, and +in the waters beneath the earth, were resolved into magnetic influences. + +Shortly after a new light was struck by Harriott and Descartes, with their +contemporaries, or immediate predecessors, and the restoration of ancient +geometry, aided by the modern invention of algebra, placed the science of +mechanism on the philosophic throne. How widely this domination spread, +and how long it continued, if, indeed, even now it can be said to have +abdicated its pretensions, the reader need not be reminded. The sublime +discoveries of Newton, and, together with these, his not less fruitful +than wonderful application, of the higher mathesis to the movements of the +celestial bodies, and to the laws of light, gave almost a religious +sanction to the corpuscular system and mechanical theory. It became +synonymous with philosophy itself. It was the sole portal at which truth +was permitted to enter. The human body was treated of as an hydraulic +machine, the operations of medicine were solved, and alas! even directed +by reference partly to gravitation and the laws of motion, and partly by +chemistry, which itself, however, as far as its theory was concerned, was +but a branch of mechanics working exclusively by imaginary wedges, angles, +and spheres. Should the reader chance to put his hand on the “Principles +of Philosophy,” by La Forge, an immediate disciple of Descartes, he may +see the phenomena of sleep solved in a copper-plate engraving, with all +the figures into which the globules of the blood shaped themselves, and +the results demonstrated by mathematical calculations. In short, from the +time of Kepler(3) to that of Newton, and from Newton to Hartley, not only +all things in external nature, but the subtlest mysteries of life and +organization, and even of the intellect and moral being, were conjured +within the magic circle of mathematical formulæ. And now a new light was +struck by the discovery of electricity, and, in every sense of the word, +both playful and serious, both for good and for evil, it may be affirmed +to have electrified the whole frame of natural philosophy. Close on its +heels followed the momentous discovery of the principal gases by Scheele +and Priestly, the composition of water by Cavendish, and the doctrine of +latent heat by Black. The scientific world was prepared for a new dynasty; +accordingly, as soon as Lavoisier had reduced the infinite variety of +chemical phenomena to the actions, reactions, and interchanges of a few +elementary substances, or at least excited the expectation that this would +speedily be effected, the hope shot up, almost instantly, into full faith, +that it had been effected. Henceforward the new path, thus brilliantly +opened, became the common road to all departments of knowledge: and, to +this moment, it has been pursued with an eagerness and almost epidemic +enthusiasm which, scarcely less than its political revolutions, +characterise the spirit of the age. Many and inauspicious have been the +invasions and inroads of this new conqueror into the rightful territories +of other sciences; and strange alterations have been made in less harmless +points than those of terminology, in homage to an art unsettled, in the +very ferment of imperfect discoveries, and either without a theory, or +with a theory maintained only by composition and compromise. Yet this very +circumstance has favoured its encroachments, by the gratifications which +its novelty affords to our curiosity, and by the keener interest and +higher excitement which an unsettled and revolutionary state is sure to +inspire. He who supposes that science possesses an immunity from such +influences knows little of human nature. How, otherwise, could men of +strong minds and sound judgments have attempted to penetrate by the clue +of chemical experiment the secret recesses, the sacred adyta of organic +life, without being aware that chemistry must needs be at its extreme +limits, when it has approached the threshold of a higher power? Its own +transgressions, however, and the failure of its enterprises will become +the means of defining its absolute boundary, and we shall have to guard +against the opposite error of rejecting its aid altogether as analogy, +because we have repelled its ambitious claims to an identity with the +vital powers. + + * * * * * + +Previously to the submitting my own ideas on the subject of life, and the +powers into which it resolves itself, or rather in which it is manifested +to us, I have hazarded this apparent digression from the anxiety to +_preclude certain suspicions_, which the subject itself is so fitted to +awaken, and while I anticipate the charges, to plead in answer to each a +full and unequivocal—not guilty! + +In the first place, therefore, I distinctly disclaim all intention of +explaining life into an occult quality; and retort the charge on those who +can satisfy themselves with defining it as the peculiar power by which +death is resisted. + +Secondly. Convinced—by revelation, by the consenting authority of all +countries, and of all ages, by the imperative voice of my own conscience, +and by that wide chasm between man and the noblest animals of the brute +creation, which no perceivable or conceivable difference of organization +is sufficient to overbridge—that I have a rational and responsible soul, I +think far too reverentially of the same to degrade it into an hypothesis, +and cannot be blind to the contradiction I must incur, if I assign that +soul which I believe to constitute the peculiar nature of man as the cause +of functions and properties, which man possesses in common with the oyster +and the mushroom.(4) + +Thirdly, while I disclaim the error of Stahl in deriving the phenomena of +life from the unconscious actions of the rational soul, I repel with still +greater earnestness the assertion and even the supposition that the +functions are the offspring of the structure, and “Life(5) the result of +organization,” connected with it as effect with cause. Nay, the position +seems to me little less strange, than as if a man should say, that +building with all the included handicraft, of plastering, sawing, planing, +&c. were the offspring of the house; and that the mason and carpenter were +the result of a suite of chambers, with the passages and staircases that +lead to them. To make A the offspring of B, when the very existence of B +as B presupposes the existence of A, is preposterous in the _literal_ +sense of the word, and a consummate instance of the _hysteron proteron_ in +logic. But if I reject the organ as the cause of that, of which it is the +organ, though I might admit it among the _conditions_ of its actual +functions; for the same reason, I must reject _fluids_ and _ethers_ of all +kinds, magnetical, electrical, and universal, to whatever quintessential +thinness they may be treble distilled, and (as it were) +super-substantiated. With these, I abjure likewise all _chemical_ +agencies, compositions, and decompositions, were it only that as +stimulants they suppose a stimulability _sui generis_, which is but +another paraphrase for life. Or if they are themselves at once both the +excitant and the excitability, I miss the connecting link between this +imaginary ether and the visible body, which then becomes no otherwise +distinguished from inanimate matter, than by its juxtaposition in mere +space, with an heterogeneous inmate, the cycle of whose actions revolves +within itself. Besides which I should think that I was confounding +metaphors and realities most absurdly, if I imagined that I had a greater +insight into the meaning and possibility of a living alcohol, than of a +living quicksilver. In short, visible _surface_ and _power_ of any kind, +much more the _power_ of life, are ideas which the very forms of the human +understanding make it impossible to identify. But whether the powers which +manifest themselves to us under certain conditions in the forms of +electricity, or chemical attraction, have any analogy to the power which +manifests itself in growth and organization, is altogether a different +question, and demands altogether a different chain of reasoning: if it be +indeed a tree of knowledge, it will be known by its fruits, and these will +depends not on the mere assertion, but on the inductions by which the +position is supported, and by the additions which it makes to our insight +into the nature of the facts it is meant to illustrate. + +To _account_ for Life is one thing; to explain Life another. In the first +we are supposed to state something prior (if not in time, yet in the order +of Nature) to the thing accounted for, as the ground or cause of that +thing, or (which comprises the meaning and force of both words) as its +_sufficient cause, quae et facit, et subest_. And to this, in the question +of Life, I know no possible answer, but GOD. To account for a thing is to +see into the principle of its possibility, and from that principle to +evolve its being. Thus the mathematician demonstrates the truths of +geometry by constructing them. It is an admirable remark of Joh. Bapt. a +Vico, in a Tract published at Naples, 1710,(6) “Geometrica ideò +demonstramus, quia facimus; physica si demonstrare possimus, faceremus. +Metaphysici veri claritas eadem ac lucis, quam non nisi per opaca +cognoscimus; nam non lucem sed lucidas res videmus. Physica sunt opaca, +nempe formata et finita, in quibus Metaphysici veri lumen videmus.” The +reasoner who assigns structure or organization as the antecedent of Life, +who names the former a cause, and the _latter_ its effect, _he_ it is who +pretends to account for life. Now Euclid would, with great right, demand +of such a philosopher to _make_ Life; in the same sense, I mean, in which +Euclid makes an Icosahedron, or a figure of twenty sides, namely, in the +understanding or by an intellectual construction. An argument which, of +itself, is sufficient to prove the untenable nature of Materialism. + +To explain a power, on the other hand, is (the power itself being assumed, +though not comprehended, _ut qui datur, non intelligitur_) to unfold or +spread it out: _ex implicito planum facere_. In the present instance, such +an explanation would consist in the reduction of the idea of Life to its +simplest and most comprehensive form or mode of action; that is, to some +characteristic _instinct_ or _tendency_, evident in all its +manifestations, and involved in the idea itself. This assumed as existing +in _kind_, it will be required to present an ascending series of +corresponding phenomena as involved _in_, proceeding _from_, and so far +therefore explained _by_, the supposition of its progressive intensity and +of the gradual enlargement of its sphere, the necessity of which again +must be contained in the idea of the tendency itself. In other words, the +tendency having been given in _kind_, it is required to render the +phenomena intelligible as its different degrees and modifications. Still +more perfect will the explanation be, should the necessity of this +progression and of these ascending gradations be contained in the assumed +idea of life, as thus defined by the general form and common purport of +all its various tendencies. This done, we have only to add the conditions +common to all its phenomena, and, those appropriate to each place and +rank, in the scale of ascent, and then proceed to determine the primary +and constitutive forms, _i.e._ the elementary powers in which this +tendency realizes itself under different degrees and conditions.(7) + +What is Life? Were such a question proposed, we should be tempted to +answer, what is _not_ Life that really _is_? Our reason convinces us that +the quantities of things, taken abstractedly as quantity, exist only in +the relations they bear to the percipient; in plainer words, they exist +only in our minds, _ut quorum esse est percipi_. For if the definite +quantities have a ground, and therefore a reality, in the external world, +and independent of the mind that perceives them, this ground is _ipso +facto_ a quality; the very etymon of this world showing that a quality, +not taken in its own nature but in relation to another thing, is to be +defined _causa sufficiens, entia, de quibus loquimur; esse talia, qualia +sunt_. Either the quantities perceived exist only in the perception, or +they have likewise a real existence. In the former case, the quality (the +word is here used in an active sense) that determines them belongs to +Life, _per ipsam hypothesin_; and in the other case, since by the +agreement of all parties Life may exist in other forms than those of +consciousness, or even of sensibility, the _onus probandi_ falls on those +who assert of any quality that it is _not_ Life. For the analogy of all +that we know is clearly in favour of the contrary supposition, and if a +man would analyse the meaning of his own words, and carefully distinguish +his perceptions and sensations from the external cause exciting them, and +at the same time from the quantity or superficies under which that cause +is acting, he would instantly find himself, if we mistake not, +involuntarily identifying the ideas of Quality and Life. Life, it is +admitted on all hands, does not necessarily imply consciousness or +sensibility; and we, for our parts, cannot see that the irritability which +metals manifest to galvanism, can be more remote from that which may be +supposed to exist in the tribe of lichens, or in the helvellæ, pezizee, +&c., than the latter is from the phenomena of excitability in the human +body, whatever name it may be called by, or in whatever way it may modify +itself.(8) That the mere act of growth does not constitute the idea of +Life, or the absence of that act exclude it, we have a proof in every egg +before it is placed under the hen, and in every grain of corn before it is +put into the soil. All that could be deduced by fair reasoning would +amount to this only, that the life of metals, as the power which effects +and determines their comparative cohesion, ductility, &c., was yet lower +on the scale than the Life which produces the first attempts of +organization, in the almost shapeless tremella, or in such fungi as grow +in the dark recesses of the mine. + + * * * * * + +If it were asked, to what purpose or with what view we should generalize +the idea of Life thus broadly, I should not hesitate to reply that, were +there no other use conceivable, there would be _some_ advantage in merely +destroying an arbitrary assumption in natural philosophy, and in reminding +the physiologists that they could not hear the life of metals asserted +with a more contemptuous surprise than they themselves incur from the +vulgar, when they speak of the Life in mould or mucor. But this is not the +case. This wider view not only precludes a groundless assumption, it +likewise fills up the arbitrary chasm between physics and physiology, and +justifies us in using the former as means of insight into the latter, +which would be contrary to all sound rules of ratiocination if the powers +working in the objects of the two sciences were absolutely and essentially +diverse. For as to abstract the idea of _kind_ from that of _degrees_, +which are alone designated in the language of common use, is the first and +indispensable step in philosophy, so are we the better enabled to form a +notion of the _kind_, the lower the _degree_, and the simpler the form is +in which it appears to us. We study the complex in the simple; and only +from the intuition of the lower can we safely proceed to the intellection +of the higher degrees. The only danger lies in the leaping from low to +high, with the neglect of the intervening gradations. But the same error +would introduce discord into the gamut, _et ab abusu contra usum non valet +consequentia_. That these degrees will themselves bring forth secondary +kinds sufficiently distinct for all the purposes of science, and even for +common sense, will be seen in the course of this inquisition: for this is +one proof of the essential vitality of nature, that she does not ascend as +links in a suspended chain, but as the steps in a ladder; or rather she at +one and the same time _ascends_ as by a climax, and expands as the +concentric circles on the lake from the point to which the stone in its +fall had given the first impulse. At all events, a contemptuous rejection +of this mode of reasoning would come with an ill grace from a medical +philosopher, who cannot combine any three phenomena of health or of +disease without the assumption of powers, which he is compelled to deduce +without being able to demonstrate; nay, even of material substances as the +_vehicles_ of these powers, which he can never expect to exhibit before +the senses. + +From the preceding it should appear, that the most comprehensive formula +to which life is reducible, would be that of the internal copula of +bodies, or (if we may venture to borrow a phrase from the Platonic school) +the _power_ which discloses itself from within as a principle of _unity_ +in the _many_. But that there is a physiognomy in words, which, without +reference to their fitness or necessity, make unfavorable as well as +favorable impressions, and that every unusual term in an abstruse research +incurs the risk of being denominated jargon, I should at the same time +have borrowed a scholastic _term_, and defined life _absolutely_, as the +principle of unity in _multeity_, as far as the former, the unity to wit, +is produced _ab intra_; but _eminently_ (_sensu eminenti_), I define life +as _the principle of individuation_, or the power which unites a given +_all_ into a _whole_ that is presupposed by all its parts. The link that +combines the two, and acts throughout both, will, of course, be defined by +the _tendency_ to _individuation_. Thus, from its utmost _latency_, in +which life is one with the elementary powers of mechanism, that is, with +the powers of mechanism considered as qualitative and actually synthetic, +to its highest manifestation, (in which, as the _vis vitæ vivida_, or life +_as_ life, it subordinates and modifies these powers, becoming +contra-distinguished from mechanism,(9) _ab extra_, under the form of +organization,) there is an ascending series of intermediate classes, and +of analogous gradations in each class. To a reflecting mind, indeed, the +very fact that the powers peculiar to life in living animals _include_ +cohesion, elasticity, &c. (or, in the words of a late publication, “that +living matter exhibits these physical properties,”(10)) would demonstrate +that, in the truth of things, they are homogeneous, and that both the +classes are but degrees and different dignities of one and the same +tendency. For the latter are not subjected to the former as a lever, or +walking-stick to the muscles; the more intense the life is, the less does +_elasticity_, for instance, appear _as_ elasticity. It sinks down into the +nearest approach to its _physical_ form by a series of degrees from the +contraction and elongation of the irritable muscle to the physical +hardness of the insensitive nail. The lower powers are _assimilated_, not +merely _employed_, and assimilation presupposes the homogeneous nature of +the thing assimilated; else it is a miracle, only not the same as that of +a _creation_, because it would imply that additional and equal miracle of +annihilation. In short, all the impossibilities which the acutest of the +reformed Divines have detected in the hypothesis of transubstantiation +would apply, _totidem verbis et syllabis_, to that of assimilation, if the +objects and the agents were really heterogeneous. Unless, therefore, a +thing can exhibit properties which do not belong to it, the very admission +that living matter exhibits physical properties, includes the further +admission, that those _physical_ or dead properties are themselves vital +in essence, really _distinct_ but in appearance only _different_; or in +absolute contrast with each other. + +In all cases that which, _abstractly_ taken, is the definition of the +_kind_, will, when applied _absolutely_, or in its fullest sense, be the +definition of the highest _degree_ of that kind. If life, in general, be +defined _vis ab intra, cujus proprium est coadunare plura in rem unicam, +quantùm est res unica_; the unity will be more intense in proportion as it +constitutes each particular thing a whole of itself; and yet more, again, +in proportion to the number and interdependence of the parts, which it +unites as a whole. But a whole composed, _ab intra_, of different parts, +so far interdependent that each is reciprocally means and end, is an +individual, and the individuality is most intense where the greatest +dependence of the parts on the whole is combined with the greatest +dependence of the whole on its parts; the first (namely, the dependence of +the parts on the whole) being absolute; the second (namely, the dependence +of the whole on its parts) being proportional to the importance of the +relation which the parts have to the whole, that is, as their action +extends more or less beyond themselves. For this spirit of the whole is +most expressed in that part which derives its importance as an End from +its importance as a Mean, relatively to all the parts under the same +copula. + +Finally, of individuals, the living power will be most intense in that +individual which, as a whole, has the greatest number of integral parts +presupposed in it; when, moreover, these integral parts, together with a +proportional increase of their interdependence, as _parts_, have +themselves most the character of wholes in the sphere occupied by them. A +mathematical point, line, or surface, is an _ens rationis_, for it +expresses an intellectual act; but a physical atom is _ens fictitium_, +which may be made subservient, as ciphers are in arithmetic, to the +purposes of hypothetical construction, _per regulam falsi_; but +transferred to _Nature_, it is in the strictest sense an _absurd_ +quantity; for extension, and consequently divisibility, or _multeity_,(11) +(for space cannot be divided,) is the indispensable condition, under which +alone anything can _appear_ to us, or even be _thought_ of, as a _thing_. +But if it should be replied, that the elementary particles are atoms not +positively, but by such a hardness communicated to them as is relatively +invincible, I should remind the assertor that _temeraria citatio +supernaturalium est pulvinar intellectús pigri_, and that he who requires +me to believe a miracle of his own dreaming, must first work a miracle to +convince me that he had dreamt by inspiration. Add, too, the gross +inconsistency of resorting to an immaterial influence in order to complete +a system of materialism, by the exclusion of all modes of existence which +the theorist cannot in imagination, at least, _finger_ and _peep_ at! Each +of the preceding gradations, as above defined, might be represented as +they exist, and are realised in Nature. But each would require a work for +itself, co-extensive with the science of metals, and that of fossils (both +as geologically applied); of crystallization; and of vegetable and animal +physiology, in all its distinct branches. The nature of the present essay +scarcely permits the space sufficient to illustrate our meaning. The proof +of its probability (for to that only can we arrive by so partial an +application of the hypothesis), is to be found in its powers of solving +the particular class of phenomena, that form the subjects of the present +inquisition, more satisfactorily and profitably than has been done, or +even attempted before. + +Exclusively, therefore, for the purposes of _illustration_, I would take +as an instance of the first step, the metals, those, namely, that are +capable of permanent reduction. For, by the established laws of +nomenclature, the others (as sodium, potassium, calcium, silicium, &c.) +would be entitled to a class of their own, under the name of _bases_. It +is long since the chemists have despaired of decomposing this class of +bodies. They still remain, one and all, as elements or simple bodies, +though, on the principles of the corpuscularian philosophy, nothing can be +more improbable than that they really are such; and no reason has or can +be assigned on the grounds of that system, why, in no one instance, the +contrary has not been proved. But this is at once explained, if we assume +them as the simplest form of unity, namely, the unity of powers and +properties. For these, it is evident, may be endlessly modified, but can +never be decomposed. If I were asked by a philosopher who had previously +extended the attribute of Life to the _Byssus speciosa_, and even to the +crustaceous matter, or outward bones of a lobster, &c., whether the ingot +of gold expressed _life_, I should answer without hesitation, as the +_ingot_ of gold assuredly not, for its form is accidental and _ab extra_. +It may be added to or detracted from without in the least affecting the +nature, state, or properties in the specific matter of which the ingot +consists. But as _gold_, as that special union of absolute and of relative +gravity, ductility, and hardness, which, wherever they are found, +constitute _gold_, I should answer no less fearlessly, in the affirmative. +But I should further add, that of the two counteracting tendencies of +nature, namely, that of _detachment_ from the universal life, which +universality is represented to us by gravitation, and that of _attachment_ +or reduction into it, this and the other noble metals represented the +units in which the latter tendency, namely, that of identity with the life +of nature, subsisted in the greatest overbalance over the former. It is +the form of unity with the least degree of tendency to individuation. + +Rising in the ascent, I should take, as illustrative of the second step, +the various forms of crystals as a union, not of powers only, but of +parts, and as the simplest forms of composition in the next narrowest +sphere of affinity. Here the form, or apparent _quantity_, is manifestly +the result of the _quality_, and the chemist himself not seldom admits +them as infallible characters of the substances united in the whole of a +given crystal. + +In the first step, we had Life, as the mere _unity_ of powers; in the +second we have the simplest forms of _totality_ evolved. The third step is +presented to us in those vast formations, the tracing of which generically +would form the science of Geology, or its history in the strict sense of +the word, even as their description and diagnostics constitute its +preliminaries. + +Their claim to this rank I cannot here even attempt to support. It will be +sufficient to explain my reason for having assigned it to them, by the +avowal, that I regard them in a twofold point of view: 1st, as the residue +and product of vegetable and animal life; 2d, as manifesting the +tendencies of the Life of Nature to vegetation or animalization. And this +process I believe—in one instance by the peat morasses of the northern, +and in the other instance by the coral banks of the southern hemisphere—to +be still connected with the present order of vegetable and animal Life, +which constitute the fourth and last step in these wide and comprehensive +divisions. + +In the lowest forms of the vegetable and animal world we perceive totality +dawning into _individuation_, while in man, as the highest of the class, +the individuality is not only perfected in its corporeal sense, but begins +a new series beyond the appropriate limits of physiology. The tendency to +individuation, more or less obscure, more or less obvious, constitutes the +common character of all classes, as far as they maintain for themselves a +distinction from the universal life of the planet; while the degrees, both +of intensity and extension, to which this tendency is realized, form the +species, and their ranks in the great scale of ascent and expansion. + +In the treatment of a subject so vast and complex, within the limits +prescribed for an essay like the present, where it is impossible not to +say either too much or too little (and too much because too little), an +author is entitled to make large claims on the candour of his judges. Many +things he must express inaccurately, not from ignorance or oversight, but +because the more precise expression would have involved the necessity of a +further explanation, and this another, even to the first elements of the +science. This is an inconvenience which presses on the analytic method, on +however large a scale it may be conducted, compared with the synthetic; +and it must bear with a tenfold weight in the present instance, where we +are not permitted to avail ourselves of its usual advantages as a +counterbalance to its inherent defects. I shall have done all that I dared +propose to myself, or that can be justly demanded of me by others, if I +have succeeded in conveying a sufficiently clear, though indistinct and +inadequate notion, so as of its many results to render intelligible that +one which I am to apply to my particular subject, not as a truth already +demonstrated, but as an hypothesis, which pretends to no higher merit than +that of explaining the particular class of phenomena to which it is +applied, and asks no other reward than a presumption in favour of the +general system of which it affirms itself to be a dependent though +integral part. By Life I everywhere mean the true Idea of Life, or that +most general form under which Life manifests itself to us, which includes +all its other forms. This I have stated to be the _tendency to +individuation_, and the degrees or intensities of Life to consist in the +progressive realization of this tendency. The power which is acknowledged +to exist, wherever the realization is found, must subsist wherever the +tendency is manifested. The power which comes forth and stirs abroad in +the bird, must be latent in the egg. I have shown, moreover, that this +tendency to individuate cannot be conceived without the opposite tendency +to connect, even as the centrifugal power supposes the centripetal, or as +the two opposite poles constitute each other, and are the constituent acts +of one and the same power in the magnet. We might say that the life of the +magnet subsists in their union, but that it lives (acts or manifests +itself) in their strife. Again, if the tendency be at once to individuate +and to connect, to detach, but so as either to retain or to reproduce +attachment, the individuation itself must be a tendency to the ultimate +production of the highest and most comprehensive individuality. This must +be the one great end of Nature, her ultimate object, or by whatever other +word we may designate that something which bears to a final cause the same +relation that Nature herself bears to the Supreme Intelligence. + + * * * * * + +According to the plan I have prescribed for this inquisition, we are now +to seek for the highest law, or most general form, under which this +tendency acts, and then to pursue the same process with this, as we have +already done with the tendency itself, namely, having stated the law in +its highest abstraction, to present it in the different forms in which it +appears and reappears in higher and higher dignities. I restate the +question. The tendency having been ascertained, what is its most general +law? I answer—_polarity_, or the essential dualism of Nature, arising out +of its productive unity, and still tending to reaffirm it, either as +equilibrium, indifference, or identity. In its _productive power_, of +which the product is the only measure, consists its incompatibility with +mathematical calculus. For the full applicability of an abstract science +ceases, the moment reality begins.(12) Life, then, we consider as the +copula, or the unity of thesis and antithesis, position and +counterposition,—Life itself being the positive of both; as, on the other +hand, the two counterpoints are the necessary conditions of the +_manifestations_ of Life. These, by the same necessity, unite in a +synthesis; which again, by the law of dualism, essential to all actual +existence, expands, or _produces_ itself, from the point into the _line_, +in order again to converge, as the initiation of the same productive +process in some intenser form of reality. Thus, in the identity of the two +counter-powers, Life _sub_sists; in their strife it _con_sists: and in +their reconciliation it at once dies and is born again into a new form, +either falling back into the life of the whole, or starting anew in the +process of individuation. + +Whence shall we take our beginning? From Space, _istud litigium +philosophorum_, which leaves the mind equally dissatisfied, whether we +deny or assert its real existence. To make it wholly ideal, would be at +the same time to idealize all phenomena, and to undermine the very +conception of an external world. To make it real, would be to assert the +existence of something, with the properties of nothing. It would far +transcend the height to which a physiologist must confine his flights, +should we attempt to reconcile this apparent contradiction. It is the duty +and the privilege of the theologian to demonstrate, that _space_ is the +ideal organ by which the soul of man perceives the _omnipresence_ of the +Supreme Reality, as distinct from the works, which in him move, and live, +and have their being; while the equal mystery of _Time_ bears the same +relation to his _Eternity_, or what is fully equivalent, his Unity. + +Physiologically contemplated, Nature begins, proceeds, and ends in a +contradiction; for the moment of absolute solution would be that in which +Nature would cease to be Nature, _i.e._ a scheme of ever-varying +relations; and physiology, in the ambitious attempt to solve phenomena +into absolute realities, would itself become a mere web of verbal +abstractions. + +But it is in strict connexion with our subject, that we should make the +universal FORMS as well as the not less universal LAW of Life, clear and +intelligible in the example of _Time_ and _Space_, these being both the +first specification of the principle, and ever after its indispensable +symbols. First, a single act of self-inquiry will show the impossibility +of distinctly conceiving the one without some involution of the other; +either time expressed in space, in the form of the mathematical line, or +space within time, as in the circle. But to form the first conception of a +_real_ thing, we state both as one in the idea, _duration_. The formula +is: (A=B+B=A)=(A=A) or the oneness of space and time, is the predicate of +all _real_ being. + +But as little can we conceive the oneness, except as the mid-point +producing itself on each side; that is, manifesting itself on two opposite +poles. Thus, from identity we derive duality, and from both together we +obtain polarity, synthesis, indifference, predominance. The line is Time + +Space, under the predominance of Time: Surface is Space + Time, under the +predominance of Space, while Line + Surface as the synthesis of units, is +the circle in the first dignity; to the sphere in the second; and to the +globe in the third. In short, neither can the antagonists appear but as +two forces of one power, nor can the power be conceived by us but as the +equatorial point of the two counteracting forces; of which the +_hypomochlion_ of the lever is as good an illustration as anything can be +that is thought of _mechanically_ only, and exclusively of life. To make +it adequate, we must substitute the idea of positive production for that +of rest, or mere neutralization. To the fancy alone it is the null-point, +or zero, but to the reason it is the _punctum saliens_, and the power +itself in its eminence. Even in these, the most abstract and universal +forms of all thought and perception—even in the ideas of time and space, +we slip under them, as it were, a _substratum_; for we cannot think of +them but as far as they are co-inherent, and therefore as reciprocally the +measures of each other. Nor, again, can we finish the process without +having the idea of _motion_ as its immediate product. Thus we say, that +time has one dimension, and imagine it to ourselves as a line. But the +line we have already proved to be the productive synthesis of time, with +space under the predominance of time. If we exclude space by an abstract +assumption, the time remains as a spaceless point, and represents the +concentered power of unity and active negation, _i.e._ retraction, +determination, and limit, _ab intra_. But if we assume the time as +excluded, the line vanishes, and we leave space dimensionless, an +indistinguishable ALL, and therefore the representative of absolute +weakness and formlessness, but, for that very reason, of infinite capacity +and formability. + +We have been thus full and express on this subject, because these simple +ideas of time, space, and motion, of length, breadth, and depth, are not +only the simplest and universal, but the necessary symbols of all +philosophic construction. They will be found the primary factors and +elementary forms of every calculus and of every diagram in the algebra and +geometry of a scientific physiology. Accordingly, we shall recognise the +same forms under other names; but at each return more specific and +intense; and the whole process repeated with ascending gradations of +reality, _exempli gratiâ_: Time + space = motion; T_m_ + space = line + +breadth = depth; depth + motion = force; L_f_ + B_f_ = D_f_; LD_f_ + BD_f_ += attraction + repulsion = gravitation; and so on, even till they pass +into outward phenomena, and form the intermediate link between productive +powers and fixed products in light, heat, and electricity. If we pass to +the construction of matter, we find it as the product, or _tertium aliud_, +of antagonist powers of repulsion and attraction. Remove these powers, and +the conception of matter vanishes into space—conceive repulsion only, and +you have the same result. For infinite repulsion, uncounteracted and +alone, is tantamount to infinite, dimensionless diffusion, and this again +to infinite weakness; viz., to space. Conceive attraction alone, and as an +infinite contraction, its product amounts to the absolute point, viz., to +time. Conceive the synthesis of both, and you have matter as a fluxional +antecedent, which, in the very act of formation, passes into body by its +gravity, and yet in all bodies it still remains as their mass, which, +being exclusively calculable under the law of gravitation, gives rise, as +we before observed, to the science of statics, most improperly called +celestial mechanics. + +In strict consistence with the same philosophy which, instead of +considering the powers of bodies to have been miraculously stuck into a +prepared and pre-existing matter, as pins into a pin-cushion, conceives +the powers as the productive factors, and the body or phenomenon as the +fact, product, or fixture; we revert again to potentiated length in the +power of magnetism; to surface in the power of electricity; and to the +synthesis of both, or potentiated depth, in constructive, that is, +chemical affinity. But while the two factors are as poles to each other, +each factor has likewise its own poles, and thus in the simple cross— + +With M M, the magnetic line, running from top to bottom, with _f f_ its +northern pole, or pole of attraction; and _m m_ its south, or pole of +repulsion, and E E, running from left to right, one of the lines that +spring from each point of M M, with its east, or pole of contraction, and +_d_ its west, or pole of diffluence and expansion—we have presented to us +the universal quadruplicity, or four elemental forms of power; in the +endless proportions and modifications of which, the innumerable offspring +of all-bearing Nature consist. Wisely docile to the suggestions of Nature +herself, the ancients significantly expressed these forces under the names +of earth, water, air, and fire; not meaning any tangible or visible +substance so generalized, but the powers predominant, and, as it were, the +living basis of each, which no chemical decomposition can ever present to +the senses, were it only that their interpenetration and co-inherence +first constitutes them sensible, and is the condition and meaning of +a—_thing_. Already our more truly philosophical naturalists (Ritter, for +instance) have begun to generalize the four great elements of chemical +nomenclature, carbon, azote, oxygen, and hydrogen: the two former as the +positive and negative pole of the magnetic axis, or as the power of fixity +and mobility; and the two latter as the opposite poles, or plus and minus +states of cosmical electricity, as the powers of contraction and +dilatation, or of comburence and combustibility. These powers are to each +other as longitude to latitude, and the poles of each relatively as north +to south, and as east to west. For surely the reader will find no distrust +in a system only because Nature, ever consistent with herself, presents us +everywhere with harmonious and accordant symbols of her consistent +doctrines. Nothing would be more easy than, by the ordinary principles of +sound logic and common sense, to demonstrate the impossibility and expose +the absurdity of the corpuscularian or mechanic system, or than to prove +the intenable nature of any intermediate system. But we cannot force any +man into an insight or intuitive possession of the true philosophy, +because we cannot give him abstraction, intellectual intuition, or +constructive imagination; because we cannot organize for him an eye that +can see, an ear that can listen to, or a heart that can feel, the +harmonies of Nature, or recognise in her endless forms, the thousand-fold +realization of those simple and majestic laws, which yet in their +absoluteness can be discovered only in the recesses of his own spirit,—not +by that man, therefore, whose imaginative powers have been _ossified_ by +the continual reaction and assimilating influences of mere _objects_ on +his mind, and who is a prisoner to his own eye and its reflex, the passive +fancy!—not by him in whom an unbroken familiarity with the organic world, +as if it were mechanical, with the sensitive, but as if it were insensate, +has engendered the coarse and hard spirit of a sorcerer. The former is +unable, the latter unwilling, to master the absolute pre-requisites. There +is neither hope nor occasion for him “to cudgel his brains about it, he +has no feeling of the business.” If he do not see the necessity from +without, if he have not learned the possibility from within, of +interpenetration, of total intussusception, of the existence of all in +each as the condition of Nature’s unity and substantiality, and of the +latency under the predominance of some one power, wherein subsists her +life and its endless variety, as he must be, by habitual slavery to the +eye, or its reflex, the passive fancy, under the influences of the +corpuscularian philosophy, he has so paralysed his imaginative powers as +to be unable—or by that hardness and heart-hardening spirit of contempt, +which is sure to result from a perpetual commune with the lifeless, he has +so far debased his inward being—as to be unwilling to comprehend the +pre-requisite, he must be content, while standing thus at the threshold of +philosophy, to receive the results, though he cannot be admitted to the +deliberation—in other words, to act upon _rules_ which he is incapable of +understanding as LAWS, and to reap the harvest with the sharpened iron for +which others have delved for him in the mine. + +It is not improbable that there may exist, and even be discovered, higher +forms and more akin to Life than those of magnetism, electricity, and +constructive (or chemical) affinity appear to be, even in their finest +known influences. It is not improbable that we may hereafter find +ourselves justified in revoking certain of the latter, and unappropriating +them to a yet unnamed triplicity; or that, being thus assisted, we may +obtain a qualitative instead of a quantitative insight into vegetable +animation, as distinct from animal, and that of the insect world from +both. But in the present state of science, the magnetic, electric, and +chemical powers are the last and highest of inorganic nature. These, +therefore, we assume as presenting themselves again to us, in their next +metamorphosis, as reproduction (_i.e._ growth and identity of the whole, +amid the change or flux of all the parts), irritability and sensibility; +reproduction corresponding to magnetism, irritability to electricity, and +sensibility to constructive chemical affinity. + + * * * * * + +But before we proceed further, it behoves us to answer the objections +contained in the following passage, or withdraw ourselves in time from the +bitter contempt in which it would involve us. Acting under such a +necessity, we need not apologise for the length of the quotation. + +1. “If,” says Mr. Lawrence, “the properties of living matter are to be +explained in this way, why should not we adopt the same plan with physical +properties, and account for gravitation, or chemical affinity, by the +supposition of appropriate subtile fluids? Why does the irritability of a +muscle need such an explanation, if explanation it can be called, more +than the elective attraction of a salt?” + +2. “To make the matter more intelligible, this vital principle is compared +to magnetism, to electricity, and to galvanism; or it is roundly stated to +be oxygen. ’Tis like a camel, or like a whale, or like what you please.” + +3. “You have only to grant that the phenomena of the sciences just alluded +to depend on extremely fine and invisible fluids, superadded to the +matters in which they are exhibited, and to allow further that Life, and +magnetic, galvanic, and electric phenomena correspond perfectly; the +existence of a subtile matter of Life will then be a very probable +inference.” + +4. “On this illustration you will naturally remark, that the existence of +the magnetic, electric, and galvanic fluids, which is offered as a proof +of the existence of a vital fluid, is as much a matter of doubt as that of +the vital fluid itself.” + +5. “It is singular, also, that the vital principle should be like both +magnetism and electricity, when these two are not like each other.” + +6. “It would have been interesting to have had this illustration +prosecuted a little further. We should have been pleased to learn whether +the human body is more like a loadstone, a voltaic pile, or an electrical +machine; whether the organs are to be regarded as Leyden jars, magnetic +needles, or batteries.” + +7. “The truth is, there is no resemblance, no analogy, between Electricity +and Life; the two orders of phenomena are completely distinct; they are +incommensurable. Electricity illustrates life no more than life +illustrates electricity.”(13) + +To avoid unnecessary description, I shall refer to the passages by the +numbers affixed to them, for that purpose, in the margin. + +In reply to No. 1, I ask whether, in the nature of the mind, illustration +and explanation must not of necessity proceed from the lower to the +higher? or whether a boy is to be taught his addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, by the highest branches of algebraic +analysis? Is there any better way of systematic teaching, than that of +illustrating each new step, or having each new step illustrated to him by +its identity in kind with the step the next below it? though it be the +only mode in which this objection can be answered, yet it seems affronting +to remind the objector, of rules so simple as that the complex must even +be illustrated by the more simple, or the less scrutible by that which is +more subject to our examination. + +In reply to No. 2, I first refer to the author’s eulogy on Mr. Hunter, p. +163, in which he is justly extolled for having “surveyed the whole +_system_ of organized beings, from plants to man:” of course, therefore, +_as_ a _system_; and therefore under some _one common law_. Now in the +very same sense, and no other, than that in which the writer himself by +implication compares himself as a man to the _dermestes typographicus_, or +the _fucus scorpioides_, do I compare the principle of Life to magnetism, +electricity, and constructive affinity,—or rather to that power to which +the two former are the thesis and antithesis, the latter the synthesis. +But if to compare involve the sense of its etymon, and involve the sense +of parity, I utterly deny that I do at all compare them; and, in truth, in +no conceivable sense of the word is it applicable, any more than a +geometrician can be affirmed to compare a polygon to a point, because he +generates the line out of the point. The writer attributes to a philosophy +essentially vital the barrenness of the mechanic system, with which alone +his imagination has been familiarised, and which, as hath been justly +observed by a contemporary writer, is contradistinguished from the former +principally in this respect; that demanding for every mode and act of +existence real or possible visibility, it knows only of distance and +nearness, composition (or rather compaction) and decomposition, in short, +the relations of unproductive particles to each other; so that in every +instance the result is the exact sum of the component qualities, as in +arithmetical addition. This is the philosophy of Death, and only of a dead +nature can it hold good. In Life, and in the view of a vital philosophy, +the two component counter-powers actually interpenetrate each other, and +generate a higher third, including both the former, “ita tamen ut sit alia +et major.” + +As a complete answer to No. 3, I refer the reader to many passages in the +preceding and following pages, in which, on far higher and more +demonstrative grounds than the mechanic system can furnish, I have exposed +the unmeaningness and absurdity of these finer fluids, as applied even to +electricity itself; unless, indeed, they are assumed as its product. But +in addition I beg leave to remind the author, that it is incomparably more +agreeable to all experience to originate the formative process in the +_fluid_, whether fine or gross, than in corporeal _atoms_, in which we are +not only deserted by all experience, but contradicted by the primary +conception of body itself. + +Equally inapplicable is No. 4: and of No. 5 I can only repeat, first, that +I do not make Life _like_ magnetism, or _like_ electricity; that the +difference between magnetism and electricity, and the powers illustrated +by them, is an essential part of my system, but that the animal Life of +man is the identity of all three. To whatever other system this objection +may apply, it is utterly irrelevant to that which I have here propounded: +though from the narrow limits prescribed to me, it has been propounded +with an inadequacy painful to my own feelings. + +The ridicule in No. 6 might be easily retorted; but as it could prove +nothing, I will leave it where I found it, in a page where nothing is +proved. + +A similar remark might be sufficient for the bold and blank assertion (No. +7) with which the extract concludes; but that I feel some curiosity to +discover what meaning the author attaches to the term analogy. Analogy +implies a difference in sort, and not merely in degree; and it is the +sameness of the end, with the difference of the means, which constitutes +analogy. No one would say the lungs of a man were analogous to the lungs +of a monkey, but any one might say that the gills of fish and the +spiracula of insects are analogous to lungs. Now if there be any +philosophers who have asserted that electricity as electricity is the +_same_ as Life, for that reason they cannot be _analogous_ to each other; +and as no man in his senses, philosopher or not, is capable of imagining +that the lightning which destroys a sheep, was a means to the same end +with the principle of its organization; for this reason, too, the two +powers cannot be represented as analogous. Indeed I know of no system in +which the word, as thus applied, would admit of an endurable meaning, but +that which teaches us, that a mass of marrow in the skull is analogous to +the rational soul, which Plato and Bacon, equally with the “poor Indian,” +believe themselves to have received from the Supreme Reason. + +It would be blindness not to see, or affectation to pretend not to see, +the work at which these sarcasms were levelled. The author of that work is +abundantly able to defend his own opinions; yet I should be ambitious to +address _him_ at the close of the contest in the lines of the great Roman +poet: + +“Et nos tela, Pater, ferrumque haud debile dextrâ +Spargimus, et nostro sequitur, de vulnere sanguis.” + +In Mr. Abernethy’s Lecture on the Theory of Life, it is impossible not to +see a presentiment of a great truth. He has, if I may so express myself, +caught it in the breeze: and we seem to hear the first glad opening and +shout with which he springs forward to the pursuit. But it is equally +evident that the prey has not been followed through its doublings and +windings, or driven out from its brakes and covers into full and open +view. Many of the least tenable phrases may be fairly interpreted as +illustrations, rather than precise exponents of the author’s meaning; at +least, while they remain as a mere suggestion or annunciation of his +ideas, and till he has expanded them over a larger sphere, it would be +unjust to infer the contrary. But it is not with men, however strongly +their professional merits may entitle them to reverence, that my concern +is at present. If the opinions here supported are the same with those of +Mr. Abernethy, I rejoice in his authority. If they are different, I shall +wait with an anxious interest for an exposition of that difference. + +Having reasserted that I no more confound magnetism with electricity, or +the chemical process, than the mathematician confounds length with +breadth, or either with depth; I think it sufficient to add that there are +two views of the subject, the former of which I do not believe +attributable to any philosopher, while both are alike disclaimed by me as +forming any part of my views. The first is that which is supposed to +consider electricity identical with life, as it subsists in organized +bodies. The other considers electricity as everywhere present, and +penetrating all bodies under the image of a subtile fluid or substance, +which, in Mr. Abernethy’s inquiry, I regard as little more than a mere +diagram on his slate, for the purpose of fixing the attention on the +intellectual conception, or as a possible _product_, (in which case +electricity must be a composite power,) or at worst, as words _quæ humana +incuria fudit_. This which, in inanimate Nature, is manifested now as +magnetism, now as electricity, and now as chemical agency, is supposed, on +entering an organized body, to constitute its vital _principle_, something +in the same manner as the steam becomes the _mechanic_ power of the +steam-engine, in _consequence_ of its compression by the steam-engine; or +as the breeze that murmurs indistinguishably in the forest becomes the +element, the substratum, of melody in the Æolian harp, and of consummate +harmony in the organ. Now this hypothesis is as directly opposed to my +view as supervention is to evolution, inasmuch as I hold the organized +body itself, in all its marvellous contexture, to be the PRODUCT and +representant of the power which is here supposed to have supervened to it. +So far from admitting a _transfer_, I do not admit it even in electricity +itself, or in the phenomena universally called electrical; among other +points I ground my explanation of remote sympathy on the directly contrary +supposition. + +But my opinions will be best explained by a rapid exemplification in the +processes of Nature, from the first rudiments of individualized life in +the lowest classes of its two great poles, the vegetable and animal +creation, to its crown and consummation in the human body; thus +illustrating at once the unceasing _polarity of life, as the form of its +process, and its tendency to progressive individuation as the law of its +direction_. + +Among the conceptions, of the mere ideal character of which the +philosopher is well aware, and which yet become necessary from the +necessity of assuming a beginning; the original fluidity of the planet is +the chief. Under some form or other it is expressed or implied in every +system of cosmogony and even of geology, from Moses to Thales, and from +Thales to Werner. This assumption originates in the same law of mind that +gave rise to the _prima materia_ of the Peripatetic school. In order to +_comprehend_ and _explain_ the _forms_ of things, we must imagine a state +_antecedent_ to form. A chaos of heterogeneous substances, such as our +Milton has described, is not only an _impossible_ state (for this may be +equally true of every other attempt), but it is _palpably_ impossible. It +presupposes, moreover, the thing it is intended to solve; and makes _that_ +an _effect_ which had been called in as the explanatory _cause_. The +requisite and only serviceable fiction, therefore, is the representation +of CHAOS as one vast homogeneous drop! In this sense it may be even +justified, as an appropriate symbol of the great fundamental truth that +all things spring from, and subsist in, the endless strife between +indifference and difference. The whole history of Nature is comprised in +the specification of the transitional states from the one to the other. +The symbol only is fictitious: the thing signified is not only grounded in +truth—it is the law and actuating principle of all other truths, whether +physical or intellectual. + +Now, by magnetism in its widest sense, I mean the first and simplest +_differential_ act of Nature, as the power which works in _length_, and +produces the first distinction between the indistinguishable by the +generation of a _line_. Relatively, therefore, to fluidity, that is, to +matter, the parts of which cannot be distinguished from each other by +figure, magnetism is the power of fixity; but, relatively to itself, +magnetism, like every other power in Nature, is designated by its opposite +poles, and must be represented as the magnetic axis, the northern pole of +which signifies rest, attraction, fixity, coherence, or hardness; the +element of EARTH in the nomenclature of _observation_ and the CARBONIC +principle in that of _experiment_; while the southern pole, as its +antithesis, represents mobility, repulsion, incoherence, and fusibility; +the element of air in the nomenclature of observation (that is, of Nature +as it appears to us when unquestioned by art), and azote or nitrogen in +the nomenclature of experiment (that is, of Nature in the state so +beautifully allegorized in the Homeric fable of Proteus bound down, and +forced to answer by Ulysses, after having been pursued through all his +metamorphoses into his ultimate form.(14)) That nothing real does or can +exist corresponding to either pole _exclusively_, is involved in the very +definition of a THING as the synthesis of opposing energies. That a thing +_is_, is owing to the co-inherence therein of any two powers; but that it +is _that_ particular thing arises from the proportions in which these +powers are co-present, either as predominance or as reciprocal +neutralization; but under the modification of twofold power to which +magnetism itself is, as the thesis to its antithesis. + +The correspondent, in the world of the senses, to the magnetic axis, +exists in the series of metals. The metalleity, as the universal base of +the planet, is a necessary deduction from the principles of the system. +From the infusible, though evaporable, diamond to nitrogen itself, the +metallic nature of which has been long suspected by chemists, though still +under the mistaken notion of an oxyde, we trace a series of metals from +the maximum of coherence to positive fluidity, in all ordinary +temperatures, we mean. Though, in point of fact, cold itself is but a +superinduction of the one pole, or, what amounts to the same thing, the +subtraction of the other, under the modifications afore described; and +therefore are the metals indecomposible, because they are themselves the +decompositions of the metallic axis, in all its degrees of longitude and +latitude. Thus the substance of the planet from which it _is_, is +metallic; while that which is ever _becoming_, is in like manner produced +through the perpetual modification of the first by the opposite forces of +the second; that is, by the principle of contraction and difference at the +eastern extreme—the element of fire, or the oxygen of the chemists; and by +the elementary power of dilatation, or universality at its western +extreme—the ὑδωρ ἐν ὑδατι of the ancients, and the hydrogen of the +laboratory. + +It has been before noticed that the progress of Nature is more truly +represented by the ladder, than by the suspended chain, and that she +expands as by concentric circles. This is, indeed, involved in the very +conception of individuation, whether it be applied to the different +species or to the individuals. In what manner the evident interspace is +reconciled with the equally evident continuity of the life of Nature, is a +problem that can be solved by those minds alone, which have intuitively +learnt that the whole _actual_ life of Nature originates in the existence, +and consists in the perpetual reconciliation, and as perpetual resurgency +of the primary contradiction, of which universal polarity is the result +and the exponent. From the first moment of the differential impulse—(the +primæval chemical epoch of the Wernerian school)—when Nature, by the +tranquil deposition of crystals, prepared, as it were, the fulcrum of her +after-efforts, from this, her first, and in part _irrevocable_, +self-contraction, we find, in each ensuing production, more and more +tendency to independent existence in the increasing multitude of strata, +and in the relics of the lowest orders, first of vegetable and then of +animal life. In the schistous formations, which we must here assume as in +great measure the residua of vegetable creations, that have sunk back into +the universal life, and in the later predominant calcareous masses, which +are the _caput mortuum_ of animalized existence, we ascend from the laws +of attraction and repulsion, as united in gravity, to magnetism, +electricity, and constructive power, till we arrive at the point +representative of a new and far higher intensity. For from this point +flow, as in opposite directions, the two streams of vegetation and +animalization, the former characterised by the predominance of magnetism +in its highest power, as reproduction, the other by electricity +intensified—as irritability, in like manner. The vegetable and animal +world are the thesis and antithesis, or the opposite poles of organic +life. We are not, therefore, to seek in either for analogies to the other, +but for counterpoints. On the same account, the nearer the common source, +the greater the likeness; the farther the remove, the greater the +opposition. At the extreme limits of inorganic Nature, we may detect a dim +and obscure prophecy of her ensuing process in the twigs and rude +semblances that occur in crystallization of some of the copper ores, and +in the well-known _arbor Dianæ_, and _arbor Veneris_. These latter Ritter +has already ably explained by considering the oblique branches and their +acute angles as the result of magnetic repulsion, from the presentation of +the same poles, &c. In the CORALS and CONCHYLIA, the whole act and purpose +of their existence seems to be that of connecting the animal with the +inorganic world by the perpetual formation of calcareous earth. For the +corals are nothing but polypi, which are characterised by still passing +away and dissolving into the earth, which they had previously excreted, as +if they were the first feeble effort of detachment. The power seems to +step forward from out the inorganic world only to fall back again upon it, +still, however, under a new form, and under the predominance of the more +active pole of magnetism. The product must have the same connexion, +therefore, with azote, which the first rudiments of vegetation have with +carbon: the one and the other exist not for their own sakes, but in order +to produce the conditions best fitted for the production of higher forms. +In the polypi, corallines, &c., individuality is in its first dawn; there +is the same shape in them all, and a multitude of animals form, as it +were, a common animal. And as the individuals run into each other, so do +the different genera. They likewise pass into each other so +indistinguishably, that the whole order forms a very network. + +As the corals approach the conchylia, this interramification decreases. +The tubipora forms the transition to the serpula; for the characteristic +of all zoophytes, namely, the star shape of their openings, here +disappears, and the tubiporæ are distinguished from the rest of the corals +by this very circumstance, that the hollow calcareous pipes are placed +side by side, without interbranching. In the serpula they have already +become separate. How feeble this attempt is to individuate, is most +clearly shown in their mode of generation. Notwithstanding the report of +Professor Pallas, it still remains doubtful whether there exists any +actual copulation among the polypi. The mere existence of a polypus +suffices for its endless multiplication. They may be indefinitely +propagated by cuttings, so languid is the power of individuation, so +boundless that of reproduction. But the delicate jelly dissolves, as +lightly as it was formed, into its own product, and it is probable that +the Polynesia, as a future continent, will be the gigantic monument, not +so much of their life, as of the life of Nature in them. Here we may +observe the first instance of that general law, according to which Nature +still assimilates her extreme points. In these, her first and feeblest +attempts to animalize organization, it is latent, because undeveloped, and +merely potential; while, in the human brain, the last and most consummate +of her combined energies, it is again lost or disguised in the +subtlety(15) and multiplicity of its evolution. + +In the class immediately above (Mollusca) we find the individuals +separate, a more determinate form, and in the higher species, the rudiment +of nerves, as the first scarce distinguishable impress and exponent of +sensibility; still, however, the vegetative reproduction is the +predominant form; and even the nerves “which float in the same cavity with +the other viscera,” are probably subservient to it, and extend their power +in the increased intensity of the reproductive force. Still prevails the +transitional state from the fluid to the solid; and the jelly, that +rudiment in which all animals, even the noblest, have their commencement; +constitutes the whole sphere of these rudimental animals. + +In the snail and muscle, the residuum of the coral reappears, but refined +and ennobled into a part of the animal. The whole class is characterised +by the separation of the fluid from the solid. On the one side, a +gelatinous semi-fluid; on the other side, an entirely inorganic, though +often a most exquisitely mechanised, calcareous excretion. + +Animalization in general is, we know, contra-distinguished from vegetables +in general by the predominance of azote in the chemical composition, and +of irritability in the organic process. But in this and the foregoing +classes, as being still near the common equator, or the punctum +indifferentiæ, the carbonic principle still asserts its claims, and the +force of reproduction struggles with that of irritability. In the +unreconciled strife of these two forces consists the character of the +_Vermes_, which appear to be the preparatory step for the next class. +Hence the difficulties which have embarrassed the naturalists, who adopt +the Linnæan classification, in their endeavours to discover determinate +characters of distinction between the vermes and the insecta. + +But no sooner have we passed the borders, than endless variety of form and +the bold display of instincts announce, that Nature has succeeded. She has +created the intermediate link between the vegetable world, as the product +of the reproductive or magnetic power, and the animal as the exponent of +sensibility. Those that live and are nourished, on the bodies of other +animals, are comparatively few, with little diversity of shape, and almost +all of the same natural family. These we may pass by as exceptions. But +the insect world, taken at large, appears as an intenser life, that has +struggled itself loose and become emancipated from vegetation, _Floræ +liberti, et libertini!_ If for the sake of a moment’s relaxation we might +indulge a Darwinian flight, though at the risk of provoking a smile, (not, +I hope, a frown) from sober judgment, we might imagine the life of insects +an apotheosis of the petals, stamina, and nectaries, round which they +flutter, or of the stems and pedicles, to which they adhere. Beyond and +above this step, Nature seems to act with a sort of free agency, and to +have formed the classes from choice and bounty. Had she proceeded no +further, yet the whole vegetable, together with the whole insect creation, +would have formed within themselves an entire and independent system of +Life. All plants have insects, most commonly each genus of vegetables its +appropriate genera of insects; and so reciprocally interdependent and +necessary to each other are they, that we can almost as little think of +vegetation without insects, as of insects without vegetation. Though +probably the mere likeness of _shape_, in the _papilio_, and the +papilionaceous plants, suggested the idea of the former, as the latter in +a state of detachment, to our late poetical and theoretical brother; yet a +something, that approaches to a graver plausibility, is given to this +fancy of a flying blossom; when we reflect how many plants depend upon +insects for their fructification. Be it remembered, too, that with few and +very obscure exceptions, the irritable power and an analogon of voluntary +motion first dawn on us in the vegetable world, in the stamina, and +anthers, at the period of impregnation. Then, as if Nature had been +encouraged by the success of the first experiment, both the one and the +other appear as predominance and general character. THE INSECT WORLD IS +THE EXPONENT OF IRRITABILITY, AS THE VEGETABLE IS OF REPRODUCTION. + +With the ascent in power, the intensity of individuation keeps even pace; +and from this we may explain all the characteristic distinctions between +this class and that of the vermes. The almost homogeneous jelly of the +animalcula infusoria became, by a vital oxydation, granular in the polypi. +This granulation formed itself into distinct organs in the molluscæ; while +for the snails, which are the next step, the animalized lime, that seemed +the sole final cause of the life of the polypi, assumes all the characters +of an ulterior purpose. Refined into a horn-like substance, it becomes to +the snails the substitute of an organ, and their outward skeleton. Yet how +much more manifold and definite, the organization of an insect, than that +of the preceding class, the patient researches of Swammerdam and Lyonnet +have evinced, to the delight and admiration of every reflecting mind. + +In the insect, for the first time, we find the distinct commencement of a +separation between the exponents of sensibility and those of irritability; +_i.e._ between the _nervous_ and the _muscular_ system. The latter, +however, asserts its pre-eminence throughout. The prodigal provision of +organs for the purposes of respiration, and the marvellous powers which +numerous tribes of insects possess, of accommodating the most corrupted +airs, for a longer or shorter period, to the support of their +excitability, would of itself lead us to presume, that here the _vis +irritabilis_ is the reigning dynasty. There is here no confluence of +nerves into one reservoir, as evidence of the independent existence of +sensibility _as_ sensibility;—and therefore no counterpoise of a vascular +system, as a distinct exponent of the irritable pole. The whole +muscularity of these animals, is the organ of irritability; and the nerves +themselves are probably feeders of the motory power. The petty rills of +sensibility flow into the full expanse of irritability, and there lose +themselves. The nerves appertaining to the senses, on the other hand, are +indistinct, and comparatively unimportant. The multitude of immovable eyes +appear not so much conductors of light, as its ultimate recipient. We are +almost tempted to believe that they constitute, rather than subserve, +their sensorium. + +These eye-facets form the sense of light, rather than organs of seeing. +Their almost paradoxical number at least, and the singularity of their +forms, render it probable that they impel the animal by some modification +of its irritability, herein likewise containing a striking analogy to the +known influence of light on plants, than as excitements of sensibility. +The sense that is nearest akin to irritability, and which alone resides in +the muscular system, is that of touch, or feeling. This, therefore, is the +first sense that emerges. Being confined to absolute contact, it occupies +the lowest rank; but for that very reason it is the ground of all the +other senses, which act, according to the ratio of their ascent, at still +increasing distances, and become more and more ideal, from the tentacles +of the polypus, to the human eye; which latter might be defined the +outward organ of the identity, or at least of the indifference, of the +real and ideal. But as the calcareous residuum of the lowest class +approaches to the nature of horn in the snail, so the cumbrous shell of +the snail has been transformed into polished and moveable plates of +defensive armour in the insect. Thus, too, the same power of progressive +individuation articulates the tentacula of the polypus and holothuria into +antennæ; thereby manifesting the full emersion and eminency of +irritability as a power which acts in, and gives its own character to, +that of reproduction. The least observant must have noticed the +lightning-like rapidity with which the insect tribes devour and eliminate +their food, as by an instinctive necessity, and in the least degree for +the purposes of the animal’s own growth or enlargement. The same +predominance of irritability, and at the same time a new start in +individuation, is shown in the reproductive power as generation. There is +now a regular projection, _ab intra ad extra_, for which neither sprouts +nor cuttings can any longer be the substitutes. We have not space for +further detail; but there is one point too strikingly illustrative and +even confirmative of the proposed system, to be omitted altogether. We +mean the curious fact, that the same characteristic tendency, _ad extra_, +which in the males and females of certain insect tribes is realized in the +functions of generation, conception, and parturiency, manifests and +expands itself in the _sexless_ individuals (which are always in this case +the great majority of the species), as instincts of art, and in the +construction of works completely detached and inorganic; while the +geometric regularity of these works, which bears an analogy to +crystallization, is demonstrably no more than the necessary result of +uniform action in a compressed multitude. + +Again, as the insect world, averaging the whole, comes nearest to plants, +(whose very essence is reproduction,) in the multitude of their germs; so +does it resemble plants in the sufficiency of a single impregnation for +the evolution of myriads of detached lives. Even so, the metamorphoses of +insects, from the egg to the maggot and caterpillar, and from these, +through the nympha and aurelia into the perfect insect, are but a more +individuated and intenser form of a similar transformation of the plant +from the seed-leaflets, or cotyledons, through the stalk, the leaves, and +the calyx, into the perfect flower, the various colours of which seem made +for the reflection of light, as the antecedent grade to the burnished +scales, and scale-like eyes of the insect. Nevertheless, with all this +seeming prodigality of organic power, the whole tendency is _ad extra_, +and the life of insects, as electricity in the quadrate, acts chiefly on +the superficies of their bodies, to which we may add the negative proof +arising from the absence of sensibility. It is well known, that the two +halves of a divided insect have continued to perform, or attempt, each +their separate functions, the trunkless head feeding with its accustomed +voracity, while the headless trunk has exhibited its appropriate +excitability to the sexual influence. + +The intropulsive force, that sends the ossification inward as to the +centre, is reserved for a yet higher step, and this we find embodied in +the class of _fishes_. Even here, however, the process still seems +imperfect, and (as it were) initiatory. The skeleton has left the surface, +indeed, but the bones approach to the nature of gristle. To feel the truth +of this, we need only compare the most perfect bone of a fish with the +thigh-bones of the mammalia, and the distinctness with which the latter +manifest the co-presence of the _magnetic_ power in its solid parietes, of +the _electrical_ in its branching arteries, and of the third greatest +power, viz., the _qualitative_ and interior, in its marrow. The senses of +fish are more distinct than those of insects. Thus, the intensity of its +sense of smell has been placed beyond doubt, and rises in the extent of +its sphere far beyond the irritable sense, or the feeling, in insects. I +say the _feeling_, not the touch; for the touch seems, as it were, a +supervention to the feeling, a perfection _given_ to it by the reaction of +the higher powers. As the feeling of the insect, in subtlety and virtual +distance, rises above the solitary sense of taste(16) in the mollusca, so +does the smell of the fish rise above the feeling of the insect. In the +fish, likewise, the eyes are single and moveable, while it is remarkable +that the only insect that possesses this latter privilege, is an +inhabitant of the waters. Finally, here first, unequivocally, and on a +_large_ scale, (for I pretend not to control the freedom, in which the +necessity of Nature is rooted, by the precise limits of a system,)—here +first, Nature exhibits, in the power of sensibility, the consummation of +those vital forms (the _nisus formativi_) the adequate and the sole +measure of which is to be sought for in their several organic products. +But as if a weakness of exhaustion had attended this advance in the same +moment it was made, Nature seems necessitated to fall back, and re-exert +herself on the lower ground which she had before occupied, that of the +vital magnetism, or the power of reproduction. The intensity of this +latter power in the fishes, is shown both in their voracity and in the +number of their eggs, which we are obliged to calculate by _weight_, not +by _tale_. There is an equal intensity both of the _immanent_ and the +_projective_ reproduction, in which, if we take in the comparative number +of individuals in each species, and likewise the different intervals +between the acts, the fish (it is probable) would be found to stand in a +similar relation to the insect, as the insect, in the latter point, stands +to the system of vegetation. Meantime, the fish sinks a step below the +insect, in the mode and circumstances of impregnation. To this we will +venture to add, the predominance of _length_, as the _form_ of growth in +so large a proportion of the known orders of fishes, and not less of their +rectilineal path of motion. In all other respects, the correspondence +combined with the progress in individuation, is striking in the whole +detail. Thus the eye, in addition to its moveability, has besides acquired +a saline moisture in its higher development, as accordant with the life of +its element. Add to these the glittering covering in both, the splendour +of the scales in the one answering to the brilliant plates in the +other,—the luminous reservoirs of the fire-flies,—the phosphorescence and +electricity of many fishes,—the same analogs of moral qualities, in their +rapacity, boldness, modes of seizing their prey by surprise,—their gills, +as presenting the intermediate state between the spiracula of the grade +next below, and the lungs of the step next above, both extremes of which +seem combined in the structure of birds and of their quill-feathers; but +above all, the convexity of the crystalline lens, so much greater than in +birds, quadrupeds, and man, and seeming to collect, in one powerful organ, +the hundred-fold microscopic facettes of the insect’s _light_ organs; and +it will not be easy to resist the conviction, that the same power is at +work in both, and reappears under higher auspices. The intention of Nature +is repeated; but, as was to have been expected, with two main differences. + +First, that in the lower grade the reproductions themselves seem merged in +those of irritability, from the very circumstance that the latter +constitutes no pole, either to the former, or to sensibility. The force of +irritability acts, therefore, in the insect world, in full predominance; +while the emergence of sensibility in the fish calls forth the opposite +pole of reproduction, as a _distinct_ power, and causes therefore the +irritability to flow, in part, into the power of reproduction. The second +result of this ascent is the direction of the organizing power, _ad +intra_, with the consequent greater simplicity of the exterior form, and +the substitution of condensed and flexible force, with comparative unity +of implements, for that variety of tools, almost as numerous as the +several objects to which they are to be applied, which arises from, and +characterises, the superficial life of the insect creation. This grade of +ascension, however, like the former, is accompanied by an apparent +retrograde movement. For from this very accession of vital intensity we +must account for the absence in the fishes of all the formative, or rather +(if our language will permit it) _fabricative_ instincts. How could it be +otherwise? These instincts are the surplus and projection of the +organizing power in the direction _ad extra_, and could not, therefore, +have been expected in the class of animals that represent the first +intuitive effort of organization, and are themselves the product of its +first movement in the direction _ad intra_. But Nature never loses what +she has once learnt, though in the acquirement of each new power she +intermits, or performs less energetically, the act immediately preceding. +She often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up again. She may +seem forgetful and absent, but it is only to recollect herself with +_additional_, as well as _recruited_ vigour, in some after and higher +state; as if the sleep of powers, as well as of bodies, were the season +and condition of their growth. Accordingly, we find these instincts again, +and with them a wonderful synthesis of fish and insect, as a higher third, +in the feathered inhabitants of the air. Nay, she seems to have gone yet +further back, and having given B + C = D in the birds, so to have sported +with one solitary instance of B + D = A in that curious animal the dragon, +the anatomy of which has been recently given to the public by Tiedemann; +from whose work it appears, that this creature presents itself to us with +the wings of the insect, and with the nervous system, the brain, and the +cranium of the bird, in their several rudiments. + +The synthesis of fish and insect in the birds, might be illustrated +equally in detail with the former; but it will be sufficient for our +purpose, that as in both the former cases, the insect and the fish, so +here in that of the birds, the powers are under the predominance of +irritability; the sensibility being dormant in the first, awakening in the +second, and awake, but still subordinate, in the third. Of this my limits +confine me to a single presumptive proof, viz., the superiority in +strength and courage of the female in the birds of prey. For herein, +indeed, does the difference of the sexes universally consist, wherever +both the forces are developed, that the female is characterised by quicker +irritability, and the male by deeper sensibility. How large a stride has +been now made by Nature in the progress of individuation, what +ornithologist does not know? From a multitude of instances we select the +most impressive, the power of sound, with the first rudiments of +modulation! That all languages designate the melody of birds as singing +(though according to Blumenbach man only sings, while birds do but +whistle), demonstrates that it has been felt as, what indeed it is, a +tentative and prophetic prelude of something yet to come. With this +conjoin the power and the tendency to acquire articulation, and to imitate +speech; conjoin the building instinct and the migratory, the monogamy of +several species, and the pairing of almost all; and we shall have +collected new instances of the usage (I dare not say law) according to +which Nature lets fall, in order to resume, and steps backward the +furthest, when she means to leap forwards with the greatest concentration +of energy. + +For lo! in the next step of ascent the power of sensibility has assumed +her due place and rank: her minority is at an end, and the complete and +universal presence of a nervous system unites absolutely, by instanteity +of time what, with the due allowances for the transitional process, had +before been either lost in sameness, or perplexed by multiplicity, or +compacted by a finer mechanism. But with this, all the analogies with +which Nature had delighted us in the preceding step seem lost, and, with +the single exception of that more than valuable, that estimable +philanthropist, the dog, and, perhaps, of the horse and elephant, the +analogies to ourselves, which we can discover in the quadrupeds or +quadrumani, are of our vices, our follies, and our imperfections. The +facts in confirmation of both the propositions are so numerous and so +obvious, the advance of Nature, under the predominance of the third +synthetic power, both in the intensity of life and in the intenseness and +extension of individuality, is so undeniable, that we may leap forward at +once to the highest realization and reconciliation of both her tendencies, +that of the most perfect detachment with the greatest possible union, to +that last work, in which Nature did not assist as handmaid under the eye +of her sovereign Master, who made Man in his own image, by superadding +self-consciousness with self-government, and breathed into him a living +soul. + +The class of _Vermes_ deposit a calcareous stuff, as if it had torn loose +from the earth a piece of the gross mass which it must still drag about +with it. In the insect class this residuum has refined itself. In the +fishes and amphibia it is driven back or inward, the organic power begins +to be intuitive, and sensibility appears. In the birds the bones have +become hollow; while, with apparent proportional recess, but, in truth, by +the excitement of the opposite pole, their exterior presents an actual +vegetation. The bones of the mammalia are filled up, and their coverings +have become more simple. Man possesses the most perfect osseous structure, +the least and most insignificant covering. The whole force of organic +power has attained an inward and centripetal direction. He has the whole +world in counterpoint to him, but he contains an entire world within +himself. Now, for the first time at the apex of the living pyramid, it is +Man and Nature, but Man himself is a syllepsis, a compendium of Nature—the +Microcosm! Naked and helpless cometh man into the world. Such has been the +complaint from eldest time; but we complain of our chief privilege, our +ornament, and the connate mark of our sovereignty. _Porphyrigeniti sumus_! +In Man the centripetal and individualizing tendency of all Nature is +itself concentred and individualized—he is a revelation of Nature! +Henceforward, he is referred to himself, delivered up to his own charge; +and he who stands the most on himself, and stands the firmest, is the +truest, because the most individual, Man. In social and political life +this acme is inter-dependence; in moral life it is independence; in +intellectual life it is genius. Nor does the form of polarity, which has +accompanied the law of individuation up its whole ascent, desert it here. +As the height, so the depth. The intensities must be at once opposite and +equal. As the liberty, so must be the reverence for law. As the +independence, so must be the service and the submission to the Supreme +Will! As the ideal genius and the originality, in the same proportion must +be the resignation to the real world, the sympathy and the inter-communion +with Nature. In the conciliating mid-point, or equator, does the Man live, +and only by its equal presence in both its poles can that life be +manifested! + + * * * * * + +If it had been possible, within the prescribed limits of this essay, to +have deduced the philosophy of Life synthetically, the evidence would have +been carried over from section to section, and the _quod erat +demonstrandum_ at the conclusion of one section would reappear as the +principle of the succeeding—the goal of the one would be the starting-post +of the other. Positions arranged in my own mind, as intermediate and +organic links of administration, must be presented to the reader in the +first instance, at least, as a mere hypothesis. Instead of demanding his +assent as a right, I must solicit a suspension of his judgment as a +courtesy; and, after all, however firmly the hypothesis may support the +phenomena piled upon it, we can deduce no more than a practical rule, +grounded on a strong presumption. The license of arithmetic, however, +furnishes instances that a rule may be usefully applied in practice, and +for the particular purpose may be sufficiently authenticated by the +result, before it has itself been duly demonstrated. It is enough, if only +it hath been rendered fully intelligible. + +In a system where every position proceeds from a scientific +preconstruction, a power acting exclusively in length, would be magnetism +by virtue of our own definition of the term. In like manner, a surface +power would be electricity, as far as that system was concerned, whether +it accorded or not with the facts ordinarily so called. But it is +incumbent on us, who must treat the subject _analytically_, to show by +experiment that magnetism does in fact act longitudinally, and electricity +superficially; and that, consequently, the former is distinguished from, +and yet contained in, the latter, as a straight line is distinguished +from, yet contained in, a superficies. + +First, that magnetism, in its conductors, seeks and follows length only, +and by the length is itself conducted, has been proved by Brugmans, in his +philosophical Essay on the Matter of Magnetism, where he relates that a +magnet capable of supporting a body four times heavier than itself, and +which acted as a magnetic needle at the distance of twenty inches, was so +weakened by the interposition of three cast-iron plates of considerable +thickness, as scarcely to move the magnetic needle from its place at a +distance of only three inches. A similar experiment had been made by +Descartes. I concluded, therefore, said Brugmans, that if the iron plates +were interposed between the magnet and the needle lengthways, instead of +breadthways or right across, the action of the magnet on the magnetic +needle would, in consequence of this great increase of resistance, become +still weaker, or perhaps evanescent. But not less to my surprise than my +admiration, I found that the power of the magnet was so far from being +_diminished_ by this change in the relative position of the iron-plates; +that, on the contrary, it now extended to a far greater distance than when +no iron at all was interposed. Some time after the same philosopher, out +of several iron bars, the sides of which were an inch broad each, composed +a single bar of the length of more than ten feet, and observed the +magnetism make its way through the whole mass. But, in order to try +whether the action could be propagated to any length indefinitely, after +several experiments with bars of intermediate lengths, in all of which he +had succeeded, he tried a four-cornered iron rod, more than twenty feet +long, and it was at this length that the magnetic power first began to be +diminished. So far Brugmans. + +But the shortest way for any one to convince himself of this relation of +the magnetic power would be, in one and the same experiment, to interpose +the same piece of iron between the magnet and the compass needle first +_breadthways_; and in this case it will be found that the needle, which +had been previously deflected by the magnet from its natural position at +one of its poles, will instantly resume the same, either wholly or very +nearly so—then to interpose the same piece of iron _lengthways_; in which +case the position of the compass needle will be scarcely or not at all +affected. + +The assertion of Bernoulli and others, that the absolute force of the +artificial magnet increases in the ratio of its superficies, stands +corrected in the far more accurate experiments of Coulomb (published in +his Treatise on Magnetism), which proves that the increase takes place (in +a far greater degree) in the ratio of its length. The same naturalist even +found means to determine that the directing powers of the needle, which he +had measured by help of his _balance de tortion_, stand to the length of +the needle in such a ratio as that, provided only the length of the needle +is from forty to fifty times its diameter, the momenta of these directing +powers will increase in the very same direct proportion as the length is +increased. Nor is this all that may be deduced from the experiment last +mentioned. If only the magnet be strong enough, it will show likewise that +magnetism _seeks_ the length. The proof is contained in the remarkable +fact, that the iron interposed between the magnet and the magnetic needle +_breadthways_ constantly acquires its two opposite poles at both ends +_lengthways_. Though the preceding experiments are abundantly sufficient +to prove the position, yet the following deserves mention for the +beautiful clearness of its evidence. If the magnetic power is determined +exclusively by length, it is to be expected that it will manifest no +force, where the piece of iron is of such a shape that no one dimension +predominates. Bring a _cube_ of iron near the magnetic needle and it will +not exert the slightest degree of power beyond what belongs to it as mere +iron. By the perfect equality of the dimensions, the magnetism of the +earth appears, as it were, perplexed and doubtful. Now, then attach a +second cube of iron to the first, and the instantaneous act of the iron on +the magnetic needle will make it manifest that with the length thus given, +the magnetic influence is given at the same moment. + +That electricity, on the other hand, does not act in length merely, is +clear, from the fact that every electric body is electric over its whole +surface. But that electricity acts both in length and breadth, and _only_ +in length and breadth, and not in depth; in short, that the (so-called) +electrical fluid in an electrified body spreads over the whole surface of +that body without penetrating it, or tending _ad intra_, may be proved by +direct experiment. Take a cylinder of wood, and bore an indefinite number +of holes in it, each of them four lines in depth and four in diameter. +Electrify this cylinder, and present to its superficies a small square of +gold-leaf, held to it by an insulating needle of gum lac, and bring this +square to an electrometer of great sensibility. The electrometer will +instantly show an electricity in the gold-leaf, similar to that of the +cylinder which had been brought into contact with it. The square of +gold-leaf having thus been discharged of its electricity, put it carefully +into one of the holes of the cylinder, _so_, namely, that it shall touch +only the bottom of the hole, and present it again to the electrometer. It +will be then found that the electrometer will exhibit no signs of +electricity whatsoever. From this it follows, that the electricity which +had been communicated to the cylinder had confined itself to the +_surface_. + +If the time and the limit prescribed would admit, we could multiply +experiments, all tending to prove the same law; but we must be content +with the barely sufficient. But that the _chemical process_ acts in +_depth_, and first, therefore, _realizes_ and integrates the fluxional +power of magnetism and electricity, is involved in the _term_ composition; +and this will become still more convincing when we have learnt to regard +_decomposition_ as a mere co-relative, _i.e._ as decomposition relatively +to the body decomposed, but composition _actually_ and in respect of the +substances, _into_ which it was decomposed. The alteration in the specific +gravity of metals in their chemical amalgams, interesting as the fact is +in all points, is _decisive_ in the present; for gravity is the sole +_inward_ of inorganic bodies—it _constitutes_ their depth. + +I can now, for the first time, give to my opinions that degree of +intelligibility, which is requisite for their introduction as hypotheses; +the experiments above related, understood as in the common mode of +thinking, prove that the magnetic influence flows in length, the electric +fluid by suffusion, and that chemical agency (whatever the main agent may +be) is qualitative and _in intimis_. Now my hypothesis demands the +converse of all this. I affirm that a power, acting exclusively in length, +is (wherever it be found) _magnetism_; that a power which acts _both_ in +length and in breadth, and _only_ in length and breadth, is (wherever it +be found) _electricity_; and finally, that a power which, together with +length and breadth, includes depth likewise, is (wherever it be found) +_constructive agency_. That is but _one_ phenomenon of magnetism, to which +we have appropriated and confined the term magnetism; because of all the +natural bodies at present known, iron, and one or two of its nearest +relatives in the family of hard yet coherent metals, are the only ones, in +which all the conditions are collected, under which alone the magnetic +agency can appear in and during the act itself. When, therefore, I affirm +the power of reproduction in organized bodies to be magnetism, I must be +understood to mean that this power, as it exists in the magnet, and which +we there (to use a strong phrase) catch in the very act, is to the same +kind of power, working as reproductive, what the root is to the cube of +that root. We no more confound the force in the compass needle with that +of reproduction, than a man can be said to confound his liver with a +lichen, because he affirms that both of them grow. + +The same precautions are to be repeated in the identification of +electricity with irritability; and the power of depth, for which we have +yet no appropriated term, with sensibility. How great the distance is in +all, and that the lowest degrees are adopted as the exponent terms, not +for their own sakes, but merely because they may be used with less hazard +of diverting the attention from the _kind_ by peculiar properties arising +out of the degree, is evident from the third instance, unless the theorist +can be supposed insane enough to apply sensation in good earnest to the +effervescence of an acid or an alkali, or to sympathise with the +distresses of a vat of new beer when it is working. In whatever way the +subject could be treated, it must have remained unintelligible to men who, +if they think of space at all, abstract their notion of it from the +contents of an exhausted receiver. With this, and with an ether, such men +may work wonders; as what, indeed, cannot be done with a plenum and a +vacuum, when a theorist has privileged himself to assume the one, or the +other, _ad libitum_?—in all innocence of heart, and undisturbed by the +reflection that the two things cannot both be true. That both time and +space are mere abstractions I am well aware; but I know with equal +certainty that what is _expressed_ by them as the _identity_ of both is +the highest reality, and the root of all power, the power to suffer, as +well as the power to act. However mere an _ens logicum_ space may be, the +_dimensions_ of space are real, and the works of Galileo, in more than one +elegant passage, prove with what awe and amazement they fill the mind that +worthily contemplates them. Dismissing, therefore, all facts of degrees, +as introduced merely for the purposes of illustration, I would make as +little reference as possible to the magnet, the charged phial, or the +processes of the laboratory, and designate the three powers in the process +of our animal life, each by two co-relative terms, the one expressing the +_form_, and the other the _object_ and _product_ of the power. My +hypothesis will, therefore, be thus expressed, that the constituent forces +of life in the human living body are—first, the power of length, or +REPRODUCTION; second, the power of surface (that is, length and breadth), +or IRRITABILITY; third, the power of depth, or SENSIBILITY. With this +observation I may conclude these remarks, only reminding the reader that +Life itself is neither of these separately, but the copula of all +three—that Life, _as_ Life, supposes a positive or universal principle in +Nature, with a negative principle in every particular animal, the latter, +or limitative power, constantly acting to individualize, and, as it were, +_figure_ the former. _Thus_, then, Life itself is not a _thing_—a +self-subsistent _hypostasis_—but an _act_ and _process_; which, pitiable +as the prejudice will appear to the _forts esprits_, is a great deal more +than either my reason would authorise or my conscience allow me to +assert—concerning the Soul, as the principle both of Reason and +Conscience. + + + + + +ADVERTISEMENTS. + + +_October, 1848._ Works on Medicine and Science +Published by John Churchill. + + * * * * * + +Dr. Golding Bird, F.R.S. The Diagnosis, Pathological Indications And +Treatment of Urinary Deposits. With Engravings on Wood. Second Edition. +Post 8vo. cloth, 8_s._ 6_d._ By The Same Author. Elements of Natural +Philosophy; being an Experimental Introduction to the Study of the +Physical Sciences. Illustrated with several Hundred Wood-cuts. Third +Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Beasley. The Pocket Formulary and Synopsis of The British And Foreign +Pharmacopœias; comprising Standard and Improved Formulæ for the +Preparations and Compounds employed in Medical Practice. Fourth Edition, +corrected and enlarged. 18mo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Henry Bennett. A Practical Treatise on Inflammation, Ulceration, And +Induration of the Neck of The Uterus; with Remarks on Leucorrhœa and +Prolapsus Uteri, as Symptoms of this form of Disease. 8vo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Budd, F.R.S. On Diseases of the Liver; illustrated with Coloured +Plates and Engravings on Wood. 8vo. cloth, 14_s._ + + * * * * * + +Sir James Clark, Bart., M.D. On The Sanative Influence of Climate. With an +Account of the best Places of Resort for Invalids in England, the South of +Europe, &c. Fourth Edition, revised. Post 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. +A Manual of Physiology; specially designed for the Use of Students. With +numerous Illustrations on Steel and Wood. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ +Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. Principles of General and Comparative Physiology; +intended as an Introduction to the Study of Human Physiology, and as a +Guide to the Philosophical Pursuit of Natural History. Illustrated with +numerous Figures on Copper and Wood. The Second Edition. 8vo. cloth, +18_s._ By The Same Author. Principles of Human Physiology. numerous +Illustrations on Steel and Wood. Third Edition. One thick 8vo. vol. 21_s._ + + * * * * * + +Sir Astley Cooper, Bart., F.R.S. A Treatise on Dislocations and Fractures +of the Joints. Edited by Bransby b. Cooper, F.R.S. 8vo. cloth, 20_s._ Sir +Astley Cooper left very considerable additions in MS. for the express +purpose of being introduced into this Edition. By The Same Author. +Observations on the Structure and Diseases of the Testis. Illustrated with +Twenty-four highly-finished coloured Plates. Second Edition. Royal 4to. +cloth. _Reduced from_ 3_l._ 3_s. to_ 1_l._ 10_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Conolly. The Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums and +Hospitals for the Insane. With Plans, post 8vo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Cooley. Comprehensive Supplement to the Pharmacopœia The Cyclopædia of +Practical Receipts, and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, +and Trades, Including Medicine, Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy; designed +as a Compendious Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, +Amateur, and Heads of Families. Second Edition, in one thick volume of 800 +pages. 8vo. cloth, 14_s._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Fergusson, F.R.S.E. A System of Practical Surgery; with numerous +Illustrations on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ Mr. +Churchill’s Publications. Mr. Fownes, PH. D., F.R.S. A Manual of +Chemistry; with numerous Illustrations on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. +cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ “An admirable exposition of the present state of +chemical science, simply and clearly written.”—_British and Foreign +Medical Review._ By The Same Author. Introduction to Qualitative Analysis. +Post 8vo. cloth, 2_s._ + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Mr. Abernethy. + + 2 Experiment, as an organ of reason, not less distinguished from the + blind or dreaming industry of the alchemists, than it was + successfully opposed to the barren subtleties of the schoolmen. + + 3 Whose own mind, however, was not comprehended in the vortex; where + Kepler erred it was in the other extreme. + + 4 But still less would I avail myself of its acknowledged + inappropriateness to the purposes of physiology, in order to cast a + self-complacent sneer on the soul itself, and on all who believe in + its existence. First, because in my opinion it would be impertinent; + secondly, because it would be imprudent and injurious to the + character of my profession; and, lastly, because it would argue an + irreverence to the feelings of mankind, which I deem scarcely + compatible with a good heart, and a degree of arrogance and + presumption which I have never found, except in company with a + corrupt taste and a shallow capacity. + + 5 Vide Lawrence’s Lecture. + + 6 Joh. Bapt. a Vico, Neapol. Reg. eloq. Professor, de antiquissima + Itallorum sapientia ex lingua Latina originibus aruendâ: libri tres. + Neap., 1710. + + 7 The object I have proposed to myself, and wherein its distinction + exists, may be thus illustrated. A complex machine is presented to + the common view, the moving power of which is hidden. Of those who + are studying and examining it, one man fixes his attention on some + one application of that power, on certain effects produced by that + particular application, and on a certain part of the structure + evidently appropriated to the production of these effects, neither + the one or other of which he had discovered in a neighbouring + machine, which he at the same time asserts to be quite distinct from + the former, and to be moved by a power altogether different, though + many of the works and operations are, he admits, common to both + machines. In this supposed peculiarity he places the essential + character of the former machine, and defines it by the presence of + that which is, or which he supposes to be, absent in the latter. + Supposing that a stranger to both were about to visit the two + machines, this peculiarity would be so far useful as that it might + enable him to distinguish the one from the other, and thus to look + in the proper place for whatever else he had heard remarkable + concerning either; not that he or his informant would understand the + machine any better or otherwise, than the common character of a + whole class in the nomenclature of botany would enable a person to + understand all, or any one of the plants contained in that class. + But if, on the other hand, the machine in question were such as no + man was a stranger to, if even the supposed peculiarity, either by + its effects, or by the construction of that portion of the works + which produced them, were equally well known to all men, in this + case we can conceive no use at all of such a definition; for at the + best it could only be admitted as a definition for the purposes of + nomenclature, which never adds to knowledge, although it may often + facilitate its communication. But in this instance it would be + nomenclature misplaced, and without an object. Such appears to me to + be the case with all those definitions which place the essence of + Life in nutrition, contractility, &c. As the second instance, I will + take the inventor and maker of the machine himself, who knows its + moving power, or perhaps himself constitutes it, who is, as it were, + the soul of the work, and in whose mind all its parts, with all + their bearings and relations, had pre-existed long before the + machine itself had been put together. In him therefore there would + reside, what it would be presumption to attempt to acquire, or to + pretend to communicate, the most perfect insight not only of the + machine itself, and of all its various operations, but of its + ultimate principle and its essential causes. The mysterious ground, + the efficient causes of vitality, and whether different lives differ + absolutely or only in degree, He alone can know who not only said, + “Let the earth bring forth the living creature, the beast of the + earth after his kind, and it was so;” but who said, “Let us make man + in our image, who himself breathed into his nostrils the breath of + Life, and man became a living soul.” + + The third case which I would apply to my own attempt would be that + of the inquirer, who, presuming to know nothing of the power that + moves the whole machine, takes those parts of it which are presented + to his view, seeks to reduce its various movements to as few and + simple laws of motion as possible, and out of their separate and + conjoint action proceeds to explain and appropriate the structure + and relative positions of the works. In obedience to the + canon,—“Principia non esse multiplicanda præter summam necessitatem + cui suffragamur non ideo quia causalem in mundo unitatem vel ratione + vel experientiâ perspiciamus, sed illam ipsam indagamus impulsu + intellectûs, qui tantundem sibi in explicatione phænomenorum + profecisse videtur quantum ab codem principio ad plurima rationata + descendere ipsi concessum est.” + + 8 The arborescent forms on a frosty morning, to be seen on the window + and pavement, must have _some_ relation to the more perfect forms + developed in the vegetable world. + + 9 Thus we may say that whatever is organized from without, is a + product of mechanism; whatever is mechanised from within, is a + production of organization. + + 10 “The matter that surrounds us is divided into two great classes, + living and dead; the latter is governed by physical laws, such as + attraction, gravitation, chemical affinity; and it exhibits physical + properties, such as cohesion, elasticity, divisibility, &c. Living + matter also exhibits these properties, and is subject, in great + measure, to physical laws. But living bodies are endowed moreover + with a set of properties altogether different from these, and + contrasting with them very remarkably.” (Vide Lawrence’s Lectures, + p. 121.) + + 11 Much against my will I repeat this scholastic term, _multeity_, but + I have sought in vain for an unequivocal word of a less repulsive + character, that would convey the notion in a positive and not + comparative sense in kind, as opposed to the _unum et simplex_, not + in degree, as contracted with the _few_. We can conceive no reason + that can be adduced in justification of the word _caloric_, as + invented to distinguish the external cause of the sensation heat, + which would not equally authorise the introduction of a technical + term in this instance. + + 12 For abstractions are the conditions and only subject of all abstract + sciences. Thus the theorist (vide Dalton’s Theory), who reduces the + chemical process to the positions of atoms, would doubtless thereby + render chemistry calculable, but that he commences by destroying the + chemical process itself, and substitutes for it a _mote dance_ of + abstractions; for even the powers which he appears to leave real, + those of attraction and repulsion, he immediately unrealizes by + representing them as diverse and separable properties. We can + abstract the quantities and the quantitative motion from masses, + passing over or leaving for other sciences the question of what + constitutes the masses, and thus apply not to the masses themselves, + but to the abstractions therefrom,—the laws of geometry and + universal arithmetic. And where the quantities are the infallible + signs of real powers, and our chief concern with the masses is as + SIGNS, sciences may be founded thereon of the highest use and + dignity. Such, for instance, is the sublime science of astronomy, + having for its objects the vast masses which “God placed in the + firmament of the heaven to be for _signs_ and for seasons, for days + and years.” For the whole doctrine of physics may be reduced to + three great divisions: First, _quantitative motion_, which is + proportioned to the quantity of matter exclusively. This is the + science of weight or statics. Secondly, _relative motion_, as + communicated to bodies externally by impact. This is the science of + mechanics. Thirdly, _qualitative motion_, or that which is accordant + to properties of matter. And this is chemistry. Now it is evident + that the first two sciences presuppose that which forms the + exclusive object of the third, namely, quality; for all quantity in + nature is either itself derived, or at least derives its powers from + some _quality_, as that of weight, specific cohesion, hardness, &c.; + and therefore the attempt to reduce to the distances or impacts of + atoms, under the assumptions of two powers, which are themselves + declared to be no more than mere general terms for those quantities + of motion and impact (the atom itself being a fiction formed by + abstraction, and in truth a third occult quality for the purpose of + explaining hardness and density), amounts to an attempt to destroy + chemistry itself, and at the same time to exclude the sole reality + and only positive contents of the very science into which that of + chemistry is to be degraded. Now what qualities are to chemistry, + _productiveness_ is to the science of Life; and this being excluded, + physiology or zoonomy would sink into chemistry, chemistry by the + same process into mechanics, while mechanics themselves would lose + the substantial principle, which, bending the lower extreme towards + its apex, produces the organic circle of the sciences, and elevates + them all into different arcs or stations of the one absolute science + of Life. + + This explanation, which in appearance only is a digression, was + indispensably requisite to prevent the idea of polarity, which has + been given as the universal law of Life, from being misunderstood as + a mere refinement on those mechanical systems of physiology, which + it has been my main object to explode. + + 13 I apprehend that by men of a certain school it would be deemed no + demerit, even though they should never have condescended to look + into any system of Aristotelian logic. It is enough for these + gentlemen that they are experimentalists! Let it not, however, be + supposed that they make more experiments than their neighbours, who + consider induction as a means and not an end; or have stronger + motives for making them, unless it can be believed that Tycho Brähe + must have been urged to repeat his sweeps of the heavens with + greater accuracy and industry than Herschel, for no better reason + than that the former flourished before the theory of gravitation was + perfected. No, but they have the honour of being mere + experimentalists! If, however, we may not refer to logic, we may to + common sense and common experience. It is not improbable, however, + that they have both read and studied a book of hypothetical + psychology on the assumptions of the crudest materialism, stolen too + without acknowledgment from our David Hartley’s essay on Man, which + is well known under the whimsical name of Condillac’s Logic. But, as + Mr. Brand has lately observed, “the French are a queer people,” and + we should not be at all surprised to hear of a book of fresh + importation from Paris, on determinate proportions in chemistry, + announced by the author in his title-page as a new and improved + system either of arithmetic or geometry. + + 14 Such is the interpretation given by Lord Bacon. To which of the two + gigantic intellects, the poet’s or philosophic commentator’s, the + allegory belongs, I shall not presume to decide. Its extraordinary + beauty and appropriateness remains the same in either case. + + 15 The Anatomical Demonstrations of the Brain, by Dr. Spurzheim, which + I have seen, presented to me the most satisfactory proof of this. + + 16 The remark on the feeling of the antennæ, compared with the touch of + man, or even of the half-reasoning elephant, is yet more applicable + to the taste, which in these gelatinous animals might, perhaps not + inappropriately, be entitled the gastric sense. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** + + + +CREDITS + + +January 17, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Bryan Ness, David King, and the Online Distributed + Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/24346-0.zip b/24346-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..12e0d0e --- /dev/null +++ b/24346-0.zip diff --git a/24346-8.txt b/24346-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9fc114 --- /dev/null +++ b/24346-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2938 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hints towards the formation of a more +comprehensive theory of life. by Samuel Taylor Coleridge + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Hints towards the formation of a more comprehensive theory of life. + +Author: Samuel Taylor Coleridge + +Release Date: January 17, 2008 [Ebook #24346] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** + + + + + + *Hints Towards the Formation of a More Comprehensive Theory Of Life* + + *by S. T. Coleridge* + + *Edited by Seth B. Watson, M.D.* + + Of St. John's College, + + And Formerly One of the Physicians to the Hospital at Oxford + + Magna sunt opera Domini exquisita in omnes voluntates ejus. + + London: John Churchill, Princes Street, Soho + + MDCCCXLVIII. + + *C. and J. Adlard, Printers, Bartholomew Close* + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Physiology Of Life. +The Nature Of Life. +Advertisements. +Footnotes + + + + + + +ADVERTISEMENT. + + +The Editor takes this opportunity of returning his best acknowledgments to +Sir JOHN STODDART, LL.D., to the Rev. JAMES GILLMAN, Incumbent of Trinity, +Lambeth, and to HENRY LEE, Esq., Assistant Surgeon to King's College +Hospital, for their great kindness, in regard to this publication. + +_16, Norfolk Street, Park Lane._ + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The accompanying pages contain the unfinished Sketch of a Theory of Life +by S. T. Coleridge. Everything that fell from the pen of that +extraordinary man bore latent, as well as more obvious indications of +genius, and of its inseparable concomitant--originality. To this general +remark the present Essay is far from forming an exception. No one can +peruse it, without admiring the author's comprehensive research and +profound meditation; but at the same time, partly from the exuberance of +his imagination, and partly from an apparent want of method (though, in +truth, he had a method of his own, by which he marshalled his thoughts in +an order perfectly intelligible to himself), a first perusal will, to many +readers, prove unsatisfactory, unless they are prepared for it by an +introduction of a more popular character. This purpose, therefore, I shall +endeavour to accomplish; it being to be understood that I by no means make +myself responsible either for Mr. Coleridge's speculations, or for the +manner in which they are enunciated; and that, on the contrary, I shall +occasionally indicate views from which I dissent, and expressions which +perhaps the author himself, on revision, would have seen reason to +correct. + +It is clear that Mr. Coleridge considers the unity of human nature to +result from two combined elements, Body and Soul; that he regards the +latter as the principle of Reason and of Conscience (both which he has +largely treated in his published works), and that the "Life," which he +here investigates, concerns, in relation to mankind, only the Body. He is +far, however, from confining the term "Life" to its action on the human +body; on the contrary, he disclaims the division of all that surrounds us +into things with life, and things without life; and contends, that the +term Life is no less applicable to the irreducible _bases_ of chemistry, +such as sodium, potassium, &c., or to the various forms of crystals, or +the geological strata which compose the crust of our globe, than it is to +the human body itself, the acme and perfection of animal organization. I +admit that there are certain great powers, such as magnetism, electricity, +and chemistry, whose action may be traced, even by the limited means which +science at present possesses, in admirable gradation, from purely +unorganized to the most highly organized matter: and, I think, that Mr. +Coleridge has done this with great ingenuity and striking effect; but what +I object to is, that he applies to the combined operation of these powers, +in all cases, the term _Life_. If we look back to the early history of +language, we shall probably find that this word, and its synonymes in +other tongues, were first employed to denote _human_ life, that is, the +duration of a human being's existence from birth to the grave. As this +existence was marked by actions, many of which were common to man with +other animals, those animals also were said to "live;" but the extension +of the notion of Life to the vegetable creation is comparatively a recent +usage,--and hitherto (in this country at least) no writer before Mr. +Coleridge, so far as I know, has maintained that rocks and mountains, nay, +"the great globe itself," share with mankind the gift of Life. On the +other hand, there are well known and energetic uses of the word "Life," to +which Mr. Coleridge's speculations, as contained in the accompanying +pages, are wholly inapplicable. Almost all nations, even the most savage, +agree in the belief that individuals of the human race, after they have +ceased to exist in this mortal life, will exist in another state, to which +also the word Life is universally applied; but to this latter Mr. +Coleridge's views of magnetism, electricity, &c., can hardly be thought +applicable. Still less can they apply to "Life" in its spiritual sense; +as, when Moses says to the Jews, "the words of the law are your _life_," +(Deut. xxxii, 47,) and when our Saviour says, "the words that I speak unto +you, they are spirit, and they are _life_;" (John, vi, 63;) and again, "I +am the resurrection and the life," (John, xi, 25.) Upon the whole, +therefore, I think it would have been advisable in Mr. Coleridge to have +adopted a different phraseology, in tracing the operation of certain +natural agencies first on unorganized, and then on organized bodies. + +Another word, of which I consider an improper use to be made in this +Essay, is "Nature." I find this imaginary being introduced on all +occasions, and invested with attributes of personality, which may be +extremely apt to make a false impression on young or thoughtless minds. At +one time, "the life of Nature" is spoken of; then we are informed that +"Nature has succeeded. _She_ has created the intermediate link between the +vegetable world and the animal." Again, it is said that "Nature seems to +fall back, and to reexert _herself_ on the lower ground, which _she_ had +before occupied;"--and elsewhere we are told that "Nature never loses what +_she_ has once learnt; though in the acquirement of each new power _she_ +intermits or performs less energetically the act immediately preceding. +_She_ often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up again. _She_ +may seem forgetful and absent; but it is only to recollect _herself_ with +additional as well as recruited vigour in some after and higher state." +Now the word "Nature," in any intelligible sense, means nothing but that +method and order by which the Almighty regulates the common course of +things. Nature is not a person; it is not active; it neither creates nor +performs actions more or less energetically, nor learns, nor forgets, nor +reexerts itself, nor recruits its vigour. Perhaps it will be said that all +this is merely figurative language. Figurative language is very much +misplaced in strict philosophical investigations; and these particular +figures, which might be quite consistent with the atheistical philosophy +of Lucretius, sound ill in the mouth of a pious Christian, which Mr. +Coleridge undoubtedly was. He probably adopted them unconsciously from +Bacon; but Bacon's use of the word Nature ought rather to have served as a +warning than an example; for it has contributed, in no small degree, to +the atheistical philosophy of recent times. + +The prevalent natural philosophy of the present day is that which is +called _corpuscular_, because it assumes the existence of a first matter, +consisting of _corpuscula_ or atoms, which are supposed to be definite, +though extremely small, _quantities_, invested with the _qualities_ of +extension, impenetrability, and the like; and from certain combinations of +these qualities, Life is considered, by some persons, to be a necessary +result. This philosophy Mr. Coleridge combats. The supposed atoms, he +says, are mere abstractions of the mind; and Life is not a thing, the +result of atomic arrangement or action, but is itself an act, or process. +He refutes various definitions of Life, such as, that it is the sum of all +the functions by which death is resisted; or, that it depends on the +faculty of nutrition, or of anti-putrescence. His own definition he +proposes merely as an hypothesis. Life, he says, is "the principle of +Individuation," that is to say, it is a power which discloses itself from +within, combining many qualities into one individual thing. This +individualising principle unites, as he conceives, with the cooperating +action of magnetism, electricity, and chemistry. At least, such is the +inference to be drawn from the present state of science; though it is +easily conceivable that future discoveries may bring us acquainted with +powers more directly connected with Life. The most general law governing +the action of Life, as a tendency to individuation, is here designated +_polarity_; for instance, the power termed magnetism (not meaning that +there is necessarily an actual tangible magnet in the case) has two poles, +the negative, answering to attraction, rest, carbon, &c., and the +positive, answering to repulsion, mobility, azote, &c.; and as the +magnetic needle which points to the north necessarily indicates thereby +the south, so the power disposing to rest has necessarily a counteracting +influence disposing to mobility, between which lies the point of +indifference. Now this quality, to which Mr. Coleridge gives the name of +polarity, is in truth nothing more than an exemplification of the doctrine +of opposites, the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which the Eleatic +Philosopher, in Plato's "Sophist," applies to the idea of existence and +non-existence, and which accompanies every other idea as its shadow, +whether in physics, in intellect, or in morals; for the finite is opposed +to the infinite, the false to the true, the evil to the good, and so +forth; which we say, not to derogate from the value of Mr. Coleridge's +application of the doctrine, of which he has very ably availed himself; +but merely to explain the term polarity, by referring it, as a species, to +a higher genus of intellectual conceptions. + +Reverting to the three powers before mentioned, it is not to be +understood, that on Mr. Coleridge's hypothesis of Life, they ever act +separately; but in the different modifications of Life, at one time the +power of magnetism predominates, at another that of electricity, and at +another that of chemistry. Magnetism is stated to act as a line, +electricity as a surface, and chemistry as a solid; for all which Mr. +Coleridge refers to certain physical experiments. The predominance of +magnetism is characterised by reproduction, that of electricity by +irritability; and irritability, which first appears as muscle, gradually +rises into sensibility as nerve. The limits of a mere introduction will +not permit me to examine Mr. Coleridge's first principles more in detail; +and I can but briefly notice their application to the successive stages of +ascent, from the first rudiments of individualised Life, in the lowest +classes of the mineral, vegetable, and animal creation, to its crown and +consummation in the human body. Beginning with magnetism, by which, in its +widest sense, he means what he improperly calls the first and simplest +differential act of _Nature_ (he should rather have said the first and +simplest conception that we can form of a differential act of God, in the +work of creation), he supposes the pre-existence of chaos, not, indeed, in +the Miltonic sense-- + +"For hot, cold, moist, and dry, four champions fierce, +Strive _there_ for mast'ry, and to battle bring +Their embryon atoms,--" + +but rather as one vast homogeneous fluid, and even _that_ he suggests not +as a historical fact, but as the appropriate symbol of a great fundamental +truth. The first effort of magnetic power, the first step from +indifference to difference, from formless homogeneity to independent +existence, is seen in the tranquil deposition of crystals; and an +increasing tendency to difference is observable in the increasing +multitude of strata, till we come to organic life; of which the vegetable +and animal worlds may be regarded as opposite poles; carbon prevailing in +the former and azote in the latter; and vegetation being characterised by +the predominance of magnetism in its highest power, as reproduction; +whilst the animal tribes evince the power of electricity, as shown in +irritability and sensibility. Passing over the forms of vegetation, we +come to the polypi, corallines, &c., in which individuality appears in its +first dawn; for a multitude of animals form, as it were, a common animal, +and different genera pass into each other, almost indistinguishably. The +tubipora of the corals connects with the serpula of the conchylia. In the +_mollusca_ the separation of organs becomes more observable; in the higher +species there are rudiments of nerves, and an exponent, though scarcely +distinguishable, of sensibility. In the snail, and muscle, the separation +of the fluid from the solid is more marked, yet the prevalence of the +carbonic principle connects these and the preceding classes, in a certain +degree, with the vegetable creation. "But the _insect_ world, taken at +large (says Mr. Coleridge) appears as an intense _Life_, that has +struggled itself loose, and become emancipated from vegetation--_Flor +liberti, et libertini_!" In insects we first find the distinct +commencement of a separation between the muscular system, that is, organs +of irritability, and the nervous system, that is, organs of sensibility; +the former, however, maintaining a pre-eminence throughout, and the nerves +themselves being probably subservient to the motory power. With the fishes +begins an internal system of bones, but these are the results of a +comparatively imperfect formation, being in general little more than mere +gristle. In birds we find a sort of synthesis of the powers of fish and +insects. In all three, the powers are under the predominance of +irritability; but sensibility, which is dormant in the insect, begins to +awaken in the fish, and, though still subordinate, is quite awake in the +bird, of which no better proof can be given than its power of sound, with +the rudiments of modulation, in the large class of singing birds, and in +some others a tendency to acquire and to imitate articulate speech. The +next step of ascent brings us to the _mammalia_; and in these, including +beasts and men, the complete and universal presence of a nervous system +raises sensibility to its due place and rank among the animal powers. +Finally, in Man the whole force of organic power attains an inward and +centripetal direction, and the "apex of the living pyramid"becomes a fit +receptacle for Reason and Conscience. + + * * * * * + +It is much to be regretted, that the estimable Author did not live to put +a finishing hand to this Essay; but the part completed involves +speculations of so interesting a nature, and presents such striking marks +of deep and original thought, that the Editor, to whose hands it was +committed, did not feel himself justified in withholding it from the +judgment of the public. + + + + + +PHYSIOLOGY OF LIFE. + + + Introduction. + + +When we stand before the bust of John Hunter, or as we enter the +magnificent museum furnished by his labours, and pass slowly, with +meditative observation, through this august temple, which the genius of +one great man has raised and dedicated to the wisdom and uniform working +of the Creator, we perceive at every step the guidance, we had almost +said, the inspiration, of those profound ideas concerning Life, which dawn +upon us, indeed, through his written works, but which he has here +presented to us in a more perfect language than that of words--the language +of God himself, as uttered by Nature. + +That the true idea of Life existed in the mind of John Hunter I do not +entertain the least doubt; but it may, perhaps, be doubted whether his +incessant occupation, and his stupendous industry in the service, both of +his contemporaries and of posterity, added to his comparatively slight +acquaintance with the arts and aids of logical arrangement, permitted him +fully to unfold and arrange it in distinct, clear, and communicable +conceptions. Assuredly, however, I may, without incurring the charge of +arrogance or detraction, venture to assert that, in his writings the light +which occasionally flashes upon us seems at other times, and more +frequently, to struggle through an unfriendly medium, and even sometimes +to suffer a temporary occultation. At least, in order to dissipate the +undeniable obscurities, and to reconcile the apparent contradictions found +in his works,--to distinguish, in short, the numerous passages in which +without, perhaps, losing sight internally of his own peculiar belief, he +yet falls into the phraseology and mechanical solutions of his age,--we +must distinguish such passages from those in which the form corresponds to +the substance, and in which, therefore, the nature and essential laws of +vital action are expressed, as far as his researches had unveiled them to +his own mind, without disguise. To effect this, we must, as it were, climb +up on his shoulders, and look at the same objects in a distincter form, +because seen from the more commanding point of view furnished by himself. +This has, indeed, been more than once attempted already, and, in one +instance, with so evident a display of power and insight as announces in +the assertor and vindicator of the Hunterian Theory a congenial intellect, +and a disciple in whom Hunter himself would have exulted. Would that this +attempt had been made on a larger scale, that the writer to whom I +refer(1) had in consequence developed his opinions systematically, and +carried them yet further back, even to their ultimate principle! + +But this the scientific world has yet to expect; or it is more than +probable that the present humble endeavour would have been superseded, or +confined, at least, to the task of restating the opinion of my predecessor +with such modifications as the differences that will always exist between +men who have thought independently, and each for himself, have never +failed to introduce, even on problems of far easier and more obvious +solution. + +Without further preface or apology, therefore, I shall state at once my +objections to all the definitions that have hitherto been given of Life, +as meaning too much or too little, with an exception, however, in favour +of those which mean nothing at all; and even these last must, in certain +cases, receive an honour they do not merit, and be confuted, or rather +detected, on account of their too general acceptance, and the incalculable +power of words over the minds of men in proportion to the remoteness of +the subject from the cognizance of the senses. + +It would be equally presumptuous and unreasonable should I, with a late +writer on this subject, "exhort the reader to be particularly on his guard +against loose and indefinite expressions;" but I perfectly agree that they +are the bane of all science, and have been remarkably injurious in the +different departments of physiology. + + + + + +THE NATURE OF LIFE. + + + On The Definitions Of Life Hitherto Received. Hints Towards A More + Comprehensive Theory. + + +The attempts to explain the nature of Life, which have fallen within my +knowledge, presuppose the arbitrary division of all that surrounds us into +things with life, and things without life--a division grounded on a mere +assumption. At the best, it can be regarded only as a hasty deduction from +the first superficial notices of the objects that surround us, sufficient, +perhaps, for the purpose of ordinary discrimination, but far too +indeterminate and diffluent to be taken unexamined by the philosophic +inquirer. The positions of science must be tried in the jeweller's scales, +not like the mixed commodities of the market, on the weigh-bridge of +common opinion and vulgar usage. Such, however, has been the procedure in +the present instance, and the result has been answerable to the coarseness +of the process. By a comprisal of the _petitio principii_ with the +_argumentum in circulo_,--in plain English, by an easy logic, which begins +with begging the question, and then moving in a circle, comes round to the +point where it began,--each of the two divisions has been made to define +the other by a mere reassertion of their assumed contrariety. The +physiologist has luminously explained Y plus X by informing us that it is +a somewhat that is the antithesis of Y minus X; and if we ask, what then +is Y-X? the answer is, the antithesis of Y+X,--a reciprocation of great +service, that may remind us of the twin sisters in the fable of the Lami, +with but one eye between them both, which each borrowed from the other as +either happened to want it; but with this additional disadvantage, that in +the present case it is after all but an eye of glass. The definitions +themselves will best illustrate our meaning. I will begin with that given +by Bichat. "Life is the sum of all the functions by which death is +resisted," in which I have in vain endeavoured to discover any other +meaning than that life consists in being able to live. This author, with a +whimsical gravity, prefaces his definition with the remark, that the +nature of life has hitherto been sought for in _abstract_ considerations; +as if it were possible that four more inveterate abstractions could be +brought together in one sentence than are here assembled in the words, +life, death, function, and resistance. Similar instances might be cited +from Richerand and others. The word Life is translated into other more +learned words; and this _paraphrase_ of the _term_ is substituted for the +_definition_ of the _thing_, and therefore (as is always the case in every +_real_ definition as contra-distinguished from a _verbal_ definition,) for +at least a partial _solution_ of the _fact_. Such as these form the +_first_ class.--The second class takes some one particular function of Life +common to all living objects,--nutrition, for instance; or, to adopt the +phrase most in vogue at present, assimilation, for the purposes of +reproduction and growth. Now this, it is evident, can be an appropriate +definition only of the very lowest species, as of a Fungus or a Mollusca; +and just as comprehensive an idea of the mystery of Life, as a Mollusca +might give, can this definition afford. But this is not the only +objection. For, _first_, it is not pretended that we begin with seeking +for an organ evidently appropriated to nutrition, and then infer that the +substance in which such an organ is found _lives_. On the contrary, in a +number of cases among the obscurer animals and vegetables we infer the +organ from the pre-established fact of its life. _Secondly_, it identifies +the process itself with a certain range of its forms, those, namely, by +which it is manifested in animals and vegetables. For this, too, no less +than the former, presupposes the arbitrary division of all things into not +living and lifeless, on which, as I before observed, all these definitions +are grounded. But it is sorry logic to take the proof of an affirmative in +one thing as the proof of the negative in another. All animals that have +lungs breathe, but it would be a childish oversight to deduce the +converse, viz. all animals that breathe have lungs. The theory in which +the French chemists organized the discoveries of Black, Cavendish, +Priestly, Scheele, and other English and German philosophers, is still, +indeed, the reigning theory, but rather, it should seem, from the absence +of a rival sufficiently popular to fill the throne in its stead, than from +the continuance of an implicit belief in its own stability. We no longer +at least cherish that intensity of faith which, before Davy commenced his +brilliant career, had not only identified it with chemistry itself, but +had substituted its nomenclature, even in common conversation, for the far +more philosophic language which the human race had abstracted from the +laboratory of Nature. I may venture to prophecy that no future Beddoes +will make it the corival of the mathematical sciences in demonstrative +evidence. I think it a matter of doubt whether, during the period of its +supposed infallibility, physiology derived more benefit from the +extension, or injury from the misdirection, of its views. Enough of the +latter is fresh in recollection to make it but an equivocal compliment to +a physiological position, that it must stand or fall with the corpuscular +philosophy, as modified by the French theory of chemistry. Yet should it +happen (and the event is not impossible, nor the supposition altogether +absurd,) that more and more decisive facts should present themselves in +confirmation of the metamorphosis of elements, the position that life +consists in assimilation would either cease to be distinctive, or fall +back into the former class as an identical proposition, namely, that Life, +meaning by the word that sort of growth which takes place by means of a +peculiar organization, consists in that sort of growth which is peculiar +to organized life. _Thirdly_, the definition involves a still more +egregious flaw in the reasoning, namely, that of _cum hoc, ergo propter +hoc_ (or the assumption of causation from mere coexistence); and this, +too, in its very worst form. For it is not _cum hoc solo, ergo propter +hoc_, which would in many cases supply a presumptive proof by induction, +but _cum hoc, et plurimis aliis, ergo propter hoc_! Shell, of some kind or +other, is common to the whole order of testacea, but it would be absurd to +define the _vis vit_ of testaceous animals as existing in the shell, +though we know it to be the constant accompaniment, and have every reason +to believe the constant effect, of the specific life that acts in those +animals. Were we (_argumenti __ caus_) to imagine shell coextensive with +the organized creation, this would produce no abatement in the falsity of +the reasoning. Nor does the flaw stop here; for a physiological, that is a +real, definition, as distinguished from the verbal definitions of +lexicography, must consist neither in any single property or function of +the thing to be defined, nor yet in all collectively, which latter, +indeed, would be a history, not a definition. It must consist, therefore, +in the _law_ of the thing, or in such an _idea_ of it, as, being admitted, +all the properties and functions are admitted by implication. It must +likewise be so far _causal_, that a full insight having been obtained of +the law, we derive from it a progressive insight into the necessity and +_generation_ of the phenomena of which it is the law. Suppose a disease in +question, which appeared always accompanied with certain symptoms in +certain stages, and with some one or more symptoms in all stages--say +deranged digestion, capricious alternation of vivacity and languor, +headache, dilated pupil, diminished sensibility to light, &c.--Neither the +man who selected the one constant symptom, nor he who enumerated all the +symptoms, would give the scientific definition _talem scilicet, quali +scientia fit vel datur_, but the man who at once named and defined the +disease hydrocephalus, producing pressure on the brain. For it is the +essence of a scientific definition to be causative, not by introduction of +imaginary somewhats, natural or supernatural under the name of causes, but +by announcing the law of action in the particular case, in subordination +to the common law of which all the phenomena are modifications or results. + +Now in the definition on which, as the representative of a whole class, we +are _now_ animadverting, a single effect is given as constituting the +cause. For nutrition by digestion is certainly necessary to life, only +under certain circumstances, but that life is previously necessary to +digestion is absolutely certain under all circumstances. Besides, what +other phenomenon of Life would the conception of assimilation, _per se_, +or as it exists in the lowest order of animals, involve or explain? How, +for instance, does it include sensation, locomotion, or habit? or if the +two former should be taken as distinct from life, _toto genere_, and +supervenient to it, we then ask what conception is given of _vital_ +assimilation as contradistinguished from that of the nucleus of a crystal? + +_Lastly_, this definition confounds the Law of Life, or the primary and +universal form of vital agency, with the conception, Animals. For the +kind, it substitutes the representative of its degrees and modifications. +But the first and most important office of science, physical or +physiological, is to contemplate the power in kind, abstracted from the +degree. The ideas of caloric, whether as substance or property, and the +conceptions of latent heat, the heat in ice, &c., that excite the wonder +or the laughter of the vulgar, though susceptible of the most important +practical applications, are the result of this abstraction; while the only +purpose to which a definition like the preceding could become subservient, +would be in supplying a nomenclature with the character of the most common +species of a genus--its _genus generalissimum_, and even this would be +useless in the present instance, inasmuch as it presupposes the knowledge +of the things characterised. + +The third class, and far superior to the two former, selects some property +characteristic of all living bodies, not merely found in all _animals_ +alike, but existing equally in all parts of all living things, both +animals and plants. Such, for instance, is the definition of Life, as +consisting in anti-putrescence, or the power of resisting putrefaction. +Like all the others, however, even this confines the idea of Life to those +degrees or concentrations of it, which manifest themselves in organized +beings, or rather in those the organization of which is apparent to us. +Consequently, it substitutes an abstract term, or generalization of +effects, for the idea, or superior form of causative agency. At best, it +describes the _vis vit_ by one only of its many influences. It is +however, as we have said before, preferable to the former, because it is +not, as they are, altogether unfruitful, inasmuch as it attests, less +equivocally than any other sign, the presence or absence of that degree of +the _vis vit_ which is the necessary condition of organic or +self-renewing power. It throws no light, however, on the law or principle +of action; it does not increase our insight into the other phenomena; it +presents to us no _inclusive_ form, out of which the other forms may be +developed, and finally, its defect as a definition may be detected by +generalizing it into a higher formula, as a power which, during its +continuance, resists or subordinates heterogeneous and adverse powers. Now +this holds equally true of chemical relatively to the mechanical powers; +and really affirms no more of Life than may be equally affirmed of every +form of being, namely, that it tends to preserve itself, and resists, to a +certain extent, whatever is incompatible with the laws that constitute its +particular state for the time being. For it is not true only of the great +divisions or classes into which we have found it expedient to distinguish, +while we generalize, the powers acting in nature, as into intellectual, +vital, chemical, mechanical; but it holds equally true of the degrees, or +species of each of these genera relatively to each other: as in the +decomposition of the alkalies by heat, or the galvanic spark. Like the +combining power of Life, the copula here resists for awhile the attempts +to dissolve it, and then yields, to reappear in new phenomena. + +It is a wonderful property of the human mind, that when once a momentum +has been given to it in a fresh direction, it pursues the new path with +obstinate perseverance, in all conceivable bearings, to its utmost +extremes. And by the startling consequences which arise out of these +extremes, it is first awakened to its error, and either recalled to some +former track, or receives some fresh impulse, which it follows with the +same eagerness, and admits to the same monopoly. Thus in the 13th century +the first science which roused the intellects of men from the torpor of +barbarism, was, as in all countries ever has been, and ever must be the +case, the science of _Metaphysics_ and _Ontology_. We first seek what can +be found at home, and what wonder if truths, that appeared to reveal the +secret depths of our own souls, should take possession of the whole mind, +and all truths appear trivial which could not either be evolved out of +similar principles, by the same process, or at least brought under the +same forms of thought, by perceived or imagined analogies? And so it was. +For more than a century men continued to invoke the oracle of their own +spirits, not only concerning its own forms and modes of being, but +likewise concerning the laws of external nature. All attempts at +philosophical explication were commenced by a mere effort of the +understanding, as the power of abstraction; or by the imagination, +transferring its own experiences to every object presented from without. +By the former, a class of phenomena were in the first place abstracted, +and fixed in some general term: of course this could designate only the +impressions made by the outward objects, and so far, therefore, having +been thus metamorphosed, they were effects of these objects; but then made +to supply the place of their own causes, under the name of occult +qualities. Thus the properties peculiar to gold, were abstracted from +those it possessed in common with other bodies, and then generalized in +the term _Aureity_: and the inquirer was instructed that the Essence of +Gold, or the cause which constituted the peculiar modification of matter +called gold, was the power of aureity. By the latter, _i.e._ by the +imagination, thought and will were superadded to the occult quality, and +every form of nature had its appropriate Spirit, to be controlled or +conciliated by an appropriate ceremonial. This was entitled its +SUBSTANTIAL FORM. Thus, physic became a sort of dull poetry, and the art +of medicine (for physiology could scarcely be said to exist) was a system +of magic, blended with traditional empiricism. Thus the forms of thought +proceeded to act in their own emptiness, with no attempt to fill or +substantiate them by the information of the senses, and all the branches +of science formed so many sections of logic and metaphysics. And so it +continued, even to the time that the Reformation sounded the second +trumpet, and the authority of the schools sank with that of the hierarchy, +under the intellectual courage and activity which this great revolution +had inspired. Power, once awakened, cannot rest in one object. All the +sciences partook of the new influences. The world of experimental +philosophy was soon mapped out for posterity by the comprehensive and +enterprising genius of Bacon, and the laws explained by which experiment +could be dignified into experience.(2) But no sooner was the impulse +given, than the same propensity was made manifest of looking at all things +in the one point of view which chanced to be of predominant attraction. +Our Gilbert, a man of genuine philosophical genius, had no sooner +multiplied the facts of magnetism, and extended our knowledge concerning +the property of magnetic bodies, but all things in heaven, and earth, and +in the waters beneath the earth, were resolved into magnetic influences. + +Shortly after a new light was struck by Harriott and Descartes, with their +contemporaries, or immediate predecessors, and the restoration of ancient +geometry, aided by the modern invention of algebra, placed the science of +mechanism on the philosophic throne. How widely this domination spread, +and how long it continued, if, indeed, even now it can be said to have +abdicated its pretensions, the reader need not be reminded. The sublime +discoveries of Newton, and, together with these, his not less fruitful +than wonderful application, of the higher mathesis to the movements of the +celestial bodies, and to the laws of light, gave almost a religious +sanction to the corpuscular system and mechanical theory. It became +synonymous with philosophy itself. It was the sole portal at which truth +was permitted to enter. The human body was treated of as an hydraulic +machine, the operations of medicine were solved, and alas! even directed +by reference partly to gravitation and the laws of motion, and partly by +chemistry, which itself, however, as far as its theory was concerned, was +but a branch of mechanics working exclusively by imaginary wedges, angles, +and spheres. Should the reader chance to put his hand on the "Principles +of Philosophy," by La Forge, an immediate disciple of Descartes, he may +see the phenomena of sleep solved in a copper-plate engraving, with all +the figures into which the globules of the blood shaped themselves, and +the results demonstrated by mathematical calculations. In short, from the +time of Kepler(3) to that of Newton, and from Newton to Hartley, not only +all things in external nature, but the subtlest mysteries of life and +organization, and even of the intellect and moral being, were conjured +within the magic circle of mathematical formul. And now a new light was +struck by the discovery of electricity, and, in every sense of the word, +both playful and serious, both for good and for evil, it may be affirmed +to have electrified the whole frame of natural philosophy. Close on its +heels followed the momentous discovery of the principal gases by Scheele +and Priestly, the composition of water by Cavendish, and the doctrine of +latent heat by Black. The scientific world was prepared for a new dynasty; +accordingly, as soon as Lavoisier had reduced the infinite variety of +chemical phenomena to the actions, reactions, and interchanges of a few +elementary substances, or at least excited the expectation that this would +speedily be effected, the hope shot up, almost instantly, into full faith, +that it had been effected. Henceforward the new path, thus brilliantly +opened, became the common road to all departments of knowledge: and, to +this moment, it has been pursued with an eagerness and almost epidemic +enthusiasm which, scarcely less than its political revolutions, +characterise the spirit of the age. Many and inauspicious have been the +invasions and inroads of this new conqueror into the rightful territories +of other sciences; and strange alterations have been made in less harmless +points than those of terminology, in homage to an art unsettled, in the +very ferment of imperfect discoveries, and either without a theory, or +with a theory maintained only by composition and compromise. Yet this very +circumstance has favoured its encroachments, by the gratifications which +its novelty affords to our curiosity, and by the keener interest and +higher excitement which an unsettled and revolutionary state is sure to +inspire. He who supposes that science possesses an immunity from such +influences knows little of human nature. How, otherwise, could men of +strong minds and sound judgments have attempted to penetrate by the clue +of chemical experiment the secret recesses, the sacred adyta of organic +life, without being aware that chemistry must needs be at its extreme +limits, when it has approached the threshold of a higher power? Its own +transgressions, however, and the failure of its enterprises will become +the means of defining its absolute boundary, and we shall have to guard +against the opposite error of rejecting its aid altogether as analogy, +because we have repelled its ambitious claims to an identity with the +vital powers. + + * * * * * + +Previously to the submitting my own ideas on the subject of life, and the +powers into which it resolves itself, or rather in which it is manifested +to us, I have hazarded this apparent digression from the anxiety to +_preclude certain suspicions_, which the subject itself is so fitted to +awaken, and while I anticipate the charges, to plead in answer to each a +full and unequivocal--not guilty! + +In the first place, therefore, I distinctly disclaim all intention of +explaining life into an occult quality; and retort the charge on those who +can satisfy themselves with defining it as the peculiar power by which +death is resisted. + +Secondly. Convinced--by revelation, by the consenting authority of all +countries, and of all ages, by the imperative voice of my own conscience, +and by that wide chasm between man and the noblest animals of the brute +creation, which no perceivable or conceivable difference of organization +is sufficient to overbridge--that I have a rational and responsible soul, I +think far too reverentially of the same to degrade it into an hypothesis, +and cannot be blind to the contradiction I must incur, if I assign that +soul which I believe to constitute the peculiar nature of man as the cause +of functions and properties, which man possesses in common with the oyster +and the mushroom.(4) + +Thirdly, while I disclaim the error of Stahl in deriving the phenomena of +life from the unconscious actions of the rational soul, I repel with still +greater earnestness the assertion and even the supposition that the +functions are the offspring of the structure, and "Life(5) the result of +organization," connected with it as effect with cause. Nay, the position +seems to me little less strange, than as if a man should say, that +building with all the included handicraft, of plastering, sawing, planing, +&c. were the offspring of the house; and that the mason and carpenter were +the result of a suite of chambers, with the passages and staircases that +lead to them. To make A the offspring of B, when the very existence of B +as B presupposes the existence of A, is preposterous in the _literal_ +sense of the word, and a consummate instance of the _hysteron proteron_ in +logic. But if I reject the organ as the cause of that, of which it is the +organ, though I might admit it among the _conditions_ of its actual +functions; for the same reason, I must reject _fluids_ and _ethers_ of all +kinds, magnetical, electrical, and universal, to whatever quintessential +thinness they may be treble distilled, and (as it were) +super-substantiated. With these, I abjure likewise all _chemical_ +agencies, compositions, and decompositions, were it only that as +stimulants they suppose a stimulability _sui generis_, which is but +another paraphrase for life. Or if they are themselves at once both the +excitant and the excitability, I miss the connecting link between this +imaginary ether and the visible body, which then becomes no otherwise +distinguished from inanimate matter, than by its juxtaposition in mere +space, with an heterogeneous inmate, the cycle of whose actions revolves +within itself. Besides which I should think that I was confounding +metaphors and realities most absurdly, if I imagined that I had a greater +insight into the meaning and possibility of a living alcohol, than of a +living quicksilver. In short, visible _surface_ and _power_ of any kind, +much more the _power_ of life, are ideas which the very forms of the human +understanding make it impossible to identify. But whether the powers which +manifest themselves to us under certain conditions in the forms of +electricity, or chemical attraction, have any analogy to the power which +manifests itself in growth and organization, is altogether a different +question, and demands altogether a different chain of reasoning: if it be +indeed a tree of knowledge, it will be known by its fruits, and these will +depends not on the mere assertion, but on the inductions by which the +position is supported, and by the additions which it makes to our insight +into the nature of the facts it is meant to illustrate. + +To _account_ for Life is one thing; to explain Life another. In the first +we are supposed to state something prior (if not in time, yet in the order +of Nature) to the thing accounted for, as the ground or cause of that +thing, or (which comprises the meaning and force of both words) as its +_sufficient cause, quae et facit, et subest_. And to this, in the question +of Life, I know no possible answer, but GOD. To account for a thing is to +see into the principle of its possibility, and from that principle to +evolve its being. Thus the mathematician demonstrates the truths of +geometry by constructing them. It is an admirable remark of Joh. Bapt. a +Vico, in a Tract published at Naples, 1710,(6) "Geometrica ide +demonstramus, quia facimus; physica si demonstrare possimus, faceremus. +Metaphysici veri claritas eadem ac lucis, quam non nisi per opaca +cognoscimus; nam non lucem sed lucidas res videmus. Physica sunt opaca, +nempe formata et finita, in quibus Metaphysici veri lumen videmus." The +reasoner who assigns structure or organization as the antecedent of Life, +who names the former a cause, and the _latter_ its effect, _he_ it is who +pretends to account for life. Now Euclid would, with great right, demand +of such a philosopher to _make_ Life; in the same sense, I mean, in which +Euclid makes an Icosahedron, or a figure of twenty sides, namely, in the +understanding or by an intellectual construction. An argument which, of +itself, is sufficient to prove the untenable nature of Materialism. + +To explain a power, on the other hand, is (the power itself being assumed, +though not comprehended, _ut qui datur, non intelligitur_) to unfold or +spread it out: _ex implicito planum facere_. In the present instance, such +an explanation would consist in the reduction of the idea of Life to its +simplest and most comprehensive form or mode of action; that is, to some +characteristic _instinct_ or _tendency_, evident in all its +manifestations, and involved in the idea itself. This assumed as existing +in _kind_, it will be required to present an ascending series of +corresponding phenomena as involved _in_, proceeding _from_, and so far +therefore explained _by_, the supposition of its progressive intensity and +of the gradual enlargement of its sphere, the necessity of which again +must be contained in the idea of the tendency itself. In other words, the +tendency having been given in _kind_, it is required to render the +phenomena intelligible as its different degrees and modifications. Still +more perfect will the explanation be, should the necessity of this +progression and of these ascending gradations be contained in the assumed +idea of life, as thus defined by the general form and common purport of +all its various tendencies. This done, we have only to add the conditions +common to all its phenomena, and, those appropriate to each place and +rank, in the scale of ascent, and then proceed to determine the primary +and constitutive forms, _i.e._ the elementary powers in which this +tendency realizes itself under different degrees and conditions.(7) + +What is Life? Were such a question proposed, we should be tempted to +answer, what is _not_ Life that really _is_? Our reason convinces us that +the quantities of things, taken abstractedly as quantity, exist only in +the relations they bear to the percipient; in plainer words, they exist +only in our minds, _ut quorum esse est percipi_. For if the definite +quantities have a ground, and therefore a reality, in the external world, +and independent of the mind that perceives them, this ground is _ipso +facto_ a quality; the very etymon of this world showing that a quality, +not taken in its own nature but in relation to another thing, is to be +defined _causa sufficiens, entia, de quibus loquimur; esse talia, qualia +sunt_. Either the quantities perceived exist only in the perception, or +they have likewise a real existence. In the former case, the quality (the +word is here used in an active sense) that determines them belongs to +Life, _per ipsam hypothesin_; and in the other case, since by the +agreement of all parties Life may exist in other forms than those of +consciousness, or even of sensibility, the _onus probandi_ falls on those +who assert of any quality that it is _not_ Life. For the analogy of all +that we know is clearly in favour of the contrary supposition, and if a +man would analyse the meaning of his own words, and carefully distinguish +his perceptions and sensations from the external cause exciting them, and +at the same time from the quantity or superficies under which that cause +is acting, he would instantly find himself, if we mistake not, +involuntarily identifying the ideas of Quality and Life. Life, it is +admitted on all hands, does not necessarily imply consciousness or +sensibility; and we, for our parts, cannot see that the irritability which +metals manifest to galvanism, can be more remote from that which may be +supposed to exist in the tribe of lichens, or in the helvell, pezizee, +&c., than the latter is from the phenomena of excitability in the human +body, whatever name it may be called by, or in whatever way it may modify +itself.(8) That the mere act of growth does not constitute the idea of +Life, or the absence of that act exclude it, we have a proof in every egg +before it is placed under the hen, and in every grain of corn before it is +put into the soil. All that could be deduced by fair reasoning would +amount to this only, that the life of metals, as the power which effects +and determines their comparative cohesion, ductility, &c., was yet lower +on the scale than the Life which produces the first attempts of +organization, in the almost shapeless tremella, or in such fungi as grow +in the dark recesses of the mine. + + * * * * * + +If it were asked, to what purpose or with what view we should generalize +the idea of Life thus broadly, I should not hesitate to reply that, were +there no other use conceivable, there would be _some_ advantage in merely +destroying an arbitrary assumption in natural philosophy, and in reminding +the physiologists that they could not hear the life of metals asserted +with a more contemptuous surprise than they themselves incur from the +vulgar, when they speak of the Life in mould or mucor. But this is not the +case. This wider view not only precludes a groundless assumption, it +likewise fills up the arbitrary chasm between physics and physiology, and +justifies us in using the former as means of insight into the latter, +which would be contrary to all sound rules of ratiocination if the powers +working in the objects of the two sciences were absolutely and essentially +diverse. For as to abstract the idea of _kind_ from that of _degrees_, +which are alone designated in the language of common use, is the first and +indispensable step in philosophy, so are we the better enabled to form a +notion of the _kind_, the lower the _degree_, and the simpler the form is +in which it appears to us. We study the complex in the simple; and only +from the intuition of the lower can we safely proceed to the intellection +of the higher degrees. The only danger lies in the leaping from low to +high, with the neglect of the intervening gradations. But the same error +would introduce discord into the gamut, _et ab abusu contra usum non valet +consequentia_. That these degrees will themselves bring forth secondary +kinds sufficiently distinct for all the purposes of science, and even for +common sense, will be seen in the course of this inquisition: for this is +one proof of the essential vitality of nature, that she does not ascend as +links in a suspended chain, but as the steps in a ladder; or rather she at +one and the same time _ascends_ as by a climax, and expands as the +concentric circles on the lake from the point to which the stone in its +fall had given the first impulse. At all events, a contemptuous rejection +of this mode of reasoning would come with an ill grace from a medical +philosopher, who cannot combine any three phenomena of health or of +disease without the assumption of powers, which he is compelled to deduce +without being able to demonstrate; nay, even of material substances as the +_vehicles_ of these powers, which he can never expect to exhibit before +the senses. + +From the preceding it should appear, that the most comprehensive formula +to which life is reducible, would be that of the internal copula of +bodies, or (if we may venture to borrow a phrase from the Platonic school) +the _power_ which discloses itself from within as a principle of _unity_ +in the _many_. But that there is a physiognomy in words, which, without +reference to their fitness or necessity, make unfavorable as well as +favorable impressions, and that every unusual term in an abstruse research +incurs the risk of being denominated jargon, I should at the same time +have borrowed a scholastic _term_, and defined life _absolutely_, as the +principle of unity in _multeity_, as far as the former, the unity to wit, +is produced _ab intra_; but _eminently_ (_sensu eminenti_), I define life +as _the principle of individuation_, or the power which unites a given +_all_ into a _whole_ that is presupposed by all its parts. The link that +combines the two, and acts throughout both, will, of course, be defined by +the _tendency_ to _individuation_. Thus, from its utmost _latency_, in +which life is one with the elementary powers of mechanism, that is, with +the powers of mechanism considered as qualitative and actually synthetic, +to its highest manifestation, (in which, as the _vis vit vivida_, or life +_as_ life, it subordinates and modifies these powers, becoming +contra-distinguished from mechanism,(9) _ab extra_, under the form of +organization,) there is an ascending series of intermediate classes, and +of analogous gradations in each class. To a reflecting mind, indeed, the +very fact that the powers peculiar to life in living animals _include_ +cohesion, elasticity, &c. (or, in the words of a late publication, "that +living matter exhibits these physical properties,"(10)) would demonstrate +that, in the truth of things, they are homogeneous, and that both the +classes are but degrees and different dignities of one and the same +tendency. For the latter are not subjected to the former as a lever, or +walking-stick to the muscles; the more intense the life is, the less does +_elasticity_, for instance, appear _as_ elasticity. It sinks down into the +nearest approach to its _physical_ form by a series of degrees from the +contraction and elongation of the irritable muscle to the physical +hardness of the insensitive nail. The lower powers are _assimilated_, not +merely _employed_, and assimilation presupposes the homogeneous nature of +the thing assimilated; else it is a miracle, only not the same as that of +a _creation_, because it would imply that additional and equal miracle of +annihilation. In short, all the impossibilities which the acutest of the +reformed Divines have detected in the hypothesis of transubstantiation +would apply, _totidem verbis et syllabis_, to that of assimilation, if the +objects and the agents were really heterogeneous. Unless, therefore, a +thing can exhibit properties which do not belong to it, the very admission +that living matter exhibits physical properties, includes the further +admission, that those _physical_ or dead properties are themselves vital +in essence, really _distinct_ but in appearance only _different_; or in +absolute contrast with each other. + +In all cases that which, _abstractly_ taken, is the definition of the +_kind_, will, when applied _absolutely_, or in its fullest sense, be the +definition of the highest _degree_ of that kind. If life, in general, be +defined _vis ab intra, cujus proprium est coadunare plura in rem unicam, +quantm est res unica_; the unity will be more intense in proportion as it +constitutes each particular thing a whole of itself; and yet more, again, +in proportion to the number and interdependence of the parts, which it +unites as a whole. But a whole composed, _ab intra_, of different parts, +so far interdependent that each is reciprocally means and end, is an +individual, and the individuality is most intense where the greatest +dependence of the parts on the whole is combined with the greatest +dependence of the whole on its parts; the first (namely, the dependence of +the parts on the whole) being absolute; the second (namely, the dependence +of the whole on its parts) being proportional to the importance of the +relation which the parts have to the whole, that is, as their action +extends more or less beyond themselves. For this spirit of the whole is +most expressed in that part which derives its importance as an End from +its importance as a Mean, relatively to all the parts under the same +copula. + +Finally, of individuals, the living power will be most intense in that +individual which, as a whole, has the greatest number of integral parts +presupposed in it; when, moreover, these integral parts, together with a +proportional increase of their interdependence, as _parts_, have +themselves most the character of wholes in the sphere occupied by them. A +mathematical point, line, or surface, is an _ens rationis_, for it +expresses an intellectual act; but a physical atom is _ens fictitium_, +which may be made subservient, as ciphers are in arithmetic, to the +purposes of hypothetical construction, _per regulam falsi_; but +transferred to _Nature_, it is in the strictest sense an _absurd_ +quantity; for extension, and consequently divisibility, or _multeity_,(11) +(for space cannot be divided,) is the indispensable condition, under which +alone anything can _appear_ to us, or even be _thought_ of, as a _thing_. +But if it should be replied, that the elementary particles are atoms not +positively, but by such a hardness communicated to them as is relatively +invincible, I should remind the assertor that _temeraria citatio +supernaturalium est pulvinar intellects pigri_, and that he who requires +me to believe a miracle of his own dreaming, must first work a miracle to +convince me that he had dreamt by inspiration. Add, too, the gross +inconsistency of resorting to an immaterial influence in order to complete +a system of materialism, by the exclusion of all modes of existence which +the theorist cannot in imagination, at least, _finger_ and _peep_ at! Each +of the preceding gradations, as above defined, might be represented as +they exist, and are realised in Nature. But each would require a work for +itself, co-extensive with the science of metals, and that of fossils (both +as geologically applied); of crystallization; and of vegetable and animal +physiology, in all its distinct branches. The nature of the present essay +scarcely permits the space sufficient to illustrate our meaning. The proof +of its probability (for to that only can we arrive by so partial an +application of the hypothesis), is to be found in its powers of solving +the particular class of phenomena, that form the subjects of the present +inquisition, more satisfactorily and profitably than has been done, or +even attempted before. + +Exclusively, therefore, for the purposes of _illustration_, I would take +as an instance of the first step, the metals, those, namely, that are +capable of permanent reduction. For, by the established laws of +nomenclature, the others (as sodium, potassium, calcium, silicium, &c.) +would be entitled to a class of their own, under the name of _bases_. It +is long since the chemists have despaired of decomposing this class of +bodies. They still remain, one and all, as elements or simple bodies, +though, on the principles of the corpuscularian philosophy, nothing can be +more improbable than that they really are such; and no reason has or can +be assigned on the grounds of that system, why, in no one instance, the +contrary has not been proved. But this is at once explained, if we assume +them as the simplest form of unity, namely, the unity of powers and +properties. For these, it is evident, may be endlessly modified, but can +never be decomposed. If I were asked by a philosopher who had previously +extended the attribute of Life to the _Byssus speciosa_, and even to the +crustaceous matter, or outward bones of a lobster, &c., whether the ingot +of gold expressed _life_, I should answer without hesitation, as the +_ingot_ of gold assuredly not, for its form is accidental and _ab extra_. +It may be added to or detracted from without in the least affecting the +nature, state, or properties in the specific matter of which the ingot +consists. But as _gold_, as that special union of absolute and of relative +gravity, ductility, and hardness, which, wherever they are found, +constitute _gold_, I should answer no less fearlessly, in the affirmative. +But I should further add, that of the two counteracting tendencies of +nature, namely, that of _detachment_ from the universal life, which +universality is represented to us by gravitation, and that of _attachment_ +or reduction into it, this and the other noble metals represented the +units in which the latter tendency, namely, that of identity with the life +of nature, subsisted in the greatest overbalance over the former. It is +the form of unity with the least degree of tendency to individuation. + +Rising in the ascent, I should take, as illustrative of the second step, +the various forms of crystals as a union, not of powers only, but of +parts, and as the simplest forms of composition in the next narrowest +sphere of affinity. Here the form, or apparent _quantity_, is manifestly +the result of the _quality_, and the chemist himself not seldom admits +them as infallible characters of the substances united in the whole of a +given crystal. + +In the first step, we had Life, as the mere _unity_ of powers; in the +second we have the simplest forms of _totality_ evolved. The third step is +presented to us in those vast formations, the tracing of which generically +would form the science of Geology, or its history in the strict sense of +the word, even as their description and diagnostics constitute its +preliminaries. + +Their claim to this rank I cannot here even attempt to support. It will be +sufficient to explain my reason for having assigned it to them, by the +avowal, that I regard them in a twofold point of view: 1st, as the residue +and product of vegetable and animal life; 2d, as manifesting the +tendencies of the Life of Nature to vegetation or animalization. And this +process I believe--in one instance by the peat morasses of the northern, +and in the other instance by the coral banks of the southern hemisphere--to +be still connected with the present order of vegetable and animal Life, +which constitute the fourth and last step in these wide and comprehensive +divisions. + +In the lowest forms of the vegetable and animal world we perceive totality +dawning into _individuation_, while in man, as the highest of the class, +the individuality is not only perfected in its corporeal sense, but begins +a new series beyond the appropriate limits of physiology. The tendency to +individuation, more or less obscure, more or less obvious, constitutes the +common character of all classes, as far as they maintain for themselves a +distinction from the universal life of the planet; while the degrees, both +of intensity and extension, to which this tendency is realized, form the +species, and their ranks in the great scale of ascent and expansion. + +In the treatment of a subject so vast and complex, within the limits +prescribed for an essay like the present, where it is impossible not to +say either too much or too little (and too much because too little), an +author is entitled to make large claims on the candour of his judges. Many +things he must express inaccurately, not from ignorance or oversight, but +because the more precise expression would have involved the necessity of a +further explanation, and this another, even to the first elements of the +science. This is an inconvenience which presses on the analytic method, on +however large a scale it may be conducted, compared with the synthetic; +and it must bear with a tenfold weight in the present instance, where we +are not permitted to avail ourselves of its usual advantages as a +counterbalance to its inherent defects. I shall have done all that I dared +propose to myself, or that can be justly demanded of me by others, if I +have succeeded in conveying a sufficiently clear, though indistinct and +inadequate notion, so as of its many results to render intelligible that +one which I am to apply to my particular subject, not as a truth already +demonstrated, but as an hypothesis, which pretends to no higher merit than +that of explaining the particular class of phenomena to which it is +applied, and asks no other reward than a presumption in favour of the +general system of which it affirms itself to be a dependent though +integral part. By Life I everywhere mean the true Idea of Life, or that +most general form under which Life manifests itself to us, which includes +all its other forms. This I have stated to be the _tendency to +individuation_, and the degrees or intensities of Life to consist in the +progressive realization of this tendency. The power which is acknowledged +to exist, wherever the realization is found, must subsist wherever the +tendency is manifested. The power which comes forth and stirs abroad in +the bird, must be latent in the egg. I have shown, moreover, that this +tendency to individuate cannot be conceived without the opposite tendency +to connect, even as the centrifugal power supposes the centripetal, or as +the two opposite poles constitute each other, and are the constituent acts +of one and the same power in the magnet. We might say that the life of the +magnet subsists in their union, but that it lives (acts or manifests +itself) in their strife. Again, if the tendency be at once to individuate +and to connect, to detach, but so as either to retain or to reproduce +attachment, the individuation itself must be a tendency to the ultimate +production of the highest and most comprehensive individuality. This must +be the one great end of Nature, her ultimate object, or by whatever other +word we may designate that something which bears to a final cause the same +relation that Nature herself bears to the Supreme Intelligence. + + * * * * * + +According to the plan I have prescribed for this inquisition, we are now +to seek for the highest law, or most general form, under which this +tendency acts, and then to pursue the same process with this, as we have +already done with the tendency itself, namely, having stated the law in +its highest abstraction, to present it in the different forms in which it +appears and reappears in higher and higher dignities. I restate the +question. The tendency having been ascertained, what is its most general +law? I answer--_polarity_, or the essential dualism of Nature, arising out +of its productive unity, and still tending to reaffirm it, either as +equilibrium, indifference, or identity. In its _productive power_, of +which the product is the only measure, consists its incompatibility with +mathematical calculus. For the full applicability of an abstract science +ceases, the moment reality begins.(12) Life, then, we consider as the +copula, or the unity of thesis and antithesis, position and +counterposition,--Life itself being the positive of both; as, on the other +hand, the two counterpoints are the necessary conditions of the +_manifestations_ of Life. These, by the same necessity, unite in a +synthesis; which again, by the law of dualism, essential to all actual +existence, expands, or _produces_ itself, from the point into the _line_, +in order again to converge, as the initiation of the same productive +process in some intenser form of reality. Thus, in the identity of the two +counter-powers, Life _sub_sists; in their strife it _con_sists: and in +their reconciliation it at once dies and is born again into a new form, +either falling back into the life of the whole, or starting anew in the +process of individuation. + +Whence shall we take our beginning? From Space, _istud litigium +philosophorum_, which leaves the mind equally dissatisfied, whether we +deny or assert its real existence. To make it wholly ideal, would be at +the same time to idealize all phenomena, and to undermine the very +conception of an external world. To make it real, would be to assert the +existence of something, with the properties of nothing. It would far +transcend the height to which a physiologist must confine his flights, +should we attempt to reconcile this apparent contradiction. It is the duty +and the privilege of the theologian to demonstrate, that _space_ is the +ideal organ by which the soul of man perceives the _omnipresence_ of the +Supreme Reality, as distinct from the works, which in him move, and live, +and have their being; while the equal mystery of _Time_ bears the same +relation to his _Eternity_, or what is fully equivalent, his Unity. + +Physiologically contemplated, Nature begins, proceeds, and ends in a +contradiction; for the moment of absolute solution would be that in which +Nature would cease to be Nature, _i.e._ a scheme of ever-varying +relations; and physiology, in the ambitious attempt to solve phenomena +into absolute realities, would itself become a mere web of verbal +abstractions. + +But it is in strict connexion with our subject, that we should make the +universal FORMS as well as the not less universal LAW of Life, clear and +intelligible in the example of _Time_ and _Space_, these being both the +first specification of the principle, and ever after its indispensable +symbols. First, a single act of self-inquiry will show the impossibility +of distinctly conceiving the one without some involution of the other; +either time expressed in space, in the form of the mathematical line, or +space within time, as in the circle. But to form the first conception of a +_real_ thing, we state both as one in the idea, _duration_. The formula +is: (A=B+B=A)=(A=A) or the oneness of space and time, is the predicate of +all _real_ being. + +But as little can we conceive the oneness, except as the mid-point +producing itself on each side; that is, manifesting itself on two opposite +poles. Thus, from identity we derive duality, and from both together we +obtain polarity, synthesis, indifference, predominance. The line is Time + +Space, under the predominance of Time: Surface is Space + Time, under the +predominance of Space, while Line + Surface as the synthesis of units, is +the circle in the first dignity; to the sphere in the second; and to the +globe in the third. In short, neither can the antagonists appear but as +two forces of one power, nor can the power be conceived by us but as the +equatorial point of the two counteracting forces; of which the +_hypomochlion_ of the lever is as good an illustration as anything can be +that is thought of _mechanically_ only, and exclusively of life. To make +it adequate, we must substitute the idea of positive production for that +of rest, or mere neutralization. To the fancy alone it is the null-point, +or zero, but to the reason it is the _punctum saliens_, and the power +itself in its eminence. Even in these, the most abstract and universal +forms of all thought and perception--even in the ideas of time and space, +we slip under them, as it were, a _substratum_; for we cannot think of +them but as far as they are co-inherent, and therefore as reciprocally the +measures of each other. Nor, again, can we finish the process without +having the idea of _motion_ as its immediate product. Thus we say, that +time has one dimension, and imagine it to ourselves as a line. But the +line we have already proved to be the productive synthesis of time, with +space under the predominance of time. If we exclude space by an abstract +assumption, the time remains as a spaceless point, and represents the +concentered power of unity and active negation, _i.e._ retraction, +determination, and limit, _ab intra_. But if we assume the time as +excluded, the line vanishes, and we leave space dimensionless, an +indistinguishable ALL, and therefore the representative of absolute +weakness and formlessness, but, for that very reason, of infinite capacity +and formability. + +We have been thus full and express on this subject, because these simple +ideas of time, space, and motion, of length, breadth, and depth, are not +only the simplest and universal, but the necessary symbols of all +philosophic construction. They will be found the primary factors and +elementary forms of every calculus and of every diagram in the algebra and +geometry of a scientific physiology. Accordingly, we shall recognise the +same forms under other names; but at each return more specific and +intense; and the whole process repeated with ascending gradations of +reality, _exempli grati_: Time + space = motion; T_m_ + space = line + +breadth = depth; depth + motion = force; L_f_ + B_f_ = D_f_; LD_f_ + BD_f_ += attraction + repulsion = gravitation; and so on, even till they pass +into outward phenomena, and form the intermediate link between productive +powers and fixed products in light, heat, and electricity. If we pass to +the construction of matter, we find it as the product, or _tertium aliud_, +of antagonist powers of repulsion and attraction. Remove these powers, and +the conception of matter vanishes into space--conceive repulsion only, and +you have the same result. For infinite repulsion, uncounteracted and +alone, is tantamount to infinite, dimensionless diffusion, and this again +to infinite weakness; viz., to space. Conceive attraction alone, and as an +infinite contraction, its product amounts to the absolute point, viz., to +time. Conceive the synthesis of both, and you have matter as a fluxional +antecedent, which, in the very act of formation, passes into body by its +gravity, and yet in all bodies it still remains as their mass, which, +being exclusively calculable under the law of gravitation, gives rise, as +we before observed, to the science of statics, most improperly called +celestial mechanics. + +In strict consistence with the same philosophy which, instead of +considering the powers of bodies to have been miraculously stuck into a +prepared and pre-existing matter, as pins into a pin-cushion, conceives +the powers as the productive factors, and the body or phenomenon as the +fact, product, or fixture; we revert again to potentiated length in the +power of magnetism; to surface in the power of electricity; and to the +synthesis of both, or potentiated depth, in constructive, that is, +chemical affinity. But while the two factors are as poles to each other, +each factor has likewise its own poles, and thus in the simple cross-- + +With M M, the magnetic line, running from top to bottom, with _f f_ its +northern pole, or pole of attraction; and _m m_ its south, or pole of +repulsion, and E E, running from left to right, one of the lines that +spring from each point of M M, with its east, or pole of contraction, and +_d_ its west, or pole of diffluence and expansion--we have presented to us +the universal quadruplicity, or four elemental forms of power; in the +endless proportions and modifications of which, the innumerable offspring +of all-bearing Nature consist. Wisely docile to the suggestions of Nature +herself, the ancients significantly expressed these forces under the names +of earth, water, air, and fire; not meaning any tangible or visible +substance so generalized, but the powers predominant, and, as it were, the +living basis of each, which no chemical decomposition can ever present to +the senses, were it only that their interpenetration and co-inherence +first constitutes them sensible, and is the condition and meaning of +a--_thing_. Already our more truly philosophical naturalists (Ritter, for +instance) have begun to generalize the four great elements of chemical +nomenclature, carbon, azote, oxygen, and hydrogen: the two former as the +positive and negative pole of the magnetic axis, or as the power of fixity +and mobility; and the two latter as the opposite poles, or plus and minus +states of cosmical electricity, as the powers of contraction and +dilatation, or of comburence and combustibility. These powers are to each +other as longitude to latitude, and the poles of each relatively as north +to south, and as east to west. For surely the reader will find no distrust +in a system only because Nature, ever consistent with herself, presents us +everywhere with harmonious and accordant symbols of her consistent +doctrines. Nothing would be more easy than, by the ordinary principles of +sound logic and common sense, to demonstrate the impossibility and expose +the absurdity of the corpuscularian or mechanic system, or than to prove +the intenable nature of any intermediate system. But we cannot force any +man into an insight or intuitive possession of the true philosophy, +because we cannot give him abstraction, intellectual intuition, or +constructive imagination; because we cannot organize for him an eye that +can see, an ear that can listen to, or a heart that can feel, the +harmonies of Nature, or recognise in her endless forms, the thousand-fold +realization of those simple and majestic laws, which yet in their +absoluteness can be discovered only in the recesses of his own spirit,--not +by that man, therefore, whose imaginative powers have been _ossified_ by +the continual reaction and assimilating influences of mere _objects_ on +his mind, and who is a prisoner to his own eye and its reflex, the passive +fancy!--not by him in whom an unbroken familiarity with the organic world, +as if it were mechanical, with the sensitive, but as if it were insensate, +has engendered the coarse and hard spirit of a sorcerer. The former is +unable, the latter unwilling, to master the absolute pre-requisites. There +is neither hope nor occasion for him "to cudgel his brains about it, he +has no feeling of the business." If he do not see the necessity from +without, if he have not learned the possibility from within, of +interpenetration, of total intussusception, of the existence of all in +each as the condition of Nature's unity and substantiality, and of the +latency under the predominance of some one power, wherein subsists her +life and its endless variety, as he must be, by habitual slavery to the +eye, or its reflex, the passive fancy, under the influences of the +corpuscularian philosophy, he has so paralysed his imaginative powers as +to be unable--or by that hardness and heart-hardening spirit of contempt, +which is sure to result from a perpetual commune with the lifeless, he has +so far debased his inward being--as to be unwilling to comprehend the +pre-requisite, he must be content, while standing thus at the threshold of +philosophy, to receive the results, though he cannot be admitted to the +deliberation--in other words, to act upon _rules_ which he is incapable of +understanding as LAWS, and to reap the harvest with the sharpened iron for +which others have delved for him in the mine. + +It is not improbable that there may exist, and even be discovered, higher +forms and more akin to Life than those of magnetism, electricity, and +constructive (or chemical) affinity appear to be, even in their finest +known influences. It is not improbable that we may hereafter find +ourselves justified in revoking certain of the latter, and unappropriating +them to a yet unnamed triplicity; or that, being thus assisted, we may +obtain a qualitative instead of a quantitative insight into vegetable +animation, as distinct from animal, and that of the insect world from +both. But in the present state of science, the magnetic, electric, and +chemical powers are the last and highest of inorganic nature. These, +therefore, we assume as presenting themselves again to us, in their next +metamorphosis, as reproduction (_i.e._ growth and identity of the whole, +amid the change or flux of all the parts), irritability and sensibility; +reproduction corresponding to magnetism, irritability to electricity, and +sensibility to constructive chemical affinity. + + * * * * * + +But before we proceed further, it behoves us to answer the objections +contained in the following passage, or withdraw ourselves in time from the +bitter contempt in which it would involve us. Acting under such a +necessity, we need not apologise for the length of the quotation. + +1. "If," says Mr. Lawrence, "the properties of living matter are to be +explained in this way, why should not we adopt the same plan with physical +properties, and account for gravitation, or chemical affinity, by the +supposition of appropriate subtile fluids? Why does the irritability of a +muscle need such an explanation, if explanation it can be called, more +than the elective attraction of a salt?" + +2. "To make the matter more intelligible, this vital principle is compared +to magnetism, to electricity, and to galvanism; or it is roundly stated to +be oxygen. 'Tis like a camel, or like a whale, or like what you please." + +3. "You have only to grant that the phenomena of the sciences just alluded +to depend on extremely fine and invisible fluids, superadded to the +matters in which they are exhibited, and to allow further that Life, and +magnetic, galvanic, and electric phenomena correspond perfectly; the +existence of a subtile matter of Life will then be a very probable +inference." + +4. "On this illustration you will naturally remark, that the existence of +the magnetic, electric, and galvanic fluids, which is offered as a proof +of the existence of a vital fluid, is as much a matter of doubt as that of +the vital fluid itself." + +5. "It is singular, also, that the vital principle should be like both +magnetism and electricity, when these two are not like each other." + +6. "It would have been interesting to have had this illustration +prosecuted a little further. We should have been pleased to learn whether +the human body is more like a loadstone, a voltaic pile, or an electrical +machine; whether the organs are to be regarded as Leyden jars, magnetic +needles, or batteries." + +7. "The truth is, there is no resemblance, no analogy, between Electricity +and Life; the two orders of phenomena are completely distinct; they are +incommensurable. Electricity illustrates life no more than life +illustrates electricity."(13) + +To avoid unnecessary description, I shall refer to the passages by the +numbers affixed to them, for that purpose, in the margin. + +In reply to No. 1, I ask whether, in the nature of the mind, illustration +and explanation must not of necessity proceed from the lower to the +higher? or whether a boy is to be taught his addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, by the highest branches of algebraic +analysis? Is there any better way of systematic teaching, than that of +illustrating each new step, or having each new step illustrated to him by +its identity in kind with the step the next below it? though it be the +only mode in which this objection can be answered, yet it seems affronting +to remind the objector, of rules so simple as that the complex must even +be illustrated by the more simple, or the less scrutible by that which is +more subject to our examination. + +In reply to No. 2, I first refer to the author's eulogy on Mr. Hunter, p. +163, in which he is justly extolled for having "surveyed the whole +_system_ of organized beings, from plants to man:" of course, therefore, +_as_ a _system_; and therefore under some _one common law_. Now in the +very same sense, and no other, than that in which the writer himself by +implication compares himself as a man to the _dermestes typographicus_, or +the _fucus scorpioides_, do I compare the principle of Life to magnetism, +electricity, and constructive affinity,--or rather to that power to which +the two former are the thesis and antithesis, the latter the synthesis. +But if to compare involve the sense of its etymon, and involve the sense +of parity, I utterly deny that I do at all compare them; and, in truth, in +no conceivable sense of the word is it applicable, any more than a +geometrician can be affirmed to compare a polygon to a point, because he +generates the line out of the point. The writer attributes to a philosophy +essentially vital the barrenness of the mechanic system, with which alone +his imagination has been familiarised, and which, as hath been justly +observed by a contemporary writer, is contradistinguished from the former +principally in this respect; that demanding for every mode and act of +existence real or possible visibility, it knows only of distance and +nearness, composition (or rather compaction) and decomposition, in short, +the relations of unproductive particles to each other; so that in every +instance the result is the exact sum of the component qualities, as in +arithmetical addition. This is the philosophy of Death, and only of a dead +nature can it hold good. In Life, and in the view of a vital philosophy, +the two component counter-powers actually interpenetrate each other, and +generate a higher third, including both the former, "ita tamen ut sit alia +et major." + +As a complete answer to No. 3, I refer the reader to many passages in the +preceding and following pages, in which, on far higher and more +demonstrative grounds than the mechanic system can furnish, I have exposed +the unmeaningness and absurdity of these finer fluids, as applied even to +electricity itself; unless, indeed, they are assumed as its product. But +in addition I beg leave to remind the author, that it is incomparably more +agreeable to all experience to originate the formative process in the +_fluid_, whether fine or gross, than in corporeal _atoms_, in which we are +not only deserted by all experience, but contradicted by the primary +conception of body itself. + +Equally inapplicable is No. 4: and of No. 5 I can only repeat, first, that +I do not make Life _like_ magnetism, or _like_ electricity; that the +difference between magnetism and electricity, and the powers illustrated +by them, is an essential part of my system, but that the animal Life of +man is the identity of all three. To whatever other system this objection +may apply, it is utterly irrelevant to that which I have here propounded: +though from the narrow limits prescribed to me, it has been propounded +with an inadequacy painful to my own feelings. + +The ridicule in No. 6 might be easily retorted; but as it could prove +nothing, I will leave it where I found it, in a page where nothing is +proved. + +A similar remark might be sufficient for the bold and blank assertion (No. +7) with which the extract concludes; but that I feel some curiosity to +discover what meaning the author attaches to the term analogy. Analogy +implies a difference in sort, and not merely in degree; and it is the +sameness of the end, with the difference of the means, which constitutes +analogy. No one would say the lungs of a man were analogous to the lungs +of a monkey, but any one might say that the gills of fish and the +spiracula of insects are analogous to lungs. Now if there be any +philosophers who have asserted that electricity as electricity is the +_same_ as Life, for that reason they cannot be _analogous_ to each other; +and as no man in his senses, philosopher or not, is capable of imagining +that the lightning which destroys a sheep, was a means to the same end +with the principle of its organization; for this reason, too, the two +powers cannot be represented as analogous. Indeed I know of no system in +which the word, as thus applied, would admit of an endurable meaning, but +that which teaches us, that a mass of marrow in the skull is analogous to +the rational soul, which Plato and Bacon, equally with the "poor Indian," +believe themselves to have received from the Supreme Reason. + +It would be blindness not to see, or affectation to pretend not to see, +the work at which these sarcasms were levelled. The author of that work is +abundantly able to defend his own opinions; yet I should be ambitious to +address _him_ at the close of the contest in the lines of the great Roman +poet: + +"Et nos tela, Pater, ferrumque haud debile dextr +Spargimus, et nostro sequitur, de vulnere sanguis." + +In Mr. Abernethy's Lecture on the Theory of Life, it is impossible not to +see a presentiment of a great truth. He has, if I may so express myself, +caught it in the breeze: and we seem to hear the first glad opening and +shout with which he springs forward to the pursuit. But it is equally +evident that the prey has not been followed through its doublings and +windings, or driven out from its brakes and covers into full and open +view. Many of the least tenable phrases may be fairly interpreted as +illustrations, rather than precise exponents of the author's meaning; at +least, while they remain as a mere suggestion or annunciation of his +ideas, and till he has expanded them over a larger sphere, it would be +unjust to infer the contrary. But it is not with men, however strongly +their professional merits may entitle them to reverence, that my concern +is at present. If the opinions here supported are the same with those of +Mr. Abernethy, I rejoice in his authority. If they are different, I shall +wait with an anxious interest for an exposition of that difference. + +Having reasserted that I no more confound magnetism with electricity, or +the chemical process, than the mathematician confounds length with +breadth, or either with depth; I think it sufficient to add that there are +two views of the subject, the former of which I do not believe +attributable to any philosopher, while both are alike disclaimed by me as +forming any part of my views. The first is that which is supposed to +consider electricity identical with life, as it subsists in organized +bodies. The other considers electricity as everywhere present, and +penetrating all bodies under the image of a subtile fluid or substance, +which, in Mr. Abernethy's inquiry, I regard as little more than a mere +diagram on his slate, for the purpose of fixing the attention on the +intellectual conception, or as a possible _product_, (in which case +electricity must be a composite power,) or at worst, as words _qu humana +incuria fudit_. This which, in inanimate Nature, is manifested now as +magnetism, now as electricity, and now as chemical agency, is supposed, on +entering an organized body, to constitute its vital _principle_, something +in the same manner as the steam becomes the _mechanic_ power of the +steam-engine, in _consequence_ of its compression by the steam-engine; or +as the breeze that murmurs indistinguishably in the forest becomes the +element, the substratum, of melody in the olian harp, and of consummate +harmony in the organ. Now this hypothesis is as directly opposed to my +view as supervention is to evolution, inasmuch as I hold the organized +body itself, in all its marvellous contexture, to be the PRODUCT and +representant of the power which is here supposed to have supervened to it. +So far from admitting a _transfer_, I do not admit it even in electricity +itself, or in the phenomena universally called electrical; among other +points I ground my explanation of remote sympathy on the directly contrary +supposition. + +But my opinions will be best explained by a rapid exemplification in the +processes of Nature, from the first rudiments of individualized life in +the lowest classes of its two great poles, the vegetable and animal +creation, to its crown and consummation in the human body; thus +illustrating at once the unceasing _polarity of life, as the form of its +process, and its tendency to progressive individuation as the law of its +direction_. + +Among the conceptions, of the mere ideal character of which the +philosopher is well aware, and which yet become necessary from the +necessity of assuming a beginning; the original fluidity of the planet is +the chief. Under some form or other it is expressed or implied in every +system of cosmogony and even of geology, from Moses to Thales, and from +Thales to Werner. This assumption originates in the same law of mind that +gave rise to the _prima materia_ of the Peripatetic school. In order to +_comprehend_ and _explain_ the _forms_ of things, we must imagine a state +_antecedent_ to form. A chaos of heterogeneous substances, such as our +Milton has described, is not only an _impossible_ state (for this may be +equally true of every other attempt), but it is _palpably_ impossible. It +presupposes, moreover, the thing it is intended to solve; and makes _that_ +an _effect_ which had been called in as the explanatory _cause_. The +requisite and only serviceable fiction, therefore, is the representation +of CHAOS as one vast homogeneous drop! In this sense it may be even +justified, as an appropriate symbol of the great fundamental truth that +all things spring from, and subsist in, the endless strife between +indifference and difference. The whole history of Nature is comprised in +the specification of the transitional states from the one to the other. +The symbol only is fictitious: the thing signified is not only grounded in +truth--it is the law and actuating principle of all other truths, whether +physical or intellectual. + +Now, by magnetism in its widest sense, I mean the first and simplest +_differential_ act of Nature, as the power which works in _length_, and +produces the first distinction between the indistinguishable by the +generation of a _line_. Relatively, therefore, to fluidity, that is, to +matter, the parts of which cannot be distinguished from each other by +figure, magnetism is the power of fixity; but, relatively to itself, +magnetism, like every other power in Nature, is designated by its opposite +poles, and must be represented as the magnetic axis, the northern pole of +which signifies rest, attraction, fixity, coherence, or hardness; the +element of EARTH in the nomenclature of _observation_ and the CARBONIC +principle in that of _experiment_; while the southern pole, as its +antithesis, represents mobility, repulsion, incoherence, and fusibility; +the element of air in the nomenclature of observation (that is, of Nature +as it appears to us when unquestioned by art), and azote or nitrogen in +the nomenclature of experiment (that is, of Nature in the state so +beautifully allegorized in the Homeric fable of Proteus bound down, and +forced to answer by Ulysses, after having been pursued through all his +metamorphoses into his ultimate form.(14)) That nothing real does or can +exist corresponding to either pole _exclusively_, is involved in the very +definition of a THING as the synthesis of opposing energies. That a thing +_is_, is owing to the co-inherence therein of any two powers; but that it +is _that_ particular thing arises from the proportions in which these +powers are co-present, either as predominance or as reciprocal +neutralization; but under the modification of twofold power to which +magnetism itself is, as the thesis to its antithesis. + +The correspondent, in the world of the senses, to the magnetic axis, +exists in the series of metals. The metalleity, as the universal base of +the planet, is a necessary deduction from the principles of the system. +From the infusible, though evaporable, diamond to nitrogen itself, the +metallic nature of which has been long suspected by chemists, though still +under the mistaken notion of an oxyde, we trace a series of metals from +the maximum of coherence to positive fluidity, in all ordinary +temperatures, we mean. Though, in point of fact, cold itself is but a +superinduction of the one pole, or, what amounts to the same thing, the +subtraction of the other, under the modifications afore described; and +therefore are the metals indecomposible, because they are themselves the +decompositions of the metallic axis, in all its degrees of longitude and +latitude. Thus the substance of the planet from which it _is_, is +metallic; while that which is ever _becoming_, is in like manner produced +through the perpetual modification of the first by the opposite forces of +the second; that is, by the principle of contraction and difference at the +eastern extreme--the element of fire, or the oxygen of the chemists; and by +the elementary power of dilatation, or universality at its western +extreme--the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} of the ancients, and the hydrogen of the +laboratory. + +It has been before noticed that the progress of Nature is more truly +represented by the ladder, than by the suspended chain, and that she +expands as by concentric circles. This is, indeed, involved in the very +conception of individuation, whether it be applied to the different +species or to the individuals. In what manner the evident interspace is +reconciled with the equally evident continuity of the life of Nature, is a +problem that can be solved by those minds alone, which have intuitively +learnt that the whole _actual_ life of Nature originates in the existence, +and consists in the perpetual reconciliation, and as perpetual resurgency +of the primary contradiction, of which universal polarity is the result +and the exponent. From the first moment of the differential impulse--(the +primval chemical epoch of the Wernerian school)--when Nature, by the +tranquil deposition of crystals, prepared, as it were, the fulcrum of her +after-efforts, from this, her first, and in part _irrevocable_, +self-contraction, we find, in each ensuing production, more and more +tendency to independent existence in the increasing multitude of strata, +and in the relics of the lowest orders, first of vegetable and then of +animal life. In the schistous formations, which we must here assume as in +great measure the residua of vegetable creations, that have sunk back into +the universal life, and in the later predominant calcareous masses, which +are the _caput mortuum_ of animalized existence, we ascend from the laws +of attraction and repulsion, as united in gravity, to magnetism, +electricity, and constructive power, till we arrive at the point +representative of a new and far higher intensity. For from this point +flow, as in opposite directions, the two streams of vegetation and +animalization, the former characterised by the predominance of magnetism +in its highest power, as reproduction, the other by electricity +intensified--as irritability, in like manner. The vegetable and animal +world are the thesis and antithesis, or the opposite poles of organic +life. We are not, therefore, to seek in either for analogies to the other, +but for counterpoints. On the same account, the nearer the common source, +the greater the likeness; the farther the remove, the greater the +opposition. At the extreme limits of inorganic Nature, we may detect a dim +and obscure prophecy of her ensuing process in the twigs and rude +semblances that occur in crystallization of some of the copper ores, and +in the well-known _arbor Dian_, and _arbor Veneris_. These latter Ritter +has already ably explained by considering the oblique branches and their +acute angles as the result of magnetic repulsion, from the presentation of +the same poles, &c. In the CORALS and CONCHYLIA, the whole act and purpose +of their existence seems to be that of connecting the animal with the +inorganic world by the perpetual formation of calcareous earth. For the +corals are nothing but polypi, which are characterised by still passing +away and dissolving into the earth, which they had previously excreted, as +if they were the first feeble effort of detachment. The power seems to +step forward from out the inorganic world only to fall back again upon it, +still, however, under a new form, and under the predominance of the more +active pole of magnetism. The product must have the same connexion, +therefore, with azote, which the first rudiments of vegetation have with +carbon: the one and the other exist not for their own sakes, but in order +to produce the conditions best fitted for the production of higher forms. +In the polypi, corallines, &c., individuality is in its first dawn; there +is the same shape in them all, and a multitude of animals form, as it +were, a common animal. And as the individuals run into each other, so do +the different genera. They likewise pass into each other so +indistinguishably, that the whole order forms a very network. + +As the corals approach the conchylia, this interramification decreases. +The tubipora forms the transition to the serpula; for the characteristic +of all zoophytes, namely, the star shape of their openings, here +disappears, and the tubipor are distinguished from the rest of the corals +by this very circumstance, that the hollow calcareous pipes are placed +side by side, without interbranching. In the serpula they have already +become separate. How feeble this attempt is to individuate, is most +clearly shown in their mode of generation. Notwithstanding the report of +Professor Pallas, it still remains doubtful whether there exists any +actual copulation among the polypi. The mere existence of a polypus +suffices for its endless multiplication. They may be indefinitely +propagated by cuttings, so languid is the power of individuation, so +boundless that of reproduction. But the delicate jelly dissolves, as +lightly as it was formed, into its own product, and it is probable that +the Polynesia, as a future continent, will be the gigantic monument, not +so much of their life, as of the life of Nature in them. Here we may +observe the first instance of that general law, according to which Nature +still assimilates her extreme points. In these, her first and feeblest +attempts to animalize organization, it is latent, because undeveloped, and +merely potential; while, in the human brain, the last and most consummate +of her combined energies, it is again lost or disguised in the +subtlety(15) and multiplicity of its evolution. + +In the class immediately above (Mollusca) we find the individuals +separate, a more determinate form, and in the higher species, the rudiment +of nerves, as the first scarce distinguishable impress and exponent of +sensibility; still, however, the vegetative reproduction is the +predominant form; and even the nerves "which float in the same cavity with +the other viscera," are probably subservient to it, and extend their power +in the increased intensity of the reproductive force. Still prevails the +transitional state from the fluid to the solid; and the jelly, that +rudiment in which all animals, even the noblest, have their commencement; +constitutes the whole sphere of these rudimental animals. + +In the snail and muscle, the residuum of the coral reappears, but refined +and ennobled into a part of the animal. The whole class is characterised +by the separation of the fluid from the solid. On the one side, a +gelatinous semi-fluid; on the other side, an entirely inorganic, though +often a most exquisitely mechanised, calcareous excretion. + +Animalization in general is, we know, contra-distinguished from vegetables +in general by the predominance of azote in the chemical composition, and +of irritability in the organic process. But in this and the foregoing +classes, as being still near the common equator, or the punctum +indifferenti, the carbonic principle still asserts its claims, and the +force of reproduction struggles with that of irritability. In the +unreconciled strife of these two forces consists the character of the +_Vermes_, which appear to be the preparatory step for the next class. +Hence the difficulties which have embarrassed the naturalists, who adopt +the Linnan classification, in their endeavours to discover determinate +characters of distinction between the vermes and the insecta. + +But no sooner have we passed the borders, than endless variety of form and +the bold display of instincts announce, that Nature has succeeded. She has +created the intermediate link between the vegetable world, as the product +of the reproductive or magnetic power, and the animal as the exponent of +sensibility. Those that live and are nourished, on the bodies of other +animals, are comparatively few, with little diversity of shape, and almost +all of the same natural family. These we may pass by as exceptions. But +the insect world, taken at large, appears as an intenser life, that has +struggled itself loose and become emancipated from vegetation, _Flor +liberti, et libertini!_ If for the sake of a moment's relaxation we might +indulge a Darwinian flight, though at the risk of provoking a smile, (not, +I hope, a frown) from sober judgment, we might imagine the life of insects +an apotheosis of the petals, stamina, and nectaries, round which they +flutter, or of the stems and pedicles, to which they adhere. Beyond and +above this step, Nature seems to act with a sort of free agency, and to +have formed the classes from choice and bounty. Had she proceeded no +further, yet the whole vegetable, together with the whole insect creation, +would have formed within themselves an entire and independent system of +Life. All plants have insects, most commonly each genus of vegetables its +appropriate genera of insects; and so reciprocally interdependent and +necessary to each other are they, that we can almost as little think of +vegetation without insects, as of insects without vegetation. Though +probably the mere likeness of _shape_, in the _papilio_, and the +papilionaceous plants, suggested the idea of the former, as the latter in +a state of detachment, to our late poetical and theoretical brother; yet a +something, that approaches to a graver plausibility, is given to this +fancy of a flying blossom; when we reflect how many plants depend upon +insects for their fructification. Be it remembered, too, that with few and +very obscure exceptions, the irritable power and an analogon of voluntary +motion first dawn on us in the vegetable world, in the stamina, and +anthers, at the period of impregnation. Then, as if Nature had been +encouraged by the success of the first experiment, both the one and the +other appear as predominance and general character. THE INSECT WORLD IS +THE EXPONENT OF IRRITABILITY, AS THE VEGETABLE IS OF REPRODUCTION. + +With the ascent in power, the intensity of individuation keeps even pace; +and from this we may explain all the characteristic distinctions between +this class and that of the vermes. The almost homogeneous jelly of the +animalcula infusoria became, by a vital oxydation, granular in the polypi. +This granulation formed itself into distinct organs in the mollusc; while +for the snails, which are the next step, the animalized lime, that seemed +the sole final cause of the life of the polypi, assumes all the characters +of an ulterior purpose. Refined into a horn-like substance, it becomes to +the snails the substitute of an organ, and their outward skeleton. Yet how +much more manifold and definite, the organization of an insect, than that +of the preceding class, the patient researches of Swammerdam and Lyonnet +have evinced, to the delight and admiration of every reflecting mind. + +In the insect, for the first time, we find the distinct commencement of a +separation between the exponents of sensibility and those of irritability; +_i.e._ between the _nervous_ and the _muscular_ system. The latter, +however, asserts its pre-eminence throughout. The prodigal provision of +organs for the purposes of respiration, and the marvellous powers which +numerous tribes of insects possess, of accommodating the most corrupted +airs, for a longer or shorter period, to the support of their +excitability, would of itself lead us to presume, that here the _vis +irritabilis_ is the reigning dynasty. There is here no confluence of +nerves into one reservoir, as evidence of the independent existence of +sensibility _as_ sensibility;--and therefore no counterpoise of a vascular +system, as a distinct exponent of the irritable pole. The whole +muscularity of these animals, is the organ of irritability; and the nerves +themselves are probably feeders of the motory power. The petty rills of +sensibility flow into the full expanse of irritability, and there lose +themselves. The nerves appertaining to the senses, on the other hand, are +indistinct, and comparatively unimportant. The multitude of immovable eyes +appear not so much conductors of light, as its ultimate recipient. We are +almost tempted to believe that they constitute, rather than subserve, +their sensorium. + +These eye-facets form the sense of light, rather than organs of seeing. +Their almost paradoxical number at least, and the singularity of their +forms, render it probable that they impel the animal by some modification +of its irritability, herein likewise containing a striking analogy to the +known influence of light on plants, than as excitements of sensibility. +The sense that is nearest akin to irritability, and which alone resides in +the muscular system, is that of touch, or feeling. This, therefore, is the +first sense that emerges. Being confined to absolute contact, it occupies +the lowest rank; but for that very reason it is the ground of all the +other senses, which act, according to the ratio of their ascent, at still +increasing distances, and become more and more ideal, from the tentacles +of the polypus, to the human eye; which latter might be defined the +outward organ of the identity, or at least of the indifference, of the +real and ideal. But as the calcareous residuum of the lowest class +approaches to the nature of horn in the snail, so the cumbrous shell of +the snail has been transformed into polished and moveable plates of +defensive armour in the insect. Thus, too, the same power of progressive +individuation articulates the tentacula of the polypus and holothuria into +antenn; thereby manifesting the full emersion and eminency of +irritability as a power which acts in, and gives its own character to, +that of reproduction. The least observant must have noticed the +lightning-like rapidity with which the insect tribes devour and eliminate +their food, as by an instinctive necessity, and in the least degree for +the purposes of the animal's own growth or enlargement. The same +predominance of irritability, and at the same time a new start in +individuation, is shown in the reproductive power as generation. There is +now a regular projection, _ab intra ad extra_, for which neither sprouts +nor cuttings can any longer be the substitutes. We have not space for +further detail; but there is one point too strikingly illustrative and +even confirmative of the proposed system, to be omitted altogether. We +mean the curious fact, that the same characteristic tendency, _ad extra_, +which in the males and females of certain insect tribes is realized in the +functions of generation, conception, and parturiency, manifests and +expands itself in the _sexless_ individuals (which are always in this case +the great majority of the species), as instincts of art, and in the +construction of works completely detached and inorganic; while the +geometric regularity of these works, which bears an analogy to +crystallization, is demonstrably no more than the necessary result of +uniform action in a compressed multitude. + +Again, as the insect world, averaging the whole, comes nearest to plants, +(whose very essence is reproduction,) in the multitude of their germs; so +does it resemble plants in the sufficiency of a single impregnation for +the evolution of myriads of detached lives. Even so, the metamorphoses of +insects, from the egg to the maggot and caterpillar, and from these, +through the nympha and aurelia into the perfect insect, are but a more +individuated and intenser form of a similar transformation of the plant +from the seed-leaflets, or cotyledons, through the stalk, the leaves, and +the calyx, into the perfect flower, the various colours of which seem made +for the reflection of light, as the antecedent grade to the burnished +scales, and scale-like eyes of the insect. Nevertheless, with all this +seeming prodigality of organic power, the whole tendency is _ad extra_, +and the life of insects, as electricity in the quadrate, acts chiefly on +the superficies of their bodies, to which we may add the negative proof +arising from the absence of sensibility. It is well known, that the two +halves of a divided insect have continued to perform, or attempt, each +their separate functions, the trunkless head feeding with its accustomed +voracity, while the headless trunk has exhibited its appropriate +excitability to the sexual influence. + +The intropulsive force, that sends the ossification inward as to the +centre, is reserved for a yet higher step, and this we find embodied in +the class of _fishes_. Even here, however, the process still seems +imperfect, and (as it were) initiatory. The skeleton has left the surface, +indeed, but the bones approach to the nature of gristle. To feel the truth +of this, we need only compare the most perfect bone of a fish with the +thigh-bones of the mammalia, and the distinctness with which the latter +manifest the co-presence of the _magnetic_ power in its solid parietes, of +the _electrical_ in its branching arteries, and of the third greatest +power, viz., the _qualitative_ and interior, in its marrow. The senses of +fish are more distinct than those of insects. Thus, the intensity of its +sense of smell has been placed beyond doubt, and rises in the extent of +its sphere far beyond the irritable sense, or the feeling, in insects. I +say the _feeling_, not the touch; for the touch seems, as it were, a +supervention to the feeling, a perfection _given_ to it by the reaction of +the higher powers. As the feeling of the insect, in subtlety and virtual +distance, rises above the solitary sense of taste(16) in the mollusca, so +does the smell of the fish rise above the feeling of the insect. In the +fish, likewise, the eyes are single and moveable, while it is remarkable +that the only insect that possesses this latter privilege, is an +inhabitant of the waters. Finally, here first, unequivocally, and on a +_large_ scale, (for I pretend not to control the freedom, in which the +necessity of Nature is rooted, by the precise limits of a system,)--here +first, Nature exhibits, in the power of sensibility, the consummation of +those vital forms (the _nisus formativi_) the adequate and the sole +measure of which is to be sought for in their several organic products. +But as if a weakness of exhaustion had attended this advance in the same +moment it was made, Nature seems necessitated to fall back, and re-exert +herself on the lower ground which she had before occupied, that of the +vital magnetism, or the power of reproduction. The intensity of this +latter power in the fishes, is shown both in their voracity and in the +number of their eggs, which we are obliged to calculate by _weight_, not +by _tale_. There is an equal intensity both of the _immanent_ and the +_projective_ reproduction, in which, if we take in the comparative number +of individuals in each species, and likewise the different intervals +between the acts, the fish (it is probable) would be found to stand in a +similar relation to the insect, as the insect, in the latter point, stands +to the system of vegetation. Meantime, the fish sinks a step below the +insect, in the mode and circumstances of impregnation. To this we will +venture to add, the predominance of _length_, as the _form_ of growth in +so large a proportion of the known orders of fishes, and not less of their +rectilineal path of motion. In all other respects, the correspondence +combined with the progress in individuation, is striking in the whole +detail. Thus the eye, in addition to its moveability, has besides acquired +a saline moisture in its higher development, as accordant with the life of +its element. Add to these the glittering covering in both, the splendour +of the scales in the one answering to the brilliant plates in the +other,--the luminous reservoirs of the fire-flies,--the phosphorescence and +electricity of many fishes,--the same analogs of moral qualities, in their +rapacity, boldness, modes of seizing their prey by surprise,--their gills, +as presenting the intermediate state between the spiracula of the grade +next below, and the lungs of the step next above, both extremes of which +seem combined in the structure of birds and of their quill-feathers; but +above all, the convexity of the crystalline lens, so much greater than in +birds, quadrupeds, and man, and seeming to collect, in one powerful organ, +the hundred-fold microscopic facettes of the insect's _light_ organs; and +it will not be easy to resist the conviction, that the same power is at +work in both, and reappears under higher auspices. The intention of Nature +is repeated; but, as was to have been expected, with two main differences. + +First, that in the lower grade the reproductions themselves seem merged in +those of irritability, from the very circumstance that the latter +constitutes no pole, either to the former, or to sensibility. The force of +irritability acts, therefore, in the insect world, in full predominance; +while the emergence of sensibility in the fish calls forth the opposite +pole of reproduction, as a _distinct_ power, and causes therefore the +irritability to flow, in part, into the power of reproduction. The second +result of this ascent is the direction of the organizing power, _ad +intra_, with the consequent greater simplicity of the exterior form, and +the substitution of condensed and flexible force, with comparative unity +of implements, for that variety of tools, almost as numerous as the +several objects to which they are to be applied, which arises from, and +characterises, the superficial life of the insect creation. This grade of +ascension, however, like the former, is accompanied by an apparent +retrograde movement. For from this very accession of vital intensity we +must account for the absence in the fishes of all the formative, or rather +(if our language will permit it) _fabricative_ instincts. How could it be +otherwise? These instincts are the surplus and projection of the +organizing power in the direction _ad extra_, and could not, therefore, +have been expected in the class of animals that represent the first +intuitive effort of organization, and are themselves the product of its +first movement in the direction _ad intra_. But Nature never loses what +she has once learnt, though in the acquirement of each new power she +intermits, or performs less energetically, the act immediately preceding. +She often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up again. She may +seem forgetful and absent, but it is only to recollect herself with +_additional_, as well as _recruited_ vigour, in some after and higher +state; as if the sleep of powers, as well as of bodies, were the season +and condition of their growth. Accordingly, we find these instincts again, +and with them a wonderful synthesis of fish and insect, as a higher third, +in the feathered inhabitants of the air. Nay, she seems to have gone yet +further back, and having given B + C = D in the birds, so to have sported +with one solitary instance of B + D = A in that curious animal the dragon, +the anatomy of which has been recently given to the public by Tiedemann; +from whose work it appears, that this creature presents itself to us with +the wings of the insect, and with the nervous system, the brain, and the +cranium of the bird, in their several rudiments. + +The synthesis of fish and insect in the birds, might be illustrated +equally in detail with the former; but it will be sufficient for our +purpose, that as in both the former cases, the insect and the fish, so +here in that of the birds, the powers are under the predominance of +irritability; the sensibility being dormant in the first, awakening in the +second, and awake, but still subordinate, in the third. Of this my limits +confine me to a single presumptive proof, viz., the superiority in +strength and courage of the female in the birds of prey. For herein, +indeed, does the difference of the sexes universally consist, wherever +both the forces are developed, that the female is characterised by quicker +irritability, and the male by deeper sensibility. How large a stride has +been now made by Nature in the progress of individuation, what +ornithologist does not know? From a multitude of instances we select the +most impressive, the power of sound, with the first rudiments of +modulation! That all languages designate the melody of birds as singing +(though according to Blumenbach man only sings, while birds do but +whistle), demonstrates that it has been felt as, what indeed it is, a +tentative and prophetic prelude of something yet to come. With this +conjoin the power and the tendency to acquire articulation, and to imitate +speech; conjoin the building instinct and the migratory, the monogamy of +several species, and the pairing of almost all; and we shall have +collected new instances of the usage (I dare not say law) according to +which Nature lets fall, in order to resume, and steps backward the +furthest, when she means to leap forwards with the greatest concentration +of energy. + +For lo! in the next step of ascent the power of sensibility has assumed +her due place and rank: her minority is at an end, and the complete and +universal presence of a nervous system unites absolutely, by instanteity +of time what, with the due allowances for the transitional process, had +before been either lost in sameness, or perplexed by multiplicity, or +compacted by a finer mechanism. But with this, all the analogies with +which Nature had delighted us in the preceding step seem lost, and, with +the single exception of that more than valuable, that estimable +philanthropist, the dog, and, perhaps, of the horse and elephant, the +analogies to ourselves, which we can discover in the quadrupeds or +quadrumani, are of our vices, our follies, and our imperfections. The +facts in confirmation of both the propositions are so numerous and so +obvious, the advance of Nature, under the predominance of the third +synthetic power, both in the intensity of life and in the intenseness and +extension of individuality, is so undeniable, that we may leap forward at +once to the highest realization and reconciliation of both her tendencies, +that of the most perfect detachment with the greatest possible union, to +that last work, in which Nature did not assist as handmaid under the eye +of her sovereign Master, who made Man in his own image, by superadding +self-consciousness with self-government, and breathed into him a living +soul. + +The class of _Vermes_ deposit a calcareous stuff, as if it had torn loose +from the earth a piece of the gross mass which it must still drag about +with it. In the insect class this residuum has refined itself. In the +fishes and amphibia it is driven back or inward, the organic power begins +to be intuitive, and sensibility appears. In the birds the bones have +become hollow; while, with apparent proportional recess, but, in truth, by +the excitement of the opposite pole, their exterior presents an actual +vegetation. The bones of the mammalia are filled up, and their coverings +have become more simple. Man possesses the most perfect osseous structure, +the least and most insignificant covering. The whole force of organic +power has attained an inward and centripetal direction. He has the whole +world in counterpoint to him, but he contains an entire world within +himself. Now, for the first time at the apex of the living pyramid, it is +Man and Nature, but Man himself is a syllepsis, a compendium of Nature--the +Microcosm! Naked and helpless cometh man into the world. Such has been the +complaint from eldest time; but we complain of our chief privilege, our +ornament, and the connate mark of our sovereignty. _Porphyrigeniti sumus_! +In Man the centripetal and individualizing tendency of all Nature is +itself concentred and individualized--he is a revelation of Nature! +Henceforward, he is referred to himself, delivered up to his own charge; +and he who stands the most on himself, and stands the firmest, is the +truest, because the most individual, Man. In social and political life +this acme is inter-dependence; in moral life it is independence; in +intellectual life it is genius. Nor does the form of polarity, which has +accompanied the law of individuation up its whole ascent, desert it here. +As the height, so the depth. The intensities must be at once opposite and +equal. As the liberty, so must be the reverence for law. As the +independence, so must be the service and the submission to the Supreme +Will! As the ideal genius and the originality, in the same proportion must +be the resignation to the real world, the sympathy and the inter-communion +with Nature. In the conciliating mid-point, or equator, does the Man live, +and only by its equal presence in both its poles can that life be +manifested! + + * * * * * + +If it had been possible, within the prescribed limits of this essay, to +have deduced the philosophy of Life synthetically, the evidence would have +been carried over from section to section, and the _quod erat +demonstrandum_ at the conclusion of one section would reappear as the +principle of the succeeding--the goal of the one would be the starting-post +of the other. Positions arranged in my own mind, as intermediate and +organic links of administration, must be presented to the reader in the +first instance, at least, as a mere hypothesis. Instead of demanding his +assent as a right, I must solicit a suspension of his judgment as a +courtesy; and, after all, however firmly the hypothesis may support the +phenomena piled upon it, we can deduce no more than a practical rule, +grounded on a strong presumption. The license of arithmetic, however, +furnishes instances that a rule may be usefully applied in practice, and +for the particular purpose may be sufficiently authenticated by the +result, before it has itself been duly demonstrated. It is enough, if only +it hath been rendered fully intelligible. + +In a system where every position proceeds from a scientific +preconstruction, a power acting exclusively in length, would be magnetism +by virtue of our own definition of the term. In like manner, a surface +power would be electricity, as far as that system was concerned, whether +it accorded or not with the facts ordinarily so called. But it is +incumbent on us, who must treat the subject _analytically_, to show by +experiment that magnetism does in fact act longitudinally, and electricity +superficially; and that, consequently, the former is distinguished from, +and yet contained in, the latter, as a straight line is distinguished +from, yet contained in, a superficies. + +First, that magnetism, in its conductors, seeks and follows length only, +and by the length is itself conducted, has been proved by Brugmans, in his +philosophical Essay on the Matter of Magnetism, where he relates that a +magnet capable of supporting a body four times heavier than itself, and +which acted as a magnetic needle at the distance of twenty inches, was so +weakened by the interposition of three cast-iron plates of considerable +thickness, as scarcely to move the magnetic needle from its place at a +distance of only three inches. A similar experiment had been made by +Descartes. I concluded, therefore, said Brugmans, that if the iron plates +were interposed between the magnet and the needle lengthways, instead of +breadthways or right across, the action of the magnet on the magnetic +needle would, in consequence of this great increase of resistance, become +still weaker, or perhaps evanescent. But not less to my surprise than my +admiration, I found that the power of the magnet was so far from being +_diminished_ by this change in the relative position of the iron-plates; +that, on the contrary, it now extended to a far greater distance than when +no iron at all was interposed. Some time after the same philosopher, out +of several iron bars, the sides of which were an inch broad each, composed +a single bar of the length of more than ten feet, and observed the +magnetism make its way through the whole mass. But, in order to try +whether the action could be propagated to any length indefinitely, after +several experiments with bars of intermediate lengths, in all of which he +had succeeded, he tried a four-cornered iron rod, more than twenty feet +long, and it was at this length that the magnetic power first began to be +diminished. So far Brugmans. + +But the shortest way for any one to convince himself of this relation of +the magnetic power would be, in one and the same experiment, to interpose +the same piece of iron between the magnet and the compass needle first +_breadthways_; and in this case it will be found that the needle, which +had been previously deflected by the magnet from its natural position at +one of its poles, will instantly resume the same, either wholly or very +nearly so--then to interpose the same piece of iron _lengthways_; in which +case the position of the compass needle will be scarcely or not at all +affected. + +The assertion of Bernoulli and others, that the absolute force of the +artificial magnet increases in the ratio of its superficies, stands +corrected in the far more accurate experiments of Coulomb (published in +his Treatise on Magnetism), which proves that the increase takes place (in +a far greater degree) in the ratio of its length. The same naturalist even +found means to determine that the directing powers of the needle, which he +had measured by help of his _balance de tortion_, stand to the length of +the needle in such a ratio as that, provided only the length of the needle +is from forty to fifty times its diameter, the momenta of these directing +powers will increase in the very same direct proportion as the length is +increased. Nor is this all that may be deduced from the experiment last +mentioned. If only the magnet be strong enough, it will show likewise that +magnetism _seeks_ the length. The proof is contained in the remarkable +fact, that the iron interposed between the magnet and the magnetic needle +_breadthways_ constantly acquires its two opposite poles at both ends +_lengthways_. Though the preceding experiments are abundantly sufficient +to prove the position, yet the following deserves mention for the +beautiful clearness of its evidence. If the magnetic power is determined +exclusively by length, it is to be expected that it will manifest no +force, where the piece of iron is of such a shape that no one dimension +predominates. Bring a _cube_ of iron near the magnetic needle and it will +not exert the slightest degree of power beyond what belongs to it as mere +iron. By the perfect equality of the dimensions, the magnetism of the +earth appears, as it were, perplexed and doubtful. Now, then attach a +second cube of iron to the first, and the instantaneous act of the iron on +the magnetic needle will make it manifest that with the length thus given, +the magnetic influence is given at the same moment. + +That electricity, on the other hand, does not act in length merely, is +clear, from the fact that every electric body is electric over its whole +surface. But that electricity acts both in length and breadth, and _only_ +in length and breadth, and not in depth; in short, that the (so-called) +electrical fluid in an electrified body spreads over the whole surface of +that body without penetrating it, or tending _ad intra_, may be proved by +direct experiment. Take a cylinder of wood, and bore an indefinite number +of holes in it, each of them four lines in depth and four in diameter. +Electrify this cylinder, and present to its superficies a small square of +gold-leaf, held to it by an insulating needle of gum lac, and bring this +square to an electrometer of great sensibility. The electrometer will +instantly show an electricity in the gold-leaf, similar to that of the +cylinder which had been brought into contact with it. The square of +gold-leaf having thus been discharged of its electricity, put it carefully +into one of the holes of the cylinder, _so_, namely, that it shall touch +only the bottom of the hole, and present it again to the electrometer. It +will be then found that the electrometer will exhibit no signs of +electricity whatsoever. From this it follows, that the electricity which +had been communicated to the cylinder had confined itself to the +_surface_. + +If the time and the limit prescribed would admit, we could multiply +experiments, all tending to prove the same law; but we must be content +with the barely sufficient. But that the _chemical process_ acts in +_depth_, and first, therefore, _realizes_ and integrates the fluxional +power of magnetism and electricity, is involved in the _term_ composition; +and this will become still more convincing when we have learnt to regard +_decomposition_ as a mere co-relative, _i.e._ as decomposition relatively +to the body decomposed, but composition _actually_ and in respect of the +substances, _into_ which it was decomposed. The alteration in the specific +gravity of metals in their chemical amalgams, interesting as the fact is +in all points, is _decisive_ in the present; for gravity is the sole +_inward_ of inorganic bodies--it _constitutes_ their depth. + +I can now, for the first time, give to my opinions that degree of +intelligibility, which is requisite for their introduction as hypotheses; +the experiments above related, understood as in the common mode of +thinking, prove that the magnetic influence flows in length, the electric +fluid by suffusion, and that chemical agency (whatever the main agent may +be) is qualitative and _in intimis_. Now my hypothesis demands the +converse of all this. I affirm that a power, acting exclusively in length, +is (wherever it be found) _magnetism_; that a power which acts _both_ in +length and in breadth, and _only_ in length and breadth, is (wherever it +be found) _electricity_; and finally, that a power which, together with +length and breadth, includes depth likewise, is (wherever it be found) +_constructive agency_. That is but _one_ phenomenon of magnetism, to which +we have appropriated and confined the term magnetism; because of all the +natural bodies at present known, iron, and one or two of its nearest +relatives in the family of hard yet coherent metals, are the only ones, in +which all the conditions are collected, under which alone the magnetic +agency can appear in and during the act itself. When, therefore, I affirm +the power of reproduction in organized bodies to be magnetism, I must be +understood to mean that this power, as it exists in the magnet, and which +we there (to use a strong phrase) catch in the very act, is to the same +kind of power, working as reproductive, what the root is to the cube of +that root. We no more confound the force in the compass needle with that +of reproduction, than a man can be said to confound his liver with a +lichen, because he affirms that both of them grow. + +The same precautions are to be repeated in the identification of +electricity with irritability; and the power of depth, for which we have +yet no appropriated term, with sensibility. How great the distance is in +all, and that the lowest degrees are adopted as the exponent terms, not +for their own sakes, but merely because they may be used with less hazard +of diverting the attention from the _kind_ by peculiar properties arising +out of the degree, is evident from the third instance, unless the theorist +can be supposed insane enough to apply sensation in good earnest to the +effervescence of an acid or an alkali, or to sympathise with the +distresses of a vat of new beer when it is working. In whatever way the +subject could be treated, it must have remained unintelligible to men who, +if they think of space at all, abstract their notion of it from the +contents of an exhausted receiver. With this, and with an ether, such men +may work wonders; as what, indeed, cannot be done with a plenum and a +vacuum, when a theorist has privileged himself to assume the one, or the +other, _ad libitum_?--in all innocence of heart, and undisturbed by the +reflection that the two things cannot both be true. That both time and +space are mere abstractions I am well aware; but I know with equal +certainty that what is _expressed_ by them as the _identity_ of both is +the highest reality, and the root of all power, the power to suffer, as +well as the power to act. However mere an _ens logicum_ space may be, the +_dimensions_ of space are real, and the works of Galileo, in more than one +elegant passage, prove with what awe and amazement they fill the mind that +worthily contemplates them. Dismissing, therefore, all facts of degrees, +as introduced merely for the purposes of illustration, I would make as +little reference as possible to the magnet, the charged phial, or the +processes of the laboratory, and designate the three powers in the process +of our animal life, each by two co-relative terms, the one expressing the +_form_, and the other the _object_ and _product_ of the power. My +hypothesis will, therefore, be thus expressed, that the constituent forces +of life in the human living body are--first, the power of length, or +REPRODUCTION; second, the power of surface (that is, length and breadth), +or IRRITABILITY; third, the power of depth, or SENSIBILITY. With this +observation I may conclude these remarks, only reminding the reader that +Life itself is neither of these separately, but the copula of all +three--that Life, _as_ Life, supposes a positive or universal principle in +Nature, with a negative principle in every particular animal, the latter, +or limitative power, constantly acting to individualize, and, as it were, +_figure_ the former. _Thus_, then, Life itself is not a _thing_--a +self-subsistent _hypostasis_--but an _act_ and _process_; which, pitiable +as the prejudice will appear to the _forts esprits_, is a great deal more +than either my reason would authorise or my conscience allow me to +assert--concerning the Soul, as the principle both of Reason and +Conscience. + + + + + +ADVERTISEMENTS. + + +_October, 1848._ Works on Medicine and Science +Published by John Churchill. + + * * * * * + +Dr. Golding Bird, F.R.S. The Diagnosis, Pathological Indications And +Treatment of Urinary Deposits. With Engravings on Wood. Second Edition. +Post 8vo. cloth, 8_s._ 6_d._ By The Same Author. Elements of Natural +Philosophy; being an Experimental Introduction to the Study of the +Physical Sciences. Illustrated with several Hundred Wood-cuts. Third +Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Beasley. The Pocket Formulary and Synopsis of The British And Foreign +Pharmacopoeias; comprising Standard and Improved Formul for the +Preparations and Compounds employed in Medical Practice. Fourth Edition, +corrected and enlarged. 18mo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Henry Bennett. A Practical Treatise on Inflammation, Ulceration, And +Induration of the Neck of The Uterus; with Remarks on Leucorrhoea and +Prolapsus Uteri, as Symptoms of this form of Disease. 8vo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Budd, F.R.S. On Diseases of the Liver; illustrated with Coloured +Plates and Engravings on Wood. 8vo. cloth, 14_s._ + + * * * * * + +Sir James Clark, Bart., M.D. On The Sanative Influence of Climate. With an +Account of the best Places of Resort for Invalids in England, the South of +Europe, &c. Fourth Edition, revised. Post 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. +A Manual of Physiology; specially designed for the Use of Students. With +numerous Illustrations on Steel and Wood. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ +Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. Principles of General and Comparative Physiology; +intended as an Introduction to the Study of Human Physiology, and as a +Guide to the Philosophical Pursuit of Natural History. Illustrated with +numerous Figures on Copper and Wood. The Second Edition. 8vo. cloth, +18_s._ By The Same Author. Principles of Human Physiology. numerous +Illustrations on Steel and Wood. Third Edition. One thick 8vo. vol. 21_s._ + + * * * * * + +Sir Astley Cooper, Bart., F.R.S. A Treatise on Dislocations and Fractures +of the Joints. Edited by Bransby b. Cooper, F.R.S. 8vo. cloth, 20_s._ Sir +Astley Cooper left very considerable additions in MS. for the express +purpose of being introduced into this Edition. By The Same Author. +Observations on the Structure and Diseases of the Testis. Illustrated with +Twenty-four highly-finished coloured Plates. Second Edition. Royal 4to. +cloth. _Reduced from_ 3_l._ 3_s. to_ 1_l._ 10_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Conolly. The Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums and +Hospitals for the Insane. With Plans, post 8vo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Cooley. Comprehensive Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia The Cyclopdia of +Practical Receipts, and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, +and Trades, Including Medicine, Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy; designed +as a Compendious Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, +Amateur, and Heads of Families. Second Edition, in one thick volume of 800 +pages. 8vo. cloth, 14_s._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Fergusson, F.R.S.E. A System of Practical Surgery; with numerous +Illustrations on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ Mr. +Churchill's Publications. Mr. Fownes, PH. D., F.R.S. A Manual of +Chemistry; with numerous Illustrations on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. +cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ "An admirable exposition of the present state of +chemical science, simply and clearly written."--_British and Foreign +Medical Review._ By The Same Author. Introduction to Qualitative Analysis. +Post 8vo. cloth, 2_s._ + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Mr. Abernethy. + + 2 Experiment, as an organ of reason, not less distinguished from the + blind or dreaming industry of the alchemists, than it was + successfully opposed to the barren subtleties of the schoolmen. + + 3 Whose own mind, however, was not comprehended in the vortex; where + Kepler erred it was in the other extreme. + + 4 But still less would I avail myself of its acknowledged + inappropriateness to the purposes of physiology, in order to cast a + self-complacent sneer on the soul itself, and on all who believe in + its existence. First, because in my opinion it would be impertinent; + secondly, because it would be imprudent and injurious to the + character of my profession; and, lastly, because it would argue an + irreverence to the feelings of mankind, which I deem scarcely + compatible with a good heart, and a degree of arrogance and + presumption which I have never found, except in company with a + corrupt taste and a shallow capacity. + + 5 Vide Lawrence's Lecture. + + 6 Joh. Bapt. a Vico, Neapol. Reg. eloq. Professor, de antiquissima + Itallorum sapientia ex lingua Latina originibus aruend: libri tres. + Neap., 1710. + + 7 The object I have proposed to myself, and wherein its distinction + exists, may be thus illustrated. A complex machine is presented to + the common view, the moving power of which is hidden. Of those who + are studying and examining it, one man fixes his attention on some + one application of that power, on certain effects produced by that + particular application, and on a certain part of the structure + evidently appropriated to the production of these effects, neither + the one or other of which he had discovered in a neighbouring + machine, which he at the same time asserts to be quite distinct from + the former, and to be moved by a power altogether different, though + many of the works and operations are, he admits, common to both + machines. In this supposed peculiarity he places the essential + character of the former machine, and defines it by the presence of + that which is, or which he supposes to be, absent in the latter. + Supposing that a stranger to both were about to visit the two + machines, this peculiarity would be so far useful as that it might + enable him to distinguish the one from the other, and thus to look + in the proper place for whatever else he had heard remarkable + concerning either; not that he or his informant would understand the + machine any better or otherwise, than the common character of a + whole class in the nomenclature of botany would enable a person to + understand all, or any one of the plants contained in that class. + But if, on the other hand, the machine in question were such as no + man was a stranger to, if even the supposed peculiarity, either by + its effects, or by the construction of that portion of the works + which produced them, were equally well known to all men, in this + case we can conceive no use at all of such a definition; for at the + best it could only be admitted as a definition for the purposes of + nomenclature, which never adds to knowledge, although it may often + facilitate its communication. But in this instance it would be + nomenclature misplaced, and without an object. Such appears to me to + be the case with all those definitions which place the essence of + Life in nutrition, contractility, &c. As the second instance, I will + take the inventor and maker of the machine himself, who knows its + moving power, or perhaps himself constitutes it, who is, as it were, + the soul of the work, and in whose mind all its parts, with all + their bearings and relations, had pre-existed long before the + machine itself had been put together. In him therefore there would + reside, what it would be presumption to attempt to acquire, or to + pretend to communicate, the most perfect insight not only of the + machine itself, and of all its various operations, but of its + ultimate principle and its essential causes. The mysterious ground, + the efficient causes of vitality, and whether different lives differ + absolutely or only in degree, He alone can know who not only said, + "Let the earth bring forth the living creature, the beast of the + earth after his kind, and it was so;" but who said, "Let us make man + in our image, who himself breathed into his nostrils the breath of + Life, and man became a living soul." + + The third case which I would apply to my own attempt would be that + of the inquirer, who, presuming to know nothing of the power that + moves the whole machine, takes those parts of it which are presented + to his view, seeks to reduce its various movements to as few and + simple laws of motion as possible, and out of their separate and + conjoint action proceeds to explain and appropriate the structure + and relative positions of the works. In obedience to the + canon,--"Principia non esse multiplicanda prter summam necessitatem + cui suffragamur non ideo quia causalem in mundo unitatem vel ratione + vel experienti perspiciamus, sed illam ipsam indagamus impulsu + intellects, qui tantundem sibi in explicatione phnomenorum + profecisse videtur quantum ab codem principio ad plurima rationata + descendere ipsi concessum est." + + 8 The arborescent forms on a frosty morning, to be seen on the window + and pavement, must have _some_ relation to the more perfect forms + developed in the vegetable world. + + 9 Thus we may say that whatever is organized from without, is a + product of mechanism; whatever is mechanised from within, is a + production of organization. + + 10 "The matter that surrounds us is divided into two great classes, + living and dead; the latter is governed by physical laws, such as + attraction, gravitation, chemical affinity; and it exhibits physical + properties, such as cohesion, elasticity, divisibility, &c. Living + matter also exhibits these properties, and is subject, in great + measure, to physical laws. But living bodies are endowed moreover + with a set of properties altogether different from these, and + contrasting with them very remarkably." (Vide Lawrence's Lectures, + p. 121.) + + 11 Much against my will I repeat this scholastic term, _multeity_, but + I have sought in vain for an unequivocal word of a less repulsive + character, that would convey the notion in a positive and not + comparative sense in kind, as opposed to the _unum et simplex_, not + in degree, as contracted with the _few_. We can conceive no reason + that can be adduced in justification of the word _caloric_, as + invented to distinguish the external cause of the sensation heat, + which would not equally authorise the introduction of a technical + term in this instance. + + 12 For abstractions are the conditions and only subject of all abstract + sciences. Thus the theorist (vide Dalton's Theory), who reduces the + chemical process to the positions of atoms, would doubtless thereby + render chemistry calculable, but that he commences by destroying the + chemical process itself, and substitutes for it a _mote dance_ of + abstractions; for even the powers which he appears to leave real, + those of attraction and repulsion, he immediately unrealizes by + representing them as diverse and separable properties. We can + abstract the quantities and the quantitative motion from masses, + passing over or leaving for other sciences the question of what + constitutes the masses, and thus apply not to the masses themselves, + but to the abstractions therefrom,--the laws of geometry and + universal arithmetic. And where the quantities are the infallible + signs of real powers, and our chief concern with the masses is as + SIGNS, sciences may be founded thereon of the highest use and + dignity. Such, for instance, is the sublime science of astronomy, + having for its objects the vast masses which "God placed in the + firmament of the heaven to be for _signs_ and for seasons, for days + and years." For the whole doctrine of physics may be reduced to + three great divisions: First, _quantitative motion_, which is + proportioned to the quantity of matter exclusively. This is the + science of weight or statics. Secondly, _relative motion_, as + communicated to bodies externally by impact. This is the science of + mechanics. Thirdly, _qualitative motion_, or that which is accordant + to properties of matter. And this is chemistry. Now it is evident + that the first two sciences presuppose that which forms the + exclusive object of the third, namely, quality; for all quantity in + nature is either itself derived, or at least derives its powers from + some _quality_, as that of weight, specific cohesion, hardness, &c.; + and therefore the attempt to reduce to the distances or impacts of + atoms, under the assumptions of two powers, which are themselves + declared to be no more than mere general terms for those quantities + of motion and impact (the atom itself being a fiction formed by + abstraction, and in truth a third occult quality for the purpose of + explaining hardness and density), amounts to an attempt to destroy + chemistry itself, and at the same time to exclude the sole reality + and only positive contents of the very science into which that of + chemistry is to be degraded. Now what qualities are to chemistry, + _productiveness_ is to the science of Life; and this being excluded, + physiology or zoonomy would sink into chemistry, chemistry by the + same process into mechanics, while mechanics themselves would lose + the substantial principle, which, bending the lower extreme towards + its apex, produces the organic circle of the sciences, and elevates + them all into different arcs or stations of the one absolute science + of Life. + + This explanation, which in appearance only is a digression, was + indispensably requisite to prevent the idea of polarity, which has + been given as the universal law of Life, from being misunderstood as + a mere refinement on those mechanical systems of physiology, which + it has been my main object to explode. + + 13 I apprehend that by men of a certain school it would be deemed no + demerit, even though they should never have condescended to look + into any system of Aristotelian logic. It is enough for these + gentlemen that they are experimentalists! Let it not, however, be + supposed that they make more experiments than their neighbours, who + consider induction as a means and not an end; or have stronger + motives for making them, unless it can be believed that Tycho Brhe + must have been urged to repeat his sweeps of the heavens with + greater accuracy and industry than Herschel, for no better reason + than that the former flourished before the theory of gravitation was + perfected. No, but they have the honour of being mere + experimentalists! If, however, we may not refer to logic, we may to + common sense and common experience. It is not improbable, however, + that they have both read and studied a book of hypothetical + psychology on the assumptions of the crudest materialism, stolen too + without acknowledgment from our David Hartley's essay on Man, which + is well known under the whimsical name of Condillac's Logic. But, as + Mr. Brand has lately observed, "the French are a queer people," and + we should not be at all surprised to hear of a book of fresh + importation from Paris, on determinate proportions in chemistry, + announced by the author in his title-page as a new and improved + system either of arithmetic or geometry. + + 14 Such is the interpretation given by Lord Bacon. To which of the two + gigantic intellects, the poet's or philosophic commentator's, the + allegory belongs, I shall not presume to decide. Its extraordinary + beauty and appropriateness remains the same in either case. + + 15 The Anatomical Demonstrations of the Brain, by Dr. Spurzheim, which + I have seen, presented to me the most satisfactory proof of this. + + 16 The remark on the feeling of the antenn, compared with the touch of + man, or even of the half-reasoning elephant, is yet more applicable + to the taste, which in these gelatinous animals might, perhaps not + inappropriately, be entitled the gastric sense. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** + + + +CREDITS + + +January 17, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Bryan Ness, David King, and the Online Distributed + Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/24346-8.zip b/24346-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1be3389 --- /dev/null +++ b/24346-8.zip diff --git a/24346-h.zip b/24346-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7513a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/24346-h.zip diff --git a/24346-h/24346-h.html b/24346-h/24346-h.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..275f9b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/24346-h/24346-h.html @@ -0,0 +1,3733 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /><meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" /><meta name="DC.Creator" content="Samuel Taylor Coleridge" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Hints towards the formation of a more comprehensive theory of life." /><meta name="DC.Date" content="January 17, 2008" /><meta name="DC.Language" content="English" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Project Gutenberg" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/24346" /><meta name="DC.Rights" content="This text is in the public domain." /><title>The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hints towards the formation of a more comprehensive theory of life. by Samuel Taylor Coleridge</title><style type="text/css">/* +The Gnutenberg Press - default CSS2 stylesheet + +Any generated element will have a class "tei" and a class "tei-elem" +where elem is the element name in TEI. +The order of statements is important !!! 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You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Hints towards the formation of a more comprehensive theory of life. + +Author: Samuel Taylor Coleridge + +Release Date: January 17, 2008 [Ebook #24346] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** +</pre></div> + </div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%; font-weight: 700">Hints Towards the Formation of a More Comprehensive Theory Of Life</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%; font-weight: 700">by S. T. Coleridge</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%; font-weight: 700">Edited by Seth B. Watson, M.D.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Of St. John's College,</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">And Formerly One of the Physicians to the Hospital at Oxford</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Magna sunt opera Domini exquisita in omnes voluntates ejus.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">London: John Churchill, Princes Street, Soho</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">MDCCCXLVIII.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-weight: 700">C. and J. Adlard, Printers, Bartholomew Close</span></p> + + </div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">Physiology Of Life.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">The Nature Of Life.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">Advertisements.</a></li><li><a href="#toc9">Footnotes</a></li></ul> + </div> + </div> + +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Advertisement.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Editor takes this opportunity of returning his +best acknowledgments to Sir <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">John Stoddart</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">LL.D.</span></span>, to the Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">James Gillman</span></span>, Incumbent of Trinity, +Lambeth, and to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Henry Lee</span></span>, Esq., +Assistant Surgeon to King's College Hospital, for their great kindness, +in regard to this publication. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">16, Norfolk Street, Park Lane.</span></span></span> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> +<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The accompanying pages contain the unfinished +Sketch of a Theory of Life by S. T. Coleridge. Everything +that fell from the pen of that extraordinary man +bore latent, as well as more obvious indications of +genius, and of its inseparable concomitant—originality. +To this general remark the present Essay is far from +forming an exception. No one can peruse it, without +admiring the author's comprehensive research and profound +meditation; but at the same time, partly from the +exuberance of his imagination, and partly from an +apparent want of method (though, in truth, he had a +method of his own, by which he marshalled his thoughts +in an order perfectly intelligible to himself), a first +perusal will, to many readers, prove unsatisfactory, +unless they are prepared for it by an introduction of a +more popular character. This purpose, therefore, I +shall endeavour to accomplish; it being to be understood +that I by no means make myself responsible +either for Mr. Coleridge's speculations, or for the +manner in which they are enunciated; and that, on +the contrary, I shall occasionally indicate views from +which I dissent, and expressions which perhaps the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +author himself, on revision, would have seen reason to +correct. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is clear that Mr. Coleridge considers the unity of +human nature to result from two combined elements, +Body and Soul; that he regards the latter as the principle +of Reason and of Conscience (both which he has +largely treated in his published works), and that the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Life,”</span> which he here investigates, concerns, in relation +to mankind, only the Body. He is far, however, +from confining the term <span class="tei tei-q">“Life”</span> to its action on the +human body; on the contrary, he disclaims the division +of all that surrounds us into things with life, and +things without life; and contends, that the term Life is +no less applicable to the irreducible <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bases</span></em> of chemistry, +such as sodium, potassium, &c., or to the various forms +of crystals, or the geological strata which compose +the crust of our globe, than it is to the human body +itself, the acme and perfection of animal organization. +I admit that there are certain great powers, such as +magnetism, electricity, and chemistry, whose action +may be traced, even by the limited means which +science at present possesses, in admirable gradation, +from purely unorganized to the most highly organized +matter: and, I think, that Mr. Coleridge has done this +with great ingenuity and striking effect; but what I +object to is, that he applies to the combined operation +of these powers, in all cases, the term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></em>. If we +look back to the early history of language, we shall +probably find that this word, and its synonymes in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +other tongues, were first employed to denote <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">human</span></em> +life, that is, the duration of a human being's existence +from birth to the grave. As this existence was marked +by actions, many of which were common to man with +other animals, those animals also were said to <span class="tei tei-q">“live;”</span> +but the extension of the notion of Life to the vegetable +creation is comparatively a recent usage,—and +hitherto (in this country at least) no writer before Mr. +Coleridge, so far as I know, has maintained that rocks +and mountains, nay, <span class="tei tei-q">“the great globe itself,”</span> share with +mankind the gift of Life. On the other hand, there +are well known and energetic uses of the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Life,”</span> +to which Mr. Coleridge's speculations, as contained in +the accompanying pages, are wholly inapplicable. Almost +all nations, even the most savage, agree in the +belief that individuals of the human race, after they +have ceased to exist in this mortal life, will exist in +another state, to which also the word Life is universally +applied; but to this latter Mr. Coleridge's +views of magnetism, electricity, &c., can hardly be +thought applicable. Still less can they apply to <span class="tei tei-q">“Life”</span> +in its spiritual sense; as, when Moses says to the Jews, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the words of the law are your <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">life</span></em>,”</span> (Deut. xxxii, 47,) +and when our Saviour says, <span class="tei tei-q">“the words that I speak +unto you, they are spirit, and they are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">life</span></em>;”</span> (John, vi, +63;) and again, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the resurrection and the life,”</span> +(John, xi, 25.) Upon the whole, therefore, I think it +would have been advisable in Mr. Coleridge to have +adopted a different phraseology, in tracing the operation +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of certain natural agencies first on unorganized, +and then on organized bodies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another word, of which I consider an improper use +to be made in this Essay, is <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature.”</span> I find this +imaginary being introduced on all occasions, and invested +with attributes of personality, which may be +extremely apt to make a false impression on young or +thoughtless minds. At one time, <span class="tei tei-q">“the life of Nature”</span> +is spoken of; then we are informed that <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature has +succeeded. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">She</span></em> has created the intermediate link between +the vegetable world and the animal.”</span> Again, +it is said that <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature seems to fall back, and to reexert +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">herself</span></em> on the lower ground, which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she</span></em> had before +occupied;”</span>—and elsewhere we are told that <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature +never loses what <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she</span></em> has once learnt; though in the +acquirement of each new power <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she</span></em> intermits or performs +less energetically the act immediately preceding. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">She</span></em> often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up +again. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">She</span></em> may seem forgetful and absent; but it is +only to recollect <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">herself</span></em> with additional as well as recruited +vigour in some after and higher state.”</span> Now +the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature,”</span> in any intelligible sense, means +nothing but that method and order by which the +Almighty regulates the common course of things. +Nature is not a person; it is not active; it neither +creates nor performs actions more or less energetically, +nor learns, nor forgets, nor reexerts itself, nor recruits +its vigour. Perhaps it will be said that all this is +merely figurative language. Figurative language is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +very much misplaced in strict philosophical investigations; +and these particular figures, which might be +quite consistent with the atheistical philosophy of +Lucretius, sound ill in the mouth of a pious Christian, +which Mr. Coleridge undoubtedly was. He probably +adopted them unconsciously from Bacon; but Bacon's +use of the word Nature ought rather to have served as +a warning than an example; for it has contributed, in +no small degree, to the atheistical philosophy of recent +times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The prevalent natural philosophy of the present day +is that which is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">corpuscular</span></em>, because it assumes +the existence of a first matter, consisting of <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">corpuscula</span></span> +or atoms, which are supposed to be definite, though +extremely small, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quantities</span></em>, invested with the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">qualities</span></em> +of extension, impenetrability, and the like; and from +certain combinations of these qualities, Life is considered, +by some persons, to be a necessary result. +This philosophy Mr. Coleridge combats. The supposed +atoms, he says, are mere abstractions of the mind; and +Life is not a thing, the result of atomic arrangement +or action, but is itself an act, or process. He refutes +various definitions of Life, such as, that it is the sum +of all the functions by which death is resisted; or, that +it depends on the faculty of nutrition, or of anti-putrescence. +His own definition he proposes merely +as an hypothesis. Life, he says, is <span class="tei tei-q">“the principle of +Individuation,”</span> that is to say, it is a power which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +discloses itself from within, combining many qualities +into one individual thing. This individualising principle +unites, as he conceives, with the cooperating +action of magnetism, electricity, and chemistry. At +least, such is the inference to be drawn from the present +state of science; though it is easily conceivable that +future discoveries may bring us acquainted with powers +more directly connected with Life. The most general +law governing the action of Life, as a tendency to individuation, +is here designated <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">polarity</span></em>; for instance, +the power termed magnetism (not meaning that there +is necessarily an actual tangible magnet in the case) +has two poles, the negative, answering to attraction, +rest, carbon, &c., and the positive, answering to repulsion, +mobility, azote, &c.; and as the magnetic +needle which points to the north necessarily indicates +thereby the south, so the power disposing to rest has +necessarily a counteracting influence disposing to +mobility, between which lies the point of indifference. +Now this quality, to which Mr. Coleridge gives the +name of polarity, is in truth nothing more than an exemplification +of the doctrine of opposites, the +<span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el">πρός ἂλληλα ἀντικειμένω ἀντίθεσις</span>, +which the Eleatic Philosopher, +in Plato's <span class="tei tei-q">“Sophist,”</span> applies to the idea of +existence and non-existence, and which accompanies +every other idea as its shadow, whether in physics, +in intellect, or in morals; for the finite is opposed +to the infinite, the false to the true, the evil to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +good, and so forth; which we say, not to derogate +from the value of Mr. Coleridge's application of the +doctrine, of which he has very ably availed himself; +but merely to explain the term polarity, by referring it, +as a species, to a higher genus of intellectual conceptions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reverting to the three powers before mentioned, it is +not to be understood, that on Mr. Coleridge's hypothesis +of Life, they ever act separately; but in the different +modifications of Life, at one time the power of magnetism +predominates, at another that of electricity, and at +another that of chemistry. Magnetism is stated to act +as a line, electricity as a surface, and chemistry as a +solid; for all which Mr. Coleridge refers to certain +physical experiments. The predominance of magnetism +is characterised by reproduction, that of electricity by +irritability; and irritability, which first appears as +muscle, gradually rises into sensibility as nerve. The +limits of a mere introduction will not permit me to +examine Mr. Coleridge's first principles more in detail; +and I can but briefly notice their application to the +successive stages of ascent, from the first rudiments of +individualised Life, in the lowest classes of the mineral, +vegetable, and animal creation, to its crown and consummation +in the human body. Beginning with magnetism, +by which, in its widest sense, he means what +he improperly calls the first and simplest differential +act of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Nature</span></em> (he should rather have said the first and +simplest conception that we can form of a differential +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +act of God, in the work of creation), he supposes the +pre-existence of chaos, not, indeed, in the Miltonic +sense— +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For hot, cold, moist, and dry, four champions fierce,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Strive <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">there</span></em> for mast'ry, and to battle bring</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Their embryon atoms,—”</span></div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +but rather as one vast homogeneous fluid, and even +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">that</span></em> he suggests not as a historical fact, but as the +appropriate symbol of a great fundamental truth. The +first effort of magnetic power, the first step from indifference +to difference, from formless homogeneity to +independent existence, is seen in the tranquil deposition +of crystals; and an increasing tendency to difference +is observable in the increasing multitude of strata, till +we come to organic life; of which the vegetable and +animal worlds may be regarded as opposite poles; carbon +prevailing in the former and azote in the latter; +and vegetation being characterised by the predominance +of magnetism in its highest power, as reproduction; +whilst the animal tribes evince the power of electricity, +as shown in irritability and sensibility. Passing over +the forms of vegetation, we come to the polypi, corallines, +&c., in which individuality appears in its first +dawn; for a multitude of animals form, as it were, a +common animal, and different genera pass into each +other, almost indistinguishably. The tubipora of the +corals connects with the serpula of the conchylia. In +the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">mollusca</span></span> +the separation of organs becomes more +observable; in the higher species there are rudiments +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of nerves, and an exponent, though scarcely distinguishable, +of sensibility. In the snail, and muscle, the separation +of the fluid from the solid is more marked, yet +the prevalence of the carbonic principle connects these +and the preceding classes, in a certain degree, with the +vegetable creation. <span class="tei tei-q">“But the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">insect</span></em> world, taken at +large (says Mr. Coleridge) appears as an intense <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></em>, +that has struggled itself loose, and become emancipated +from vegetation—<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Floræ liberti, +et libertini</span></span>!”</span> In +insects we first find the distinct commencement of a +separation between the muscular system, that is, organs +of irritability, and the nervous system, that is, organs of +sensibility; the former, however, maintaining a pre-eminence +throughout, and the nerves themselves being +probably subservient to the motory power. With the +fishes begins an internal system of bones, but these are +the results of a comparatively imperfect formation, being +in general little more than mere gristle. In birds we +find a sort of synthesis of the powers of fish and insects. +In all three, the powers are under the predominance +of irritability; but sensibility, which is dormant in the +insect, begins to awaken in the fish, and, though still +subordinate, is quite awake in the bird, of which no +better proof can be given than its power of sound, with +the rudiments of modulation, in the large class of singing +birds, and in some others a tendency to acquire and +to imitate articulate speech. The next step of ascent +brings us to the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">mammalia</span></span>; +and in these, including +beasts and men, the complete and universal presence of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a nervous system raises sensibility to its due place and +rank among the animal powers. Finally, in Man the +whole force of organic power attains an inward and +centripetal direction, and the <span class="tei tei-q">“apex of the living +pyramid”</span>becomes a fit receptacle for Reason and Conscience. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is much to be regretted, that the estimable +Author did not live to put a finishing hand to this +Essay; but the part completed involves speculations of +so interesting a nature, and presents such striking +marks of deep and original thought, that the Editor, +to whose hands it was committed, did not feel himself +justified in withholding it from the judgment of +the public. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> +<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Physiology Of Life.</span></h1> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Introduction.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When we stand before the bust of John Hunter, or as +we enter the magnificent museum furnished by his labours, +and pass slowly, with meditative observation, through this +august temple, which the genius of one great man has +raised and dedicated to the wisdom and uniform working +of the Creator, we perceive at every step the guidance, we +had almost said, the inspiration, of those profound ideas +concerning Life, which dawn upon us, indeed, through his +written works, but which he has here presented to us in +a more perfect language than that of words—the language +of God himself, as uttered by Nature. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That the true idea of Life existed in the mind of John +Hunter I do not entertain the least doubt; but it may, +perhaps, be doubted whether his incessant occupation, and +his stupendous industry in the service, both of his contemporaries +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and of posterity, added to his comparatively slight +acquaintance with the arts and aids of logical arrangement, +permitted him fully to unfold and arrange it in distinct, +clear, and communicable conceptions. Assuredly, +however, I may, without incurring the charge of arrogance +or detraction, venture to assert that, in his writings +the light which occasionally flashes upon us seems at +other times, and more frequently, to struggle through an +unfriendly medium, and even sometimes to suffer a temporary +occultation. At least, in order to dissipate the +undeniable obscurities, and to reconcile the apparent contradictions +found in his works,—to distinguish, in short, +the numerous passages in which without, perhaps, losing +sight internally of his own peculiar belief, he yet falls into +the phraseology and mechanical solutions of his age,—we +must distinguish such passages from those in which the +form corresponds to the substance, and in which, therefore, +the nature and essential laws of vital action are expressed, +as far as his researches had unveiled them to his +own mind, without disguise. To effect this, we must, as +it were, climb up on his shoulders, and look at the same +objects in a distincter form, because seen from the more +commanding point of view furnished by himself. This +has, indeed, been more than once attempted already, and, +in one instance, with so evident a display of power and +insight as announces in the assertor and vindicator of the +Hunterian Theory a congenial intellect, and a disciple in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +whom Hunter himself would have exulted. Would that +this attempt had been made on a larger scale, that the +writer to whom I refer<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> +had in consequence developed +his opinions systematically, and carried them yet further +back, even to their ultimate principle! +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But this the scientific world has yet to expect; or it +is more than probable that the present humble endeavour +would have been superseded, or confined, at least, to the +task of restating the opinion of my predecessor with such +modifications as the differences that will always exist between +men who have thought independently, and each for +himself, have never failed to introduce, even on problems +of far easier and more obvious solution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without further preface or apology, therefore, I shall +state at once my objections to all the definitions that +have hitherto been given of Life, as meaning too much or +too little, with an exception, however, in favour of those +which mean nothing at all; and even these last must, in +certain cases, receive an honour they do not merit, and +be confuted, or rather detected, on account of their too +general acceptance, and the incalculable power of words +over the minds of men in proportion to the remoteness of +the subject from the cognizance of the senses. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would be equally presumptuous and unreasonable +should I, with a late writer on this subject, <span class="tei tei-q">“exhort the +reader to be particularly on his guard against loose and +indefinite expressions;”</span> but I perfectly agree +that they are the bane of all science, and have been +remarkably injurious in the different departments of +physiology. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> +<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Nature Of Life.</span></h1> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">On The Definitions Of Life Hitherto Received. Hints +Towards A More Comprehensive Theory.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The attempts to explain the nature of Life, which have +fallen within my knowledge, presuppose the arbitrary +division of all that surrounds us into things with life, and +things without life—a division grounded on a mere assumption. +At the best, it can be regarded only as a +hasty deduction from the first superficial notices of the +objects that surround us, sufficient, perhaps, for the purpose +of ordinary discrimination, but far too indeterminate +and diffluent to be taken unexamined by the philosophic +inquirer. The positions of science must be tried in the +jeweller's scales, not like the mixed commodities of the +market, on the weigh-bridge of common opinion and +vulgar usage. Such, however, has been the procedure in +the present instance, and the result has been answerable +to the coarseness of the process. By a comprisal of the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">petitio principii</span></span> with the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">argumentum in circulo</span></span>,—in +plain English, by an easy logic, which begins with begging the +question, and then moving in a circle, comes round to the +point where it began,—each of the two divisions has been +made to define the other by a mere reassertion of their +assumed contrariety. The physiologist has luminously +explained <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Y</span></span> plus +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">X</span></span> by informing us that it is a somewhat +that is the antithesis of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Y</span></span> minus +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">X</span></span>; and if we ask, what +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +then is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Y-X</span></span>? +the answer is, the antithesis of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Y+X</span></span>,—a +reciprocation of great service, that may remind us of +the twin sisters in the fable of the Lamiæ, with but one +eye between them both, which each borrowed from the +other as either happened to want it; but with this additional +disadvantage, that in the present case it is after +all but an eye of glass. The definitions themselves will +best illustrate our meaning. I will begin with that +given by Bichat. <span class="tei tei-q">“Life is the sum of all the functions +by which death is resisted,”</span> in which I have in vain +endeavoured to discover any other meaning than that life +consists in being able to live. This author, with a +whimsical gravity, prefaces his definition with the remark, +that the nature of life has hitherto been sought for in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">abstract</span></em> considerations; as if it were possible that four +more inveterate abstractions could be brought together +in one sentence than are here assembled in the words, +life, death, function, and resistance. Similar instances +might be cited from Richerand and others. The word +Life is translated into other more learned words; and this +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">paraphrase</span></em> of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">term</span></em> is substituted for the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">definition</span></em> of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thing</span></em>, and therefore (as is always the +case in every <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">real</span></em> definition as contra-distinguished from a +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">verbal</span></em> definition,) for at least a partial +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">solution</span></em> of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fact</span></em>. Such +as these form the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">first</span></em> class.—The second class takes some +one particular function of Life common to all living objects,—nutrition, +for instance; or, to adopt the phrase most in +vogue at present, assimilation, for the purposes of reproduction +and growth. Now this, it is evident, can be an +appropriate definition only of the very lowest species, as of a +Fungus or a Mollusca; and just as comprehensive an idea +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the mystery of Life, as a Mollusca might give, can this +definition afford. But this is not the only objection. +For, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">first</span></em>, it is not pretended that we begin with seeking +for an organ evidently appropriated to nutrition, and then +infer that the substance in which such an organ is found +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lives</span></em>. On the contrary, in a number of cases among the +obscurer animals and vegetables we infer the organ from +the pre-established fact of its life. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Secondly</span></em>, it identifies +the process itself with a certain range of its forms, those, +namely, by which it is manifested in animals and vegetables. +For this, too, no less than the former, presupposes +the arbitrary division of all things into not living and +lifeless, on which, as I before observed, all these definitions +are grounded. But it is sorry logic to take the +proof of an affirmative in one thing as the proof of the +negative in another. All animals that have lungs breathe, +but it would be a childish oversight to deduce the converse, +viz. all animals that breathe have lungs. The +theory in which the French chemists organized the discoveries +of Black, Cavendish, Priestly, Scheele, and other +English and German philosophers, is still, indeed, the +reigning theory, but rather, it should seem, from the +absence of a rival sufficiently popular to fill the throne +in its stead, than from the continuance of an implicit +belief in its own stability. We no longer at least cherish +that intensity of faith which, before Davy commenced his +brilliant career, had not only identified it with chemistry +itself, but had substituted its nomenclature, even in +common conversation, for the far more philosophic language +which the human race had abstracted from the laboratory +of Nature. I may venture to prophecy that no future +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Beddoes will make it the corival of the mathematical +sciences in demonstrative evidence. I think it a matter +of doubt whether, during the period of its supposed +infallibility, physiology derived more benefit from the +extension, or injury from the misdirection, of its views. +Enough of the latter is fresh in recollection to make it +but an equivocal compliment to a physiological position, +that it must stand or fall with the corpuscular philosophy, +as modified by the French theory of chemistry. Yet +should it happen (and the event is not impossible, nor the +supposition altogether absurd,) that more and more decisive +facts should present themselves in confirmation of +the metamorphosis of elements, the position that life consists +in assimilation would either cease to be distinctive, +or fall back into the former class as an identical proposition, +namely, that Life, meaning by the word that sort +of growth which takes place by means of a peculiar organization, +consists in that sort of growth which is peculiar +to organized life. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Thirdly</span></em>, the definition involves a still +more egregious flaw in the reasoning, namely, that of +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">cum hoc, ergo propter hoc</span></span> +(or the assumption of causation +from mere coexistence); and this, too, in its very worst +form. For it is not <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">cum hoc solo, ergo +propter hoc</span></span>, which would in many cases supply a presumptive proof by induction, +but <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">cum hoc, et plurimis aliis, ergo +propter hoc</span></span>! Shell, of some kind or other, is common to the whole order +of testacea, but it would be absurd to define the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">vis vitæ</span></span> +of testaceous animals as existing in the shell, though we +know it to be the constant accompaniment, and have +every reason to believe the constant effect, of the specific +life that acts in those animals. Were we +(<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">argumenti +</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic"> +causá</span></span>) to imagine shell coextensive with the organized +creation, this would produce no abatement in the falsity +of the reasoning. Nor does the flaw stop here; for a +physiological, that is a real, definition, as distinguished +from the verbal definitions of lexicography, must consist +neither in any single property or function of the thing +to be defined, nor yet in all collectively, which latter, +indeed, would be a history, not a definition. It must +consist, therefore, in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">law</span></em> of the thing, or in such an +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">idea</span></em> of it, as, being admitted, all the properties and functions +are admitted by implication. It must likewise be +so far <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">causal</span></em>, that a full insight having been obtained +of the law, we derive from it a progressive insight into +the necessity and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">generation</span></em> of the phenomena of which +it is the law. Suppose a disease in question, which appeared +always accompanied with certain symptoms in +certain stages, and with some one or more symptoms in +all stages—say deranged digestion, capricious alternation +of vivacity and languor, headache, dilated pupil, diminished +sensibility to light, &c.—Neither the man who selected +the one constant symptom, nor he who enumerated all +the symptoms, would give the scientific definition <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">talem scilicet, quali scientia fit vel datur</span></span>, +but the man who at once named and defined the disease hydrocephalus, producing +pressure on the brain. For it is the essence +of a scientific definition to be causative, not by introduction +of imaginary somewhats, natural or supernatural +under the name of causes, but by announcing +the law of action in the particular case, in subordination +to the common law of which all the phenomena are modifications +or results. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now in the definition on which, as the representative +of a whole class, we are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">now</span></em> animadverting, a single effect +is given as constituting the cause. For nutrition by digestion +is certainly necessary to life, only under certain +circumstances, but that life is previously necessary to +digestion is absolutely certain under all circumstances. +Besides, what other phenomenon of Life would the conception +of assimilation, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">per se</span></span>, +or as it exists in the lowest order of animals, involve or explain? How, for instance, +does it include sensation, locomotion, or habit? or if the +two former should be taken as distinct from life, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">toto genere</span></span>, and supervenient to it, we then ask +what conception is given of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vital</span></em> assimilation as contradistinguished +from that of the nucleus of a crystal? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lastly</span></em>, this definition confounds the Law of Life, or +the primary and universal form of vital agency, with the +conception, Animals. For the kind, it substitutes the +representative of its degrees and modifications. But the +first and most important office of science, physical or +physiological, is to contemplate the power in kind, abstracted +from the degree. The ideas of caloric, whether +as substance or property, and the conceptions of latent +heat, the heat in ice, &c., that excite the wonder or the +laughter of the vulgar, though susceptible of the most important +practical applications, are the result of this abstraction; +while the only purpose to which a definition +like the preceding could become subservient, would be in +supplying a nomenclature with the character of the most +common species of a genus—its <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">genus generalissimum</span></span>, and +even this would be useless in the present instance, inasmuch +as it presupposes the knowledge of the things characterised. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third class, and far superior to the two former, +selects some property characteristic of all living bodies, +not merely found in all <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">animals</span></em> alike, but existing equally +in all parts of all living things, both animals and plants. +Such, for instance, is the definition of Life, as consisting +in anti-putrescence, or the power of resisting putrefaction. +Like all the others, however, even this confines the idea +of Life to those degrees or concentrations of it, which +manifest themselves in organized beings, or rather in those +the organization of which is apparent to us. Consequently, +it substitutes an abstract term, or generalization of effects, +for the idea, or superior form of causative agency. At +best, it describes the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">vis vitá</span></span> +by one only of its many influences. +It is however, as we have said before, preferable +to the former, because it is not, as they are, altogether +unfruitful, inasmuch as it attests, less equivocally than +any other sign, the presence or absence of that degree of +the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">vis vitá</span></span> +which is the necessary condition of organic or +self-renewing power. It throws no light, however, on the +law or principle of action; it does not increase our insight +into the other phenomena; it presents to us no <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inclusive</span></em> +form, out of which the other forms may be developed, and +finally, its defect as a definition may be detected by generalizing +it into a higher formula, as a power which, during +its continuance, resists or subordinates heterogeneous and +adverse powers. Now this holds equally true of chemical +relatively to the mechanical powers; and really affirms +no more of Life than may be equally affirmed of every +form of being, namely, that it tends to preserve itself, +and resists, to a certain extent, whatever is incompatible +with the laws that constitute its particular state for the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +time being. For it is not true only of the great divisions +or classes into which we have found it expedient to distinguish, +while we generalize, the powers acting in nature, +as into intellectual, vital, chemical, mechanical; but it +holds equally true of the degrees, or species of each of +these genera relatively to each other: as in the decomposition +of the alkalies by heat, or the galvanic spark. +Like the combining power of Life, the copula here resists +for awhile the attempts to dissolve it, and then yields, to +reappear in new phenomena. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a wonderful property of the human mind, that +when once a momentum has been given to it in a fresh +direction, it pursues the new path with obstinate perseverance, +in all conceivable bearings, to its utmost extremes. +And by the startling consequences which arise out of these +extremes, it is first awakened to its error, and either recalled +to some former track, or receives some fresh impulse, +which it follows with the same eagerness, and admits to +the same monopoly. Thus in the 13th century the first +science which roused the intellects of men from the torpor +of barbarism, was, as in all countries ever has been, and +ever must be the case, the science of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Metaphysics</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ontology</span></em>. We first seek what can be found at home, and +what wonder if truths, that appeared to reveal the secret +depths of our own souls, should take possession of the whole +mind, and all truths appear trivial which could not either +be evolved out of similar principles, by the same process, +or at least brought under the same forms of thought, by +perceived or imagined analogies? And so it was. For +more than a century men continued to invoke the oracle +of their own spirits, not only concerning its own forms +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and modes of being, but likewise concerning the laws of +external nature. All attempts at philosophical explication +were commenced by a mere effort of the understanding, +as the power of abstraction; or by the imagination, transferring +its own experiences to every object presented from +without. By the former, a class of phenomena were in +the first place abstracted, and fixed in some general term: +of course this could designate only the impressions made +by the outward objects, and so far, therefore, having been +thus metamorphosed, they were effects of these objects; +but then made to supply the place of their own causes, +under the name of occult qualities. Thus the properties +peculiar to gold, were abstracted from those it possessed +in common with other bodies, and then generalized in the +term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aureity</span></em>: and the inquirer was instructed that the +Essence of Gold, or the cause which constituted the peculiar +modification of matter called gold, was the power +of aureity. By the latter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> by the imagination, thought +and will were superadded to the occult quality, and every +form of nature had its appropriate Spirit, to be controlled +or conciliated by an appropriate ceremonial. This was +entitled its <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">SUBSTANTIAL FORM</span></span>. +Thus, physic became a +sort of dull poetry, and the art of medicine (for physiology +could scarcely be said to exist) was a system of magic, +blended with traditional empiricism. Thus the forms of +thought proceeded to act in their own emptiness, with no +attempt to fill or substantiate them by the information of +the senses, and all the branches of science formed so +many sections of logic and metaphysics. And so it continued, +even to the time that the Reformation sounded +the second trumpet, and the authority of the schools sank +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with that of the hierarchy, under the intellectual courage +and activity which this great revolution had inspired. +Power, once awakened, cannot rest in one object. All +the sciences partook of the new influences. The world of +experimental philosophy was soon mapped out for posterity +by the comprehensive and enterprising genius of Bacon, +and the laws explained by which experiment could be +dignified into experience.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> +But no sooner was the impulse +given, than the same propensity was made manifest +of looking at all things in the one point of view which +chanced to be of predominant attraction. Our Gilbert, +a man of genuine philosophical genius, had no sooner +multiplied the facts of magnetism, and extended our +knowledge concerning the property of magnetic bodies, +but all things in heaven, and earth, and in the waters +beneath the earth, were resolved into magnetic influences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Shortly after a new light was struck by Harriott +and Descartes, with their contemporaries, or immediate +predecessors, and the restoration of ancient geometry, +aided by the modern invention of algebra, placed the +science of mechanism on the philosophic throne. How +widely this domination spread, and how long it continued, +if, indeed, even now it can be said to have abdicated its +pretensions, the reader need not be reminded. The sublime +discoveries of Newton, and, together with these, his +not less fruitful than wonderful application, of the higher +mathesis to the movements of the celestial bodies, and to +the laws of light, gave almost a religious sanction to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +corpuscular system and mechanical theory. It became +synonymous with philosophy itself. It was the sole portal +at which truth was permitted to enter. The human body +was treated of as an hydraulic machine, the operations of +medicine were solved, and alas! even directed by reference +partly to gravitation and the laws of motion, and partly +by chemistry, which itself, however, as far as its theory +was concerned, was but a branch of mechanics working +exclusively by imaginary wedges, angles, and spheres. +Should the reader chance to put his hand on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Principles +of Philosophy,”</span> by La Forge, an immediate disciple +of Descartes, he may see the phenomena of sleep solved +in a copper-plate engraving, with all the figures into +which the globules of the blood shaped themselves, and +the results demonstrated by mathematical calculations. +In short, from the time of Kepler<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> +to that of Newton, and +from Newton to Hartley, not only all things in external +nature, but the subtlest mysteries of life and organization, +and even of the intellect and moral being, were conjured +within the magic circle of mathematical formulæ. And +now a new light was struck by the discovery of electricity, +and, in every sense of the word, both playful and serious, +both for good and for evil, it may be affirmed to have +electrified the whole frame of natural philosophy. Close +on its heels followed the momentous discovery of the +principal gases by Scheele and Priestly, the composition of +water by Cavendish, and the doctrine of latent heat by +Black. The scientific world was prepared for a new +dynasty; accordingly, as soon as Lavoisier had reduced +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the infinite variety of chemical phenomena to the actions, +reactions, and interchanges of a few elementary substances, +or at least excited the expectation that this would speedily +be effected, the hope shot up, almost instantly, into full +faith, that it had been effected. Henceforward the new +path, thus brilliantly opened, became the common road +to all departments of knowledge: and, to this moment, it +has been pursued with an eagerness and almost epidemic +enthusiasm which, scarcely less than its political revolutions, +characterise the spirit of the age. Many and inauspicious +have been the invasions and inroads of this new +conqueror into the rightful territories of other sciences; +and strange alterations have been made in less harmless +points than those of terminology, in homage to an art +unsettled, in the very ferment of imperfect discoveries, and +either without a theory, or with a theory maintained only +by composition and compromise. Yet this very circumstance +has favoured its encroachments, by the gratifications +which its novelty affords to our curiosity, and by the +keener interest and higher excitement which an unsettled +and revolutionary state is sure to inspire. He who supposes +that science possesses an immunity from such influences +knows little of human nature. How, otherwise, +could men of strong minds and sound judgments have +attempted to penetrate by the clue of chemical experiment +the secret recesses, the sacred adyta of organic life, +without being aware that chemistry must needs be at its +extreme limits, when it has approached the threshold of +a higher power? Its own transgressions, however, and +the failure of its enterprises will become the means of +defining its absolute boundary, and we shall have to guard +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +against the opposite error of rejecting its aid altogether +as analogy, because we have repelled its ambitious claims +to an identity with the vital powers. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Previously to the submitting my own ideas on the subject +of life, and the powers into which it resolves itself, or +rather in which it is manifested to us, I have hazarded +this apparent digression from the anxiety to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">preclude certain +suspicions</span></em>, which the subject itself is so fitted to +awaken, and while I anticipate the charges, to plead in +answer to each a full and unequivocal—not guilty! +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the first place, therefore, I distinctly disclaim all +intention of explaining life into an occult quality; and +retort the charge on those who can satisfy themselves +with defining it as the peculiar power by which death is +resisted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Secondly. Convinced—by revelation, by the consenting +authority of all countries, and of all ages, by the imperative +voice of my own conscience, and by that wide chasm +between man and the noblest animals of the brute +creation, which no perceivable or conceivable difference +of organization is sufficient to overbridge—that I have a +rational and responsible soul, I think far too reverentially +of the same to degrade it into an hypothesis, and +cannot be blind to the contradiction I must incur, if I +assign that soul which I believe to constitute the peculiar +nature of man as the cause of functions and properties, +which man possesses in common with the oyster and the +mushroom.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thirdly, while I disclaim the error of Stahl in deriving +the phenomena of life from the unconscious actions +of the rational soul, I repel with still greater earnestness +the assertion and even the supposition that the functions +are the offspring of the structure, and <span class="tei tei-q">“Life<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> the result of organization,”</span> connected with it as effect with cause. +Nay, the position seems to me little less strange, than +as if a man should say, that building with all the included +handicraft, of plastering, sawing, planing, &c. were the +offspring of the house; and that the mason and carpenter +were the result of a suite of chambers, with the passages +and staircases that lead to them. To make <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A</span></span> +the offspring of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">B</span></span>, when the very existence of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">B</span></span> as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">B</span></span> +presupposes the existence of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A</span></span>, is +preposterous in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">literal</span></em> sense of the word, and a consummate instance of +the <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style="font-style: italic">hysteron proteron</span></span> +in logic. But if I reject the organ as the cause of +that, of which it is the organ, though I might admit it +among the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">conditions</span></em> of its actual functions; for the same +reason, I must reject <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fluids</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ethers</span></em> of all kinds, +magnetical, electrical, and universal, to whatever quintessential +thinness they may be treble distilled, and (as it +were) super-substantiated. With these, I abjure likewise +all <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chemical</span></em> agencies, compositions, and decompositions, +were it only that as stimulants they suppose a +stimulability <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">sui generis</span></span>, +which is but another paraphrase +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for life. Or if they are themselves at once both the excitant +and the excitability, I miss the connecting link between +this imaginary ether and the visible body, which then +becomes no otherwise distinguished from inanimate matter, +than by its juxtaposition in mere space, with an heterogeneous +inmate, the cycle of whose actions revolves within +itself. Besides which I should think that I was confounding +metaphors and realities most absurdly, if I imagined that I +had a greater insight into the meaning and possibility of a +living alcohol, than of a living quicksilver. In short, visible +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">surface</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">power</span></em> of any kind, +much more the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">power</span></em> of +life, are ideas which the very forms of the human understanding +make it impossible to identify. But whether +the powers which manifest themselves to us under certain +conditions in the forms of electricity, or chemical attraction, +have any analogy to the power which manifests +itself in growth and organization, is altogether a different +question, and demands altogether a different chain of +reasoning: if it be indeed a tree of knowledge, it will be +known by its fruits, and these will depends not on the +mere assertion, but on the inductions by which the position +is supported, and by the additions which it makes to our +insight into the nature of the facts it is meant to illustrate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">account</span></em> for Life is one thing; to explain Life another. +In the first we are supposed to state something prior (if +not in time, yet in the order of Nature) to the thing +accounted for, as the ground or cause of that thing, or +(which comprises the meaning and force of both words) +as its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sufficient cause, quae et facit, et subest</span></em>. And to +this, in the question of Life, I know no possible answer, +but GOD. To account for a thing is to see into the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +principle of its possibility, and from that principle to +evolve its being. Thus the mathematician demonstrates +the truths of geometry by constructing them. It is an +admirable remark of Joh. Bapt. a Vico, in a Tract published +at Naples, 1710,<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Geometrica ideò demonstramus, +quia facimus; physica si demonstrare possimus, faceremus. +Metaphysici veri claritas eadem ac lucis, quam non nisi +per opaca cognoscimus; nam non lucem sed lucidas res +videmus. Physica sunt opaca, nempe formata et finita, in +quibus Metaphysici veri lumen videmus.”</span> The reasoner +who assigns structure or organization as the antecedent +of Life, who names the former a cause, and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">latter</span></em> its +effect, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he</span></em> it is who pretends to account for life. Now +Euclid would, with great right, demand of such a philosopher +to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">make</span></em> Life; in the same sense, I mean, in which +Euclid makes an Icosahedron, or a figure of twenty sides, +namely, in the understanding or by an intellectual construction. +An argument which, of itself, is sufficient to +prove the untenable nature of Materialism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To explain a power, on the other hand, is (the power +itself being assumed, though not comprehended, +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ut qui datur, non intelligitur</span></span>) +to unfold or spread it out: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ex implicito +planum facere</span></span>. In the present instance, such an +explanation would consist in the reduction of the idea of +Life to its simplest and most comprehensive form or mode +of action; that is, to some characteristic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">instinct</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tendency</span></em>, evident in all its manifestations, and involved in +the idea itself. This assumed as existing in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em>, it will +be required to present an ascending series of corresponding +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +phenomena as involved <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in</span></em>, proceeding <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">from</span></em>, and so far +therefore explained <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">by</span></em>, the supposition of its progressive +intensity and of the gradual enlargement of its sphere, +the necessity of which again must be contained in the +idea of the tendency itself. In other words, the tendency +having been given in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em>, it is required to render the +phenomena intelligible as its different degrees and modifications. +Still more perfect will the explanation be, should +the necessity of this progression and of these ascending +gradations be contained in the assumed idea of life, as +thus defined by the general form and common purport of +all its various tendencies. This done, we have only to +add the conditions common to all its phenomena, and, those +appropriate to each place and rank, in the scale of ascent, +and then proceed to determine the primary and constitutive +forms, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the elementary powers in which this +tendency realizes itself under different degrees and conditions.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What is Life? Were such a question proposed, we should +be tempted to answer, what is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em> Life that really <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>? +Our reason convinces us that the quantities of things, +taken abstractedly as quantity, exist only in the relations +they bear to the percipient; in plainer words, they exist +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +only in our minds, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ut +quorum esse est percipi</span></span>. For if the +definite quantities have a ground, and therefore a reality, +in the external world, and independent of the mind that +perceives them, this ground is <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ipso facto</span></span> a quality; the +very etymon of this world showing that a quality, not +taken in its own nature but in relation to another thing, +is to be defined <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">causa +sufficiens, entia, de quibus loquimur; +esse talia, qualia sunt</span></span>. Either the quantities perceived +exist only in the perception, or they have likewise a real +existence. In the former case, the quality (the word is +here used in an active sense) that determines them belongs +to Life, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">per ipsam +hypothesin</span></span>; and in the other case, +since by the agreement of all parties Life may exist in +other forms than those of consciousness, or even of sensibility, +the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">onus probandi</span></span> +falls on those who assert of any +quality that it is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em> Life. For the analogy of all that we +know is clearly in favour of the contrary supposition, and +if a man would analyse the meaning of his own words, and +carefully distinguish his perceptions and sensations from +the external cause exciting them, and at the same time +from the quantity or superficies under which that cause is +acting, he would instantly find himself, if we mistake not, +involuntarily identifying the ideas of Quality and Life. +Life, it is admitted on all hands, does not necessarily imply +consciousness or sensibility; and we, for our parts, cannot +see that the irritability which metals manifest to galvanism, +can be more remote from that which may be supposed to +exist in the tribe of lichens, or in the helvellæ, pezizee, &c., +than the latter is from the phenomena of excitability in +the human body, whatever name it may be called by, or in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +whatever way it may modify itself.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> That the mere act of +growth does not constitute the idea of Life, or the absence +of that act exclude it, we have a proof in every egg before it +is placed under the hen, and in every grain of corn before +it is put into the soil. All that could be deduced by fair +reasoning would amount to this only, that the life of +metals, as the power which effects and determines their +comparative cohesion, ductility, &c., was yet lower on the +scale than the Life which produces the first attempts of +organization, in the almost shapeless tremella, or in such +fungi as grow in the dark recesses of the mine. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If it were asked, to what purpose or with what view we +should generalize the idea of Life thus broadly, I should +not hesitate to reply that, were there no other use conceivable, +there would be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">some</span></em> advantage in merely destroying +an arbitrary assumption in natural philosophy, +and in reminding the physiologists that they could not +hear the life of metals asserted with a more contemptuous +surprise than they themselves incur from the vulgar, when +they speak of the Life in mould or mucor. But this is +not the case. This wider view not only precludes a groundless +assumption, it likewise fills up the arbitrary chasm +between physics and physiology, and justifies us in using +the former as means of insight into the latter, which would +be contrary to all sound rules of ratiocination if the powers +working in the objects of the two sciences were absolutely +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and essentially diverse. For as to abstract the idea of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em> from that of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">degrees</span></em>, which are alone designated in +the language of common use, is the first and indispensable +step in philosophy, so are we the better enabled to form +a notion of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em>, the lower the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">degree</span></em>, and the simpler +the form is in which it appears to us. We study the complex +in the simple; and only from the intuition of the +lower can we safely proceed to the intellection of the +higher degrees. The only danger lies in the leaping from +low to high, with the neglect of the intervening gradations. +But the same error would introduce discord into the gamut, +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">et ab abusu contra usum non +valet consequentia</span></span>. That these +degrees will themselves bring forth secondary kinds sufficiently +distinct for all the purposes of science, and even +for common sense, will be seen in the course of this inquisition: +for this is one proof of the essential vitality +of nature, that she does not ascend as links in a suspended +chain, but as the steps in a ladder; or rather she at one +and the same time <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ascends</span></em> as by a climax, and expands +as the concentric circles on the lake from the point to +which the stone in its fall had given the first impulse. +At all events, a contemptuous rejection of this mode of +reasoning would come with an ill grace from a medical +philosopher, who cannot combine any three phenomena +of health or of disease without the assumption of powers, +which he is compelled to deduce without being able to +demonstrate; nay, even of material substances as the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vehicles</span></em> of these powers, which he can never expect to exhibit +before the senses. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the preceding it should appear, that the most +comprehensive formula to which life is reducible, would +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be that of the internal copula of bodies, or (if we may +venture to borrow a phrase from the Platonic school) the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">power</span></em> which discloses itself from within as a principle of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">unity</span></em> in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">many</span></em>. But that there is a physiognomy in +words, which, without reference to their fitness or necessity, +make unfavorable as well as favorable impressions, +and that every unusual term in an abstruse research +incurs the risk of being denominated jargon, I should at +the same time have borrowed a scholastic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">term</span></em>, and defined +life <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">absolutely</span></em>, as the principle of unity in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">multeity</span></em>, as far +as the former, the unity to wit, is produced <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ab intra</span></span>; but +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eminently</span></em> (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">sensu +eminenti</span></span>), I define life as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the principle +of individuation</span></em>, or the power which unites a given <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">all</span></em> +into a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">whole</span></em> that is presupposed by all its parts. The +link that combines the two, and acts throughout both, +will, of course, be defined by the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tendency</span></em> to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">individuation</span></em>. +Thus, from its utmost <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">latency</span></em>, in which life is one with +the elementary powers of mechanism, that is, with the +powers of mechanism considered as qualitative and actually +synthetic, to its highest manifestation, (in which, as +the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">vis vitæ vivida</span></span>, +or life <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em> life, it subordinates and +modifies these powers, becoming contra-distinguished from +mechanism,<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ab extra</span></span>, under the form of organization,) +there is an ascending series of intermediate classes, and of +analogous gradations in each class. To a reflecting mind, +indeed, the very fact that the powers peculiar to life in +living animals <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">include</span></em> cohesion, elasticity, &c. (or, in the +words of a late publication, <span class="tei tei-q">“that living matter exhibits +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +these physical properties,”</span><a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a>) +would demonstrate that, in the +truth of things, they are homogeneous, and that both the +classes are but degrees and different dignities of one and +the same tendency. For the latter are not subjected to +the former as a lever, or walking-stick to the muscles; +the more intense the life is, the less does <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">elasticity</span></em>, for +instance, appear <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em> elasticity. It sinks down into the +nearest approach to its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">physical</span></em> form by a series of degrees +from the contraction and elongation of the irritable muscle +to the physical hardness of the insensitive nail. The +lower powers are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">assimilated</span></em>, not merely <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">employed</span></em>, and +assimilation presupposes the homogeneous nature of the +thing assimilated; else it is a miracle, only not the same +as that of a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">creation</span></em>, because it would imply that additional +and equal miracle of annihilation. In short, all +the impossibilities which the acutest of the reformed +Divines have detected in the hypothesis of transubstantiation +would apply, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">totidem +verbis et syllabis</span></span>, to that of +assimilation, if the objects and the agents were really +heterogeneous. Unless, therefore, a thing can exhibit +properties which do not belong to it, the very admission +that living matter exhibits physical properties, includes +the further admission, that those <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">physical</span></em> or dead properties +are themselves vital in essence, really <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">distinct</span></em> but +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in appearance only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">different</span></em>; or in absolute contrast with +each other. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In all cases that which, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">abstractly</span></em> taken, is the definition +of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em>, will, when applied <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">absolutely</span></em>, or in its +fullest sense, be the definition of the highest <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">degree</span></em> of that +kind. If life, in general, be defined <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">vis ab intra, cujus +proprium est coadunare plura in rem unicam, quantùm est +res unica</span></span>; the unity will be more intense in proportion as +it constitutes each particular thing a whole of itself; and +yet more, again, in proportion to the number and interdependence +of the parts, which it unites as a whole. But +a whole composed, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ab +intra</span></span>, of different parts, so far interdependent +that each is reciprocally means and end, is an +individual, and the individuality is most intense where the +greatest dependence of the parts on the whole is combined +with the greatest dependence of the whole on its parts; +the first (namely, the dependence of the parts on the +whole) being absolute; the second (namely, the dependence +of the whole on its parts) being proportional to the +importance of the relation which the parts have to the +whole, that is, as their action extends more or less beyond +themselves. For this spirit of the whole is most expressed +in that part which derives its importance as an End from +its importance as a Mean, relatively to all the parts under +the same copula. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Finally, of individuals, the living power will be most intense +in that individual which, as a whole, has the greatest +number of integral parts presupposed in it; when, moreover, +these integral parts, together with a proportional increase +of their interdependence, as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">parts</span></em>, have themselves most +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the character of wholes in the sphere occupied by them. A +mathematical point, line, or surface, is an <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ens rationis</span></span>, for +it expresses an intellectual act; but a physical atom is +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ens fictitium</span></span>, +which may be made subservient, as ciphers +are in arithmetic, to the purposes of hypothetical construction, +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">per regulam falsi</span></span>; +but transferred to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Nature</span></em>, it is in +the strictest sense an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">absurd</span></em> quantity; for extension, and +consequently divisibility, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">multeity</span></em>,<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> (for space cannot be +divided,) is the indispensable condition, under which alone +anything can <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">appear</span></em> to us, or even be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thought</span></em> of, as a +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thing</span></em>. But if it should be replied, that the elementary +particles are atoms not positively, but by such a hardness +communicated to them as is relatively invincible, I should +remind the assertor that <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">temeraria +citatio supernaturalium est pulvinar intellectús pigri</span></span>, +and that he who requires me +to believe a miracle of his own dreaming, must first work +a miracle to convince me that he had dreamt by inspiration. +Add, too, the gross inconsistency of resorting to an +immaterial influence in order to complete a system of +materialism, by the exclusion of all modes of existence +which the theorist cannot in imagination, at least, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">finger</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">peep</span></em> at! Each of the preceding gradations, as above +defined, might be represented as they exist, and are realised +in Nature. But each would require a work for itself, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +co-extensive with the science of metals, and that of fossils +(both as geologically applied); of crystallization; and of +vegetable and animal physiology, in all its distinct +branches. The nature of the present essay scarcely permits +the space sufficient to illustrate our meaning. The +proof of its probability (for to that only can we arrive by +so partial an application of the hypothesis), is to be found +in its powers of solving the particular class of phenomena, +that form the subjects of the present inquisition, more +satisfactorily and profitably than has been done, or even +attempted before. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Exclusively, therefore, for the purposes of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">illustration</span></em>, +I would take as an instance of the first step, the metals, +those, namely, that are capable of permanent reduction. +For, by the established laws of nomenclature, the others +(as sodium, potassium, calcium, silicium, &c.) would be +entitled to a class of their own, under the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bases</span></em>. +It is long since the chemists have despaired of decomposing +this class of bodies. They still remain, one and all, as +elements or simple bodies, though, on the principles of +the corpuscularian philosophy, nothing can be more improbable +than that they really are such; and no reason +has or can be assigned on the grounds of that system, +why, in no one instance, the contrary has not been proved. +But this is at once explained, if we assume them as the +simplest form of unity, namely, the unity of powers and +properties. For these, it is evident, may be endlessly +modified, but can never be decomposed. If I were asked +by a philosopher who had previously extended the attribute +of Life to the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Byssus speciosa</span></span>, +and even to the crustaceous +matter, or outward bones of a lobster, &c., whether +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the ingot of gold expressed <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">life</span></em>, I should answer without +hesitation, as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ingot</span></em> of gold assuredly not, for its form +is accidental and <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ab extra</span></span>. +It may be added to or detracted +from without in the least affecting the nature, +state, or properties in the specific matter of which the +ingot consists. But as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gold</span></em>, as that special union of absolute +and of relative gravity, ductility, and hardness, which, +wherever they are found, constitute <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gold</span></em>, I should answer +no less fearlessly, in the affirmative. But I should further +add, that of the two counteracting tendencies of nature, +namely, that of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">detachment</span></em> from the universal life, which +universality is represented to us by gravitation, and that +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">attachment</span></em> or reduction into it, this and the other noble +metals represented the units in which the latter tendency, +namely, that of identity with the life of nature, subsisted +in the greatest overbalance over the former. It is the +form of unity with the least degree of tendency to +individuation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Rising in the ascent, I should take, as illustrative of +the second step, the various forms of crystals as a union, +not of powers only, but of parts, and as the simplest forms +of composition in the next narrowest sphere of affinity. +Here the form, or apparent <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quantity</span></em>, is manifestly the +result of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quality</span></em>, and the chemist himself not seldom +admits them as infallible characters of the substances +united in the whole of a given crystal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the first step, we had Life, as the mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">unity</span></em> of +powers; in the second we have the simplest forms of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">totality</span></em> evolved. The third step is presented to us in +those vast formations, the tracing of which generically +would form the science of Geology, or its history in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +strict sense of the word, even as their description and +diagnostics constitute its preliminaries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Their claim to this rank I cannot here even attempt +to support. It will be sufficient to explain my reason +for having assigned it to them, by the avowal, that I regard +them in a twofold point of view: 1st, as the residue and +product of vegetable and animal life; 2d, as manifesting +the tendencies of the Life of Nature to vegetation or +animalization. And this process I believe—in one instance +by the peat morasses of the northern, and in the other +instance by the coral banks of the southern hemisphere—to +be still connected with the present order of vegetable +and animal Life, which constitute the fourth and last step +in these wide and comprehensive divisions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the lowest forms of the vegetable and animal world +we perceive totality dawning into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">individuation</span></em>, while in +man, as the highest of the class, the individuality is not +only perfected in its corporeal sense, but begins a new +series beyond the appropriate limits of physiology. The +tendency to individuation, more or less obscure, more or +less obvious, constitutes the common character of all +classes, as far as they maintain for themselves a distinction +from the universal life of the planet; while the +degrees, both of intensity and extension, to which this +tendency is realized, form the species, and their ranks +in the great scale of ascent and expansion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the treatment of a subject so vast and complex, +within the limits prescribed for an essay like the present, +where it is impossible not to say either too much or too little +(and too much because too little), an author is entitled to +make large claims on the candour of his judges. Many +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +things he must express inaccurately, not from ignorance +or oversight, but because the more precise expression +would have involved the necessity of a further explanation, +and this another, even to the first elements of the science. +This is an inconvenience which presses on the analytic +method, on however large a scale it may be conducted, +compared with the synthetic; and it must bear with a +tenfold weight in the present instance, where we are not +permitted to avail ourselves of its usual advantages as a +counterbalance to its inherent defects. I shall have +done all that I dared propose to myself, or that can +be justly demanded of me by others, if I have succeeded +in conveying a sufficiently clear, though indistinct and +inadequate notion, so as of its many results to render intelligible +that one which I am to apply to my particular +subject, not as a truth already demonstrated, but as an +hypothesis, which pretends to no higher merit than that of +explaining the particular class of phenomena to which it +is applied, and asks no other reward than a presumption +in favour of the general system of which it affirms itself to +be a dependent though integral part. By Life I everywhere +mean the true Idea of Life, or that most general +form under which Life manifests itself to us, which includes +all its other forms. This I have stated to be the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tendency to individuation</span></em>, and the degrees or intensities +of Life to consist in the progressive realization of this +tendency. The power which is acknowledged to exist, +wherever the realization is found, must subsist wherever +the tendency is manifested. The power which comes +forth and stirs abroad in the bird, must be latent in the +egg. I have shown, moreover, that this tendency to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +individuate cannot be conceived without the opposite +tendency to connect, even as the centrifugal power supposes +the centripetal, or as the two opposite poles constitute +each other, and are the constituent acts of one and the +same power in the magnet. We might say that the life +of the magnet subsists in their union, but that it lives +(acts or manifests itself) in their strife. Again, if the +tendency be at once to individuate and to connect, to +detach, but so as either to retain or to reproduce attachment, +the individuation itself must be a tendency to the +ultimate production of the highest and most comprehensive +individuality. This must be the one great end of Nature, +her ultimate object, or by whatever other word we may +designate that something which bears to a final cause the +same relation that Nature herself bears to the Supreme +Intelligence. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to the plan I have prescribed for this inquisition, +we are now to seek for the highest law, or most +general form, under which this tendency acts, and then +to pursue the same process with this, as we have already +done with the tendency itself, namely, having stated the +law in its highest abstraction, to present it in the different +forms in which it appears and reappears in higher and +higher dignities. I restate the question. The tendency +having been ascertained, what is its most general law? +I answer—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">polarity</span></em>, or the essential dualism of Nature, +arising out of its productive unity, and still tending to reaffirm +it, either as equilibrium, indifference, or identity. +In its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">productive power</span></em>, of which the product is the only +measure, consists its incompatibility with mathematical +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +calculus. For the full applicability of an abstract science +ceases, the moment reality begins.<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> Life, then, we consider +as the copula, or the unity of thesis and antithesis, +position and counterposition,—Life itself being the positive +of both; as, on the other hand, the two counterpoints +are the necessary conditions of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">manifestations</span></em> of Life. +These, by the same necessity, unite in a synthesis; +which again, by the law of dualism, essential to all actual +existence, expands, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">produces</span></em> itself, from the point into +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">line</span></em>, in order again to converge, as the initiation of +the same productive process in some intenser form of +reality. Thus, in the identity of the two counter-powers, +Life <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sub</span></em>sists; in their strife it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">con</span></em>sists: and in their +reconciliation +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it at once dies and is born again into a new +form, either falling back into the life of the whole, or +starting anew in the process of individuation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whence shall we take our beginning? From Space, +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">istud litigium +philosophorum</span></span>, which leaves the mind +equally dissatisfied, whether we deny or assert its real +existence. To make it wholly ideal, would be at the same +time to idealize all phenomena, and to undermine the +very conception of an external world. To make it real, +would be to assert the existence of something, with the +properties of nothing. It would far transcend the height +to which a physiologist must confine his flights, should +we attempt to reconcile this apparent contradiction. It +is the duty and the privilege of the theologian to demonstrate, +that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">space</span></em> is the ideal organ by which the soul of +man perceives the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">omnipresence</span></em> of the Supreme Reality, +as distinct from the works, which in him move, and live, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and have their being; while the equal mystery of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Time</span></em> +bears the same relation to his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Eternity</span></em>, or what is fully +equivalent, his Unity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Physiologically contemplated, Nature begins, proceeds, +and ends in a contradiction; for the moment of absolute +solution would be that in which Nature would cease to +be Nature, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> a scheme of ever-varying relations; and +physiology, in the ambitious attempt to solve phenomena +into absolute realities, would itself become a mere web of +verbal abstractions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But it is in strict connexion with our subject, that we +should make the universal <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">FORMS</span></span> +as well as the not less universal <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">LAW</span></span> +of Life, clear and intelligible in the example of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Time</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Space</span></em>, these being both the first specification +of the principle, and ever after its indispensable symbols. +First, a single act of self-inquiry will show the impossibility +of distinctly conceiving the one without some involution +of the other; either time expressed in space, in +the form of the mathematical line, or space within time, +as in the circle. But to form the first conception of a +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">real</span></em> thing, we state both as one in the idea, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">duration</span></em>. +The formula is: (A=B+B=A)=(A=A) or the oneness +of space and time, is the predicate of all <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">real</span></em> being. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But as little can we conceive the oneness, except as +the mid-point producing itself on each side; that is, +manifesting itself on two opposite poles. Thus, from +identity we derive duality, and from both together we +obtain polarity, synthesis, indifference, predominance. +The line is Time + Space, under the predominance of +Time: Surface is Space + Time, under the predominance +of Space, while Line + Surface as the synthesis of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +units, is the circle in the first dignity; to the sphere in +the second; and to the globe in the third. In short, +neither can the antagonists appear but as two forces of +one power, nor can the power be conceived by us but as +the equatorial point of the two counteracting forces; of +which the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">hypomochlion</span></span> +of the lever is as good an illustration +as anything can be that is thought of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mechanically</span></em> +only, and exclusively of life. To make it adequate, we +must substitute the idea of positive production for that of +rest, or mere neutralization. To the fancy alone it is the +null-point, or zero, but to the reason it is the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">punctum +saliens</span></span>, and the power itself in its eminence. Even in +these, the most abstract and universal forms of all thought +and perception—even in the ideas of time and space, we +slip under them, as it were, a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">substratum</span></em>; for we cannot +think of them but as far as they are co-inherent, and +therefore as reciprocally the measures of each other. +Nor, again, can we finish the process without having the +idea of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">motion</span></em> as its immediate product. Thus we say, +that time has one dimension, and imagine it to ourselves +as a line. But the line we have already proved to be the +productive synthesis of time, with space under the predominance +of time. If we exclude space by an abstract +assumption, the time remains as a spaceless point, and +represents the concentered power of unity and active +negation, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> retraction, +determination, and limit, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ab +intra</span></span>. But if we assume the time as excluded, the line +vanishes, and we leave space dimensionless, an indistinguishable +ALL, and therefore the representative of absolute +weakness and formlessness, but, for that very reason, +of infinite capacity and formability. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have been thus full and express on this subject, +because these simple ideas of time, space, and motion, of +length, breadth, and depth, are not only the simplest and +universal, but the necessary symbols of all philosophic +construction. They will be found the primary factors and +elementary forms of every calculus and of every diagram +in the algebra and geometry of a scientific physiology. +Accordingly, we shall recognise the same forms under +other names; but at each return more specific and intense; +and the whole process repeated with ascending +gradations of reality, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">exempli gratiâ</span></span>: Time + space += motion; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">T</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></span> ++ space = line + breadth = depth; +depth + motion = force; +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">L</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span> ++ <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">B</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span> += <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">D</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>; +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">LD</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span> + +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">BD</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span> = +attraction + repulsion = gravitation; and so +on, even till they pass into outward phenomena, and form +the intermediate link between productive powers and fixed +products in light, heat, and electricity. If we pass to the +construction of matter, we find it as the product, or +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">tertium aliud</span></span>, +of antagonist powers of repulsion and +attraction. Remove these powers, and the conception of +matter vanishes into space—conceive repulsion only, and +you have the same result. For infinite repulsion, uncounteracted +and alone, is tantamount to infinite, dimensionless +diffusion, and this again to infinite weakness; viz., +to space. Conceive attraction alone, and as an infinite +contraction, its product amounts to the absolute point, +viz., to time. Conceive the synthesis of both, and you +have matter as a fluxional antecedent, which, in the very +act of formation, passes into body by its gravity, and yet +in all bodies it still remains as their mass, which, being +exclusively calculable under the law of gravitation, gives +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +rise, as we before observed, to the science of statics, most +improperly called celestial mechanics. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In strict consistence with the same philosophy which, +instead of considering the powers of bodies to have been +miraculously stuck into a prepared and pre-existing +matter, as pins into a pin-cushion, conceives the powers +as the productive factors, and the body or phenomenon as +the fact, product, or fixture; we revert again to potentiated +length in the power of magnetism; to surface in +the power of electricity; and to the synthesis of both, or +potentiated depth, in constructive, that is, chemical +affinity. But while the two factors are as poles to each +other, each factor has likewise its own poles, and thus in +the simple cross— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">M M</span></span>, the magnetic line, running from top +to bottom, with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f f</span></span> its northern +pole, or pole of attraction; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">m m</span></span> its south, or pole of +repulsion, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">E E</span></span>, running from left to +right, one of the lines that spring from each +point of M M, with its east, or pole of contraction, and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span> its west, or pole of diffluence and expansion—we have +presented to us the universal quadruplicity, or four +elemental forms of power; in the endless proportions and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +modifications of which, the innumerable offspring of all-bearing +Nature consist. Wisely docile to the suggestions +of Nature herself, the ancients significantly expressed these +forces under the names of earth, water, air, and fire; not +meaning any tangible or visible substance so generalized, +but the powers predominant, and, as it were, the living +basis of each, which no chemical decomposition can ever +present to the senses, were it only that their interpenetration +and co-inherence first constitutes them sensible, +and is the condition and meaning of a—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thing</span></em>. Already +our more truly philosophical naturalists (Ritter, for +instance) have begun to generalize the four great elements +of chemical nomenclature, carbon, azote, oxygen, and +hydrogen: the two former as the positive and negative +pole of the magnetic axis, or as the power of fixity and +mobility; and the two latter as the opposite poles, or plus +and minus states of cosmical electricity, as the powers of +contraction and dilatation, or of comburence and combustibility. +These powers are to each other as longitude to +latitude, and the poles of each relatively as north to south, +and as east to west. For surely the reader will find no distrust +in a system only because Nature, ever consistent with herself, +presents us everywhere with harmonious and accordant +symbols of her consistent doctrines. Nothing would be +more easy than, by the ordinary principles of sound logic +and common sense, to demonstrate the impossibility and +expose the absurdity of the corpuscularian or mechanic +system, or than to prove the intenable nature of any intermediate +system. But we cannot force any man into an +insight or intuitive possession of the true philosophy, +because we cannot give him abstraction, intellectual +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +intuition, or constructive imagination; because we cannot +organize for him an eye that can see, an ear that can listen +to, or a heart that can feel, the harmonies of Nature, or +recognise in her endless forms, the thousand-fold realization +of those simple and majestic laws, which yet in their +absoluteness can be discovered only in the recesses of his +own spirit,—not by that man, therefore, whose imaginative +powers have been <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ossified</span></em> by the continual reaction +and assimilating influences of mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">objects</span></em> on his mind, +and who is a prisoner to his own eye and its reflex, the +passive fancy!—not by him in whom an unbroken familiarity +with the organic world, as if it were mechanical, +with the sensitive, but as if it were insensate, has engendered +the coarse and hard spirit of a sorcerer. The former +is unable, the latter unwilling, to master the absolute pre-requisites. +There is neither hope nor occasion for him <span class="tei tei-q">“to +cudgel his brains about it, he has no feeling of the business.”</span> +If he do not see the necessity from without, if he +have not learned the possibility from within, of interpenetration, +of total intussusception, of the existence of all in +each as the condition of Nature's unity and substantiality, +and of the latency under the predominance of some one +power, wherein subsists her life and its endless variety, as +he must be, by habitual slavery to the eye, or its reflex, +the passive fancy, under the influences of the corpuscularian +philosophy, he has so paralysed his imaginative +powers as to be unable—or by that hardness and heart-hardening +spirit of contempt, which is sure to result from +a perpetual commune with the lifeless, he has so far +debased his inward being—as to be unwilling to comprehend +the pre-requisite, he must be content, while standing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +thus at the threshold of philosophy, to receive the results, +though he cannot be admitted to the deliberation—in +other words, to act upon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rules</span></em> which he is incapable of +understanding as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">LAWS</span></span>, +and to reap the harvest with the +sharpened iron for which others have delved for him in +the mine. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is not improbable that there may exist, and even be +discovered, higher forms and more akin to Life than those +of magnetism, electricity, and constructive (or chemical) +affinity appear to be, even in their finest known influences. +It is not improbable that we may hereafter find ourselves +justified in revoking certain of the latter, and unappropriating +them to a yet unnamed triplicity; or that, being +thus assisted, we may obtain a qualitative instead of a +quantitative insight into vegetable animation, as distinct +from animal, and that of the insect world from both. But +in the present state of science, the magnetic, electric, and +chemical powers are the last and highest of inorganic +nature. These, therefore, we assume as presenting themselves +again to us, in their next metamorphosis, as reproduction +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> growth and identity of the whole, amid +the change or flux of all the parts), irritability and sensibility; +reproduction corresponding to magnetism, irritability +to electricity, and sensibility to constructive chemical +affinity. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But before we proceed further, it behoves us to answer +the objections contained in the following passage, or withdraw +ourselves in time from the bitter contempt in which +it would involve us. Acting under such a necessity, we +need not apologise for the length of the quotation. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. <span class="tei tei-q">“If,”</span> says Mr. Lawrence, <span class="tei tei-q">“the properties of living +matter are to be explained in this way, why should not +we adopt the same plan with physical properties, and +account for gravitation, or chemical affinity, by the supposition +of appropriate subtile fluids? Why does the irritability +of a muscle need such an explanation, if explanation +it can be called, more than the elective attraction of +a salt?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. <span class="tei tei-q">“To make the matter more intelligible, this vital +principle is compared to magnetism, to electricity, and to +galvanism; or it is roundly stated to be oxygen. 'Tis +like a camel, or like a whale, or like what you please.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. <span class="tei tei-q">“You have only to grant that the phenomena of +the sciences just alluded to depend on extremely fine and +invisible fluids, superadded to the matters in which they +are exhibited, and to allow further that Life, and magnetic, +galvanic, and electric phenomena correspond perfectly; +the existence of a subtile matter of Life will then be a very +probable inference.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. <span class="tei tei-q">“On this illustration you will naturally remark, +that the existence of the magnetic, electric, and galvanic +fluids, which is offered as a proof of the existence of a +vital fluid, is as much a matter of doubt as that of the +vital fluid itself.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is singular, also, that the vital principle should +be like both magnetism and electricity, when these two +are not like each other.”</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +6. <span class="tei tei-q">“It would have been interesting to have had this +illustration prosecuted a little further. We should have +been pleased to learn whether the human body is more +like a loadstone, a voltaic pile, or an electrical machine; +whether the organs are to be regarded as Leyden jars, +magnetic needles, or batteries.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7. <span class="tei tei-q">“The truth is, there is no resemblance, no analogy, +between Electricity and Life; the two orders of phenomena +are completely distinct; they are incommensurable. +Electricity illustrates life no more than life illustrates +electricity.”</span><a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To avoid unnecessary description, I shall refer to the +passages by the numbers affixed to them, for that purpose, +in the margin. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In reply to No. 1, I ask whether, in the nature of the +mind, illustration and explanation must not of necessity +proceed from the lower to the higher? or whether a boy +is to be taught his addition, subtraction, multiplication, +and division, by the highest branches of algebraic analysis? +Is there any better way of systematic teaching, than that +of illustrating each new step, or having each new step illustrated +to him by its identity in kind with the step the +next below it? though it be the only mode in which this +objection can be answered, yet it seems affronting to remind +the objector, of rules so simple as that the complex +must even be illustrated by the more simple, or the less +scrutible by that which is more subject to our examination. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In reply to No. 2, I first refer to the author's eulogy +on Mr. Hunter, p. 163, in which he is justly extolled for +having <span class="tei tei-q">“surveyed the whole <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">system</span></em> of organized beings, +from plants to man:”</span> of course, therefore, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em> a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">system</span></em>; +and therefore under some <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one common law</span></em>. Now in the +very same sense, and no other, than that in which the +writer himself by implication compares himself as a man +to the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">dermestes typographicus</span></span>, +or the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">fucus scorpioides</span></span>, +do I compare the principle of Life to magnetism, electricity, +and constructive affinity,—or rather to that power +to which the two former are the thesis and antithesis, the +latter the synthesis. But if to compare involve the sense +of its etymon, and involve the sense of parity, I utterly +deny that I do at all compare them; and, in truth, in +no conceivable sense of the word is it applicable, any +more than a geometrician can be affirmed to compare a +polygon to a point, because he generates the line out of +the point. The writer attributes to a philosophy essentially +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +vital the barrenness of the mechanic system, with +which alone his imagination has been familiarised, and +which, as hath been justly observed by a contemporary +writer, is contradistinguished from the former principally +in this respect; that demanding for every mode and act +of existence real or possible visibility, it knows only of +distance and nearness, composition (or rather compaction) +and decomposition, in short, the relations of unproductive +particles to each other; so that in every instance the result +is the exact sum of the component qualities, as in +arithmetical addition. This is the philosophy of Death, +and only of a dead nature can it hold good. In Life, +and in the view of a vital philosophy, the two component +counter-powers actually interpenetrate each other, and +generate a higher third, including both the former, <span class="tei tei-q">“ita +tamen ut sit alia et major.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As a complete answer to No. 3, I refer the reader to +many passages in the preceding and following pages, in +which, on far higher and more demonstrative grounds +than the mechanic system can furnish, I have exposed the +unmeaningness and absurdity of these finer fluids, as applied +even to electricity itself; unless, indeed, they are +assumed as its product. But in addition I beg leave to +remind the author, that it is incomparably more agreeable +to all experience to originate the formative process in the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fluid</span></em>, whether fine or gross, than in corporeal <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">atoms</span></em>, in +which we are not only deserted by all experience, but contradicted +by the primary conception of body itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Equally inapplicable is No. 4: and of No. 5 I can +only repeat, first, that I do not make Life <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">like</span></em> magnetism, +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">like</span></em> electricity; that the difference between +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +magnetism and electricity, and the powers illustrated by +them, is an essential part of my system, but that the +animal Life of man is the identity of all three. To whatever +other system this objection may apply, it is utterly +irrelevant to that which I have here propounded: though +from the narrow limits prescribed to me, it has been propounded +with an inadequacy painful to my own feelings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ridicule in No. 6 might be easily retorted; but as +it could prove nothing, I will leave it where I found it, in +a page where nothing is proved. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A similar remark might be sufficient for the bold and +blank assertion (No. 7) with which the extract concludes; +but that I feel some curiosity to discover what meaning +the author attaches to the term analogy. Analogy implies +a difference in sort, and not merely in degree; and it is +the sameness of the end, with the difference of the means, +which constitutes analogy. No one would say the lungs +of a man were analogous to the lungs of a monkey, but +any one might say that the gills of fish and the spiracula +of insects are analogous to lungs. Now if there be any +philosophers who have asserted that electricity as electricity +is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">same</span></em> as Life, for that reason they cannot be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">analogous</span></em> +to each other; and as no man in his senses, philosopher +or not, is capable of imagining that the lightning +which destroys a sheep, was a means to the same end with +the principle of its organization; for this reason, too, the +two powers cannot be represented as analogous. Indeed +I know of no system in which the word, as thus applied, +would admit of an endurable meaning, but that which +teaches us, that a mass of marrow in the skull is analogous +to the rational soul, which Plato and Bacon, equally +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with the <span class="tei tei-q">“poor Indian,”</span> believe themselves to have received +from the Supreme Reason. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would be blindness not to see, or affectation to pretend +not to see, the work at which these sarcasms were +levelled. The author of that work is abundantly able to +defend his own opinions; yet I should be ambitious to +address <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">him</span></em> at the close of the contest in the lines of the +great Roman poet: +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Et nos tela, Pater, ferrumque haud debile dextrâ</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Spargimus, et nostro sequitur, de vulnere sanguis.”</span></div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Mr. Abernethy's Lecture on the Theory of Life, it +is impossible not to see a presentiment of a great truth. +He has, if I may so express myself, caught it in the +breeze: and we seem to hear the first glad opening and +shout with which he springs forward to the pursuit. But +it is equally evident that the prey has not been followed +through its doublings and windings, or driven +out from its brakes and covers into full and open view. +Many of the least tenable phrases may be fairly interpreted +as illustrations, rather than precise exponents of +the author's meaning; at least, while they remain as a +mere suggestion or annunciation of his ideas, and till he +has expanded them over a larger sphere, it would be unjust +to infer the contrary. But it is not with men, however +strongly their professional merits may entitle them to +reverence, that my concern is at present. If the opinions +here supported are the same with those of Mr. Abernethy, +I rejoice in his authority. If they are different, I shall +wait with an anxious interest for an exposition of that +difference. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having reasserted that I no more confound magnetism +with electricity, or the chemical process, than the +mathematician confounds length with breadth, or either +with depth; I think it sufficient to add that there are +two views of the subject, the former of which I do not +believe attributable to any philosopher, while both are +alike disclaimed by me as forming any part of my views. +The first is that which is supposed to consider electricity +identical with life, as it subsists in organized bodies. The +other considers electricity as everywhere present, and +penetrating all bodies under the image of a subtile fluid +or substance, which, in Mr. Abernethy's inquiry, I +regard as little more than a mere diagram on his slate, +for the purpose of fixing the attention on the intellectual +conception, or as a possible <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">product</span></em>, (in which case electricity +must be a composite power,) or at worst, as words +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">quæ humana incuria fudit</span></span>. +This which, in inanimate Nature, is manifested now as magnetism, now as electricity, +and now as chemical agency, is supposed, on entering an +organized body, to constitute its vital <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">principle</span></em>, something +in the same manner as the steam becomes the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mechanic</span></em> +power of the steam-engine, in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">consequence</span></em> of its compression +by the steam-engine; or as the breeze that murmurs +indistinguishably in the forest becomes the element, the +substratum, of melody in the Æolian harp, and of consummate +harmony in the organ. Now this hypothesis is as +directly opposed to my view as supervention is to evolution, +inasmuch as I hold the organized body itself, in all +its marvellous contexture, to be the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">PRODUCT</span></span> +and representant of the power which is here supposed to have +supervened to it. So far from admitting a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">transfer</span></em>, I +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +do not admit it even in electricity itself, or in the phenomena +universally called electrical; among other points I +ground my explanation of remote sympathy on the directly +contrary supposition. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But my opinions will be best explained by a rapid +exemplification in the processes of Nature, from the first +rudiments of individualized life in the lowest classes of its +two great poles, the vegetable and animal creation, to its +crown and consummation in the human body; thus illustrating +at once the unceasing <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">polarity of life, as the form +of its process, and its tendency to progressive individuation +as the law of its direction</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among the conceptions, of the mere ideal character of +which the philosopher is well aware, and which yet become +necessary from the necessity of assuming a beginning; +the original fluidity of the planet is the chief. Under +some form or other it is expressed or implied in every +system of cosmogony and even of geology, from Moses to +Thales, and from Thales to Werner. This assumption +originates in the same law of mind that gave rise to the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">prima materia</span></span> +of the Peripatetic school. In order to +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">comprehend</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">explain</span></em> the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">forms</span></em> of things, +we must imagine a state <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antecedent</span></em> to form. A chaos of heterogeneous +substances, such as our Milton has described, is +not only an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">impossible</span></em> state (for this may be equally true +of every other attempt), but it is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">palpably</span></em> impossible. It +presupposes, moreover, the thing it is intended to solve; +and makes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">that</span></em> an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">effect</span></em> which had been called in as the +explanatory <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cause</span></em>. The requisite and only serviceable +fiction, therefore, is the representation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">CHAOS</span></span> as one +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +vast homogeneous drop! In this sense it may be even +justified, as an appropriate symbol of the great fundamental +truth that all things spring from, and subsist in, +the endless strife between indifference and difference. The +whole history of Nature is comprised in the specification +of the transitional states from the one to the other. The +symbol only is fictitious: the thing signified is not only +grounded in truth—it is the law and actuating principle +of all other truths, whether physical or intellectual. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, by magnetism in its widest sense, I mean the +first and simplest <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">differential</span></em> act of Nature, as the power +which works in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">length</span></em>, and produces the first distinction +between the indistinguishable by the generation of a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">line</span></em>. +Relatively, therefore, to fluidity, that is, to matter, the +parts of which cannot be distinguished from each other by +figure, magnetism is the power of fixity; but, relatively to +itself, magnetism, like every other power in Nature, is +designated by its opposite poles, and must be represented +as the magnetic axis, the northern pole of which signifies +rest, attraction, fixity, coherence, or hardness; the element +of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">EARTH</span></span> +in the nomenclature of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">observation</span></em> and the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">CARBONIC</span></span> +principle in that of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">experiment</span></em>; while the southern +pole, as its antithesis, represents mobility, repulsion, +incoherence, and fusibility; the element of air in the +nomenclature of observation (that is, of Nature as it +appears to us when unquestioned by art), and azote or +nitrogen in the nomenclature of experiment (that is, of +Nature in the state so beautifully allegorized in the +Homeric fable of Proteus bound down, and forced to +answer by Ulysses, after having been pursued through all +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his metamorphoses into his ultimate form.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a>) That nothing +real does or can exist corresponding to either pole <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">exclusively</span></em>, +is involved in the very definition of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">THING</span></span> +as the +synthesis of opposing energies. That a thing <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>, is owing +to the co-inherence therein of any two powers; but that +it is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">that</span></em> particular thing arises from the proportions in +which these powers are co-present, either as predominance +or as reciprocal neutralization; but under the modification +of twofold power to which magnetism itself is, as the thesis +to its antithesis. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The correspondent, in the world of the senses, to the +magnetic axis, exists in the series of metals. The metalleity, +as the universal base of the planet, is a necessary +deduction from the principles of the system. From the +infusible, though evaporable, diamond to nitrogen itself, +the metallic nature of which has been long suspected by +chemists, though still under the mistaken notion of an +oxyde, we trace a series of metals from the maximum of +coherence to positive fluidity, in all ordinary temperatures, +we mean. Though, in point of fact, cold itself is but a +superinduction of the one pole, or, what amounts to the +same thing, the subtraction of the other, under the modifications +afore described; and therefore are the metals +indecomposible, because they are themselves the decompositions +of the metallic axis, in all its degrees of longitude +and latitude. Thus the substance of the planet from which +it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>, is metallic; while that which is ever <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">becoming</span></em>, is in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +like manner produced through the perpetual modification +of the first by the opposite forces of the second; that is, +by the principle of contraction and difference at the eastern +extreme—the element of fire, or the oxygen of the chemists; +and by the elementary power of dilatation, or +universality at its western extreme—the <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el">ὑδωρ ἐν ὑδατι</span> +of the ancients, and the hydrogen of the laboratory. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has been before noticed that the progress of Nature +is more truly represented by the ladder, than by the suspended +chain, and that she expands as by concentric circles. +This is, indeed, involved in the very conception of individuation, +whether it be applied to the different species or to +the individuals. In what manner the evident interspace +is reconciled with the equally evident continuity of +the life of Nature, is a problem that can be solved by those +minds alone, which have intuitively learnt that the whole +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">actual</span></em> life of Nature originates in the existence, and consists +in the perpetual reconciliation, and as perpetual resurgency +of the primary contradiction, of which universal polarity is +the result and the exponent. From the first moment of +the differential impulse—(the primæval chemical epoch of +the Wernerian school)—when Nature, by the tranquil +deposition of crystals, prepared, as it were, the fulcrum +of her after-efforts, from this, her first, and in part <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">irrevocable</span></em>, +self-contraction, we find, in each ensuing production, +more and more tendency to independent existence +in the increasing multitude of strata, and in the relics of +the lowest orders, first of vegetable and then of animal +life. In the schistous formations, which we must here +assume as in great measure the residua of vegetable creations, +that have sunk back into the universal life, and in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the later predominant calcareous masses, which are the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">caput mortuum</span></span> +of animalized existence, we ascend from +the laws of attraction and repulsion, as united in gravity, +to magnetism, electricity, and constructive power, till we +arrive at the point representative of a new and far higher +intensity. For from this point flow, as in opposite directions, +the two streams of vegetation and animalization, +the former characterised by the predominance of magnetism +in its highest power, as reproduction, the other by electricity +intensified—as irritability, in like manner. The +vegetable and animal world are the thesis and antithesis, +or the opposite poles of organic life. We are not, therefore, +to seek in either for analogies to the other, but for +counterpoints. On the same account, the nearer the +common source, the greater the likeness; the farther the +remove, the greater the opposition. At the extreme limits +of inorganic Nature, we may detect a dim and obscure +prophecy of her ensuing process in the twigs and rude +semblances that occur in crystallization of some of the +copper ores, and in the well-known <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">arbor +Dianæ</span></span>, and <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">arbor +Veneris</span></span>. These latter Ritter has already ably explained +by considering the oblique branches and their acute +angles as the result of magnetic repulsion, from the presentation +of the same poles, &c. In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">CORALS</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">CONCHYLIA</span></span>, the +whole act and purpose of their existence +seems to be that of connecting the animal with the inorganic +world by the perpetual formation of calcareous +earth. For the corals are nothing but polypi, which are +characterised by still passing away and dissolving into the +earth, which they had previously excreted, as if they were +the first feeble effort of detachment. The power seems to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +step forward from out the inorganic world only to fall +back again upon it, still, however, under a new form, and +under the predominance of the more active pole of magnetism. +The product must have the same connexion, +therefore, with azote, which the first rudiments of vegetation +have with carbon: the one and the other exist not +for their own sakes, but in order to produce the conditions +best fitted for the production of higher forms. In the +polypi, corallines, &c., individuality is in its first dawn; +there is the same shape in them all, and a multitude of +animals form, as it were, a common animal. And as the +individuals run into each other, so do the different genera. +They likewise pass into each other so indistinguishably, +that the whole order forms a very network. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the corals approach the conchylia, this interramification +decreases. The tubipora forms the transition to +the serpula; for the characteristic of all zoophytes, namely, +the star shape of their openings, here disappears, and the +tubiporæ are distinguished from the rest of the corals by +this very circumstance, that the hollow calcareous pipes +are placed side by side, without interbranching. In the +serpula they have already become separate. How feeble +this attempt is to individuate, is most clearly shown in +their mode of generation. Notwithstanding the report +of Professor Pallas, it still remains doubtful whether +there exists any actual copulation among the polypi. +The mere existence of a polypus suffices for its endless +multiplication. They may be indefinitely propagated by +cuttings, so languid is the power of individuation, so +boundless that of reproduction. But the delicate jelly +dissolves, as lightly as it was formed, into its own product, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and it is probable that the Polynesia, as a future continent, +will be the gigantic monument, not so much of their +life, as of the life of Nature in them. Here we may +observe the first instance of that general law, according +to which Nature still assimilates her extreme points. In +these, her first and feeblest attempts to animalize organization, +it is latent, because undeveloped, and merely +potential; while, in the human brain, the last and most +consummate of her combined energies, it is again lost or +disguised in the subtlety<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> +and multiplicity of its evolution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the class immediately above (Mollusca) we find the +individuals separate, a more determinate form, and in the +higher species, the rudiment of nerves, as the first scarce +distinguishable impress and exponent of sensibility; still, +however, the vegetative reproduction is the predominant +form; and even the nerves <span class="tei tei-q">“which float in the same cavity +with the other viscera,”</span> are probably subservient to it, +and extend their power in the increased intensity of the +reproductive force. Still prevails the transitional state +from the fluid to the solid; and the jelly, that rudiment +in which all animals, even the noblest, have their commencement; +constitutes the whole sphere of these rudimental +animals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the snail and muscle, the residuum of the coral reappears, +but refined and ennobled into a part of the animal. +The whole class is characterised by the separation of the +fluid from the solid. On the one side, a gelatinous semi-fluid; +on the other side, an entirely inorganic, though +often a most exquisitely mechanised, calcareous excretion. +</p> + + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Animalization in general is, we know, contra-distinguished +from vegetables in general by the predominance of azote +in the chemical composition, and of irritability in the +organic process. But in this and the foregoing classes, +as being still near the common equator, or the punctum +indifferentiæ, the carbonic principle still asserts its claims, +and the force of reproduction struggles with that of +irritability. In the unreconciled strife of these two forces +consists the character of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermes</span></em>, which appear to be +the preparatory step for the next class. Hence the difficulties +which have embarrassed the naturalists, who adopt +the Linnæan classification, in their endeavours to discover +determinate characters of distinction between the vermes +and the insecta. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But no sooner have we passed the borders, than endless +variety of form and the bold display of instincts announce, +that Nature has succeeded. She has created the intermediate +link between the vegetable world, as the product +of the reproductive or magnetic power, and the animal as +the exponent of sensibility. Those that live and are +nourished, on the bodies of other animals, are comparatively +few, with little diversity of shape, and almost all +of the same natural family. These we may pass by as +exceptions. But the insect world, taken at large, appears +as an intenser life, that has struggled itself loose and +become emancipated from vegetation, +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Floræ liberti, et +libertini!</span></span> If for the sake of a moment's relaxation we +might indulge a Darwinian flight, though at the risk of +provoking a smile, (not, I hope, a frown) from sober +judgment, we might imagine the life of insects an apotheosis +of the petals, stamina, and nectaries, round which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +they flutter, or of the stems and pedicles, to which they +adhere. Beyond and above this step, Nature seems to act +with a sort of free agency, and to have formed the classes +from choice and bounty. Had she proceeded no further, +yet the whole vegetable, together with the whole insect +creation, would have formed within themselves an entire +and independent system of Life. All plants have insects, +most commonly each genus of vegetables its appropriate +genera of insects; and so reciprocally interdependent and +necessary to each other are they, that we can almost as +little think of vegetation without insects, as of insects +without vegetation. Though probably the mere likeness +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shape</span></em>, in the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">papilio</span></span>, +and the papilionaceous plants, suggested +the idea of the former, as the latter in a state of +detachment, to our late poetical and theoretical brother; +yet a something, that approaches to a graver plausibility, +is given to this fancy of a flying blossom; when we reflect +how many plants depend upon insects for their fructification. +Be it remembered, too, that with few and very +obscure exceptions, the irritable power and an analogon +of voluntary motion first dawn on us in the vegetable +world, in the stamina, and anthers, at the period of impregnation. +Then, as if Nature had been encouraged by +the success of the first experiment, both the one and the +other appear as predominance and general character. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">The insect world is the exponent of irritability, +as the vegetable is of reproduction.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With the ascent in power, the intensity of individuation +keeps even pace; and from this we may explain all the +characteristic distinctions between this class and that of +the vermes. The almost homogeneous jelly of the animalcula +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +infusoria became, by a vital oxydation, granular +in the polypi. This granulation formed itself into distinct +organs in the molluscæ; while for the snails, which are the +next step, the animalized lime, that seemed the sole final +cause of the life of the polypi, assumes all the characters of +an ulterior purpose. Refined into a horn-like substance, it +becomes to the snails the substitute of an organ, and their +outward skeleton. Yet how much more manifold and +definite, the organization of an insect, than that of the +preceding class, the patient researches of Swammerdam +and Lyonnet have evinced, to the delight and admiration +of every reflecting mind. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the insect, for the first time, we find the distinct +commencement of a separation between the exponents of +sensibility and those of irritability; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> between the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nervous</span></em> and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">muscular</span></em> system. The latter, however, +asserts its pre-eminence throughout. The prodigal provision +of organs for the purposes of respiration, and the +marvellous powers which numerous tribes of insects possess, +of accommodating the most corrupted airs, for a +longer or shorter period, to the support of their excitability, +would of itself lead us to presume, that here the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">vis +irritabilis</span></span> is the reigning dynasty. There is here no confluence +of nerves into one reservoir, as evidence of the +independent existence of sensibility <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em> sensibility;—and +therefore no counterpoise of a vascular system, as a distinct +exponent of the irritable pole. The whole muscularity of +these animals, is the organ of irritability; and the nerves +themselves are probably feeders of the motory power. +The petty rills of sensibility flow into the full expanse of +irritability, and there lose themselves. The nerves appertaining +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the senses, on the other hand, are indistinct, +and comparatively unimportant. The multitude of immovable +eyes appear not so much conductors of light, as +its ultimate recipient. We are almost tempted to believe +that they constitute, rather than subserve, their sensorium. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These eye-facets form the sense of light, rather than +organs of seeing. Their almost paradoxical number at +least, and the singularity of their forms, render it probable +that they impel the animal by some modification of its +irritability, herein likewise containing a striking analogy +to the known influence of light on plants, than as excitements +of sensibility. The sense that is nearest akin to +irritability, and which alone resides in the muscular system, +is that of touch, or feeling. This, therefore, is the first +sense that emerges. Being confined to absolute contact, +it occupies the lowest rank; but for that very reason it is +the ground of all the other senses, which act, according +to the ratio of their ascent, at still increasing distances, +and become more and more ideal, from the tentacles of +the polypus, to the human eye; which latter might be defined +the outward organ of the identity, or at least of the +indifference, of the real and ideal. But as the calcareous +residuum of the lowest class approaches to the nature of +horn in the snail, so the cumbrous shell of the snail has +been transformed into polished and moveable plates of defensive +armour in the insect. Thus, too, the same power +of progressive individuation articulates the tentacula of +the polypus and holothuria into antennæ; thereby manifesting +the full emersion and eminency of irritability as a +power which acts in, and gives its own character to, that +of reproduction. The least observant must have noticed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the lightning-like rapidity with which the insect tribes +devour and eliminate their food, as by an instinctive necessity, +and in the least degree for the purposes of the +animal's own growth or enlargement. The same predominance +of irritability, and at the same time a new start +in individuation, is shown in the reproductive power as +generation. There is now a regular projection, +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ab intra +ad extra</span></span>, for which neither sprouts nor cuttings can any +longer be the substitutes. We have not space for further +detail; but there is one point too strikingly illustrative +and even confirmative of the proposed system, to be omitted +altogether. We mean the curious fact, that the same +characteristic tendency, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad extra</span></span>, which in the males and +females of certain insect tribes is realized in the functions +of generation, conception, and parturiency, manifests and +expands itself in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sexless</span></em> individuals (which are always +in this case the great majority of the species), as instincts +of art, and in the construction of works completely detached +and inorganic; while the geometric regularity of +these works, which bears an analogy to crystallization, is +demonstrably no more than the necessary result of uniform +action in a compressed multitude. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, as the insect world, averaging the whole, comes +nearest to plants, (whose very essence is reproduction,) +in the multitude of their germs; so does it resemble +plants in the sufficiency of a single impregnation for the +evolution of myriads of detached lives. Even so, the metamorphoses +of insects, from the egg to the maggot and +caterpillar, and from these, through the nympha and +aurelia into the perfect insect, are but a more individuated +and intenser form of a similar transformation of the plant +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from the seed-leaflets, or cotyledons, through the stalk, +the leaves, and the calyx, into the perfect flower, the +various colours of which seem made for the reflection of +light, as the antecedent grade to the burnished scales, +and scale-like eyes of the insect. Nevertheless, with all +this seeming prodigality of organic power, the whole tendency +is <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad extra</span></span>, +and the life of insects, as electricity in +the quadrate, acts chiefly on the superficies of their bodies, +to which we may add the negative proof arising from the +absence of sensibility. It is well known, that the two +halves of a divided insect have continued to perform, or +attempt, each their separate functions, the trunkless head +feeding with its accustomed voracity, while the headless +trunk has exhibited its appropriate excitability to the +sexual influence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The intropulsive force, that sends the ossification inward +as to the centre, is reserved for a yet higher step, +and this we find embodied in the class of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fishes</span></em>. Even +here, however, the process still seems imperfect, and (as +it were) initiatory. The skeleton has left the surface, +indeed, but the bones approach to the nature of gristle. +To feel the truth of this, we need only compare the most +perfect bone of a fish with the thigh-bones of the mammalia, +and the distinctness with which the latter manifest +the co-presence of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">magnetic</span></em> power in its solid parietes, +of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">electrical</span></em> in its branching arteries, and of the +third greatest power, viz., the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">qualitative</span></em> and interior, +in its marrow. The senses of fish are more distinct +than those of insects. Thus, the intensity of its sense of +smell has been placed beyond doubt, and rises in the extent +of its sphere far beyond the irritable sense, or the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +feeling, in insects. I say the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feeling</span></em>, not the touch; +for the touch seems, as it were, a supervention to the +feeling, a perfection <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">given</span></em> to it by the reaction of the +higher powers. As the feeling of the insect, in subtlety +and virtual distance, rises above the solitary sense of taste<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> +in the mollusca, so does the smell of the fish rise above +the feeling of the insect. In the fish, likewise, the eyes +are single and moveable, while it is remarkable that the +only insect that possesses this latter privilege, is an inhabitant +of the waters. Finally, here first, unequivocally, +and on a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">large</span></em> scale, (for I pretend not to control the +freedom, in which the necessity of Nature is rooted, by the +precise limits of a system,)—here first, Nature exhibits, +in the power of sensibility, the consummation of those +vital forms (the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">nisus formativi</span></span>) the adequate and the sole +measure of which is to be sought for in their several organic +products. But as if a weakness of exhaustion had +attended this advance in the same moment it was made, +Nature seems necessitated to fall back, and re-exert herself +on the lower ground which she had before occupied, +that of the vital magnetism, or the power of reproduction. +The intensity of this latter power in the fishes, is shown +both in their voracity and in the number of their eggs, +which we are obliged to calculate by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">weight</span></em>, not by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tale</span></em>. +There is an equal intensity both of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">immanent</span></em> and the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">projective</span></em> reproduction, in which, if we take in the comparative +number of individuals in each species, and likewise +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the different intervals between the acts, the fish (it is +probable) would be found to stand in a similar relation to +the insect, as the insect, in the latter point, stands to the +system of vegetation. Meantime, the fish sinks a step +below the insect, in the mode and circumstances of impregnation. +To this we will venture to add, the predominance +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">length</span></em>, as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">form</span></em> of growth in so large a +proportion of the known orders of fishes, and not less of +their rectilineal path of motion. In all other respects, +the correspondence combined with the progress in individuation, +is striking in the whole detail. Thus the eye, +in addition to its moveability, has besides acquired a saline +moisture in its higher development, as accordant with the +life of its element. Add to these the glittering covering +in both, the splendour of the scales in the one answering +to the brilliant plates in the other,—the luminous reservoirs +of the fire-flies,—the phosphorescence and electricity +of many fishes,—the same analogs of moral qualities, in +their rapacity, boldness, modes of seizing their prey by +surprise,—their gills, as presenting the intermediate state +between the spiracula of the grade next below, and the +lungs of the step next above, both extremes of which seem +combined in the structure of birds and of their quill-feathers; +but above all, the convexity of the crystalline +lens, so much greater than in birds, quadrupeds, and man, +and seeming to collect, in one powerful organ, the hundred-fold +microscopic facettes of the insect's <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">light</span></em> organs; and +it will not be easy to resist the conviction, that the same +power is at work in both, and reappears under higher +auspices. The intention of Nature is repeated; but, as +was to have been expected, with two main differences. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +First, that in the lower grade the reproductions themselves +seem merged in those of irritability, from the very circumstance +that the latter constitutes no pole, either to the +former, or to sensibility. The force of irritability acts, +therefore, in the insect world, in full predominance; while +the emergence of sensibility in the fish calls forth the opposite +pole of reproduction, as a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">distinct</span></em> power, and causes +therefore the irritability to flow, in part, into the power of +reproduction. The second result of this ascent is the +direction of the organizing power, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad intra</span></span>, with the consequent +greater simplicity of the exterior form, and the +substitution of condensed and flexible force, with comparative +unity of implements, for that variety of tools, almost +as numerous as the several objects to which they are to +be applied, which arises from, and characterises, the superficial +life of the insect creation. This grade of ascension, +however, like the former, is accompanied by an apparent +retrograde movement. For from this very accession of +vital intensity we must account for the absence in the +fishes of all the formative, or rather (if our language will +permit it) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fabricative</span></em> instincts. How could it be otherwise? +These instincts are the surplus and projection of the organizing +power in the direction <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad extra</span></span>, and could not, +therefore, have been expected in the class of animals that +represent the first intuitive effort of organization, and are +themselves the product of its first movement in the direction +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad intra</span></span>. +But Nature never loses what she has once +learnt, though in the acquirement of each new power she +intermits, or performs less energetically, the act immediately +preceding. She often drops a faculty, but never +fails to pick it up again. She may seem forgetful and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +absent, but it is only to recollect herself with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">additional</span></em>, +as well as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">recruited</span></em> vigour, in some after and higher state; +as if the sleep of powers, as well as of bodies, were the +season and condition of their growth. Accordingly, we +find these instincts again, and with them a wonderful +synthesis of fish and insect, as a higher third, in the +feathered inhabitants of the air. Nay, she seems to have +gone yet further back, and having given B + C = D in +the birds, so to have sported with one solitary instance of +B + D = A in that curious animal the dragon, the anatomy +of which has been recently given to the public by +Tiedemann; from whose work it appears, that this creature +presents itself to us with the wings of the insect, and with +the nervous system, the brain, and the cranium of the +bird, in their several rudiments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The synthesis of fish and insect in the birds, might be +illustrated equally in detail with the former; but it will be +sufficient for our purpose, that as in both the former cases, +the insect and the fish, so here in that of the birds, the +powers are under the predominance of irritability; the +sensibility being dormant in the first, awakening in the +second, and awake, but still subordinate, in the third. Of +this my limits confine me to a single presumptive proof, +viz., the superiority in strength and courage of the female +in the birds of prey. For herein, indeed, does the difference +of the sexes universally consist, wherever both the +forces are developed, that the female is characterised by +quicker irritability, and the male by deeper sensibility. +How large a stride has been now made by Nature in the +progress of individuation, what ornithologist does not +know? From a multitude of instances we select the most +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +impressive, the power of sound, with the first rudiments +of modulation! That all languages designate the melody +of birds as singing (though according to Blumenbach man +only sings, while birds do but whistle), demonstrates that +it has been felt as, what indeed it is, a tentative and prophetic +prelude of something yet to come. With this conjoin +the power and the tendency to acquire articulation, +and to imitate speech; conjoin the building instinct and +the migratory, the monogamy of several species, and the +pairing of almost all; and we shall have collected new +instances of the usage (I dare not say law) according to +which Nature lets fall, in order to resume, and steps backward +the furthest, when she means to leap forwards with +the greatest concentration of energy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For lo! in the next step of ascent the power of sensibility +has assumed her due place and rank: her minority +is at an end, and the complete and universal presence of +a nervous system unites absolutely, by instanteity of time +what, with the due allowances for the transitional process, +had before been either lost in sameness, or perplexed by +multiplicity, or compacted by a finer mechanism. But +with this, all the analogies with which Nature had delighted +us in the preceding step seem lost, and, with the single +exception of that more than valuable, that estimable +philanthropist, the dog, and, perhaps, of the horse and +elephant, the analogies to ourselves, which we can discover +in the quadrupeds or quadrumani, are of our vices, our +follies, and our imperfections. The facts in confirmation +of both the propositions are so numerous and so obvious, +the advance of Nature, under the predominance of the +third synthetic power, both in the intensity of life and in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the intenseness and extension of individuality, is so undeniable, +that we may leap forward at once to the highest +realization and reconciliation of both her tendencies, that +of the most perfect detachment with the greatest possible +union, to that last work, in which Nature did not assist +as handmaid under the eye of her sovereign Master, who +made Man in his own image, by superadding self-consciousness +with self-government, and breathed into him +a living soul. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The class of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vermes</span></span> deposit a calcareous stuff, as if it had +torn loose from the earth a piece of the gross mass which it +must still drag about with it. In the insect class this +residuum has refined itself. In the fishes and amphibia it +is driven back or inward, the organic power begins to be +intuitive, and sensibility appears. In the birds the bones +have become hollow; while, with apparent proportional +recess, but, in truth, by the excitement of the opposite +pole, their exterior presents an actual vegetation. The +bones of the mammalia are filled up, and their coverings +have become more simple. Man possesses the most perfect +osseous structure, the least and most insignificant +covering. The whole force of organic power has attained +an inward and centripetal direction. He has the whole +world in counterpoint to him, but he contains an entire +world within himself. Now, for the first time at the apex +of the living pyramid, it is Man and Nature, but Man +himself is a syllepsis, a compendium of Nature—the +Microcosm! Naked and helpless cometh man into the +world. Such has been the complaint from eldest time; +but we complain of our chief privilege, our ornament, and +the connate mark of our sovereignty. +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Porphyrigeniti sumus</span></span>! +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +In Man the centripetal and individualizing tendency +of all Nature is itself concentred and individualized—he +is a revelation of Nature! Henceforward, he is +referred to himself, delivered up to his own charge; and +he who stands the most on himself, and stands the firmest, +is the truest, because the most individual, Man. In social +and political life this acme is inter-dependence; in moral +life it is independence; in intellectual life it is genius. +Nor does the form of polarity, which has accompanied the +law of individuation up its whole ascent, desert it here. +As the height, so the depth. The intensities must be at +once opposite and equal. As the liberty, so must be the +reverence for law. As the independence, so must be the +service and the submission to the Supreme Will! As the +ideal genius and the originality, in the same proportion +must be the resignation to the real world, the sympathy +and the inter-communion with Nature. In the conciliating +mid-point, or equator, does the Man live, and only by its +equal presence in both its poles can that life be manifested! +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If it had been possible, within the prescribed limits of +this essay, to have deduced the philosophy of Life synthetically, +the evidence would have been carried over from +section to section, and the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">quod erat demonstrandum</span></span> +at the conclusion of one section would reappear as the +principle of the succeeding—the goal of the one would be +the starting-post of the other. Positions arranged in my +own mind, as intermediate and organic links of administration, +must be presented to the reader in the first instance, +at least, as a mere hypothesis. Instead of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +demanding his assent as a right, I must solicit a suspension +of his judgment as a courtesy; and, after all, however +firmly the hypothesis may support the phenomena piled +upon it, we can deduce no more than a practical rule, +grounded on a strong presumption. The license of +arithmetic, however, furnishes instances that a rule may +be usefully applied in practice, and for the particular +purpose may be sufficiently authenticated by the result, +before it has itself been duly demonstrated. It is enough, +if only it hath been rendered fully intelligible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a system where every position proceeds from a +scientific preconstruction, a power acting exclusively in +length, would be magnetism by virtue of our own definition +of the term. In like manner, a surface power would +be electricity, as far as that system was concerned, whether +it accorded or not with the facts ordinarily so called. But +it is incumbent on us, who must treat the subject +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">analytically</span></em>, to show by experiment that magnetism does +in fact act longitudinally, and electricity superficially; and +that, consequently, the former is distinguished from, and +yet contained in, the latter, as a straight line is distinguished +from, yet contained in, a superficies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +First, that magnetism, in its conductors, seeks and +follows length only, and by the length is itself conducted, +has been proved by Brugmans, in his philosophical Essay +on the Matter of Magnetism, where he relates that a +magnet capable of supporting a body four times heavier +than itself, and which acted as a magnetic needle at the +distance of twenty inches, was so weakened by the interposition +of three cast-iron plates of considerable thickness, +as scarcely to move the magnetic needle from its place at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a distance of only three inches. A similar experiment +had been made by Descartes. I concluded, therefore, +said Brugmans, that if the iron plates were interposed +between the magnet and the needle lengthways, instead +of breadthways or right across, the action of the magnet +on the magnetic needle would, in consequence of this +great increase of resistance, become still weaker, or perhaps +evanescent. But not less to my surprise than my +admiration, I found that the power of the magnet was so +far from being <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">diminished</span></em> by this change in the relative +position of the iron-plates; that, on the contrary, it now +extended to a far greater distance than when no iron at +all was interposed. Some time after the same philosopher, +out of several iron bars, the sides of which were an inch +broad each, composed a single bar of the length of more +than ten feet, and observed the magnetism make its way +through the whole mass. But, in order to try whether +the action could be propagated to any length indefinitely, +after several experiments with bars of intermediate lengths, +in all of which he had succeeded, he tried a four-cornered +iron rod, more than twenty feet long, and it was at this +length that the magnetic power first began to be diminished. +So far Brugmans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the shortest way for any one to convince himself +of this relation of the magnetic power would be, in one +and the same experiment, to interpose the same piece of iron +between the magnet and the compass needle first <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">breadthways</span></em>; +and in this case it will be found that the needle, +which had been previously deflected by the magnet from +its natural position at one of its poles, will instantly resume +the same, either wholly or very nearly so—then to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +interpose the same piece of iron <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lengthways</span></em>; in which +case the position of the compass needle will be scarcely +or not at all affected. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The assertion of Bernoulli and others, that the absolute +force of the artificial magnet increases in the ratio +of its superficies, stands corrected in the far more accurate +experiments of Coulomb (published in his Treatise on +Magnetism), which proves that the increase takes place +(in a far greater degree) in the ratio of its length. The +same naturalist even found means to determine that the +directing powers of the needle, which he had measured by +help of his <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">balance +de tortion</span></span>, stand to the length of the +needle in such a ratio as that, provided only the length of +the needle is from forty to fifty times its diameter, the +momenta of these directing powers will increase in the +very same direct proportion as the length is increased. +Nor is this all that may be deduced from the experiment +last mentioned. If only the magnet be strong enough, +it will show likewise that magnetism <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seeks</span></em> the length. +The proof is contained in the remarkable fact, that the +iron interposed between the magnet and the magnetic +needle <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">breadthways</span></em> constantly acquires its two opposite +poles at both ends <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lengthways</span></em>. Though the preceding +experiments are abundantly sufficient to prove the position, +yet the following deserves mention for the beautiful clearness +of its evidence. If the magnetic power is determined +exclusively by length, it is to be expected that it will +manifest no force, where the piece of iron is of such a +shape that no one dimension predominates. Bring a +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cube</span></em> of iron near the magnetic needle and it will not exert +the slightest degree of power beyond what belongs to it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as mere iron. By the perfect equality of the dimensions, +the magnetism of the earth appears, as it were, perplexed +and doubtful. Now, then attach a second cube of iron +to the first, and the instantaneous act of the iron on the +magnetic needle will make it manifest that with the length +thus given, the magnetic influence is given at the same +moment. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That electricity, on the other hand, does not act in +length merely, is clear, from the fact that every electric +body is electric over its whole surface. But that electricity +acts both in length and breadth, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">only</span></em> in length +and breadth, and not in depth; in short, that the (so-called) +electrical fluid in an electrified body spreads over +the whole surface of that body without penetrating it, or +tending <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad intra</span></span>, +may be proved by direct experiment. +Take a cylinder of wood, and bore an indefinite number +of holes in it, each of them four lines in depth and four +in diameter. Electrify this cylinder, and present to its +superficies a small square of gold-leaf, held to it by an +insulating needle of gum lac, and bring this square to an +electrometer of great sensibility. The electrometer will +instantly show an electricity in the gold-leaf, similar to +that of the cylinder which had been brought into contact +with it. The square of gold-leaf having thus been discharged +of its electricity, put it carefully into one of the +holes of the cylinder, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">so</span></em>, namely, that it shall touch only +the bottom of the hole, and present it again to the electrometer. +It will be then found that the electrometer +will exhibit no signs of electricity whatsoever. From this +it follows, that the electricity which had been communicated +to the cylinder had confined itself to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">surface</span></em>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the time and the limit prescribed would admit, we could +multiply experiments, all tending to prove the same law; +but we must be content with the barely sufficient. But +that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chemical process</span></em> acts in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">depth</span></em>, and first, therefore, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">realizes</span></em> and integrates the fluxional power of magnetism +and electricity, is involved in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">term</span></em> composition; and +this will become still more convincing when we have learnt +to regard <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">decomposition</span></em> as a mere co-relative, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> as decomposition +relatively to the body decomposed, but composition +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">actually</span></em> and in respect of the substances, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">into</span></em> +which it was decomposed. The alteration in the specific +gravity of metals in their chemical amalgams, interesting +as the fact is in all points, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">decisive</span></em> in the present; for +gravity is the sole <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inward</span></em> of inorganic bodies—it +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">constitutes</span></em> their depth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I can now, for the first time, give to my opinions +that degree of intelligibility, which is requisite for their +introduction as hypotheses; the experiments above related, +understood as in the common mode of thinking, prove +that the magnetic influence flows in length, the electric +fluid by suffusion, and that chemical agency (whatever +the main agent may be) is qualitative and +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">in intimis</span></span>. +Now my hypothesis demands the converse of all this. +I affirm that a power, acting exclusively in length, is +(wherever it be found) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">magnetism</span></em>; that a power which +acts <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">both</span></em> in length and in breadth, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">only</span></em> in length and +breadth, is (wherever it be found) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">electricity</span></em>; and finally, +that a power which, together with length and breadth, +includes depth likewise, is (wherever it be found) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">constructive +agency</span></em>. That is but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> phenomenon of magnetism, +to which we have appropriated and confined the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +term magnetism; because of all the natural bodies at +present known, iron, and one or two of its nearest relatives +in the family of hard yet coherent metals, are the only +ones, in which all the conditions are collected, under +which alone the magnetic agency can appear in and during +the act itself. When, therefore, I affirm the power of +reproduction in organized bodies to be magnetism, I +must be understood to mean that this power, as it exists in +the magnet, and which we there (to use a strong phrase) +catch in the very act, is to the same kind of power, working +as reproductive, what the root is to the cube of that root. +We no more confound the force in the compass needle +with that of reproduction, than a man can be said to +confound his liver with a lichen, because he affirms that +both of them grow. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The same precautions are to be repeated in the identification +of electricity with irritability; and the power of +depth, for which we have yet no appropriated term, with +sensibility. How great the distance is in all, and that the +lowest degrees are adopted as the exponent terms, not for +their own sakes, but merely because they may be used +with less hazard of diverting the attention from the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em> +by peculiar properties arising out of the degree, is evident +from the third instance, unless the theorist can be supposed +insane enough to apply sensation in good earnest to the +effervescence of an acid or an alkali, or to sympathise with +the distresses of a vat of new beer when it is working. In +whatever way the subject could be treated, it must have +remained unintelligible to men who, if they think of space +at all, abstract their notion of it from the contents of an +exhausted receiver. With this, and with an ether, such +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +men may work wonders; as what, indeed, cannot be done +with a plenum and a vacuum, when a theorist has privileged +himself to assume the one, or the other, +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad libitum</span></span>?—in +all innocence of heart, and undisturbed by the reflection +that the two things cannot both be true. That both time +and space are mere abstractions I am well aware; but +I know with equal certainty that what is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">expressed</span></em> by +them as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">identity</span></em> of both is the highest reality, and the +root of all power, the power to suffer, as well as the power +to act. However mere an +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ens logicum</span></span> space may be, the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dimensions</span></em> of space are real, and the works of Galileo, in more +than one elegant passage, prove with what awe and amazement +they fill the mind that worthily contemplates them. +Dismissing, therefore, all facts of degrees, as introduced +merely for the purposes of illustration, I would make +as little reference as possible to the magnet, the charged +phial, or the processes of the laboratory, and designate +the three powers in the process of our animal life, each +by two co-relative terms, the one expressing the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">form</span></em>, +and the other the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">object</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">product</span></em> of the power. My +hypothesis will, therefore, be thus expressed, that the +constituent forces of life in the human living body are—first, +the power of length, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">REPRODUCTION</span></span>; +second, the power of surface (that is, length and breadth), or +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">IRRITABILITY</span></span>; +third, the power of depth, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">SENSIBILITY</span></span>. +With this observation I may conclude these remarks, only +reminding the reader that Life itself is neither of these +separately, but the copula of all three—that Life, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em> +Life, supposes a positive or universal principle in Nature, +with a negative principle in every particular animal, the +latter, or limitative power, constantly acting to individualize, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and, as it were, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">figure</span></em> the former. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Thus</span></em>, then, +Life itself is not a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thing</span></em>—a self-subsistent +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hypostasis</span></em>—but an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">act</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">process</span></em>; +which, pitiable as the prejudice will appear to the +<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">forts esprits</span></span>, +is a great deal more than +either my reason would authorise or my conscience allow +me to assert—concerning the Soul, as the principle both +of Reason and Conscience. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> +<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Advertisements.</span></h1> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">October, 1848.</span></span></span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Works on Medicine and Science<br /> +Published by John Churchill.</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Dr. Golding Bird, F.R.S.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">The Diagnosis, Pathological Indications +And Treatment of Urinary Deposits. 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Fourth Edition, corrected +and enlarged. 18mo. cloth, 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Dr. Henry Bennett.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +A Practical Treatise on Inflammation, +Ulceration, And Induration of the Neck of +The Uterus; with Remarks on Leucorrhœa and Prolapsus Uteri, +as Symptoms of this form of Disease. 8vo. cloth, 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Dr. Budd, F.R.S.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +On Diseases of the Liver; illustrated with +Coloured Plates and Engravings on Wood. 8vo. cloth, 14<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +Sir James Clark, Bart., M.D. +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +On The Sanative Influence of Climate. +With an Account of the best Places of Resort for Invalids in England, +the South of Europe, &c. Fourth Edition, revised. Post 8vo. 10<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S.<br /> +A Manual of Physiology; specially designed for +the Use of Students. With numerous Illustrations on Steel and Wood. +Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +Principles of General and Comparative +Physiology; intended as an Introduction to the Study of +Human Physiology, and as a Guide to the Philosophical Pursuit of +Natural History. Illustrated with numerous Figures on Copper and +Wood. The Second Edition. 8vo. cloth, 18<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">By The Same Author.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +Principles of Human Physiology. +numerous Illustrations on Steel and Wood. Third Edition. One +thick 8vo. vol. 21<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Sir Astley Cooper, Bart., F.R.S.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +A Treatise on Dislocations and Fractures +of the Joints. Edited by Bransby b. Cooper, +F.R.S. 8vo. cloth, 20<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +Sir Astley Cooper left very considerable additions in MS. for the express +purpose of being introduced into this Edition. +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +By The Same Author. +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +Observations on the Structure and +Diseases of the Testis. Illustrated with Twenty-four +highly-finished coloured Plates. Second Edition. Royal 4to. cloth. +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reduced from</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s. to</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.</span></span> 10<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Dr. Conolly.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +The Construction and Government of +Lunatic Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane. +With Plans, post 8vo. cloth, 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Mr. Cooley.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Comprehensive Supplement to the Pharmacopœia</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +The Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts, +and Collateral Information in the Arts, +Manufactures, and Trades, Including Medicine, +Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy; designed +as a Compendious Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, +Amateur, and Heads of Families. Second Edition, in one thick volume +of 800 pages. 8vo. cloth, 14<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Mr. Fergusson, F.R.S.E.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +A System of Practical Surgery; with numerous +Illustrations on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, +12<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Mr. Churchill's Publications.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">Mr. Fownes, PH. D., F.R.S.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +A Manual of Chemistry; with numerous Illustrations +on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, +12<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“An admirable exposition of the present state of chemical science, simply and +clearly written.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British and Foreign Medical Review.</span></span> +</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab">By The Same Author.</span> + +<span class="tei tei-ab"> +Introduction to Qualitative Analysis. +Post 8vo. cloth, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</span> + +</div> + +</div> +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> + <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Abernethy.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Experiment, as an organ of reason, not +less distinguished from the blind or dreaming industry of the alchemists, than it +was successfully opposed to the barren subtleties of the schoolmen.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Whose own mind, however, was not +comprehended in the vortex; where Kepler erred it was in the other extreme.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">But still less would I avail myself of its acknowledged +inappropriateness to the purposes of physiology, in order to cast a self-complacent +sneer on the soul itself, and on all who believe in its existence. First, because +in my opinion it would be impertinent; secondly, because it would be imprudent and +injurious to the character of my profession; and, lastly, because it would +argue an irreverence to the feelings of mankind, which I deem scarcely compatible +with a good heart, and a degree of arrogance and presumption which +I have never found, except in company with a corrupt taste and a shallow +capacity.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vide Lawrence's +Lecture.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joh. Bapt. a Vico, Neapol. Reg. eloq. +Professor, de antiquissima Itallorum sapientia ex lingua Latina originibus aruendâ: +libri tres. Neap., 1710.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The object I have proposed to myself, and wherein its distinction +exists, may be thus illustrated. A complex machine is presented to the common +view, the moving power of which is hidden. Of those who are studying +and examining it, one man fixes his attention on some one application of that +power, on certain effects produced by that particular application, and on a +certain part of the structure evidently appropriated to the production of these +effects, neither the one or other of which he had discovered in a neighbouring +machine, which he at the same time asserts to be quite distinct from the +former, and to be moved by a power altogether different, though many of the +works and operations are, he admits, common to both machines. In this supposed +peculiarity he places the essential character of the former machine, and +defines it by the presence of that which is, or which he supposes to be, absent +in the latter. Supposing that a stranger to both were about to visit the two +machines, this peculiarity would be so far useful as that it might enable him +to distinguish the one from the other, and thus to look in the proper place for +whatever else he had heard remarkable concerning either; not that he or his +informant would understand the machine any better or otherwise, than the +common character of a whole class in the nomenclature of botany would +enable a person to understand all, or any one of the plants contained in that +class. But if, on the other hand, the machine in question were such as no +man was a stranger to, if even the supposed peculiarity, either by its effects, +or by the construction of that portion of the works which produced them, were +equally well known to all men, in this case we can conceive no use at all of such +a definition; for at the best it could only be admitted as a definition for the +purposes of nomenclature, which never adds to knowledge, although it may +often facilitate its communication. But in this instance it would be nomenclature +misplaced, and without an object. Such appears to me to be the case +with all those definitions which place the essence of Life in nutrition, contractility, +&c. As the second instance, I will take the inventor and maker +of the machine himself, who knows its moving power, or perhaps himself constitutes +it, who is, as it were, the soul of the work, and in whose mind all its +parts, with all their bearings and relations, had pre-existed long before the +machine itself had been put together. In him therefore there would reside, +what it would be presumption to attempt to acquire, or to pretend to communicate, +the most perfect insight not only of the machine itself, and of all +its various operations, but of its ultimate principle and its essential causes. +The mysterious ground, the efficient causes of vitality, and whether different +lives differ absolutely or only in degree, He alone can know who not only said, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Let the earth bring forth the living creature, the beast of the earth after his +kind, and it was so;”</span> but who said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let us make man in our image, who +himself breathed into his nostrils the breath of Life, and man became a living +soul.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third case which I would apply to my own attempt would be that of +the inquirer, who, presuming to know nothing of the power that moves the +whole machine, takes those parts of it which are presented to his view, seeks +to reduce its various movements to as few and simple laws of motion as +possible, and out of their separate and conjoint action proceeds to explain and +appropriate the structure and relative positions of the works. In obedience +to the canon,—<span class="tei tei-q">“Principia non esse multiplicanda præter summam necessitatem +cui suffragamur non ideo quia causalem in mundo unitatem vel ratione vel experientiâ +perspiciamus, sed illam ipsam indagamus impulsu intellectûs, qui +tantundem sibi in explicatione phænomenorum profecisse videtur quantum ab +codem principio ad plurima rationata descendere ipsi concessum est.”</span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The arborescent +forms on a frosty morning, to be seen on the window and pavement, must +have <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">some</span></em> relation to the more perfect forms developed +in the vegetable world.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus we may say that whatever +is organized from without, is a product of mechanism; whatever is mechanised +from within, is a production of organization.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The matter +that surrounds us is divided into two great classes, living +and dead; the latter is governed by physical laws, such as attraction, gravitation, +chemical affinity; and it exhibits physical properties, such as cohesion, +elasticity, divisibility, &c. Living matter also exhibits these properties, and +is subject, in great measure, to physical laws. But living bodies are endowed +moreover with a set of properties altogether different from these, and contrasting +with them very remarkably.”</span> (Vide Lawrence's Lectures, p. 121.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Much +against my will I repeat this scholastic term, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">multeity</span></em>, but I have +sought in vain for an unequivocal word of a less repulsive character, that +would convey the notion in a positive and not comparative sense in kind, as +opposed to the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">unum et +simplex</span></span>, not in degree, as contracted with the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">few</span></em>. +We can conceive no reason that can be adduced in justification of the word +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">caloric</span></em>, as invented to distinguish the external cause of +the sensation heat, which would not equally authorise the introduction +of a technical term in this instance.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For abstractions +are the conditions and only subject of all abstract +sciences. Thus the theorist (vide Dalton's Theory), who reduces the chemical +process to the positions of atoms, would doubtless thereby render chemistry +calculable, but that he commences by destroying the chemical process itself, +and substitutes for it a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">mote dance</span></span> +of abstractions; for even the powers which +he appears to leave real, those of attraction and repulsion, he immediately +unrealizes by representing them as diverse and separable properties. We can +abstract the quantities and the quantitative motion from masses, passing over +or leaving for other sciences the question of what constitutes the masses, and +thus apply not to the masses themselves, but to the abstractions therefrom,—the +laws of geometry and universal arithmetic. And where the quantities +are the infallible signs of real powers, and our chief concern with the masses +is as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">SIGNS</span></span>, +sciences may be founded thereon of the highest use and dignity. +Such, for instance, is the sublime science of astronomy, having for its objects +the vast masses which <span class="tei tei-q">“God placed in the firmament of the heaven to be for +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">signs</span></em> and for seasons, for days and years.”</span> For the whole +doctrine of physics may be reduced to three great divisions: First, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quantitative motion</span></em>, which is +proportioned to the quantity of matter exclusively. This is the science of +weight or statics. Secondly, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">relative motion</span></em>, as communicated +to bodies externally +by impact. This is the science of mechanics. Thirdly, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">qualitative motion</span></em>, +or that which is accordant to properties of matter. And this is chemistry. +Now it is evident that the first two sciences presuppose that which forms the +exclusive object of the third, namely, quality; for all quantity in nature is +either itself derived, or at least derives its powers from some <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quality</span></em>, +as that of weight, specific cohesion, hardness, &c.; and therefore the attempt +to reduce to the distances or impacts of atoms, under the assumptions of two +powers, which are themselves declared to be no more than mere general +terms for those quantities of motion and impact (the atom itself being a +fiction formed by abstraction, and in truth a third occult quality for the +purpose of explaining hardness and density), amounts to an attempt to +destroy chemistry itself, and at the same time to exclude the sole reality and +only positive contents of the very science into which that of chemistry is to +be degraded. Now what qualities are to chemistry, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">productiveness</span></em> is to the +science of Life; and this being excluded, physiology or zoonomy would sink +into chemistry, chemistry by the same process into mechanics, while mechanics +themselves would lose the substantial principle, which, bending the +lower extreme towards its apex, produces the organic circle of the sciences, +and elevates them all into different arcs or stations of the one absolute +science of Life. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This explanation, which in appearance only is a digression, was indispensably +requisite to prevent the idea of polarity, which has been given as the +universal law of Life, from being misunderstood as a mere refinement on +those mechanical systems of physiology, which it has been my main object to +explode.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I apprehend that +by men of a certain school it would be deemed no +demerit, even though they should never have condescended to look into any +system of Aristotelian logic. It is enough for these gentlemen that they are +experimentalists! Let it not, however, be supposed that they make more +experiments than their neighbours, who consider induction as a means and +not an end; or have stronger motives for making them, unless it can be believed +that Tycho Brähe must have been urged to repeat his sweeps of the +heavens with greater accuracy and industry than Herschel, for no better reason +than that the former flourished before the theory of gravitation was perfected. +No, but they have the honour of being mere experimentalists! If, however, +we may not refer to logic, we may to common sense and common experience. +It is not improbable, however, that they have both read and studied a book of +hypothetical psychology on the assumptions of the crudest materialism, stolen +too without acknowledgment from our David Hartley's essay on Man, which +is well known under the whimsical name of Condillac's Logic. But, as Mr. +Brand has lately observed, <span class="tei tei-q">“the French are a queer people,”</span> and we should +not be at all surprised to hear of a book of fresh importation from Paris, on +determinate proportions in chemistry, announced by the author in his title-page +as a new and improved system either of arithmetic or geometry.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such is the +interpretation given by Lord Bacon. To which of the two +gigantic intellects, the poet's or philosophic commentator's, the allegory belongs, +I shall not presume to decide. Its extraordinary beauty and appropriateness +remains the same in either case.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Anatomical +Demonstrations of the Brain, by Dr. Spurzheim, which +I have seen, presented to me the most satisfactory proof of this.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +remark on the feeling of the antennæ, compared with the touch of +man, or even of the half-reasoning elephant, is yet more applicable to the +taste, which in these gelatinous animals might, perhaps not inappropriately, +be entitled the gastric sense.</dd></dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader11" id="rightpageheader11"></a><a name="pgtoc12" id="pgtoc12"></a><a name="pdf13" id="pdf13"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">January 17, 2008 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name"> + Produced by Bryan Ness, David King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading + Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + Page-images available at + <http://www.pgdp.net/projects/projectID44f9b6938a498/> + </span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader14" id="rightpageheader14"></a><a name="pgtoc15" id="pgtoc15"></a><a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 24346-h.html or + 24346-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/3/4/24346/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/2/4/3/4/24346/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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text-align: center; bold">Hints Towards the Formation of a More Comprehensive Theory Of Life</p> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center; bold">by S. T. Coleridge</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center; bold">Edited by Seth B. Watson, M.D.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Of St. John's College,</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">And Formerly One of the Physicians to the Hospital at Oxford</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Magna sunt opera Domini exquisita in omnes voluntates ejus.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">London: John Churchill, Princes Street, Soho</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">MDCCCXLVIII.</p> + <p rend="font-size: small; text-align: center; bold">C. and J. Adlard, Printers, Bartholomew Close</p> + + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + </front> + +<body> + +<pb n="005"/><anchor id="Pg005"/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<head>Advertisement.</head> + +<p> +The Editor takes this opportunity of returning his +best acknowledgments to Sir <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">John Stoddart</hi>, +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">LL.D.</hi>, to the Rev. +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">James Gillman</hi>, Incumbent of Trinity, +Lambeth, and to <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">Henry Lee</hi>, Esq., +Assistant Surgeon to King's College Hospital, for their great kindness, +in regard to this publication. +</p> + +<ab><hi rend='italic'>16, Norfolk Street, Park Lane.</hi></ab> + +</div> + +<pb n="006"/><anchor id="Pg006"/> + +<pb n="007"/><anchor id="Pg007"/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Preface.</head> + +<p> +The accompanying pages contain the unfinished +Sketch of a Theory of Life by S. T. Coleridge. Everything +that fell from the pen of that extraordinary man +bore latent, as well as more obvious indications of +genius, and of its inseparable concomitant—originality. +To this general remark the present Essay is far from +forming an exception. No one can peruse it, without +admiring the author's comprehensive research and profound +meditation; but at the same time, partly from the +exuberance of his imagination, and partly from an +apparent want of method (though, in truth, he had a +method of his own, by which he marshalled his thoughts +in an order perfectly intelligible to himself), a first +perusal will, to many readers, prove unsatisfactory, +unless they are prepared for it by an introduction of a +more popular character. This purpose, therefore, I +shall endeavour to accomplish; it being to be understood +that I by no means make myself responsible +either for Mr. Coleridge's speculations, or for the +manner in which they are enunciated; and that, on +the contrary, I shall occasionally indicate views from +which I dissent, and expressions which perhaps the +<pb n="008"/><anchor id="Pg008"/> +author himself, on revision, would have seen reason to +correct. +</p> + +<p> +It is clear that Mr. Coleridge considers the unity of +human nature to result from two combined elements, +Body and Soul; that he regards the latter as the principle +of Reason and of Conscience (both which he has +largely treated in his published works), and that the +<q>Life,</q> which he here investigates, concerns, in relation +to mankind, only the Body. He is far, however, +from confining the term <q>Life</q> to its action on the +human body; on the contrary, he disclaims the division +of all that surrounds us into things with life, and +things without life; and contends, that the term Life is +no less applicable to the irreducible <emph>bases</emph> of chemistry, +such as sodium, potassium, &c., or to the various forms +of crystals, or the geological strata which compose +the crust of our globe, than it is to the human body +itself, the acme and perfection of animal organization. +I admit that there are certain great powers, such as +magnetism, electricity, and chemistry, whose action +may be traced, even by the limited means which +science at present possesses, in admirable gradation, +from purely unorganized to the most highly organized +matter: and, I think, that Mr. Coleridge has done this +with great ingenuity and striking effect; but what I +object to is, that he applies to the combined operation +of these powers, in all cases, the term <emph>Life</emph>. If we +look back to the early history of language, we shall +probably find that this word, and its synonymes in +<pb n="009"/><anchor id="Pg009"/> +other tongues, were first employed to denote <emph>human</emph> +life, that is, the duration of a human being's existence +from birth to the grave. As this existence was marked +by actions, many of which were common to man with +other animals, those animals also were said to <q>live;</q> +but the extension of the notion of Life to the vegetable +creation is comparatively a recent usage,—and +hitherto (in this country at least) no writer before Mr. +Coleridge, so far as I know, has maintained that rocks +and mountains, nay, <q>the great globe itself,</q> share with +mankind the gift of Life. On the other hand, there +are well known and energetic uses of the word <q>Life,</q> +to which Mr. Coleridge's speculations, as contained in +the accompanying pages, are wholly inapplicable. Almost +all nations, even the most savage, agree in the +belief that individuals of the human race, after they +have ceased to exist in this mortal life, will exist in +another state, to which also the word Life is universally +applied; but to this latter Mr. Coleridge's +views of magnetism, electricity, &c., can hardly be +thought applicable. Still less can they apply to <q>Life</q> +in its spiritual sense; as, when Moses says to the Jews, +<q>the words of the law are your <emph>life</emph>,</q> (Deut. xxxii, 47,) +and when our Saviour says, <q>the words that I speak +unto you, they are spirit, and they are <emph>life</emph>;</q> (John, vi, +63;) and again, <q>I am the resurrection and the life,</q> +(John, xi, 25.) Upon the whole, therefore, I think it +would have been advisable in Mr. Coleridge to have +adopted a different phraseology, in tracing the operation +<pb n="010"/><anchor id="Pg010"/> +of certain natural agencies first on unorganized, +and then on organized bodies. +</p> + +<p> +Another word, of which I consider an improper use +to be made in this Essay, is <q>Nature.</q> I find this +imaginary being introduced on all occasions, and invested +with attributes of personality, which may be +extremely apt to make a false impression on young or +thoughtless minds. At one time, <q>the life of Nature</q> +is spoken of; then we are informed that <q>Nature has +succeeded. <emph>She</emph> has created the intermediate link between +the vegetable world and the animal.</q> Again, +it is said that <q>Nature seems to fall back, and to reexert +<emph>herself</emph> on the lower ground, which <emph>she</emph> had before +occupied;</q>—and elsewhere we are told that <q>Nature +never loses what <emph>she</emph> has once learnt; though in the +acquirement of each new power <emph>she</emph> intermits or performs +less energetically the act immediately preceding. +<emph>She</emph> often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up +again. <emph>She</emph> may seem forgetful and absent; but it is +only to recollect <emph>herself</emph> with additional as well as recruited +vigour in some after and higher state.</q> Now +the word <q>Nature,</q> in any intelligible sense, means +nothing but that method and order by which the +Almighty regulates the common course of things. +Nature is not a person; it is not active; it neither +creates nor performs actions more or less energetically, +nor learns, nor forgets, nor reexerts itself, nor recruits +its vigour. Perhaps it will be said that all this is +merely figurative language. Figurative language is +<pb n="011"/><anchor id="Pg011"/> +very much misplaced in strict philosophical investigations; +and these particular figures, which might be +quite consistent with the atheistical philosophy of +Lucretius, sound ill in the mouth of a pious Christian, +which Mr. Coleridge undoubtedly was. He probably +adopted them unconsciously from Bacon; but Bacon's +use of the word Nature ought rather to have served as +a warning than an example; for it has contributed, in +no small degree, to the atheistical philosophy of recent +times. +</p> + +<p> +The prevalent natural philosophy of the present day +is that which is called <emph>corpuscular</emph>, because it assumes +the existence of a first matter, consisting of <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">corpuscula</foreign> +or atoms, which are supposed to be definite, though +extremely small, <emph>quantities</emph>, invested with the <emph>qualities</emph> +of extension, impenetrability, and the like; and from +certain combinations of these qualities, Life is considered, +by some persons, to be a necessary result. +This philosophy Mr. Coleridge combats. The supposed +atoms, he says, are mere abstractions of the mind; and +Life is not a thing, the result of atomic arrangement +or action, but is itself an act, or process. He refutes +various definitions of Life, such as, that it is the sum +of all the functions by which death is resisted; or, that +it depends on the faculty of nutrition, or of anti-putrescence. +His own definition he proposes merely +as an hypothesis. Life, he says, is <q>the principle of +Individuation,</q> that is to say, it is a power which +<pb n="012"/><anchor id="Pg012"/> +discloses itself from within, combining many qualities +into one individual thing. This individualising principle +unites, as he conceives, with the cooperating +action of magnetism, electricity, and chemistry. At +least, such is the inference to be drawn from the present +state of science; though it is easily conceivable that +future discoveries may bring us acquainted with powers +more directly connected with Life. The most general +law governing the action of Life, as a tendency to individuation, +is here designated <emph>polarity</emph>; for instance, +the power termed magnetism (not meaning that there +is necessarily an actual tangible magnet in the case) +has two poles, the negative, answering to attraction, +rest, carbon, &c., and the positive, answering to repulsion, +mobility, azote, &c.; and as the magnetic +needle which points to the north necessarily indicates +thereby the south, so the power disposing to rest has +necessarily a counteracting influence disposing to +mobility, between which lies the point of indifference. +Now this quality, to which Mr. Coleridge gives the +name of polarity, is in truth nothing more than an exemplification +of the doctrine of opposites, the +<foreign lang="el">πρός ἂλληλα ἀντικειμένω ἀντίθεσις</foreign>, +which the Eleatic Philosopher, +in Plato's <q>Sophist,</q> applies to the idea of +existence and non-existence, and which accompanies +every other idea as its shadow, whether in physics, +in intellect, or in morals; for the finite is opposed +to the infinite, the false to the true, the evil to the +<pb n="013"/><anchor id="Pg013"/> +good, and so forth; which we say, not to derogate +from the value of Mr. Coleridge's application of the +doctrine, of which he has very ably availed himself; +but merely to explain the term polarity, by referring it, +as a species, to a higher genus of intellectual conceptions. +</p> + +<p> +Reverting to the three powers before mentioned, it is +not to be understood, that on Mr. Coleridge's hypothesis +of Life, they ever act separately; but in the different +modifications of Life, at one time the power of magnetism +predominates, at another that of electricity, and at +another that of chemistry. Magnetism is stated to act +as a line, electricity as a surface, and chemistry as a +solid; for all which Mr. Coleridge refers to certain +physical experiments. The predominance of magnetism +is characterised by reproduction, that of electricity by +irritability; and irritability, which first appears as +muscle, gradually rises into sensibility as nerve. The +limits of a mere introduction will not permit me to +examine Mr. Coleridge's first principles more in detail; +and I can but briefly notice their application to the +successive stages of ascent, from the first rudiments of +individualised Life, in the lowest classes of the mineral, +vegetable, and animal creation, to its crown and consummation +in the human body. Beginning with magnetism, +by which, in its widest sense, he means what +he improperly calls the first and simplest differential +act of <emph>Nature</emph> (he should rather have said the first and +simplest conception that we can form of a differential +<pb n="014"/><anchor id="Pg014"/> +act of God, in the work of creation), he supposes the +pre-existence of chaos, not, indeed, in the Miltonic +sense— +</p> + +<lg> +<l><q rend="pre">For hot, cold, moist, and dry, four champions fierce,</q></l> +<l>Strive <emph>there</emph> for mast'ry, and to battle bring</l> +<l><q rend="post">Their embryon atoms,—</q></l> +</lg> + +<p> +but rather as one vast homogeneous fluid, and even +<emph>that</emph> he suggests not as a historical fact, but as the +appropriate symbol of a great fundamental truth. The +first effort of magnetic power, the first step from indifference +to difference, from formless homogeneity to +independent existence, is seen in the tranquil deposition +of crystals; and an increasing tendency to difference +is observable in the increasing multitude of strata, till +we come to organic life; of which the vegetable and +animal worlds may be regarded as opposite poles; carbon +prevailing in the former and azote in the latter; +and vegetation being characterised by the predominance +of magnetism in its highest power, as reproduction; +whilst the animal tribes evince the power of electricity, +as shown in irritability and sensibility. Passing over +the forms of vegetation, we come to the polypi, corallines, +&c., in which individuality appears in its first +dawn; for a multitude of animals form, as it were, a +common animal, and different genera pass into each +other, almost indistinguishably. The tubipora of the +corals connects with the serpula of the conchylia. In +the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">mollusca</foreign> +the separation of organs becomes more +observable; in the higher species there are rudiments +<pb n="015"/><anchor id="Pg015"/> +of nerves, and an exponent, though scarcely distinguishable, +of sensibility. In the snail, and muscle, the separation +of the fluid from the solid is more marked, yet +the prevalence of the carbonic principle connects these +and the preceding classes, in a certain degree, with the +vegetable creation. <q>But the <emph>insect</emph> world, taken at +large (says Mr. Coleridge) appears as an intense <emph>Life</emph>, +that has struggled itself loose, and become emancipated +from vegetation—<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">Floræ liberti, +et libertini</foreign>!</q> In +insects we first find the distinct commencement of a +separation between the muscular system, that is, organs +of irritability, and the nervous system, that is, organs of +sensibility; the former, however, maintaining a pre-eminence +throughout, and the nerves themselves being +probably subservient to the motory power. With the +fishes begins an internal system of bones, but these are +the results of a comparatively imperfect formation, being +in general little more than mere gristle. In birds we +find a sort of synthesis of the powers of fish and insects. +In all three, the powers are under the predominance +of irritability; but sensibility, which is dormant in the +insect, begins to awaken in the fish, and, though still +subordinate, is quite awake in the bird, of which no +better proof can be given than its power of sound, with +the rudiments of modulation, in the large class of singing +birds, and in some others a tendency to acquire and +to imitate articulate speech. The next step of ascent +brings us to the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">mammalia</foreign>; +and in these, including +beasts and men, the complete and universal presence of +<pb n="016"/><anchor id="Pg016"/> +a nervous system raises sensibility to its due place and +rank among the animal powers. Finally, in Man the +whole force of organic power attains an inward and +centripetal direction, and the <q>apex of the living +pyramid</q>becomes a fit receptacle for Reason and Conscience. +</p> + +<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/> + +<p> +It is much to be regretted, that the estimable +Author did not live to put a finishing hand to this +Essay; but the part completed involves speculations of +so interesting a nature, and presents such striking +marks of deep and original thought, that the Editor, +to whose hands it was committed, did not feel himself +justified in withholding it from the judgment of +the public. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="017"/><anchor id="Pg017"/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Physiology Of Life.</head> +<head type="sub">Introduction.</head> + +<p> +When we stand before the bust of John Hunter, or as +we enter the magnificent museum furnished by his labours, +and pass slowly, with meditative observation, through this +august temple, which the genius of one great man has +raised and dedicated to the wisdom and uniform working +of the Creator, we perceive at every step the guidance, we +had almost said, the inspiration, of those profound ideas +concerning Life, which dawn upon us, indeed, through his +written works, but which he has here presented to us in +a more perfect language than that of words—the language +of God himself, as uttered by Nature. +</p> + +<p> +That the true idea of Life existed in the mind of John +Hunter I do not entertain the least doubt; but it may, +perhaps, be doubted whether his incessant occupation, and +his stupendous industry in the service, both of his contemporaries +<pb n="018"/><anchor id="Pg018"/> +and of posterity, added to his comparatively slight +acquaintance with the arts and aids of logical arrangement, +permitted him fully to unfold and arrange it in distinct, +clear, and communicable conceptions. Assuredly, +however, I may, without incurring the charge of arrogance +or detraction, venture to assert that, in his writings +the light which occasionally flashes upon us seems at +other times, and more frequently, to struggle through an +unfriendly medium, and even sometimes to suffer a temporary +occultation. At least, in order to dissipate the +undeniable obscurities, and to reconcile the apparent contradictions +found in his works,—to distinguish, in short, +the numerous passages in which without, perhaps, losing +sight internally of his own peculiar belief, he yet falls into +the phraseology and mechanical solutions of his age,—we +must distinguish such passages from those in which the +form corresponds to the substance, and in which, therefore, +the nature and essential laws of vital action are expressed, +as far as his researches had unveiled them to his +own mind, without disguise. To effect this, we must, as +it were, climb up on his shoulders, and look at the same +objects in a distincter form, because seen from the more +commanding point of view furnished by himself. This +has, indeed, been more than once attempted already, and, +in one instance, with so evident a display of power and +insight as announces in the assertor and vindicator of the +Hunterian Theory a congenial intellect, and a disciple in +<pb n="019"/><anchor id="Pg019"/> +whom Hunter himself would have exulted. Would that +this attempt had been made on a larger scale, that the +writer to whom I refer<note place="foot">Mr. Abernethy.</note> +had in consequence developed +his opinions systematically, and carried them yet further +back, even to their ultimate principle! +</p> + +<p> +But this the scientific world has yet to expect; or it +is more than probable that the present humble endeavour +would have been superseded, or confined, at least, to the +task of restating the opinion of my predecessor with such +modifications as the differences that will always exist between +men who have thought independently, and each for +himself, have never failed to introduce, even on problems +of far easier and more obvious solution. +</p> + +<p> +Without further preface or apology, therefore, I shall +state at once my objections to all the definitions that +have hitherto been given of Life, as meaning too much or +too little, with an exception, however, in favour of those +which mean nothing at all; and even these last must, in +certain cases, receive an honour they do not merit, and +be confuted, or rather detected, on account of their too +general acceptance, and the incalculable power of words +over the minds of men in proportion to the remoteness of +the subject from the cognizance of the senses. +</p> + +<pb n="020"/><anchor id="Pg020"/> + +<p> +It would be equally presumptuous and unreasonable +should I, with a late writer on this subject, <q>exhort the +reader to be particularly on his guard against loose and +indefinite expressions;</q> but I perfectly agree +that they are the bane of all science, and have been +remarkably injurious in the different departments of +physiology. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="021"/><anchor id="Pg021"/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>The Nature Of Life.</head> +<head type="sub">On The Definitions Of Life Hitherto Received. Hints +Towards A More Comprehensive Theory.</head> + +<p> +The attempts to explain the nature of Life, which have +fallen within my knowledge, presuppose the arbitrary +division of all that surrounds us into things with life, and +things without life—a division grounded on a mere assumption. +At the best, it can be regarded only as a +hasty deduction from the first superficial notices of the +objects that surround us, sufficient, perhaps, for the purpose +of ordinary discrimination, but far too indeterminate +and diffluent to be taken unexamined by the philosophic +inquirer. The positions of science must be tried in the +jeweller's scales, not like the mixed commodities of the +market, on the weigh-bridge of common opinion and +vulgar usage. Such, however, has been the procedure in +the present instance, and the result has been answerable +to the coarseness of the process. By a comprisal of the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">petitio principii</foreign> with the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">argumentum in circulo</foreign>,—in +plain English, by an easy logic, which begins with begging the +question, and then moving in a circle, comes round to the +point where it began,—each of the two divisions has been +made to define the other by a mere reassertion of their +assumed contrariety. The physiologist has luminously +explained <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">Y</hi> plus +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">X</hi> by informing us that it is a somewhat +that is the antithesis of <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">Y</hi> minus +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">X</hi>; and if we ask, what +<pb n="022"/><anchor id="Pg022"/> +then is <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">Y-X</hi>? +the answer is, the antithesis of <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">Y+X</hi>,—a +reciprocation of great service, that may remind us of +the twin sisters in the fable of the Lamiæ, with but one +eye between them both, which each borrowed from the +other as either happened to want it; but with this additional +disadvantage, that in the present case it is after +all but an eye of glass. The definitions themselves will +best illustrate our meaning. I will begin with that +given by Bichat. <q>Life is the sum of all the functions +by which death is resisted,</q> in which I have in vain +endeavoured to discover any other meaning than that life +consists in being able to live. This author, with a +whimsical gravity, prefaces his definition with the remark, +that the nature of life has hitherto been sought for in +<emph>abstract</emph> considerations; as if it were possible that four +more inveterate abstractions could be brought together +in one sentence than are here assembled in the words, +life, death, function, and resistance. Similar instances +might be cited from Richerand and others. The word +Life is translated into other more learned words; and this +<emph>paraphrase</emph> of the <emph>term</emph> is substituted for the +<emph>definition</emph> of the <emph>thing</emph>, and therefore (as is always the +case in every <emph>real</emph> definition as contra-distinguished from a +<emph>verbal</emph> definition,) for at least a partial +<emph>solution</emph> of the <emph>fact</emph>. Such +as these form the <emph>first</emph> class.—The second class takes some +one particular function of Life common to all living objects,—nutrition, +for instance; or, to adopt the phrase most in +vogue at present, assimilation, for the purposes of reproduction +and growth. Now this, it is evident, can be an +appropriate definition only of the very lowest species, as of a +Fungus or a Mollusca; and just as comprehensive an idea +<pb n="023"/><anchor id="Pg023"/> +of the mystery of Life, as a Mollusca might give, can this +definition afford. But this is not the only objection. +For, <emph>first</emph>, it is not pretended that we begin with seeking +for an organ evidently appropriated to nutrition, and then +infer that the substance in which such an organ is found +<emph>lives</emph>. On the contrary, in a number of cases among the +obscurer animals and vegetables we infer the organ from +the pre-established fact of its life. <emph>Secondly</emph>, it identifies +the process itself with a certain range of its forms, those, +namely, by which it is manifested in animals and vegetables. +For this, too, no less than the former, presupposes +the arbitrary division of all things into not living and +lifeless, on which, as I before observed, all these definitions +are grounded. But it is sorry logic to take the +proof of an affirmative in one thing as the proof of the +negative in another. All animals that have lungs breathe, +but it would be a childish oversight to deduce the converse, +viz. all animals that breathe have lungs. The +theory in which the French chemists organized the discoveries +of Black, Cavendish, Priestly, Scheele, and other +English and German philosophers, is still, indeed, the +reigning theory, but rather, it should seem, from the +absence of a rival sufficiently popular to fill the throne +in its stead, than from the continuance of an implicit +belief in its own stability. We no longer at least cherish +that intensity of faith which, before Davy commenced his +brilliant career, had not only identified it with chemistry +itself, but had substituted its nomenclature, even in +common conversation, for the far more philosophic language +which the human race had abstracted from the laboratory +of Nature. I may venture to prophecy that no future +<pb n="024"/><anchor id="Pg024"/> +Beddoes will make it the corival of the mathematical +sciences in demonstrative evidence. I think it a matter +of doubt whether, during the period of its supposed +infallibility, physiology derived more benefit from the +extension, or injury from the misdirection, of its views. +Enough of the latter is fresh in recollection to make it +but an equivocal compliment to a physiological position, +that it must stand or fall with the corpuscular philosophy, +as modified by the French theory of chemistry. Yet +should it happen (and the event is not impossible, nor the +supposition altogether absurd,) that more and more decisive +facts should present themselves in confirmation of +the metamorphosis of elements, the position that life consists +in assimilation would either cease to be distinctive, +or fall back into the former class as an identical proposition, +namely, that Life, meaning by the word that sort +of growth which takes place by means of a peculiar organization, +consists in that sort of growth which is peculiar +to organized life. <emph>Thirdly</emph>, the definition involves a still +more egregious flaw in the reasoning, namely, that of +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">cum hoc, ergo propter hoc</foreign> +(or the assumption of causation +from mere coexistence); and this, too, in its very worst +form. For it is not <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">cum hoc solo, ergo +propter hoc</foreign>, which would in many cases supply a presumptive proof by induction, +but <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">cum hoc, et plurimis aliis, ergo +propter hoc</foreign>! Shell, of some kind or other, is common to the whole order +of testacea, but it would be absurd to define the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">vis vitæ</foreign> +of testaceous animals as existing in the shell, though we +know it to be the constant accompaniment, and have +every reason to believe the constant effect, of the specific +life that acts in those animals. Were we +(<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">argumenti +<pb n="025"/><anchor id="Pg025"/> +causá</foreign>) to imagine shell coextensive with the organized +creation, this would produce no abatement in the falsity +of the reasoning. Nor does the flaw stop here; for a +physiological, that is a real, definition, as distinguished +from the verbal definitions of lexicography, must consist +neither in any single property or function of the thing +to be defined, nor yet in all collectively, which latter, +indeed, would be a history, not a definition. It must +consist, therefore, in the <emph>law</emph> of the thing, or in such an +<emph>idea</emph> of it, as, being admitted, all the properties and functions +are admitted by implication. It must likewise be +so far <emph>causal</emph>, that a full insight having been obtained +of the law, we derive from it a progressive insight into +the necessity and <emph>generation</emph> of the phenomena of which +it is the law. Suppose a disease in question, which appeared +always accompanied with certain symptoms in +certain stages, and with some one or more symptoms in +all stages—say deranged digestion, capricious alternation +of vivacity and languor, headache, dilated pupil, diminished +sensibility to light, &c.—Neither the man who selected +the one constant symptom, nor he who enumerated all +the symptoms, would give the scientific definition <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">talem scilicet, quali scientia fit vel datur</foreign>, +but the man who at once named and defined the disease hydrocephalus, producing +pressure on the brain. For it is the essence +of a scientific definition to be causative, not by introduction +of imaginary somewhats, natural or supernatural +under the name of causes, but by announcing +the law of action in the particular case, in subordination +to the common law of which all the phenomena are modifications +or results. +</p> + +<pb n="026"/><anchor id="Pg026"/> + +<p> +Now in the definition on which, as the representative +of a whole class, we are <emph>now</emph> animadverting, a single effect +is given as constituting the cause. For nutrition by digestion +is certainly necessary to life, only under certain +circumstances, but that life is previously necessary to +digestion is absolutely certain under all circumstances. +Besides, what other phenomenon of Life would the conception +of assimilation, <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">per se</foreign>, +or as it exists in the lowest order of animals, involve or explain? How, for instance, +does it include sensation, locomotion, or habit? or if the +two former should be taken as distinct from life, <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">toto genere</foreign>, and supervenient to it, we then ask +what conception is given of <emph>vital</emph> assimilation as contradistinguished +from that of the nucleus of a crystal? +</p> + +<p> +<emph>Lastly</emph>, this definition confounds the Law of Life, or +the primary and universal form of vital agency, with the +conception, Animals. For the kind, it substitutes the +representative of its degrees and modifications. But the +first and most important office of science, physical or +physiological, is to contemplate the power in kind, abstracted +from the degree. The ideas of caloric, whether +as substance or property, and the conceptions of latent +heat, the heat in ice, &c., that excite the wonder or the +laughter of the vulgar, though susceptible of the most important +practical applications, are the result of this abstraction; +while the only purpose to which a definition +like the preceding could become subservient, would be in +supplying a nomenclature with the character of the most +common species of a genus—its <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">genus generalissimum</foreign>, and +even this would be useless in the present instance, inasmuch +as it presupposes the knowledge of the things characterised. +</p> + +<pb n="027"/><anchor id="Pg027"/> + +<p> +The third class, and far superior to the two former, +selects some property characteristic of all living bodies, +not merely found in all <emph>animals</emph> alike, but existing equally +in all parts of all living things, both animals and plants. +Such, for instance, is the definition of Life, as consisting +in anti-putrescence, or the power of resisting putrefaction. +Like all the others, however, even this confines the idea +of Life to those degrees or concentrations of it, which +manifest themselves in organized beings, or rather in those +the organization of which is apparent to us. Consequently, +it substitutes an abstract term, or generalization of effects, +for the idea, or superior form of causative agency. At +best, it describes the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">vis vitá</foreign> +by one only of its many influences. +It is however, as we have said before, preferable +to the former, because it is not, as they are, altogether +unfruitful, inasmuch as it attests, less equivocally than +any other sign, the presence or absence of that degree of +the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">vis vitá</foreign> +which is the necessary condition of organic or +self-renewing power. It throws no light, however, on the +law or principle of action; it does not increase our insight +into the other phenomena; it presents to us no <emph>inclusive</emph> +form, out of which the other forms may be developed, and +finally, its defect as a definition may be detected by generalizing +it into a higher formula, as a power which, during +its continuance, resists or subordinates heterogeneous and +adverse powers. Now this holds equally true of chemical +relatively to the mechanical powers; and really affirms +no more of Life than may be equally affirmed of every +form of being, namely, that it tends to preserve itself, +and resists, to a certain extent, whatever is incompatible +with the laws that constitute its particular state for the +<pb n="028"/><anchor id="Pg028"/> +time being. For it is not true only of the great divisions +or classes into which we have found it expedient to distinguish, +while we generalize, the powers acting in nature, +as into intellectual, vital, chemical, mechanical; but it +holds equally true of the degrees, or species of each of +these genera relatively to each other: as in the decomposition +of the alkalies by heat, or the galvanic spark. +Like the combining power of Life, the copula here resists +for awhile the attempts to dissolve it, and then yields, to +reappear in new phenomena. +</p> + +<p> +It is a wonderful property of the human mind, that +when once a momentum has been given to it in a fresh +direction, it pursues the new path with obstinate perseverance, +in all conceivable bearings, to its utmost extremes. +And by the startling consequences which arise out of these +extremes, it is first awakened to its error, and either recalled +to some former track, or receives some fresh impulse, +which it follows with the same eagerness, and admits to +the same monopoly. Thus in the 13th century the first +science which roused the intellects of men from the torpor +of barbarism, was, as in all countries ever has been, and +ever must be the case, the science of <emph>Metaphysics</emph> and +<emph>Ontology</emph>. We first seek what can be found at home, and +what wonder if truths, that appeared to reveal the secret +depths of our own souls, should take possession of the whole +mind, and all truths appear trivial which could not either +be evolved out of similar principles, by the same process, +or at least brought under the same forms of thought, by +perceived or imagined analogies? And so it was. For +more than a century men continued to invoke the oracle +of their own spirits, not only concerning its own forms +<pb n="029"/><anchor id="Pg029"/> +and modes of being, but likewise concerning the laws of +external nature. All attempts at philosophical explication +were commenced by a mere effort of the understanding, +as the power of abstraction; or by the imagination, transferring +its own experiences to every object presented from +without. By the former, a class of phenomena were in +the first place abstracted, and fixed in some general term: +of course this could designate only the impressions made +by the outward objects, and so far, therefore, having been +thus metamorphosed, they were effects of these objects; +but then made to supply the place of their own causes, +under the name of occult qualities. Thus the properties +peculiar to gold, were abstracted from those it possessed +in common with other bodies, and then generalized in the +term <emph>Aureity</emph>: and the inquirer was instructed that the +Essence of Gold, or the cause which constituted the peculiar +modification of matter called gold, was the power +of aureity. By the latter, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> by the imagination, thought +and will were superadded to the occult quality, and every +form of nature had its appropriate Spirit, to be controlled +or conciliated by an appropriate ceremonial. This was +entitled its <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">SUBSTANTIAL FORM</hi>. +Thus, physic became a +sort of dull poetry, and the art of medicine (for physiology +could scarcely be said to exist) was a system of magic, +blended with traditional empiricism. Thus the forms of +thought proceeded to act in their own emptiness, with no +attempt to fill or substantiate them by the information of +the senses, and all the branches of science formed so +many sections of logic and metaphysics. And so it continued, +even to the time that the Reformation sounded +the second trumpet, and the authority of the schools sank +<pb n="030"/><anchor id="Pg030"/> +with that of the hierarchy, under the intellectual courage +and activity which this great revolution had inspired. +Power, once awakened, cannot rest in one object. All +the sciences partook of the new influences. The world of +experimental philosophy was soon mapped out for posterity +by the comprehensive and enterprising genius of Bacon, +and the laws explained by which experiment could be +dignified into experience.<note place="foot">Experiment, as an organ of reason, not +less distinguished from the blind or dreaming industry of the alchemists, than it +was successfully opposed to the barren subtleties of the schoolmen.</note> +But no sooner was the impulse +given, than the same propensity was made manifest +of looking at all things in the one point of view which +chanced to be of predominant attraction. Our Gilbert, +a man of genuine philosophical genius, had no sooner +multiplied the facts of magnetism, and extended our +knowledge concerning the property of magnetic bodies, +but all things in heaven, and earth, and in the waters +beneath the earth, were resolved into magnetic influences. +</p> + +<p> +Shortly after a new light was struck by Harriott +and Descartes, with their contemporaries, or immediate +predecessors, and the restoration of ancient geometry, +aided by the modern invention of algebra, placed the +science of mechanism on the philosophic throne. How +widely this domination spread, and how long it continued, +if, indeed, even now it can be said to have abdicated its +pretensions, the reader need not be reminded. The sublime +discoveries of Newton, and, together with these, his +not less fruitful than wonderful application, of the higher +mathesis to the movements of the celestial bodies, and to +the laws of light, gave almost a religious sanction to the +<pb n="031"/><anchor id="Pg031"/> +corpuscular system and mechanical theory. It became +synonymous with philosophy itself. It was the sole portal +at which truth was permitted to enter. The human body +was treated of as an hydraulic machine, the operations of +medicine were solved, and alas! even directed by reference +partly to gravitation and the laws of motion, and partly +by chemistry, which itself, however, as far as its theory +was concerned, was but a branch of mechanics working +exclusively by imaginary wedges, angles, and spheres. +Should the reader chance to put his hand on the <q>Principles +of Philosophy,</q> by La Forge, an immediate disciple +of Descartes, he may see the phenomena of sleep solved +in a copper-plate engraving, with all the figures into +which the globules of the blood shaped themselves, and +the results demonstrated by mathematical calculations. +In short, from the time of Kepler<note place="foot">Whose own mind, however, was not +comprehended in the vortex; where Kepler erred it was in the other extreme.</note> +to that of Newton, and +from Newton to Hartley, not only all things in external +nature, but the subtlest mysteries of life and organization, +and even of the intellect and moral being, were conjured +within the magic circle of mathematical formulæ. And +now a new light was struck by the discovery of electricity, +and, in every sense of the word, both playful and serious, +both for good and for evil, it may be affirmed to have +electrified the whole frame of natural philosophy. Close +on its heels followed the momentous discovery of the +principal gases by Scheele and Priestly, the composition of +water by Cavendish, and the doctrine of latent heat by +Black. The scientific world was prepared for a new +dynasty; accordingly, as soon as Lavoisier had reduced +<pb n="032"/><anchor id="Pg032"/> +the infinite variety of chemical phenomena to the actions, +reactions, and interchanges of a few elementary substances, +or at least excited the expectation that this would speedily +be effected, the hope shot up, almost instantly, into full +faith, that it had been effected. Henceforward the new +path, thus brilliantly opened, became the common road +to all departments of knowledge: and, to this moment, it +has been pursued with an eagerness and almost epidemic +enthusiasm which, scarcely less than its political revolutions, +characterise the spirit of the age. Many and inauspicious +have been the invasions and inroads of this new +conqueror into the rightful territories of other sciences; +and strange alterations have been made in less harmless +points than those of terminology, in homage to an art +unsettled, in the very ferment of imperfect discoveries, and +either without a theory, or with a theory maintained only +by composition and compromise. Yet this very circumstance +has favoured its encroachments, by the gratifications +which its novelty affords to our curiosity, and by the +keener interest and higher excitement which an unsettled +and revolutionary state is sure to inspire. He who supposes +that science possesses an immunity from such influences +knows little of human nature. How, otherwise, +could men of strong minds and sound judgments have +attempted to penetrate by the clue of chemical experiment +the secret recesses, the sacred adyta of organic life, +without being aware that chemistry must needs be at its +extreme limits, when it has approached the threshold of +a higher power? Its own transgressions, however, and +the failure of its enterprises will become the means of +defining its absolute boundary, and we shall have to guard +<pb n="033"/><anchor id="Pg033"/> +against the opposite error of rejecting its aid altogether +as analogy, because we have repelled its ambitious claims +to an identity with the vital powers. +</p> + +<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/> + +<p> +Previously to the submitting my own ideas on the subject +of life, and the powers into which it resolves itself, or +rather in which it is manifested to us, I have hazarded +this apparent digression from the anxiety to <emph>preclude certain +suspicions</emph>, which the subject itself is so fitted to +awaken, and while I anticipate the charges, to plead in +answer to each a full and unequivocal—not guilty! +</p> + +<p> +In the first place, therefore, I distinctly disclaim all +intention of explaining life into an occult quality; and +retort the charge on those who can satisfy themselves +with defining it as the peculiar power by which death is +resisted. +</p> + +<p> +Secondly. Convinced—by revelation, by the consenting +authority of all countries, and of all ages, by the imperative +voice of my own conscience, and by that wide chasm +between man and the noblest animals of the brute +creation, which no perceivable or conceivable difference +of organization is sufficient to overbridge—that I have a +rational and responsible soul, I think far too reverentially +of the same to degrade it into an hypothesis, and +cannot be blind to the contradiction I must incur, if I +assign that soul which I believe to constitute the peculiar +nature of man as the cause of functions and properties, +which man possesses in common with the oyster and the +mushroom.<note place="foot">But still less would I avail myself of its acknowledged +inappropriateness to the purposes of physiology, in order to cast a self-complacent +sneer on the soul itself, and on all who believe in its existence. First, because +in my opinion it would be impertinent; secondly, because it would be imprudent and +injurious to the character of my profession; and, lastly, because it would +argue an irreverence to the feelings of mankind, which I deem scarcely compatible +with a good heart, and a degree of arrogance and presumption which +I have never found, except in company with a corrupt taste and a shallow +capacity.</note> +</p> + +<pb n="034"/><anchor id="Pg034"/> + +<p> +Thirdly, while I disclaim the error of Stahl in deriving +the phenomena of life from the unconscious actions +of the rational soul, I repel with still greater earnestness +the assertion and even the supposition that the functions +are the offspring of the structure, and <q>Life<note place="foot">Vide Lawrence's +Lecture.</note> the result of organization,</q> connected with it as effect with cause. +Nay, the position seems to me little less strange, than +as if a man should say, that building with all the included +handicraft, of plastering, sawing, planing, &c. were the +offspring of the house; and that the mason and carpenter +were the result of a suite of chambers, with the passages +and staircases that lead to them. To make <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">A</hi> +the offspring of <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">B</hi>, when the very existence of +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">B</hi> as <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">B</hi> +presupposes the existence of <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">A</hi>, is +preposterous in the <emph>literal</emph> sense of the word, and a consummate instance of +the <foreign lang="el" rend="font-style: italic">hysteron proteron</foreign> +in logic. But if I reject the organ as the cause of +that, of which it is the organ, though I might admit it +among the <emph>conditions</emph> of its actual functions; for the same +reason, I must reject <emph>fluids</emph> and <emph>ethers</emph> of all kinds, +magnetical, electrical, and universal, to whatever quintessential +thinness they may be treble distilled, and (as it +were) super-substantiated. With these, I abjure likewise +all <emph>chemical</emph> agencies, compositions, and decompositions, +were it only that as stimulants they suppose a +stimulability <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">sui generis</foreign>, +which is but another paraphrase +<pb n="035"/><anchor id="Pg035"/> +for life. Or if they are themselves at once both the excitant +and the excitability, I miss the connecting link between +this imaginary ether and the visible body, which then +becomes no otherwise distinguished from inanimate matter, +than by its juxtaposition in mere space, with an heterogeneous +inmate, the cycle of whose actions revolves within +itself. Besides which I should think that I was confounding +metaphors and realities most absurdly, if I imagined that I +had a greater insight into the meaning and possibility of a +living alcohol, than of a living quicksilver. In short, visible +<emph>surface</emph> and <emph>power</emph> of any kind, +much more the <emph>power</emph> of +life, are ideas which the very forms of the human understanding +make it impossible to identify. But whether +the powers which manifest themselves to us under certain +conditions in the forms of electricity, or chemical attraction, +have any analogy to the power which manifests +itself in growth and organization, is altogether a different +question, and demands altogether a different chain of +reasoning: if it be indeed a tree of knowledge, it will be +known by its fruits, and these will depends not on the +mere assertion, but on the inductions by which the position +is supported, and by the additions which it makes to our +insight into the nature of the facts it is meant to illustrate. +</p> + +<p> +To <emph>account</emph> for Life is one thing; to explain Life another. +In the first we are supposed to state something prior (if +not in time, yet in the order of Nature) to the thing +accounted for, as the ground or cause of that thing, or +(which comprises the meaning and force of both words) +as its <emph>sufficient cause, quae et facit, et subest</emph>. And to +this, in the question of Life, I know no possible answer, +but GOD. To account for a thing is to see into the +<pb n="036"/><anchor id="Pg036"/> +principle of its possibility, and from that principle to +evolve its being. Thus the mathematician demonstrates +the truths of geometry by constructing them. It is an +admirable remark of Joh. Bapt. a Vico, in a Tract published +at Naples, 1710,<note place="foot">Joh. Bapt. a Vico, Neapol. Reg. eloq. +Professor, de antiquissima Itallorum sapientia ex lingua Latina originibus aruendâ: +libri tres. Neap., 1710.</note> +<q>Geometrica ideò demonstramus, +quia facimus; physica si demonstrare possimus, faceremus. +Metaphysici veri claritas eadem ac lucis, quam non nisi +per opaca cognoscimus; nam non lucem sed lucidas res +videmus. Physica sunt opaca, nempe formata et finita, in +quibus Metaphysici veri lumen videmus.</q> The reasoner +who assigns structure or organization as the antecedent +of Life, who names the former a cause, and the <emph>latter</emph> its +effect, <emph>he</emph> it is who pretends to account for life. Now +Euclid would, with great right, demand of such a philosopher +to <emph>make</emph> Life; in the same sense, I mean, in which +Euclid makes an Icosahedron, or a figure of twenty sides, +namely, in the understanding or by an intellectual construction. +An argument which, of itself, is sufficient to +prove the untenable nature of Materialism. +</p> + +<p> +To explain a power, on the other hand, is (the power +itself being assumed, though not comprehended, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ut qui datur, non intelligitur</foreign>) +to unfold or spread it out: <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ex implicito +planum facere</foreign>. In the present instance, such an +explanation would consist in the reduction of the idea of +Life to its simplest and most comprehensive form or mode +of action; that is, to some characteristic <emph>instinct</emph> or +<emph>tendency</emph>, evident in all its manifestations, and involved in +the idea itself. This assumed as existing in <emph>kind</emph>, it will +be required to present an ascending series of corresponding +<pb n="037"/><anchor id="Pg037"/> +phenomena as involved <emph>in</emph>, proceeding <emph>from</emph>, and so far +therefore explained <emph>by</emph>, the supposition of its progressive +intensity and of the gradual enlargement of its sphere, +the necessity of which again must be contained in the +idea of the tendency itself. In other words, the tendency +having been given in <emph>kind</emph>, it is required to render the +phenomena intelligible as its different degrees and modifications. +Still more perfect will the explanation be, should +the necessity of this progression and of these ascending +gradations be contained in the assumed idea of life, as +thus defined by the general form and common purport of +all its various tendencies. This done, we have only to +add the conditions common to all its phenomena, and, those +appropriate to each place and rank, in the scale of ascent, +and then proceed to determine the primary and constitutive +forms, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> the elementary powers in which this +tendency realizes itself under different degrees and conditions.<note +place="foot"><p>The object I have proposed to myself, and wherein its distinction +exists, may be thus illustrated. A complex machine is presented to the common +view, the moving power of which is hidden. Of those who are studying +and examining it, one man fixes his attention on some one application of that +power, on certain effects produced by that particular application, and on a +certain part of the structure evidently appropriated to the production of these +effects, neither the one or other of which he had discovered in a neighbouring +machine, which he at the same time asserts to be quite distinct from the +former, and to be moved by a power altogether different, though many of the +works and operations are, he admits, common to both machines. In this supposed +peculiarity he places the essential character of the former machine, and +defines it by the presence of that which is, or which he supposes to be, absent +in the latter. Supposing that a stranger to both were about to visit the two +machines, this peculiarity would be so far useful as that it might enable him +to distinguish the one from the other, and thus to look in the proper place for +whatever else he had heard remarkable concerning either; not that he or his +informant would understand the machine any better or otherwise, than the +common character of a whole class in the nomenclature of botany would +enable a person to understand all, or any one of the plants contained in that +class. But if, on the other hand, the machine in question were such as no +man was a stranger to, if even the supposed peculiarity, either by its effects, +or by the construction of that portion of the works which produced them, were +equally well known to all men, in this case we can conceive no use at all of such +a definition; for at the best it could only be admitted as a definition for the +purposes of nomenclature, which never adds to knowledge, although it may +often facilitate its communication. But in this instance it would be nomenclature +misplaced, and without an object. Such appears to me to be the case +with all those definitions which place the essence of Life in nutrition, contractility, +&c. As the second instance, I will take the inventor and maker +of the machine himself, who knows its moving power, or perhaps himself constitutes +it, who is, as it were, the soul of the work, and in whose mind all its +parts, with all their bearings and relations, had pre-existed long before the +machine itself had been put together. In him therefore there would reside, +what it would be presumption to attempt to acquire, or to pretend to communicate, +the most perfect insight not only of the machine itself, and of all +its various operations, but of its ultimate principle and its essential causes. +The mysterious ground, the efficient causes of vitality, and whether different +lives differ absolutely or only in degree, He alone can know who not only said, +<q>Let the earth bring forth the living creature, the beast of the earth after his +kind, and it was so;</q> but who said, <q>Let us make man in our image, who +himself breathed into his nostrils the breath of Life, and man became a living +soul.</q> +</p> +<p> +The third case which I would apply to my own attempt would be that of +the inquirer, who, presuming to know nothing of the power that moves the +whole machine, takes those parts of it which are presented to his view, seeks +to reduce its various movements to as few and simple laws of motion as +possible, and out of their separate and conjoint action proceeds to explain and +appropriate the structure and relative positions of the works. In obedience +to the canon,—<q>Principia non esse multiplicanda præter summam necessitatem +cui suffragamur non ideo quia causalem in mundo unitatem vel ratione vel experientiâ +perspiciamus, sed illam ipsam indagamus impulsu intellectûs, qui +tantundem sibi in explicatione phænomenorum profecisse videtur quantum ab +codem principio ad plurima rationata descendere ipsi concessum est.</q></p></note> +</p> + +<pb n="038"/><anchor id="Pg038"/> + +<p> +What is Life? Were such a question proposed, we should +be tempted to answer, what is <emph>not</emph> Life that really <emph>is</emph>? +Our reason convinces us that the quantities of things, +taken abstractedly as quantity, exist only in the relations +they bear to the percipient; in plainer words, they exist +<pb n="039"/><anchor id="Pg039"/> +only in our minds, <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ut +quorum esse est percipi</foreign>. For if the +definite quantities have a ground, and therefore a reality, +in the external world, and independent of the mind that +perceives them, this ground is <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ipso facto</foreign> a quality; the +very etymon of this world showing that a quality, not +taken in its own nature but in relation to another thing, +is to be defined <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">causa +sufficiens, entia, de quibus loquimur; +esse talia, qualia sunt</foreign>. Either the quantities perceived +exist only in the perception, or they have likewise a real +existence. In the former case, the quality (the word is +here used in an active sense) that determines them belongs +to Life, <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">per ipsam +hypothesin</foreign>; and in the other case, +since by the agreement of all parties Life may exist in +other forms than those of consciousness, or even of sensibility, +the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">onus probandi</foreign> +falls on those who assert of any +quality that it is <emph>not</emph> Life. For the analogy of all that we +know is clearly in favour of the contrary supposition, and +if a man would analyse the meaning of his own words, and +carefully distinguish his perceptions and sensations from +the external cause exciting them, and at the same time +from the quantity or superficies under which that cause is +acting, he would instantly find himself, if we mistake not, +involuntarily identifying the ideas of Quality and Life. +Life, it is admitted on all hands, does not necessarily imply +consciousness or sensibility; and we, for our parts, cannot +see that the irritability which metals manifest to galvanism, +can be more remote from that which may be supposed to +exist in the tribe of lichens, or in the helvellæ, pezizee, &c., +than the latter is from the phenomena of excitability in +the human body, whatever name it may be called by, or in +<pb n="040"/><anchor id="Pg040"/> +whatever way it may modify itself.<note place="foot">The arborescent +forms on a frosty morning, to be seen on the window and pavement, must +have <emph>some</emph> relation to the more perfect forms developed +in the vegetable world.</note> That the mere act of +growth does not constitute the idea of Life, or the absence +of that act exclude it, we have a proof in every egg before it +is placed under the hen, and in every grain of corn before +it is put into the soil. All that could be deduced by fair +reasoning would amount to this only, that the life of +metals, as the power which effects and determines their +comparative cohesion, ductility, &c., was yet lower on the +scale than the Life which produces the first attempts of +organization, in the almost shapeless tremella, or in such +fungi as grow in the dark recesses of the mine. +</p> + +<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/> + +<p> +If it were asked, to what purpose or with what view we +should generalize the idea of Life thus broadly, I should +not hesitate to reply that, were there no other use conceivable, +there would be <emph>some</emph> advantage in merely destroying +an arbitrary assumption in natural philosophy, +and in reminding the physiologists that they could not +hear the life of metals asserted with a more contemptuous +surprise than they themselves incur from the vulgar, when +they speak of the Life in mould or mucor. But this is +not the case. This wider view not only precludes a groundless +assumption, it likewise fills up the arbitrary chasm +between physics and physiology, and justifies us in using +the former as means of insight into the latter, which would +be contrary to all sound rules of ratiocination if the powers +working in the objects of the two sciences were absolutely +<pb n="041"/><anchor id="Pg041"/> +and essentially diverse. For as to abstract the idea of +<emph>kind</emph> from that of <emph>degrees</emph>, which are alone designated in +the language of common use, is the first and indispensable +step in philosophy, so are we the better enabled to form +a notion of the <emph>kind</emph>, the lower the <emph>degree</emph>, and the simpler +the form is in which it appears to us. We study the complex +in the simple; and only from the intuition of the +lower can we safely proceed to the intellection of the +higher degrees. The only danger lies in the leaping from +low to high, with the neglect of the intervening gradations. +But the same error would introduce discord into the gamut, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">et ab abusu contra usum non +valet consequentia</foreign>. That these +degrees will themselves bring forth secondary kinds sufficiently +distinct for all the purposes of science, and even +for common sense, will be seen in the course of this inquisition: +for this is one proof of the essential vitality +of nature, that she does not ascend as links in a suspended +chain, but as the steps in a ladder; or rather she at one +and the same time <emph>ascends</emph> as by a climax, and expands +as the concentric circles on the lake from the point to +which the stone in its fall had given the first impulse. +At all events, a contemptuous rejection of this mode of +reasoning would come with an ill grace from a medical +philosopher, who cannot combine any three phenomena +of health or of disease without the assumption of powers, +which he is compelled to deduce without being able to +demonstrate; nay, even of material substances as the +<emph>vehicles</emph> of these powers, which he can never expect to exhibit +before the senses. +</p> + +<p> +From the preceding it should appear, that the most +comprehensive formula to which life is reducible, would +<pb n="042"/><anchor id="Pg042"/> +be that of the internal copula of bodies, or (if we may +venture to borrow a phrase from the Platonic school) the +<emph>power</emph> which discloses itself from within as a principle of +<emph>unity</emph> in the <emph>many</emph>. But that there is a physiognomy in +words, which, without reference to their fitness or necessity, +make unfavorable as well as favorable impressions, +and that every unusual term in an abstruse research +incurs the risk of being denominated jargon, I should at +the same time have borrowed a scholastic <emph>term</emph>, and defined +life <emph>absolutely</emph>, as the principle of unity in <emph>multeity</emph>, as far +as the former, the unity to wit, is produced <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ab intra</foreign>; but +<emph>eminently</emph> (<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">sensu +eminenti</foreign>), I define life as <emph>the principle +of individuation</emph>, or the power which unites a given <emph>all</emph> +into a <emph>whole</emph> that is presupposed by all its parts. The +link that combines the two, and acts throughout both, +will, of course, be defined by the <emph>tendency</emph> to <emph>individuation</emph>. +Thus, from its utmost <emph>latency</emph>, in which life is one with +the elementary powers of mechanism, that is, with the +powers of mechanism considered as qualitative and actually +synthetic, to its highest manifestation, (in which, as +the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">vis vitæ vivida</foreign>, +or life <emph>as</emph> life, it subordinates and +modifies these powers, becoming contra-distinguished from +mechanism,<note place="foot">Thus we may say that whatever +is organized from without, is a product of mechanism; whatever is mechanised +from within, is a production of organization.</note> <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ab extra</foreign>, under the form of organization,) +there is an ascending series of intermediate classes, and of +analogous gradations in each class. To a reflecting mind, +indeed, the very fact that the powers peculiar to life in +living animals <emph>include</emph> cohesion, elasticity, &c. (or, in the +words of a late publication, <q>that living matter exhibits +<pb n="043"/><anchor id="Pg043"/> +these physical properties,</q><note place="foot"><q>The matter +that surrounds us is divided into two great classes, living +and dead; the latter is governed by physical laws, such as attraction, gravitation, +chemical affinity; and it exhibits physical properties, such as cohesion, +elasticity, divisibility, &c. Living matter also exhibits these properties, and +is subject, in great measure, to physical laws. But living bodies are endowed +moreover with a set of properties altogether different from these, and contrasting +with them very remarkably.</q> (Vide Lawrence's Lectures, p. 121.)</note>) +would demonstrate that, in the +truth of things, they are homogeneous, and that both the +classes are but degrees and different dignities of one and +the same tendency. For the latter are not subjected to +the former as a lever, or walking-stick to the muscles; +the more intense the life is, the less does <emph>elasticity</emph>, for +instance, appear <emph>as</emph> elasticity. It sinks down into the +nearest approach to its <emph>physical</emph> form by a series of degrees +from the contraction and elongation of the irritable muscle +to the physical hardness of the insensitive nail. The +lower powers are <emph>assimilated</emph>, not merely <emph>employed</emph>, and +assimilation presupposes the homogeneous nature of the +thing assimilated; else it is a miracle, only not the same +as that of a <emph>creation</emph>, because it would imply that additional +and equal miracle of annihilation. In short, all +the impossibilities which the acutest of the reformed +Divines have detected in the hypothesis of transubstantiation +would apply, <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">totidem +verbis et syllabis</foreign>, to that of +assimilation, if the objects and the agents were really +heterogeneous. Unless, therefore, a thing can exhibit +properties which do not belong to it, the very admission +that living matter exhibits physical properties, includes +the further admission, that those <emph>physical</emph> or dead properties +are themselves vital in essence, really <emph>distinct</emph> but +<pb n="044"/><anchor id="Pg044"/> +in appearance only <emph>different</emph>; or in absolute contrast with +each other. +</p> + +<p> +In all cases that which, <emph>abstractly</emph> taken, is the definition +of the <emph>kind</emph>, will, when applied <emph>absolutely</emph>, or in its +fullest sense, be the definition of the highest <emph>degree</emph> of that +kind. If life, in general, be defined <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">vis ab intra, cujus +proprium est coadunare plura in rem unicam, quantùm est +res unica</foreign>; the unity will be more intense in proportion as +it constitutes each particular thing a whole of itself; and +yet more, again, in proportion to the number and interdependence +of the parts, which it unites as a whole. But +a whole composed, <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ab +intra</foreign>, of different parts, so far interdependent +that each is reciprocally means and end, is an +individual, and the individuality is most intense where the +greatest dependence of the parts on the whole is combined +with the greatest dependence of the whole on its parts; +the first (namely, the dependence of the parts on the +whole) being absolute; the second (namely, the dependence +of the whole on its parts) being proportional to the +importance of the relation which the parts have to the +whole, that is, as their action extends more or less beyond +themselves. For this spirit of the whole is most expressed +in that part which derives its importance as an End from +its importance as a Mean, relatively to all the parts under +the same copula. +</p> + +<p> +Finally, of individuals, the living power will be most intense +in that individual which, as a whole, has the greatest +number of integral parts presupposed in it; when, moreover, +these integral parts, together with a proportional increase +of their interdependence, as <emph>parts</emph>, have themselves most +<pb n="045"/><anchor id="Pg045"/> +the character of wholes in the sphere occupied by them. A +mathematical point, line, or surface, is an <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ens rationis</foreign>, for +it expresses an intellectual act; but a physical atom is +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ens fictitium</foreign>, +which may be made subservient, as ciphers +are in arithmetic, to the purposes of hypothetical construction, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">per regulam falsi</foreign>; +but transferred to <emph>Nature</emph>, it is in +the strictest sense an <emph>absurd</emph> quantity; for extension, and +consequently divisibility, or <emph>multeity</emph>,<note place="foot">Much +against my will I repeat this scholastic term, <emph>multeity</emph>, but I have +sought in vain for an unequivocal word of a less repulsive character, that +would convey the notion in a positive and not comparative sense in kind, as +opposed to the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">unum et +simplex</foreign>, not in degree, as contracted with the <emph>few</emph>. +We can conceive no reason that can be adduced in justification of the word +<emph>caloric</emph>, as invented to distinguish the external cause of +the sensation heat, which would not equally authorise the introduction +of a technical term in this instance.</note> (for space cannot be +divided,) is the indispensable condition, under which alone +anything can <emph>appear</emph> to us, or even be <emph>thought</emph> of, as a +<emph>thing</emph>. But if it should be replied, that the elementary +particles are atoms not positively, but by such a hardness +communicated to them as is relatively invincible, I should +remind the assertor that <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">temeraria +citatio supernaturalium est pulvinar intellectús pigri</foreign>, +and that he who requires me +to believe a miracle of his own dreaming, must first work +a miracle to convince me that he had dreamt by inspiration. +Add, too, the gross inconsistency of resorting to an +immaterial influence in order to complete a system of +materialism, by the exclusion of all modes of existence +which the theorist cannot in imagination, at least, <emph>finger</emph> +and <emph>peep</emph> at! Each of the preceding gradations, as above +defined, might be represented as they exist, and are realised +in Nature. But each would require a work for itself, +<pb n="046"/><anchor id="Pg046"/> +co-extensive with the science of metals, and that of fossils +(both as geologically applied); of crystallization; and of +vegetable and animal physiology, in all its distinct +branches. The nature of the present essay scarcely permits +the space sufficient to illustrate our meaning. The +proof of its probability (for to that only can we arrive by +so partial an application of the hypothesis), is to be found +in its powers of solving the particular class of phenomena, +that form the subjects of the present inquisition, more +satisfactorily and profitably than has been done, or even +attempted before. +</p> + +<p> +Exclusively, therefore, for the purposes of <emph>illustration</emph>, +I would take as an instance of the first step, the metals, +those, namely, that are capable of permanent reduction. +For, by the established laws of nomenclature, the others +(as sodium, potassium, calcium, silicium, &c.) would be +entitled to a class of their own, under the name of <emph>bases</emph>. +It is long since the chemists have despaired of decomposing +this class of bodies. They still remain, one and all, as +elements or simple bodies, though, on the principles of +the corpuscularian philosophy, nothing can be more improbable +than that they really are such; and no reason +has or can be assigned on the grounds of that system, +why, in no one instance, the contrary has not been proved. +But this is at once explained, if we assume them as the +simplest form of unity, namely, the unity of powers and +properties. For these, it is evident, may be endlessly +modified, but can never be decomposed. If I were asked +by a philosopher who had previously extended the attribute +of Life to the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">Byssus speciosa</foreign>, +and even to the crustaceous +matter, or outward bones of a lobster, &c., whether +<pb n="047"/><anchor id="Pg047"/> +the ingot of gold expressed <emph>life</emph>, I should answer without +hesitation, as the <emph>ingot</emph> of gold assuredly not, for its form +is accidental and <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ab extra</foreign>. +It may be added to or detracted +from without in the least affecting the nature, +state, or properties in the specific matter of which the +ingot consists. But as <emph>gold</emph>, as that special union of absolute +and of relative gravity, ductility, and hardness, which, +wherever they are found, constitute <emph>gold</emph>, I should answer +no less fearlessly, in the affirmative. But I should further +add, that of the two counteracting tendencies of nature, +namely, that of <emph>detachment</emph> from the universal life, which +universality is represented to us by gravitation, and that +of <emph>attachment</emph> or reduction into it, this and the other noble +metals represented the units in which the latter tendency, +namely, that of identity with the life of nature, subsisted +in the greatest overbalance over the former. It is the +form of unity with the least degree of tendency to +individuation. +</p> + +<p> +Rising in the ascent, I should take, as illustrative of +the second step, the various forms of crystals as a union, +not of powers only, but of parts, and as the simplest forms +of composition in the next narrowest sphere of affinity. +Here the form, or apparent <emph>quantity</emph>, is manifestly the +result of the <emph>quality</emph>, and the chemist himself not seldom +admits them as infallible characters of the substances +united in the whole of a given crystal. +</p> + +<p> +In the first step, we had Life, as the mere <emph>unity</emph> of +powers; in the second we have the simplest forms of +<emph>totality</emph> evolved. The third step is presented to us in +those vast formations, the tracing of which generically +would form the science of Geology, or its history in the +<pb n="048"/><anchor id="Pg048"/> +strict sense of the word, even as their description and +diagnostics constitute its preliminaries. +</p> + +<p> +Their claim to this rank I cannot here even attempt +to support. It will be sufficient to explain my reason +for having assigned it to them, by the avowal, that I regard +them in a twofold point of view: 1st, as the residue and +product of vegetable and animal life; 2d, as manifesting +the tendencies of the Life of Nature to vegetation or +animalization. And this process I believe—in one instance +by the peat morasses of the northern, and in the other +instance by the coral banks of the southern hemisphere—to +be still connected with the present order of vegetable +and animal Life, which constitute the fourth and last step +in these wide and comprehensive divisions. +</p> + +<p> +In the lowest forms of the vegetable and animal world +we perceive totality dawning into <emph>individuation</emph>, while in +man, as the highest of the class, the individuality is not +only perfected in its corporeal sense, but begins a new +series beyond the appropriate limits of physiology. The +tendency to individuation, more or less obscure, more or +less obvious, constitutes the common character of all +classes, as far as they maintain for themselves a distinction +from the universal life of the planet; while the +degrees, both of intensity and extension, to which this +tendency is realized, form the species, and their ranks +in the great scale of ascent and expansion. +</p> + +<p> +In the treatment of a subject so vast and complex, +within the limits prescribed for an essay like the present, +where it is impossible not to say either too much or too little +(and too much because too little), an author is entitled to +make large claims on the candour of his judges. Many +<pb n="049"/><anchor id="Pg049"/> +things he must express inaccurately, not from ignorance +or oversight, but because the more precise expression +would have involved the necessity of a further explanation, +and this another, even to the first elements of the science. +This is an inconvenience which presses on the analytic +method, on however large a scale it may be conducted, +compared with the synthetic; and it must bear with a +tenfold weight in the present instance, where we are not +permitted to avail ourselves of its usual advantages as a +counterbalance to its inherent defects. I shall have +done all that I dared propose to myself, or that can +be justly demanded of me by others, if I have succeeded +in conveying a sufficiently clear, though indistinct and +inadequate notion, so as of its many results to render intelligible +that one which I am to apply to my particular +subject, not as a truth already demonstrated, but as an +hypothesis, which pretends to no higher merit than that of +explaining the particular class of phenomena to which it +is applied, and asks no other reward than a presumption +in favour of the general system of which it affirms itself to +be a dependent though integral part. By Life I everywhere +mean the true Idea of Life, or that most general +form under which Life manifests itself to us, which includes +all its other forms. This I have stated to be the +<emph>tendency to individuation</emph>, and the degrees or intensities +of Life to consist in the progressive realization of this +tendency. The power which is acknowledged to exist, +wherever the realization is found, must subsist wherever +the tendency is manifested. The power which comes +forth and stirs abroad in the bird, must be latent in the +egg. I have shown, moreover, that this tendency to +<pb n="050"/><anchor id="Pg050"/> +individuate cannot be conceived without the opposite +tendency to connect, even as the centrifugal power supposes +the centripetal, or as the two opposite poles constitute +each other, and are the constituent acts of one and the +same power in the magnet. We might say that the life +of the magnet subsists in their union, but that it lives +(acts or manifests itself) in their strife. Again, if the +tendency be at once to individuate and to connect, to +detach, but so as either to retain or to reproduce attachment, +the individuation itself must be a tendency to the +ultimate production of the highest and most comprehensive +individuality. This must be the one great end of Nature, +her ultimate object, or by whatever other word we may +designate that something which bears to a final cause the +same relation that Nature herself bears to the Supreme +Intelligence. +</p> + +<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/> + +<p> +According to the plan I have prescribed for this inquisition, +we are now to seek for the highest law, or most +general form, under which this tendency acts, and then +to pursue the same process with this, as we have already +done with the tendency itself, namely, having stated the +law in its highest abstraction, to present it in the different +forms in which it appears and reappears in higher and +higher dignities. I restate the question. The tendency +having been ascertained, what is its most general law? +I answer—<emph>polarity</emph>, or the essential dualism of Nature, +arising out of its productive unity, and still tending to reaffirm +it, either as equilibrium, indifference, or identity. +In its <emph>productive power</emph>, of which the product is the only +measure, consists its incompatibility with mathematical +<pb n="051"/><anchor id="Pg051"/> +calculus. For the full applicability of an abstract science +ceases, the moment reality begins.<note place="foot"><p>For abstractions +are the conditions and only subject of all abstract +sciences. Thus the theorist (vide Dalton's Theory), who reduces the chemical +process to the positions of atoms, would doubtless thereby render chemistry +calculable, but that he commences by destroying the chemical process itself, +and substitutes for it a <hi rend='italic'>mote dance</hi> +of abstractions; for even the powers which +he appears to leave real, those of attraction and repulsion, he immediately +unrealizes by representing them as diverse and separable properties. We can +abstract the quantities and the quantitative motion from masses, passing over +or leaving for other sciences the question of what constitutes the masses, and +thus apply not to the masses themselves, but to the abstractions therefrom,—the +laws of geometry and universal arithmetic. And where the quantities +are the infallible signs of real powers, and our chief concern with the masses +is as <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">SIGNS</hi>, +sciences may be founded thereon of the highest use and dignity. +Such, for instance, is the sublime science of astronomy, having for its objects +the vast masses which <q>God placed in the firmament of the heaven to be for +<emph>signs</emph> and for seasons, for days and years.</q> For the whole +doctrine of physics may be reduced to three great divisions: First, +<emph>quantitative motion</emph>, which is +proportioned to the quantity of matter exclusively. This is the science of +weight or statics. Secondly, <emph>relative motion</emph>, as communicated +to bodies externally +by impact. This is the science of mechanics. Thirdly, <emph>qualitative motion</emph>, +or that which is accordant to properties of matter. And this is chemistry. +Now it is evident that the first two sciences presuppose that which forms the +exclusive object of the third, namely, quality; for all quantity in nature is +either itself derived, or at least derives its powers from some <emph>quality</emph>, +as that of weight, specific cohesion, hardness, &c.; and therefore the attempt +to reduce to the distances or impacts of atoms, under the assumptions of two +powers, which are themselves declared to be no more than mere general +terms for those quantities of motion and impact (the atom itself being a +fiction formed by abstraction, and in truth a third occult quality for the +purpose of explaining hardness and density), amounts to an attempt to +destroy chemistry itself, and at the same time to exclude the sole reality and +only positive contents of the very science into which that of chemistry is to +be degraded. Now what qualities are to chemistry, <emph>productiveness</emph> is to the +science of Life; and this being excluded, physiology or zoonomy would sink +into chemistry, chemistry by the same process into mechanics, while mechanics +themselves would lose the substantial principle, which, bending the +lower extreme towards its apex, produces the organic circle of the sciences, +and elevates them all into different arcs or stations of the one absolute +science of Life. +</p> +<p> +This explanation, which in appearance only is a digression, was indispensably +requisite to prevent the idea of polarity, which has been given as the +universal law of Life, from being misunderstood as a mere refinement on +those mechanical systems of physiology, which it has been my main object to +explode.</p></note> Life, then, we consider +as the copula, or the unity of thesis and antithesis, +position and counterposition,—Life itself being the positive +of both; as, on the other hand, the two counterpoints +are the necessary conditions of the <emph>manifestations</emph> of Life. +These, by the same necessity, unite in a synthesis; +which again, by the law of dualism, essential to all actual +existence, expands, or <emph>produces</emph> itself, from the point into +the <emph>line</emph>, in order again to converge, as the initiation of +the same productive process in some intenser form of +reality. Thus, in the identity of the two counter-powers, +Life <emph>sub</emph>sists; in their strife it <emph>con</emph>sists: and in their +reconciliation +<pb n="052"/><anchor id="Pg052"/> +it at once dies and is born again into a new +form, either falling back into the life of the whole, or +starting anew in the process of individuation. +</p> + +<p> +Whence shall we take our beginning? From Space, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">istud litigium +philosophorum</foreign>, which leaves the mind +equally dissatisfied, whether we deny or assert its real +existence. To make it wholly ideal, would be at the same +time to idealize all phenomena, and to undermine the +very conception of an external world. To make it real, +would be to assert the existence of something, with the +properties of nothing. It would far transcend the height +to which a physiologist must confine his flights, should +we attempt to reconcile this apparent contradiction. It +is the duty and the privilege of the theologian to demonstrate, +that <emph>space</emph> is the ideal organ by which the soul of +man perceives the <emph>omnipresence</emph> of the Supreme Reality, +as distinct from the works, which in him move, and live, +<pb n="053"/><anchor id="Pg053"/> +and have their being; while the equal mystery of <emph>Time</emph> +bears the same relation to his <emph>Eternity</emph>, or what is fully +equivalent, his Unity. +</p> + +<p> +Physiologically contemplated, Nature begins, proceeds, +and ends in a contradiction; for the moment of absolute +solution would be that in which Nature would cease to +be Nature, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> a scheme of ever-varying relations; and +physiology, in the ambitious attempt to solve phenomena +into absolute realities, would itself become a mere web of +verbal abstractions. +</p> + +<p> +But it is in strict connexion with our subject, that we +should make the universal <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">FORMS</hi> +as well as the not less universal <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">LAW</hi> +of Life, clear and intelligible in the example of <emph>Time</emph> +and <emph>Space</emph>, these being both the first specification +of the principle, and ever after its indispensable symbols. +First, a single act of self-inquiry will show the impossibility +of distinctly conceiving the one without some involution +of the other; either time expressed in space, in +the form of the mathematical line, or space within time, +as in the circle. But to form the first conception of a +<emph>real</emph> thing, we state both as one in the idea, <emph>duration</emph>. +The formula is: (A=B+B=A)=(A=A) or the oneness +of space and time, is the predicate of all <emph>real</emph> being. +</p> + +<p> +But as little can we conceive the oneness, except as +the mid-point producing itself on each side; that is, +manifesting itself on two opposite poles. Thus, from +identity we derive duality, and from both together we +obtain polarity, synthesis, indifference, predominance. +The line is Time + Space, under the predominance of +Time: Surface is Space + Time, under the predominance +of Space, while Line + Surface as the synthesis of +<pb n="054"/><anchor id="Pg054"/> +units, is the circle in the first dignity; to the sphere in +the second; and to the globe in the third. In short, +neither can the antagonists appear but as two forces of +one power, nor can the power be conceived by us but as +the equatorial point of the two counteracting forces; of +which the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">hypomochlion</foreign> +of the lever is as good an illustration +as anything can be that is thought of <emph>mechanically</emph> +only, and exclusively of life. To make it adequate, we +must substitute the idea of positive production for that of +rest, or mere neutralization. To the fancy alone it is the +null-point, or zero, but to the reason it is the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">punctum +saliens</foreign>, and the power itself in its eminence. Even in +these, the most abstract and universal forms of all thought +and perception—even in the ideas of time and space, we +slip under them, as it were, a <emph>substratum</emph>; for we cannot +think of them but as far as they are co-inherent, and +therefore as reciprocally the measures of each other. +Nor, again, can we finish the process without having the +idea of <emph>motion</emph> as its immediate product. Thus we say, +that time has one dimension, and imagine it to ourselves +as a line. But the line we have already proved to be the +productive synthesis of time, with space under the predominance +of time. If we exclude space by an abstract +assumption, the time remains as a spaceless point, and +represents the concentered power of unity and active +negation, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> retraction, +determination, and limit, <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ab +intra</foreign>. But if we assume the time as excluded, the line +vanishes, and we leave space dimensionless, an indistinguishable +ALL, and therefore the representative of absolute +weakness and formlessness, but, for that very reason, +of infinite capacity and formability. +</p> + +<pb n="055"/><anchor id="Pg055"/> + +<p> +We have been thus full and express on this subject, +because these simple ideas of time, space, and motion, of +length, breadth, and depth, are not only the simplest and +universal, but the necessary symbols of all philosophic +construction. They will be found the primary factors and +elementary forms of every calculus and of every diagram +in the algebra and geometry of a scientific physiology. +Accordingly, we shall recognise the same forms under +other names; but at each return more specific and intense; +and the whole process repeated with ascending +gradations of reality, <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">exempli gratiâ</foreign>: Time + space += motion; <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">T</hi><hi rend='italic'>m</hi> ++ space = line + breadth = depth; +depth + motion = force; +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">L</hi><hi rend='italic'>f</hi> ++ <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">B</hi><hi rend='italic'>f</hi> += <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">D</hi><hi rend='italic'>f</hi>; +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">LD</hi><hi rend='italic'>f</hi> + +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">BD</hi><hi rend='italic'>f</hi> = +attraction + repulsion = gravitation; and so +on, even till they pass into outward phenomena, and form +the intermediate link between productive powers and fixed +products in light, heat, and electricity. If we pass to the +construction of matter, we find it as the product, or +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">tertium aliud</foreign>, +of antagonist powers of repulsion and +attraction. Remove these powers, and the conception of +matter vanishes into space—conceive repulsion only, and +you have the same result. For infinite repulsion, uncounteracted +and alone, is tantamount to infinite, dimensionless +diffusion, and this again to infinite weakness; viz., +to space. Conceive attraction alone, and as an infinite +contraction, its product amounts to the absolute point, +viz., to time. Conceive the synthesis of both, and you +have matter as a fluxional antecedent, which, in the very +act of formation, passes into body by its gravity, and yet +in all bodies it still remains as their mass, which, being +exclusively calculable under the law of gravitation, gives +<pb n="056"/><anchor id="Pg056"/> +rise, as we before observed, to the science of statics, most +improperly called celestial mechanics. +</p> + +<p> +In strict consistence with the same philosophy which, +instead of considering the powers of bodies to have been +miraculously stuck into a prepared and pre-existing +matter, as pins into a pin-cushion, conceives the powers +as the productive factors, and the body or phenomenon as +the fact, product, or fixture; we revert again to potentiated +length in the power of magnetism; to surface in +the power of electricity; and to the synthesis of both, or +potentiated depth, in constructive, that is, chemical +affinity. But while the two factors are as poles to each +other, each factor has likewise its own poles, and thus in +the simple cross— +</p> + +<p> +With <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">M M</hi>, the magnetic line, running from top +to bottom, with <hi rend='italic'>f f</hi> its northern +pole, or pole of attraction; and <hi rend='italic'>m m</hi> its south, or pole of +repulsion, and <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">E E</hi>, running from left to +right, one of the lines that spring from each +point of M M, with its east, or pole of contraction, and +<hi rend='italic'>d</hi> its west, or pole of diffluence and expansion—we have +presented to us the universal quadruplicity, or four +elemental forms of power; in the endless proportions and +<pb n="057"/><anchor id="Pg057"/> +modifications of which, the innumerable offspring of all-bearing +Nature consist. Wisely docile to the suggestions +of Nature herself, the ancients significantly expressed these +forces under the names of earth, water, air, and fire; not +meaning any tangible or visible substance so generalized, +but the powers predominant, and, as it were, the living +basis of each, which no chemical decomposition can ever +present to the senses, were it only that their interpenetration +and co-inherence first constitutes them sensible, +and is the condition and meaning of a—<emph>thing</emph>. Already +our more truly philosophical naturalists (Ritter, for +instance) have begun to generalize the four great elements +of chemical nomenclature, carbon, azote, oxygen, and +hydrogen: the two former as the positive and negative +pole of the magnetic axis, or as the power of fixity and +mobility; and the two latter as the opposite poles, or plus +and minus states of cosmical electricity, as the powers of +contraction and dilatation, or of comburence and combustibility. +These powers are to each other as longitude to +latitude, and the poles of each relatively as north to south, +and as east to west. For surely the reader will find no distrust +in a system only because Nature, ever consistent with herself, +presents us everywhere with harmonious and accordant +symbols of her consistent doctrines. Nothing would be +more easy than, by the ordinary principles of sound logic +and common sense, to demonstrate the impossibility and +expose the absurdity of the corpuscularian or mechanic +system, or than to prove the intenable nature of any intermediate +system. But we cannot force any man into an +insight or intuitive possession of the true philosophy, +because we cannot give him abstraction, intellectual +<pb n="058"/><anchor id="Pg058"/> +intuition, or constructive imagination; because we cannot +organize for him an eye that can see, an ear that can listen +to, or a heart that can feel, the harmonies of Nature, or +recognise in her endless forms, the thousand-fold realization +of those simple and majestic laws, which yet in their +absoluteness can be discovered only in the recesses of his +own spirit,—not by that man, therefore, whose imaginative +powers have been <emph>ossified</emph> by the continual reaction +and assimilating influences of mere <emph>objects</emph> on his mind, +and who is a prisoner to his own eye and its reflex, the +passive fancy!—not by him in whom an unbroken familiarity +with the organic world, as if it were mechanical, +with the sensitive, but as if it were insensate, has engendered +the coarse and hard spirit of a sorcerer. The former +is unable, the latter unwilling, to master the absolute pre-requisites. +There is neither hope nor occasion for him <q>to +cudgel his brains about it, he has no feeling of the business.</q> +If he do not see the necessity from without, if he +have not learned the possibility from within, of interpenetration, +of total intussusception, of the existence of all in +each as the condition of Nature's unity and substantiality, +and of the latency under the predominance of some one +power, wherein subsists her life and its endless variety, as +he must be, by habitual slavery to the eye, or its reflex, +the passive fancy, under the influences of the corpuscularian +philosophy, he has so paralysed his imaginative +powers as to be unable—or by that hardness and heart-hardening +spirit of contempt, which is sure to result from +a perpetual commune with the lifeless, he has so far +debased his inward being—as to be unwilling to comprehend +the pre-requisite, he must be content, while standing +<pb n="059"/><anchor id="Pg059"/> +thus at the threshold of philosophy, to receive the results, +though he cannot be admitted to the deliberation—in +other words, to act upon <emph>rules</emph> which he is incapable of +understanding as <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">LAWS</hi>, +and to reap the harvest with the +sharpened iron for which others have delved for him in +the mine. +</p> + +<p> +It is not improbable that there may exist, and even be +discovered, higher forms and more akin to Life than those +of magnetism, electricity, and constructive (or chemical) +affinity appear to be, even in their finest known influences. +It is not improbable that we may hereafter find ourselves +justified in revoking certain of the latter, and unappropriating +them to a yet unnamed triplicity; or that, being +thus assisted, we may obtain a qualitative instead of a +quantitative insight into vegetable animation, as distinct +from animal, and that of the insect world from both. But +in the present state of science, the magnetic, electric, and +chemical powers are the last and highest of inorganic +nature. These, therefore, we assume as presenting themselves +again to us, in their next metamorphosis, as reproduction +(<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> growth and identity of the whole, amid +the change or flux of all the parts), irritability and sensibility; +reproduction corresponding to magnetism, irritability +to electricity, and sensibility to constructive chemical +affinity. +</p> + +<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/> + +<p> +But before we proceed further, it behoves us to answer +the objections contained in the following passage, or withdraw +ourselves in time from the bitter contempt in which +it would involve us. Acting under such a necessity, we +need not apologise for the length of the quotation. +</p> + +<pb n="060"/><anchor id="Pg060"/> + +<p> +1. <q>If,</q> says Mr. Lawrence, <q>the properties of living +matter are to be explained in this way, why should not +we adopt the same plan with physical properties, and +account for gravitation, or chemical affinity, by the supposition +of appropriate subtile fluids? Why does the irritability +of a muscle need such an explanation, if explanation +it can be called, more than the elective attraction of +a salt?</q> +</p> + +<p> +2. <q>To make the matter more intelligible, this vital +principle is compared to magnetism, to electricity, and to +galvanism; or it is roundly stated to be oxygen. 'Tis +like a camel, or like a whale, or like what you please.</q> +</p> + +<p> +3. <q>You have only to grant that the phenomena of +the sciences just alluded to depend on extremely fine and +invisible fluids, superadded to the matters in which they +are exhibited, and to allow further that Life, and magnetic, +galvanic, and electric phenomena correspond perfectly; +the existence of a subtile matter of Life will then be a very +probable inference.</q> +</p> + +<p> +4. <q>On this illustration you will naturally remark, +that the existence of the magnetic, electric, and galvanic +fluids, which is offered as a proof of the existence of a +vital fluid, is as much a matter of doubt as that of the +vital fluid itself.</q> +</p> + +<p> +5. <q>It is singular, also, that the vital principle should +be like both magnetism and electricity, when these two +are not like each other.</q> +</p> + +<pb n="061"/><anchor id="Pg061"/> + +<p> +6. <q>It would have been interesting to have had this +illustration prosecuted a little further. We should have +been pleased to learn whether the human body is more +like a loadstone, a voltaic pile, or an electrical machine; +whether the organs are to be regarded as Leyden jars, +magnetic needles, or batteries.</q> +</p> + +<p> +7. <q>The truth is, there is no resemblance, no analogy, +between Electricity and Life; the two orders of phenomena +are completely distinct; they are incommensurable. +Electricity illustrates life no more than life illustrates +electricity.</q><note place="foot">I apprehend that +by men of a certain school it would be deemed no +demerit, even though they should never have condescended to look into any +system of Aristotelian logic. It is enough for these gentlemen that they are +experimentalists! Let it not, however, be supposed that they make more +experiments than their neighbours, who consider induction as a means and +not an end; or have stronger motives for making them, unless it can be believed +that Tycho Brähe must have been urged to repeat his sweeps of the +heavens with greater accuracy and industry than Herschel, for no better reason +than that the former flourished before the theory of gravitation was perfected. +No, but they have the honour of being mere experimentalists! If, however, +we may not refer to logic, we may to common sense and common experience. +It is not improbable, however, that they have both read and studied a book of +hypothetical psychology on the assumptions of the crudest materialism, stolen +too without acknowledgment from our David Hartley's essay on Man, which +is well known under the whimsical name of Condillac's Logic. But, as Mr. +Brand has lately observed, <q>the French are a queer people,</q> and we should +not be at all surprised to hear of a book of fresh importation from Paris, on +determinate proportions in chemistry, announced by the author in his title-page +as a new and improved system either of arithmetic or geometry.</note> +</p> + +<p> +To avoid unnecessary description, I shall refer to the +passages by the numbers affixed to them, for that purpose, +in the margin. +</p> + +<pb n="062"/><anchor id="Pg062"/> + +<p> +In reply to No. 1, I ask whether, in the nature of the +mind, illustration and explanation must not of necessity +proceed from the lower to the higher? or whether a boy +is to be taught his addition, subtraction, multiplication, +and division, by the highest branches of algebraic analysis? +Is there any better way of systematic teaching, than that +of illustrating each new step, or having each new step illustrated +to him by its identity in kind with the step the +next below it? though it be the only mode in which this +objection can be answered, yet it seems affronting to remind +the objector, of rules so simple as that the complex +must even be illustrated by the more simple, or the less +scrutible by that which is more subject to our examination. +</p> + +<p> +In reply to No. 2, I first refer to the author's eulogy +on Mr. Hunter, p. 163, in which he is justly extolled for +having <q>surveyed the whole <emph>system</emph> of organized beings, +from plants to man:</q> of course, therefore, <emph>as</emph> a <emph>system</emph>; +and therefore under some <emph>one common law</emph>. Now in the +very same sense, and no other, than that in which the +writer himself by implication compares himself as a man +to the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">dermestes typographicus</foreign>, +or the <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">fucus scorpioides</foreign>, +do I compare the principle of Life to magnetism, electricity, +and constructive affinity,—or rather to that power +to which the two former are the thesis and antithesis, the +latter the synthesis. But if to compare involve the sense +of its etymon, and involve the sense of parity, I utterly +deny that I do at all compare them; and, in truth, in +no conceivable sense of the word is it applicable, any +more than a geometrician can be affirmed to compare a +polygon to a point, because he generates the line out of +the point. The writer attributes to a philosophy essentially +<pb n="063"/><anchor id="Pg063"/> +vital the barrenness of the mechanic system, with +which alone his imagination has been familiarised, and +which, as hath been justly observed by a contemporary +writer, is contradistinguished from the former principally +in this respect; that demanding for every mode and act +of existence real or possible visibility, it knows only of +distance and nearness, composition (or rather compaction) +and decomposition, in short, the relations of unproductive +particles to each other; so that in every instance the result +is the exact sum of the component qualities, as in +arithmetical addition. This is the philosophy of Death, +and only of a dead nature can it hold good. In Life, +and in the view of a vital philosophy, the two component +counter-powers actually interpenetrate each other, and +generate a higher third, including both the former, <q>ita +tamen ut sit alia et major.</q> +</p> + +<p> +As a complete answer to No. 3, I refer the reader to +many passages in the preceding and following pages, in +which, on far higher and more demonstrative grounds +than the mechanic system can furnish, I have exposed the +unmeaningness and absurdity of these finer fluids, as applied +even to electricity itself; unless, indeed, they are +assumed as its product. But in addition I beg leave to +remind the author, that it is incomparably more agreeable +to all experience to originate the formative process in the +<emph>fluid</emph>, whether fine or gross, than in corporeal <emph>atoms</emph>, in +which we are not only deserted by all experience, but contradicted +by the primary conception of body itself. +</p> + +<p> +Equally inapplicable is No. 4: and of No. 5 I can +only repeat, first, that I do not make Life <emph>like</emph> magnetism, +or <emph>like</emph> electricity; that the difference between +<pb n="064"/><anchor id="Pg064"/> +magnetism and electricity, and the powers illustrated by +them, is an essential part of my system, but that the +animal Life of man is the identity of all three. To whatever +other system this objection may apply, it is utterly +irrelevant to that which I have here propounded: though +from the narrow limits prescribed to me, it has been propounded +with an inadequacy painful to my own feelings. +</p> + +<p> +The ridicule in No. 6 might be easily retorted; but as +it could prove nothing, I will leave it where I found it, in +a page where nothing is proved. +</p> + +<p> +A similar remark might be sufficient for the bold and +blank assertion (No. 7) with which the extract concludes; +but that I feel some curiosity to discover what meaning +the author attaches to the term analogy. Analogy implies +a difference in sort, and not merely in degree; and it is +the sameness of the end, with the difference of the means, +which constitutes analogy. No one would say the lungs +of a man were analogous to the lungs of a monkey, but +any one might say that the gills of fish and the spiracula +of insects are analogous to lungs. Now if there be any +philosophers who have asserted that electricity as electricity +is the <emph>same</emph> as Life, for that reason they cannot be <emph>analogous</emph> +to each other; and as no man in his senses, philosopher +or not, is capable of imagining that the lightning +which destroys a sheep, was a means to the same end with +the principle of its organization; for this reason, too, the +two powers cannot be represented as analogous. Indeed +I know of no system in which the word, as thus applied, +would admit of an endurable meaning, but that which +teaches us, that a mass of marrow in the skull is analogous +to the rational soul, which Plato and Bacon, equally +<pb n="065"/><anchor id="Pg065"/> +with the <q>poor Indian,</q> believe themselves to have received +from the Supreme Reason. +</p> + +<p> +It would be blindness not to see, or affectation to pretend +not to see, the work at which these sarcasms were +levelled. The author of that work is abundantly able to +defend his own opinions; yet I should be ambitious to +address <emph>him</emph> at the close of the contest in the lines of the +great Roman poet: +</p> + +<lg> +<l><q rend="pre">Et nos tela, Pater, ferrumque haud debile dextrâ</q></l> +<l><q rend="post">Spargimus, et nostro sequitur, de vulnere sanguis.</q></l> +</lg> + +<p> +In Mr. Abernethy's Lecture on the Theory of Life, it +is impossible not to see a presentiment of a great truth. +He has, if I may so express myself, caught it in the +breeze: and we seem to hear the first glad opening and +shout with which he springs forward to the pursuit. But +it is equally evident that the prey has not been followed +through its doublings and windings, or driven +out from its brakes and covers into full and open view. +Many of the least tenable phrases may be fairly interpreted +as illustrations, rather than precise exponents of +the author's meaning; at least, while they remain as a +mere suggestion or annunciation of his ideas, and till he +has expanded them over a larger sphere, it would be unjust +to infer the contrary. But it is not with men, however +strongly their professional merits may entitle them to +reverence, that my concern is at present. If the opinions +here supported are the same with those of Mr. Abernethy, +I rejoice in his authority. If they are different, I shall +wait with an anxious interest for an exposition of that +difference. +</p> + +<pb n="066"/><anchor id="Pg066"/> + +<p> +Having reasserted that I no more confound magnetism +with electricity, or the chemical process, than the +mathematician confounds length with breadth, or either +with depth; I think it sufficient to add that there are +two views of the subject, the former of which I do not +believe attributable to any philosopher, while both are +alike disclaimed by me as forming any part of my views. +The first is that which is supposed to consider electricity +identical with life, as it subsists in organized bodies. The +other considers electricity as everywhere present, and +penetrating all bodies under the image of a subtile fluid +or substance, which, in Mr. Abernethy's inquiry, I +regard as little more than a mere diagram on his slate, +for the purpose of fixing the attention on the intellectual +conception, or as a possible <emph>product</emph>, (in which case electricity +must be a composite power,) or at worst, as words +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">quæ humana incuria fudit</foreign>. +This which, in inanimate Nature, is manifested now as magnetism, now as electricity, +and now as chemical agency, is supposed, on entering an +organized body, to constitute its vital <emph>principle</emph>, something +in the same manner as the steam becomes the <emph>mechanic</emph> +power of the steam-engine, in <emph>consequence</emph> of its compression +by the steam-engine; or as the breeze that murmurs +indistinguishably in the forest becomes the element, the +substratum, of melody in the Æolian harp, and of consummate +harmony in the organ. Now this hypothesis is as +directly opposed to my view as supervention is to evolution, +inasmuch as I hold the organized body itself, in all +its marvellous contexture, to be the <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">PRODUCT</hi> +and representant of the power which is here supposed to have +supervened to it. So far from admitting a <emph>transfer</emph>, I +<pb n="067"/><anchor id="Pg067"/> +do not admit it even in electricity itself, or in the phenomena +universally called electrical; among other points I +ground my explanation of remote sympathy on the directly +contrary supposition. +</p> + +<p> +But my opinions will be best explained by a rapid +exemplification in the processes of Nature, from the first +rudiments of individualized life in the lowest classes of its +two great poles, the vegetable and animal creation, to its +crown and consummation in the human body; thus illustrating +at once the unceasing <emph>polarity of life, as the form +of its process, and its tendency to progressive individuation +as the law of its direction</emph>. +</p> + +<p> +Among the conceptions, of the mere ideal character of +which the philosopher is well aware, and which yet become +necessary from the necessity of assuming a beginning; +the original fluidity of the planet is the chief. Under +some form or other it is expressed or implied in every +system of cosmogony and even of geology, from Moses to +Thales, and from Thales to Werner. This assumption +originates in the same law of mind that gave rise to the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">prima materia</foreign> +of the Peripatetic school. In order to +<emph>comprehend</emph> and <emph>explain</emph> the <emph>forms</emph> of things, +we must imagine a state <emph>antecedent</emph> to form. A chaos of heterogeneous +substances, such as our Milton has described, is +not only an <emph>impossible</emph> state (for this may be equally true +of every other attempt), but it is <emph>palpably</emph> impossible. It +presupposes, moreover, the thing it is intended to solve; +and makes <emph>that</emph> an <emph>effect</emph> which had been called in as the +explanatory <emph>cause</emph>. The requisite and only serviceable +fiction, therefore, is the representation of +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">CHAOS</hi> as one +<pb n="068"/><anchor id="Pg068"/> +vast homogeneous drop! In this sense it may be even +justified, as an appropriate symbol of the great fundamental +truth that all things spring from, and subsist in, +the endless strife between indifference and difference. The +whole history of Nature is comprised in the specification +of the transitional states from the one to the other. The +symbol only is fictitious: the thing signified is not only +grounded in truth—it is the law and actuating principle +of all other truths, whether physical or intellectual. +</p> + +<p> +Now, by magnetism in its widest sense, I mean the +first and simplest <emph>differential</emph> act of Nature, as the power +which works in <emph>length</emph>, and produces the first distinction +between the indistinguishable by the generation of a <emph>line</emph>. +Relatively, therefore, to fluidity, that is, to matter, the +parts of which cannot be distinguished from each other by +figure, magnetism is the power of fixity; but, relatively to +itself, magnetism, like every other power in Nature, is +designated by its opposite poles, and must be represented +as the magnetic axis, the northern pole of which signifies +rest, attraction, fixity, coherence, or hardness; the element +of <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">EARTH</hi> +in the nomenclature of <emph>observation</emph> and the +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">CARBONIC</hi> +principle in that of <emph>experiment</emph>; while the southern +pole, as its antithesis, represents mobility, repulsion, +incoherence, and fusibility; the element of air in the +nomenclature of observation (that is, of Nature as it +appears to us when unquestioned by art), and azote or +nitrogen in the nomenclature of experiment (that is, of +Nature in the state so beautifully allegorized in the +Homeric fable of Proteus bound down, and forced to +answer by Ulysses, after having been pursued through all +<pb n="069"/><anchor id="Pg069"/> +his metamorphoses into his ultimate form.<note place="foot">Such is the +interpretation given by Lord Bacon. To which of the two +gigantic intellects, the poet's or philosophic commentator's, the allegory belongs, +I shall not presume to decide. Its extraordinary beauty and appropriateness +remains the same in either case.</note>) That nothing +real does or can exist corresponding to either pole <emph>exclusively</emph>, +is involved in the very definition of a <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">THING</hi> +as the +synthesis of opposing energies. That a thing <emph>is</emph>, is owing +to the co-inherence therein of any two powers; but that +it is <emph>that</emph> particular thing arises from the proportions in +which these powers are co-present, either as predominance +or as reciprocal neutralization; but under the modification +of twofold power to which magnetism itself is, as the thesis +to its antithesis. +</p> + +<p> +The correspondent, in the world of the senses, to the +magnetic axis, exists in the series of metals. The metalleity, +as the universal base of the planet, is a necessary +deduction from the principles of the system. From the +infusible, though evaporable, diamond to nitrogen itself, +the metallic nature of which has been long suspected by +chemists, though still under the mistaken notion of an +oxyde, we trace a series of metals from the maximum of +coherence to positive fluidity, in all ordinary temperatures, +we mean. Though, in point of fact, cold itself is but a +superinduction of the one pole, or, what amounts to the +same thing, the subtraction of the other, under the modifications +afore described; and therefore are the metals +indecomposible, because they are themselves the decompositions +of the metallic axis, in all its degrees of longitude +and latitude. Thus the substance of the planet from which +it <emph>is</emph>, is metallic; while that which is ever <emph>becoming</emph>, is in +<pb n="070"/><anchor id="Pg070"/> +like manner produced through the perpetual modification +of the first by the opposite forces of the second; that is, +by the principle of contraction and difference at the eastern +extreme—the element of fire, or the oxygen of the chemists; +and by the elementary power of dilatation, or +universality at its western extreme—the <foreign lang="el">ὑδωρ ἐν ὑδατι</foreign> +of the ancients, and the hydrogen of the laboratory. +</p> + +<p> +It has been before noticed that the progress of Nature +is more truly represented by the ladder, than by the suspended +chain, and that she expands as by concentric circles. +This is, indeed, involved in the very conception of individuation, +whether it be applied to the different species or to +the individuals. In what manner the evident interspace +is reconciled with the equally evident continuity of +the life of Nature, is a problem that can be solved by those +minds alone, which have intuitively learnt that the whole +<emph>actual</emph> life of Nature originates in the existence, and consists +in the perpetual reconciliation, and as perpetual resurgency +of the primary contradiction, of which universal polarity is +the result and the exponent. From the first moment of +the differential impulse—(the primæval chemical epoch of +the Wernerian school)—when Nature, by the tranquil +deposition of crystals, prepared, as it were, the fulcrum +of her after-efforts, from this, her first, and in part <emph>irrevocable</emph>, +self-contraction, we find, in each ensuing production, +more and more tendency to independent existence +in the increasing multitude of strata, and in the relics of +the lowest orders, first of vegetable and then of animal +life. In the schistous formations, which we must here +assume as in great measure the residua of vegetable creations, +that have sunk back into the universal life, and in +<pb n="071"/><anchor id="Pg071"/> +the later predominant calcareous masses, which are the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">caput mortuum</foreign> +of animalized existence, we ascend from +the laws of attraction and repulsion, as united in gravity, +to magnetism, electricity, and constructive power, till we +arrive at the point representative of a new and far higher +intensity. For from this point flow, as in opposite directions, +the two streams of vegetation and animalization, +the former characterised by the predominance of magnetism +in its highest power, as reproduction, the other by electricity +intensified—as irritability, in like manner. The +vegetable and animal world are the thesis and antithesis, +or the opposite poles of organic life. We are not, therefore, +to seek in either for analogies to the other, but for +counterpoints. On the same account, the nearer the +common source, the greater the likeness; the farther the +remove, the greater the opposition. At the extreme limits +of inorganic Nature, we may detect a dim and obscure +prophecy of her ensuing process in the twigs and rude +semblances that occur in crystallization of some of the +copper ores, and in the well-known <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">arbor +Dianæ</foreign>, and <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">arbor +Veneris</foreign>. These latter Ritter has already ably explained +by considering the oblique branches and their acute +angles as the result of magnetic repulsion, from the presentation +of the same poles, &c. In the <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">CORALS</hi> and +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">CONCHYLIA</hi>, the +whole act and purpose of their existence +seems to be that of connecting the animal with the inorganic +world by the perpetual formation of calcareous +earth. For the corals are nothing but polypi, which are +characterised by still passing away and dissolving into the +earth, which they had previously excreted, as if they were +the first feeble effort of detachment. The power seems to +<pb n="072"/><anchor id="Pg072"/> +step forward from out the inorganic world only to fall +back again upon it, still, however, under a new form, and +under the predominance of the more active pole of magnetism. +The product must have the same connexion, +therefore, with azote, which the first rudiments of vegetation +have with carbon: the one and the other exist not +for their own sakes, but in order to produce the conditions +best fitted for the production of higher forms. In the +polypi, corallines, &c., individuality is in its first dawn; +there is the same shape in them all, and a multitude of +animals form, as it were, a common animal. And as the +individuals run into each other, so do the different genera. +They likewise pass into each other so indistinguishably, +that the whole order forms a very network. +</p> + +<p> +As the corals approach the conchylia, this interramification +decreases. The tubipora forms the transition to +the serpula; for the characteristic of all zoophytes, namely, +the star shape of their openings, here disappears, and the +tubiporæ are distinguished from the rest of the corals by +this very circumstance, that the hollow calcareous pipes +are placed side by side, without interbranching. In the +serpula they have already become separate. How feeble +this attempt is to individuate, is most clearly shown in +their mode of generation. Notwithstanding the report +of Professor Pallas, it still remains doubtful whether +there exists any actual copulation among the polypi. +The mere existence of a polypus suffices for its endless +multiplication. They may be indefinitely propagated by +cuttings, so languid is the power of individuation, so +boundless that of reproduction. But the delicate jelly +dissolves, as lightly as it was formed, into its own product, +<pb n="073"/><anchor id="Pg073"/> +and it is probable that the Polynesia, as a future continent, +will be the gigantic monument, not so much of their +life, as of the life of Nature in them. Here we may +observe the first instance of that general law, according +to which Nature still assimilates her extreme points. In +these, her first and feeblest attempts to animalize organization, +it is latent, because undeveloped, and merely +potential; while, in the human brain, the last and most +consummate of her combined energies, it is again lost or +disguised in the subtlety<note place="foot">The Anatomical +Demonstrations of the Brain, by Dr. Spurzheim, which +I have seen, presented to me the most satisfactory proof of this.</note> +and multiplicity of its evolution. +</p> + +<p> +In the class immediately above (Mollusca) we find the +individuals separate, a more determinate form, and in the +higher species, the rudiment of nerves, as the first scarce +distinguishable impress and exponent of sensibility; still, +however, the vegetative reproduction is the predominant +form; and even the nerves <q>which float in the same cavity +with the other viscera,</q> are probably subservient to it, +and extend their power in the increased intensity of the +reproductive force. Still prevails the transitional state +from the fluid to the solid; and the jelly, that rudiment +in which all animals, even the noblest, have their commencement; +constitutes the whole sphere of these rudimental +animals. +</p> + +<p> +In the snail and muscle, the residuum of the coral reappears, +but refined and ennobled into a part of the animal. +The whole class is characterised by the separation of the +fluid from the solid. On the one side, a gelatinous semi-fluid; +on the other side, an entirely inorganic, though +often a most exquisitely mechanised, calcareous excretion. +</p> + + +<pb n="074"/><anchor id="Pg074"/> + +<p> +Animalization in general is, we know, contra-distinguished +from vegetables in general by the predominance of azote +in the chemical composition, and of irritability in the +organic process. But in this and the foregoing classes, +as being still near the common equator, or the punctum +indifferentiæ, the carbonic principle still asserts its claims, +and the force of reproduction struggles with that of +irritability. In the unreconciled strife of these two forces +consists the character of the <emph>Vermes</emph>, which appear to be +the preparatory step for the next class. Hence the difficulties +which have embarrassed the naturalists, who adopt +the Linnæan classification, in their endeavours to discover +determinate characters of distinction between the vermes +and the insecta. +</p> + +<p> +But no sooner have we passed the borders, than endless +variety of form and the bold display of instincts announce, +that Nature has succeeded. She has created the intermediate +link between the vegetable world, as the product +of the reproductive or magnetic power, and the animal as +the exponent of sensibility. Those that live and are +nourished, on the bodies of other animals, are comparatively +few, with little diversity of shape, and almost all +of the same natural family. These we may pass by as +exceptions. But the insect world, taken at large, appears +as an intenser life, that has struggled itself loose and +become emancipated from vegetation, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">Floræ liberti, et +libertini!</foreign> If for the sake of a moment's relaxation we +might indulge a Darwinian flight, though at the risk of +provoking a smile, (not, I hope, a frown) from sober +judgment, we might imagine the life of insects an apotheosis +of the petals, stamina, and nectaries, round which +<pb n="075"/><anchor id="Pg075"/> +they flutter, or of the stems and pedicles, to which they +adhere. Beyond and above this step, Nature seems to act +with a sort of free agency, and to have formed the classes +from choice and bounty. Had she proceeded no further, +yet the whole vegetable, together with the whole insect +creation, would have formed within themselves an entire +and independent system of Life. All plants have insects, +most commonly each genus of vegetables its appropriate +genera of insects; and so reciprocally interdependent and +necessary to each other are they, that we can almost as +little think of vegetation without insects, as of insects +without vegetation. Though probably the mere likeness +of <emph>shape</emph>, in the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">papilio</foreign>, +and the papilionaceous plants, suggested +the idea of the former, as the latter in a state of +detachment, to our late poetical and theoretical brother; +yet a something, that approaches to a graver plausibility, +is given to this fancy of a flying blossom; when we reflect +how many plants depend upon insects for their fructification. +Be it remembered, too, that with few and very +obscure exceptions, the irritable power and an analogon +of voluntary motion first dawn on us in the vegetable +world, in the stamina, and anthers, at the period of impregnation. +Then, as if Nature had been encouraged by +the success of the first experiment, both the one and the +other appear as predominance and general character. +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">The insect world is the exponent of irritability, +as the vegetable is of reproduction.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +With the ascent in power, the intensity of individuation +keeps even pace; and from this we may explain all the +characteristic distinctions between this class and that of +the vermes. The almost homogeneous jelly of the animalcula +<pb n="076"/><anchor id="Pg076"/> +infusoria became, by a vital oxydation, granular +in the polypi. This granulation formed itself into distinct +organs in the molluscæ; while for the snails, which are the +next step, the animalized lime, that seemed the sole final +cause of the life of the polypi, assumes all the characters of +an ulterior purpose. Refined into a horn-like substance, it +becomes to the snails the substitute of an organ, and their +outward skeleton. Yet how much more manifold and +definite, the organization of an insect, than that of the +preceding class, the patient researches of Swammerdam +and Lyonnet have evinced, to the delight and admiration +of every reflecting mind. +</p> + +<p> +In the insect, for the first time, we find the distinct +commencement of a separation between the exponents of +sensibility and those of irritability; <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> between the +<emph>nervous</emph> and the <emph>muscular</emph> system. The latter, however, +asserts its pre-eminence throughout. The prodigal provision +of organs for the purposes of respiration, and the +marvellous powers which numerous tribes of insects possess, +of accommodating the most corrupted airs, for a +longer or shorter period, to the support of their excitability, +would of itself lead us to presume, that here the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">vis +irritabilis</foreign> is the reigning dynasty. There is here no confluence +of nerves into one reservoir, as evidence of the +independent existence of sensibility <emph>as</emph> sensibility;—and +therefore no counterpoise of a vascular system, as a distinct +exponent of the irritable pole. The whole muscularity of +these animals, is the organ of irritability; and the nerves +themselves are probably feeders of the motory power. +The petty rills of sensibility flow into the full expanse of +irritability, and there lose themselves. The nerves appertaining +<pb n="077"/><anchor id="Pg077"/> +to the senses, on the other hand, are indistinct, +and comparatively unimportant. The multitude of immovable +eyes appear not so much conductors of light, as +its ultimate recipient. We are almost tempted to believe +that they constitute, rather than subserve, their sensorium. +</p> + +<p> +These eye-facets form the sense of light, rather than +organs of seeing. Their almost paradoxical number at +least, and the singularity of their forms, render it probable +that they impel the animal by some modification of its +irritability, herein likewise containing a striking analogy +to the known influence of light on plants, than as excitements +of sensibility. The sense that is nearest akin to +irritability, and which alone resides in the muscular system, +is that of touch, or feeling. This, therefore, is the first +sense that emerges. Being confined to absolute contact, +it occupies the lowest rank; but for that very reason it is +the ground of all the other senses, which act, according +to the ratio of their ascent, at still increasing distances, +and become more and more ideal, from the tentacles of +the polypus, to the human eye; which latter might be defined +the outward organ of the identity, or at least of the +indifference, of the real and ideal. But as the calcareous +residuum of the lowest class approaches to the nature of +horn in the snail, so the cumbrous shell of the snail has +been transformed into polished and moveable plates of defensive +armour in the insect. Thus, too, the same power +of progressive individuation articulates the tentacula of +the polypus and holothuria into antennæ; thereby manifesting +the full emersion and eminency of irritability as a +power which acts in, and gives its own character to, that +of reproduction. The least observant must have noticed +<pb n="078"/><anchor id="Pg078"/> +the lightning-like rapidity with which the insect tribes +devour and eliminate their food, as by an instinctive necessity, +and in the least degree for the purposes of the +animal's own growth or enlargement. The same predominance +of irritability, and at the same time a new start +in individuation, is shown in the reproductive power as +generation. There is now a regular projection, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ab intra +ad extra</foreign>, for which neither sprouts nor cuttings can any +longer be the substitutes. We have not space for further +detail; but there is one point too strikingly illustrative +and even confirmative of the proposed system, to be omitted +altogether. We mean the curious fact, that the same +characteristic tendency, <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ad extra</foreign>, which in the males and +females of certain insect tribes is realized in the functions +of generation, conception, and parturiency, manifests and +expands itself in the <emph>sexless</emph> individuals (which are always +in this case the great majority of the species), as instincts +of art, and in the construction of works completely detached +and inorganic; while the geometric regularity of +these works, which bears an analogy to crystallization, is +demonstrably no more than the necessary result of uniform +action in a compressed multitude. +</p> + +<p> +Again, as the insect world, averaging the whole, comes +nearest to plants, (whose very essence is reproduction,) +in the multitude of their germs; so does it resemble +plants in the sufficiency of a single impregnation for the +evolution of myriads of detached lives. Even so, the metamorphoses +of insects, from the egg to the maggot and +caterpillar, and from these, through the nympha and +aurelia into the perfect insect, are but a more individuated +and intenser form of a similar transformation of the plant +<pb n="079"/><anchor id="Pg079"/> +from the seed-leaflets, or cotyledons, through the stalk, +the leaves, and the calyx, into the perfect flower, the +various colours of which seem made for the reflection of +light, as the antecedent grade to the burnished scales, +and scale-like eyes of the insect. Nevertheless, with all +this seeming prodigality of organic power, the whole tendency +is <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ad extra</foreign>, +and the life of insects, as electricity in +the quadrate, acts chiefly on the superficies of their bodies, +to which we may add the negative proof arising from the +absence of sensibility. It is well known, that the two +halves of a divided insect have continued to perform, or +attempt, each their separate functions, the trunkless head +feeding with its accustomed voracity, while the headless +trunk has exhibited its appropriate excitability to the +sexual influence. +</p> + +<p> +The intropulsive force, that sends the ossification inward +as to the centre, is reserved for a yet higher step, +and this we find embodied in the class of <emph>fishes</emph>. Even +here, however, the process still seems imperfect, and (as +it were) initiatory. The skeleton has left the surface, +indeed, but the bones approach to the nature of gristle. +To feel the truth of this, we need only compare the most +perfect bone of a fish with the thigh-bones of the mammalia, +and the distinctness with which the latter manifest +the co-presence of the <emph>magnetic</emph> power in its solid parietes, +of the <emph>electrical</emph> in its branching arteries, and of the +third greatest power, viz., the <emph>qualitative</emph> and interior, +in its marrow. The senses of fish are more distinct +than those of insects. Thus, the intensity of its sense of +smell has been placed beyond doubt, and rises in the extent +of its sphere far beyond the irritable sense, or the +<pb n="080"/><anchor id="Pg080"/> +feeling, in insects. I say the <emph>feeling</emph>, not the touch; +for the touch seems, as it were, a supervention to the +feeling, a perfection <emph>given</emph> to it by the reaction of the +higher powers. As the feeling of the insect, in subtlety +and virtual distance, rises above the solitary sense of taste<note place="foot">The +remark on the feeling of the antennæ, compared with the touch of +man, or even of the half-reasoning elephant, is yet more applicable to the +taste, which in these gelatinous animals might, perhaps not inappropriately, +be entitled the gastric sense.</note> +in the mollusca, so does the smell of the fish rise above +the feeling of the insect. In the fish, likewise, the eyes +are single and moveable, while it is remarkable that the +only insect that possesses this latter privilege, is an inhabitant +of the waters. Finally, here first, unequivocally, +and on a <emph>large</emph> scale, (for I pretend not to control the +freedom, in which the necessity of Nature is rooted, by the +precise limits of a system,)—here first, Nature exhibits, +in the power of sensibility, the consummation of those +vital forms (the <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">nisus formativi</foreign>) the adequate and the sole +measure of which is to be sought for in their several organic +products. But as if a weakness of exhaustion had +attended this advance in the same moment it was made, +Nature seems necessitated to fall back, and re-exert herself +on the lower ground which she had before occupied, +that of the vital magnetism, or the power of reproduction. +The intensity of this latter power in the fishes, is shown +both in their voracity and in the number of their eggs, +which we are obliged to calculate by <emph>weight</emph>, not by <emph>tale</emph>. +There is an equal intensity both of the <emph>immanent</emph> and the +<emph>projective</emph> reproduction, in which, if we take in the comparative +number of individuals in each species, and likewise +<pb n="081"/><anchor id="Pg081"/> +the different intervals between the acts, the fish (it is +probable) would be found to stand in a similar relation to +the insect, as the insect, in the latter point, stands to the +system of vegetation. Meantime, the fish sinks a step +below the insect, in the mode and circumstances of impregnation. +To this we will venture to add, the predominance +of <emph>length</emph>, as the <emph>form</emph> of growth in so large a +proportion of the known orders of fishes, and not less of +their rectilineal path of motion. In all other respects, +the correspondence combined with the progress in individuation, +is striking in the whole detail. Thus the eye, +in addition to its moveability, has besides acquired a saline +moisture in its higher development, as accordant with the +life of its element. Add to these the glittering covering +in both, the splendour of the scales in the one answering +to the brilliant plates in the other,—the luminous reservoirs +of the fire-flies,—the phosphorescence and electricity +of many fishes,—the same analogs of moral qualities, in +their rapacity, boldness, modes of seizing their prey by +surprise,—their gills, as presenting the intermediate state +between the spiracula of the grade next below, and the +lungs of the step next above, both extremes of which seem +combined in the structure of birds and of their quill-feathers; +but above all, the convexity of the crystalline +lens, so much greater than in birds, quadrupeds, and man, +and seeming to collect, in one powerful organ, the hundred-fold +microscopic facettes of the insect's <emph>light</emph> organs; and +it will not be easy to resist the conviction, that the same +power is at work in both, and reappears under higher +auspices. The intention of Nature is repeated; but, as +was to have been expected, with two main differences. +</p> + +<pb n="082"/><anchor id="Pg082"/> + +<p> +First, that in the lower grade the reproductions themselves +seem merged in those of irritability, from the very circumstance +that the latter constitutes no pole, either to the +former, or to sensibility. The force of irritability acts, +therefore, in the insect world, in full predominance; while +the emergence of sensibility in the fish calls forth the opposite +pole of reproduction, as a <emph>distinct</emph> power, and causes +therefore the irritability to flow, in part, into the power of +reproduction. The second result of this ascent is the +direction of the organizing power, <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ad intra</foreign>, with the consequent +greater simplicity of the exterior form, and the +substitution of condensed and flexible force, with comparative +unity of implements, for that variety of tools, almost +as numerous as the several objects to which they are to +be applied, which arises from, and characterises, the superficial +life of the insect creation. This grade of ascension, +however, like the former, is accompanied by an apparent +retrograde movement. For from this very accession of +vital intensity we must account for the absence in the +fishes of all the formative, or rather (if our language will +permit it) <emph>fabricative</emph> instincts. How could it be otherwise? +These instincts are the surplus and projection of the organizing +power in the direction <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">ad extra</foreign>, and could not, +therefore, have been expected in the class of animals that +represent the first intuitive effort of organization, and are +themselves the product of its first movement in the direction +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ad intra</foreign>. +But Nature never loses what she has once +learnt, though in the acquirement of each new power she +intermits, or performs less energetically, the act immediately +preceding. She often drops a faculty, but never +fails to pick it up again. She may seem forgetful and +<pb n="083"/><anchor id="Pg083"/> +absent, but it is only to recollect herself with <emph>additional</emph>, +as well as <emph>recruited</emph> vigour, in some after and higher state; +as if the sleep of powers, as well as of bodies, were the +season and condition of their growth. Accordingly, we +find these instincts again, and with them a wonderful +synthesis of fish and insect, as a higher third, in the +feathered inhabitants of the air. Nay, she seems to have +gone yet further back, and having given B + C = D in +the birds, so to have sported with one solitary instance of +B + D = A in that curious animal the dragon, the anatomy +of which has been recently given to the public by +Tiedemann; from whose work it appears, that this creature +presents itself to us with the wings of the insect, and with +the nervous system, the brain, and the cranium of the +bird, in their several rudiments. +</p> + +<p> +The synthesis of fish and insect in the birds, might be +illustrated equally in detail with the former; but it will be +sufficient for our purpose, that as in both the former cases, +the insect and the fish, so here in that of the birds, the +powers are under the predominance of irritability; the +sensibility being dormant in the first, awakening in the +second, and awake, but still subordinate, in the third. Of +this my limits confine me to a single presumptive proof, +viz., the superiority in strength and courage of the female +in the birds of prey. For herein, indeed, does the difference +of the sexes universally consist, wherever both the +forces are developed, that the female is characterised by +quicker irritability, and the male by deeper sensibility. +How large a stride has been now made by Nature in the +progress of individuation, what ornithologist does not +know? From a multitude of instances we select the most +<pb n="084"/><anchor id="Pg084"/> +impressive, the power of sound, with the first rudiments +of modulation! That all languages designate the melody +of birds as singing (though according to Blumenbach man +only sings, while birds do but whistle), demonstrates that +it has been felt as, what indeed it is, a tentative and prophetic +prelude of something yet to come. With this conjoin +the power and the tendency to acquire articulation, +and to imitate speech; conjoin the building instinct and +the migratory, the monogamy of several species, and the +pairing of almost all; and we shall have collected new +instances of the usage (I dare not say law) according to +which Nature lets fall, in order to resume, and steps backward +the furthest, when she means to leap forwards with +the greatest concentration of energy. +</p> + +<p> +For lo! in the next step of ascent the power of sensibility +has assumed her due place and rank: her minority +is at an end, and the complete and universal presence of +a nervous system unites absolutely, by instanteity of time +what, with the due allowances for the transitional process, +had before been either lost in sameness, or perplexed by +multiplicity, or compacted by a finer mechanism. But +with this, all the analogies with which Nature had delighted +us in the preceding step seem lost, and, with the single +exception of that more than valuable, that estimable +philanthropist, the dog, and, perhaps, of the horse and +elephant, the analogies to ourselves, which we can discover +in the quadrupeds or quadrumani, are of our vices, our +follies, and our imperfections. The facts in confirmation +of both the propositions are so numerous and so obvious, +the advance of Nature, under the predominance of the +third synthetic power, both in the intensity of life and in +<pb n="085"/><anchor id="Pg085"/> +the intenseness and extension of individuality, is so undeniable, +that we may leap forward at once to the highest +realization and reconciliation of both her tendencies, that +of the most perfect detachment with the greatest possible +union, to that last work, in which Nature did not assist +as handmaid under the eye of her sovereign Master, who +made Man in his own image, by superadding self-consciousness +with self-government, and breathed into him +a living soul. +</p> + +<p> +The class of <hi rend='italic'>Vermes</hi> deposit a calcareous stuff, as if it had +torn loose from the earth a piece of the gross mass which it +must still drag about with it. In the insect class this +residuum has refined itself. In the fishes and amphibia it +is driven back or inward, the organic power begins to be +intuitive, and sensibility appears. In the birds the bones +have become hollow; while, with apparent proportional +recess, but, in truth, by the excitement of the opposite +pole, their exterior presents an actual vegetation. The +bones of the mammalia are filled up, and their coverings +have become more simple. Man possesses the most perfect +osseous structure, the least and most insignificant +covering. The whole force of organic power has attained +an inward and centripetal direction. He has the whole +world in counterpoint to him, but he contains an entire +world within himself. Now, for the first time at the apex +of the living pyramid, it is Man and Nature, but Man +himself is a syllepsis, a compendium of Nature—the +Microcosm! Naked and helpless cometh man into the +world. Such has been the complaint from eldest time; +but we complain of our chief privilege, our ornament, and +the connate mark of our sovereignty. +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">Porphyrigeniti sumus</foreign>! +<pb n="086"/><anchor id="Pg086"/> +In Man the centripetal and individualizing tendency +of all Nature is itself concentred and individualized—he +is a revelation of Nature! Henceforward, he is +referred to himself, delivered up to his own charge; and +he who stands the most on himself, and stands the firmest, +is the truest, because the most individual, Man. In social +and political life this acme is inter-dependence; in moral +life it is independence; in intellectual life it is genius. +Nor does the form of polarity, which has accompanied the +law of individuation up its whole ascent, desert it here. +As the height, so the depth. The intensities must be at +once opposite and equal. As the liberty, so must be the +reverence for law. As the independence, so must be the +service and the submission to the Supreme Will! As the +ideal genius and the originality, in the same proportion +must be the resignation to the real world, the sympathy +and the inter-communion with Nature. In the conciliating +mid-point, or equator, does the Man live, and only by its +equal presence in both its poles can that life be manifested! +</p> + +<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/> + +<p> +If it had been possible, within the prescribed limits of +this essay, to have deduced the philosophy of Life synthetically, +the evidence would have been carried over from +section to section, and the <foreign lang="la" +rend="font-style: italic">quod erat demonstrandum</foreign> +at the conclusion of one section would reappear as the +principle of the succeeding—the goal of the one would be +the starting-post of the other. Positions arranged in my +own mind, as intermediate and organic links of administration, +must be presented to the reader in the first instance, +at least, as a mere hypothesis. Instead of +<pb n="087"/><anchor id="Pg087"/> +demanding his assent as a right, I must solicit a suspension +of his judgment as a courtesy; and, after all, however +firmly the hypothesis may support the phenomena piled +upon it, we can deduce no more than a practical rule, +grounded on a strong presumption. The license of +arithmetic, however, furnishes instances that a rule may +be usefully applied in practice, and for the particular +purpose may be sufficiently authenticated by the result, +before it has itself been duly demonstrated. It is enough, +if only it hath been rendered fully intelligible. +</p> + +<p> +In a system where every position proceeds from a +scientific preconstruction, a power acting exclusively in +length, would be magnetism by virtue of our own definition +of the term. In like manner, a surface power would +be electricity, as far as that system was concerned, whether +it accorded or not with the facts ordinarily so called. But +it is incumbent on us, who must treat the subject +<emph>analytically</emph>, to show by experiment that magnetism does +in fact act longitudinally, and electricity superficially; and +that, consequently, the former is distinguished from, and +yet contained in, the latter, as a straight line is distinguished +from, yet contained in, a superficies. +</p> + +<p> +First, that magnetism, in its conductors, seeks and +follows length only, and by the length is itself conducted, +has been proved by Brugmans, in his philosophical Essay +on the Matter of Magnetism, where he relates that a +magnet capable of supporting a body four times heavier +than itself, and which acted as a magnetic needle at the +distance of twenty inches, was so weakened by the interposition +of three cast-iron plates of considerable thickness, +as scarcely to move the magnetic needle from its place at +<pb n="088"/><anchor id="Pg088"/> +a distance of only three inches. A similar experiment +had been made by Descartes. I concluded, therefore, +said Brugmans, that if the iron plates were interposed +between the magnet and the needle lengthways, instead +of breadthways or right across, the action of the magnet +on the magnetic needle would, in consequence of this +great increase of resistance, become still weaker, or perhaps +evanescent. But not less to my surprise than my +admiration, I found that the power of the magnet was so +far from being <emph>diminished</emph> by this change in the relative +position of the iron-plates; that, on the contrary, it now +extended to a far greater distance than when no iron at +all was interposed. Some time after the same philosopher, +out of several iron bars, the sides of which were an inch +broad each, composed a single bar of the length of more +than ten feet, and observed the magnetism make its way +through the whole mass. But, in order to try whether +the action could be propagated to any length indefinitely, +after several experiments with bars of intermediate lengths, +in all of which he had succeeded, he tried a four-cornered +iron rod, more than twenty feet long, and it was at this +length that the magnetic power first began to be diminished. +So far Brugmans. +</p> + +<p> +But the shortest way for any one to convince himself +of this relation of the magnetic power would be, in one +and the same experiment, to interpose the same piece of iron +between the magnet and the compass needle first <emph>breadthways</emph>; +and in this case it will be found that the needle, +which had been previously deflected by the magnet from +its natural position at one of its poles, will instantly resume +the same, either wholly or very nearly so—then to +<pb n="089"/><anchor id="Pg089"/> +interpose the same piece of iron <emph>lengthways</emph>; in which +case the position of the compass needle will be scarcely +or not at all affected. +</p> + +<p> +The assertion of Bernoulli and others, that the absolute +force of the artificial magnet increases in the ratio +of its superficies, stands corrected in the far more accurate +experiments of Coulomb (published in his Treatise on +Magnetism), which proves that the increase takes place +(in a far greater degree) in the ratio of its length. The +same naturalist even found means to determine that the +directing powers of the needle, which he had measured by +help of his <foreign lang="fr" rend="font-style: italic">balance +de tortion</foreign>, stand to the length of the +needle in such a ratio as that, provided only the length of +the needle is from forty to fifty times its diameter, the +momenta of these directing powers will increase in the +very same direct proportion as the length is increased. +Nor is this all that may be deduced from the experiment +last mentioned. If only the magnet be strong enough, +it will show likewise that magnetism <emph>seeks</emph> the length. +The proof is contained in the remarkable fact, that the +iron interposed between the magnet and the magnetic +needle <emph>breadthways</emph> constantly acquires its two opposite +poles at both ends <emph>lengthways</emph>. Though the preceding +experiments are abundantly sufficient to prove the position, +yet the following deserves mention for the beautiful clearness +of its evidence. If the magnetic power is determined +exclusively by length, it is to be expected that it will +manifest no force, where the piece of iron is of such a +shape that no one dimension predominates. Bring a +<emph>cube</emph> of iron near the magnetic needle and it will not exert +the slightest degree of power beyond what belongs to it +<pb n="090"/><anchor id="Pg090"/> +as mere iron. By the perfect equality of the dimensions, +the magnetism of the earth appears, as it were, perplexed +and doubtful. Now, then attach a second cube of iron +to the first, and the instantaneous act of the iron on the +magnetic needle will make it manifest that with the length +thus given, the magnetic influence is given at the same +moment. +</p> + +<p> +That electricity, on the other hand, does not act in +length merely, is clear, from the fact that every electric +body is electric over its whole surface. But that electricity +acts both in length and breadth, and <emph>only</emph> in length +and breadth, and not in depth; in short, that the (so-called) +electrical fluid in an electrified body spreads over +the whole surface of that body without penetrating it, or +tending <foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ad intra</foreign>, +may be proved by direct experiment. +Take a cylinder of wood, and bore an indefinite number +of holes in it, each of them four lines in depth and four +in diameter. Electrify this cylinder, and present to its +superficies a small square of gold-leaf, held to it by an +insulating needle of gum lac, and bring this square to an +electrometer of great sensibility. The electrometer will +instantly show an electricity in the gold-leaf, similar to +that of the cylinder which had been brought into contact +with it. The square of gold-leaf having thus been discharged +of its electricity, put it carefully into one of the +holes of the cylinder, <emph>so</emph>, namely, that it shall touch only +the bottom of the hole, and present it again to the electrometer. +It will be then found that the electrometer +will exhibit no signs of electricity whatsoever. From this +it follows, that the electricity which had been communicated +to the cylinder had confined itself to the <emph>surface</emph>. +</p> + +<pb n="091"/><anchor id="Pg091"/> + +<p> +If the time and the limit prescribed would admit, we could +multiply experiments, all tending to prove the same law; +but we must be content with the barely sufficient. But +that the <emph>chemical process</emph> acts in <emph>depth</emph>, and first, therefore, +<emph>realizes</emph> and integrates the fluxional power of magnetism +and electricity, is involved in the <emph>term</emph> composition; and +this will become still more convincing when we have learnt +to regard <emph>decomposition</emph> as a mere co-relative, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> as decomposition +relatively to the body decomposed, but composition +<emph>actually</emph> and in respect of the substances, <emph>into</emph> +which it was decomposed. The alteration in the specific +gravity of metals in their chemical amalgams, interesting +as the fact is in all points, is <emph>decisive</emph> in the present; for +gravity is the sole <emph>inward</emph> of inorganic bodies—it +<emph>constitutes</emph> their depth. +</p> + +<p> +I can now, for the first time, give to my opinions +that degree of intelligibility, which is requisite for their +introduction as hypotheses; the experiments above related, +understood as in the common mode of thinking, prove +that the magnetic influence flows in length, the electric +fluid by suffusion, and that chemical agency (whatever +the main agent may be) is qualitative and +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">in intimis</foreign>. +Now my hypothesis demands the converse of all this. +I affirm that a power, acting exclusively in length, is +(wherever it be found) <emph>magnetism</emph>; that a power which +acts <emph>both</emph> in length and in breadth, and <emph>only</emph> in length and +breadth, is (wherever it be found) <emph>electricity</emph>; and finally, +that a power which, together with length and breadth, +includes depth likewise, is (wherever it be found) <emph>constructive +agency</emph>. That is but <emph>one</emph> phenomenon of magnetism, +to which we have appropriated and confined the +<pb n="092"/><anchor id="Pg092"/> +term magnetism; because of all the natural bodies at +present known, iron, and one or two of its nearest relatives +in the family of hard yet coherent metals, are the only +ones, in which all the conditions are collected, under +which alone the magnetic agency can appear in and during +the act itself. When, therefore, I affirm the power of +reproduction in organized bodies to be magnetism, I +must be understood to mean that this power, as it exists in +the magnet, and which we there (to use a strong phrase) +catch in the very act, is to the same kind of power, working +as reproductive, what the root is to the cube of that root. +We no more confound the force in the compass needle +with that of reproduction, than a man can be said to +confound his liver with a lichen, because he affirms that +both of them grow. +</p> + +<p> +The same precautions are to be repeated in the identification +of electricity with irritability; and the power of +depth, for which we have yet no appropriated term, with +sensibility. How great the distance is in all, and that the +lowest degrees are adopted as the exponent terms, not for +their own sakes, but merely because they may be used +with less hazard of diverting the attention from the <emph>kind</emph> +by peculiar properties arising out of the degree, is evident +from the third instance, unless the theorist can be supposed +insane enough to apply sensation in good earnest to the +effervescence of an acid or an alkali, or to sympathise with +the distresses of a vat of new beer when it is working. In +whatever way the subject could be treated, it must have +remained unintelligible to men who, if they think of space +at all, abstract their notion of it from the contents of an +exhausted receiver. With this, and with an ether, such +<pb n="093"/><anchor id="Pg093"/> +men may work wonders; as what, indeed, cannot be done +with a plenum and a vacuum, when a theorist has privileged +himself to assume the one, or the other, +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ad libitum</foreign>?—in +all innocence of heart, and undisturbed by the reflection +that the two things cannot both be true. That both time +and space are mere abstractions I am well aware; but +I know with equal certainty that what is <emph>expressed</emph> by +them as the <emph>identity</emph> of both is the highest reality, and the +root of all power, the power to suffer, as well as the power +to act. However mere an +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">ens logicum</foreign> space may be, the +<emph>dimensions</emph> of space are real, and the works of Galileo, in more +than one elegant passage, prove with what awe and amazement +they fill the mind that worthily contemplates them. +Dismissing, therefore, all facts of degrees, as introduced +merely for the purposes of illustration, I would make +as little reference as possible to the magnet, the charged +phial, or the processes of the laboratory, and designate +the three powers in the process of our animal life, each +by two co-relative terms, the one expressing the <emph>form</emph>, +and the other the <emph>object</emph> and <emph>product</emph> of the power. My +hypothesis will, therefore, be thus expressed, that the +constituent forces of life in the human living body are—first, +the power of length, or <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">REPRODUCTION</hi>; +second, the power of surface (that is, length and breadth), or +<hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">IRRITABILITY</hi>; +third, the power of depth, or <hi rend="font-variant: small-caps">SENSIBILITY</hi>. +With this observation I may conclude these remarks, only +reminding the reader that Life itself is neither of these +separately, but the copula of all three—that Life, <emph>as</emph> +Life, supposes a positive or universal principle in Nature, +with a negative principle in every particular animal, the +latter, or limitative power, constantly acting to individualize, +<pb n="094"/><anchor id="Pg094"/> +and, as it were, <emph>figure</emph> the former. <emph>Thus</emph>, then, +Life itself is not a <emph>thing</emph>—a self-subsistent +<emph>hypostasis</emph>—but an <emph>act</emph> and <emph>process</emph>; +which, pitiable as the prejudice will appear to the +<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">forts esprits</foreign>, +is a great deal more than +either my reason would authorise or my conscience allow +me to assert—concerning the Soul, as the principle both +of Reason and Conscience. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n="097"/><anchor id="Pg097"/> + +<div rend="page-break-before: always"> +<index index="toc"/> +<index index="pdf"/> +<head>Advertisements.</head> + +<ab><hi rend='italic'>October, 1848.</hi></ab> + +<ab>Works on Medicine and Science<lb/> +Published by John Churchill.</ab> + +<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/> + +<ab>Dr. Golding Bird, F.R.S.</ab> + +<ab>The Diagnosis, Pathological Indications +And Treatment of Urinary Deposits. 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Fcap. 8vo. cloth, +12<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</ab> + +<ab> +<q>An admirable exposition of the present state of chemical science, simply and +clearly written.</q>—<hi rend='italic'>British and Foreign Medical Review.</hi> +</ab> + +<ab>By The Same Author.</ab> + +<ab> +Introduction to Qualitative Analysis. +Post 8vo. cloth, 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</ab> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> +<!-- Local Variables: --> +<!-- coding:utf-8-unix --> +<!-- End: --> diff --git a/24346.txt b/24346.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..90dc141 --- /dev/null +++ b/24346.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2938 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hints towards the formation of a more +comprehensive theory of life. by Samuel Taylor Coleridge + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Hints towards the formation of a more comprehensive theory of life. + +Author: Samuel Taylor Coleridge + +Release Date: January 17, 2008 [Ebook #24346] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** + + + + + + *Hints Towards the Formation of a More Comprehensive Theory Of Life* + + *by S. T. Coleridge* + + *Edited by Seth B. Watson, M.D.* + + Of St. John's College, + + And Formerly One of the Physicians to the Hospital at Oxford + + Magna sunt opera Domini exquisita in omnes voluntates ejus. + + London: John Churchill, Princes Street, Soho + + MDCCCXLVIII. + + *C. and J. Adlard, Printers, Bartholomew Close* + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Physiology Of Life. +The Nature Of Life. +Advertisements. +Footnotes + + + + + + +ADVERTISEMENT. + + +The Editor takes this opportunity of returning his best acknowledgments to +Sir JOHN STODDART, LL.D., to the Rev. JAMES GILLMAN, Incumbent of Trinity, +Lambeth, and to HENRY LEE, Esq., Assistant Surgeon to King's College +Hospital, for their great kindness, in regard to this publication. + +_16, Norfolk Street, Park Lane._ + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The accompanying pages contain the unfinished Sketch of a Theory of Life +by S. T. Coleridge. Everything that fell from the pen of that +extraordinary man bore latent, as well as more obvious indications of +genius, and of its inseparable concomitant--originality. To this general +remark the present Essay is far from forming an exception. No one can +peruse it, without admiring the author's comprehensive research and +profound meditation; but at the same time, partly from the exuberance of +his imagination, and partly from an apparent want of method (though, in +truth, he had a method of his own, by which he marshalled his thoughts in +an order perfectly intelligible to himself), a first perusal will, to many +readers, prove unsatisfactory, unless they are prepared for it by an +introduction of a more popular character. This purpose, therefore, I shall +endeavour to accomplish; it being to be understood that I by no means make +myself responsible either for Mr. Coleridge's speculations, or for the +manner in which they are enunciated; and that, on the contrary, I shall +occasionally indicate views from which I dissent, and expressions which +perhaps the author himself, on revision, would have seen reason to +correct. + +It is clear that Mr. Coleridge considers the unity of human nature to +result from two combined elements, Body and Soul; that he regards the +latter as the principle of Reason and of Conscience (both which he has +largely treated in his published works), and that the "Life," which he +here investigates, concerns, in relation to mankind, only the Body. He is +far, however, from confining the term "Life" to its action on the human +body; on the contrary, he disclaims the division of all that surrounds us +into things with life, and things without life; and contends, that the +term Life is no less applicable to the irreducible _bases_ of chemistry, +such as sodium, potassium, &c., or to the various forms of crystals, or +the geological strata which compose the crust of our globe, than it is to +the human body itself, the acme and perfection of animal organization. I +admit that there are certain great powers, such as magnetism, electricity, +and chemistry, whose action may be traced, even by the limited means which +science at present possesses, in admirable gradation, from purely +unorganized to the most highly organized matter: and, I think, that Mr. +Coleridge has done this with great ingenuity and striking effect; but what +I object to is, that he applies to the combined operation of these powers, +in all cases, the term _Life_. If we look back to the early history of +language, we shall probably find that this word, and its synonymes in +other tongues, were first employed to denote _human_ life, that is, the +duration of a human being's existence from birth to the grave. As this +existence was marked by actions, many of which were common to man with +other animals, those animals also were said to "live;" but the extension +of the notion of Life to the vegetable creation is comparatively a recent +usage,--and hitherto (in this country at least) no writer before Mr. +Coleridge, so far as I know, has maintained that rocks and mountains, nay, +"the great globe itself," share with mankind the gift of Life. On the +other hand, there are well known and energetic uses of the word "Life," to +which Mr. Coleridge's speculations, as contained in the accompanying +pages, are wholly inapplicable. Almost all nations, even the most savage, +agree in the belief that individuals of the human race, after they have +ceased to exist in this mortal life, will exist in another state, to which +also the word Life is universally applied; but to this latter Mr. +Coleridge's views of magnetism, electricity, &c., can hardly be thought +applicable. Still less can they apply to "Life" in its spiritual sense; +as, when Moses says to the Jews, "the words of the law are your _life_," +(Deut. xxxii, 47,) and when our Saviour says, "the words that I speak unto +you, they are spirit, and they are _life_;" (John, vi, 63;) and again, "I +am the resurrection and the life," (John, xi, 25.) Upon the whole, +therefore, I think it would have been advisable in Mr. Coleridge to have +adopted a different phraseology, in tracing the operation of certain +natural agencies first on unorganized, and then on organized bodies. + +Another word, of which I consider an improper use to be made in this +Essay, is "Nature." I find this imaginary being introduced on all +occasions, and invested with attributes of personality, which may be +extremely apt to make a false impression on young or thoughtless minds. At +one time, "the life of Nature" is spoken of; then we are informed that +"Nature has succeeded. _She_ has created the intermediate link between the +vegetable world and the animal." Again, it is said that "Nature seems to +fall back, and to reexert _herself_ on the lower ground, which _she_ had +before occupied;"--and elsewhere we are told that "Nature never loses what +_she_ has once learnt; though in the acquirement of each new power _she_ +intermits or performs less energetically the act immediately preceding. +_She_ often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up again. _She_ +may seem forgetful and absent; but it is only to recollect _herself_ with +additional as well as recruited vigour in some after and higher state." +Now the word "Nature," in any intelligible sense, means nothing but that +method and order by which the Almighty regulates the common course of +things. Nature is not a person; it is not active; it neither creates nor +performs actions more or less energetically, nor learns, nor forgets, nor +reexerts itself, nor recruits its vigour. Perhaps it will be said that all +this is merely figurative language. Figurative language is very much +misplaced in strict philosophical investigations; and these particular +figures, which might be quite consistent with the atheistical philosophy +of Lucretius, sound ill in the mouth of a pious Christian, which Mr. +Coleridge undoubtedly was. He probably adopted them unconsciously from +Bacon; but Bacon's use of the word Nature ought rather to have served as a +warning than an example; for it has contributed, in no small degree, to +the atheistical philosophy of recent times. + +The prevalent natural philosophy of the present day is that which is +called _corpuscular_, because it assumes the existence of a first matter, +consisting of _corpuscula_ or atoms, which are supposed to be definite, +though extremely small, _quantities_, invested with the _qualities_ of +extension, impenetrability, and the like; and from certain combinations of +these qualities, Life is considered, by some persons, to be a necessary +result. This philosophy Mr. Coleridge combats. The supposed atoms, he +says, are mere abstractions of the mind; and Life is not a thing, the +result of atomic arrangement or action, but is itself an act, or process. +He refutes various definitions of Life, such as, that it is the sum of all +the functions by which death is resisted; or, that it depends on the +faculty of nutrition, or of anti-putrescence. His own definition he +proposes merely as an hypothesis. Life, he says, is "the principle of +Individuation," that is to say, it is a power which discloses itself from +within, combining many qualities into one individual thing. This +individualising principle unites, as he conceives, with the cooperating +action of magnetism, electricity, and chemistry. At least, such is the +inference to be drawn from the present state of science; though it is +easily conceivable that future discoveries may bring us acquainted with +powers more directly connected with Life. The most general law governing +the action of Life, as a tendency to individuation, is here designated +_polarity_; for instance, the power termed magnetism (not meaning that +there is necessarily an actual tangible magnet in the case) has two poles, +the negative, answering to attraction, rest, carbon, &c., and the +positive, answering to repulsion, mobility, azote, &c.; and as the +magnetic needle which points to the north necessarily indicates thereby +the south, so the power disposing to rest has necessarily a counteracting +influence disposing to mobility, between which lies the point of +indifference. Now this quality, to which Mr. Coleridge gives the name of +polarity, is in truth nothing more than an exemplification of the doctrine +of opposites, the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which the Eleatic +Philosopher, in Plato's "Sophist," applies to the idea of existence and +non-existence, and which accompanies every other idea as its shadow, +whether in physics, in intellect, or in morals; for the finite is opposed +to the infinite, the false to the true, the evil to the good, and so +forth; which we say, not to derogate from the value of Mr. Coleridge's +application of the doctrine, of which he has very ably availed himself; +but merely to explain the term polarity, by referring it, as a species, to +a higher genus of intellectual conceptions. + +Reverting to the three powers before mentioned, it is not to be +understood, that on Mr. Coleridge's hypothesis of Life, they ever act +separately; but in the different modifications of Life, at one time the +power of magnetism predominates, at another that of electricity, and at +another that of chemistry. Magnetism is stated to act as a line, +electricity as a surface, and chemistry as a solid; for all which Mr. +Coleridge refers to certain physical experiments. The predominance of +magnetism is characterised by reproduction, that of electricity by +irritability; and irritability, which first appears as muscle, gradually +rises into sensibility as nerve. The limits of a mere introduction will +not permit me to examine Mr. Coleridge's first principles more in detail; +and I can but briefly notice their application to the successive stages of +ascent, from the first rudiments of individualised Life, in the lowest +classes of the mineral, vegetable, and animal creation, to its crown and +consummation in the human body. Beginning with magnetism, by which, in its +widest sense, he means what he improperly calls the first and simplest +differential act of _Nature_ (he should rather have said the first and +simplest conception that we can form of a differential act of God, in the +work of creation), he supposes the pre-existence of chaos, not, indeed, in +the Miltonic sense-- + +"For hot, cold, moist, and dry, four champions fierce, +Strive _there_ for mast'ry, and to battle bring +Their embryon atoms,--" + +but rather as one vast homogeneous fluid, and even _that_ he suggests not +as a historical fact, but as the appropriate symbol of a great fundamental +truth. The first effort of magnetic power, the first step from +indifference to difference, from formless homogeneity to independent +existence, is seen in the tranquil deposition of crystals; and an +increasing tendency to difference is observable in the increasing +multitude of strata, till we come to organic life; of which the vegetable +and animal worlds may be regarded as opposite poles; carbon prevailing in +the former and azote in the latter; and vegetation being characterised by +the predominance of magnetism in its highest power, as reproduction; +whilst the animal tribes evince the power of electricity, as shown in +irritability and sensibility. Passing over the forms of vegetation, we +come to the polypi, corallines, &c., in which individuality appears in its +first dawn; for a multitude of animals form, as it were, a common animal, +and different genera pass into each other, almost indistinguishably. The +tubipora of the corals connects with the serpula of the conchylia. In the +_mollusca_ the separation of organs becomes more observable; in the higher +species there are rudiments of nerves, and an exponent, though scarcely +distinguishable, of sensibility. In the snail, and muscle, the separation +of the fluid from the solid is more marked, yet the prevalence of the +carbonic principle connects these and the preceding classes, in a certain +degree, with the vegetable creation. "But the _insect_ world, taken at +large (says Mr. Coleridge) appears as an intense _Life_, that has +struggled itself loose, and become emancipated from vegetation--_Florae +liberti, et libertini_!" In insects we first find the distinct +commencement of a separation between the muscular system, that is, organs +of irritability, and the nervous system, that is, organs of sensibility; +the former, however, maintaining a pre-eminence throughout, and the nerves +themselves being probably subservient to the motory power. With the fishes +begins an internal system of bones, but these are the results of a +comparatively imperfect formation, being in general little more than mere +gristle. In birds we find a sort of synthesis of the powers of fish and +insects. In all three, the powers are under the predominance of +irritability; but sensibility, which is dormant in the insect, begins to +awaken in the fish, and, though still subordinate, is quite awake in the +bird, of which no better proof can be given than its power of sound, with +the rudiments of modulation, in the large class of singing birds, and in +some others a tendency to acquire and to imitate articulate speech. The +next step of ascent brings us to the _mammalia_; and in these, including +beasts and men, the complete and universal presence of a nervous system +raises sensibility to its due place and rank among the animal powers. +Finally, in Man the whole force of organic power attains an inward and +centripetal direction, and the "apex of the living pyramid"becomes a fit +receptacle for Reason and Conscience. + + * * * * * + +It is much to be regretted, that the estimable Author did not live to put +a finishing hand to this Essay; but the part completed involves +speculations of so interesting a nature, and presents such striking marks +of deep and original thought, that the Editor, to whose hands it was +committed, did not feel himself justified in withholding it from the +judgment of the public. + + + + + +PHYSIOLOGY OF LIFE. + + + Introduction. + + +When we stand before the bust of John Hunter, or as we enter the +magnificent museum furnished by his labours, and pass slowly, with +meditative observation, through this august temple, which the genius of +one great man has raised and dedicated to the wisdom and uniform working +of the Creator, we perceive at every step the guidance, we had almost +said, the inspiration, of those profound ideas concerning Life, which dawn +upon us, indeed, through his written works, but which he has here +presented to us in a more perfect language than that of words--the language +of God himself, as uttered by Nature. + +That the true idea of Life existed in the mind of John Hunter I do not +entertain the least doubt; but it may, perhaps, be doubted whether his +incessant occupation, and his stupendous industry in the service, both of +his contemporaries and of posterity, added to his comparatively slight +acquaintance with the arts and aids of logical arrangement, permitted him +fully to unfold and arrange it in distinct, clear, and communicable +conceptions. Assuredly, however, I may, without incurring the charge of +arrogance or detraction, venture to assert that, in his writings the light +which occasionally flashes upon us seems at other times, and more +frequently, to struggle through an unfriendly medium, and even sometimes +to suffer a temporary occultation. At least, in order to dissipate the +undeniable obscurities, and to reconcile the apparent contradictions found +in his works,--to distinguish, in short, the numerous passages in which +without, perhaps, losing sight internally of his own peculiar belief, he +yet falls into the phraseology and mechanical solutions of his age,--we +must distinguish such passages from those in which the form corresponds to +the substance, and in which, therefore, the nature and essential laws of +vital action are expressed, as far as his researches had unveiled them to +his own mind, without disguise. To effect this, we must, as it were, climb +up on his shoulders, and look at the same objects in a distincter form, +because seen from the more commanding point of view furnished by himself. +This has, indeed, been more than once attempted already, and, in one +instance, with so evident a display of power and insight as announces in +the assertor and vindicator of the Hunterian Theory a congenial intellect, +and a disciple in whom Hunter himself would have exulted. Would that this +attempt had been made on a larger scale, that the writer to whom I +refer(1) had in consequence developed his opinions systematically, and +carried them yet further back, even to their ultimate principle! + +But this the scientific world has yet to expect; or it is more than +probable that the present humble endeavour would have been superseded, or +confined, at least, to the task of restating the opinion of my predecessor +with such modifications as the differences that will always exist between +men who have thought independently, and each for himself, have never +failed to introduce, even on problems of far easier and more obvious +solution. + +Without further preface or apology, therefore, I shall state at once my +objections to all the definitions that have hitherto been given of Life, +as meaning too much or too little, with an exception, however, in favour +of those which mean nothing at all; and even these last must, in certain +cases, receive an honour they do not merit, and be confuted, or rather +detected, on account of their too general acceptance, and the incalculable +power of words over the minds of men in proportion to the remoteness of +the subject from the cognizance of the senses. + +It would be equally presumptuous and unreasonable should I, with a late +writer on this subject, "exhort the reader to be particularly on his guard +against loose and indefinite expressions;" but I perfectly agree that they +are the bane of all science, and have been remarkably injurious in the +different departments of physiology. + + + + + +THE NATURE OF LIFE. + + + On The Definitions Of Life Hitherto Received. Hints Towards A More + Comprehensive Theory. + + +The attempts to explain the nature of Life, which have fallen within my +knowledge, presuppose the arbitrary division of all that surrounds us into +things with life, and things without life--a division grounded on a mere +assumption. At the best, it can be regarded only as a hasty deduction from +the first superficial notices of the objects that surround us, sufficient, +perhaps, for the purpose of ordinary discrimination, but far too +indeterminate and diffluent to be taken unexamined by the philosophic +inquirer. The positions of science must be tried in the jeweller's scales, +not like the mixed commodities of the market, on the weigh-bridge of +common opinion and vulgar usage. Such, however, has been the procedure in +the present instance, and the result has been answerable to the coarseness +of the process. By a comprisal of the _petitio principii_ with the +_argumentum in circulo_,--in plain English, by an easy logic, which begins +with begging the question, and then moving in a circle, comes round to the +point where it began,--each of the two divisions has been made to define +the other by a mere reassertion of their assumed contrariety. The +physiologist has luminously explained Y plus X by informing us that it is +a somewhat that is the antithesis of Y minus X; and if we ask, what then +is Y-X? the answer is, the antithesis of Y+X,--a reciprocation of great +service, that may remind us of the twin sisters in the fable of the Lamiae, +with but one eye between them both, which each borrowed from the other as +either happened to want it; but with this additional disadvantage, that in +the present case it is after all but an eye of glass. The definitions +themselves will best illustrate our meaning. I will begin with that given +by Bichat. "Life is the sum of all the functions by which death is +resisted," in which I have in vain endeavoured to discover any other +meaning than that life consists in being able to live. This author, with a +whimsical gravity, prefaces his definition with the remark, that the +nature of life has hitherto been sought for in _abstract_ considerations; +as if it were possible that four more inveterate abstractions could be +brought together in one sentence than are here assembled in the words, +life, death, function, and resistance. Similar instances might be cited +from Richerand and others. The word Life is translated into other more +learned words; and this _paraphrase_ of the _term_ is substituted for the +_definition_ of the _thing_, and therefore (as is always the case in every +_real_ definition as contra-distinguished from a _verbal_ definition,) for +at least a partial _solution_ of the _fact_. Such as these form the +_first_ class.--The second class takes some one particular function of Life +common to all living objects,--nutrition, for instance; or, to adopt the +phrase most in vogue at present, assimilation, for the purposes of +reproduction and growth. Now this, it is evident, can be an appropriate +definition only of the very lowest species, as of a Fungus or a Mollusca; +and just as comprehensive an idea of the mystery of Life, as a Mollusca +might give, can this definition afford. But this is not the only +objection. For, _first_, it is not pretended that we begin with seeking +for an organ evidently appropriated to nutrition, and then infer that the +substance in which such an organ is found _lives_. On the contrary, in a +number of cases among the obscurer animals and vegetables we infer the +organ from the pre-established fact of its life. _Secondly_, it identifies +the process itself with a certain range of its forms, those, namely, by +which it is manifested in animals and vegetables. For this, too, no less +than the former, presupposes the arbitrary division of all things into not +living and lifeless, on which, as I before observed, all these definitions +are grounded. But it is sorry logic to take the proof of an affirmative in +one thing as the proof of the negative in another. All animals that have +lungs breathe, but it would be a childish oversight to deduce the +converse, viz. all animals that breathe have lungs. The theory in which +the French chemists organized the discoveries of Black, Cavendish, +Priestly, Scheele, and other English and German philosophers, is still, +indeed, the reigning theory, but rather, it should seem, from the absence +of a rival sufficiently popular to fill the throne in its stead, than from +the continuance of an implicit belief in its own stability. We no longer +at least cherish that intensity of faith which, before Davy commenced his +brilliant career, had not only identified it with chemistry itself, but +had substituted its nomenclature, even in common conversation, for the far +more philosophic language which the human race had abstracted from the +laboratory of Nature. I may venture to prophecy that no future Beddoes +will make it the corival of the mathematical sciences in demonstrative +evidence. I think it a matter of doubt whether, during the period of its +supposed infallibility, physiology derived more benefit from the +extension, or injury from the misdirection, of its views. Enough of the +latter is fresh in recollection to make it but an equivocal compliment to +a physiological position, that it must stand or fall with the corpuscular +philosophy, as modified by the French theory of chemistry. Yet should it +happen (and the event is not impossible, nor the supposition altogether +absurd,) that more and more decisive facts should present themselves in +confirmation of the metamorphosis of elements, the position that life +consists in assimilation would either cease to be distinctive, or fall +back into the former class as an identical proposition, namely, that Life, +meaning by the word that sort of growth which takes place by means of a +peculiar organization, consists in that sort of growth which is peculiar +to organized life. _Thirdly_, the definition involves a still more +egregious flaw in the reasoning, namely, that of _cum hoc, ergo propter +hoc_ (or the assumption of causation from mere coexistence); and this, +too, in its very worst form. For it is not _cum hoc solo, ergo propter +hoc_, which would in many cases supply a presumptive proof by induction, +but _cum hoc, et plurimis aliis, ergo propter hoc_! Shell, of some kind or +other, is common to the whole order of testacea, but it would be absurd to +define the _vis vitae_ of testaceous animals as existing in the shell, +though we know it to be the constant accompaniment, and have every reason +to believe the constant effect, of the specific life that acts in those +animals. Were we (_argumenti __ causa_) to imagine shell coextensive with +the organized creation, this would produce no abatement in the falsity of +the reasoning. Nor does the flaw stop here; for a physiological, that is a +real, definition, as distinguished from the verbal definitions of +lexicography, must consist neither in any single property or function of +the thing to be defined, nor yet in all collectively, which latter, +indeed, would be a history, not a definition. It must consist, therefore, +in the _law_ of the thing, or in such an _idea_ of it, as, being admitted, +all the properties and functions are admitted by implication. It must +likewise be so far _causal_, that a full insight having been obtained of +the law, we derive from it a progressive insight into the necessity and +_generation_ of the phenomena of which it is the law. Suppose a disease in +question, which appeared always accompanied with certain symptoms in +certain stages, and with some one or more symptoms in all stages--say +deranged digestion, capricious alternation of vivacity and languor, +headache, dilated pupil, diminished sensibility to light, &c.--Neither the +man who selected the one constant symptom, nor he who enumerated all the +symptoms, would give the scientific definition _talem scilicet, quali +scientia fit vel datur_, but the man who at once named and defined the +disease hydrocephalus, producing pressure on the brain. For it is the +essence of a scientific definition to be causative, not by introduction of +imaginary somewhats, natural or supernatural under the name of causes, but +by announcing the law of action in the particular case, in subordination +to the common law of which all the phenomena are modifications or results. + +Now in the definition on which, as the representative of a whole class, we +are _now_ animadverting, a single effect is given as constituting the +cause. For nutrition by digestion is certainly necessary to life, only +under certain circumstances, but that life is previously necessary to +digestion is absolutely certain under all circumstances. Besides, what +other phenomenon of Life would the conception of assimilation, _per se_, +or as it exists in the lowest order of animals, involve or explain? How, +for instance, does it include sensation, locomotion, or habit? or if the +two former should be taken as distinct from life, _toto genere_, and +supervenient to it, we then ask what conception is given of _vital_ +assimilation as contradistinguished from that of the nucleus of a crystal? + +_Lastly_, this definition confounds the Law of Life, or the primary and +universal form of vital agency, with the conception, Animals. For the +kind, it substitutes the representative of its degrees and modifications. +But the first and most important office of science, physical or +physiological, is to contemplate the power in kind, abstracted from the +degree. The ideas of caloric, whether as substance or property, and the +conceptions of latent heat, the heat in ice, &c., that excite the wonder +or the laughter of the vulgar, though susceptible of the most important +practical applications, are the result of this abstraction; while the only +purpose to which a definition like the preceding could become subservient, +would be in supplying a nomenclature with the character of the most common +species of a genus--its _genus generalissimum_, and even this would be +useless in the present instance, inasmuch as it presupposes the knowledge +of the things characterised. + +The third class, and far superior to the two former, selects some property +characteristic of all living bodies, not merely found in all _animals_ +alike, but existing equally in all parts of all living things, both +animals and plants. Such, for instance, is the definition of Life, as +consisting in anti-putrescence, or the power of resisting putrefaction. +Like all the others, however, even this confines the idea of Life to those +degrees or concentrations of it, which manifest themselves in organized +beings, or rather in those the organization of which is apparent to us. +Consequently, it substitutes an abstract term, or generalization of +effects, for the idea, or superior form of causative agency. At best, it +describes the _vis vita_ by one only of its many influences. It is +however, as we have said before, preferable to the former, because it is +not, as they are, altogether unfruitful, inasmuch as it attests, less +equivocally than any other sign, the presence or absence of that degree of +the _vis vita_ which is the necessary condition of organic or +self-renewing power. It throws no light, however, on the law or principle +of action; it does not increase our insight into the other phenomena; it +presents to us no _inclusive_ form, out of which the other forms may be +developed, and finally, its defect as a definition may be detected by +generalizing it into a higher formula, as a power which, during its +continuance, resists or subordinates heterogeneous and adverse powers. Now +this holds equally true of chemical relatively to the mechanical powers; +and really affirms no more of Life than may be equally affirmed of every +form of being, namely, that it tends to preserve itself, and resists, to a +certain extent, whatever is incompatible with the laws that constitute its +particular state for the time being. For it is not true only of the great +divisions or classes into which we have found it expedient to distinguish, +while we generalize, the powers acting in nature, as into intellectual, +vital, chemical, mechanical; but it holds equally true of the degrees, or +species of each of these genera relatively to each other: as in the +decomposition of the alkalies by heat, or the galvanic spark. Like the +combining power of Life, the copula here resists for awhile the attempts +to dissolve it, and then yields, to reappear in new phenomena. + +It is a wonderful property of the human mind, that when once a momentum +has been given to it in a fresh direction, it pursues the new path with +obstinate perseverance, in all conceivable bearings, to its utmost +extremes. And by the startling consequences which arise out of these +extremes, it is first awakened to its error, and either recalled to some +former track, or receives some fresh impulse, which it follows with the +same eagerness, and admits to the same monopoly. Thus in the 13th century +the first science which roused the intellects of men from the torpor of +barbarism, was, as in all countries ever has been, and ever must be the +case, the science of _Metaphysics_ and _Ontology_. We first seek what can +be found at home, and what wonder if truths, that appeared to reveal the +secret depths of our own souls, should take possession of the whole mind, +and all truths appear trivial which could not either be evolved out of +similar principles, by the same process, or at least brought under the +same forms of thought, by perceived or imagined analogies? And so it was. +For more than a century men continued to invoke the oracle of their own +spirits, not only concerning its own forms and modes of being, but +likewise concerning the laws of external nature. All attempts at +philosophical explication were commenced by a mere effort of the +understanding, as the power of abstraction; or by the imagination, +transferring its own experiences to every object presented from without. +By the former, a class of phenomena were in the first place abstracted, +and fixed in some general term: of course this could designate only the +impressions made by the outward objects, and so far, therefore, having +been thus metamorphosed, they were effects of these objects; but then made +to supply the place of their own causes, under the name of occult +qualities. Thus the properties peculiar to gold, were abstracted from +those it possessed in common with other bodies, and then generalized in +the term _Aureity_: and the inquirer was instructed that the Essence of +Gold, or the cause which constituted the peculiar modification of matter +called gold, was the power of aureity. By the latter, _i.e._ by the +imagination, thought and will were superadded to the occult quality, and +every form of nature had its appropriate Spirit, to be controlled or +conciliated by an appropriate ceremonial. This was entitled its +SUBSTANTIAL FORM. Thus, physic became a sort of dull poetry, and the art +of medicine (for physiology could scarcely be said to exist) was a system +of magic, blended with traditional empiricism. Thus the forms of thought +proceeded to act in their own emptiness, with no attempt to fill or +substantiate them by the information of the senses, and all the branches +of science formed so many sections of logic and metaphysics. And so it +continued, even to the time that the Reformation sounded the second +trumpet, and the authority of the schools sank with that of the hierarchy, +under the intellectual courage and activity which this great revolution +had inspired. Power, once awakened, cannot rest in one object. All the +sciences partook of the new influences. The world of experimental +philosophy was soon mapped out for posterity by the comprehensive and +enterprising genius of Bacon, and the laws explained by which experiment +could be dignified into experience.(2) But no sooner was the impulse +given, than the same propensity was made manifest of looking at all things +in the one point of view which chanced to be of predominant attraction. +Our Gilbert, a man of genuine philosophical genius, had no sooner +multiplied the facts of magnetism, and extended our knowledge concerning +the property of magnetic bodies, but all things in heaven, and earth, and +in the waters beneath the earth, were resolved into magnetic influences. + +Shortly after a new light was struck by Harriott and Descartes, with their +contemporaries, or immediate predecessors, and the restoration of ancient +geometry, aided by the modern invention of algebra, placed the science of +mechanism on the philosophic throne. How widely this domination spread, +and how long it continued, if, indeed, even now it can be said to have +abdicated its pretensions, the reader need not be reminded. The sublime +discoveries of Newton, and, together with these, his not less fruitful +than wonderful application, of the higher mathesis to the movements of the +celestial bodies, and to the laws of light, gave almost a religious +sanction to the corpuscular system and mechanical theory. It became +synonymous with philosophy itself. It was the sole portal at which truth +was permitted to enter. The human body was treated of as an hydraulic +machine, the operations of medicine were solved, and alas! even directed +by reference partly to gravitation and the laws of motion, and partly by +chemistry, which itself, however, as far as its theory was concerned, was +but a branch of mechanics working exclusively by imaginary wedges, angles, +and spheres. Should the reader chance to put his hand on the "Principles +of Philosophy," by La Forge, an immediate disciple of Descartes, he may +see the phenomena of sleep solved in a copper-plate engraving, with all +the figures into which the globules of the blood shaped themselves, and +the results demonstrated by mathematical calculations. In short, from the +time of Kepler(3) to that of Newton, and from Newton to Hartley, not only +all things in external nature, but the subtlest mysteries of life and +organization, and even of the intellect and moral being, were conjured +within the magic circle of mathematical formulae. And now a new light was +struck by the discovery of electricity, and, in every sense of the word, +both playful and serious, both for good and for evil, it may be affirmed +to have electrified the whole frame of natural philosophy. Close on its +heels followed the momentous discovery of the principal gases by Scheele +and Priestly, the composition of water by Cavendish, and the doctrine of +latent heat by Black. The scientific world was prepared for a new dynasty; +accordingly, as soon as Lavoisier had reduced the infinite variety of +chemical phenomena to the actions, reactions, and interchanges of a few +elementary substances, or at least excited the expectation that this would +speedily be effected, the hope shot up, almost instantly, into full faith, +that it had been effected. Henceforward the new path, thus brilliantly +opened, became the common road to all departments of knowledge: and, to +this moment, it has been pursued with an eagerness and almost epidemic +enthusiasm which, scarcely less than its political revolutions, +characterise the spirit of the age. Many and inauspicious have been the +invasions and inroads of this new conqueror into the rightful territories +of other sciences; and strange alterations have been made in less harmless +points than those of terminology, in homage to an art unsettled, in the +very ferment of imperfect discoveries, and either without a theory, or +with a theory maintained only by composition and compromise. Yet this very +circumstance has favoured its encroachments, by the gratifications which +its novelty affords to our curiosity, and by the keener interest and +higher excitement which an unsettled and revolutionary state is sure to +inspire. He who supposes that science possesses an immunity from such +influences knows little of human nature. How, otherwise, could men of +strong minds and sound judgments have attempted to penetrate by the clue +of chemical experiment the secret recesses, the sacred adyta of organic +life, without being aware that chemistry must needs be at its extreme +limits, when it has approached the threshold of a higher power? Its own +transgressions, however, and the failure of its enterprises will become +the means of defining its absolute boundary, and we shall have to guard +against the opposite error of rejecting its aid altogether as analogy, +because we have repelled its ambitious claims to an identity with the +vital powers. + + * * * * * + +Previously to the submitting my own ideas on the subject of life, and the +powers into which it resolves itself, or rather in which it is manifested +to us, I have hazarded this apparent digression from the anxiety to +_preclude certain suspicions_, which the subject itself is so fitted to +awaken, and while I anticipate the charges, to plead in answer to each a +full and unequivocal--not guilty! + +In the first place, therefore, I distinctly disclaim all intention of +explaining life into an occult quality; and retort the charge on those who +can satisfy themselves with defining it as the peculiar power by which +death is resisted. + +Secondly. Convinced--by revelation, by the consenting authority of all +countries, and of all ages, by the imperative voice of my own conscience, +and by that wide chasm between man and the noblest animals of the brute +creation, which no perceivable or conceivable difference of organization +is sufficient to overbridge--that I have a rational and responsible soul, I +think far too reverentially of the same to degrade it into an hypothesis, +and cannot be blind to the contradiction I must incur, if I assign that +soul which I believe to constitute the peculiar nature of man as the cause +of functions and properties, which man possesses in common with the oyster +and the mushroom.(4) + +Thirdly, while I disclaim the error of Stahl in deriving the phenomena of +life from the unconscious actions of the rational soul, I repel with still +greater earnestness the assertion and even the supposition that the +functions are the offspring of the structure, and "Life(5) the result of +organization," connected with it as effect with cause. Nay, the position +seems to me little less strange, than as if a man should say, that +building with all the included handicraft, of plastering, sawing, planing, +&c. were the offspring of the house; and that the mason and carpenter were +the result of a suite of chambers, with the passages and staircases that +lead to them. To make A the offspring of B, when the very existence of B +as B presupposes the existence of A, is preposterous in the _literal_ +sense of the word, and a consummate instance of the _hysteron proteron_ in +logic. But if I reject the organ as the cause of that, of which it is the +organ, though I might admit it among the _conditions_ of its actual +functions; for the same reason, I must reject _fluids_ and _ethers_ of all +kinds, magnetical, electrical, and universal, to whatever quintessential +thinness they may be treble distilled, and (as it were) +super-substantiated. With these, I abjure likewise all _chemical_ +agencies, compositions, and decompositions, were it only that as +stimulants they suppose a stimulability _sui generis_, which is but +another paraphrase for life. Or if they are themselves at once both the +excitant and the excitability, I miss the connecting link between this +imaginary ether and the visible body, which then becomes no otherwise +distinguished from inanimate matter, than by its juxtaposition in mere +space, with an heterogeneous inmate, the cycle of whose actions revolves +within itself. Besides which I should think that I was confounding +metaphors and realities most absurdly, if I imagined that I had a greater +insight into the meaning and possibility of a living alcohol, than of a +living quicksilver. In short, visible _surface_ and _power_ of any kind, +much more the _power_ of life, are ideas which the very forms of the human +understanding make it impossible to identify. But whether the powers which +manifest themselves to us under certain conditions in the forms of +electricity, or chemical attraction, have any analogy to the power which +manifests itself in growth and organization, is altogether a different +question, and demands altogether a different chain of reasoning: if it be +indeed a tree of knowledge, it will be known by its fruits, and these will +depends not on the mere assertion, but on the inductions by which the +position is supported, and by the additions which it makes to our insight +into the nature of the facts it is meant to illustrate. + +To _account_ for Life is one thing; to explain Life another. In the first +we are supposed to state something prior (if not in time, yet in the order +of Nature) to the thing accounted for, as the ground or cause of that +thing, or (which comprises the meaning and force of both words) as its +_sufficient cause, quae et facit, et subest_. And to this, in the question +of Life, I know no possible answer, but GOD. To account for a thing is to +see into the principle of its possibility, and from that principle to +evolve its being. Thus the mathematician demonstrates the truths of +geometry by constructing them. It is an admirable remark of Joh. Bapt. a +Vico, in a Tract published at Naples, 1710,(6) "Geometrica ideo +demonstramus, quia facimus; physica si demonstrare possimus, faceremus. +Metaphysici veri claritas eadem ac lucis, quam non nisi per opaca +cognoscimus; nam non lucem sed lucidas res videmus. Physica sunt opaca, +nempe formata et finita, in quibus Metaphysici veri lumen videmus." The +reasoner who assigns structure or organization as the antecedent of Life, +who names the former a cause, and the _latter_ its effect, _he_ it is who +pretends to account for life. Now Euclid would, with great right, demand +of such a philosopher to _make_ Life; in the same sense, I mean, in which +Euclid makes an Icosahedron, or a figure of twenty sides, namely, in the +understanding or by an intellectual construction. An argument which, of +itself, is sufficient to prove the untenable nature of Materialism. + +To explain a power, on the other hand, is (the power itself being assumed, +though not comprehended, _ut qui datur, non intelligitur_) to unfold or +spread it out: _ex implicito planum facere_. In the present instance, such +an explanation would consist in the reduction of the idea of Life to its +simplest and most comprehensive form or mode of action; that is, to some +characteristic _instinct_ or _tendency_, evident in all its +manifestations, and involved in the idea itself. This assumed as existing +in _kind_, it will be required to present an ascending series of +corresponding phenomena as involved _in_, proceeding _from_, and so far +therefore explained _by_, the supposition of its progressive intensity and +of the gradual enlargement of its sphere, the necessity of which again +must be contained in the idea of the tendency itself. In other words, the +tendency having been given in _kind_, it is required to render the +phenomena intelligible as its different degrees and modifications. Still +more perfect will the explanation be, should the necessity of this +progression and of these ascending gradations be contained in the assumed +idea of life, as thus defined by the general form and common purport of +all its various tendencies. This done, we have only to add the conditions +common to all its phenomena, and, those appropriate to each place and +rank, in the scale of ascent, and then proceed to determine the primary +and constitutive forms, _i.e._ the elementary powers in which this +tendency realizes itself under different degrees and conditions.(7) + +What is Life? Were such a question proposed, we should be tempted to +answer, what is _not_ Life that really _is_? Our reason convinces us that +the quantities of things, taken abstractedly as quantity, exist only in +the relations they bear to the percipient; in plainer words, they exist +only in our minds, _ut quorum esse est percipi_. For if the definite +quantities have a ground, and therefore a reality, in the external world, +and independent of the mind that perceives them, this ground is _ipso +facto_ a quality; the very etymon of this world showing that a quality, +not taken in its own nature but in relation to another thing, is to be +defined _causa sufficiens, entia, de quibus loquimur; esse talia, qualia +sunt_. Either the quantities perceived exist only in the perception, or +they have likewise a real existence. In the former case, the quality (the +word is here used in an active sense) that determines them belongs to +Life, _per ipsam hypothesin_; and in the other case, since by the +agreement of all parties Life may exist in other forms than those of +consciousness, or even of sensibility, the _onus probandi_ falls on those +who assert of any quality that it is _not_ Life. For the analogy of all +that we know is clearly in favour of the contrary supposition, and if a +man would analyse the meaning of his own words, and carefully distinguish +his perceptions and sensations from the external cause exciting them, and +at the same time from the quantity or superficies under which that cause +is acting, he would instantly find himself, if we mistake not, +involuntarily identifying the ideas of Quality and Life. Life, it is +admitted on all hands, does not necessarily imply consciousness or +sensibility; and we, for our parts, cannot see that the irritability which +metals manifest to galvanism, can be more remote from that which may be +supposed to exist in the tribe of lichens, or in the helvellae, pezizee, +&c., than the latter is from the phenomena of excitability in the human +body, whatever name it may be called by, or in whatever way it may modify +itself.(8) That the mere act of growth does not constitute the idea of +Life, or the absence of that act exclude it, we have a proof in every egg +before it is placed under the hen, and in every grain of corn before it is +put into the soil. All that could be deduced by fair reasoning would +amount to this only, that the life of metals, as the power which effects +and determines their comparative cohesion, ductility, &c., was yet lower +on the scale than the Life which produces the first attempts of +organization, in the almost shapeless tremella, or in such fungi as grow +in the dark recesses of the mine. + + * * * * * + +If it were asked, to what purpose or with what view we should generalize +the idea of Life thus broadly, I should not hesitate to reply that, were +there no other use conceivable, there would be _some_ advantage in merely +destroying an arbitrary assumption in natural philosophy, and in reminding +the physiologists that they could not hear the life of metals asserted +with a more contemptuous surprise than they themselves incur from the +vulgar, when they speak of the Life in mould or mucor. But this is not the +case. This wider view not only precludes a groundless assumption, it +likewise fills up the arbitrary chasm between physics and physiology, and +justifies us in using the former as means of insight into the latter, +which would be contrary to all sound rules of ratiocination if the powers +working in the objects of the two sciences were absolutely and essentially +diverse. For as to abstract the idea of _kind_ from that of _degrees_, +which are alone designated in the language of common use, is the first and +indispensable step in philosophy, so are we the better enabled to form a +notion of the _kind_, the lower the _degree_, and the simpler the form is +in which it appears to us. We study the complex in the simple; and only +from the intuition of the lower can we safely proceed to the intellection +of the higher degrees. The only danger lies in the leaping from low to +high, with the neglect of the intervening gradations. But the same error +would introduce discord into the gamut, _et ab abusu contra usum non valet +consequentia_. That these degrees will themselves bring forth secondary +kinds sufficiently distinct for all the purposes of science, and even for +common sense, will be seen in the course of this inquisition: for this is +one proof of the essential vitality of nature, that she does not ascend as +links in a suspended chain, but as the steps in a ladder; or rather she at +one and the same time _ascends_ as by a climax, and expands as the +concentric circles on the lake from the point to which the stone in its +fall had given the first impulse. At all events, a contemptuous rejection +of this mode of reasoning would come with an ill grace from a medical +philosopher, who cannot combine any three phenomena of health or of +disease without the assumption of powers, which he is compelled to deduce +without being able to demonstrate; nay, even of material substances as the +_vehicles_ of these powers, which he can never expect to exhibit before +the senses. + +From the preceding it should appear, that the most comprehensive formula +to which life is reducible, would be that of the internal copula of +bodies, or (if we may venture to borrow a phrase from the Platonic school) +the _power_ which discloses itself from within as a principle of _unity_ +in the _many_. But that there is a physiognomy in words, which, without +reference to their fitness or necessity, make unfavorable as well as +favorable impressions, and that every unusual term in an abstruse research +incurs the risk of being denominated jargon, I should at the same time +have borrowed a scholastic _term_, and defined life _absolutely_, as the +principle of unity in _multeity_, as far as the former, the unity to wit, +is produced _ab intra_; but _eminently_ (_sensu eminenti_), I define life +as _the principle of individuation_, or the power which unites a given +_all_ into a _whole_ that is presupposed by all its parts. The link that +combines the two, and acts throughout both, will, of course, be defined by +the _tendency_ to _individuation_. Thus, from its utmost _latency_, in +which life is one with the elementary powers of mechanism, that is, with +the powers of mechanism considered as qualitative and actually synthetic, +to its highest manifestation, (in which, as the _vis vitae vivida_, or life +_as_ life, it subordinates and modifies these powers, becoming +contra-distinguished from mechanism,(9) _ab extra_, under the form of +organization,) there is an ascending series of intermediate classes, and +of analogous gradations in each class. To a reflecting mind, indeed, the +very fact that the powers peculiar to life in living animals _include_ +cohesion, elasticity, &c. (or, in the words of a late publication, "that +living matter exhibits these physical properties,"(10)) would demonstrate +that, in the truth of things, they are homogeneous, and that both the +classes are but degrees and different dignities of one and the same +tendency. For the latter are not subjected to the former as a lever, or +walking-stick to the muscles; the more intense the life is, the less does +_elasticity_, for instance, appear _as_ elasticity. It sinks down into the +nearest approach to its _physical_ form by a series of degrees from the +contraction and elongation of the irritable muscle to the physical +hardness of the insensitive nail. The lower powers are _assimilated_, not +merely _employed_, and assimilation presupposes the homogeneous nature of +the thing assimilated; else it is a miracle, only not the same as that of +a _creation_, because it would imply that additional and equal miracle of +annihilation. In short, all the impossibilities which the acutest of the +reformed Divines have detected in the hypothesis of transubstantiation +would apply, _totidem verbis et syllabis_, to that of assimilation, if the +objects and the agents were really heterogeneous. Unless, therefore, a +thing can exhibit properties which do not belong to it, the very admission +that living matter exhibits physical properties, includes the further +admission, that those _physical_ or dead properties are themselves vital +in essence, really _distinct_ but in appearance only _different_; or in +absolute contrast with each other. + +In all cases that which, _abstractly_ taken, is the definition of the +_kind_, will, when applied _absolutely_, or in its fullest sense, be the +definition of the highest _degree_ of that kind. If life, in general, be +defined _vis ab intra, cujus proprium est coadunare plura in rem unicam, +quantum est res unica_; the unity will be more intense in proportion as it +constitutes each particular thing a whole of itself; and yet more, again, +in proportion to the number and interdependence of the parts, which it +unites as a whole. But a whole composed, _ab intra_, of different parts, +so far interdependent that each is reciprocally means and end, is an +individual, and the individuality is most intense where the greatest +dependence of the parts on the whole is combined with the greatest +dependence of the whole on its parts; the first (namely, the dependence of +the parts on the whole) being absolute; the second (namely, the dependence +of the whole on its parts) being proportional to the importance of the +relation which the parts have to the whole, that is, as their action +extends more or less beyond themselves. For this spirit of the whole is +most expressed in that part which derives its importance as an End from +its importance as a Mean, relatively to all the parts under the same +copula. + +Finally, of individuals, the living power will be most intense in that +individual which, as a whole, has the greatest number of integral parts +presupposed in it; when, moreover, these integral parts, together with a +proportional increase of their interdependence, as _parts_, have +themselves most the character of wholes in the sphere occupied by them. A +mathematical point, line, or surface, is an _ens rationis_, for it +expresses an intellectual act; but a physical atom is _ens fictitium_, +which may be made subservient, as ciphers are in arithmetic, to the +purposes of hypothetical construction, _per regulam falsi_; but +transferred to _Nature_, it is in the strictest sense an _absurd_ +quantity; for extension, and consequently divisibility, or _multeity_,(11) +(for space cannot be divided,) is the indispensable condition, under which +alone anything can _appear_ to us, or even be _thought_ of, as a _thing_. +But if it should be replied, that the elementary particles are atoms not +positively, but by such a hardness communicated to them as is relatively +invincible, I should remind the assertor that _temeraria citatio +supernaturalium est pulvinar intellectus pigri_, and that he who requires +me to believe a miracle of his own dreaming, must first work a miracle to +convince me that he had dreamt by inspiration. Add, too, the gross +inconsistency of resorting to an immaterial influence in order to complete +a system of materialism, by the exclusion of all modes of existence which +the theorist cannot in imagination, at least, _finger_ and _peep_ at! Each +of the preceding gradations, as above defined, might be represented as +they exist, and are realised in Nature. But each would require a work for +itself, co-extensive with the science of metals, and that of fossils (both +as geologically applied); of crystallization; and of vegetable and animal +physiology, in all its distinct branches. The nature of the present essay +scarcely permits the space sufficient to illustrate our meaning. The proof +of its probability (for to that only can we arrive by so partial an +application of the hypothesis), is to be found in its powers of solving +the particular class of phenomena, that form the subjects of the present +inquisition, more satisfactorily and profitably than has been done, or +even attempted before. + +Exclusively, therefore, for the purposes of _illustration_, I would take +as an instance of the first step, the metals, those, namely, that are +capable of permanent reduction. For, by the established laws of +nomenclature, the others (as sodium, potassium, calcium, silicium, &c.) +would be entitled to a class of their own, under the name of _bases_. It +is long since the chemists have despaired of decomposing this class of +bodies. They still remain, one and all, as elements or simple bodies, +though, on the principles of the corpuscularian philosophy, nothing can be +more improbable than that they really are such; and no reason has or can +be assigned on the grounds of that system, why, in no one instance, the +contrary has not been proved. But this is at once explained, if we assume +them as the simplest form of unity, namely, the unity of powers and +properties. For these, it is evident, may be endlessly modified, but can +never be decomposed. If I were asked by a philosopher who had previously +extended the attribute of Life to the _Byssus speciosa_, and even to the +crustaceous matter, or outward bones of a lobster, &c., whether the ingot +of gold expressed _life_, I should answer without hesitation, as the +_ingot_ of gold assuredly not, for its form is accidental and _ab extra_. +It may be added to or detracted from without in the least affecting the +nature, state, or properties in the specific matter of which the ingot +consists. But as _gold_, as that special union of absolute and of relative +gravity, ductility, and hardness, which, wherever they are found, +constitute _gold_, I should answer no less fearlessly, in the affirmative. +But I should further add, that of the two counteracting tendencies of +nature, namely, that of _detachment_ from the universal life, which +universality is represented to us by gravitation, and that of _attachment_ +or reduction into it, this and the other noble metals represented the +units in which the latter tendency, namely, that of identity with the life +of nature, subsisted in the greatest overbalance over the former. It is +the form of unity with the least degree of tendency to individuation. + +Rising in the ascent, I should take, as illustrative of the second step, +the various forms of crystals as a union, not of powers only, but of +parts, and as the simplest forms of composition in the next narrowest +sphere of affinity. Here the form, or apparent _quantity_, is manifestly +the result of the _quality_, and the chemist himself not seldom admits +them as infallible characters of the substances united in the whole of a +given crystal. + +In the first step, we had Life, as the mere _unity_ of powers; in the +second we have the simplest forms of _totality_ evolved. The third step is +presented to us in those vast formations, the tracing of which generically +would form the science of Geology, or its history in the strict sense of +the word, even as their description and diagnostics constitute its +preliminaries. + +Their claim to this rank I cannot here even attempt to support. It will be +sufficient to explain my reason for having assigned it to them, by the +avowal, that I regard them in a twofold point of view: 1st, as the residue +and product of vegetable and animal life; 2d, as manifesting the +tendencies of the Life of Nature to vegetation or animalization. And this +process I believe--in one instance by the peat morasses of the northern, +and in the other instance by the coral banks of the southern hemisphere--to +be still connected with the present order of vegetable and animal Life, +which constitute the fourth and last step in these wide and comprehensive +divisions. + +In the lowest forms of the vegetable and animal world we perceive totality +dawning into _individuation_, while in man, as the highest of the class, +the individuality is not only perfected in its corporeal sense, but begins +a new series beyond the appropriate limits of physiology. The tendency to +individuation, more or less obscure, more or less obvious, constitutes the +common character of all classes, as far as they maintain for themselves a +distinction from the universal life of the planet; while the degrees, both +of intensity and extension, to which this tendency is realized, form the +species, and their ranks in the great scale of ascent and expansion. + +In the treatment of a subject so vast and complex, within the limits +prescribed for an essay like the present, where it is impossible not to +say either too much or too little (and too much because too little), an +author is entitled to make large claims on the candour of his judges. Many +things he must express inaccurately, not from ignorance or oversight, but +because the more precise expression would have involved the necessity of a +further explanation, and this another, even to the first elements of the +science. This is an inconvenience which presses on the analytic method, on +however large a scale it may be conducted, compared with the synthetic; +and it must bear with a tenfold weight in the present instance, where we +are not permitted to avail ourselves of its usual advantages as a +counterbalance to its inherent defects. I shall have done all that I dared +propose to myself, or that can be justly demanded of me by others, if I +have succeeded in conveying a sufficiently clear, though indistinct and +inadequate notion, so as of its many results to render intelligible that +one which I am to apply to my particular subject, not as a truth already +demonstrated, but as an hypothesis, which pretends to no higher merit than +that of explaining the particular class of phenomena to which it is +applied, and asks no other reward than a presumption in favour of the +general system of which it affirms itself to be a dependent though +integral part. By Life I everywhere mean the true Idea of Life, or that +most general form under which Life manifests itself to us, which includes +all its other forms. This I have stated to be the _tendency to +individuation_, and the degrees or intensities of Life to consist in the +progressive realization of this tendency. The power which is acknowledged +to exist, wherever the realization is found, must subsist wherever the +tendency is manifested. The power which comes forth and stirs abroad in +the bird, must be latent in the egg. I have shown, moreover, that this +tendency to individuate cannot be conceived without the opposite tendency +to connect, even as the centrifugal power supposes the centripetal, or as +the two opposite poles constitute each other, and are the constituent acts +of one and the same power in the magnet. We might say that the life of the +magnet subsists in their union, but that it lives (acts or manifests +itself) in their strife. Again, if the tendency be at once to individuate +and to connect, to detach, but so as either to retain or to reproduce +attachment, the individuation itself must be a tendency to the ultimate +production of the highest and most comprehensive individuality. This must +be the one great end of Nature, her ultimate object, or by whatever other +word we may designate that something which bears to a final cause the same +relation that Nature herself bears to the Supreme Intelligence. + + * * * * * + +According to the plan I have prescribed for this inquisition, we are now +to seek for the highest law, or most general form, under which this +tendency acts, and then to pursue the same process with this, as we have +already done with the tendency itself, namely, having stated the law in +its highest abstraction, to present it in the different forms in which it +appears and reappears in higher and higher dignities. I restate the +question. The tendency having been ascertained, what is its most general +law? I answer--_polarity_, or the essential dualism of Nature, arising out +of its productive unity, and still tending to reaffirm it, either as +equilibrium, indifference, or identity. In its _productive power_, of +which the product is the only measure, consists its incompatibility with +mathematical calculus. For the full applicability of an abstract science +ceases, the moment reality begins.(12) Life, then, we consider as the +copula, or the unity of thesis and antithesis, position and +counterposition,--Life itself being the positive of both; as, on the other +hand, the two counterpoints are the necessary conditions of the +_manifestations_ of Life. These, by the same necessity, unite in a +synthesis; which again, by the law of dualism, essential to all actual +existence, expands, or _produces_ itself, from the point into the _line_, +in order again to converge, as the initiation of the same productive +process in some intenser form of reality. Thus, in the identity of the two +counter-powers, Life _sub_sists; in their strife it _con_sists: and in +their reconciliation it at once dies and is born again into a new form, +either falling back into the life of the whole, or starting anew in the +process of individuation. + +Whence shall we take our beginning? From Space, _istud litigium +philosophorum_, which leaves the mind equally dissatisfied, whether we +deny or assert its real existence. To make it wholly ideal, would be at +the same time to idealize all phenomena, and to undermine the very +conception of an external world. To make it real, would be to assert the +existence of something, with the properties of nothing. It would far +transcend the height to which a physiologist must confine his flights, +should we attempt to reconcile this apparent contradiction. It is the duty +and the privilege of the theologian to demonstrate, that _space_ is the +ideal organ by which the soul of man perceives the _omnipresence_ of the +Supreme Reality, as distinct from the works, which in him move, and live, +and have their being; while the equal mystery of _Time_ bears the same +relation to his _Eternity_, or what is fully equivalent, his Unity. + +Physiologically contemplated, Nature begins, proceeds, and ends in a +contradiction; for the moment of absolute solution would be that in which +Nature would cease to be Nature, _i.e._ a scheme of ever-varying +relations; and physiology, in the ambitious attempt to solve phenomena +into absolute realities, would itself become a mere web of verbal +abstractions. + +But it is in strict connexion with our subject, that we should make the +universal FORMS as well as the not less universal LAW of Life, clear and +intelligible in the example of _Time_ and _Space_, these being both the +first specification of the principle, and ever after its indispensable +symbols. First, a single act of self-inquiry will show the impossibility +of distinctly conceiving the one without some involution of the other; +either time expressed in space, in the form of the mathematical line, or +space within time, as in the circle. But to form the first conception of a +_real_ thing, we state both as one in the idea, _duration_. The formula +is: (A=B+B=A)=(A=A) or the oneness of space and time, is the predicate of +all _real_ being. + +But as little can we conceive the oneness, except as the mid-point +producing itself on each side; that is, manifesting itself on two opposite +poles. Thus, from identity we derive duality, and from both together we +obtain polarity, synthesis, indifference, predominance. The line is Time + +Space, under the predominance of Time: Surface is Space + Time, under the +predominance of Space, while Line + Surface as the synthesis of units, is +the circle in the first dignity; to the sphere in the second; and to the +globe in the third. In short, neither can the antagonists appear but as +two forces of one power, nor can the power be conceived by us but as the +equatorial point of the two counteracting forces; of which the +_hypomochlion_ of the lever is as good an illustration as anything can be +that is thought of _mechanically_ only, and exclusively of life. To make +it adequate, we must substitute the idea of positive production for that +of rest, or mere neutralization. To the fancy alone it is the null-point, +or zero, but to the reason it is the _punctum saliens_, and the power +itself in its eminence. Even in these, the most abstract and universal +forms of all thought and perception--even in the ideas of time and space, +we slip under them, as it were, a _substratum_; for we cannot think of +them but as far as they are co-inherent, and therefore as reciprocally the +measures of each other. Nor, again, can we finish the process without +having the idea of _motion_ as its immediate product. Thus we say, that +time has one dimension, and imagine it to ourselves as a line. But the +line we have already proved to be the productive synthesis of time, with +space under the predominance of time. If we exclude space by an abstract +assumption, the time remains as a spaceless point, and represents the +concentered power of unity and active negation, _i.e._ retraction, +determination, and limit, _ab intra_. But if we assume the time as +excluded, the line vanishes, and we leave space dimensionless, an +indistinguishable ALL, and therefore the representative of absolute +weakness and formlessness, but, for that very reason, of infinite capacity +and formability. + +We have been thus full and express on this subject, because these simple +ideas of time, space, and motion, of length, breadth, and depth, are not +only the simplest and universal, but the necessary symbols of all +philosophic construction. They will be found the primary factors and +elementary forms of every calculus and of every diagram in the algebra and +geometry of a scientific physiology. Accordingly, we shall recognise the +same forms under other names; but at each return more specific and +intense; and the whole process repeated with ascending gradations of +reality, _exempli gratia_: Time + space = motion; T_m_ + space = line + +breadth = depth; depth + motion = force; L_f_ + B_f_ = D_f_; LD_f_ + BD_f_ += attraction + repulsion = gravitation; and so on, even till they pass +into outward phenomena, and form the intermediate link between productive +powers and fixed products in light, heat, and electricity. If we pass to +the construction of matter, we find it as the product, or _tertium aliud_, +of antagonist powers of repulsion and attraction. Remove these powers, and +the conception of matter vanishes into space--conceive repulsion only, and +you have the same result. For infinite repulsion, uncounteracted and +alone, is tantamount to infinite, dimensionless diffusion, and this again +to infinite weakness; viz., to space. Conceive attraction alone, and as an +infinite contraction, its product amounts to the absolute point, viz., to +time. Conceive the synthesis of both, and you have matter as a fluxional +antecedent, which, in the very act of formation, passes into body by its +gravity, and yet in all bodies it still remains as their mass, which, +being exclusively calculable under the law of gravitation, gives rise, as +we before observed, to the science of statics, most improperly called +celestial mechanics. + +In strict consistence with the same philosophy which, instead of +considering the powers of bodies to have been miraculously stuck into a +prepared and pre-existing matter, as pins into a pin-cushion, conceives +the powers as the productive factors, and the body or phenomenon as the +fact, product, or fixture; we revert again to potentiated length in the +power of magnetism; to surface in the power of electricity; and to the +synthesis of both, or potentiated depth, in constructive, that is, +chemical affinity. But while the two factors are as poles to each other, +each factor has likewise its own poles, and thus in the simple cross-- + +With M M, the magnetic line, running from top to bottom, with _f f_ its +northern pole, or pole of attraction; and _m m_ its south, or pole of +repulsion, and E E, running from left to right, one of the lines that +spring from each point of M M, with its east, or pole of contraction, and +_d_ its west, or pole of diffluence and expansion--we have presented to us +the universal quadruplicity, or four elemental forms of power; in the +endless proportions and modifications of which, the innumerable offspring +of all-bearing Nature consist. Wisely docile to the suggestions of Nature +herself, the ancients significantly expressed these forces under the names +of earth, water, air, and fire; not meaning any tangible or visible +substance so generalized, but the powers predominant, and, as it were, the +living basis of each, which no chemical decomposition can ever present to +the senses, were it only that their interpenetration and co-inherence +first constitutes them sensible, and is the condition and meaning of +a--_thing_. Already our more truly philosophical naturalists (Ritter, for +instance) have begun to generalize the four great elements of chemical +nomenclature, carbon, azote, oxygen, and hydrogen: the two former as the +positive and negative pole of the magnetic axis, or as the power of fixity +and mobility; and the two latter as the opposite poles, or plus and minus +states of cosmical electricity, as the powers of contraction and +dilatation, or of comburence and combustibility. These powers are to each +other as longitude to latitude, and the poles of each relatively as north +to south, and as east to west. For surely the reader will find no distrust +in a system only because Nature, ever consistent with herself, presents us +everywhere with harmonious and accordant symbols of her consistent +doctrines. Nothing would be more easy than, by the ordinary principles of +sound logic and common sense, to demonstrate the impossibility and expose +the absurdity of the corpuscularian or mechanic system, or than to prove +the intenable nature of any intermediate system. But we cannot force any +man into an insight or intuitive possession of the true philosophy, +because we cannot give him abstraction, intellectual intuition, or +constructive imagination; because we cannot organize for him an eye that +can see, an ear that can listen to, or a heart that can feel, the +harmonies of Nature, or recognise in her endless forms, the thousand-fold +realization of those simple and majestic laws, which yet in their +absoluteness can be discovered only in the recesses of his own spirit,--not +by that man, therefore, whose imaginative powers have been _ossified_ by +the continual reaction and assimilating influences of mere _objects_ on +his mind, and who is a prisoner to his own eye and its reflex, the passive +fancy!--not by him in whom an unbroken familiarity with the organic world, +as if it were mechanical, with the sensitive, but as if it were insensate, +has engendered the coarse and hard spirit of a sorcerer. The former is +unable, the latter unwilling, to master the absolute pre-requisites. There +is neither hope nor occasion for him "to cudgel his brains about it, he +has no feeling of the business." If he do not see the necessity from +without, if he have not learned the possibility from within, of +interpenetration, of total intussusception, of the existence of all in +each as the condition of Nature's unity and substantiality, and of the +latency under the predominance of some one power, wherein subsists her +life and its endless variety, as he must be, by habitual slavery to the +eye, or its reflex, the passive fancy, under the influences of the +corpuscularian philosophy, he has so paralysed his imaginative powers as +to be unable--or by that hardness and heart-hardening spirit of contempt, +which is sure to result from a perpetual commune with the lifeless, he has +so far debased his inward being--as to be unwilling to comprehend the +pre-requisite, he must be content, while standing thus at the threshold of +philosophy, to receive the results, though he cannot be admitted to the +deliberation--in other words, to act upon _rules_ which he is incapable of +understanding as LAWS, and to reap the harvest with the sharpened iron for +which others have delved for him in the mine. + +It is not improbable that there may exist, and even be discovered, higher +forms and more akin to Life than those of magnetism, electricity, and +constructive (or chemical) affinity appear to be, even in their finest +known influences. It is not improbable that we may hereafter find +ourselves justified in revoking certain of the latter, and unappropriating +them to a yet unnamed triplicity; or that, being thus assisted, we may +obtain a qualitative instead of a quantitative insight into vegetable +animation, as distinct from animal, and that of the insect world from +both. But in the present state of science, the magnetic, electric, and +chemical powers are the last and highest of inorganic nature. These, +therefore, we assume as presenting themselves again to us, in their next +metamorphosis, as reproduction (_i.e._ growth and identity of the whole, +amid the change or flux of all the parts), irritability and sensibility; +reproduction corresponding to magnetism, irritability to electricity, and +sensibility to constructive chemical affinity. + + * * * * * + +But before we proceed further, it behoves us to answer the objections +contained in the following passage, or withdraw ourselves in time from the +bitter contempt in which it would involve us. Acting under such a +necessity, we need not apologise for the length of the quotation. + +1. "If," says Mr. Lawrence, "the properties of living matter are to be +explained in this way, why should not we adopt the same plan with physical +properties, and account for gravitation, or chemical affinity, by the +supposition of appropriate subtile fluids? Why does the irritability of a +muscle need such an explanation, if explanation it can be called, more +than the elective attraction of a salt?" + +2. "To make the matter more intelligible, this vital principle is compared +to magnetism, to electricity, and to galvanism; or it is roundly stated to +be oxygen. 'Tis like a camel, or like a whale, or like what you please." + +3. "You have only to grant that the phenomena of the sciences just alluded +to depend on extremely fine and invisible fluids, superadded to the +matters in which they are exhibited, and to allow further that Life, and +magnetic, galvanic, and electric phenomena correspond perfectly; the +existence of a subtile matter of Life will then be a very probable +inference." + +4. "On this illustration you will naturally remark, that the existence of +the magnetic, electric, and galvanic fluids, which is offered as a proof +of the existence of a vital fluid, is as much a matter of doubt as that of +the vital fluid itself." + +5. "It is singular, also, that the vital principle should be like both +magnetism and electricity, when these two are not like each other." + +6. "It would have been interesting to have had this illustration +prosecuted a little further. We should have been pleased to learn whether +the human body is more like a loadstone, a voltaic pile, or an electrical +machine; whether the organs are to be regarded as Leyden jars, magnetic +needles, or batteries." + +7. "The truth is, there is no resemblance, no analogy, between Electricity +and Life; the two orders of phenomena are completely distinct; they are +incommensurable. Electricity illustrates life no more than life +illustrates electricity."(13) + +To avoid unnecessary description, I shall refer to the passages by the +numbers affixed to them, for that purpose, in the margin. + +In reply to No. 1, I ask whether, in the nature of the mind, illustration +and explanation must not of necessity proceed from the lower to the +higher? or whether a boy is to be taught his addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, by the highest branches of algebraic +analysis? Is there any better way of systematic teaching, than that of +illustrating each new step, or having each new step illustrated to him by +its identity in kind with the step the next below it? though it be the +only mode in which this objection can be answered, yet it seems affronting +to remind the objector, of rules so simple as that the complex must even +be illustrated by the more simple, or the less scrutible by that which is +more subject to our examination. + +In reply to No. 2, I first refer to the author's eulogy on Mr. Hunter, p. +163, in which he is justly extolled for having "surveyed the whole +_system_ of organized beings, from plants to man:" of course, therefore, +_as_ a _system_; and therefore under some _one common law_. Now in the +very same sense, and no other, than that in which the writer himself by +implication compares himself as a man to the _dermestes typographicus_, or +the _fucus scorpioides_, do I compare the principle of Life to magnetism, +electricity, and constructive affinity,--or rather to that power to which +the two former are the thesis and antithesis, the latter the synthesis. +But if to compare involve the sense of its etymon, and involve the sense +of parity, I utterly deny that I do at all compare them; and, in truth, in +no conceivable sense of the word is it applicable, any more than a +geometrician can be affirmed to compare a polygon to a point, because he +generates the line out of the point. The writer attributes to a philosophy +essentially vital the barrenness of the mechanic system, with which alone +his imagination has been familiarised, and which, as hath been justly +observed by a contemporary writer, is contradistinguished from the former +principally in this respect; that demanding for every mode and act of +existence real or possible visibility, it knows only of distance and +nearness, composition (or rather compaction) and decomposition, in short, +the relations of unproductive particles to each other; so that in every +instance the result is the exact sum of the component qualities, as in +arithmetical addition. This is the philosophy of Death, and only of a dead +nature can it hold good. In Life, and in the view of a vital philosophy, +the two component counter-powers actually interpenetrate each other, and +generate a higher third, including both the former, "ita tamen ut sit alia +et major." + +As a complete answer to No. 3, I refer the reader to many passages in the +preceding and following pages, in which, on far higher and more +demonstrative grounds than the mechanic system can furnish, I have exposed +the unmeaningness and absurdity of these finer fluids, as applied even to +electricity itself; unless, indeed, they are assumed as its product. But +in addition I beg leave to remind the author, that it is incomparably more +agreeable to all experience to originate the formative process in the +_fluid_, whether fine or gross, than in corporeal _atoms_, in which we are +not only deserted by all experience, but contradicted by the primary +conception of body itself. + +Equally inapplicable is No. 4: and of No. 5 I can only repeat, first, that +I do not make Life _like_ magnetism, or _like_ electricity; that the +difference between magnetism and electricity, and the powers illustrated +by them, is an essential part of my system, but that the animal Life of +man is the identity of all three. To whatever other system this objection +may apply, it is utterly irrelevant to that which I have here propounded: +though from the narrow limits prescribed to me, it has been propounded +with an inadequacy painful to my own feelings. + +The ridicule in No. 6 might be easily retorted; but as it could prove +nothing, I will leave it where I found it, in a page where nothing is +proved. + +A similar remark might be sufficient for the bold and blank assertion (No. +7) with which the extract concludes; but that I feel some curiosity to +discover what meaning the author attaches to the term analogy. Analogy +implies a difference in sort, and not merely in degree; and it is the +sameness of the end, with the difference of the means, which constitutes +analogy. No one would say the lungs of a man were analogous to the lungs +of a monkey, but any one might say that the gills of fish and the +spiracula of insects are analogous to lungs. Now if there be any +philosophers who have asserted that electricity as electricity is the +_same_ as Life, for that reason they cannot be _analogous_ to each other; +and as no man in his senses, philosopher or not, is capable of imagining +that the lightning which destroys a sheep, was a means to the same end +with the principle of its organization; for this reason, too, the two +powers cannot be represented as analogous. Indeed I know of no system in +which the word, as thus applied, would admit of an endurable meaning, but +that which teaches us, that a mass of marrow in the skull is analogous to +the rational soul, which Plato and Bacon, equally with the "poor Indian," +believe themselves to have received from the Supreme Reason. + +It would be blindness not to see, or affectation to pretend not to see, +the work at which these sarcasms were levelled. The author of that work is +abundantly able to defend his own opinions; yet I should be ambitious to +address _him_ at the close of the contest in the lines of the great Roman +poet: + +"Et nos tela, Pater, ferrumque haud debile dextra +Spargimus, et nostro sequitur, de vulnere sanguis." + +In Mr. Abernethy's Lecture on the Theory of Life, it is impossible not to +see a presentiment of a great truth. He has, if I may so express myself, +caught it in the breeze: and we seem to hear the first glad opening and +shout with which he springs forward to the pursuit. But it is equally +evident that the prey has not been followed through its doublings and +windings, or driven out from its brakes and covers into full and open +view. Many of the least tenable phrases may be fairly interpreted as +illustrations, rather than precise exponents of the author's meaning; at +least, while they remain as a mere suggestion or annunciation of his +ideas, and till he has expanded them over a larger sphere, it would be +unjust to infer the contrary. But it is not with men, however strongly +their professional merits may entitle them to reverence, that my concern +is at present. If the opinions here supported are the same with those of +Mr. Abernethy, I rejoice in his authority. If they are different, I shall +wait with an anxious interest for an exposition of that difference. + +Having reasserted that I no more confound magnetism with electricity, or +the chemical process, than the mathematician confounds length with +breadth, or either with depth; I think it sufficient to add that there are +two views of the subject, the former of which I do not believe +attributable to any philosopher, while both are alike disclaimed by me as +forming any part of my views. The first is that which is supposed to +consider electricity identical with life, as it subsists in organized +bodies. The other considers electricity as everywhere present, and +penetrating all bodies under the image of a subtile fluid or substance, +which, in Mr. Abernethy's inquiry, I regard as little more than a mere +diagram on his slate, for the purpose of fixing the attention on the +intellectual conception, or as a possible _product_, (in which case +electricity must be a composite power,) or at worst, as words _quae humana +incuria fudit_. This which, in inanimate Nature, is manifested now as +magnetism, now as electricity, and now as chemical agency, is supposed, on +entering an organized body, to constitute its vital _principle_, something +in the same manner as the steam becomes the _mechanic_ power of the +steam-engine, in _consequence_ of its compression by the steam-engine; or +as the breeze that murmurs indistinguishably in the forest becomes the +element, the substratum, of melody in the AEolian harp, and of consummate +harmony in the organ. Now this hypothesis is as directly opposed to my +view as supervention is to evolution, inasmuch as I hold the organized +body itself, in all its marvellous contexture, to be the PRODUCT and +representant of the power which is here supposed to have supervened to it. +So far from admitting a _transfer_, I do not admit it even in electricity +itself, or in the phenomena universally called electrical; among other +points I ground my explanation of remote sympathy on the directly contrary +supposition. + +But my opinions will be best explained by a rapid exemplification in the +processes of Nature, from the first rudiments of individualized life in +the lowest classes of its two great poles, the vegetable and animal +creation, to its crown and consummation in the human body; thus +illustrating at once the unceasing _polarity of life, as the form of its +process, and its tendency to progressive individuation as the law of its +direction_. + +Among the conceptions, of the mere ideal character of which the +philosopher is well aware, and which yet become necessary from the +necessity of assuming a beginning; the original fluidity of the planet is +the chief. Under some form or other it is expressed or implied in every +system of cosmogony and even of geology, from Moses to Thales, and from +Thales to Werner. This assumption originates in the same law of mind that +gave rise to the _prima materia_ of the Peripatetic school. In order to +_comprehend_ and _explain_ the _forms_ of things, we must imagine a state +_antecedent_ to form. A chaos of heterogeneous substances, such as our +Milton has described, is not only an _impossible_ state (for this may be +equally true of every other attempt), but it is _palpably_ impossible. It +presupposes, moreover, the thing it is intended to solve; and makes _that_ +an _effect_ which had been called in as the explanatory _cause_. The +requisite and only serviceable fiction, therefore, is the representation +of CHAOS as one vast homogeneous drop! In this sense it may be even +justified, as an appropriate symbol of the great fundamental truth that +all things spring from, and subsist in, the endless strife between +indifference and difference. The whole history of Nature is comprised in +the specification of the transitional states from the one to the other. +The symbol only is fictitious: the thing signified is not only grounded in +truth--it is the law and actuating principle of all other truths, whether +physical or intellectual. + +Now, by magnetism in its widest sense, I mean the first and simplest +_differential_ act of Nature, as the power which works in _length_, and +produces the first distinction between the indistinguishable by the +generation of a _line_. Relatively, therefore, to fluidity, that is, to +matter, the parts of which cannot be distinguished from each other by +figure, magnetism is the power of fixity; but, relatively to itself, +magnetism, like every other power in Nature, is designated by its opposite +poles, and must be represented as the magnetic axis, the northern pole of +which signifies rest, attraction, fixity, coherence, or hardness; the +element of EARTH in the nomenclature of _observation_ and the CARBONIC +principle in that of _experiment_; while the southern pole, as its +antithesis, represents mobility, repulsion, incoherence, and fusibility; +the element of air in the nomenclature of observation (that is, of Nature +as it appears to us when unquestioned by art), and azote or nitrogen in +the nomenclature of experiment (that is, of Nature in the state so +beautifully allegorized in the Homeric fable of Proteus bound down, and +forced to answer by Ulysses, after having been pursued through all his +metamorphoses into his ultimate form.(14)) That nothing real does or can +exist corresponding to either pole _exclusively_, is involved in the very +definition of a THING as the synthesis of opposing energies. That a thing +_is_, is owing to the co-inherence therein of any two powers; but that it +is _that_ particular thing arises from the proportions in which these +powers are co-present, either as predominance or as reciprocal +neutralization; but under the modification of twofold power to which +magnetism itself is, as the thesis to its antithesis. + +The correspondent, in the world of the senses, to the magnetic axis, +exists in the series of metals. The metalleity, as the universal base of +the planet, is a necessary deduction from the principles of the system. +From the infusible, though evaporable, diamond to nitrogen itself, the +metallic nature of which has been long suspected by chemists, though still +under the mistaken notion of an oxyde, we trace a series of metals from +the maximum of coherence to positive fluidity, in all ordinary +temperatures, we mean. Though, in point of fact, cold itself is but a +superinduction of the one pole, or, what amounts to the same thing, the +subtraction of the other, under the modifications afore described; and +therefore are the metals indecomposible, because they are themselves the +decompositions of the metallic axis, in all its degrees of longitude and +latitude. Thus the substance of the planet from which it _is_, is +metallic; while that which is ever _becoming_, is in like manner produced +through the perpetual modification of the first by the opposite forces of +the second; that is, by the principle of contraction and difference at the +eastern extreme--the element of fire, or the oxygen of the chemists; and by +the elementary power of dilatation, or universality at its western +extreme--the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} of the ancients, and the hydrogen of the +laboratory. + +It has been before noticed that the progress of Nature is more truly +represented by the ladder, than by the suspended chain, and that she +expands as by concentric circles. This is, indeed, involved in the very +conception of individuation, whether it be applied to the different +species or to the individuals. In what manner the evident interspace is +reconciled with the equally evident continuity of the life of Nature, is a +problem that can be solved by those minds alone, which have intuitively +learnt that the whole _actual_ life of Nature originates in the existence, +and consists in the perpetual reconciliation, and as perpetual resurgency +of the primary contradiction, of which universal polarity is the result +and the exponent. From the first moment of the differential impulse--(the +primaeval chemical epoch of the Wernerian school)--when Nature, by the +tranquil deposition of crystals, prepared, as it were, the fulcrum of her +after-efforts, from this, her first, and in part _irrevocable_, +self-contraction, we find, in each ensuing production, more and more +tendency to independent existence in the increasing multitude of strata, +and in the relics of the lowest orders, first of vegetable and then of +animal life. In the schistous formations, which we must here assume as in +great measure the residua of vegetable creations, that have sunk back into +the universal life, and in the later predominant calcareous masses, which +are the _caput mortuum_ of animalized existence, we ascend from the laws +of attraction and repulsion, as united in gravity, to magnetism, +electricity, and constructive power, till we arrive at the point +representative of a new and far higher intensity. For from this point +flow, as in opposite directions, the two streams of vegetation and +animalization, the former characterised by the predominance of magnetism +in its highest power, as reproduction, the other by electricity +intensified--as irritability, in like manner. The vegetable and animal +world are the thesis and antithesis, or the opposite poles of organic +life. We are not, therefore, to seek in either for analogies to the other, +but for counterpoints. On the same account, the nearer the common source, +the greater the likeness; the farther the remove, the greater the +opposition. At the extreme limits of inorganic Nature, we may detect a dim +and obscure prophecy of her ensuing process in the twigs and rude +semblances that occur in crystallization of some of the copper ores, and +in the well-known _arbor Dianae_, and _arbor Veneris_. These latter Ritter +has already ably explained by considering the oblique branches and their +acute angles as the result of magnetic repulsion, from the presentation of +the same poles, &c. In the CORALS and CONCHYLIA, the whole act and purpose +of their existence seems to be that of connecting the animal with the +inorganic world by the perpetual formation of calcareous earth. For the +corals are nothing but polypi, which are characterised by still passing +away and dissolving into the earth, which they had previously excreted, as +if they were the first feeble effort of detachment. The power seems to +step forward from out the inorganic world only to fall back again upon it, +still, however, under a new form, and under the predominance of the more +active pole of magnetism. The product must have the same connexion, +therefore, with azote, which the first rudiments of vegetation have with +carbon: the one and the other exist not for their own sakes, but in order +to produce the conditions best fitted for the production of higher forms. +In the polypi, corallines, &c., individuality is in its first dawn; there +is the same shape in them all, and a multitude of animals form, as it +were, a common animal. And as the individuals run into each other, so do +the different genera. They likewise pass into each other so +indistinguishably, that the whole order forms a very network. + +As the corals approach the conchylia, this interramification decreases. +The tubipora forms the transition to the serpula; for the characteristic +of all zoophytes, namely, the star shape of their openings, here +disappears, and the tubiporae are distinguished from the rest of the corals +by this very circumstance, that the hollow calcareous pipes are placed +side by side, without interbranching. In the serpula they have already +become separate. How feeble this attempt is to individuate, is most +clearly shown in their mode of generation. Notwithstanding the report of +Professor Pallas, it still remains doubtful whether there exists any +actual copulation among the polypi. The mere existence of a polypus +suffices for its endless multiplication. They may be indefinitely +propagated by cuttings, so languid is the power of individuation, so +boundless that of reproduction. But the delicate jelly dissolves, as +lightly as it was formed, into its own product, and it is probable that +the Polynesia, as a future continent, will be the gigantic monument, not +so much of their life, as of the life of Nature in them. Here we may +observe the first instance of that general law, according to which Nature +still assimilates her extreme points. In these, her first and feeblest +attempts to animalize organization, it is latent, because undeveloped, and +merely potential; while, in the human brain, the last and most consummate +of her combined energies, it is again lost or disguised in the +subtlety(15) and multiplicity of its evolution. + +In the class immediately above (Mollusca) we find the individuals +separate, a more determinate form, and in the higher species, the rudiment +of nerves, as the first scarce distinguishable impress and exponent of +sensibility; still, however, the vegetative reproduction is the +predominant form; and even the nerves "which float in the same cavity with +the other viscera," are probably subservient to it, and extend their power +in the increased intensity of the reproductive force. Still prevails the +transitional state from the fluid to the solid; and the jelly, that +rudiment in which all animals, even the noblest, have their commencement; +constitutes the whole sphere of these rudimental animals. + +In the snail and muscle, the residuum of the coral reappears, but refined +and ennobled into a part of the animal. The whole class is characterised +by the separation of the fluid from the solid. On the one side, a +gelatinous semi-fluid; on the other side, an entirely inorganic, though +often a most exquisitely mechanised, calcareous excretion. + +Animalization in general is, we know, contra-distinguished from vegetables +in general by the predominance of azote in the chemical composition, and +of irritability in the organic process. But in this and the foregoing +classes, as being still near the common equator, or the punctum +indifferentiae, the carbonic principle still asserts its claims, and the +force of reproduction struggles with that of irritability. In the +unreconciled strife of these two forces consists the character of the +_Vermes_, which appear to be the preparatory step for the next class. +Hence the difficulties which have embarrassed the naturalists, who adopt +the Linnaean classification, in their endeavours to discover determinate +characters of distinction between the vermes and the insecta. + +But no sooner have we passed the borders, than endless variety of form and +the bold display of instincts announce, that Nature has succeeded. She has +created the intermediate link between the vegetable world, as the product +of the reproductive or magnetic power, and the animal as the exponent of +sensibility. Those that live and are nourished, on the bodies of other +animals, are comparatively few, with little diversity of shape, and almost +all of the same natural family. These we may pass by as exceptions. But +the insect world, taken at large, appears as an intenser life, that has +struggled itself loose and become emancipated from vegetation, _Florae +liberti, et libertini!_ If for the sake of a moment's relaxation we might +indulge a Darwinian flight, though at the risk of provoking a smile, (not, +I hope, a frown) from sober judgment, we might imagine the life of insects +an apotheosis of the petals, stamina, and nectaries, round which they +flutter, or of the stems and pedicles, to which they adhere. Beyond and +above this step, Nature seems to act with a sort of free agency, and to +have formed the classes from choice and bounty. Had she proceeded no +further, yet the whole vegetable, together with the whole insect creation, +would have formed within themselves an entire and independent system of +Life. All plants have insects, most commonly each genus of vegetables its +appropriate genera of insects; and so reciprocally interdependent and +necessary to each other are they, that we can almost as little think of +vegetation without insects, as of insects without vegetation. Though +probably the mere likeness of _shape_, in the _papilio_, and the +papilionaceous plants, suggested the idea of the former, as the latter in +a state of detachment, to our late poetical and theoretical brother; yet a +something, that approaches to a graver plausibility, is given to this +fancy of a flying blossom; when we reflect how many plants depend upon +insects for their fructification. Be it remembered, too, that with few and +very obscure exceptions, the irritable power and an analogon of voluntary +motion first dawn on us in the vegetable world, in the stamina, and +anthers, at the period of impregnation. Then, as if Nature had been +encouraged by the success of the first experiment, both the one and the +other appear as predominance and general character. THE INSECT WORLD IS +THE EXPONENT OF IRRITABILITY, AS THE VEGETABLE IS OF REPRODUCTION. + +With the ascent in power, the intensity of individuation keeps even pace; +and from this we may explain all the characteristic distinctions between +this class and that of the vermes. The almost homogeneous jelly of the +animalcula infusoria became, by a vital oxydation, granular in the polypi. +This granulation formed itself into distinct organs in the molluscae; while +for the snails, which are the next step, the animalized lime, that seemed +the sole final cause of the life of the polypi, assumes all the characters +of an ulterior purpose. Refined into a horn-like substance, it becomes to +the snails the substitute of an organ, and their outward skeleton. Yet how +much more manifold and definite, the organization of an insect, than that +of the preceding class, the patient researches of Swammerdam and Lyonnet +have evinced, to the delight and admiration of every reflecting mind. + +In the insect, for the first time, we find the distinct commencement of a +separation between the exponents of sensibility and those of irritability; +_i.e._ between the _nervous_ and the _muscular_ system. The latter, +however, asserts its pre-eminence throughout. The prodigal provision of +organs for the purposes of respiration, and the marvellous powers which +numerous tribes of insects possess, of accommodating the most corrupted +airs, for a longer or shorter period, to the support of their +excitability, would of itself lead us to presume, that here the _vis +irritabilis_ is the reigning dynasty. There is here no confluence of +nerves into one reservoir, as evidence of the independent existence of +sensibility _as_ sensibility;--and therefore no counterpoise of a vascular +system, as a distinct exponent of the irritable pole. The whole +muscularity of these animals, is the organ of irritability; and the nerves +themselves are probably feeders of the motory power. The petty rills of +sensibility flow into the full expanse of irritability, and there lose +themselves. The nerves appertaining to the senses, on the other hand, are +indistinct, and comparatively unimportant. The multitude of immovable eyes +appear not so much conductors of light, as its ultimate recipient. We are +almost tempted to believe that they constitute, rather than subserve, +their sensorium. + +These eye-facets form the sense of light, rather than organs of seeing. +Their almost paradoxical number at least, and the singularity of their +forms, render it probable that they impel the animal by some modification +of its irritability, herein likewise containing a striking analogy to the +known influence of light on plants, than as excitements of sensibility. +The sense that is nearest akin to irritability, and which alone resides in +the muscular system, is that of touch, or feeling. This, therefore, is the +first sense that emerges. Being confined to absolute contact, it occupies +the lowest rank; but for that very reason it is the ground of all the +other senses, which act, according to the ratio of their ascent, at still +increasing distances, and become more and more ideal, from the tentacles +of the polypus, to the human eye; which latter might be defined the +outward organ of the identity, or at least of the indifference, of the +real and ideal. But as the calcareous residuum of the lowest class +approaches to the nature of horn in the snail, so the cumbrous shell of +the snail has been transformed into polished and moveable plates of +defensive armour in the insect. Thus, too, the same power of progressive +individuation articulates the tentacula of the polypus and holothuria into +antennae; thereby manifesting the full emersion and eminency of +irritability as a power which acts in, and gives its own character to, +that of reproduction. The least observant must have noticed the +lightning-like rapidity with which the insect tribes devour and eliminate +their food, as by an instinctive necessity, and in the least degree for +the purposes of the animal's own growth or enlargement. The same +predominance of irritability, and at the same time a new start in +individuation, is shown in the reproductive power as generation. There is +now a regular projection, _ab intra ad extra_, for which neither sprouts +nor cuttings can any longer be the substitutes. We have not space for +further detail; but there is one point too strikingly illustrative and +even confirmative of the proposed system, to be omitted altogether. We +mean the curious fact, that the same characteristic tendency, _ad extra_, +which in the males and females of certain insect tribes is realized in the +functions of generation, conception, and parturiency, manifests and +expands itself in the _sexless_ individuals (which are always in this case +the great majority of the species), as instincts of art, and in the +construction of works completely detached and inorganic; while the +geometric regularity of these works, which bears an analogy to +crystallization, is demonstrably no more than the necessary result of +uniform action in a compressed multitude. + +Again, as the insect world, averaging the whole, comes nearest to plants, +(whose very essence is reproduction,) in the multitude of their germs; so +does it resemble plants in the sufficiency of a single impregnation for +the evolution of myriads of detached lives. Even so, the metamorphoses of +insects, from the egg to the maggot and caterpillar, and from these, +through the nympha and aurelia into the perfect insect, are but a more +individuated and intenser form of a similar transformation of the plant +from the seed-leaflets, or cotyledons, through the stalk, the leaves, and +the calyx, into the perfect flower, the various colours of which seem made +for the reflection of light, as the antecedent grade to the burnished +scales, and scale-like eyes of the insect. Nevertheless, with all this +seeming prodigality of organic power, the whole tendency is _ad extra_, +and the life of insects, as electricity in the quadrate, acts chiefly on +the superficies of their bodies, to which we may add the negative proof +arising from the absence of sensibility. It is well known, that the two +halves of a divided insect have continued to perform, or attempt, each +their separate functions, the trunkless head feeding with its accustomed +voracity, while the headless trunk has exhibited its appropriate +excitability to the sexual influence. + +The intropulsive force, that sends the ossification inward as to the +centre, is reserved for a yet higher step, and this we find embodied in +the class of _fishes_. Even here, however, the process still seems +imperfect, and (as it were) initiatory. The skeleton has left the surface, +indeed, but the bones approach to the nature of gristle. To feel the truth +of this, we need only compare the most perfect bone of a fish with the +thigh-bones of the mammalia, and the distinctness with which the latter +manifest the co-presence of the _magnetic_ power in its solid parietes, of +the _electrical_ in its branching arteries, and of the third greatest +power, viz., the _qualitative_ and interior, in its marrow. The senses of +fish are more distinct than those of insects. Thus, the intensity of its +sense of smell has been placed beyond doubt, and rises in the extent of +its sphere far beyond the irritable sense, or the feeling, in insects. I +say the _feeling_, not the touch; for the touch seems, as it were, a +supervention to the feeling, a perfection _given_ to it by the reaction of +the higher powers. As the feeling of the insect, in subtlety and virtual +distance, rises above the solitary sense of taste(16) in the mollusca, so +does the smell of the fish rise above the feeling of the insect. In the +fish, likewise, the eyes are single and moveable, while it is remarkable +that the only insect that possesses this latter privilege, is an +inhabitant of the waters. Finally, here first, unequivocally, and on a +_large_ scale, (for I pretend not to control the freedom, in which the +necessity of Nature is rooted, by the precise limits of a system,)--here +first, Nature exhibits, in the power of sensibility, the consummation of +those vital forms (the _nisus formativi_) the adequate and the sole +measure of which is to be sought for in their several organic products. +But as if a weakness of exhaustion had attended this advance in the same +moment it was made, Nature seems necessitated to fall back, and re-exert +herself on the lower ground which she had before occupied, that of the +vital magnetism, or the power of reproduction. The intensity of this +latter power in the fishes, is shown both in their voracity and in the +number of their eggs, which we are obliged to calculate by _weight_, not +by _tale_. There is an equal intensity both of the _immanent_ and the +_projective_ reproduction, in which, if we take in the comparative number +of individuals in each species, and likewise the different intervals +between the acts, the fish (it is probable) would be found to stand in a +similar relation to the insect, as the insect, in the latter point, stands +to the system of vegetation. Meantime, the fish sinks a step below the +insect, in the mode and circumstances of impregnation. To this we will +venture to add, the predominance of _length_, as the _form_ of growth in +so large a proportion of the known orders of fishes, and not less of their +rectilineal path of motion. In all other respects, the correspondence +combined with the progress in individuation, is striking in the whole +detail. Thus the eye, in addition to its moveability, has besides acquired +a saline moisture in its higher development, as accordant with the life of +its element. Add to these the glittering covering in both, the splendour +of the scales in the one answering to the brilliant plates in the +other,--the luminous reservoirs of the fire-flies,--the phosphorescence and +electricity of many fishes,--the same analogs of moral qualities, in their +rapacity, boldness, modes of seizing their prey by surprise,--their gills, +as presenting the intermediate state between the spiracula of the grade +next below, and the lungs of the step next above, both extremes of which +seem combined in the structure of birds and of their quill-feathers; but +above all, the convexity of the crystalline lens, so much greater than in +birds, quadrupeds, and man, and seeming to collect, in one powerful organ, +the hundred-fold microscopic facettes of the insect's _light_ organs; and +it will not be easy to resist the conviction, that the same power is at +work in both, and reappears under higher auspices. The intention of Nature +is repeated; but, as was to have been expected, with two main differences. + +First, that in the lower grade the reproductions themselves seem merged in +those of irritability, from the very circumstance that the latter +constitutes no pole, either to the former, or to sensibility. The force of +irritability acts, therefore, in the insect world, in full predominance; +while the emergence of sensibility in the fish calls forth the opposite +pole of reproduction, as a _distinct_ power, and causes therefore the +irritability to flow, in part, into the power of reproduction. The second +result of this ascent is the direction of the organizing power, _ad +intra_, with the consequent greater simplicity of the exterior form, and +the substitution of condensed and flexible force, with comparative unity +of implements, for that variety of tools, almost as numerous as the +several objects to which they are to be applied, which arises from, and +characterises, the superficial life of the insect creation. This grade of +ascension, however, like the former, is accompanied by an apparent +retrograde movement. For from this very accession of vital intensity we +must account for the absence in the fishes of all the formative, or rather +(if our language will permit it) _fabricative_ instincts. How could it be +otherwise? These instincts are the surplus and projection of the +organizing power in the direction _ad extra_, and could not, therefore, +have been expected in the class of animals that represent the first +intuitive effort of organization, and are themselves the product of its +first movement in the direction _ad intra_. But Nature never loses what +she has once learnt, though in the acquirement of each new power she +intermits, or performs less energetically, the act immediately preceding. +She often drops a faculty, but never fails to pick it up again. She may +seem forgetful and absent, but it is only to recollect herself with +_additional_, as well as _recruited_ vigour, in some after and higher +state; as if the sleep of powers, as well as of bodies, were the season +and condition of their growth. Accordingly, we find these instincts again, +and with them a wonderful synthesis of fish and insect, as a higher third, +in the feathered inhabitants of the air. Nay, she seems to have gone yet +further back, and having given B + C = D in the birds, so to have sported +with one solitary instance of B + D = A in that curious animal the dragon, +the anatomy of which has been recently given to the public by Tiedemann; +from whose work it appears, that this creature presents itself to us with +the wings of the insect, and with the nervous system, the brain, and the +cranium of the bird, in their several rudiments. + +The synthesis of fish and insect in the birds, might be illustrated +equally in detail with the former; but it will be sufficient for our +purpose, that as in both the former cases, the insect and the fish, so +here in that of the birds, the powers are under the predominance of +irritability; the sensibility being dormant in the first, awakening in the +second, and awake, but still subordinate, in the third. Of this my limits +confine me to a single presumptive proof, viz., the superiority in +strength and courage of the female in the birds of prey. For herein, +indeed, does the difference of the sexes universally consist, wherever +both the forces are developed, that the female is characterised by quicker +irritability, and the male by deeper sensibility. How large a stride has +been now made by Nature in the progress of individuation, what +ornithologist does not know? From a multitude of instances we select the +most impressive, the power of sound, with the first rudiments of +modulation! That all languages designate the melody of birds as singing +(though according to Blumenbach man only sings, while birds do but +whistle), demonstrates that it has been felt as, what indeed it is, a +tentative and prophetic prelude of something yet to come. With this +conjoin the power and the tendency to acquire articulation, and to imitate +speech; conjoin the building instinct and the migratory, the monogamy of +several species, and the pairing of almost all; and we shall have +collected new instances of the usage (I dare not say law) according to +which Nature lets fall, in order to resume, and steps backward the +furthest, when she means to leap forwards with the greatest concentration +of energy. + +For lo! in the next step of ascent the power of sensibility has assumed +her due place and rank: her minority is at an end, and the complete and +universal presence of a nervous system unites absolutely, by instanteity +of time what, with the due allowances for the transitional process, had +before been either lost in sameness, or perplexed by multiplicity, or +compacted by a finer mechanism. But with this, all the analogies with +which Nature had delighted us in the preceding step seem lost, and, with +the single exception of that more than valuable, that estimable +philanthropist, the dog, and, perhaps, of the horse and elephant, the +analogies to ourselves, which we can discover in the quadrupeds or +quadrumani, are of our vices, our follies, and our imperfections. The +facts in confirmation of both the propositions are so numerous and so +obvious, the advance of Nature, under the predominance of the third +synthetic power, both in the intensity of life and in the intenseness and +extension of individuality, is so undeniable, that we may leap forward at +once to the highest realization and reconciliation of both her tendencies, +that of the most perfect detachment with the greatest possible union, to +that last work, in which Nature did not assist as handmaid under the eye +of her sovereign Master, who made Man in his own image, by superadding +self-consciousness with self-government, and breathed into him a living +soul. + +The class of _Vermes_ deposit a calcareous stuff, as if it had torn loose +from the earth a piece of the gross mass which it must still drag about +with it. In the insect class this residuum has refined itself. In the +fishes and amphibia it is driven back or inward, the organic power begins +to be intuitive, and sensibility appears. In the birds the bones have +become hollow; while, with apparent proportional recess, but, in truth, by +the excitement of the opposite pole, their exterior presents an actual +vegetation. The bones of the mammalia are filled up, and their coverings +have become more simple. Man possesses the most perfect osseous structure, +the least and most insignificant covering. The whole force of organic +power has attained an inward and centripetal direction. He has the whole +world in counterpoint to him, but he contains an entire world within +himself. Now, for the first time at the apex of the living pyramid, it is +Man and Nature, but Man himself is a syllepsis, a compendium of Nature--the +Microcosm! Naked and helpless cometh man into the world. Such has been the +complaint from eldest time; but we complain of our chief privilege, our +ornament, and the connate mark of our sovereignty. _Porphyrigeniti sumus_! +In Man the centripetal and individualizing tendency of all Nature is +itself concentred and individualized--he is a revelation of Nature! +Henceforward, he is referred to himself, delivered up to his own charge; +and he who stands the most on himself, and stands the firmest, is the +truest, because the most individual, Man. In social and political life +this acme is inter-dependence; in moral life it is independence; in +intellectual life it is genius. Nor does the form of polarity, which has +accompanied the law of individuation up its whole ascent, desert it here. +As the height, so the depth. The intensities must be at once opposite and +equal. As the liberty, so must be the reverence for law. As the +independence, so must be the service and the submission to the Supreme +Will! As the ideal genius and the originality, in the same proportion must +be the resignation to the real world, the sympathy and the inter-communion +with Nature. In the conciliating mid-point, or equator, does the Man live, +and only by its equal presence in both its poles can that life be +manifested! + + * * * * * + +If it had been possible, within the prescribed limits of this essay, to +have deduced the philosophy of Life synthetically, the evidence would have +been carried over from section to section, and the _quod erat +demonstrandum_ at the conclusion of one section would reappear as the +principle of the succeeding--the goal of the one would be the starting-post +of the other. Positions arranged in my own mind, as intermediate and +organic links of administration, must be presented to the reader in the +first instance, at least, as a mere hypothesis. Instead of demanding his +assent as a right, I must solicit a suspension of his judgment as a +courtesy; and, after all, however firmly the hypothesis may support the +phenomena piled upon it, we can deduce no more than a practical rule, +grounded on a strong presumption. The license of arithmetic, however, +furnishes instances that a rule may be usefully applied in practice, and +for the particular purpose may be sufficiently authenticated by the +result, before it has itself been duly demonstrated. It is enough, if only +it hath been rendered fully intelligible. + +In a system where every position proceeds from a scientific +preconstruction, a power acting exclusively in length, would be magnetism +by virtue of our own definition of the term. In like manner, a surface +power would be electricity, as far as that system was concerned, whether +it accorded or not with the facts ordinarily so called. But it is +incumbent on us, who must treat the subject _analytically_, to show by +experiment that magnetism does in fact act longitudinally, and electricity +superficially; and that, consequently, the former is distinguished from, +and yet contained in, the latter, as a straight line is distinguished +from, yet contained in, a superficies. + +First, that magnetism, in its conductors, seeks and follows length only, +and by the length is itself conducted, has been proved by Brugmans, in his +philosophical Essay on the Matter of Magnetism, where he relates that a +magnet capable of supporting a body four times heavier than itself, and +which acted as a magnetic needle at the distance of twenty inches, was so +weakened by the interposition of three cast-iron plates of considerable +thickness, as scarcely to move the magnetic needle from its place at a +distance of only three inches. A similar experiment had been made by +Descartes. I concluded, therefore, said Brugmans, that if the iron plates +were interposed between the magnet and the needle lengthways, instead of +breadthways or right across, the action of the magnet on the magnetic +needle would, in consequence of this great increase of resistance, become +still weaker, or perhaps evanescent. But not less to my surprise than my +admiration, I found that the power of the magnet was so far from being +_diminished_ by this change in the relative position of the iron-plates; +that, on the contrary, it now extended to a far greater distance than when +no iron at all was interposed. Some time after the same philosopher, out +of several iron bars, the sides of which were an inch broad each, composed +a single bar of the length of more than ten feet, and observed the +magnetism make its way through the whole mass. But, in order to try +whether the action could be propagated to any length indefinitely, after +several experiments with bars of intermediate lengths, in all of which he +had succeeded, he tried a four-cornered iron rod, more than twenty feet +long, and it was at this length that the magnetic power first began to be +diminished. So far Brugmans. + +But the shortest way for any one to convince himself of this relation of +the magnetic power would be, in one and the same experiment, to interpose +the same piece of iron between the magnet and the compass needle first +_breadthways_; and in this case it will be found that the needle, which +had been previously deflected by the magnet from its natural position at +one of its poles, will instantly resume the same, either wholly or very +nearly so--then to interpose the same piece of iron _lengthways_; in which +case the position of the compass needle will be scarcely or not at all +affected. + +The assertion of Bernoulli and others, that the absolute force of the +artificial magnet increases in the ratio of its superficies, stands +corrected in the far more accurate experiments of Coulomb (published in +his Treatise on Magnetism), which proves that the increase takes place (in +a far greater degree) in the ratio of its length. The same naturalist even +found means to determine that the directing powers of the needle, which he +had measured by help of his _balance de tortion_, stand to the length of +the needle in such a ratio as that, provided only the length of the needle +is from forty to fifty times its diameter, the momenta of these directing +powers will increase in the very same direct proportion as the length is +increased. Nor is this all that may be deduced from the experiment last +mentioned. If only the magnet be strong enough, it will show likewise that +magnetism _seeks_ the length. The proof is contained in the remarkable +fact, that the iron interposed between the magnet and the magnetic needle +_breadthways_ constantly acquires its two opposite poles at both ends +_lengthways_. Though the preceding experiments are abundantly sufficient +to prove the position, yet the following deserves mention for the +beautiful clearness of its evidence. If the magnetic power is determined +exclusively by length, it is to be expected that it will manifest no +force, where the piece of iron is of such a shape that no one dimension +predominates. Bring a _cube_ of iron near the magnetic needle and it will +not exert the slightest degree of power beyond what belongs to it as mere +iron. By the perfect equality of the dimensions, the magnetism of the +earth appears, as it were, perplexed and doubtful. Now, then attach a +second cube of iron to the first, and the instantaneous act of the iron on +the magnetic needle will make it manifest that with the length thus given, +the magnetic influence is given at the same moment. + +That electricity, on the other hand, does not act in length merely, is +clear, from the fact that every electric body is electric over its whole +surface. But that electricity acts both in length and breadth, and _only_ +in length and breadth, and not in depth; in short, that the (so-called) +electrical fluid in an electrified body spreads over the whole surface of +that body without penetrating it, or tending _ad intra_, may be proved by +direct experiment. Take a cylinder of wood, and bore an indefinite number +of holes in it, each of them four lines in depth and four in diameter. +Electrify this cylinder, and present to its superficies a small square of +gold-leaf, held to it by an insulating needle of gum lac, and bring this +square to an electrometer of great sensibility. The electrometer will +instantly show an electricity in the gold-leaf, similar to that of the +cylinder which had been brought into contact with it. The square of +gold-leaf having thus been discharged of its electricity, put it carefully +into one of the holes of the cylinder, _so_, namely, that it shall touch +only the bottom of the hole, and present it again to the electrometer. It +will be then found that the electrometer will exhibit no signs of +electricity whatsoever. From this it follows, that the electricity which +had been communicated to the cylinder had confined itself to the +_surface_. + +If the time and the limit prescribed would admit, we could multiply +experiments, all tending to prove the same law; but we must be content +with the barely sufficient. But that the _chemical process_ acts in +_depth_, and first, therefore, _realizes_ and integrates the fluxional +power of magnetism and electricity, is involved in the _term_ composition; +and this will become still more convincing when we have learnt to regard +_decomposition_ as a mere co-relative, _i.e._ as decomposition relatively +to the body decomposed, but composition _actually_ and in respect of the +substances, _into_ which it was decomposed. The alteration in the specific +gravity of metals in their chemical amalgams, interesting as the fact is +in all points, is _decisive_ in the present; for gravity is the sole +_inward_ of inorganic bodies--it _constitutes_ their depth. + +I can now, for the first time, give to my opinions that degree of +intelligibility, which is requisite for their introduction as hypotheses; +the experiments above related, understood as in the common mode of +thinking, prove that the magnetic influence flows in length, the electric +fluid by suffusion, and that chemical agency (whatever the main agent may +be) is qualitative and _in intimis_. Now my hypothesis demands the +converse of all this. I affirm that a power, acting exclusively in length, +is (wherever it be found) _magnetism_; that a power which acts _both_ in +length and in breadth, and _only_ in length and breadth, is (wherever it +be found) _electricity_; and finally, that a power which, together with +length and breadth, includes depth likewise, is (wherever it be found) +_constructive agency_. That is but _one_ phenomenon of magnetism, to which +we have appropriated and confined the term magnetism; because of all the +natural bodies at present known, iron, and one or two of its nearest +relatives in the family of hard yet coherent metals, are the only ones, in +which all the conditions are collected, under which alone the magnetic +agency can appear in and during the act itself. When, therefore, I affirm +the power of reproduction in organized bodies to be magnetism, I must be +understood to mean that this power, as it exists in the magnet, and which +we there (to use a strong phrase) catch in the very act, is to the same +kind of power, working as reproductive, what the root is to the cube of +that root. We no more confound the force in the compass needle with that +of reproduction, than a man can be said to confound his liver with a +lichen, because he affirms that both of them grow. + +The same precautions are to be repeated in the identification of +electricity with irritability; and the power of depth, for which we have +yet no appropriated term, with sensibility. How great the distance is in +all, and that the lowest degrees are adopted as the exponent terms, not +for their own sakes, but merely because they may be used with less hazard +of diverting the attention from the _kind_ by peculiar properties arising +out of the degree, is evident from the third instance, unless the theorist +can be supposed insane enough to apply sensation in good earnest to the +effervescence of an acid or an alkali, or to sympathise with the +distresses of a vat of new beer when it is working. In whatever way the +subject could be treated, it must have remained unintelligible to men who, +if they think of space at all, abstract their notion of it from the +contents of an exhausted receiver. With this, and with an ether, such men +may work wonders; as what, indeed, cannot be done with a plenum and a +vacuum, when a theorist has privileged himself to assume the one, or the +other, _ad libitum_?--in all innocence of heart, and undisturbed by the +reflection that the two things cannot both be true. That both time and +space are mere abstractions I am well aware; but I know with equal +certainty that what is _expressed_ by them as the _identity_ of both is +the highest reality, and the root of all power, the power to suffer, as +well as the power to act. However mere an _ens logicum_ space may be, the +_dimensions_ of space are real, and the works of Galileo, in more than one +elegant passage, prove with what awe and amazement they fill the mind that +worthily contemplates them. Dismissing, therefore, all facts of degrees, +as introduced merely for the purposes of illustration, I would make as +little reference as possible to the magnet, the charged phial, or the +processes of the laboratory, and designate the three powers in the process +of our animal life, each by two co-relative terms, the one expressing the +_form_, and the other the _object_ and _product_ of the power. My +hypothesis will, therefore, be thus expressed, that the constituent forces +of life in the human living body are--first, the power of length, or +REPRODUCTION; second, the power of surface (that is, length and breadth), +or IRRITABILITY; third, the power of depth, or SENSIBILITY. With this +observation I may conclude these remarks, only reminding the reader that +Life itself is neither of these separately, but the copula of all +three--that Life, _as_ Life, supposes a positive or universal principle in +Nature, with a negative principle in every particular animal, the latter, +or limitative power, constantly acting to individualize, and, as it were, +_figure_ the former. _Thus_, then, Life itself is not a _thing_--a +self-subsistent _hypostasis_--but an _act_ and _process_; which, pitiable +as the prejudice will appear to the _forts esprits_, is a great deal more +than either my reason would authorise or my conscience allow me to +assert--concerning the Soul, as the principle both of Reason and +Conscience. + + + + + +ADVERTISEMENTS. + + +_October, 1848._ Works on Medicine and Science +Published by John Churchill. + + * * * * * + +Dr. Golding Bird, F.R.S. The Diagnosis, Pathological Indications And +Treatment of Urinary Deposits. With Engravings on Wood. Second Edition. +Post 8vo. cloth, 8_s._ 6_d._ By The Same Author. Elements of Natural +Philosophy; being an Experimental Introduction to the Study of the +Physical Sciences. Illustrated with several Hundred Wood-cuts. Third +Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Beasley. The Pocket Formulary and Synopsis of The British And Foreign +Pharmacopoeias; comprising Standard and Improved Formulae for the +Preparations and Compounds employed in Medical Practice. Fourth Edition, +corrected and enlarged. 18mo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Henry Bennett. A Practical Treatise on Inflammation, Ulceration, And +Induration of the Neck of The Uterus; with Remarks on Leucorrhoea and +Prolapsus Uteri, as Symptoms of this form of Disease. 8vo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Budd, F.R.S. On Diseases of the Liver; illustrated with Coloured +Plates and Engravings on Wood. 8vo. cloth, 14_s._ + + * * * * * + +Sir James Clark, Bart., M.D. On The Sanative Influence of Climate. With an +Account of the best Places of Resort for Invalids in England, the South of +Europe, &c. Fourth Edition, revised. Post 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. +A Manual of Physiology; specially designed for the Use of Students. With +numerous Illustrations on Steel and Wood. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ +Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S. Principles of General and Comparative Physiology; +intended as an Introduction to the Study of Human Physiology, and as a +Guide to the Philosophical Pursuit of Natural History. Illustrated with +numerous Figures on Copper and Wood. The Second Edition. 8vo. cloth, +18_s._ By The Same Author. Principles of Human Physiology. numerous +Illustrations on Steel and Wood. Third Edition. One thick 8vo. vol. 21_s._ + + * * * * * + +Sir Astley Cooper, Bart., F.R.S. A Treatise on Dislocations and Fractures +of the Joints. Edited by Bransby b. Cooper, F.R.S. 8vo. cloth, 20_s._ Sir +Astley Cooper left very considerable additions in MS. for the express +purpose of being introduced into this Edition. By The Same Author. +Observations on the Structure and Diseases of the Testis. Illustrated with +Twenty-four highly-finished coloured Plates. Second Edition. Royal 4to. +cloth. _Reduced from_ 3_l._ 3_s. to_ 1_l._ 10_s._ + + * * * * * + +Dr. Conolly. The Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums and +Hospitals for the Insane. With Plans, post 8vo. cloth, 6_s._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Cooley. Comprehensive Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia The Cyclopaedia of +Practical Receipts, and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, +and Trades, Including Medicine, Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy; designed +as a Compendious Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, +Amateur, and Heads of Families. Second Edition, in one thick volume of 800 +pages. 8vo. cloth, 14_s._ + + * * * * * + +Mr. Fergusson, F.R.S.E. A System of Practical Surgery; with numerous +Illustrations on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ Mr. +Churchill's Publications. Mr. Fownes, PH. D., F.R.S. A Manual of +Chemistry; with numerous Illustrations on Wood. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. +cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ "An admirable exposition of the present state of +chemical science, simply and clearly written."--_British and Foreign +Medical Review._ By The Same Author. Introduction to Qualitative Analysis. +Post 8vo. cloth, 2_s._ + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Mr. Abernethy. + + 2 Experiment, as an organ of reason, not less distinguished from the + blind or dreaming industry of the alchemists, than it was + successfully opposed to the barren subtleties of the schoolmen. + + 3 Whose own mind, however, was not comprehended in the vortex; where + Kepler erred it was in the other extreme. + + 4 But still less would I avail myself of its acknowledged + inappropriateness to the purposes of physiology, in order to cast a + self-complacent sneer on the soul itself, and on all who believe in + its existence. First, because in my opinion it would be impertinent; + secondly, because it would be imprudent and injurious to the + character of my profession; and, lastly, because it would argue an + irreverence to the feelings of mankind, which I deem scarcely + compatible with a good heart, and a degree of arrogance and + presumption which I have never found, except in company with a + corrupt taste and a shallow capacity. + + 5 Vide Lawrence's Lecture. + + 6 Joh. Bapt. a Vico, Neapol. Reg. eloq. Professor, de antiquissima + Itallorum sapientia ex lingua Latina originibus aruenda: libri tres. + Neap., 1710. + + 7 The object I have proposed to myself, and wherein its distinction + exists, may be thus illustrated. A complex machine is presented to + the common view, the moving power of which is hidden. Of those who + are studying and examining it, one man fixes his attention on some + one application of that power, on certain effects produced by that + particular application, and on a certain part of the structure + evidently appropriated to the production of these effects, neither + the one or other of which he had discovered in a neighbouring + machine, which he at the same time asserts to be quite distinct from + the former, and to be moved by a power altogether different, though + many of the works and operations are, he admits, common to both + machines. In this supposed peculiarity he places the essential + character of the former machine, and defines it by the presence of + that which is, or which he supposes to be, absent in the latter. + Supposing that a stranger to both were about to visit the two + machines, this peculiarity would be so far useful as that it might + enable him to distinguish the one from the other, and thus to look + in the proper place for whatever else he had heard remarkable + concerning either; not that he or his informant would understand the + machine any better or otherwise, than the common character of a + whole class in the nomenclature of botany would enable a person to + understand all, or any one of the plants contained in that class. + But if, on the other hand, the machine in question were such as no + man was a stranger to, if even the supposed peculiarity, either by + its effects, or by the construction of that portion of the works + which produced them, were equally well known to all men, in this + case we can conceive no use at all of such a definition; for at the + best it could only be admitted as a definition for the purposes of + nomenclature, which never adds to knowledge, although it may often + facilitate its communication. But in this instance it would be + nomenclature misplaced, and without an object. Such appears to me to + be the case with all those definitions which place the essence of + Life in nutrition, contractility, &c. As the second instance, I will + take the inventor and maker of the machine himself, who knows its + moving power, or perhaps himself constitutes it, who is, as it were, + the soul of the work, and in whose mind all its parts, with all + their bearings and relations, had pre-existed long before the + machine itself had been put together. In him therefore there would + reside, what it would be presumption to attempt to acquire, or to + pretend to communicate, the most perfect insight not only of the + machine itself, and of all its various operations, but of its + ultimate principle and its essential causes. The mysterious ground, + the efficient causes of vitality, and whether different lives differ + absolutely or only in degree, He alone can know who not only said, + "Let the earth bring forth the living creature, the beast of the + earth after his kind, and it was so;" but who said, "Let us make man + in our image, who himself breathed into his nostrils the breath of + Life, and man became a living soul." + + The third case which I would apply to my own attempt would be that + of the inquirer, who, presuming to know nothing of the power that + moves the whole machine, takes those parts of it which are presented + to his view, seeks to reduce its various movements to as few and + simple laws of motion as possible, and out of their separate and + conjoint action proceeds to explain and appropriate the structure + and relative positions of the works. In obedience to the + canon,--"Principia non esse multiplicanda praeter summam necessitatem + cui suffragamur non ideo quia causalem in mundo unitatem vel ratione + vel experientia perspiciamus, sed illam ipsam indagamus impulsu + intellectus, qui tantundem sibi in explicatione phaenomenorum + profecisse videtur quantum ab codem principio ad plurima rationata + descendere ipsi concessum est." + + 8 The arborescent forms on a frosty morning, to be seen on the window + and pavement, must have _some_ relation to the more perfect forms + developed in the vegetable world. + + 9 Thus we may say that whatever is organized from without, is a + product of mechanism; whatever is mechanised from within, is a + production of organization. + + 10 "The matter that surrounds us is divided into two great classes, + living and dead; the latter is governed by physical laws, such as + attraction, gravitation, chemical affinity; and it exhibits physical + properties, such as cohesion, elasticity, divisibility, &c. Living + matter also exhibits these properties, and is subject, in great + measure, to physical laws. But living bodies are endowed moreover + with a set of properties altogether different from these, and + contrasting with them very remarkably." (Vide Lawrence's Lectures, + p. 121.) + + 11 Much against my will I repeat this scholastic term, _multeity_, but + I have sought in vain for an unequivocal word of a less repulsive + character, that would convey the notion in a positive and not + comparative sense in kind, as opposed to the _unum et simplex_, not + in degree, as contracted with the _few_. We can conceive no reason + that can be adduced in justification of the word _caloric_, as + invented to distinguish the external cause of the sensation heat, + which would not equally authorise the introduction of a technical + term in this instance. + + 12 For abstractions are the conditions and only subject of all abstract + sciences. Thus the theorist (vide Dalton's Theory), who reduces the + chemical process to the positions of atoms, would doubtless thereby + render chemistry calculable, but that he commences by destroying the + chemical process itself, and substitutes for it a _mote dance_ of + abstractions; for even the powers which he appears to leave real, + those of attraction and repulsion, he immediately unrealizes by + representing them as diverse and separable properties. We can + abstract the quantities and the quantitative motion from masses, + passing over or leaving for other sciences the question of what + constitutes the masses, and thus apply not to the masses themselves, + but to the abstractions therefrom,--the laws of geometry and + universal arithmetic. And where the quantities are the infallible + signs of real powers, and our chief concern with the masses is as + SIGNS, sciences may be founded thereon of the highest use and + dignity. Such, for instance, is the sublime science of astronomy, + having for its objects the vast masses which "God placed in the + firmament of the heaven to be for _signs_ and for seasons, for days + and years." For the whole doctrine of physics may be reduced to + three great divisions: First, _quantitative motion_, which is + proportioned to the quantity of matter exclusively. This is the + science of weight or statics. Secondly, _relative motion_, as + communicated to bodies externally by impact. This is the science of + mechanics. Thirdly, _qualitative motion_, or that which is accordant + to properties of matter. And this is chemistry. Now it is evident + that the first two sciences presuppose that which forms the + exclusive object of the third, namely, quality; for all quantity in + nature is either itself derived, or at least derives its powers from + some _quality_, as that of weight, specific cohesion, hardness, &c.; + and therefore the attempt to reduce to the distances or impacts of + atoms, under the assumptions of two powers, which are themselves + declared to be no more than mere general terms for those quantities + of motion and impact (the atom itself being a fiction formed by + abstraction, and in truth a third occult quality for the purpose of + explaining hardness and density), amounts to an attempt to destroy + chemistry itself, and at the same time to exclude the sole reality + and only positive contents of the very science into which that of + chemistry is to be degraded. Now what qualities are to chemistry, + _productiveness_ is to the science of Life; and this being excluded, + physiology or zoonomy would sink into chemistry, chemistry by the + same process into mechanics, while mechanics themselves would lose + the substantial principle, which, bending the lower extreme towards + its apex, produces the organic circle of the sciences, and elevates + them all into different arcs or stations of the one absolute science + of Life. + + This explanation, which in appearance only is a digression, was + indispensably requisite to prevent the idea of polarity, which has + been given as the universal law of Life, from being misunderstood as + a mere refinement on those mechanical systems of physiology, which + it has been my main object to explode. + + 13 I apprehend that by men of a certain school it would be deemed no + demerit, even though they should never have condescended to look + into any system of Aristotelian logic. It is enough for these + gentlemen that they are experimentalists! Let it not, however, be + supposed that they make more experiments than their neighbours, who + consider induction as a means and not an end; or have stronger + motives for making them, unless it can be believed that Tycho Braehe + must have been urged to repeat his sweeps of the heavens with + greater accuracy and industry than Herschel, for no better reason + than that the former flourished before the theory of gravitation was + perfected. No, but they have the honour of being mere + experimentalists! If, however, we may not refer to logic, we may to + common sense and common experience. It is not improbable, however, + that they have both read and studied a book of hypothetical + psychology on the assumptions of the crudest materialism, stolen too + without acknowledgment from our David Hartley's essay on Man, which + is well known under the whimsical name of Condillac's Logic. But, as + Mr. Brand has lately observed, "the French are a queer people," and + we should not be at all surprised to hear of a book of fresh + importation from Paris, on determinate proportions in chemistry, + announced by the author in his title-page as a new and improved + system either of arithmetic or geometry. + + 14 Such is the interpretation given by Lord Bacon. To which of the two + gigantic intellects, the poet's or philosophic commentator's, the + allegory belongs, I shall not presume to decide. Its extraordinary + beauty and appropriateness remains the same in either case. + + 15 The Anatomical Demonstrations of the Brain, by Dr. Spurzheim, which + I have seen, presented to me the most satisfactory proof of this. + + 16 The remark on the feeling of the antennae, compared with the touch of + man, or even of the half-reasoning elephant, is yet more applicable + to the taste, which in these gelatinous animals might, perhaps not + inappropriately, be entitled the gastric sense. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HINTS TOWARDS THE FORMATION OF A MORE COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LIFE.*** + + + +CREDITS + + +January 17, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Bryan Ness, David King, and the Online Distributed + Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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