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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Frontier in American History, by
+Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Frontier in American History
+
+
+Author: Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 14, 2007  [eBook #22994]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Fritz Ohrenschall, Michael Zeug, Lisa Reigel, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Some typographical and punctuation errors have been
+      corrected. A complete list follows the text.
+
+      Words italicized in the original are surrounded by
+      _underscores_.
+
+      Letters superscripted in the original have been placed
+      in {} brackets.
+
+      [=m] designates an m with a macron. It is a shortcut
+      indicating that the word should have two m's in succession.
+
+      Ellipses are represented as in the original.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY
+
+by
+
+FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+New York
+Henry Holt and Company
+1921
+
+Copyright, 1920
+by
+Frederick J. Turner
+
+
+TO
+CAROLINE M. TURNER
+MY WIFE
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In republishing these essays in collected form, it has seemed best to
+issue them as they were originally printed, with the exception of a few
+slight corrections of slips in the text and with the omission of
+occasional duplication of language in the different essays. A
+considerable part of whatever value they may possess arises from the
+fact that they are commentaries in different periods on the central
+theme of the influence of the frontier in American history. Consequently
+they may have some historical significance as contemporaneous attempts
+of a student of American history, at successive transitions in our
+development during the past quarter century to interpret the relations
+of the present to the past. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the
+various societies and periodicals which have given permission to reprint
+the essays.
+
+Various essays dealing with the connection of diplomatic history and the
+frontier and others stressing the significance of the section, or
+geographic province, in American history, are not included in the
+present collection. Neither the French nor the Spanish frontier is
+within the scope of the volume.
+
+The future alone can disclose how far these interpretations are correct
+for the age of colonization which came gradually to an end with the
+disappearance of the frontier and free land. It alone can reveal how
+much of the courageous, creative American spirit, and how large a part
+of the historic American ideals are to be carried over into that new age
+which is replacing the era of free lands and of measurable isolation by
+consolidated and complex industrial development and by increasing
+resemblances and connections between the New World and the Old.
+
+But the larger part of what has been distinctive and valuable in
+America's contribution to the history of the human spirit has been due
+to this nation's peculiar experience in extending its type of frontier
+into new regions; and in creating peaceful societies with new ideals in
+the successive vast and differing geographic provinces which together
+make up the United States. Directly or indirectly these experiences
+shaped the life of the Eastern as well as the Western States, and even
+reacted upon the Old World and influenced the direction of its thought
+and its progress. This experience has been fundamental in the economic,
+political and social characteristics of the American people and in their
+conceptions of their destiny.
+
+Writing at the close of 1796, the French minister to the United States,
+M. Adet, reported to his government that Jefferson could not be relied
+on to be devoted to French interests, and he added: "Jefferson, I say,
+is American, and by that name, he cannot be sincerely our friend. An
+American is the born enemy of all European peoples." Obviously erroneous
+as are these words, there was an element of truth in them. If we would
+understand this element of truth, we must study the transforming
+influence of the American wilderness, remote from Europe, and by its
+resources and its free opportunities affording the conditions under
+which a new people, with new social and political types and ideals,
+could arise to play its own part in the world, and to influence Europe.
+
+FREDERICK J. TURNER.
+
+HARVARD UNIVERSITY, March, 1920.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+
+   I THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY        1
+
+  II THE FIRST OFFICIAL FRONTIER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY       39
+
+ III THE OLD WEST                                               67
+
+  IV THE MIDDLE WEST                                           126
+
+   V THE OHIO VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY                       157
+
+  VI THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY IN AMERICAN
+     HISTORY                                                   177
+
+ VII THE PROBLEM OF THE WEST                                   205
+
+VIII DOMINANT FORCES IN WESTERN LIFE                           222
+
+  IX CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEST TO AMERICAN DEMOCRACY           243
+
+   X PIONEER IDEALS AND THE STATE UNIVERSITY                   269
+
+  XI THE WEST AND AMERICAN IDEALS                              290
+
+ XII SOCIAL FORCES IN AMERICAN HISTORY                         311
+
+XIII MIDDLE WESTERN PIONEER DEMOCRACY                          335
+
+     INDEX                                                     361
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY[1:1]
+
+
+In a recent bulletin of the Superintendent of the Census for 1890 appear
+these significant words: "Up to and including 1880 the country had a
+frontier of settlement, but at present the unsettled area has been so
+broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can hardly be
+said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its extent, its
+westward movement, etc., it can not, therefore, any longer have a place
+in the census reports." This brief official statement marks the closing
+of a great historic movement. Up to our own day American history has
+been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great
+West. The existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession,
+and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American
+development.
+
+Behind institutions, behind constitutional forms and modifications, lie
+the vital forces that call these organs into life and shape them to meet
+changing conditions. The peculiarity of American institutions is, the
+fact that they have been compelled to adapt themselves to the changes of
+an expanding people--to the changes involved in crossing a continent, in
+winning a wilderness, and in developing at each area of this progress
+out of the primitive economic and political conditions of the frontier
+into the complexity of city life. Said Calhoun in 1817, "We are great,
+and rapidly--I was about to say fearfully--growing!"[2:1] So saying, he
+touched the distinguishing feature of American life. All peoples show
+development; the germ theory of politics has been sufficiently
+emphasized. In the case of most nations, however, the development has
+occurred in a limited area; and if the nation has expanded, it has met
+other growing peoples whom it has conquered. But in the case of the
+United States we have a different phenomenon. Limiting our attention to
+the Atlantic coast, we have the familiar phenomenon of the evolution of
+institutions in a limited area, such as the rise of representative
+government; the differentiation of simple colonial governments into
+complex organs; the progress from primitive industrial society, without
+division of labor, up to manufacturing civilization. But we have in
+addition to this a recurrence of the process of evolution in each
+western area reached in the process of expansion. Thus American
+development has exhibited not merely advance along a single line, but a
+return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier line,
+and a new development for that area. American social development has
+been continually beginning over again on the frontier. This perennial
+rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with
+its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of
+primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character. The
+true point of view in the history of this nation is not the Atlantic
+coast, it is the Great West. Even the slavery struggle, which is made so
+exclusive an object of attention by writers like Professor von Holst,
+occupies its important place in American history because of its relation
+to westward expansion.
+
+In this advance, the frontier is the outer edge of the wave--the meeting
+point between savagery and civilization. Much has been written about the
+frontier from the point of view of border warfare and the chase, but as
+a field for the serious study of the economist and the historian it has
+been neglected.
+
+The American frontier is sharply distinguished from the European
+frontier--a fortified boundary line running through dense populations.
+The most significant thing about the American frontier is, that it lies
+at the hither edge of free land. In the census reports it is treated as
+the margin of that settlement which has a density of two or more to the
+square mile. The term is an elastic one, and for our purposes does not
+need sharp definition. We shall consider the whole frontier belt,
+including the Indian country and the outer margin of the "settled area"
+of the census reports. This paper will make no attempt to treat the
+subject exhaustively; its aim is simply to call attention to the
+frontier as a fertile field for investigation, and to suggest some of
+the problems which arise in connection with it.
+
+In the settlement of America we have to observe how European life
+entered the continent, and how America modified and developed that life
+and reacted on Europe. Our early history is the study of European germs
+developing in an American environment. Too exclusive attention has been
+paid by institutional students to the Germanic origins, too little to
+the American factors. The frontier is the line of most rapid and
+effective Americanization. The wilderness masters the colonist. It finds
+him a European in dress, industries, tools, modes of travel, and
+thought. It takes him from the railroad car and puts him in the birch
+canoe. It strips off the garments of civilization and arrays him in the
+hunting shirt and the moccasin. It puts him in the log cabin of the
+Cherokee and Iroquois and runs an Indian palisade around him. Before
+long he has gone to planting Indian corn and plowing with a sharp stick;
+he shouts the war cry and takes the scalp in orthodox Indian fashion. In
+short, at the frontier the environment is at first too strong for the
+man. He must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so
+he fits himself into the Indian clearings and follows the Indian trails.
+Little by little he transforms the wilderness, but the outcome is not
+the old Europe, not simply the development of Germanic germs, any more
+than the first phenomenon was a case of reversion to the Germanic mark.
+The fact is, that here is a new product that is American. At first, the
+frontier was the Atlantic coast. It was the frontier of Europe in a very
+real sense. Moving westward, the frontier became more and more American.
+As successive terminal moraines result from successive glaciations, so
+each frontier leaves its traces behind it, and when it becomes a settled
+area the region still partakes of the frontier characteristics. Thus the
+advance of the frontier has meant a steady movement away from the
+influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines.
+And to study this advance, the men who grew up under these conditions,
+and the political, economic, and social results of it, is to study the
+really American part of our history.
+
+In the course of the seventeenth century the frontier was advanced up
+the Atlantic river courses, just beyond the "fall line," and the
+tidewater region became the settled area. In the first half of the
+eighteenth century another advance occurred. Traders followed the
+Delaware and Shawnese Indians to the Ohio as early as the end of the
+first quarter of the century.[5:1] Gov. Spotswood, of Virginia, made an
+expedition in 1714 across the Blue Ridge. The end of the first quarter
+of the century saw the advance of the Scotch-Irish and the Palatine
+Germans up the Shenandoah Valley into the western part of Virginia, and
+along the Piedmont region of the Carolinas.[5:2] The Germans in New York
+pushed the frontier of settlement up the Mohawk to German Flats.[5:3] In
+Pennsylvania the town of Bedford indicates the line of settlement.
+Settlements soon began on the New River, or the Great Kanawha, and on
+the sources of the Yadkin and French Broad.[5:4] The King attempted to
+arrest the advance by his proclamation of 1763,[5:5] forbidding
+settlements beyond the sources of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic;
+but in vain. In the period of the Revolution the frontier crossed the
+Alleghanies into Kentucky and Tennessee, and the upper waters of the
+Ohio were settled.[5:6] When the first census was taken in 1790, the
+continuous settled area was bounded by a line which ran near the coast
+of Maine, and included New England except a portion of Vermont and New
+Hampshire, New York along the Hudson and up the Mohawk about
+Schenectady, eastern and southern Pennsylvania, Virginia well across the
+Shenandoah Valley, and the Carolinas and eastern Georgia.[6:1] Beyond
+this region of continuous settlement were the small settled areas of
+Kentucky and Tennessee, and the Ohio, with the mountains intervening
+between them and the Atlantic area, thus giving a new and important
+character to the frontier. The isolation of the region increased its
+peculiarly American tendencies, and the need of transportation
+facilities to connect it with the East called out important schemes of
+internal improvement, which will be noted farther on. The "West," as a
+self-conscious section, began to evolve.
+
+From decade to decade distinct advances of the frontier occurred. By the
+census of 1820[6:2] the settled area included Ohio, southern Indiana and
+Illinois, southeastern Missouri, and about one-half of Louisiana. This
+settled area had surrounded Indian areas, and the management of these
+tribes became an object of political concern. The frontier region of the
+time lay along the Great Lakes, where Astor's American Fur Company
+operated in the Indian trade,[6:3] and beyond the Mississippi, where
+Indian traders extended their activity even to the Rocky Mountains;
+Florida also furnished frontier conditions. The Mississippi River region
+was the scene of typical frontier settlements.[7:1]
+
+The rising steam navigation[7:2] on western waters, the opening of the
+Erie Canal, and the westward extension of cotton[7:3] culture added five
+frontier states to the Union in this period. Grund, writing in 1836,
+declares: "It appears then that the universal disposition of Americans
+to emigrate to the western wilderness, in order to enlarge their
+dominion over inanimate nature, is the actual result of an expansive
+power which is inherent in them, and which by continually agitating all
+classes of society is constantly throwing a large portion of the whole
+population on the extreme confines of the State, in order to gain space
+for its development. Hardly is a new State or Territory formed before
+the same principle manifests itself again and gives rise to a further
+emigration; and so is it destined to go on until a physical barrier must
+finally obstruct its progress."[7:4]
+
+In the middle of this century the line indicated by the present eastern
+boundary of Indian Territory, Nebraska, and Kansas marked the frontier
+of the Indian country.[8:1] Minnesota and Wisconsin still exhibited
+frontier conditions,[8:2] but the distinctive frontier of the period is
+found in California, where the gold discoveries had sent a sudden tide
+of adventurous miners, and in Oregon, and the settlements in Utah.[8:3]
+As the frontier had leaped over the Alleghanies, so now it skipped the
+Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains; and in the same way that the
+advance of the frontiersmen beyond the Alleghanies had caused the rise
+of important questions of transportation and internal improvement, so
+now the settlers beyond the Rocky Mountains needed means of
+communication with the East, and in the furnishing of these arose the
+settlement of the Great Plains and the development of still another kind
+of frontier life. Railroads, fostered by land grants, sent an
+increasing tide of immigrants into the Far West. The United States Army
+fought a series of Indian wars in Minnesota, Dakota, and the Indian
+Territory.
+
+By 1880 the settled area had been pushed into northern Michigan,
+Wisconsin, and Minnesota, along Dakota rivers, and in the Black Hills
+region, and was ascending the rivers of Kansas and Nebraska. The
+development of mines in Colorado had drawn isolated frontier settlements
+into that region, and Montana and Idaho were receiving settlers. The
+frontier was found in these mining camps and the ranches of the Great
+Plains. The superintendent of the census for 1890 reports, as previously
+stated, that the settlements of the West lie so scattered over the
+region that there can no longer be said to be a frontier line.
+
+In these successive frontiers we find natural boundary lines which have
+served to mark and to affect the characteristics of the frontiers,
+namely: the "fall line;" the Alleghany Mountains; the Mississippi; the
+Missouri where its direction approximates north and south; the line of
+the arid lands, approximately the ninety-ninth meridian; and the Rocky
+Mountains. The fall line marked the frontier of the seventeenth century;
+the Alleghanies that of the eighteenth; the Mississippi that of the
+first quarter of the nineteenth; the Missouri that of the middle of this
+century (omitting the California movement); and the belt of the Rocky
+Mountains and the arid tract, the present frontier. Each was won by a
+series of Indian wars.
+
+At the Atlantic frontier one can study the germs of processes repeated
+at each successive frontier. We have the complex European life sharply
+precipitated by the wilderness into the simplicity of primitive
+conditions. The first frontier had to meet its Indian question, its
+question of the disposition of the public domain, of the means of
+intercourse with older settlements, of the extension of political
+organization, of religious and educational activity. And the settlement
+of these and similar questions for one frontier served as a guide for
+the next. The American student needs not to go to the "prim little
+townships of Sleswick" for illustrations of the law of continuity and
+development. For example, he may study the origin of our land policies
+in the colonial land policy; he may see how the system grew by adapting
+the statutes to the customs of the successive frontiers.[10:1] He may
+see how the mining experience in the lead regions of Wisconsin,
+Illinois, and Iowa was applied to the mining laws of the Sierras,[10:2]
+and how our Indian policy has been a series of experimentations on
+successive frontiers. Each tier of new States has found in the older
+ones material for its constitutions.[10:3] Each frontier has made
+similar contributions to American character, as will be discussed
+farther on.
+
+But with all these similarities there are essential differences due to
+the place element and the time element. It is evident that the farming
+frontier of the Mississippi Valley presents different conditions from
+the mining frontier of the Rocky Mountains. The frontier reached by the
+Pacific Railroad, surveyed into rectangles, guarded by the United States
+Army, and recruited by the daily immigrant ship, moves forward at a
+swifter pace and in a different way than the frontier reached by the
+birch canoe or the pack horse. The geologist traces patiently the shores
+of ancient seas, maps their areas, and compares the older and the newer.
+It would be a work worth the historian's labors to mark these various
+frontiers and in detail compare one with another. Not only would there
+result a more adequate conception of American development and
+characteristics, but invaluable additions would be made to the history
+of society.
+
+Loria,[11:1] the Italian economist, has urged the study of colonial life
+as an aid in understanding the stages of European development, affirming
+that colonial settlement is for economic science what the mountain is
+for geology, bringing to light primitive stratifications. "America," he
+says, "has the key to the historical enigma which Europe has sought for
+centuries in vain, and the land which has no history reveals luminously
+the course of universal history." There is much truth in this. The
+United States lies like a huge page in the history of society. Line by
+line as we read this continental page from West to East we find the
+record of social evolution. It begins with the Indian and the hunter; it
+goes on to tell of the disintegration of savagery by the entrance of the
+trader, the pathfinder of civilization; we read the annals of the
+pastoral stage in ranch life; the exploitation of the soil by the
+raising of unrotated crops of corn and wheat in sparsely settled farming
+communities; the intensive culture of the denser farm settlement; and
+finally the manufacturing organization with city and factory
+system.[11:2] This page is familiar to the student of census statistics,
+but how little of it has been used by our historians. Particularly in
+eastern States this page is a palimpsest. What is now a manufacturing
+State was in an earlier decade an area of intensive farming. Earlier yet
+it had been a wheat area, and still earlier the "range" had attracted
+the cattle-herder. Thus Wisconsin, now developing manufacture, is a
+State with varied agricultural interests. But earlier it was given over
+to almost exclusive grain-raising, like North Dakota at the present
+time.
+
+Each of these areas has had an influence in our economic and political
+history; the evolution of each into a higher stage has worked political
+transformations. But what constitutional historian has made any adequate
+attempt to interpret political facts by the light of these social areas
+and changes?[12:1]
+
+The Atlantic frontier was compounded of fisherman, fur-trader, miner,
+cattle-raiser, and farmer. Excepting the fisherman, each type of
+industry was on the march toward the West, impelled by an irresistible
+attraction. Each passed in successive waves across the continent. Stand
+at Cumberland Gap and watch the procession of civilization, marching
+single file--the buffalo following the trail to the salt springs, the
+Indian, the fur-trader and hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pioneer
+farmer--and the frontier has passed by. Stand at South Pass in the
+Rockies a century later and see the same procession with wider intervals
+between. The unequal rate of advance compels us to distinguish the
+frontier into the trader's frontier, the rancher's frontier, or the
+miner's frontier, and the farmer's frontier. When the mines and the cow
+pens were still near the fall line the traders' pack trains were
+tinkling across the Alleghanies, and the French on the Great Lakes were
+fortifying their posts, alarmed by the British trader's birch canoe.
+When the trappers scaled the Rockies, the farmer was still near the
+mouth of the Missouri.
+
+Why was it that the Indian trader passed so rapidly across the
+continent? What effects followed from the trader's frontier? The trade
+was coeval with American discovery. The Norsemen, Vespuccius, Verrazani,
+Hudson, John Smith, all trafficked for furs. The Plymouth pilgrims
+settled in Indian cornfields, and their first return cargo was of beaver
+and lumber. The records of the various New England colonies show how
+steadily exploration was carried into the wilderness by this trade. What
+is true for New England is, as would be expected, even plainer for the
+rest of the colonies. All along the coast from Maine to Georgia the
+Indian trade opened up the river courses. Steadily the trader passed
+westward, utilizing the older lines of French trade. The Ohio, the Great
+Lakes, the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Platte, the lines of
+western advance, were ascended by traders. They found the passes in the
+Rocky Mountains and guided Lewis and Clark,[13:1] Frémont, and Bidwell.
+The explanation of the rapidity of this advance is connected with the
+effects of the trader on the Indian. The trading post left the unarmed
+tribes at the mercy of those that had purchased fire-arms--a truth which
+the Iroquois Indians wrote in blood, and so the remote and unvisited
+tribes gave eager welcome to the trader. "The savages," wrote La Salle,
+"take better care of us French than of their own children; from us only
+can they get guns and goods." This accounts for the trader's power and
+the rapidity of his advance. Thus the disintegrating forces of
+civilization entered the wilderness. Every river valley and Indian trail
+became a fissure in Indian society, and so that society became
+honeycombed. Long before the pioneer farmer appeared on the scene,
+primitive Indian life had passed away. The farmers met Indians armed
+with guns. The trading frontier, while steadily undermining Indian power
+by making the tribes ultimately dependent on the whites, yet, through
+its sale of guns, gave to the Indian increased power of resistance to
+the farming frontier. French colonization was dominated by its trading
+frontier; English colonization by its farming frontier. There was an
+antagonism between the two frontiers as between the two nations. Said
+Duquesne to the Iroquois, "Are you ignorant of the difference between
+the king of England and the king of France? Go see the forts that our
+king has established and you will see that you can still hunt under
+their very walls. They have been placed for your advantage in places
+which you frequent. The English, on the contrary, are no sooner in
+possession of a place than the game is driven away. The forest falls
+before them as they advance, and the soil is laid bare so that you can
+scarce find the wherewithal to erect a shelter for the night."
+
+And yet, in spite of this opposition of the interests of the trader and
+the farmer, the Indian trade pioneered the way for civilization. The
+buffalo trail became the Indian trail, and this became the trader's
+"trace;" the trails widened into roads, and the roads into turnpikes,
+and these in turn were transformed into railroads. The same origin can
+be shown for the railroads of the South, the Far West, and the Dominion
+of Canada.[14:1] The trading posts reached by these trails were on the
+sites of Indian villages which had been placed in positions suggested by
+nature; and these trading posts, situated so as to command the water
+systems of the country, have grown into such cities as Albany,
+Pittsburgh, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, Council Bluffs, and Kansas
+City. Thus civilization in America has followed the arteries made by
+geology, pouring an ever richer tide through them, until at last the
+slender paths of aboriginal intercourse have been broadened and
+interwoven into the complex mazes of modern commercial lines; the
+wilderness has been interpenetrated by lines of civilization growing
+ever more numerous. It is like the steady growth of a complex nervous
+system for the originally simple, inert continent. If one would
+understand why we are to-day one nation, rather than a collection of
+isolated states, he must study this economic and social consolidation of
+the country. In this progress from savage conditions lie topics for the
+evolutionist.[15:1]
+
+The effect of the Indian frontier as a consolidating agent in our
+history is important. From the close of the seventeenth century various
+intercolonial congresses have been called to treat with Indians and
+establish common measures of defense. Particularism was strongest in
+colonies with no Indian frontier. This frontier stretched along the
+western border like a cord of union. The Indian was a common danger,
+demanding united action. Most celebrated of these conferences was the
+Albany congress of 1754, called to treat with the Six Nations, and to
+consider plans of union. Even a cursory reading of the plan proposed by
+the congress reveals the importance of the frontier. The powers of the
+general council and the officers were, chiefly, the determination of
+peace and war with the Indians, the regulation of Indian trade, the
+purchase of Indian lands, and the creation and government of new
+settlements as a security against the Indians. It is evident that the
+unifying tendencies of the Revolutionary period were facilitated by the
+previous coöperation in the regulation of the frontier. In this
+connection may be mentioned the importance of the frontier, from that
+day to this, as a military training school, keeping alive the power of
+resistance to aggression, and developing the stalwart and rugged
+qualities of the frontiersman.
+
+It would not be possible in the limits of this paper to trace the other
+frontiers across the continent. Travelers of the eighteenth century
+found the "cowpens" among the canebrakes and peavine pastures of the
+South, and the "cow drivers" took their droves to Charleston,
+Philadelphia, and New York.[16:1] Travelers at the close of the War of
+1812 met droves of more than a thousand cattle and swine from the
+interior of Ohio going to Pennsylvania to fatten for the Philadelphia
+market.[16:2] The ranges of the Great Plains, with ranch and cowboy and
+nomadic life, are things of yesterday and of to-day. The experience of
+the Carolina cowpens guided the ranchers of Texas. One element favoring
+the rapid extension of the rancher's frontier is the fact that in a
+remote country lacking transportation facilities the product must be in
+small bulk, or must be able to transport itself, and the cattle raiser
+could easily drive his product to market. The effect of these great
+ranches on the subsequent agrarian history of the localities in which
+they existed should be studied.
+
+The maps of the census reports show an uneven advance of the farmer's
+frontier, with tongues of settlement pushed forward and with
+indentations of wilderness. In part this is due to Indian resistance, in
+part to the location of river valleys and passes, in part to the unequal
+force of the centers of frontier attraction. Among the important centers
+of attraction may be mentioned the following: fertile and favorably
+situated soils, salt springs, mines, and army posts.
+
+The frontier army post, serving to protect the settlers from the
+Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open the Indian country, and has
+been a nucleus for settlement.[16:3] In this connection mention should
+also be made of the government military and exploring expeditions in
+determining the lines of settlement. But all the more important
+expeditions were greatly indebted to the earliest pathmakers, the Indian
+guides, the traders and trappers, and the French voyageurs, who were
+inevitable parts of governmental expeditions from the days of Lewis and
+Clark.[17:1] Each expedition was an epitome of the previous factors in
+western advance.
+
+In an interesting monograph, Victor Hehn[17:2] has traced the effect of
+salt upon early European development, and has pointed out how it
+affected the lines of settlement and the form of administration. A
+similar study might be made for the salt springs of the United States.
+The early settlers were tied to the coast by the need of salt, without
+which they could not preserve their meats or live in comfort. Writing in
+1752, Bishop Spangenburg says of a colony for which he was seeking lands
+in North Carolina, "They will require salt & other necessaries which
+they can neither manufacture nor raise. Either they must go to
+Charleston, which is 300 miles distant . . . Or else they must go to
+Boling's Point in V{a} on a branch of the James & is also 300 miles from
+here. . . Or else they must go down the Roanoke--I know not how many
+miles--where salt is brought up from the Cape Fear."[17:3] This may
+serve as a typical illustration. An annual pilgrimage to the coast for
+salt thus became essential. Taking flocks or furs and ginseng root, the
+early settlers sent their pack trains after seeding time each year to
+the coast.[17:4] This proved to be an important educational influence,
+since it was almost the only way in which the pioneer learned what was
+going on in the East. But when discovery was made of the salt springs of
+the Kanawha, and the Holston, and Kentucky, and central New York, the
+West began to be freed from dependence on the coast. It was in part the
+effect of finding these salt springs that enabled settlement to cross
+the mountains.
+
+From the time the mountains rose between the pioneer and the seaboard, a
+new order of Americanism arose. The West and the East began to get out
+of touch of each other. The settlements from the sea to the mountains
+kept connection with the rear and had a certain solidarity. But the
+over-mountain men grew more and more independent. The East took a narrow
+view of American advance, and nearly lost these men. Kentucky and
+Tennessee history bears abundant witness to the truth of this statement.
+The East began to try to hedge and limit westward expansion. Though
+Webster could declare that there were no Alleghanies in his politics,
+yet in politics in general they were a very solid factor.
+
+The exploitation of the beasts took hunter and trader to the west, the
+exploitation of the grasses took the rancher west, and the exploitation
+of the virgin soil of the river valleys and prairies attracted the
+farmer. Good soils have been the most continuous attraction to the
+farmer's frontier. The land hunger of the Virginians drew them down the
+rivers into Carolina, in early colonial days; the search for soils took
+the Massachusetts men to Pennsylvania and to New York. As the eastern
+lands were taken up migration flowed across them to the west. Daniel
+Boone, the great backwoodsman, who combined the occupations of hunter,
+trader, cattle-raiser, farmer, and surveyor--learning, probably from the
+traders, of the fertility of the lands of the upper Yadkin, where the
+traders were wont to rest as they took their way to the Indians, left
+his Pennsylvania home with his father, and passed down the Great Valley
+road to that stream. Learning from a trader of the game and rich
+pastures of Kentucky, he pioneered the way for the farmers to that
+region. Thence he passed to the frontier of Missouri, where his
+settlement was long a landmark on the frontier. Here again he helped to
+open the way for civilization, finding salt licks, and trails, and land.
+His son was among the earliest trappers in the passes of the Rocky
+Mountains, and his party are said to have been the first to camp on the
+present site of Denver. His grandson, Col. A. J. Boone, of Colorado, was
+a power among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and was appointed an
+agent by the government. Kit Carson's mother was a Boone.[19:1] Thus
+this family epitomizes the backwoodsman's advance across the continent.
+
+The farmer's advance came in a distinct series of waves. In Peck's New
+Guide to the West, published in Boston in 1837, occurs this suggestive
+passage:
+
+     Generally, in all the western settlements, three classes, like
+     the waves of the ocean, have rolled one after the other. First
+     comes the pioneer, who depends for the subsistence of his
+     family chiefly upon the natural growth of vegetation, called
+     the "range," and the proceeds of hunting. His implements of
+     agriculture are rude, chiefly of his own make, and his efforts
+     directed mainly to a crop of corn and a "truck patch." The
+     last is a rude garden for growing cabbage, beans, corn for
+     roasting ears, cucumbers, and potatoes. A log cabin, and,
+     occasionally, a stable and corn-crib, and a field of a dozen
+     acres, the timber girdled or "deadened," and fenced, are
+     enough for his occupancy. It is quite immaterial whether he
+     ever becomes the owner of the soil. He is the occupant for
+     the time being, pays no rent, and feels as independent as the
+     "lord of the manor." With a horse, cow, and one or two
+     breeders of swine, he strikes into the woods with his family,
+     and becomes the founder of a new county, or perhaps state. He
+     builds his cabin, gathers around him a few other families of
+     similar tastes and habits, and occupies till the range is
+     somewhat subdued, and hunting a little precarious, or, which
+     is more frequently the case, till the neighbors crowd around,
+     roads, bridges, and fields annoy him, and he lacks elbow room.
+     The preëmption law enables him to dispose of his cabin and
+     cornfield to the next class of emigrants; and, to employ his
+     own figures, he "breaks for the high timber," "clears out for
+     the New Purchase," or migrates to Arkansas or Texas, to work
+     the same process over.
+
+     The next class of emigrants purchase the lands, add field to
+     field, clear out the roads, throw rough bridges over the
+     streams, put up hewn log houses with glass windows and brick
+     or stone chimneys, occasionally plant orchards, build mills,
+     school-houses, court-houses, etc., and exhibit the picture and
+     forms of plain, frugal, civilized life.
+
+     Another wave rolls on. The men of capital and enterprise come.
+     The settler is ready to sell out and take the advantage of the
+     rise in property, push farther into the interior and become,
+     himself, a man of capital and enterprise in turn. The small
+     village rises to a spacious town or city; substantial edifices
+     of brick, extensive fields, orchards, gardens, colleges, and
+     churches are seen. Broadcloths, silks, leghorns, crapes, and
+     all the refinements, luxuries, elegancies, frivolities, and
+     fashions are in vogue. Thus wave after wave is rolling
+     westward; the real Eldorado is still farther on.
+
+     A portion of the two first classes remain stationary amidst
+     the general movement, improve their habits and condition, and
+     rise in the scale of society.
+
+     The writer has traveled much amongst the first class, the real
+     pioneers. He has lived many years in connection with the
+     second grade; and now the third wave is sweeping over large
+     districts of Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. Migration has
+     become almost a habit in the West. Hundreds of men can be
+     found, not over 50 years of age, who have settled for the
+     fourth, fifth, or sixth time on a new spot. To sell out and
+     remove only a few hundred miles makes up a portion of the
+     variety of backwoods life and manners.[21:1]
+
+Omitting those of the pioneer farmers who move from the love of
+adventure, the advance of the more steady farmer is easy to understand.
+Obviously the immigrant was attracted by the cheap lands of the
+frontier, and even the native farmer felt their influence strongly. Year
+by year the farmers who lived on soil whose returns were diminished by
+unrotated crops were offered the virgin soil of the frontier at nominal
+prices. Their growing families demanded more lands, and these were dear.
+The competition of the unexhausted, cheap, and easily tilled prairie
+lands compelled the farmer either to go west and continue the exhaustion
+of the soil on a new frontier, or to adopt intensive culture. Thus the
+census of 1890 shows, in the Northwest, many counties in which there is
+an absolute or a relative decrease of population. These States have been
+sending farmers to advance the frontier on the plains, and have
+themselves begun to turn to intensive farming and to manufacture. A
+decade before this, Ohio had shown the same transition stage. Thus the
+demand for land and the love of wilderness freedom drew the frontier
+ever onward.
+
+Having now roughly outlined the various kinds of frontiers, and their
+modes of advance, chiefly from the point of view of the frontier itself,
+we may next inquire what were the influences on the East and on the Old
+World. A rapid enumeration of some of the more noteworthy effects is all
+that I have time for.
+
+First, we note that the frontier promoted the formation of a composite
+nationality for the American people. The coast was preponderantly
+English, but the later tides of continental immigration flowed across to
+the free lands. This was the case from the early colonial days. The
+Scotch-Irish and the Palatine Germans, or "Pennsylvania Dutch,"
+furnished the dominant element in the stock of the colonial frontier.
+With these peoples were also the freed indented servants, or
+redemptioners, who at the expiration of their time of service passed to
+the frontier. Governor Spotswood of Virginia writes in 1717, "The
+inhabitants of our frontiers are composed generally of such as have been
+transported hither as servants, and, being out of their time, settle
+themselves where land is to be taken up and that will produce the
+necessarys of life with little labour."[22:1] Very generally these
+redemptioners were of non-English stock. In the crucible of the
+frontier the immigrants were Americanized, liberated, and fused into a
+mixed race, English in neither nationality nor characteristics. The
+process has gone on from the early days to our own. Burke and other
+writers in the middle of the eighteenth century believed that
+Pennsylvania[23:1] was "threatened with the danger of being wholly
+foreign in language, manners, and perhaps even inclinations." The German
+and Scotch-Irish elements in the frontier of the South were only less
+great. In the middle of the present century the German element in
+Wisconsin was already so considerable that leading publicists looked to
+the creation of a German state out of the commonwealth by concentrating
+their colonization.[23:2] Such examples teach us to beware of
+misinterpreting the fact that there is a common English speech in
+America into a belief that the stock is also English.
+
+In another way the advance of the frontier decreased our dependence on
+England. The coast, particularly of the South, lacked diversified
+industries, and was dependent on England for the bulk of its supplies.
+In the South there was even a dependence on the Northern colonies for
+articles of food. Governor Glenn, of South Carolina, writes in the
+middle of the eighteenth century: "Our trade with New York and
+Philadelphia was of this sort, draining us of all the little money and
+bills we could gather from other places for their bread, flour, beer,
+hams, bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except beer,
+our new townships begin to supply us with, which are settled with very
+industrious and thriving Germans. This no doubt diminishes the number of
+shipping and the appearance of our trade, but it is far from being a
+detriment to us."[23:3]
+
+Before long the frontier created a demand for merchants. As it
+retreated from the coast it became less and less possible for England to
+bring her supplies directly to the consumer's wharfs, and carry away
+staple crops, and staple crops began to give way to diversified
+agriculture for a time. The effect of this phase of the frontier action
+upon the northern section is perceived when we realize how the advance
+of the frontier aroused seaboard cities like Boston, New York, and
+Baltimore, to engage in rivalry for what Washington called "the
+extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire."
+
+The legislation which most developed the powers of the national
+government, and played the largest part in its activity, was conditioned
+on the frontier. Writers have discussed the subjects of tariff, land,
+and internal improvement, as subsidiary to the slavery question. But
+when American history comes to be rightly viewed it will be seen that
+the slavery question is an incident. In the period from the end of the
+first half of the present century to the close of the Civil War slavery
+rose to primary, but far from exclusive, importance. But this does not
+justify Dr. von Holst (to take an example) in treating our
+constitutional history in its formative period down to 1828 in a single
+volume, giving six volumes chiefly to the history of slavery from 1828
+to 1861, under the title "Constitutional History of the United States."
+The growth of nationalism and the evolution of American political
+institutions were dependent on the advance of the frontier. Even so
+recent a writer as Rhodes, in his "History of the United States since
+the Compromise of 1850," has treated the legislation called out by the
+western advance as incidental to the slavery struggle.
+
+This is a wrong perspective. The pioneer needed the goods of the coast,
+and so the grand series of internal improvement and railroad legislation
+began, with potent nationalizing effects. Over internal improvements
+occurred great debates, in which grave constitutional questions were
+discussed. Sectional groupings appear in the votes, profoundly
+significant for the historian. Loose construction increased as the
+nation marched westward.[25:1] But the West was not content with
+bringing the farm to the factory. Under the lead of Clay--"Harry of the
+West"--protective tariffs were passed, with the cry of bringing the
+factory to the farm. The disposition of the public lands was a third
+important subject of national legislation influenced by the frontier.
+
+The public domain has been a force of profound importance in the
+nationalization and development of the government. The effects of the
+struggle of the landed and the landless States, and of the Ordinance of
+1787, need no discussion.[25:2] Administratively the frontier called out
+some of the highest and most vitalizing activities of the general
+government. The purchase of Louisiana was perhaps the constitutional
+turning point in the history of the Republic, inasmuch as it afforded
+both a new area for national legislation and the occasion of the
+downfall of the policy of strict construction. But the purchase of
+Louisiana was called out by frontier needs and demands. As frontier
+States accrued to the Union the national power grew. In a speech on the
+dedication of the Calhoun monument Mr. Lamar explained: "In 1789 the
+States were the creators of the Federal Government; in 1861 the Federal
+Government was the creator of a large majority of the States."
+
+When we consider the public domain from the point of view of the sale
+and disposal of the public lands we are again brought face to face with
+the frontier. The policy of the United States in dealing with its lands
+is in sharp contrast with the European system of scientific
+administration. Efforts to make this domain a source of revenue, and to
+withhold it from emigrants in order that settlement might be compact,
+were in vain. The jealousy and the fears of the East were powerless in
+the face of the demands of the frontiersmen. John Quincy Adams was
+obliged to confess: "My own system of administration, which was to make
+the national domain the inexhaustible fund for progressive and unceasing
+internal improvement, has failed." The reason is obvious; a system of
+administration was not what the West demanded; it wanted land. Adams
+states the situation as follows: "The slaveholders of the South have
+bought the coöperation of the western country by the bribe of the
+western lands, abandoning to the new Western States their own proportion
+of the public property and aiding them in the design of grasping all the
+lands into their own hands." Thomas H. Benton was the author of this
+system, which he brought forward as a substitute for the American system
+of Mr. Clay, and to supplant him as the leading statesman of the West.
+Mr. Clay, by his tariff compromise with Mr. Calhoun, abandoned his own
+American system. At the same time he brought forward a plan for
+distributing among all the States of the Union the proceeds of the sales
+of the public lands. His bill for that purpose passed both Houses of
+Congress, but was vetoed by President Jackson, who, in his annual
+message of December, 1832, formally recommended that all public lands
+should be gratuitously given away to individual adventurers and to the
+States in which the lands are situated.[26:1]
+
+"No subject," said Henry Clay, "which has presented itself to the
+present, or perhaps any preceding, Congress, is of greater magnitude
+than that of the public lands." When we consider the far-reaching
+effects of the government's land policy upon political, economic, and
+social aspects of American life, we are disposed to agree with him. But
+this legislation was framed under frontier influences, and under the
+lead of Western statesmen like Benton and Jackson. Said Senator Scott of
+Indiana in 1841: "I consider the preëmption law merely declaratory of
+the custom or common law of the settlers."
+
+It is safe to say that the legislation with regard to land, tariff, and
+internal improvements--the American system of the nationalizing Whig
+party--was conditioned on frontier ideas and needs. But it was not
+merely in legislative action that the frontier worked against the
+sectionalism of the coast. The economic and social characteristics of
+the frontier worked against sectionalism. The men of the frontier had
+closer resemblances to the Middle region than to either of the other
+sections. Pennsylvania had been the seed-plot of frontier emigration,
+and, although she passed on her settlers along the Great Valley into the
+west of Virginia and the Carolinas, yet the industrial society of these
+Southern frontiersmen was always more like that of the Middle region
+than like that of the tide-water portion of the South, which later came
+to spread its industrial type throughout the South.
+
+The Middle region, entered by New York harbor, was an open door to all
+Europe. The tide-water part of the South represented typical Englishmen,
+modified by a warm climate and servile labor, and living in baronial
+fashion on great plantations; New England stood for a special English
+movement--Puritanism. The Middle region was less English than the other
+sections. It had a wide mixture of nationalities, a varied society, the
+mixed town and county system of local government, a varied economic
+life, many religious sects. In short, it was a region mediating between
+New England and the South, and the East and the West. It represented
+that composite nationality which the contemporary United States
+exhibits, that juxtaposition of non-English groups, occupying a valley
+or a little settlement, and presenting reflections of the map of Europe
+in their variety. It was democratic and nonsectional, if not national;
+"easy, tolerant, and contented;" rooted strongly in material prosperity.
+It was typical of the modern United States. It was least sectional, not
+only because it lay between North and South, but also because with no
+barriers to shut out its frontiers from its settled region, and with a
+system of connecting waterways, the Middle region mediated between East
+and West as well as between North and South. Thus it became the
+typically American region. Even the New Englander, who was shut out from
+the frontier by the Middle region, tarrying in New York or Pennsylvania
+on his westward march, lost the acuteness of his sectionalism on the
+way.[28:1]
+
+The spread of cotton culture into the interior of the South finally
+broke down the contrast between the "tide-water" region and the rest of
+the State, and based Southern interests on slavery. Before this process
+revealed its results the western portion of the South, which was akin to
+Pennsylvania in stock, society, and industry, showed tendencies to fall
+away from the faith of the fathers into internal improvement legislation
+and nationalism. In the Virginia convention of 1829-30, called to revise
+the constitution, Mr. Leigh, of Chesterfield, one of the tide-water
+counties, declared:
+
+     One of the main causes of discontent which led to this
+     convention, that which had the strongest influence in
+     overcoming our veneration for the work of our fathers, which
+     taught us to contemn the sentiments of Henry and Mason and
+     Pendleton, which weaned us from our reverence for the
+     constituted authorities of the State, was an overweening
+     passion for internal improvement. I say this with perfect
+     knowledge, for it has been avowed to me by gentlemen from the
+     West over and over again. And let me tell the gentleman from
+     Albemarle (Mr. Gordon) that it has been another principal
+     object of those who set this ball of revolution in motion, to
+     overturn the doctrine of State rights, of which Virginia has
+     been the very pillar, and to remove the barrier she has
+     interposed to the interference of the Federal Government in
+     that same work of internal improvement, by so reorganizing the
+     legislature that Virginia, too, may be hitched to the Federal
+     car.
+
+It was this nationalizing tendency of the West that transformed the
+democracy of Jefferson into the national republicanism of Monroe and the
+democracy of Andrew Jackson. The West of the War of 1812, the West of
+Clay, and Benton and Harrison, and Andrew Jackson, shut off by the
+Middle States and the mountains from the coast sections, had a
+solidarity of its own with national tendencies.[29:1] On the tide of the
+Father of Waters, North and South met and mingled into a nation.
+Interstate migration went steadily on--a process of cross-fertilization
+of ideas and institutions. The fierce struggle of the sections over
+slavery on the western frontier does not diminish the truth of this
+statement; it proves the truth of it. Slavery was a sectional trait that
+would not down, but in the West it could not remain sectional. It was
+the greatest of frontiersmen who declared: "I believe this Government
+can not endure permanently half slave and half free. It will become all
+of one thing or all of the other." Nothing works for nationalism like
+intercourse within the nation. Mobility of population is death to
+localism, and the western frontier worked irresistibly in unsettling
+population. The effect reached back from the frontier and affected
+profoundly the Atlantic coast and even the Old World.
+
+But the most important effect of the frontier has been in the promotion
+of democracy here and in Europe. As has been indicated, the frontier is
+productive of individualism. Complex society is precipitated by the
+wilderness into a kind of primitive organization based on the family.
+The tendency is anti-social. It produces antipathy to control, and
+particularly to any direct control. The tax-gatherer is viewed as a
+representative of oppression. Prof. Osgood, in an able article,[30:1]
+has pointed out that the frontier conditions prevalent in the colonies
+are important factors in the explanation of the American Revolution,
+where individual liberty was sometimes confused with absence of all
+effective government. The same conditions aid in explaining the
+difficulty of instituting a strong government in the period of the
+confederacy. The frontier individualism has from the beginning promoted
+democracy.
+
+The frontier States that came into the Union in the first quarter of a
+century of its existence came in with democratic suffrage provisions,
+and had reactive effects of the highest importance upon the older States
+whose peoples were being attracted there. An extension of the franchise
+became essential. It was _western_ New York that forced an extension of
+suffrage in the constitutional convention of that State in 1821; and it
+was _western_ Virginia that compelled the tide-water region to put a
+more liberal suffrage provision in the constitution framed in 1830, and
+to give to the frontier region a more nearly proportionate
+representation with the tide-water aristocracy. The rise of democracy as
+an effective force in the nation came in with western preponderance
+under Jackson and William Henry Harrison, and it meant the triumph of
+the frontier--with all of its good and with all of its evil
+elements.[31:1] An interesting illustration of the tone of frontier
+democracy in 1830 comes from the same debates in the Virginia convention
+already referred to. A representative from western Virginia declared:
+
+     But, sir, it is not the increase of population in the West
+     which this gentleman ought to fear. It is the energy which the
+     mountain breeze and western habits impart to those emigrants.
+     They are regenerated, politically I mean, sir. They soon
+     become _working politicians_; and the difference, sir, between
+     a _talking_ and a _working_ politician is immense. The Old
+     Dominion has long been celebrated for producing great orators;
+     the ablest metaphysicians in policy; men that can split hairs
+     in all abstruse questions of political economy. But at home,
+     or when they return from Congress, they have negroes to fan
+     them asleep. But a Pennsylvania, a New York, an Ohio, or a
+     western Virginia statesman, though far inferior in logic,
+     metaphysics, and rhetoric to an old Virginia statesman, has
+     this advantage, that when he returns home he takes off his
+     coat and takes hold of the plow. This gives him bone and
+     muscle, sir, and preserves his republican principles pure and
+     uncontaminated.
+
+So long as free land exists, the opportunity for a competency exists,
+and economic power secures political power. But the democracy born of
+free land, strong in selfishness and individualism, intolerant of
+administrative experience and education, and pressing individual liberty
+beyond its proper bounds, has its dangers as well as its benefits.
+Individualism in America has allowed a laxity in regard to governmental
+affairs which has rendered possible the spoils system and all the
+manifest evils that follow from the lack of a highly developed civic
+spirit. In this connection may be noted also the influence of frontier
+conditions in permitting lax business honor, inflated paper currency and
+wild-cat banking. The colonial and revolutionary frontier was the region
+whence emanated many of the worst forms of an evil currency.[32:1] The
+West in the War of 1812 repeated the phenomenon on the frontier of that
+day, while the speculation and wild-cat banking of the period of the
+crisis of 1837 occurred on the new frontier belt of the next tier of
+States. Thus each one of the periods of lax financial integrity
+coincides with periods when a new set of frontier communities had
+arisen, and coincides in area with these successive frontiers, for the
+most part. The recent Populist agitation is a case in point. Many a
+State that now declines any connection with the tenets of the Populists,
+itself adhered to such ideas in an earlier stage of the development of
+the State. A primitive society can hardly be expected to show the
+intelligent appreciation of the complexity of business interests in a
+developed society. The continual recurrence of these areas of
+paper-money agitation is another evidence that the frontier can be
+isolated and studied as a factor in American history of the highest
+importance.[32:2]
+
+The East has always feared the result of an unregulated advance of the
+frontier, and has tried to check and guide it. The English authorities
+would have checked settlement at the headwaters of the Atlantic
+tributaries and allowed the "savages to enjoy their deserts in quiet
+lest the peltry trade should decrease." This called out Burke's splendid
+protest:
+
+     If you stopped your grants, what would be the consequence? The
+     people would occupy without grants. They have already so
+     occupied in many places. You can not station garrisons in
+     every part of these deserts. If you drive the people from one
+     place, they will carry on their annual tillage and remove with
+     their flocks and herds to another. Many of the people in the
+     back settlements are already little attached to particular
+     situations. Already they have topped the Appalachian
+     Mountains. From thence they behold before them an immense
+     plain, one vast, rich, level meadow; a square of five hundred
+     miles. Over this they would wander without a possibility of
+     restraint; they would change their manners with their habits
+     of life; would soon forget a government by which they were
+     disowned; would become hordes of English Tartars; and, pouring
+     down upon your unfortified frontiers a fierce and irresistible
+     cavalry, become masters of your governors and your
+     counselers, your collectors and comptrollers, and of all the
+     slaves that adhered to them. Such would, and in no long time
+     must, be the effect of attempting to forbid as a crime and to
+     suppress as an evil the command and blessing of Providence,
+     "Increase and multiply." Such would be the happy result of an
+     endeavor to keep as a lair of wild beasts that earth which
+     God, by an express charter, has given to the children of men.
+
+But the English Government was not alone in its desire to limit the
+advance of the frontier and guide its destinies. Tidewater
+Virginia[34:1] and South Carolina[34:2] gerrymandered those colonies to
+insure the dominance of the coast in their legislatures. Washington
+desired to settle a State at a time in the Northwest; Jefferson would
+reserve from settlement the territory of his Louisiana Purchase north of
+the thirty-second parallel, in order to offer it to the Indians in
+exchange for their settlements east of the Mississippi. "When we shall
+be full on this side," he writes, "we may lay off a range of States on
+the western bank from the head to the mouth, and so range after range,
+advancing compactly as we multiply." Madison went so far as to argue to
+the French minister that the United States had no interest in seeing
+population extend itself on the right bank of the Mississippi, but
+should rather fear it. When the Oregon question was under debate, in
+1824, Smyth, of Virginia, would draw an unchangeable line for the limits
+of the United States at the outer limit of two tiers of States beyond
+the Mississippi, complaining that the seaboard States were being drained
+of the flower of their population by the bringing of too much land into
+market. Even Thomas Benton, the man of widest views of the destiny of
+the West, at this stage of his career declared that along the ridge of
+the Rocky mountains "the western limits of the Republic should be drawn,
+and the statue of the fabled god Terminus should be raised upon its
+highest peak, never to be thrown down."[35:1] But the attempts to limit
+the boundaries, to restrict land sales and settlement, and to deprive
+the West of its share of political power were all in vain. Steadily the
+frontier of settlement advanced and carried with it individualism,
+democracy, and nationalism, and powerfully affected the East and the Old
+World.
+
+The most effective efforts of the East to regulate the frontier came
+through its educational and religious activity, exerted by interstate
+migration and by organized societies. Speaking in 1835, Dr. Lyman
+Beecher declared: "It is equally plain that the religious and political
+destiny of our nation is to be decided in the West," and he pointed out
+that the population of the West "is assembled from all the States of the
+Union and from all the nations of Europe, and is rushing in like the
+waters of the flood, demanding for its moral preservation the immediate
+and universal action of those institutions which discipline the mind and
+arm the conscience and the heart. And so various are the opinions and
+habits, and so recent and imperfect is the acquaintance, and so sparse
+are the settlements of the West, that no homogeneous public sentiment
+can be formed to legislate immediately into being the requisite
+institutions. And yet they are all needed immediately in their utmost
+perfection and power. A nation is being 'born in a day.' . . . But what
+will become of the West if her prosperity rushes up to such a majesty of
+power, while those great institutions linger which are necessary to form
+the mind and the conscience and the heart of that vast world. It must
+not be permitted. . . . Let no man at the East quiet himself and dream
+of liberty, whatever may become of the West. . . . Her destiny is our
+destiny."[36:1]
+
+With the appeal to the conscience of New England, he adds appeals to her
+fears lest other religious sects anticipate her own. The New England
+preacher and school-teacher left their mark on the West. The dread of
+Western emancipation from New England's political and economic control
+was paralleled by her fears lest the West cut loose from her religion.
+Commenting in 1850 on reports that settlement was rapidly extending
+northward in Wisconsin, the editor of the _Home Missionary_ writes: "We
+scarcely know whether to rejoice or mourn over this extension of our
+settlements. While we sympathize in whatever tends to increase the
+physical resources and prosperity of our country, we can not forget that
+with all these dispersions into remote and still remoter corners of the
+land the supply of the means of grace is becoming relatively less and
+less." Acting in accordance with such ideas, home missions were
+established and Western colleges were erected. As seaboard cities like
+Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore strove for the mastery of Western
+trade, so the various denominations strove for the possession of the
+West. Thus an intellectual stream from New England sources fertilized
+the West. Other sections sent their missionaries; but the real struggle
+was between sects. The contest for power and the expansive tendency
+furnished to the various sects by the existence of a moving frontier
+must have had important results on the character of religious
+organization in the United States. The multiplication of rival churches
+in the little frontier towns had deep and lasting social effects. The
+religious aspects of the frontier make a chapter in our history which
+needs study.
+
+From the conditions of frontier life came intellectual traits of
+profound importance. The works of travelers along each frontier from
+colonial days onward describe certain common traits, and these traits
+have, while softening down, still persisted as survivals in the place of
+their origin, even when a higher social organization succeeded. The
+result is that to the frontier the American intellect owes its striking
+characteristics. That coarseness and strength combined with acuteness
+and inquisitiveness; that practical, inventive turn of mind, quick to
+find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things, lacking in the
+artistic but powerful to effect great ends; that restless, nervous
+energy;[37:1] that dominant individualism, working for good and for
+evil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with
+freedom--these are traits of the frontier, or traits called out
+elsewhere because of the existence of the frontier. Since the days when
+the fleet of Columbus sailed into the waters of the New World, America
+has been another name for opportunity, and the people of the United
+States have taken their tone from the incessant expansion which has not
+only been open but has even been forced upon them. He would be a rash
+prophet who should assert that the expansive character of American life
+has now entirely ceased. Movement has been its dominant fact, and,
+unless this training has no effect upon a people, the American energy
+will continually demand a wider field for its exercise. But never again
+will such gifts of free land offer themselves. For a moment, at the
+frontier, the bonds of custom are broken and unrestraint is triumphant.
+There is not _tabula rasa_. The stubborn American environment is there
+with its imperious summons to accept its conditions; the inherited ways
+of doing things are also there; and yet, in spite of environment, and in
+spite of custom, each frontier did indeed furnish a new field of
+opportunity, a gate of escape from the bondage of the past; and
+freshness, and confidence, and scorn of older society, impatience of its
+restraints and its ideas, and indifference to its lessons, have
+accompanied the frontier. What the Mediterranean Sea was to the Greeks,
+breaking the bond of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new
+institutions and activities, that, and more, the ever retreating
+frontier has been to the United States directly, and to the nations of
+Europe more remotely. And now, four centuries from the discovery of
+America, at the end of a hundred years of life under the Constitution,
+the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the first period of
+American history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1:1] A paper read at the meeting of the American Historical Association
+in Chicago, July 12, 1893. It first appeared in the Proceedings of the
+State Historical Society of Wisconsin, December 14, 1893, with the
+following note: "The foundation of this paper is my article entitled
+'Problems in American History,' which appeared in _The Ægis_, a
+publication of the students of the University of Wisconsin, November 4,
+1892. . . . It is gratifying to find that Professor Woodrow
+Wilson--whose volume on 'Division and Reunion' in the Epochs of American
+History Series, has an appreciative estimate of the importance of the
+West as a factor in American history--accepts some of the views set
+forth in the papers above mentioned, and enhances their value by his
+lucid and suggestive treatment of them in his article in _The Forum_,
+December, 1893, reviewing Goldwin Smith's 'History of the United
+States.'" The present text is that of the _Report of the American
+Historical Association_ for 1893, 199-227. It was printed with additions
+in the _Fifth Year Book of the National Herbart Society_, and in various
+other publications.
+
+[2:1] "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," v, p. 706.
+
+[5:1] Bancroft (1860 ed.), iii, pp. 344, 345, citing Logan MSS.;
+[Mitchell] "Contest in America," etc. (1752), p. 237.
+
+[5:2] Kercheval, "History of the Valley"; Bernheim, "German Settlements
+in the Carolinas"; Winsor, "Narrative and Critical History of America,"
+v, p. 304; Colonial Records of North Carolina, iv, p. xx; Weston,
+"Documents Connected with the History of South Carolina," p. 82; Ellis
+and Evans, "History of Lancaster County, Pa.," chs. iii, xxvi.
+
+[5:3] Parkman, "Pontiac," ii; Griffis, "Sir William Johnson," p. 6;
+Simms's "Frontiersmen of New York."
+
+[5:4] Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 311.
+
+[5:5] Wis. Hist. Cols., xi, p. 50; Hinsdale, "Old Northwest," p. 121;
+Burke, "Oration on Conciliation," Works (1872 ed.), i, p. 473.
+
+[5:6] Roosevelt, "Winning of the West," and citations there given;
+Cutler's "Life of Cutler."
+
+[6:1] Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxviii, pl. 13; McMaster, "Hist. of
+People of U. S.," i, pp. 4, 60, 61; Imlay and Filson, "Western Territory
+of America" (London, 1793); Rochefoucault-Liancourt, "Travels Through
+the United States of North America" (London, 1799); Michaux's "Journal,"
+in _Proceedings American Philosophical Society_, xxvi, No. 129; Forman,
+"Narrative of a Journey Down the Ohio and Mississippi in 1780-'90"
+(Cincinnati, 1888); Bartram, "Travels Through North Carolina," etc.
+(London, 1792); Pope, "Tour Through the Southern and Western
+Territories," etc. (Richmond, 1792); Weld, "Travels Through the States
+of North America" (London, 1799); Baily, "Journal of a Tour in the
+Unsettled States of North America, 1796-'97" (London, 1856);
+Pennsylvania Magazine of History, July, 1886; Winsor, "Narrative and
+Critical History of America," vii, pp. 491, 492, citations.
+
+[6:2] Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxix.
+
+[6:3] Turner, "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin"
+(Johns Hopkins University Studies, Series ix), pp. 61 ff.
+
+[7:1] Monette, "History of the Mississippi Valley," ii; Flint, "Travels
+and Residence in Mississippi," Flint, "Geography and History of the
+Western States," "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," vii, pp. 397, 398,
+404; Holmes, "Account of the U. S."; Kingdom, "America and the British
+Colonies" (London, 1820); Grund, "Americans," ii, chs. i, iii, vi
+(although writing in 1836, he treats of conditions that grew out of
+western advance from the era of 1820 to that time); Peck, "Guide for
+Emigrants" (Boston, 1831); Darby, "Emigrants' Guide to Western and
+Southwestern States and Territories"; Dana, "Geographical Sketches in
+the Western Country"; Kinzie, "Waubun"; Keating, "Narrative of Long's
+Expedition"; Schoolcraft, "Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
+River," "Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley," and
+"Lead Mines of the Missouri"; Andreas, "History of Illinois," i, 86-99;
+Hurlbut, "Chicago Antiquities"; McKenney, "Tour to the Lakes"; Thomas,
+"Travels Through the Western Country," etc. (Auburn, N. Y., 1819).
+
+[7:2] Darby, "Emigrants' Guide," pp. 272 ff; Benton, "Abridgment of
+Debates," vii, p. 397.
+
+[7:3] De Bow's _Review_, iv, p. 254; xvii, p. 428.
+
+[7:4] Grund, "Americans," ii, p. 8.
+
+[8:1] Peck, "New Guide to the West" (Cincinnati, 1848), ch. iv; Parkman,
+"Oregon Trail"; Hall, "The West" (Cincinnati, 1848); Pierce, "Incidents
+of Western Travel"; Murray, "Travels in North America"; Lloyd,
+"Steamboat Directory" (Cincinnati, 1856); "Forty Days in a Western
+Hotel" (Chicago), in _Putnam's Magazine_, December, 1894; Mackay, "The
+Western World," ii, ch. ii, iii; Meeker, "Life in the West"; Bogen,
+"German in America" (Boston, 1851); Olmstead, "Texas Journey"; Greeley,
+"Recollections of a Busy Life"; Schouler, "History of the United
+States," v, 261-267; Peyton, "Over the Alleghanies and Across the
+Prairies" (London, 1870); Loughborough, "The Pacific Telegraph and
+Railway" (St. Louis, 1849); Whitney, "Project for a Railroad to the
+Pacific" (New York, 1849); Peyton, "Suggestions on Railroad
+Communication with the Pacific, and the Trade of China and the Indian
+Islands"; Benton, "Highway to the Pacific" (a speech delivered in the U.
+S. Senate, December 16, 1850).
+
+[8:2] A writer in _The Home Missionary_ (1850), p. 239, reporting
+Wisconsin conditions, exclaims: "Think of this, people of the
+enlightened East. What an example, to come from the very frontier of
+civilization!" But one of the missionaries writes: "In a few years
+Wisconsin will no longer be considered as the West, or as an outpost of
+civilization, any more than Western New York, or the Western Reserve."
+
+[8:3] Bancroft (H. H.), "History of California," "History of Oregon,"
+and "Popular Tribunals"; Shinn, "Mining Camps."
+
+[10:1] See the suggestive paper by Prof. Jesse Macy, "The Institutional
+Beginnings of a Western State."
+
+[10:2] Shinn, "Mining Camps."
+
+[10:3] Compare Thorpe, in _Annals American Academy of Political and
+Social Science_, September, 1891; Bryce, "American Commonwealth" (1888),
+ii, p. 689.
+
+[11:1] Loria, Analisi della Proprieta Capitalista, ii, p. 15.
+
+[11:2] Compare "Observations on the North American Land Company,"
+London, 1796, pp. xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South Carolina," i,
+pp. 149-151; Turner, "Character and Influence of Indian Trade in
+Wisconsin," p. 18; Peck, "New Guide for Emigrants" (Boston, 1837), ch.
+iv; "Compendium Eleventh Census," i, p. xl.
+
+[12:1] See _post_, for illustrations of the political accompaniments of
+changed industrial conditions.
+
+[13:1] But Lewis and Clark were the first to explore the route from the
+Missouri to the Columbia.
+
+[14:1] "Narrative and Critical History of America," viii, p. 10; Sparks'
+"Washington Works," ix, pp. 303, 327; Logan, "History of Upper South
+Carolina," i; McDonald, "Life of Kenton," p. 72; Cong. Record, xxiii, p.
+57.
+
+[15:1] On the effect of the fur trade in opening the routes of
+migration, see the author's "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade
+in Wisconsin."
+
+[16:1] Lodge, "English Colonies," p. 152 and citations; Logan, "Hist. of
+Upper South Carolina," i, p. 151.
+
+[16:2] Flint, "Recollections," p. 9.
+
+[16:3] See Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 344.
+
+[17:1] Coues', "Lewis and Clark's Expedition," i, pp. 2, 253-259;
+Benton, in Cong. Record, xxiii, p. 57.
+
+[17:2] Hehn, _Das Salz_ (Berlin, 1873).
+
+[17:3] Col. Records of N. C., v, p. 3.
+
+[17:4] Findley, "History of the Insurrection in the Four Western
+Counties of Pennsylvania in the Year 1794" (Philadelphia, 1796), p. 35.
+
+[19:1] Hale, "Daniel Boone" (pamphlet).
+
+[21:1] Compare Baily, "Tour in the Unsettled Parts of North America"
+(London, 1856), pp. 217-219, where a similar analysis is made for 1796.
+See also Collot, "Journey in North America" (Paris, 1826), p. 109;
+"Observations on the North American Land Company" (London, 1796), pp.
+xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South Carolina."
+
+[22:1] "Spotswood Papers," in Collections of Virginia Historical
+Society, i, ii.
+
+[23:1] [Burke], "European Settlements" (1765 ed.), ii, p. 200.
+
+[23:2] Everest, in "Wisconsin Historical Collections," xii, pp. 7 ff.
+
+[23:3] Weston, "Documents connected with History of South Carolina," p.
+61.
+
+[25:1] See, for example, the speech of Clay, in the House of
+Representatives, January 30, 1824.
+
+[25:2] See the admirable monograph by Prof. H. B. Adams, "Maryland's
+Influence on the Land Cessions"; and also President Welling, in Papers
+American Historical Association, iii, p. 411.
+
+[26:1] Adams' Memoirs, ix, pp. 247, 248.
+
+[28:1] Author's article in _The Ægis_ (Madison, Wis.), November 4, 1892.
+
+[29:1] Compare Roosevelt, "Thomas Benton," ch. i.
+
+[30:1] _Political Science Quarterly_, ii, p. 457. Compare Sumner,
+"Alexander Hamilton," chs. ii-vii.
+
+[31:1] Compare Wilson, "Division and Reunion," pp. 15, 24.
+
+[32:1] On the relation of frontier conditions to Revolutionary taxation,
+see Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, ch. iii.
+
+[32:2] I have refrained from dwelling on the lawless characteristics of
+the frontier, because they are sufficiently well known. The gambler and
+desperado, the regulators of the Carolinas and the vigilantes of
+California, are types of that line of scum that the waves of advancing
+civilization bore before them, and of the growth of spontaneous organs
+of authority where legal authority was absent. Compare Barrows, "United
+States of Yesterday and To-morrow"; Shinn, "Mining Camps"; and Bancroft,
+"Popular Tribunals." The humor, bravery, and rude strength, as well as
+the vices of the frontier in its worst aspect, have left traces on
+American character, language, and literature, not soon to be effaced.
+
+[34:1] Debates in the Constitutional Convention, 1829-1830.
+
+[34:2] [McCrady] Eminent and Representative Men of the Carolinas, i, p.
+43; Calhoun's Works, i, pp. 401-406.
+
+[35:1] Speech in the Senate, March 1, 1825; Register of Debates, i, 721.
+
+[36:1] Plea for the West (Cincinnati, 1835), pp. 11 ff.
+
+[37:1] Colonial travelers agree in remarking on the phlegmatic
+characteristics of the colonists. It has frequently been asked how such
+a people could have developed that strained nervous energy now
+characteristic of them. Compare Sumner, "Alexander Hamilton," p. 98, and
+Adams, "History of the United States," i, p. 60; ix, pp. 240, 241. The
+transition appears to become marked at the close of the War of 1812, a
+period when interest centered upon the development of the West, and the
+West was noted for restless energy. Grund, "Americans," ii, ch. i.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE FIRST OFFICIAL FRONTIER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY[39:1]
+
+
+In the Significance of the "Frontier in American History," I took for my
+text the following announcement of the Superintendent of the Census of
+1890:
+
+     Up to and including 1880 the country had a frontier of
+     settlement but at present the unsettled area has been so
+     broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can
+     hardly be said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its
+     extent, the westward movement, etc., it cannot therefore any
+     longer have a place in the census reports.
+
+Two centuries prior to this announcement, in 1690, a committee of the
+General Court of Massachusetts recommended the Court to order what shall
+be the frontier and to maintain a committee to settle garrisons on the
+frontier with forty soldiers to each frontier town as a main
+guard.[39:2] In the two hundred years between this official attempt to
+locate the Massachusetts frontier line, and the official announcement of
+the ending of the national frontier line, westward expansion was the
+most important single process in American history.
+
+The designation "frontier town" was not, however, a new one. As early as
+1645 inhabitants of Concord, Sudbury, and Dedham, "being inland townes
+& but thinly peopled," were forbidden to remove without authority;[40:1]
+in 1669, certain towns had been the subject of legislation as "frontier
+towns;"[40:2] and in the period of King Philip's War there were various
+enactments regarding frontier towns.[40:3] In the session of 1675-6 it
+had been proposed to build a fence of stockades or stone eight feet high
+from the Charles "where it is navigable" to the Concord at Billerica and
+thence to the Merrimac and down the river to the Bay, "by which meanes
+that whole tract will [be] environed, for the security & safty (vnder
+God) of the people, their houses, goods & cattel; from the rage & fury
+of the enimy."[40:4] This project, however, of a kind of Roman Wall did
+not appeal to the frontiersmen of the time. It was a part of the
+antiquated ideas of defense which had been illustrated by the impossible
+equipment of the heavily armored soldier of the early Puritan régime
+whose corslets and head pieces, pikes, matchlocks, fourquettes and
+bandoleers, went out of use about the period of King Philip's War. The
+fifty-seven postures provided in the approved manual of arms for loading
+and firing the matchlock proved too great a handicap in the chase of the
+nimble savage. In this era the frontier fighter adapted himself to a
+more open order, and lighter equipment suggested by the Indian warrior's
+practice.[40:5]
+
+The settler on the outskirts of Puritan civilization took up the task of
+bearing the brunt of attack and pushing forward the line of advance
+which year after year carried American settlements into the wilderness.
+In American thought and speech the term "frontier" has come to mean the
+edge of settlement, rather than, as in Europe, the political boundary.
+By 1690 it was already evident that the frontier of settlement and the
+frontier of military defense were coinciding. As population advanced
+into the wilderness and thus successively brought new exposed areas
+between the settlements on the one side and the Indians with their
+European backers on the other, the military frontier ceased to be
+thought of as the Atlantic coast, but rather as a moving line bounding
+the un-won wilderness. It could not be a fortified boundary along the
+charter limits, for those limits extended to the South Sea, and
+conflicted with the bounds of sister colonies. The thing to be defended
+was the outer edge of this expanding society, a changing frontier, one
+that needed designation and re-statement with the changing location of
+the "West."
+
+It will help to illustrate the significance of this new frontier when we
+see that Virginia at about the same time as Massachusetts underwent a
+similar change and attempted to establish frontier towns, or
+"co-habitations," at the "heads," that is the first falls, the vicinity
+of Richmond, Petersburg, etc., of her rivers.[41:1]
+
+The Virginia system of "particular plantations" introduced along the
+James at the close of the London Company's activity had furnished a type
+for the New England town. In recompense, at this later day the New
+England town may have furnished a model for Virginia's efforts to create
+frontier settlements by legislation.
+
+An act of March 12, 1694-5, by the General Court of Massachusetts
+enumerated the "Frontier Towns" which the inhabitants were forbidden to
+desert on pain of loss of their lands (if landholders) or of
+imprisonment (if not landholders), unless permission to remove were
+first obtained.[42:1] These eleven frontier towns included Wells, York,
+and Kittery on the eastern frontier, and Amesbury, Haverhill, Dunstable,
+Chelmsford, Groton, Lancaster, Marlborough,[42:2] and Deerfield. In
+March, 1699-1700, the law was reënacted with the addition of Brookfield,
+Mendon, and Woodstock, together with seven others, Salisbury,
+Andover,[42:3] Billerica, Hatfield, Hadley, Westfield, and Northampton,
+which, "tho' they be not frontiers as those towns first named, yet lye
+more open than many others to an attack of an Enemy."[42:4]
+
+In the spring of 1704 the General Court of Connecticut, following
+closely the act of Massachusetts, named as her frontier towns, not to
+be deserted, Symsbury, Waterbury, Danbury, Colchester, Windham,
+Mansfield, and Plainfield.
+
+Thus about the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
+eighteenth century there was an officially designated frontier line for
+New England. The line passing through these enumerated towns represents:
+(1) the outskirts of settlement along the eastern coast and up the
+Merrimac and its tributaries,--a region threatened from the Indian
+country by way of the Winnepesaukee Lake; (2) the end of the ribbon of
+settlement up the Connecticut Valley, menaced by the Canadian Indians by
+way of the Lake Champlain and Winooski River route to the Connecticut;
+(3) boundary towns which marked the edges of that inferior agricultural
+region, where the hard crystalline rocks furnished a later foundation
+for Shays' Rebellion, opposition to the adoption of the Federal
+Constitution, and the abandoned farm; and (4) the isolated intervale of
+Brookfield which lay intermediate between these frontiers.
+
+Besides this New England frontier there was a belt of settlement in New
+York, ascending the Hudson to where Albany and Schenectady served as
+outposts against the Five Nations, who menaced the Mohawk, and against
+the French and the Canadian Indians, who threatened the Hudson by way of
+Lake Champlain and Lake George.[43:1] The sinister relations of leading
+citizens of Albany engaged in the fur trade with these Indians, even
+during time of war, tended to protect the Hudson River frontier at the
+expense of the frontier towns of New England.
+
+The common sequence of frontier types (fur trader, cattle-raising
+pioneer, small primitive farmer, and the farmer engaged in intensive
+varied agriculture to produce a surplus for export) had appeared, though
+confusedly, in New England. The traders and their posts had prepared the
+way for the frontier towns,[44:1] and the cattle industry was most
+important to the early farmers.[44:2] But the stages succeeded rapidly
+and intermingled. After King Philip's War, while Albany was still in the
+fur-trading stage, the New England frontier towns were rather like mark
+colonies, military-agricultural outposts against the Indian enemy.
+
+The story of the border warfare between Canada and the frontier towns
+furnishes ample material for studying frontier life and institutions;
+but I shall not attempt to deal with the narrative of the wars. The
+palisaded meeting-house square, the fortified isolated garrison houses,
+the massacres and captivities are familiar features of New England's
+history. The Indian was a very real influence upon the mind and morals
+as well as upon the institutions of frontier New England. The occasional
+instances of Puritans returning from captivity to visit the frontier
+towns, Catholic in religion, painted and garbed as Indians and speaking
+the Indian tongue,[44:3] and the half-breed children of captive Puritan
+mothers, tell a sensational part of the story; but in the normal, as
+well as in such exceptional relations of the frontier townsmen to the
+Indians, there are clear evidences of the transforming influence of the
+Indian frontier upon the Puritan type of English colonist.
+
+In 1703-4, for example, the General Court of Massachusetts ordered five
+hundred pairs of snowshoes and an equal number of moccasins for use in
+specified counties "lying Frontier next to the Wilderness."[45:1]
+Connecticut in 1704 after referring to her frontier towns and garrisons
+ordered that "said company of English and Indians shall, from time to
+time at the discretion of their chief co[=m]ander, range the woods to
+indevour the discovery of an approaching enemy, and in especiall manner
+from Westfield to Ousatunnuck.[45:2] . . . And for the incouragement of
+our forces gone or going against the enemy, this Court will allow out of
+the publick treasurie the su[=m]e of five pounds for every mans scalp of
+the enemy killed in this Colonie."[45:3] Massachusetts offered bounties
+for scalps, varying in amount according to whether the scalp was of men,
+or women and youths, and whether it was taken by regular forces under
+pay, volunteers in service, or volunteers without pay.[45:4] One of the
+most striking phases of frontier adjustment, was the proposal of the
+Rev. Solomon Stoddard of Northampton in the fall of 1703, urging the use
+of dogs "to hunt Indians as they do Bears." The argument was that the
+dogs would catch many an Indian who would be too light of foot for the
+townsmen, nor was it to be thought of as inhuman; for the Indians "act
+like wolves and are to be dealt with as wolves."[45:5] In fact
+Massachusetts passed an act in 1706 for the raising and increasing of
+dogs for the better security of the frontiers, and both Massachusetts
+and Connecticut in 1708 paid money from their treasury for the trailing
+of dogs.[46:1]
+
+Thus we come to familiar ground: the Massachusetts frontiersman like his
+western successor hated the Indians; the "tawney serpents," of Cotton
+Mather's phrase, were to be hunted down and scalped in accord with law
+and, in at least one instance by the chaplain himself, a Harvard
+graduate, the hero of the Ballad of Pigwacket, who
+
+                        many Indians slew,
+     And some of them he scalp'd when bullets round him flew.[46:2]
+
+Within the area bounded by the frontier line, were the broken fragments
+of Indians defeated in the era of King Philip's War, restrained within
+reservations, drunken and degenerate survivors, among whom the
+missionaries worked with small results, a vexation to the border
+towns,[46:3] as they were in the case of later frontiers. Although, as
+has been said, the frontier towns had scattered garrison houses, and
+palisaded enclosures similar to the neighborhood forts, or stations, of
+Kentucky in the Revolution, and of Indiana and Illinois in the War of
+1812, one difference is particularly noteworthy. In the case of
+frontiersmen who came down from Pennsylvania into the Upland South along
+the eastern edge of the Alleghanies, as well as in the more obvious case
+of the backwoodsmen of Kentucky and Tennessee, the frontier towns were
+too isolated from the main settled regions to allow much military
+protection by the older areas. On the New England frontier, because it
+was adjacent to the coast towns, this was not the case, and here, as in
+seventeenth century Virginia, great activity in protecting the frontier
+was evinced by the colonial authorities, and the frontier towns
+themselves called loudly for assistance. This phase of frontier defense
+needs a special study, but at present it is sufficient to recall that
+the colony sent garrisons to the frontier besides using the militia of
+the frontier towns; and that it employed rangers to patrol from garrison
+to garrison.[47:1]
+
+These were prototypes of the regular army post, and of rangers,
+dragoons, cavalry and mounted police who have carried the remoter
+military frontier forward. It is possible to trace this military cordon
+from New England to the Carolinas early in the eighteenth century, still
+neighboring the coast; by 1840 it ran from Fort Snelling on the upper
+Mississippi through various posts to the Sabine boundary of Texas, and
+so it passed forward until to-day it lies at the edge of Mexico and the
+Pacific Ocean.
+
+A few examples of frontier appeals for garrison aid will help to an
+understanding of the early form of the military frontier. Wells asks,
+June 30, 1689:
+
+     1 That yo{r} Hon{rs} will please to send us speedily twenty
+     Eight good brisk men that may be serviceable as a guard to us
+     whilest we get in our Harvest of Hay & Corn, (we being unable
+     to Defend ourselves & to Do our work), & also to Persue &
+     destroy the Enemy as occasion may require
+
+     2 That these men may be compleatly furnished with Arms,
+     Amunition & Provision, and that upon the Countrys account, it
+     being a Generall War.[48:1]
+
+Dunstable, "still weak and unable both to keep our Garrisons and to send
+out men to get hay for our Cattle; without doeing which wee cannot
+subsist," petitioned July 23, 1689, for twenty footmen for a month "to
+scout about the towne while wee get our hay." Otherwise, they say, they
+must be forced to leave.[48:2] Still more indicative of this temper is
+the petition of Lancaster, March 11, 1675-6, to the Governor and
+Council: "As God has made you father over us so you will have a father's
+pity to us." They asked a guard of men and aid, without which they must
+leave.[48:3] Deerfield pled in 1678 to the General Court, "unlest you
+will be pleased to take us (out of your fatherlike pitty) and Cherish us
+in yo{r} Bosomes we are like Suddainly to breathe out o{r} Last
+Breath."[48:4]
+
+The perils of the time, the hardships of the frontier towns and
+readiness of this particular frontier to ask appropriations for losses
+and wounds,[48:5] are abundantly illustrated in similar petitions from
+other towns. One is tempted at times to attribute the very frank
+self-pity and dependent attitude to a minister's phrasing, and to the
+desire to secure remission of taxes, the latter a frontier trait more
+often associated with riot than with religion in other regions.
+
+As an example of various petitions the following from Groton in 1704 is
+suggestive. Here the minister's hand is probably absent:
+
+     1 That wharas by the all dessposing hand of god who orders all
+     things in infinit wisdom it is our portion to liue In such a
+     part of the land which by reson of the enemy Is becom vary
+     dangras as by wofull experiants we haue falt both formarly and
+     of late to our grat damidg & discoridgment and espashaly this
+     last yere hauing lost so many parsons som killed som
+     captauated and som remoued and allso much corn & cattell and
+     horses & hay wharby wee ar gratly Impouerrished and brought
+     uary low & in a uary pore capasity to subsist any longer As
+     the barers her of can inform your honors
+
+     2 And more then all this our paster mr hobard is & hath been
+     for aboue a yere uncapable of desspansing the ordinances of
+     god amongst us & we haue advised with th Raurant Elders of our
+     nayboring churches and they aduise to hyare another minister
+     and to saport mr hobard and to make our adras to your honours
+     we haue but litel laft to pay our deus with being so pore and
+     few In numbr ather to town or cuntrey & we being a frantere
+     town & lyable to dangor there being no safty in going out nor
+     coming in but for a long time we haue got our brad with the
+     parel of our liues & allso broght uery low by so grat a charg
+     of bilding garisons & fortefycations by ordur of athorety &
+     thar is saural of our Inhabitants ramoued out of town & others
+     are prouiding to remoue, axcapt somthing be don for our
+     Incoridgment for we are so few & so por that we canot pay two
+     ministors nathar ar we wiling to liue without any we spand so
+     much time in waching and warding that we can doe but litel els
+     & truly we haue liued allmost 2 yers more like soulders then
+     other wise & accapt your honars can find out some bater way
+     for our safty and support we cannot uphold as a town ather by
+     remitting our tax or tow alow pay for building the sauarall
+     forts alowed and ordred by athority or alls to alow the one
+     half of our own Inhabitants to be under pay or to grant
+     liberty for our remufe Into our naiburing towns to tak cer for
+     oursalfs all which if your honors shall se meet to grant you
+     will hereby gratly incoridg your humble pateceners to conflect
+     with th many trubls we are ensadant unto.[50:1]
+
+Forced together into houses for protection, getting in their crops at
+the peril of their lives, the frontier townsmen felt it a hardship to
+contribute also to the taxes of the province while they helped to
+protect the exposed frontier. In addition there were grievances of
+absentee proprietors who paid no town taxes and yet profited by the
+exertions of the frontiersmen; of that I shall speak later.
+
+If we were to trust to these petitions asking favors from the government
+of the colony, we might impute to these early frontiersmen a degree of
+submission to authority unlike that of other frontiersmen,[51:1] and
+indeed not wholly warranted by the facts. Reading carefully, we find
+that, however prudently phrased, the petitions are in fact complaints
+against taxation; demands for expenditures by the colony in their
+behalf; criticisms of absentee proprietors; intimations that they may be
+forced to abandon the frontier position so essential to the defense of
+the settled eastern country.
+
+The spirit of military insubordination characteristic of the frontier is
+evident in the accounts of these towns, such as Pynchon's in 1694,
+complaining of the decay of the fortifications at Hatfield, Hadley, and
+Springfield: "the people a little wilful. Inclined to doe when and how
+they please or not at all."[51:2] Saltonstall writes from Haverhill
+about the same time regarding his ill success in recruiting: "I will
+never plead for an Haverhill man more," and he begs that some meet
+person be sent "to tell us what we should, may or must do. I have
+laboured in vain: some go this, and that, and the other way at pleasure,
+and do what they list."[51:3] This has a familiar ring to the student of
+the frontier.
+
+As in the case of the later frontier also, the existence of a common
+danger on the borders of settlement tended to consolidate not only the
+towns of Massachusetts into united action for defense, but also the
+various colonies. The frontier was an incentive to sectional combination
+then as it was to nationalism afterward. When in 1692 Connecticut sent
+soldiers from her own colony to aid the Massachusetts towns on the
+Connecticut River,[52:1] she showed a realization that the Deerfield
+people, who were "in a sense in the enemy's Mouth almost," as Pynchon
+wrote, constituted her own frontier[52:2] and that the facts of
+geography were more compelling than arbitrary colonial boundaries.
+Thereby she also took a step that helped to break down provincial
+antagonisms. When in 1689 Massachusetts and Connecticut sent agents to
+Albany to join with New York in making presents to the Indians of that
+colony in order to engage their aid against the French,[52:3] they
+recognized (as their leaders put it) that Albany was "the hinge" of the
+frontier in this exposed quarter. In thanking Connecticut for the
+assistance furnished in 1690 Livingston said: "I hope your honors do not
+look upon Albany as Albany, but as the frontier of your honor's Colony
+and of all their Majesties countries."[52:4]
+
+The very essence of the American frontier is that it is the graphic line
+which records the expansive energies of the people behind it, and which
+by the law of its own being continually draws that advance after it to
+new conquests. This is one of the most significant things about New
+England's frontier in these years. That long blood-stained line of the
+eastern frontier which skirted the Maine coast was of great importance,
+for it imparted a western tone to the life and characteristics of the
+Maine people which endures to this day, and it was one line of advance
+for New England toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence, leading again and
+again to diplomatic negotiations with the powers that held that river.
+The line of the towns that occupied the waters of the Merrimac, tempted
+the province continually into the wilderness of New Hampshire. The
+Connecticut river towns pressed steadily up that stream, along its
+tributaries into the Hoosatonic valleys, and into the valleys between
+the Green Mountains of Vermont. By the end of 1723, the General Court of
+Massachusetts enacted,--
+
+     That It will be of Great Service to all the Western Frontiers,
+     both in this and the Neighboring Government of Conn., to Build
+     a Block House above Northfield, in the most convenient Place
+     on the Lands called the Equivilant Lands, & to post in it
+     forty Able Men, English & Western Indians, to be employed in
+     Scouting at a Good Distance up Conn. River, West River, Otter
+     Creek, and sometimes Eastwardly above the Great Manadnuck, for
+     the Discovery of the Enemy Coming towards anny of the frontier
+     Towns.[53:1]
+
+The "frontier Towns" were preparing to swarm. It was not long before
+Fort Dummer replaced "the Block House," and the Berkshires and Vermont
+became new frontiers.
+
+The Hudson River likewise was recognized as another line of advance
+pointing the way to Lake Champlain and Montreal, calling out demands
+that protection should be secured by means of an aggressive advance of
+the frontier. _Canada delenda est_ became the rallying cry in New
+England as well as in New York, and combined diplomatic pressure and
+military expeditions followed in the French and Indian wars and in the
+Revolution, in which the children of the Connecticut and Massachusetts
+frontier towns, acclimated to Indian fighting, followed Ethan Allen and
+his fellows to the north.[54:1]
+
+Having touched upon some of the military and expansive tendencies of
+this first official frontier, let us next turn to its social, economic,
+and political aspects. How far was this first frontier a field for the
+investment of eastern capital and for political control by it? Were
+there evidences of antagonism between the frontier and the settled,
+property-holding classes of the coast? Restless democracy, resentfulness
+over taxation and control, and recriminations between the Western
+pioneer and the Eastern capitalist, have been characteristic features of
+other frontiers: were similar phenomena in evidence here? Did
+"Populistic" tendencies appear in this frontier, and were there
+grievances which explained these tendencies?[54:2]
+
+In such colonies as New York and Virginia the land grants were often
+made to members of the Council and their influential friends, even when
+there were actual settlers already on the grants. In the case of New
+England the land system is usually so described as to give the
+impression that it was based on a non-commercial policy, creating new
+Puritan towns by free grants of land made in advance to approved
+settlers. This description does not completely fit the case. That there
+was an economic interest on the part of absentee proprietors, and that
+men of political influence with the government were often among the
+grantees seems also to be true. Melville Egleston states the case thus:
+"The court was careful not to authorize new plantations unless they were
+to be in a measure under the influence of men in whom confidence could
+be placed, and commonly acted upon their application."[55:1] The
+frontier, as we shall observe later, was not always disposed to see the
+practice in so favorable a light.
+
+New towns seem to have been the result in some cases of the aggregation
+of settlers upon and about a large private grant; more often they
+resulted from settlers in older towns, where the town limits were
+extensive, spreading out to the good lands of the outskirts, beyond easy
+access to the meeting-house, and then asking recognition as a separate
+town. In some cases they may have been due to squatting on unassigned
+lands, or purchasing the Indian title and then asking confirmation. In
+others grants were made in advance of settlement.
+
+As early as 1636 the General Court had ordered that none go to new
+plantations without leave of a majority of the magistrates.[55:2] This
+made the legal situation clear, but it would be dangerous to conclude
+that it represented the actual situation. In any case there would be a
+necessity for the settlers finally to secure the assent of the Court.
+This could be facilitated by a grant to leading men having political
+influence with the magistrates. The complaints of absentee proprietors
+which find expression in the frontier petitions of the seventeenth and
+early eighteenth century seems to indicate that this happened. In the
+succeeding years of the eighteenth century the grants to leading men and
+the economic and political motives in the grants are increasingly
+evident. This whole topic should be made the subject of special study.
+What is here offered is merely suggestive of a problem.[56:1]
+
+The frontier settlers criticized the absentee proprietors, who profited
+by the pioneers' expenditure of labor and blood upon their farms, while
+they themselves enjoyed security in an eastern town. A few examples from
+town historians will illustrate this. Among the towns of the Merrimac
+Valley, Salisbury was planted on the basis of a grant to a dozen
+proprietors including such men as Mr. Bradstreet and the younger Dudley,
+only two of whom actually lived and died in Salisbury.[56:2] Amesbury
+was set off from Salisbury by division, one half of the signers of the
+agreement signing by mark. Haverhill was first seated in 1641, following
+petitions from Mr. Ward, the Ipswich minister, his son-in-law, Giles
+Firmin, and others. Firmin's letter to Governor Winthrop, in 1640,
+complains that Ipswich had given him his ground in that town on
+condition that he should stay in the town three years or else he could
+not sell it, "whenas others have no business but range from place to
+place on purpose to live upon the countrey."[56:3]
+
+Dunstable's large grant was brought about by a combination of leading
+men who had received grants after the survey of 1652; among such grants
+was one to the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company and another to
+Thomas Brattle of Boston. Apparently it was settled chiefly by others
+than the original grantees.[57:1] Groton voted in 1685 to sue the
+"non-Residenc" to assist in paying the rate, and in 1679 the General
+Court had ordered non-residents having land at Groton to pay rates for
+their lands as residents did.[57:2] Lancaster (Nashaway) was granted to
+proprietors including various craftsmen in iron, indicating, perhaps, an
+expectation of iron works, and few of the original proprietors actually
+settled in the town.[57:3] The grant of 1653-4 was made by the Court
+after reciting: (1) that it had ordered in 1647 that the "ordering and
+disposeing of the Plantation at Nashaway is wholly in the Courts power";
+(2) "Considering that there is allredy at Nashaway about nine Families
+and that severall both freemen and others intend to goe and setle there,
+some whereof are named in this Petition," etc.
+
+Mendon, begun in 1660 by Braintree people, is a particularly significant
+example. In 1681 the inhabitants petitioned that while they are not "of
+the number of those who dwell in their ceiled houses & yet say the time
+is not come that the Lord's house should be built," yet they have gone
+outside of their strength "unless others who are proprietors as well as
+ourselves, (the price of whose lands is much raysed by our carrying on
+public work & will be nothing worth if we are forced to quit the place)
+doo beare an equal share in Town charges with us. Those who are not yet
+come up to us are a great and far yet abler part of our
+Proprietors . . ."[57:4] In 1684 the selectmen inform the General Court
+that one half of the proprietors, two only excepted, are dwelling in
+other places, "Our proprietors, abroad," say they, "object that they see
+no reason why they should pay as much for thayer lands as we do for our
+Land and stock, which we answer that if their be not a noff of reason
+for it, we are sure there is more than enough of necessity to supply
+that is wanting in reason."[58:1] This is the authentic voice of the
+frontier.
+
+Deerfield furnishes another type, inasmuch as a considerable part of its
+land was first held by Dedham, to which the grant was made as a
+recompense for the location of the Natick Indian reservation. Dedham
+shares in the town often fell into the hands of speculators, and
+Sheldon, the careful historian of Deerfield, declares that not a single
+Dedham man became a permanent resident of the grant. In 1678 Deerfield
+petitioned the General Court as follows:
+
+     You may be pleased to know that the very principle & best of
+     the land; the best for soile; the best for situation; as lying
+     in y{e} centre & midle of the town: & as to quantity, nere
+     half, belongs unto eight or 9 proprietors each and every of
+     which, are never like to come to a settlement amongst us,
+     which we have formerly found grievous & doe Judge for the
+     future will be found intollerable if not altered. O{r}
+     minister, Mr. Mather . . . & we ourselves are much discouraged
+     as judging the Plantation will be spoiled if thes proprietors
+     may not be begged, or will not be bought up on very easy terms
+     outt of their Right . . . Butt as long as the maine of the
+     plantation Lies in men's hands that can't improve it
+     themselves, neither are ever like to putt such tenants on to
+     it as shall be likely to advance the good of y{e} place in
+     Civill or sacred Respects; he, ourselves, and all others that
+     think of going to it, are much discouraged.[59:1]
+
+Woodstock, later a Connecticut town, was settled under a grant in the
+Nipmuc country made to the town of Roxbury. The settlers, who located
+their farms near the trading post about which the Indians still
+collected, were called the "go-ers," while the "stayers" were those who
+remained in Roxbury, and retained half of the new grant; but it should
+be added that they paid the go-ers a sum of money to facilitate the
+settlement.
+
+This absentee proprietorship and the commercial attitude toward the
+lands of new towns became more evident in succeeding years of the
+eighteenth century. Leicester, for example, was confirmed by the General
+Court in 1713. The twenty shares were divided among twenty-two
+proprietors, including Jeremiah Dummer, Paul Dudley (Attorney-General),
+William Dudley (like Paul a son of the Governor, Joseph Dudley), Thomas
+Hutchinson (father of the later Governor), John Clark (the political
+leader), and Samuel Sewall (son of the Chief Justice). These were all
+men of influence, and none of the proprietors became inhabitants of
+Leicester. The proprietors tried to induce the fifty families, whose
+settlement was one of the conditions on which the grant was made, to
+occupy the eastern half of the township reserving the rest as their
+absolute property.[59:2]
+
+The author of a currency tract, in 1716, entitled "Some Considerations
+upon the Several Sorts of Banks," remarks that formerly, when land was
+easy to be obtained, good men came over as indentured servants; but now,
+he says, they are runaways, thieves, and disorderly persons. The remedy
+for this, in his opinion, would be to induce servants to come over by
+offering them homes when the terms of indenture should expire.[60:1] He
+therefore advocates that townships should be laid out four or five miles
+square in which grants of fifty or sixty acres could be made to
+servants.[60:2] Concern over the increase of negro slaves in
+Massachusetts seems to have been the reason for this proposal. It
+indicates that the current practice in disposing of the lands did not
+provide for the poorer people.
+
+But Massachusetts did not follow this suggestion of a homestead policy.
+On the contrary, the desire to locate towns to create continuous lines
+of settlement along the roads between the disconnected frontiers and to
+protect boundary claims by granting tiers of towns in the disputed
+tract, as well, no doubt, as pressure from financial interests, led the
+General Court between 1715 and 1762 to dispose of the remaining public
+domain of Massachusetts under conditions that made speculation and
+colonization by capitalists important factors.[60:3] When in 1762
+Massachusetts sold a group of townships in the Berkshires to the highest
+bidders (by whole townships),[60:4] the transfer from the
+social-religious to the economic conception was complete, and the
+frontier was deeply influenced by the change to "land mongering."
+
+In one respect, however, there was an increasing recognition of the
+religious and social element in settling the frontier, due in part, no
+doubt, to a desire to provide for the preservation of eastern ideals and
+influences in the West. Provisions for reserving lands within the
+granted townships for the support of an approved minister, and for
+schools, appear in the seventeenth century and become a common feature
+of the grants for frontier towns in the eighteenth.[61:1] This practice
+with respect to the New England frontier became the foundation for the
+system of grants of land from the public domain for the support of
+common schools and state universities by the federal government from its
+beginning, and has been profoundly influential in later Western States.
+
+Another ground for discontent over land questions was furnished by the
+system of granting lands within the town by the commoners. The principle
+which in many, if not all, cases guided the proprietors in distributing
+the town lots is familiar and is well stated in the Lancaster town
+records (1653):
+
+     And, whereas Lotts are Now Laid out for the most part Equally
+     to Rich and poore, Partly to keepe the Towne from Scatering to
+     farr, and partly out of Charitie and Respect to men of meaner
+     estate, yet that Equallitie (which is the rule of God) may be
+     observed, we Covenant and Agree, That in a second Devition and
+     so through all other Devitions of Land the mater shall be
+     drawne as neere to _equallitie according to mens estates_ as
+     wee are able to doe, That he which hath now more then his
+     estate Deserveth in home Lotts and entervale Lotts shall haue
+     so much Less: and he that hath Less then his estate Deserveth
+     shall haue so much more.[62:1]
+
+This peculiar doctrine of "equality" had early in the history of the
+colony created discontents. Winthrop explained the principle which
+governed himself and his colleagues in the case of the Boston committee
+of 1634 by saying that their divisions were arranged "partly to prevent
+the neglect of trades." This is a pregnant idea; it underlay much of the
+later opposition of New England as a manufacturing section to the free
+homestead or cheap land policy, demanded by the West and by the labor
+party, in the national public domain. The migration of labor to free
+lands meant that higher wages must be paid to those who remained. The
+use of the town lands by the established classes to promote an approved
+form of society naturally must have had some effect on migration.
+
+But a more effective source of disputes was with respect to the relation
+of the town proprietors to the public domain of the town in contrast
+with the non-proprietors as a class. The need of keeping the town
+meeting and the proprietors' meeting separate in the old towns in
+earlier years was not so great as it was when the new-comers became
+numerous. In an increasing degree these new-comers were either not
+granted lands at all, or were not admitted to the body of proprietors
+with rights in the possession of the undivided town lands. Contentions
+on the part of the town meeting that it had the right of dealing with
+the town lands occasionally appear, significantly, in the frontier towns
+of Haverhill, Massachusetts, Simsbury, Connecticut, and in the towns of
+the Connecticut Valley.[63:1] Jonathan Edwards, in 1751, declared that
+there had been in Northampton for forty or fifty years "two parties
+somewhat like the court and country parties of England. . . . The first
+party embraced the great proprietors of land, and the parties concerned
+about land and other matters."[63:2] The tendency to divide up the
+common lands among the proprietors in individual possession did not
+become marked until the eighteenth century; but the exclusion of some
+from possession of the town lands and the "equality" in allotment
+favoring men with already large estates must have attracted ambitious
+men who were not of the favored class to join in the movement to new
+towns. Religious dissensions would combine to make frontier society as
+it formed early in the eighteenth century more and more democratic,
+dissatisfied with the existing order, and less respectful of authority.
+We shall not understand the relative radicalism of parts of the
+Berkshires, Vermont and interior New Hampshire without enquiry into the
+degree in which the control over the lands by a proprietary monopoly
+affected the men who settled on the frontier.
+
+The final aspect of this frontier to be examined, is the attitude of the
+conservatives of the older sections towards this movement of westward
+advance. President Dwight in the era of the War of 1812 was very
+critical of the "foresters," but saw in such a movement a safety valve
+to the institutions of New England by allowing the escape of the
+explosive advocates of "Innovation."[63:3]
+
+Cotton Mather is perhaps not a typical representative of the
+conservative sentiment at the close of the seventeenth century, but his
+writings may partly reflect the attitude of Boston Bay toward New
+England's first Western frontier. Writing in 1694 of "Wonderful Passages
+which have Occurred, First in the Protections and then in the
+Afflictions of New England," he says:
+
+     One while the Enclosing of _Commons_ hath made Neighbours,
+     that should have been like Sheep, to _Bite and devour one
+     another_. . . . Again, Do our _Old_ People, any of them _Go
+     Out_ from the Institutions of God, Swarming into New
+     Settlements, where they and their Untaught Families are like
+     to _Perish for Lack of Vision_? They that have done so,
+     heretofore, have to their Cost found, that they were got unto
+     the _Wrong side of the Hedge_, in their doing so. Think, here
+     _Should this be done any more?_ We read of Balaam, in Num. 22,
+     23. He was to his Damage, _driven to the_ Wall, when he would
+     needs make an unlawful Salley forth after the _Gain_ of this
+     World. . . . Why, when men, for the Sake of Earthly Gain,
+     would be _going out_ into the _Warm_ Sun, they drive _Through
+     the Wall_, and the _Angel of the Lord_ becomes their Enemy.
+
+In his essay on "Frontiers Well-Defended" (1707) Mather assures the
+pioneers that they "dwell in a Hatsarmaneth," a place of "tawney
+serpents," are "inhabitants of the Valley of Achor," and are "the Poor
+of this World." There may be significance in his assertion: "It is
+remarkable to see that when the Unchurched Villages, have been so many
+of them, _utterly broken up_, in the _War_, that has been upon us, those
+that have had _Churches_ regularly formed in them, have generally been
+under a more _sensible Protection_ of Heaven." "Sirs," he says, "a
+_Church-State_ well form'd may fortify you wonderfully!" He recommends
+abstention from profane swearing, furious cursing, Sabbath breaking,
+unchastity, dishonesty, robbing of God by defrauding the ministers of
+their dues, drunkenness, and revels and he reminds them that even the
+Indians have family prayers! Like his successors who solicited
+missionary contributions for the salvation of the frontier in the
+Mississippi Valley during the forties of the nineteenth century, this
+early spokesman for New England laid stress upon teaching anti-popery,
+particularly in view of the captivity that might await them.
+
+In summing up, we find many of the traits of later frontiers in this
+early prototype, the Massachusetts frontier. It lies at the edge of the
+Indian country and tends to advance. It calls out militant qualities and
+reveals the imprint of wilderness conditions upon the psychology and
+morals as well as upon the institutions of the people. It demands common
+defense and thus becomes a factor for consolidation. It is built on the
+basis of a preliminary fur trade, and is settled by the combined and
+sometimes antagonistic forces of eastern men of property (the absentee
+proprietors) and the democratic pioneers. The East attempted to regulate
+and control it. Individualistic and democratic tendencies were
+emphasized both by the wilderness conditions and, probably, by the prior
+contentions between the proprietors and non-proprietors of the towns
+from which settlers moved to the frontier. Removal away from the control
+of the customary usages of the older communities and from the
+conservative influence of the body of the clergy, increased the
+innovating tendency. Finally the towns were regarded by at least one
+prominent representative of the established order in the East, as an
+undesirable place for the re-location of the pillars of society. The
+temptation to look upon the frontier as a field for investment was
+viewed by the clergy as a danger to the "institutions of God." The
+frontier was "the Wrong side of the Hedge."
+
+But to this "wrong side of the hedge" New England men continued to
+migrate. The frontier towns of 1695 were hardly more than suburbs of
+Boston. The frontier of a century later included New England's colonies
+in Vermont, Western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the Connecticut
+Reserve, and the Ohio Company's settlement in the Old Northwest
+Territory. By the time of the Civil War the frontier towns of New
+England had occupied the great prairie zone of the Middle West and were
+even planted in Mormon Utah and in parts of the Pacific Coast. New
+England's sons had become the organizers of a Greater New England in the
+West, captains of industry, political leaders, founders of educational
+systems, and prophets of religion, in a section that was to influence
+the ideals and shape the destiny of the nation in ways to which the eyes
+of men like Cotton Mather were sealed.[66:1]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39:1] Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, April,
+1914, xvii, 250-271. Reprinted with permission of the Society.
+
+[39:2] Massachusetts Archives, xxxvi, p. 150.
+
+[40:1] Massachusetts Colony Records, ii, p. 122.
+
+[40:2] _Ibid._, vol. iv, pt. ii, p. 439; Massachusetts Archives, cvii,
+pp. 160-161.
+
+[40:3] See, for example, Massachusetts Colony Records, v, 79; Green,
+"Groton During the Indian Wars," p. 39; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New
+England," p. 58.
+
+[40:4] Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, pp. 174-176.
+
+[40:5] Osgood, "American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century," i, p.
+501, and citations: cf. Publications of this Society, xii, pp. 38-39.
+
+[41:1] Hening, "Statutes at Large," iii, p. 204: cf. 1 Massachusetts
+Historical Collections, v, p. 129, for influence of the example of the
+New England town. On Virginia frontier conditions see Alvord and
+Bidgood, "First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region," pp. 23-34,
+93-95. P. A. Bruce, "Institutional History of Virginia," ii, p. 97,
+discusses frontier defense in the seventeenth century. [See chapter iii,
+_post_.]
+
+[42:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxx, 240; Massachusetts Province Laws, i,
+pp. 194, 293.
+
+[42:2] In a petition (read March 3, 1692-3) of settlers "in Sundry Farms
+granted in those Remote Lands Scituate and Lyeing between Sudbury,
+Concord, Marlbury, Natick and Sherburne & Westerly is the Wilderness,"
+the petitioners ask easement of taxes and extension into the Natick
+region in order to have means to provide for the worship of God, and
+say:
+
+"Wee are not Ignorant that by reason of the present Distressed Condition
+of those that dwell in these Frontier Towns, divers are meditating to
+remove themselves into such places where they have not hitherto been
+conserned in the present Warr and desolation thereby made, as also that
+thereby they may be freed from that great burthen of public taxes
+necessarily accruing thereby, Some haveing already removed themselves.
+Butt knowing for our parts that wee cannot run from the hand of a
+Jealous God, doe account it our duty to take such Measures as may inable
+us to the performance of that duty wee owe to God, the King, & our
+Familyes" (Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 1).
+
+[42:3] In a petition of 1658 Andover speaks of itself as "a remote
+upland plantation" (Massachusetts Archives, cxii, p. 99).
+
+[42:4] Massachusetts Province Laws, i, p. 402.
+
+[43:1] Convenient maps of settlement, 1660-1700, are in E. Channing,
+"History of the United States," i, pp. 510-511, ii, end; Avery, "History
+of the United States and its People," ii, p. 398. A useful
+contemporaneous map for conditions at the close of King Philip's War is
+Hubbard's map of New England in his "Narrative" published in Boston,
+1677. See also L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New England," pp. 56-57, 70.
+
+[44:1] Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England," pp. 90, 95,
+129-132; F. J. Turner, "Indian Trade in Wisconsin," p. 13; McIlwain,
+"Wraxall's Abridgement," introduction; the town histories abound in
+evidence of the significance of the early Indian traders' posts,
+transition to Indian land cessions, and then to town grants.
+
+[44:2] Weeden, _loc. cit._, pp. 64-67; M. Egleston, "New England Land
+System," pp. 31-32; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 37, 206, 267-268;
+Connecticut Colonial Records, vii, p. 111, illustrations of cattle
+brands in 1727.
+
+[44:3] Hutchinson, "History" (1795), ii, p. 129, note, relates such a
+case of a Groton man; see also Parkman, "Half-Century," vol. i, ch. iv,
+citing Maurault, "Histoire des Abenakis," p. 377.
+
+[45:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, pp. 4, 84, 85, 87, 88.
+
+[45:2] Hoosatonic.
+
+[45:3] Connecticut Records, iv, pp. 463, 464.
+
+[45:4] Massachusetts Colony Records, v, p. 72; Massachusetts Province
+Laws, i, pp. 176, 211, 292, 558, 594, 600; Massachusetts Archives, lxxi,
+pp. 7, 89, 102. Cf. Publications of this Society, vii, 275-278.
+
+[45:5] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 290.
+
+[46:1] Judd, "Hadley," p. 272; 4 Massachusetts Historical Collections,
+ii, p. 235.
+
+[46:2] Farmer and Moore, "Collections," iii, p. 64. The frontier woman
+of the farther west found no more extreme representative than Hannah
+Dustan of Haverhill, with her trophy of ten scalps, for which she
+received a bounty of £50 (Parkman, "Frontenac," 1898, p. 407, note).
+
+[46:3] For illustrations of resentment against those who protected the
+Christian Indians, see F. W. Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp. 145-155.
+
+[47:1] For example, Massachusetts Archives, lxx, p. 261; Bailey,
+"Andover," p. 179; Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 63; Proceedings
+Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp. 504-519. Parkman,
+"Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390, and "Half-Century of Conflict"
+(Boston, 1898), i, p. 55, sketches the frontier defense.
+
+[48:1] Massachusetts Archives, cvii, p. 155.
+
+[48:2] _Ibid._, cvii, p. 230; cf. 230 a.
+
+[48:3] Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, p. 156.
+
+[48:4] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 189.
+
+[48:5] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, 46-48, 131, 134, 135 _et passim_.
+
+[50:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, p. 107: cf. Metcalf, "Mendon," p.
+130; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 288. The frontier of Virginia in 1755
+and 1774 showed similar conditions: see, for example, the citations to
+Washington's Writings in Thwaites, "France in America," pp. 193-195; and
+frontier letters in Thwaites and Kellogg, "Dunmore's War," pp. 227, 228
+_et passim_. The following petition to Governor Gooch of Virginia, dated
+July 30, 1742, affords a basis for comparison with a Scotch-Irish
+frontier:
+
+We your pettionours humbly sheweth that we your Honours Loly and
+Dutifull Subganckes hath ventred our Lives & all that we have In
+settling ye back parts of Virginia which was a veri Great Hassirt &
+Dengrous, for it is the Hathins [heathens] Road to ware, which has
+proved hortfull to severil of ous that were ye first settlers of these
+back woods & wee your Honibill pettionors some time a goo petitioned
+your Honnour for to have Commisioned men amungst ous which we your
+Honnours most Duttifull subjects thought properist men & men that had
+Hart and Curidg to hed us yn time of [war] & to defend your Contray &
+your poor Sogbacks Intrist from ye voilince of ye Haithen--But yet agine
+we Humbly persume to poot your Honnour yn mind of our Great want of them
+in hopes that your Honner will Grant a Captins' Commission to John
+McDowell, with follring ofishers, and your Honnours' Complyence in this
+will be Great settisfiction to your most Duttifull and Humbil
+pettioners--and we as in Duty bond shall Ever pray . . . (Calendar of
+Virginia State Papers, i, p. 235).
+
+[51:1] But there is a note of deference in Southern frontier petitions
+to the Continental Congress--to be discounted, however, by the
+remoteness of that body. See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the
+Revolutionary Era" (_American Historical Review_, i, pp. 70, 251). The
+demand for remission of taxes is a common feature of the petitions there
+quoted.
+
+[51:2] Proceedings Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp. 506 ff.
+
+[51:3] _Ibid._, xliii, p. 518.
+
+[52:1] Connecticut Colonial Records, iv, p. 67.
+
+[52:2] In a petition of February 22, 1693-4, Deerfield calls itself the
+"most Utmost Frontere Town in the County of West Hampshire"
+(Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 57 a).
+
+[52:3] Judd, "Hadley," p. 249.
+
+[52:4] W. D. Schuyler-Lighthall, "Glorious Enterprise," p. 16.
+
+[53:1] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 405.
+
+[54:1] "I want to have your warriours come and see me," wrote Allen to
+the Indians of Canada in 1775, "and help me fight the King's Regular
+Troops. You know they stand all close together, rank and file, and my
+men fight so as Indians do, and I want your warriours to join with me
+and my warriours, like brothers, and ambush the Regulars: if you will, I
+will give you money, blankets, tomahawks, knives, paint, and any thing
+that there is in the army, just like brothers; and I will go with you
+into the woods to scout; and my men and your men will sleep together,
+and eat and drink together, and fight Regulars, because they first
+killed our brothers" (American Archives, 4th Series, ii, p. 714).
+
+[54:2] Compare A. McF. Davis, "The Shays Rebellion a Political
+Aftermath" (Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, xxi, pp. 58, 62,
+75-79).
+
+[55:1] "Land System of the New England Colonies," p. 30.
+
+[55:2] Massachusetts Colony Records, i, p. 167.
+
+[56:1] Compare Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England," i,
+pp. 270-271; Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp. 106-161; and the histories of
+Worcester for illustrations of how the various factors noted could be
+combined in a single town.
+
+[56:2] F. Merrill, "Amesbury," pp. 5, 50.
+
+[56:3] B. L. Mirick, "Haverhill," pp. 9, 10.
+
+[57:1] Green, "Early Records of Groton," pp. 49, 70, 90.
+
+[57:2] _Ibid._
+
+[57:3] Worcester County History, i, pp. 2, 3.
+
+[57:4] J. G. Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 85.
+
+[58:1] P. 96. Compare the Kentucky petition of 1780 given in Roosevelt,
+"Winning of the West," ii, p. 398, and the letter from that frontier
+cited in Turner, "Western State-Making" (_American Historical Review_,
+i, p. 262), attacking the Virginia "Nabobs," who hold absentee land
+titles. "Let the _great men_," say they, "whom the land belongs to come
+and defend it."
+
+[59:1] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 188-189.
+
+[59:2] These facts are stated on the authority of E. Washburn,
+"Leicester," pp. 5-15: compare Major Stephen Sewall to Jeremiah Dummer,
+1717, quoted in Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England,"
+ii, p. 505, note 4.
+
+[60:1] Compare the Virginia system, Bruce, "Economic History of Virginia
+in the Seventeenth Century," ii, pp. 42, 43.
+
+[60:2] For this item I am indebted to our associate, Mr. Andrew McF.
+Davis: see his "Colonial Currency Reprints," i, pp. 335-349.
+
+[60:3] Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts" (1768), ii, pp. 331, 332,
+has an instructive comment. A. C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents of Our
+National Land System," p. 84; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New England,"
+pp. 82 ff.
+
+[60:4] J. G. Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197.
+
+[61:1] Jos. Schafer, "Origin of the System of Land Grants for
+Education," pp. 25-33.
+
+[62:1] H. D. Hurd (ed.), "History of Worcester County," i, p. 6. The
+italics are mine.
+
+[63:1] Egleston, "Land System of the New England Colonies," pp. 39-41.
+
+[63:2] _Ibid._, p. 41.
+
+[63:3] T. Dwight, "Travels" (1821), ii, pp. 459-463.
+
+[66:1] [See F. J. Turner, "Greater New England in the Middle of the
+Nineteenth Century," in American Antiquarian Society "Proceedings,"
+1920.]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE OLD WEST[67:1]
+
+
+It is not the oldest West with which this chapter deals. The oldest West
+was the Atlantic coast. Roughly speaking, it took a century of Indian
+fighting and forest felling for the colonial settlements to expand into
+the interior to a distance of about a hundred miles from the coast.
+Indeed, some stretches were hardly touched in that period. This conquest
+of the nearest wilderness in the course of the seventeenth century and
+in the early years of the eighteenth, gave control of the maritime
+section of the nation and made way for the new movement of westward
+expansion which I propose to discuss.
+
+In his "Winning of the West," Roosevelt dealt chiefly with the region
+beyond the Alleghanies, and with the period of the later eighteenth
+century, although he prefaced his account with an excellent chapter
+describing the backwoodsmen of the Alleghanies and their social
+conditions from 1769 to 1774. It is important to notice, however, that
+he is concerned with a backwoods society already formed; that he ignores
+the New England frontier and its part in the winning of the West, and
+does not recognize that there was a West to be won between New England
+and the Great Lakes. In short, he is interested in the winning of the
+West beyond the Alleghanies by the southern half of the frontier folk.
+
+There is, then, a western area intermediate between the coastal
+colonial settlements of the seventeenth century and the trans-Alleghany
+settlements of the latter portion of the eighteenth century. This
+section I propose to isolate and discuss under the name of the Old West,
+and in the period from about 1676 to 1763. It includes the back country
+of New England, the Mohawk Valley, the Great Valley of Pennsylvania, the
+Shenandoah Valley, and the Piedmont--that is, the interior or upland
+portion of the South, lying between the Alleghanies and the head of
+navigation of the Atlantic rivers marked by the "fall line."[68:1]
+
+In this region, and in these years, are to be found the beginnings of
+much that is characteristic in Western society, for the Atlantic coast
+was in such close touch with Europe that its frontier experience was
+soon counteracted, and it developed along other lines. It is unfortunate
+that the colonial back country appealed so long to historians solely in
+connection with the colonial wars, for the development of its society,
+its institutions and mental attitude all need study. Its history has
+been dealt with in separate fragments, by states, or towns, or in
+discussions of special phases, such as German and Scotch-Irish
+immigration. The Old West as a whole can be appreciated only by
+obliterating the state boundaries which conceal its unity, by
+correlating the special and fragmentary studies, and by filling the gaps
+in the material for understanding the formation of its society. The
+present paper is rather a reconnaissance than a conquest of the field, a
+program for study of the Old West rather than an exposition of it.
+
+The end of the period proposed may be placed about 1763, and the
+beginning between 1676 and 1700. The termination of the period is marked
+by the Peace of Paris in 1763, and the royal proclamation of that year
+forbidding settlement beyond the Alleghanies. By this time the
+settlement of the Old West was fairly accomplished, and new advances
+were soon made into the "Western Waters" beyond the mountains and into
+the interior of Vermont and New Hampshire. The isolation of the
+transmontane settlements, and the special conditions and doctrines of
+the Revolutionary era during which they were formed, make a natural
+distinction between the period of which I am to speak and the later
+extension of the West.
+
+The beginning of the period is necessarily an indeterminate date, owing
+to the different times of colonizing the coastal areas which served as
+bases of operations in the westward advance. The most active movements
+into the Old West occurred after 1730. But in 1676 New England, having
+closed the exhausting struggle with the Indians, known as King Philip's
+War, could regard her established settlements as secure, and go on to
+complete her possession of the interior. This she did in the midst of
+conflicts with the exterior Indian tribes which invaded her frontiers
+from New York and Canada during the French and Indian wars from 1690 to
+1760, and under frontier conditions different from the conditions of the
+earlier Puritan colonization. In 1676, Virginia was passing through
+Indian fighting--keenest along the fall line, where the frontier
+lay--and also experiencing a social revolt which resulted in the defeat
+of the democratic forces that sought to stay the progress of
+aristocratic control in the colony.[70:1] The date marks the end of the
+period when the Virginia tidewater could itself be regarded as a
+frontier region, and consequently the beginning of a more special
+interest in the interior.
+
+Let us first examine the northern part of the movement into the back
+country. The expansion of New England into the vacant spaces of its own
+section, in the period we have chosen for discussion, resulted in the
+formation of an interior society which contrasted in many ways with that
+of the coast, and which has a special significance in Western history,
+in that it was this interior New England people who settled the Greater
+New England in central and western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the
+Connecticut Reserve of Ohio, and much of the prairie areas of the Old
+Northwest. It is important to realize that the Old West included
+interior New England.
+
+The situation in New England at the close of the seventeenth century is
+indicated by the Massachusetts act of 1694 enumerating eleven towns,
+then on the frontier and exposed to raids, none of which might be
+voluntarily deserted without leave of the governor and council, on
+penalty of loss of their freeholds by the landowners, or fine of other
+inhabitants.[70:2]
+
+Thus these frontier settlers were made substantially garrisons, or "mark
+colonies." Crowded into the palisades of the town, and obliged in spite
+of their poverty to bear the brunt of Indian attack, their hardships are
+illustrated in the manly but pathetic letters of Deerfield's minister,
+Mr. Williams,[70:3] in 1704. Parkman succinctly describes the general
+conditions in these words:[70:4]
+
+     The exposed frontier of New England was between two and three
+     hundred miles long, and consisted of farms and hamlets loosely
+     scattered through an almost impervious forest. . . . Even in
+     so-called villages the houses were far apart, because, except
+     on the seashore, the people lived by farming. Such as were
+     able to do so fenced their dwellings with palisades, or built
+     them of solid timber, with loopholes, a projecting upper story
+     like a block house, and sometimes a flanker at one or more of
+     the corners. In the more considerable settlements the largest
+     of these fortified houses was occupied in time of danger by
+     armed men and served as a place of refuge for the neighbors.
+
+Into these places, in days of alarm, were crowded the outlying settlers,
+just as was the case in later times in the Kentucky "stations."
+
+In spite of such frontier conditions, the outlying towns continued to
+multiply. Between 1720 and the middle of the century, settlement crept
+up the Housatonic and its lateral valley into the Berkshires. About 1720
+Litchfield was established; in 1725, Sheffield; in 1730, Great
+Barrington; and in 1735 a road was cut and towns soon established
+between Westfield and these Housatonic settlements, thus uniting them
+with the older extensions along the Connecticut and its tributaries.
+
+In this period, scattered and sometimes unwelcome Scotch-Irish
+settlements were established, such as that at Londonderry, New
+Hampshire, and in the Berkshires, as well as in the region won in King
+Philip's War from the Nipmucks, whither there came also Huguenots.[72:1]
+
+In King George's War, the Connecticut River settlers found their
+frontier protection in such rude stockades as those at the sites of
+Keene, of Charlestown, New Hampshire (Number Four), Fort Shirley at the
+head of Deerfield River (Heath), and Fort Pelham (Rowe); while Fort
+Massachusetts (Adams) guarded the Hoosac gateway to the Hoosatonic
+Valley. These frontier garrisons and the self-defense of the
+backwoodsmen of New England are well portrayed in the pages of
+Parkman.[72:2] At the close of the war, settlement again expanded into
+the Berkshires, where Lennox, West Hoosac (Williamstown), and Pittsfield
+were established in the middle of the century. Checked by the fighting
+in the last French and Indian War, the frontier went forward after the
+Peace of Paris (1763) at an exceptional rate, especially into Vermont
+and interior New Hampshire. An anonymous writer gives a contemporary
+view of the situation on the eve of the Revolution:[72:3]
+
+     The richest parts remaining to be granted are on the northern
+     branches of the Connecticut river, towards Crown Point where
+     are great districts of fertile soil still unsettled. The North
+     part of New Hampshire, the province of Maine, and the
+     territory of Sagadahock have but few settlements in them
+     compared with the tracts yet unsettled. . . .
+
+     I should further observe that these tracts have since the
+     peace [_i. e._, 1763], been settling pretty fast: farms on the
+     river Connecticut are every day extending beyond the old fort
+     Dummer, for near thirty miles; and will in a few years reach
+     to Kohasser which is nearly two hundred miles; not that such
+     an extent will be one-tenth settled, but the new-comers do not
+     fix near their neighbors, and go on regularly, but take spots
+     that please them best, though twenty or thirty miles beyond
+     any others. This to people of a sociable disposition in Europe
+     would appear very strange, but the Americans do not regard the
+     near neighborhood of other farmers; twenty or thirty miles by
+     water they esteem no distance in matters of this sort; besides
+     in a country that promises well the intermediate space is not
+     long in filling up. Between Connecticut river and Lake
+     Champlain upon Otter Creek, and all along Lake Sacrament
+     [George] and the rivers that fall into it, and the whole
+     length of Wood Creek, are numerous settlements made since the
+     peace.[73:1]
+
+For nearly a hundred years, therefore, New England communities had been
+pushed out to new frontiers in the intervals between the almost
+continuous wars with the French and Indians. Probably the most
+distinctive feature in this frontier was the importance of the community
+type of settlement; in other words, of the towns, with their Puritan
+ideals in education, morals, and religion. This has always been a matter
+of pride to the statesmen and annalists of New England, as is
+illustrated by these words of Holland in his "Western Massachusetts,"
+commenting on the settlement of the Connecticut Valley in villages,
+whereby in his judgment morality, education, and urbanity were
+preserved:
+
+     The influence of this policy can only be fully appreciated
+     when standing by the side of the solitary settler's hut in the
+     West, where even an Eastern man has degenerated to a boor in
+     manners, where his children have grown up uneducated, and
+     where the Sabbath has become an unknown day, and religion and
+     its obligations have ceased to exercise control upon the heart
+     and life.
+
+Whatever may be the real value of the community type of settlement, its
+establishment in New England was intimately connected both with the
+Congregational religious organization and with the land system of the
+colonies of that section, under which the colonial governments made
+grants--not in tracts to individuals, but in townships to groups of
+proprietors who in turn assigned lands to the inhabitants without cost.
+The typical form of establishing a town was as follows: On application
+of an approved body of men, desiring to establish a new settlement, the
+colonial General Court would appoint a committee to view the desired
+land and report on its fitness; an order for the grant would then issue,
+in varying areas, not far from the equivalent of six miles square. In
+the eighteenth century especially, it was common to reserve certain lots
+of the town for the support of schools and the ministry. This was the
+origin of that very important feature of Western society, federal land
+grants for schools and colleges.[74:1] The General Courts also made
+regulations regarding the common lands, the terms for admitting
+inhabitants, etc., and thus kept a firm hand upon the social structure
+of the new settlements as they formed on the frontier.
+
+This practice, seen in its purity in the seventeenth century
+especially, was markedly different from the practices of other colonies
+in the settlement of their back lands. For during most of the period New
+England did not use her wild lands, or public domain, as a source of
+revenue by sale to individuals or to companies, with the reservation of
+quit-rents; nor attract individual settlers by "head rights," or
+fifty-acre grants, after the Virginia type; nor did the colonies of the
+New England group often make extensive grants to individuals, on the
+ground of special services, or because of influence with the government,
+or on the theory that the grantee would introduce settlers on his grant.
+They donated their lands to groups of men who became town proprietors
+for the purpose of establishing communities. These proprietors were
+supposed to hold the lands in trust, to be assigned to inhabitants under
+restraints to ensure the persistence of Puritan ideals.
+
+During most of the seventeenth century the proprietors awarded lands to
+the new-comers in accordance with this theory. But as density of
+settlement increased, and lands grew scarce in the older towns, the
+proprietors began to assert their legal right to the unoccupied lands
+and to refuse to share them with inhabitants who were not of the body of
+proprietors. The distinction resulted in class conflicts in the towns,
+especially in the eighteenth century,[75:1] over the ownership and
+disposal of the common lands.
+
+The new settlements, by a process of natural selection, would afford
+opportunity to the least contented, whether because of grievances, or
+ambitions, to establish themselves. This tended to produce a Western
+flavor in the towns on the frontier. But it was not until the original
+ideals of the land system began to change, that the opportunity to make
+new settlements for such reasons became common. As the economic and
+political ideal replaced the religious and social ideal, in the
+conditions under which new towns could be established, this became more
+possible.
+
+Such a change was in progress in the latter part of the seventeenth
+century and during the eighteenth. In 1713, 1715, and 1727,
+Massachusetts determined upon a policy of locating towns in advance of
+settlement, to protect her boundary claims. In 1736 she laid out five
+towns near the New Hampshire border, and a year earlier opened four
+contiguous towns to connect her Housatonic and Connecticut Valley
+settlements.[76:1] Grants in non-adjacent regions were sometimes made to
+old towns, the proprietors of which sold them to those who wished to
+move.
+
+The history of the town of Litchfield illustrates the increasing
+importance of the economic factor. At a time when Connecticut feared
+that Andros might dispose of the public lands to the disadvantage of the
+colony, the legislature granted a large part of Western Connecticut to
+the towns of Hartford and Windsor, _pro forma_, as a means of
+withdrawing the lands from his hands. But these towns refused to give up
+the lands after the danger had passed, and proceeded to sell part of
+them.[76:2] Riots occurred when the colonial authorities attempted to
+assert possession, and the matter was at length compromised in 1719 by
+allowing Litchfield to be settled in accordance with the town grants,
+while the colony reserved the larger part of northwestern Connecticut.
+In 1737 the colony disposed of its last unlocated lands by sale in lots.
+In 1762 Massachusetts sold a group of entire townships in the Berkshires
+to the highest bidders.[77:1]
+
+But the most striking illustration of the tendency, is afforded by the
+"New Hampshire grants" of Governor Wentworth, who, chiefly in the years
+about 1760, made grants of a hundred and thirty towns west of the
+Connecticut, in what is now the State of Vermont, but which was then in
+dispute between New Hampshire and New York. These grants, while in form
+much like other town grants, were disposed of for cash, chiefly to
+speculators who hastened to sell their rights to the throngs of
+land-seekers who, after the peace, began to pour into the Green Mountain
+region.
+
+It is needless to point out how this would affect the movement of
+Western settlement in respect to individualistic speculation in public
+lands; how it would open a career to the land jobbers, as well as to the
+natural leaders in the competitive movement for acquiring the best
+lands, for laying out town sites and building up new communities under
+"boom" conditions. The migratory tendency of New Englanders was
+increased by this gradual change in its land policy; the attachment to a
+locality was diminished. The later years showed increasing emphasis by
+New England upon individual success, greater respect for the self-made
+man who, in the midst of opportunities under competitive conditions,
+achieved superiority. The old dominance of town settlement, village
+moral police, and traditional class control gave way slowly. Settlement
+in communities and rooted Puritan habits and ideals had enduring
+influences in the regions settled by New Englanders; but it was in this
+Old West, in the years just before the Revolution, that individualism
+began to play an important rôle, along with the traditional habit of
+expanding in organized communities.
+
+The opening of the Vermont towns revealed more fully than before, the
+capability of New Englanders to become democratic pioneers, under
+characteristic frontier conditions. Their economic life was simple and
+self-sufficing. They readily adopted lynch law (the use of the "birch
+seal" is familiar to readers of Vermont history) to protect their land
+titles in the troubled times when these "Green Mountain Boys" resisted
+New York's assertion of authority. They later became an independent
+Revolutionary state with frontier directness, and in very many respects
+their history in the Revolutionary epoch is similar to that of settlers
+in Kentucky and Tennessee, both in assertion of the right to independent
+self government and in a frontier separatism.[78:1] Vermont may be
+regarded as the culmination of the frontier movement which I have been
+describing in New England.
+
+By this time two distinct New Englands existed--the one coastal, and
+dominated by commercial interests and the established congregational
+churches; the other a primitive agricultural area, democratic in
+principle, and with various sects increasingly indifferent to the fear
+of "innovation" which the dominant classes of the old communities felt.
+Already speculative land companies had begun New England settlements in
+the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, as well as on the lower Mississippi;
+and New England missions among the Indians, such as that at Stockbridge,
+were beginning the noteworthy religious and educational expansion of the
+section to the west.
+
+That this movement of expansion had been chiefly from south to north,
+along the river valleys, should not conceal from us the fact that it was
+in essential characteristics a Western movement, especially in the
+social traits that were developing. Even the men who lived in the long
+line of settlements on the Maine coast, under frontier conditions, and
+remote from the older centers of New England, developed traits and a
+democratic spirit that relate them closely to the Westerners, in spite
+of the fact that Maine is "down east" by preëminence.[79:1]
+
+The frontier of the Middle region in this period of the formation of the
+Old West, was divided into two parts, which happen to coincide with the
+colonies of New York and Pennsylvania. In the latter colony the trend of
+settlement was into the Great Valley, and so on to the Southern uplands;
+while the advance of settlement in New York was like that of New
+England, chiefly northward, following the line of Hudson River.
+
+The Hudson and the Mohawk constituted the area of the Old West in this
+part of the eighteenth century. With them were associated the Wallkill,
+tributary to the Hudson, and Cherry Valley near the Mohawk, along the
+sources of the Susquehanna. The Berkshires walled the Hudson in to the
+east; the Adirondacks and the Catskills to the west. Where the Mohawk
+Valley penetrated between the mountainous areas, the Iroquois Indians
+were too formidable for advance on such a slender line. Nothing but
+dense settlement along the narrow strip of the Hudson, if even that,
+could have furnished the necessary momentum for overcoming the Indian
+barrier; and this pressure was lacking, for the population was
+comparatively sparse in contrast with the task to be performed. What
+most needs discussion in the case of New York, therefore, is not the
+history of expansion as in other sections, but the absence of expansive
+power.
+
+The fur-trade had led the way up the Hudson, and made beginnings of
+settlements at strategic points near the confluence of the Mohawk. But
+the fur-trader was not followed by a tide of pioneers. One of the most
+important factors in restraining density of population in New York, in
+retarding the settlement of its frontier, and in determining the
+conditions there, was the land system of that colony.
+
+From the time of the patroon grants along the lower Hudson, great
+estates had been the common form of land tenure. Rensselaerswyck reached
+at one time over seven hundred thousand acres. These great patroon
+estates were confirmed by the English governors, who in their turn
+followed a similar policy. By 1732 two and one-half million acres were
+engrossed in manorial grants.[80:1] In 1764, Governor Colden wrote[80:2]
+that three of the extravagant grants contain,
+
+     as the proprietors claim, above a million acres each, several
+     others above 200,000. * * * Although these grants contain a
+     great part of the province, they are made in trifling
+     acknowledgements. The far greater part of them still remain
+     uncultivated, without any benefit to the community, and are
+     likewise a discouragement to the settling and improving the
+     lands in the neighborhood of them, for from the uncertainty of
+     their boundaries, the patentees of these great tracts are
+     daily enlarging their pretensions, and by tedious and most
+     expensive law suits, distress and ruin poor families who have
+     taken out grants near them.
+
+He adds that "the proprietors of the great tracts are not only freed
+from the quit-rents, which the other landholders in the province pay,
+but by their influence in the assembly are freed from every other public
+tax on their lands."
+
+In 1769 it was estimated that at least five-sixths of the inhabitants of
+Westchester County lived within the bounds of the great manors
+there.[81:1] In Albany County the Livingston manor spread over seven
+modern townships, and the great Van Rensselaer manor stretched
+twenty-four by twenty-eight miles along the Hudson; while still farther,
+on the Mohawk, were the vast possessions of Sir William Johnson.[81:2]
+
+It was not simply that the grants were extensive, but that the policy
+of the proprietors favored the leasing rather than the sale of the
+lands--frequently also of the stock, and taking payment in shares. It
+followed that settlers preferred to go to frontiers where a more liberal
+land policy prevailed. At one time it seemed possible that the tide of
+German settlement, which finally sought Pennsylvania and the up-country
+of the South, might flow into New York. In 1710, Governor Hunter
+purchased a tract in Livingston's manor and located nearly fifteen
+hundred Palatines on it to produce naval stores.[82:1] But the attempt
+soon failed; the Germans applied to the Indians on Schoharie Creek, a
+branch of the Mohawk, for a grant of land and migrated there, only to
+find that the governor had already granted the land. Again were the
+villages broken up, some remaining and some moving farther up the
+Mohawk, where they and accessions to their number established the
+frontier settlements about Palatine Bridge, in the region where, in the
+Revolution, Herkimer led these German frontiersmen to stem the British
+attack in the battle of Oriskany. They constituted the most effective
+military defense of Mohawk Valley. Still another portion took their way
+across to the waters of the Susquehanna, and at Tulpehockon Creek began
+an important center of German settlement in the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania.[82:2]
+
+The most important aspect of the history of the movement into the
+frontier of New York at this period, therefore, was the evidence which
+it afforded that in the competition for settlement between colonies
+possessing a vast area of vacant land, those which imposed feudal
+tenures and undemocratic restraints, and which exploited settlers, were
+certain to lose.
+
+The manorial practice gave a bad name to New York as a region for
+settlement, which not even the actual opportunities in certain parts of
+the colony could counteract. The diplomacy of New York governors during
+this period of the Old West, in securing a protectorate over the Six
+Nations and a consequent claim to their territory, and in holding them
+aloof from France, constituted the most effective contribution of that
+colony to the movement of American expansion. When lands of these tribes
+were obtained after Sullivan's expedition in the Revolution (in which
+New England soldiers played a prominent part), it was by the New England
+inundation into this interior that they were colonized. And it was under
+conditions like those prevailing in the later years of the expansion of
+settlements in New England itself, that this settlement of interior and
+western New York was effected.
+
+The result was, that New York became divided into two distinct peoples:
+the dwellers along Hudson Valley, and the Yankee pioneers of the
+interior. But the settlement of central and western New York, like the
+settlement of Vermont, is a story that belongs to the era in which the
+trans-Alleghany West was occupied.
+
+We can best consider the settlement of the share of the Old West which
+is located in Pennsylvania as a part of the migration which occupied the
+Southern Uplands, and before entering upon this it will be advantageous
+to survey that part of the movement toward the interior which proceeded
+westward from the coast. First let us observe the conditions at the
+eastern edge of these uplands, along the fall line in Virginia, in the
+latter part of the seventeenth century, in order that the process and
+the significance of the movement may be better understood.
+
+About the time of Bacon's Rebellion, in Virginia, strenuous efforts
+were made to protect the frontier line which ran along the falls of the
+river, against the attacks of Indians. This "fall line," as the
+geographers call it, marking the head of navigation, and thus the
+boundary of the maritime or lowland South, runs from the site of
+Washington, through Richmond, and on to Raleigh, North Carolina, and
+Columbia, South Carolina. Virginia having earliest advanced thus far to
+the interior, found it necessary in the closing years of the seventeenth
+century to draw a military frontier along this line. As early as 1675 a
+statute was enacted,[84:1] providing that paid troops of five hundred
+men should be drawn from the midland and most secure parts of the
+country and placed on the "heads of the rivers" and other places
+fronting upon the Indians. What was meant by the "heads of the rivers,"
+is shown by the fact that several of these forts were located either at
+the falls of the rivers or just above tidewater, as follows: one on the
+lower Potomac in Stafford County; one near the falls of the
+Rappahannock; one on the Mattapony; one on the Pamunky; one at the falls
+of the James (near the site of Richmond); one near the falls of the
+Appomattox, and others on the Blackwater, the Nansemond, and the Accomac
+peninsula, all in the eastern part of Virginia.
+
+Again, in 1679, similar provision was made,[84:2] and an especially
+interesting act was passed, making _quasi_ manorial grants to Major
+Lawrence Smith and Captain William Byrd, "to seate certain lands at the
+head [falls] of Rappahannock and James river" respectively. This scheme
+failed for lack of approval by the authorities in England.[84:3] But
+Byrd at the falls of the James near the present site of Richmond,
+Robert Beverley on the Rappahannock, and other frontier commanders on
+the York and Potomac, continued to undertake colonial defense. The
+system of mounted rangers was established in 1691, by which a
+lieutenant, eleven soldiers, and two Indians at the "heads" or falls of
+each great river were to scout for enemy,[85:1] and the Indian boundary
+line was strictly defined.
+
+By the opening years of the eighteenth century (1701), the assembly of
+Virginia had reached the conclusion that settlement would be the best
+means of protecting the frontiers, and that the best way of "settling in
+co-habitations upon the said land frontiers within this government will
+be by encouragements to induce societies of men to undertake the
+same."[85:2] It was declared to be inexpedient to have less than twenty
+fighting men in each "society," and provision was made for a land grant
+to be given to these societies (or towns) not less than 10,000 nor more
+than 30,000 acres upon any of the frontiers, to be held in common by the
+society. The power of ordering and managing these lands, and the
+settling and planting of them, was to remain in the society. Virginia
+was to pay the cost of survey, also quit-rents for the first twenty
+years for the two-hundred-acre tract as the site of the "co-habitation."
+Within this two hundred acres each member was to have a half-acre lot
+for living upon, and a right to two hundred acres next adjacent, until
+the thirty thousand acres were taken up. The members of the society
+were exempt from taxes for twenty years, and from the requirements of
+military duty except such as they imposed upon themselves. The
+resemblance to the New England town is obvious.
+
+"Provided alwayes," ran the quaint statute, "and it is the true intent
+and meaning of this act that for every five hundred acres of land to be
+granted in pursuance of this act there shall be and shall be continually
+kept upon the said land one christian man between sixteen and sixty
+years of age perfect of limb, able and fitt for service who shall alsoe
+be continually provided with a well fixed musquett or fuzee, a good
+pistoll, sharp simeter, tomahawk and five pounds of good clean pistoll
+powder and twenty pounds of sizable leaden bulletts or swan or goose
+shott to be kept within the fort directed by this act besides the powder
+and shott for his necessary or useful shooting at game. Provided also
+that the said warlike christian man shall have his dwelling and
+continual abode within the space of two hundred acres of land to be laid
+out in a geometricall square or as near that figure as conveniency will
+admit," etc. Within two years the society was required to cause a half
+acre in the middle of the "co-habitation" to be palisaded "with good
+sound pallisadoes at least thirteen foot long and six inches diameter in
+the middle of the length thereof, and set double and at least three foot
+within the ground."
+
+Such in 1701 was the idea of the Virginia tidewater assembly of a
+frontiersman, and of the frontier towns by which the Old Dominion should
+spread her population into the upland South. But the "warlike Christian
+man" who actually came to furnish the firing line for Virginia, was
+destined to be the Scotch-Irishman and the German with long rifle in
+place of "fuzee" and "simeter," and altogether too restless to have his
+continual abode within the space of two hundred acres. Nevertheless
+there are points of resemblance between this idea of societies settled
+about a fortified town and the later "stations" of Kentucky.[87:1]
+
+By the beginning of the eighteenth century the engrossing of the lands
+of lowland Virginia had progressed so far, the practice of holding large
+tracts of wasteland for reserves in the great plantations had become so
+common, that the authorities of Virginia reported to the home government
+that the best lands were all taken up,[87:2] and settlers were passing
+into North Carolina seeking cheap lands near navigable rivers. Attention
+was directed also to the Piedmont portions of Virginia, for by this time
+the Indians were conquered in this region. It was now possible to
+acquire land by purchase[87:3] at five shillings sterling for fifty
+acres, as well as by head-rights for importation or settlement, and land
+speculation soon turned to the new area.
+
+Already the Piedmont had been somewhat explored.[87:4] Even by the
+middle of the seventeenth century, fur-traders had followed the trail
+southwest from the James more than four hundred miles to the Catawbas
+and later to the Cherokees. Col. William Byrd had, as we have seen, not
+only been absorbing good lands in the lowlands, and defending his post
+at the falls of the James, like a Count of the Border, but he also
+engaged in this fur-trade and sent his pack trains along this trail
+through the Piedmont of the Carolinas,[87:5] and took note of the rich
+savannas of that region. Charleston traders engaged in rivalry for this
+trade.
+
+It was not long before cattle raisers from the older settlements,
+learning from the traders of the fertile plains and peavine pastures of
+this land, followed the fur-traders and erected scattered "cow-pens" or
+ranches beyond the line of plantations in the Piedmont. Even at the
+close of the seventeenth century, herds of wild horses and cattle ranged
+at the outskirts of the Virginia settlements, and were hunted by the
+planters, driven into pens, and branded somewhat after the manner of the
+later ranching on the Great Plains.[88:1] Now the cow-drovers and the
+cow-pens[88:2] began to enter the uplands. The Indians had by this time
+been reduced to submission in most of the Virginia Piedmont--as Governor
+Spotswood[88:3] reported in 1712, living "quietly on our frontiers,
+trafficking with the Inhabitants."
+
+After the defeat of the Tuscaroras and Yemassees about this time in the
+Carolinas, similar opportunities for expansion existed there. The cattle
+drovers sometimes took their herds from range to range; sometimes they
+were gathered permanently near the pens, finding the range sufficient
+throughout the year. They were driven to Charleston, or later sometimes
+even to Philadelphia and Baltimore markets. By the middle of the
+century, disease worked havoc with them in South Carolina[89:1] and
+destroyed seven-eighths of those in North Carolina; Virginia made
+regulations governing the driving of cattle through her frontier
+counties to avoid the disease, just as in our own time the northern
+cattlemen attempted to protect their herds against the Texas fever.
+
+Thus cattle raisers from the coast followed the fur-traders toward the
+uplands, and already pioneer farmers were straggling into the same
+region, soon to be outnumbered by the tide of settlement that flowed
+into the region from Pennsylvania.
+
+The descriptions of the uplands by contemporaneous writers are in
+glowing terms. Makemie, in his "Plain and Friendly Persuasion" (1705),
+declared "The best, richest, and most healthy part of your Country is
+yet to be inhabited, above the falls of every River, to the Mountains."
+Jones, in his "Present State of Virginia" (1724), comments on the
+convenience of tidewater transportation, etc., but declares that section
+"not nearly so healthy as the uplands and Barrens which serve for Ranges
+for Stock," although he speaks less enthusiastically of the savannas and
+marshes which lay in the midst of the forest areas. In fact, the
+Piedmont was by no means the unbroken forest that might have been
+imagined, for in addition to natural meadows, the Indians had burned
+over large tracts.[89:2] It was a rare combination of woodland and
+pasture, with clear running streams and mild climate.[89:3]
+
+The occupation of the Virginia Piedmont received a special impetus from
+the interest which Governor Spotswood took in the frontier. In 1710 he
+proposed a plan for intercepting the French in their occupation of the
+interior, by inducing Virginia settlement to proceed along one side of
+James River only, until this column of advancing pioneers should strike
+the attenuated line of French posts in the center. In the same year he
+sent a body of horsemen to the top of the Blue Ridge, where they could
+overlook the Valley of Virginia.[90:1] By 1714 he became active as a
+colonizer himself. Thirty miles above the falls of the Rappahannock, on
+the Rapidan at Germanna,[90:2] he settled a little village of German
+redemptioners (who in return for having the passage paid agreed to serve
+without wages for a term of years), to engage in his iron works, also to
+act as rangers on the frontier. From here, in 1716, with two companies
+of rangers and four Indians, Governor Spotswood and a band of Virginia
+gentlemen made a summer picnic excursion of two weeks across the Blue
+Ridge into the Shenandoah Valley. _Sic juvat transcendere montes_ was
+the motto of these Knights of the Golden Horse Shoe, as the governor
+dubbed them. But they were not the "warlike christian men" destined to
+occupy the frontier.
+
+Spotswood's interest in the advance along the Rappahannock, probably
+accounts for the fact that in 1720 Spotsylvania and Brunswick were
+organized as frontier counties of Virginia.[91:1] Five hundred dollars
+were contributed by the colony to the church, and a thousand dollars for
+arms and ammunition for the settlers in these counties. The fears of the
+French and Indians beyond the high mountains, were alleged as reasons
+for this advance. To attract settlers to these new counties, they were
+(1723) exempt from purchasing the lands under the system of head rights,
+and from payment of quit-rents for seven years after 1721. The free
+grants so obtained were not to exceed a thousand acres. This was soon
+extended to six thousand acres, but with provision requiring the
+settlement of a certain number of families upon the grant within a
+certain time. In 1729 Spotswood was ordered by the Council to produce
+"rights" and pay the quit-rents for the 59,786 acres which he claimed in
+this county.
+
+Other similar actions by the Council show that large holdings were
+developing there, also that the difficulty of establishing a frontier
+democracy in contact with the area of expanding plantations, was very
+real.[91:2] By the time of the occupation of the Shenandoah Valley,
+therefore, the custom was established in this part of Virginia,[91:3] of
+making grants of a thousand acres for each family settled. Speculative
+planters, influential with the Governor and Council secured grants of
+many thousand acres, conditioned upon seating a certain number of
+families, and satisfying the requirements of planting. Thus what had
+originally been intended as direct grants to the actual settler,
+frequently became grants to great planters like Beverley, who promoted
+the coming of Scotch-Irish and German settlers, or took advantage of
+the natural drift into the Valley, to sell lands in their grants, as a
+rule, reserving quit-rents. The liberal grants per family enabled these
+speculative planters, while satisfying the terms of settlement, to hold
+large portions of the grant for themselves. Under the lax requirements,
+and probably still more lax enforcement, of the provisions for actual
+cultivation or cattle-raising,[92:1] it was not difficult to hold such
+wild land. These conditions rendered possible the extension of a measure
+of aristocratic planter life in the course of time to the Piedmont and
+Valley lands of Virginia. It must be added, however, that some of the
+newcomers, both Germans and Scotch-Irish, like the Van Meters, Stover,
+and Lewis, also showed an ability to act as promoters in locating
+settlers and securing grants to themselves.
+
+In the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley, lay part of the estate of
+Lord Fairfax, some six million acres in extent, which came to the family
+by dower from the old Culpeper and Arlington grant of Northern Neck. In
+1748, the youthful Washington was surveying this estate along the upper
+waters of the Potomac, finding a bed under the stars and learning the
+life of the frontier.
+
+Lord Fairfax established his own Greenway manor,[92:2] and divided his
+domain into other manors, giving ninety-nine-year leases to settlers
+already on the ground at twenty shillings annually per hundred acres;
+while of the new-comers he exacted two shillings annual quit-rent for
+this amount of land in fee simple. Litigation kept land titles uncertain
+here, for many years. Similarly, Beverley's manor, about Staunton,
+represented a grant of 118,000 acres to Beverley and his associates on
+condition of placing the proper number of families on the tract.[93:1]
+Thus speculative planters on this frontier shared in the movement of
+occupation and made an aristocratic element in the up-country; but the
+increasing proportion of Scotch-Irish immigrants, as well as German
+settlers, together with the contrast in natural conditions, made the
+interior a different Virginia from that of the tidewater.
+
+As settlement ascended the Rappahannock, and emigrants began to enter
+the Valley from the north, so, contemporaneously, settlement ascended
+the James above the falls, succeeding to the posts of the
+fur-traders.[93:2] Goochland County was set off in 1728, and the growth
+of population led, as early as 1729, to proposals for establishing a
+city (Richmond) at the falls. Along the upper James, as on the
+Rappahannock, speculative planters bought headrights and located
+settlers and tenants to hold their grants.[93:3] Into this region came
+natives of Virginia, emigrants from the British isles, and scattered
+representatives of other lands, some of them coming up the James, others
+up the York, and still others arriving with the southward-moving current
+along both sides of the Blue Ridge.
+
+Before 1730 few settlers lived above the mouth of the Rivanna. In 1732
+Peter Jefferson patented a thousand acres at the eastern opening of its
+mountain gap, and here, under frontier conditions, Thomas Jefferson was
+born in 1743 near his later estate of Monticello. About him were pioneer
+farmers, as well as foresighted engrossers of the land. In the main his
+country was that of a democratic frontier people--Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and other sects,[94:1] out of
+sympathy with the established church and the landed gentry of the
+lowlands. This society in which he was born, was to find in Jefferson a
+powerful exponent of its ideals.[94:2] Patrick Henry was born in 1736
+above the falls, not far from Richmond, and he also was a mouthpiece of
+interior Virginia in the Revolutionary era. In short, a society was
+already forming in the Virginia Piedmont which was composed of many
+sects, of independent yeomen as well as their great planter leaders--a
+society naturally expansive, seeing its opportunity to deal in
+unoccupied lands along the frontier which continually moved toward the
+West, and in this era of the eighteenth century dominated by the
+democratic ideals of pioneers rather than by the aristocratic tendencies
+of slaveholding planters. As there were two New Englands, so there were
+by this time two Virginias, and the uplands belonged with the Old West.
+
+The advance across the fall line from the coast was, in North Carolina,
+much slower than in Virginia. After the Tuscarora War (1712-13) an
+extensive region west from Pamlico Sound was opened (1724). The region
+to the north, about the Roanoke, had before this begun to receive
+frontier settlers, largely from Virginia. Their traits are interestingly
+portrayed in Byrd's "Dividing Line." By 1728 the farthest inhabitants
+along the Virginia boundary were frontiersmen about Great Creek, a
+branch of the Roanoke.[94:3] The North Carolina commissioners desired to
+stop running the line after going a hundred and seventy miles, on the
+plea that they were already fifty miles beyond the outermost inhabitant,
+and there would be no need for an age or two to carry the line farther;
+but the Virginia surveyors pointed out that already speculators were
+taking up the land. A line from Weldon to Fayetteville would roughly
+mark the western boundary of North Carolina's sparse population of forty
+thousand souls.[95:1]
+
+The slower advance is explained, partly because of the later settlement
+of the Carolinas, partly because the Indians continued to be troublesome
+on the flanks of the advancing population, as seen in the Tuscarora and
+Yemassee wars, and partly because the pine barrens running parallel with
+the fall line made a zone of infertile land not attractive to settlers.
+The North Carolina low country, indeed, had from the end of the
+seventeenth century been a kind of southern frontier for overflow from
+Virginia; and in many ways was assimilated to the type of the up-country
+in its turbulent democracy, its variety of sects and peoples, and its
+primitive conditions. But under the lax management of the public lands,
+the use of "blank patents" and other evasions made possible the
+development of large landholding, side by side with headrights to
+settlers. Here, as in Virginia, a great proprietary grant extended
+across the colony--Lord Granville's proprietary was a zone embracing the
+northern half of North Carolina. Within the area, sales and quit-rents
+were administered by the agents of the owner, with the result that
+uncertainty and disorder of an agrarian nature extended down to the
+Revolution. There were likewise great speculative holdings, conditioned
+on seating a certain proportion of settlers, into which the frontiersmen
+were drifting.[95:2] But this system also made it possible for agents of
+later migrating congregations to establish colonies like that of the
+Moravians at Wachovia.[95:3] Thus, by the time settlers came into the
+uplands from the north, a land system existed similar to that of
+Virginia. A common holding was a square mile (640 acres), but in
+practice this did not prevent the accumulation of great estates.[96:1]
+Whereas Virginia's Piedmont area was to a large extent entered by
+extensions from the coast, that of North Carolina remained almost
+untouched by 1730.[96:2]
+
+The same is true of South Carolina. By 1730, settlement had progressed
+hardly eighty miles from the coast, even in the settled area of the
+lowlands. The tendency to engross the lowlands for large plantations was
+clear, here as elsewhere.[96:3] The surveyor-general reports in 1732
+that not as many as a thousand acres within a hundred miles of
+Charleston, or within twenty miles of a river or navigable creek, were
+unpossessed. In 1729 the crown ordered eleven townships of twenty
+thousand acres each to be laid out in rectangles, divided into fifty
+acres for each actual settler under a quit-rent of four shillings a year
+for every hundred acres, or proportionally, to be paid after the first
+ten years.[96:4] By 1732 these townships, designed to attract foreign
+Protestants, were laid out on the great rivers of the colony. As they
+were located in the middle region, east of the fall line, among pine
+barrens, or in malarial lands in the southern corner of the colony, they
+all proved abortive as towns, except Orangeburg[96:5] on the North
+Edisto, where German redemptioners made a settlement. The Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterians who came to Williamsburg, on Black River, suffered
+hardships; as did the Swiss who, under the visionary leadership of
+Purry, settled in the deadly climate of Purrysburg, on the lower
+Savannah. To Welsh colonists from Pennsylvania there was made a
+grant--known as the "Welsh tract," embracing over 173,000 acres on the
+Great Pedee (Marion County)[97:1] under headrights of fifty acres, also
+a bounty in provisions, tools, and livestock.
+
+These attempts, east of the fall line, are interesting as showing
+the colonial policy of marking out towns (which were to be
+politically-organized parishes, with representation in the legislature),
+and attracting foreigners thereto, prior to the coming of settlers from
+the North.
+
+The settlement of Georgia, in 1732, completed the southern line of
+colonization toward the Piedmont. Among the objects of the colony, as
+specified in the charters, were the relief of the poor and the
+protection of the frontiers. To guard against the tendency to engross
+the lands in great estates, already so clearly revealed in the older
+colonies, the Georgia trustees provided that the grants of fifty acres
+should not be alienated or divided, but should pass to the male heirs
+and revert to the trustees in case heirs were lacking. No grant greater
+than five hundred acres was permitted, and even this was made
+conditionally upon the holder settling ten colonists. However, under
+local conditions and the competition and example of neighboring
+colonies, this attempt to restrict land tenure in the interest of
+democracy broke down by 1750, and Georgia's land system became not
+unlike that of the other Southern colonies.[97:2]
+
+In 1734, Salzburgers had been located above Savannah, and within seven
+years some twelve hundred German Protestants were dwelling on the
+Georgia frontier; while a settlement of Scotch Highlanders at Darien,
+near the mouth of the Altamaha, protected the southern frontier. At
+Augusta, an Indian trading fort (1735), whence the dealers in peltry
+visited the Cherokee, completed the familiar picture of frontier
+advance.[98:1]
+
+We have now hastily surveyed the movement of the frontier of settlement
+westward from the lowlands, in the later years of the seventeenth and
+early part of the eighteenth century. There is much that is common in
+the whole line of advance. The original settlers engross the desirable
+lands of the older area. Indented servants and new-comers pass to the
+frontier seeking a place to locate their headrights, or plant new towns.
+Adventurous and speculative wealthy planters acquire large holdings in
+the new areas, and bring over settlers to satisfy the requirements of
+seating and cultivating their extensive grants, thus building up a
+yeomanry of small landholders side by side with the holders of large
+estates. The most far-sighted of the new-comers follow the example of
+the planters, and petition for increasing extensive grants. Meanwhile,
+pioneers like Abraham Wood, himself once an indented servant, and
+gentlemen like Col. William Byrd--prosecuting the Indian trade from
+their posts at the "heads" of the rivers, and combining frontier
+protection, exploring, and surveying--make known the more distant
+fertile soils of the Piedmont. Already in the first part of the
+eighteenth century, the frontier population tended to be a rude
+democracy, with a large representation of Scotch-Irish, Germans, Welsh,
+and Huguenot French settlers, holding religious faiths unlike that of
+the followers of the established church in the lowlands. The movement of
+slaves into the region was unimportant, but not unknown.
+
+The Virginia Valley was practically unsettled in 1730, as was much of
+Virginia's Piedmont area and all the Piedmont area of the Carolinas. The
+significance of the movement of settlers from the North into this vacant
+Valley and Piedmont, behind the area occupied by expansion from the
+coast is, that it was geographically separated from the westward
+movement from the coast, and that it was sufficient in volume to recruit
+the democratic forces and postpone for a long time the process of social
+assimilation to the type of the lowlands.
+
+As has been pointed out, especially in the Carolinas a belt of pine
+barrens, roughly eighty miles in breadth, ran parallel with the fall
+line and thus discouraged western advance across this belt, even before
+the head of navigation was reached. In Virginia, the Blue Ridge made an
+almost equally effective barrier, walling off the Shenandoah Valley from
+the westward advance. At the same time this valley was but a
+continuation of the Great Valley, that ran along the eastern edge of the
+Alleghanies in southeastern Pennsylvania, and included in its mountain
+trough the Cumberland and Hagerstown valleys. In short, a broad
+limestone band of fertile soil was stretched within mountain walls,
+southerly from Pennsylvania to southwestern Virginia; and here the
+watergaps opened the way to descend to the Carolina Piedmont. This whole
+area, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania, was rendered
+comparatively inaccessible to the westward movement from the lowlands,
+and was equally accessible to the population which was entering
+Pennsylvania.[99:1]
+
+Thus it happened that from about 1730 to 1760 a generation of settlers
+poured along this mountain trough into the southern uplands, or
+Piedmont, creating a new continuous social and economic area, which cut
+across the artificial colonial boundary lines, disarranged the regular
+extension of local government from the coast westward, and built up a
+new Pennsylvania in contrast with the old Quaker colonies, and a new
+South in contrast with the tidewater South. This New South composed the
+southern half of the Old West.
+
+From its beginning, Pennsylvania was advertised as a home for dissenting
+sects seeking freedom in the wilderness. But it was not until the exodus
+of German redemptioners,[100:1] from about 1717, that the Palatinate and
+neighboring areas sent the great tide of Germans which by the time of
+the Revolution made them nearly a third of the total population of
+Pennsylvania. It has been carefully estimated that in 1775 over 200,000
+Germans lived in the thirteen colonies, chiefly along the frontier zone
+of the Old West. Of these, a hundred thousand had their home in
+Pennsylvania, mainly in the Great Valley, in the region which is still
+so notably the abode of the "Pennsylvania Dutch."[100:2]
+
+Space does not permit us to describe this movement of
+colonization.[100:3] The entrance to the fertile limestone soils of the
+Great Valley of Pennsylvania was easy, in view of the low elevation of
+the South Mountain ridge, and the watergaps thereto. The continuation
+along the similar valley to the south, in Maryland and Virginia, was a
+natural one, especially as the increasing tide of emigrants raised the
+price of lands.[100:4] In 1719 the proprietor's price for Pennsylvania
+lands was ten pounds per hundred acres, and two shillings quit-rents. In
+1732 this became fifteen and one-half pounds, with a quit-rent of a half
+penny per acre.[101:1] During the period 1718 to 1732, when the Germans
+were coming in great numbers, the management of the lands fell into
+confusion, and many seated themselves as squatters, without
+title.[101:2] This was a fortunate possibility for the poor
+redemptioners, who had sold their service for a term of years in order
+to secure their transportation to America.
+
+By 1726 it was estimated that there were 100,000 squatters;[101:3] and
+of the 670,000 acres occupied between 1732 and 1740, it is estimated
+that 400,000 acres were settled without grants.[101:4] Nevertheless
+these must ultimately be paid for, with interest, and the concession of
+the right of preëmption to squatters made this easier. But it was not
+until 1755 that the governor offered land free from purchase, and this
+was to be taken only west of the Alleghanies.[101:5]
+
+Although the credit system relieved the difficulty in Pennsylvania, the
+lands of that colony were in competition with the Maryland lands,
+offered between 1717 and 1738 at forty shillings sterling per hundred
+acres, which in 1738 was raised to five pounds sterling.[101:6] At the
+same time, in the Virginia Valley, as will be recalled, free grants were
+being made of a thousand acres per family. Although large tracts of the
+Shenandoah Valley had been granted to speculators like Beverley,
+Borden, and the Carters, as well as to Lord Fairfax, the owners sold
+six or seven pounds cheaper per hundred acres than did the Pennsylvania
+land office.[102:1] Between 1726 and 1734, therefore, the Germans began
+to enter this valley,[102:2] and before long they extended their
+settlements into the Piedmont of the Carolinas,[102:3] being recruited
+in South Carolina by emigrants coming by way of Charleston--especially
+after Governor Glenn's purchase from the Cherokee in 1755, of the
+extreme western portion of the colony. Between 1750 and the Revolution,
+these settlers in the Carolinas greatly increased in numbers.
+
+Thus a zone of almost continuous German settlements had been
+established, running from the head of the Mohawk in New York to the
+Savannah in Georgia. They had found the best soils, and they knew how to
+till them intensively and thriftily, as attested by their large,
+well-filled barns, good stock, and big canvas-covered Conestoga wagons.
+They preferred to dwell in groups, often of the same religious
+denomination--Lutherans, Reformed, Moravians, Mennonites, and many
+lesser sects. The diaries of Moravian missionaries from Pennsylvania,
+who visited them, show how the parent congregations kept in touch with
+their colonies[102:4] and how intimate, in general, was the bond of
+connection between this whole German frontier zone and that of
+Pennsylvania.
+
+Side by side with this German occupation of Valley and Piedmont, went
+the migration of the Scotch-Irish.[103:1] These lowland Scots had been
+planted in Ulster early in the seventeenth century. Followers of John
+Knox, they had the contentious individualism and revolutionary temper
+that seem natural to Scotch Presbyterianism. They were brought up on the
+Old Testament, and in the doctrine of government by covenant or compact.
+In Ireland their fighting qualities had been revealed in the siege of
+Londonderry, where their stubborn resistance balked the hopes of James
+II. However, religious and political disabilities were imposed upon
+these Ulstermen, which made them discontented, and hard times
+contributed to detach them from their homes. Their movement to America
+was contemporaneous with the heavy German migration. By the Revolution,
+it is believed that a third of the population of Pennsylvania was
+Scotch-Irish; and it has been estimated, probably too liberally, that a
+half million came to the United States between 1730 and 1770.[103:2]
+Especially after the Rebellion of 1745, large numbers of Highlanders
+came to increase the Scotch blood in the nation.[103:3] Some of the
+Scotch-Irish went to New England.[103:4] Given the cold shoulder by
+congregational Puritans, they passed to unsettled lands about Worcester,
+to the frontier in the Berkshires, and in southern New Hampshire at
+Londonderry--whence came John Stark, a frontier leader in the French
+and Indian War, and the hero of Bennington in the Revolution, as well as
+the ancestors of Horace Greeley and S. P. Chase. In New York, a
+Scotch-Irish settlement was planted on the frontier at Cherry
+Valley.[104:1] Scotch Highlanders came to the Mohawk,[104:2] where they
+followed Sir William Johnson and became Tory raiders in the Revolution.
+
+But it was in Pennsylvania that the center of Scotch-Irish power lay.
+"These bold and indigent strangers, saying as their excuse when
+challenged for titles that we had solicited for colonists and they had
+come accordingly,"[104:3] and asserting that "it was against the laws of
+God and nature that so much land should be idle while so many christians
+wanted it to work on and to raise their bread," squatted on the vacant
+lands, especially in the region disputed between Pennsylvania and
+Maryland, and remained in spite of efforts to drive them off. Finding
+the Great Valley in the hands of the Germans, they planted their own
+outposts along the line of the Indian trading path from Lancaster to
+Bedford; they occupied Cumberland Valley, and before 1760 pressed up the
+Juniata somewhat beyond the narrows, spreading out along its
+tributaries, and by 1768 had to be warned off from the Redstone country
+to avoid Indian trouble. By the time of the Revolution, their
+settlements made Pittsburgh a center from which was to come a new era in
+Pennsylvania history. It was the Scotch-Irish and German
+fur-traders[104:4] whose pack trains pioneered into the Ohio Valley in
+the days before the French and Indian wars. The messengers between
+civilization and savagery were such men,[105:1] as the Irish Croghan,
+and the Germans Conrad Weiser and Christian Post.
+
+Like the Germans, the Scotch-Irish passed into the Shenandoah
+Valley,[105:2] and on to the uplands of the South. In 1738 a delegation
+of the Philadelphia Presbyterian synod was sent to the Virginia governor
+and received assurances of security of religious freedom; the same
+policy was followed by the Carolinas. By 1760 a zone of Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterian churches extended from the frontiers of New England to the
+frontiers of South Carolina. This zone combined in part with the German
+zone, but in general Scotch-Irishmen tended to follow the valleys
+farther toward the mountains, to be the outer edge of this frontier.
+Along with this combined frontier stream were English, Welsh and Irish
+Quakers, and French Huguenots.[105:3]
+
+Among this moving mass, as it passed along the Valley into the Piedmont,
+in the middle of the eighteenth century, were Daniel Boone, John Sevier,
+James Robertson, and the ancestors of John C. Calhoun, Abraham Lincoln,
+Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson, James K. Polk, Sam Houston, and Davy
+Crockett, while the father of Andrew Jackson came to the Carolina
+Piedmont at the same time from the coast. Recalling that Thomas
+Jefferson's home was on the frontier, at the edge of the Blue Ridge, we
+perceive that these names represent the militant expansive movement in
+American life. They foretell the settlement across the Alleghanies in
+Kentucky and Tennessee; the Louisiana Purchase, and Lewis and Clark's
+transcontinental exploration; the conquest of the Gulf Plains in the
+War of 1812-15; the annexation of Texas; the acquisition of California
+and the Spanish Southwest. They represent, too, frontier democracy in
+its two aspects personified in Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln. It
+was a democracy responsive to leadership, susceptible to waves of
+emotion, of a "high religeous voltage"--quick and direct in action.
+
+The volume of this Northern movement into the Southern uplands is
+illustrated by the statement of Governor Tryon, of North Carolina, that
+in the summer and winter of 1765 more than a thousand immigrant wagons
+passed through Salisbury, in that colony.[106:1] Coming by families, or
+groups of families or congregations, they often drove their herds with
+them. Whereas in 1746 scarce a hundred fighting men were found in Orange
+and the western counties of North Carolina, there were in 1753 fully
+three thousand, in addition to over a thousand Scotch in the Cumberland;
+and they covered the province more or less thickly, from Hillsboro and
+Fayetteville to the mountains.[106:2] Bassett remarks that the
+Presbyterians received their first ministers from the synod of New York
+and Pennsylvania, and later on sent their ministerial students to
+Princeton College. "Indeed it is likely that the inhabitants of this
+region knew more about Philadelphia at that time than about Newbern or
+Edenton."[106:3]
+
+We are now in a position to note briefly, in conclusion, some of the
+results of the occupation of this new frontier during the first half of
+the eighteenth century--some of the consequences of this formation of
+the Old West.
+
+I. A fighting frontier had been created all along the line from New
+England to Georgia, which bore the brunt of French and Indian attacks
+and gave indispensable service during the Revolution. The significance
+of this fact could only be developed by an extended survey of the
+scattered border warfare of this era. We should have to see Rogers
+leading his New England Rangers, and Washington defending interior
+Virginia with his frontiersmen in their hunting shirts, in the French
+and Indian War. When all of the campaigns about the region of Canada,
+Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, central New York (Oriskany, Cherry
+Valley, Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois), Wyoming Valley,
+western Pennsylvania, the Virginia Valley, and the back country of the
+South are considered as a whole from this point of view, the meaning of
+the Old West will become more apparent.
+
+II. A new society had been established, differing in essentials from the
+colonial society of the coast. It was a democratic self-sufficing,
+primitive agricultural society, in which individualism was more
+pronounced than the community life of the lowlands. The indented servant
+and the slave were not a normal part of its labor system. It was engaged
+in grain and cattle raising, not in producing staples, and it found a
+partial means of supplying its scarcity of specie by the peltries which
+it shipped to the coast. But the hunter folk were already pushing
+farther on; the cow-pens and the range were giving place to the small
+farm, as in our own day they have done in the cattle country. It was a
+region of hard work and poverty, not of wealth and leisure. Schools and
+churches were secured under serious difficulty,[107:1] if at all; but in
+spite of the natural tendencies of a frontier life, a large portion of
+the interior showed a distinctly religious atmosphere.
+
+III. The Old West began the movement of internal trade which developed
+home markets and diminished that colonial dependence on Europe in
+industrial matters shown by the maritime and staple-raising sections.
+Not only did Boston and other New England towns increase as trading
+centers when the back country settled up, but an even more significant
+interchange occurred along the Valley and Piedmont. The German farmers
+of the Great Valley brought their woven linen, knitted stockings,
+firkins of butter, dried apples, grain, etc., to Philadelphia and
+especially to Baltimore, which was laid out in 1730. To this city also
+came trade from the Shenandoah Valley, and even from the Piedmont came
+peltry trains and droves of cattle and hogs to the same market.[108:1]
+The increase of settlement on the upper James resulted in the
+establishment of the city of Richmond at the falls of the river in 1737.
+Already the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the lowlands were finding
+rivals in the grain-raising area of interior Virginia and Maryland.
+Charleston prospered as the up-country of the Carolinas grew. Writing in
+the middle of the eighteenth century, Governor Glenn, of South Carolina,
+explained the apparent diminution of the colony's shipping thus:[108:2]
+
+     Our trade with New York and Philadelphia was of this sort,
+     draining us of all the little money and bills that we could
+     gather from other places, for their bread, flour, beer, hams,
+     bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except
+     beer, our new townships begin to supply us with which are
+     settled with very industrious and consequently thriving
+     Germans.
+
+It was not long before this interior trade produced those rivalries for
+commercial ascendancy, between the coastwise cities, which still
+continue. The problem of internal improvements became a pressing one,
+and the statutes show increasing provision for roads, ferries, bridges,
+river improvements, etc.[109:1] The basis was being laid for a national
+economy, and at the same time a new source for foreign export was
+created.
+
+IV. The Old West raised the issues of nativism and a lower standard of
+comfort. In New England, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians had been frowned
+upon and pushed away by the Puritan townsmen.[109:2] In Pennsylvania,
+the coming of the Germans and the Scotch-Irish in such numbers caused
+grave anxiety. Indeed, a bill was passed to limit the importation of the
+Palatines, but it was vetoed.[109:3] Such astute observers as Franklin
+feared in 1753 that Pennsylvania would be unable to preserve its
+language and that even its government would become precarious.[109:4] "I
+remember," he declares, "when they modestly declined intermeddling in
+our elections, but now they come in droves and carry all before them,
+except in one or two counties;" and he lamented that the English could
+not remove their prejudices by addressing them in German.[109:5] Dr.
+Douglas[109:6] apprehended that Pennsylvania would "degenerate into a
+foreign colony" and endanger the quiet of the adjacent provinces. Edmund
+Burke, regretting that the Germans adhered to their own schools,
+literature, and language, and that they possessed great tracts without
+admixture of English, feared that they would not blend and become one
+people with the British colonists, and that the colony was threatened
+with the danger of being wholly foreign. He also noted that "these
+foreigners by their industry, frugality, and a hard way of living, in
+which they greatly exceed our people, have in a manner thrust them out
+in several places."[110:1] This is a phenomenon with which a succession
+of later frontiers has familiarized us. In point of fact the
+"Pennsylvania Dutch" remained through our history a very stubborn area
+to assimilate, with corresponding effect upon Pennsylvania politics.
+
+It should be noted also that this coming of non-English stock to the
+frontier raised in all the colonies affected, questions of
+naturalization and land tenure by aliens.[110:2]
+
+V. The creation of this frontier society--of which so large a portion
+differed from that of the coast in language and religion as well as in
+economic life, social structure, and ideals--produced an antagonism
+between interior and coast, which worked itself out in interesting
+fashion. In general this took these forms: contests between the
+property-holding class of the coast and the debtor class of the
+interior, where specie was lacking, and where paper money and a
+readjustment of the basis of taxation were demanded; contests over
+defective or unjust local government in the administration of taxes,
+fees, lands, and the courts; contests over apportionment in the
+legislature, whereby the coast was able to dominate, even when its white
+population was in the minority; contests to secure the complete
+separation of church and state; and, later, contests over slavery,
+internal improvements, and party politics in general. These contests are
+also intimately connected with the political philosophy of the
+Revolution and with the development of American democracy. In nearly
+every colony prior to the Revolution, struggles had been in progress
+between the party of privilege, chiefly the Eastern men of property
+allied with the English authorities, and the democratic classes,
+strongest in the West and the cities.
+
+This theme deserves more space than can here be allotted to it; but a
+rapid survey of conditions in this respect, along the whole frontier,
+will at least serve to bring out the point.
+
+In New England as a whole, the contest is less in evidence. That part of
+the friction elsewhere seen as the result of defective local government
+in the back country, was met by the efficiency of the town system; but
+between the interior and the coast there were struggles over
+apportionment and religious freedom. The former is illustrated by the
+convention that met in Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1776, to petition the
+States of Massachusetts and New Hampshire to relieve the financial
+distress and unfair legislative representation. Sixteen of the border
+towns of New Hampshire sent delegates to this convention. Two years
+later, these New Hampshire towns attempted to join Vermont.[111:1] As a
+Revolutionary State, Vermont itself was an illustration of the same
+tendency of the interior to break away from the coast. Massachusetts in
+this period witnessed a campaign between the paper money party which was
+entrenched in the more recently and thinly-settled areas of the interior
+and west, and the property-holding classes of the coast.[111:2] The
+opposition to the constitutions of 1778 and 1780 is tinctured with the
+same antagonism between the ideas of the newer part of the interior and
+of the coast.[112:1] Shays' Rebellion and the anti-federal opposition of
+1787-88 found its stronghold in the same interior areas.[112:2]
+
+The religious struggles continued until the democratic interior, where
+dissenting sects were strong, and where there was antagonism to the
+privileges of the congregational church, finally secured complete
+disestablishment in New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. But
+this belongs to a later period.[112:3]
+
+Pennsylvania affords a clear illustration of these sectional
+antagonisms. The memorial of the frontier "Paxton Boys," in 1764,
+demanded a right to share in political privileges with the older part of
+the colony, and protested against the apportionment by which the
+counties of Chester, Bucks, and Philadelphia, together with the city of
+Philadelphia, elected twenty-six delegates, while the five frontier
+counties had but ten.[112:4] The frontier complained against the failure
+of the dominant Quaker party of the coast to protect the interior
+against the Indians.[112:5] The three old wealthy counties under Quaker
+rule feared the growth of the West, therefore made few new counties, and
+carefully restricted the representation in each to preserve the majority
+in the old section. At the same time, by a property qualification they
+met the danger of the democratic city population. Among the points of
+grievance in this colony, in addition to apportionment and
+representation, was the difficulty of access to the county seat, owing
+to the size of the back counties. Dr. Lincoln has well set forth the
+struggle of the back country, culminating in its triumph in the
+constitutional convention of 1776, which was chiefly the work of the
+Presbyterian counties.[113:1] Indeed, there were two revolutions in
+Pennsylvania, which went on side by side: one a revolt against the
+coastal property-holding classes, the old dominant Quaker party, and the
+other a revolt against Great Britain, which was in this colony made
+possible only by the triumph of the interior.
+
+In Virginia, as early as 1710, Governor Spotswood had complained that
+the old counties remained small while the new ones were sometimes ninety
+miles long, the inhabitants being obliged to travel thirty or forty
+miles to their own court-house. Some of the counties had 1,700
+tithables, while others only a dozen miles square had 500. Justices of
+the peace disliked to ride forty or fifty miles to their monthly courts.
+Likewise there was disparity in the size of parishes--for example, that
+of Varina, on the upper James, had nine hundred tithables, many of whom
+lived fifty miles from their church. But the vestry refused to allow the
+remote parishioners to separate, because it would increase the parish
+levy of those that remained. He feared lest this would afford
+"opportunity to Sectarys to establish their opinions among 'em, and
+thereby shake that happy establishment of the Church of England which
+this colony enjoys with less mixture of Dissenters than any other of her
+Maj'tie's plantations, and when once Schism has crept into the Church,
+it will soon create faction in the Civil Government."
+
+That Spotswood's fears were well founded, we have already seen. As the
+sectaries of the back country increased, dissatisfaction with the
+established church grew. After the Revolution came, Jefferson, with the
+back country behind him, was able finally to destroy the establishment,
+and to break down the system of entails and primogeniture behind which
+the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the coast was entrenched. The desire
+of Jefferson to see slavery gradually abolished and popular education
+provided, is a further illustration of the attitude of the interior. In
+short, Jeffersonian democracy, with its idea of separation of church and
+state, its wish to popularize education, and its dislike for special
+privilege, was deeply affected by the Western society of the Old
+Dominion.
+
+The Virginian reform movement, however, was unable to redress the
+grievance of unequal apportionment. In 1780 Jefferson pointed out that
+the practice of allowing each county an equal representation in the
+legislature gave control to the numerous small counties of the
+tidewater, while the large populous counties of the up-country suffered.
+"Thus," he wrote, "the 19,000 men below the falls give law to more than
+30,000 living in other parts of the state, and appoint all their chief
+officers, executive and judiciary."[114:1] This led to a long struggle
+between coast and interior, terminated only when the slave population
+passed across the fall line, and more nearly assimilated coast and
+up-country. In the mountain areas which did not undergo this change, the
+independent state of West Virginia remains as a monument of the contest.
+In the convention of 1829-30, the whole philosophy of representation was
+discussed, and the coast defended its control as necessary to protect
+property from the assaults of a numerical majority. They feared that
+the interior would tax their slaves in order to secure funds for
+internal improvements.
+
+As Doddridge put the case:[115:1]
+
+     The principle is that the owners of slave property must be
+     possessed of all the powers of government, however small their
+     own numbers may be, to secure that property from the rapacity
+     of an overgrown majority of white men. This principle admits
+     of no relaxation, because the weaker the minority becomes, the
+     greater will their need for power be according to their own
+     doctrines.
+
+Leigh of Chesterfield county declared:[115:2]
+
+     It is remarkable--I mention it for the curiosity of the
+     fact--that if any evil, physical or moral, arise in any of the
+     states south of us, it never takes a northerly direction, or
+     taints the Southern breeze; whereas, if any plague originate
+     in the North, it is sure to spread to the South and to invade
+     us sooner or later; the influenza--the smallpox--the
+     varioloid--the Hessian fly--the Circuit Court
+     system--Universal Suffrage--all come from the North, _and they
+     always cross above the falls of the great rivers_; below, it
+     seems, the broad expanse of waters interposing, effectually
+     arrests their progress.
+
+Nothing could more clearly bring out the sense of contrast between
+upland and lowland Virginia, and the continued intimacy of the bond of
+connection between the North and its Valley and Piedmont colonies, than
+this unconscious testimony.
+
+In North and South Carolina the upland South, beyond the pine barrens
+and the fall line, had similar grievances against the coast; but as the
+zone of separation was more strongly marked, the grievances were more
+acute. The tide of backwoods settlement flowing down the Piedmont from
+the north, had cut across the lines of local government and disarranged
+the regular course of development of the colonies from the
+seacoast.[116:1] Under the common practice, large counties in North
+Carolina and parishes in South Carolina had been projected into the
+unoccupied interior from the older settlements along their eastern edge.
+
+But the Piedmont settlers brought their own social order, and could not
+be well governed by the older planters living far away toward the
+seaboard. This may be illustrated by conditions in South Carolina. The
+general court in Charleston had absorbed county and precinct courts,
+except the minor jurisdiction of justices of the peace. This was well
+enough for the great planters who made their regular residence there for
+a part of each year; but it was a source of oppression to the up-country
+settlers, remote from the court. The difficulty of bringing witnesses,
+the delay of the law, and the costs all resulted in the escape of
+criminals as well as in the immunity of reckless debtors. The extortions
+of officials, and their occasional collusion with horse and cattle
+thieves, and the lack of regular administration of the law, led the
+South Carolina up-country men to take affairs in their own hands, and in
+1764 to establish associations to administer lynch law under the name of
+"Regulators." The "Scovillites," or government party, and the
+Regulators met in arms on the Saluda in 1769, but hostilities were
+averted and remedial measures passed, which alleviated the difficulty
+until the Revolution.[117:1] There still remained, however, the
+grievance of unjust legislative representation.[117:2] Calhoun stated
+the condition in these words:
+
+     The upper country had no representation in the government and
+     no political existence as a constituent portion of the state
+     until a period near the commencement of the revolution.
+     Indeed, during the revolution, and until the formation of the
+     present constitution, in 1790, its political weight was
+     scarcely felt in the government. Even then although it had
+     become the most populous section, power was so distributed
+     under the constitution as to leave it in a minority in every
+     department of government.
+
+Even in 1794 it was claimed by the up-country leaders that four-fifths
+of the people were governed by one-fifth. Nor was the difficulty met
+until the constitutional amendment of 1808, the effect of which was to
+give the control of the senate to the lower section and of the house of
+representatives to the upper section, thus providing a mutual
+veto.[117:3] This South Carolina experience furnished the historical
+basis for Calhoun's argument for nullification, and for the political
+philosophy underlying his theory of the "concurrent majority."[118:1]
+This adjustment was effected, however, only after the advance of the
+black belt toward the interior had assimilated portions of the Piedmont
+to lowland ideals.
+
+When we turn to North Carolina's upper country we find the familiar
+story, but with a more tragic ending. The local officials owed their
+selection to the governor and the council whom he appointed. Thus power
+was all concentrated in the official "ring" of the lowland area. The men
+of the interior resented the extortionate fees and the poll tax, which
+bore with unequal weight upon the poor settlers of the back country.
+This tax had been continued after sufficient funds had been collected to
+extinguish the debt for which it was originally levied, but venal
+sheriffs had failed to pay it into the treasury. A report of 1770 showed
+at least one defaulting sheriff in every county of the province.[118:2]
+This tax, which was almost the sole tax of the colony, was to be
+collected in specie, for the warehouse system, by which staples might be
+accepted, while familiar on the coast, did not apply to the interior.
+The specie was exceedingly difficult to obtain; in lack of it, the
+farmer saw the sheriff, who owed his appointment to the dominant lowland
+planters, sell the lands of the delinquent to his speculative friends.
+Lawyers and court fees followed.
+
+In short, the interior felt that it was being exploited,[118:3] and it
+had no redress, for the legislature was so apportioned that all power
+rested in the old lowland region. Efforts to secure paper money failed
+by reason of the governor's opposition under instructions from the
+crown, and the currency was contracting at the very time when population
+was rapidly increasing in the interior.[119:1] As in New England, in the
+days of Shays' Rebellion, violent prejudice existed against the
+judiciary and the lawyers, and it must, of course, be understood that
+the movement was not free from frontier dislike of taxation and the
+restraints of law and order in general. In 1766 and 1768, meetings were
+held in the upper counties to organize the opposition, and an
+"association"[119:2] was formed, the members of which pledged themselves
+to pay no more taxes or fees until they satisfied themselves that these
+were agreeable to law.
+
+The Regulators, as they called themselves, assembled in the autumn of
+1768 to the number of nearly four thousand, and tried to secure terms of
+adjustment. In 1770 the court-house at Hillsboro was broken into by a
+mob. The assembly passed some measures designed to conciliate the back
+country; but before they became operative, Governor Tryon's militia,
+about twelve hundred men, largely from the lowlands, and led by the
+gentry whose privileges were involved, met the motley army of the
+Regulators, who numbered about two thousand, in the battle of the
+Alamance (May, 1771). Many were killed and wounded, the Regulators
+dispersed, and over six thousand men came into camp and took the oath of
+submission to the colonial authorities. The battle was not the first
+battle of the Revolution, as it has been sometimes called, for it had
+little or no relation to the stamp act; and many of the frontiersmen
+involved, later refused to fight against England because of the very
+hatred which had been inspired for the lowland Revolutionary leaders in
+this battle of the Alamance. The interior of the Carolinas was a region
+where neighbors, during the Revolution, engaged in internecine conflicts
+of Tories against Whigs.
+
+But in the sense that the battle of Alamance was a conflict against
+privilege, and for equality of political rights and power, it was indeed
+a preliminary battle of the Revolution, although fought against many of
+the very men who later professed Revolutionary doctrines in North
+Carolina. The need of recognizing the importance of the interior led to
+concessions in the convention of 1776 in that state. "Of the forty-four
+sections of the constitution, thirteen are embodiments of reforms sought
+by the Regulators."[120:1] But it was in this period that hundreds of
+North Carolina backwoodsmen crossed the mountains to Tennessee and
+Kentucky, many of them coming from the heart of the Regulator region.
+They used the device of "associations" to provide for government in
+their communities.[120:2]
+
+In the matter of apportionment, North Carolina showed the same lodgment
+of power in the hands of the coast, even after population preponderated
+in the Piedmont.[120:3]
+
+It is needless to comment on the uniformity of the evidence which has
+been adduced, to show that the Old West, the interior region from New
+England to Georgia, had a common grievance against the coast; that it
+was deprived throughout most of the region of its due share of
+representation, and neglected and oppressed in local government in large
+portions of the section. The familiar struggle of West against East, of
+democracy against privileged classes, was exhibited along the entire
+line. The phenomenon must be considered as a unit, not in the fragments
+of state histories. It was a struggle of interior against coast.
+
+VI. Perhaps the most noteworthy Western activity in the Revolutionary
+era, aside from the aspects already mentioned, was in the part which the
+multitude of sects in the Old West played in securing the great
+contribution which the United States made to civilization by providing
+for complete religious liberty, a secular state with free churches.
+Particularly the Revolutionary constitutions of Pennsylvania and
+Virginia, under the influence of the back country, insured religious
+freedom. The effects of the North Carolina upland area to secure a
+similar result were noteworthy, though for the time ineffective.[121:1]
+
+VII. As population increased in these years, the coast gradually yielded
+to the up-country's demands. This may be illustrated by the transfer of
+the capitals from the lowlands to the fall line and Valley. In 1779,
+Virginia changed her seat of government from Williamsburg to Richmond;
+in 1790, South Carolina, from Charleston to Columbia; in 1791, North
+Carolina, from Edenton to Raleigh; in 1797, New York, from New York City
+to Albany; in 1799, Pennsylvania, from Philadelphia to Lancaster.
+
+VIII. The democratic aspect of the new constitutions was also influenced
+by the frontier as well as by the prevalent Revolutionary philosophy;
+and the demands for paper money, stay and tender laws, etc., of this
+period were strongest in the interior. It was this region that supported
+Shays' Rebellion; it was (with some important exceptions) the same area
+that resisted the ratification of the federal constitution, fearful of a
+stronger government and of the loss of paper money.
+
+IX. The interior later showed its opposition to the coast by the
+persistent contest against slavery, carried on in the up-country of
+Virginia, and North and South Carolina. Until the decade 1830-40, it was
+not certain that both Virginia and North Carolina would not find some
+means of gradual abolition. The same influence accounts for much of the
+exodus of the Piedmont pioneers into Indiana and Illinois, in the first
+half of the nineteenth century.[122:1]
+
+X. These were the regions, also, in which were developed the desire of
+the pioneers who crossed the mountains, and settled on the "Western
+waters," to establish new States free from control by the lowlands,
+owning their own lands, able to determine their own currency, and in
+general to govern themselves in accordance with the ideals of the Old
+West. They were ready also, if need be, to become independent of the Old
+Thirteen. Vermont must be considered in this aspect, as well as Kentucky
+and Tennessee.[122:2]
+
+XI. The land system of the Old West furnished precedents which developed
+into the land system of the trans-Alleghany West.[122:3] The squatters
+of Pennsylvania and the Carolinas found it easy to repeat the operation
+on another frontier. Preëmption laws became established features. The
+Revolution gave opportunity to confiscate the claims of Lord Fairfax,
+Lord Granville, and McCulloh to their vast estates, as well as the
+remaining lands of the Pennsylvania proprietors. The 640 acre (or one
+square mile) unit of North Carolina for preëmptions, and frontier land
+bounties, became the area awarded to frontier stations by Virginia in
+1779, and the "section" of the later federal land system. The Virginia
+preëmption right of four hundred acres on the Western waters, or a
+thousand for those who came prior to 1778, was, in substance, the
+continuation of a system familiar in the Old West.
+
+The grants to Beverley, of over a hundred thousand acres in the Valley,
+conditioned on seating a family for every thousand acres, and the
+similar grants to Borden, Carter, and Lewis, were followed by the great
+grant to the Ohio Company. This company, including leading Virginia
+planters and some frontiersmen, asked in 1749 for two hundred thousand
+acres on the upper Ohio, conditioned on seating a hundred families in
+seven years, and for an additional grant of three hundred thousand acres
+after this should be accomplished. It was proposed to settle Germans on
+these lands.
+
+The Loyal Land Company, by order of the Virginia council (1749), was
+authorized to take up eight hundred thousand acres west and north of the
+southern boundary of Virginia, on condition of purchasing "rights" for
+the amount within four years. The company sold many tracts for £3 per
+hundred acres to settlers, but finally lost its claim. The Mississippi
+Company, including in its membership the Lees, Washingtons, and other
+great Virginia planters, applied for two and one-half million acres in
+the West in 1769. Similar land companies of New England origin, like
+the Susquehanna Company and Lyman's Mississippi Company, exhibit the
+same tendency of the Old West on the northern side. New England's Ohio
+Company of Associates, which settled Marietta, had striking resemblances
+to town proprietors.
+
+These were only the most noteworthy of many companies of this period,
+and it is evident that they were a natural outgrowth of speculations in
+the Old West. Washington, securing military bounty land claims of
+soldiers of the French and Indian War, and selecting lands in West
+Virginia until he controlled over seventy thousand acres for
+speculation, is an excellent illustration of the tendency. He also
+thought of colonizing German Palatines upon his lands. The formation of
+the Transylvania and Vandalia companies were natural developments on a
+still vaster scale.[124:1]
+
+XII. The final phase of the Old West, which I wish merely to mention, in
+conclusion, is its colonization of areas beyond the mountains. The
+essential unity of the movement is brought out by a study of how New
+England's Old West settled northern Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont,
+the Adirondacks, central and Western New York, the Wyoming Valley (once
+organized as a part of Litchfield, Connecticut), the Ohio Company's
+region about Marietta, and Connecticut's Western Reserve on the shores
+of Lake Erie; and how the pioneers of the Great Valley and the Piedmont
+region of the South crossed the Alleghanies and settled on the Western
+Waters. Daniel Boone, going from his Pennsylvania home to the Yadkin,
+and from the Yadkin to Tennessee and Kentucky, took part in the whole
+process, and later in its continuation into Missouri.[124:2] The social
+conditions and ideals of the Old West powerfully shaped those of the
+trans-Alleghany West.
+
+The important contrast between the spirit of individual colonization,
+resentful of control, which the Southern frontiersmen showed, and the
+spirit of community colonization and control to which the New England
+pioneers inclined, left deep traces on the later history of the
+West.[125:1] The Old West diminished the importance of the town as a
+colonizing unit, even in New England. In the Southern area, efforts to
+legislate towns into existence, as in Virginia, South Carolina, and
+Georgia, failed. They faded away before wilderness conditions. But in
+general, the Northern stream of migration was communal, and the Southern
+individual. The difference which existed between that portion of the Old
+West which was formed by the northward colonization, chiefly of the New
+England Plateau (including New York), and that portion formed by the
+southward colonization of the Virginia Valley and the Southern Piedmont
+was reflected in the history of the Middle West and the Mississippi
+Valley.[125:2]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[67:1] _Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin for
+1908._ Reprinted with the permission of the Society.
+
+[68:1] For the settled area in 1660, see the map by Lois Mathews in
+Channing, "United Stales" (N. Y., 1905), i, p. 510; and by Albert Cook
+Myers in Avery, "United States" (Cleveland, 1905), ii, following p. 398.
+In Channing, ii, following p. 603, is Marion F. Lansing's map of
+settlement in 1760, which is on a rather conservative basis, especially
+the part showing the interior of the Carolinas.
+
+Contemporaneous maps of the middle of the eighteenth century, useful in
+studying the progress of settlement, are: Mitchell, "Map of the British
+Colonies" (1755); Evans, "Middle British Colonies" (1758); Jefferson and
+Frye, "Map of Virginia" (1751 and 1755).
+
+On the geographical conditions, see maps and text in Powell,
+"Physiographic Regions" (N. Y., 1896), and Willis, "Northern
+Appalachians," in "Physiography of the United States" (N. Y., 1896), pp.
+73-82, 169-176, 196-201.
+
+[70:1] See Osgood, "American Colonies" (N. Y., 1907), iii, chap. iii.
+
+[70:2] See chapter ii, _ante_.
+
+[70:3] Sheldon, "Deerfield" (Deerfield, Mass., 1895), i, p. 288.
+
+[70:4] Parkman, "Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390; compare his
+description of Deerfield in 1704, in "Half Century of Conflict" (Boston,
+1898), i, p. 55.
+
+[72:1] Hanna, "Scotch Irish" (N. Y. and London, 1902), ii, pp. 17-24.
+
+[72:2] "Half Century of Conflict," ii, pp. 214-234.
+
+[72:3] "American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, p. 47.
+
+[73:1] For the extent of New England settlements in 1760, compared with
+1700, see the map in Channing, "United States," ii, at end of volume.
+
+[74:1] Schafer, "Land Grants for Education," Univ. of Wis. _Bulletin_
+(Madison, 1902), chap. iv.
+
+[75:1] On New England's land system see Osgood, "American Colonies" (N.
+Y., 1904), i, chap. xi; and Egleston, "Land System of the New England
+Colonies," Johns Hopkins Univ. _Studies_ (Baltimore, 1886), iv. Compare
+the account of Virginia, about 1696, in "Mass. Hist. Colls." (Boston,
+1835), 1st series, v, p. 129, for a favorable view of the New England
+town system; and note the probable influence of New England's system
+upon Virginia's legislation about 1700. See chapter ii, _ante_.
+
+[76:1] Amelia C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents of our National Land
+System," citing Massachusetts Bay, House of Rep. "Journal," 1715, pp. 5,
+22, 46; Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts Bay" (London, 1768), ii,
+p. 331; Holland, "Western Massachusetts" (Springfield, 1855), pp. 66,
+169.
+
+[76:2] "Conn. Colon. Records" (Hartford, 1874), viii, p. 134.
+
+[77:1] Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197. See the comments of
+Hutchinson in his "History of Massachusetts Bay," ii, pp. 331, 332.
+Compare the steps of Connecticut men in 1753 and 1755 to secure a land
+grant in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, for the Susquehanna Company, and
+the Connecticut governor's remark that there was no unappropriated land
+in the latter colony--"Pa. Colon. Records" (Harrisburg, 1851), v, p.
+771; "Pa. Archives," 2d series, xviii, contains the important documents,
+with much valuable information on the land system of the Wyoming Valley
+region. See also General Lyman's projects for a Mississippi colony in
+the Yazoo delta area--all indicative of the pressure for land and the
+speculative spirit.
+
+[78:1] Compare Vermont's dealings with the British, and the negotiations
+of Kentucky and Tennessee leaders with Spaniards and British. See _Amer.
+Hist. Review_, i, p. 252, note 2, for references on Vermont's
+Revolutionary philosophy and influence.
+
+[79:1] See H. C. Emery, "Artemas Jean Haynes" (New Haven, 1908), pp.
+8-10.
+
+[80:1] Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, p. 110.
+
+[80:2] "N. Y. Colon. Docs," vii, pp. 654, 795.
+
+[81:1] Becker, in _Amer. Hist. Review_, vi, p. 261.
+
+[81:2] Becker, _loc. cit._ For maps of grants in New York, see
+O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y." (Albany, 1850), i, pp. 421, 774;
+especially Southier, "Chorographical Map of New York"; Winsor,
+"America," v, p. 236. In general on these grants, consult also "Doc.
+Hist. of N. Y.," i, pp. 249-257; "N. Y. Colon. Docs.," iv, pp. 397, 791,
+874; v, pp. 459, 651, 805; vi, pp. 486, 549, 743, 876, 950; Kip, "Olden
+Time" (N. Y., 1872), p. 12; Scharf, "History of Westchester County"
+(Phila., 1886), i, p. 91; Libby, "Distribution of Vote on Ratification
+of Constitution" (Madison, 1894), pp. 21-25.
+
+For the region of the Wallkill, including New Paltz, etc., see Eager,
+"Outline History of Orange County, New York" (Newburgh, 1846-47); and
+Ruttenber and Clark, "History of Orange County" (Phila., 1881), pp.
+11-20. On Cherry Valley and upper Susquehanna settlements, in general,
+in New York, see Halsey, "Old New York Frontier," pp. 5, 119, and the
+maps by De Witt and Southier in O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y.," i,
+pp. 421, 774.
+
+Note the French Huguenots and Scotch-Irish in Orange County, and the
+Scotch-Irish settlers of Cherry Valley and their relation to
+Londonderry, N. H., as well as the missionary visits from Stockbridge,
+Mass., to the upper Susquehanna.
+
+[82:1] Lord, "Industrial Experiments" (Baltimore, 1898), p. 45;
+Diffenderfer, "German Exodus" (Lancaster, Pa., 1897).
+
+[82:2] See _post_.
+
+[84:1] Hening, "Va. Statutes at Large" (N. Y., 1823), ii, p. 326.
+
+[84:2] _Ibid._, p. 433.
+
+[84:3] Bassett, "Writings of William Byrd" (N. Y., 1901), p. xxi.
+
+[85:1] Hening, iii, p. 82. Similar acts were passed almost annually in
+successive years of the seventeenth century; cf. _loc. cit._, _pp._ 98,
+115, 119, 126, 164; the system was discontinued in 1722--see Beverley,
+"Virginia and its Government" (London, 1722), p. 234.
+
+It is interesting to compare the recommendation of Governor Dodge for
+Wisconsin Territory in 1836--see Wis. Terr. House of Reps. "Journal,"
+1836, pp. 11 _et seq._
+
+[85:2] Hening, iii, pp. 204-209.
+
+[87:1] Compare the law of 1779 in "Va. Revised Code" (1819), ii, p. 357;
+Ranck's "Boonesborough" (Louisville, 1901).
+
+[87:2] Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p. xii; "Calendar of British State
+Papers, Am. and W. I.," 1677-80 (London, 1896), p. 168.
+
+[87:3] Bassett, _loc. cit._, p. x, and Hening, iii, p. 304 (1705).
+
+[87:4] [See Alvord and Bidgood, "First Explorations of the
+Trans-Allegheny Region."]
+
+[87:5] Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," pp. xvii, xviii, quotes Byrd's
+description of the trail; Logan, "Upper South Carolina" (Columbia,
+1859), i, p. 167; Adair describes the trade somewhat later; cf. Bartram,
+"Travels" (London, 1792), _passim_, and Monette, "Mississippi Valley"
+(N. Y., 1846), ii, p. 13.
+
+[88:1] Bruce, "Economic Hist. of Va." (N. Y., 1896), i, pp. 473, 475,
+477.
+
+[88:2] See descriptions of cow-pens in Logan, "History of Upper S. C.,"
+i, p. 151; Bartram, "Travels," p. 308. On cattle raising generally in
+the Piedmont, see: Gregg, "Old Cheraws" (N. Y., 1867), pp. 68, 108-110;
+Salley, "Orangeburg" (Orangeburg, 1898), pp. 219-221; Lawson, "New
+Voyage to Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), p. 135; Ramsay, "South Carolina"
+(Charleston, 1809), i, p. 207; J. F. D. Smyth, "Tour" (London, 1784), i,
+p. 143, ii, pp. 78, 97; Foote, "Sketches of N. C." (N. Y., 1846), p. 77;
+"N. C. Colon. Records" (Raleigh, 1887), v, pp. xli, 1193, 1223;
+"American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, pp. 336, 350, 384; Hening, v.
+pp. 176, 245.
+
+[88:3] Spotswood, "Letters" (Richmond, 1882), i, p. 167; compare _Va.
+Magazine_, iii, pp. 120, 189.
+
+[89:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," v, p. xli.
+
+[89:2] Lawson, "Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), gives a description early in
+the eighteenth century; his map is reproduced in Avery, "United States"
+(Cleveland, 1907), iii, p. 224.
+
+[89:3] The advantages and disadvantages of the Piedmont region of the
+Carolinas in the middle of the eighteenth century are illustrated in
+Spangenburg's diary, in "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 6, 7, 13, 14.
+Compare "American Husbandry," i, pp. 220, 332, 357, 388.
+
+[90:1] Spotswood, "Letters," i, p. 40.
+
+[90:2] On Germanna see Spotswood, "Letters" (index); Fontaine's journal
+in A. Maury, "Huguenot Family" (1853), p. 268; Jones, "Present State of
+Virginia" (N. Y., 1865), p. 59; Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p. 356;
+_Va. Magazine_, xiii, pp. 362, 365; vi, p. 385; xii, pp. 342, 350; xiv,
+p. 136.
+
+Spotswood's interest in the Indian trade on the southern frontier of
+Virginia is illustrated in his fort Christanna, on which the above
+references afford information.
+
+The contemporaneous account of Spotswood's expedition into Shenandoah
+Valley is Fontaine's journey, cited above.
+
+[91:1] See the excellent paper by C. E. Kemper, in _Va. Magazine_, xii,
+on "Early Westward Movement in Virginia."
+
+[91:2] Compare Phillips, "Origin and Growth of the Southern Black
+Belts," in _Amer. Hist. Review_, xi, p. 799.
+
+[91:3] _Va. Magazine_, xiii, p. 113.
+
+[92:1] "Revised Code of Virginia" (Richmond, 1819), ii, p. 339.
+
+[92:2] _Mag. Amer. Hist._, xiii, pp. 217, 230; Winsor, "Narr. and Crit.
+Hist. of America," v, p. 268; Kercheval, "The Valley" (Winchester, Va.,
+1833), pp. 67, 209; _Va. Magazine_, xiii, p. 115.
+
+[93:1] "William and Mary College Quarterly" (Williamsburg, 1895), iii,
+p. 226. See Jefferson and Frye, "Map of Virginia, 1751," for location of
+this and Borden's manor.
+
+[93:2] Brown, "The Cabells" (Boston, 1895), p. 53.
+
+[93:3] _Loc. cit._, pp. 57, 66.
+
+[94:1] Meade, "Old Churches" (Phila., 1861), 2 vols.; Foote, "Sketches"
+(Phila., 1855); Brown, "The Cabells," p. 68.
+
+[94:2] _Atlantic Monthly_, vol. xci, pp. 83 _et seq._; Ford, "Writing of
+Thomas Jefferson" (N. Y., 1892), i, pp. xix _et seq._
+
+[94:3] Byrd, "Dividing Line" (Richmond, 1866), pp. 85, 271.
+
+[95:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," iii, p. xiii. Compare Hawks, "Hist. of
+North Carolina" (Fayetteville, 1859), map of precincts, 1663-1729.
+
+[95:2] Raper, "North Carolina" (N. Y., 1904), chap. v; W. R. Smith,
+"South Carolina" (N. Y., 1903), pp. 48, 57.
+
+[95:3] Clewell, "Wachovia" (N. Y., 1902).
+
+[96:1] Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 120, 121,
+citing Bassett, in "Law Quarterly Review," April, 1895, pp. 159-161.
+
+[96:2] See map in Hawks, "North Carolina."
+
+[96:3] McCrady, "South Carolina," 1719-1776 (N. Y., 1899), pp. 149, 151;
+Smith, "South Carolina," p. 40; Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report,"
+1897, pp. 117-119; Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws" (Charleston, 1857),
+i, p. xi.
+
+[96:4] McCrady, "South Carolina," pp. 121 _et seq._; Phillips,
+"Transportation in the Eastern Cotton Belt" (N. Y., 1908), p. 51.
+
+[96:5] This was not originally provided for among the eleven towns. For
+its history see Salley, "Orangeburg"--frontier conditions about 1769 are
+described on pp. 219 _et seq._; see map opposite p. 9.
+
+[97:1] Gregg, "Old Cheraws," p. 44.
+
+[97:2] Ballagh, _loc. cit._, pp. 119, 120.
+
+[98:1] Compare the description of Georgia frontier traders, cattle
+raisers, and land speculators, about 1773, in Bartram, "Travels," pp.
+18, 36, 308.
+
+[99:1] See Willis, "Northern Appalachians," in "Physiography of the U.
+S." in National Geog. Soc. "Monographs" (N. Y., 1895), no. 6.
+
+[100:1] Diffenderfer, "German Immigration into Pennsylvania," in Pa.
+German Soc. "Proc.," v, p. 10; "Redemptioners" (Lancaster, Pa., 1900).
+
+[100:2] A. B. Faust, "German Element in the United States."
+
+[100:3] See the bibliographies in Kuhns, "German and Swiss Settlements
+of Pennsylvania" (N. Y., 1901); Wayland, "German Element of the
+Shenandoah Valley" (N. Y., 1908); Channing, "United States," ii, p. 421;
+Griffin, "List of Works Relating to the Germans in the U. S." (Library
+of Congress, Wash., 1904).
+
+[100:4] See in illustration, the letter in Myers, "Irish Quakers"
+(Swarthmore, Pa., 1902), p. 70.
+
+[101:1] Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania" (N. Y.,
+1896), p. 34.
+
+[101:2] Gordon, "Pennsylvania" (Phila., 1829), p. 225.
+
+[101:3] Shepherd, _loc. cit._, pp. 49-51.
+
+[101:4] Ballagh, Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 112, 113.
+Compare Smith, "St. Clair Papers" (Cincinnati, 1882), ii, p. 101.
+
+[101:5] Shepherd, _loc. cit._, p. 50.
+
+[101:6] Mereness, "Maryland" (N. Y., 1901), p. 77.
+
+[102:1] "Calendar Va. State Papers" (Richmond, 1875), i, p. 217; on
+these grants see Kemper, "Early Westward Movement in Virginia" in _Va.
+Mag._, xii and xiii; Wayland, "German Element of the Shenandoah Valley,"
+_William and Mary College Quarterly_, iii. The speculators, both
+planters and new-comers, soon made application for lands beyond the
+Alleghanies.
+
+[102:2] In 1794 the Virginia House of Delegates resolved to publish the
+most important laws of the state in German.
+
+[102:3] See Bernheim, "German Settlements in the Carolinas" (Phila.,
+1872); Clewell, "Wachovia"; Allen, "German Palatines in N. C." (Raleigh,
+1905).
+
+[102:4] See Wayland, _loc. cit._, bibliography, for references; and
+especially _Va. Mag._, xi, pp. 113, 225, 370; xii, pp. 55, 134, 271;
+"German American Annals," N. S. iii, pp. 342, 369; iv, p. 16; Clewell,
+"Wachovia; N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 1-14.
+
+[103:1] On the Scotch-Irish, see the bibliography in Green,
+"Scotch-Irish in America," Amer. Antiquarian Soc. "Proceedings," April,
+1895; Hanna, "Scotch-Irish" (N. Y., 1902), is a comprehensive
+presentation of the subject; see also Myers, "Irish Quakers."
+
+[103:2] Fiske, "Old Virginia" (Boston, 1897), ii, p. 394. Compare
+Linehan, "The Irish Scots and the Scotch-Irish" (Concord, N. H., 1902).
+
+[103:3] See MacLean, "Scotch Highlanders in America" (Cleveland, 1900).
+
+[103:4] Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 17-24.
+
+[104:1] Halsey, "Old New York Frontier" (N. Y., 1901).
+
+[104:2] MacLean, pp. 196-230.
+
+[104:3] The words of Logan, Penn's agent, in 1724, in Hanna, ii, pp. 60,
+63.
+
+[104:4] Winsor, "Mississippi Basin" (Boston, 1895), pp. 238-243.
+
+[105:1] See Thwaites, "Early Western Travels" (Cleveland, 1904-06), i;
+Walton, "Conrad Weiser" (Phila., 1900); Heckewelder, "Narrative"
+(Phila., 1820).
+
+[105:2] Christian, "Scotch-Irish Settlers in the Valley of Virginia"
+(Richmond, 1860).
+
+[105:3] Roosevelt gives an interesting picture of this society in his
+"Winning of the West" (N. Y., 1889-96), i, chap. v; see also his
+citations, especially Doddridge, "Settlements and Indian Wars"
+(Wellsburgh, W. Va., 1824).
+
+[106:1] Bassett, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1894, p. 145.
+
+[106:2] "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. xxxix, xl; _cf._ p. xxi.
+
+[106:3] _Loc. cit._, pp. 146, 147.
+
+[107:1] See the interesting account of Rev. Moses Waddell's school in
+South Carolina, on the upper Savannah, where the students, including
+John C. Calhoun, McDuffe, Legaré, and Petigru, were educated in the
+wilderness. They lived in log huts in the woods, furnished their own
+supplies, or boarded near by, were called to the log school-house by
+horn for morning prayers, and then scattered in groups to the woods for
+study. Hunt, "Calhoun" (Phila., 1907), p. 13.
+
+[108:1] Scharf, "Maryland" (Baltimore, 1879), ii, p. 61, and chaps. i
+and xviii; Kercheval, "The Valley."
+
+[108:2] Weston, "Documents," p. 82.
+
+[109:1] See, for example, Phillips, "Transportation in the Eastern
+Cotton Belt," pp. 21-53.
+
+[109:2] Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 19, 22-24.
+
+[109:3] Cobb, "Story of the Palatines" (Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 1897), p.
+300, citing "Penn. Colon. Records," iv, pp. 225, 345.
+
+[109:4] "Works" (Bigelow ed.), ii, pp. 296-299.
+
+[109:5] _Ibid._, iii, p. 297; _cf._ p. 221.
+
+[109:6] "Summary" (1755), ii, p. 326.
+
+[110:1] "European Settlements" (London, 1793), ii, p. 200 (1765); _cf._
+Franklin, "Works" (N. Y., 1905-07), ii, p. 221, to the same effect.
+
+[110:2] Proper, "Colonial Immigration Laws," in Columbia Univ.,
+"Studies," xii.
+
+[111:1] Libby, "Distribution of the Vote on the Federal Constitution,"
+Univ. of Wis. _Bulletin_, pp. 8, 9, and citations. Note especially "New
+Hampshire State Papers," x, pp. 228 _et seq._
+
+[111:2] Libby, _loc. cit._, pp. 12-14, 46, 54-57.
+
+[112:1] Farrand, in _Yale Review_, May, 1908, p. 52 and citation.
+
+[112:2] Libby, _loc. cit._
+
+[112:3] See Turner, "Rise of the New West" (Amer. Nation series, N. Y.,
+1906), pp. 16-18.
+
+[112:4] Parkman, "Pontiac" (Boston, 1851), ii, p. 352.
+
+[112:5] Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania," in Columbia
+Univ. _Studies_, vi, pp. 546 _et seq._ Compare Watson, "Annals," ii, p.
+259; Green, "Provincial America" (Amer. Nation series, N. Y., 1905), p.
+234.
+
+[113:1] Lincoln, "Revolutionary Movement in Pennsylvania" (Boston,
+1901); McMaster and Stone, "Pennsylvania and the Federal Constitution"
+(Lancaster, 1888).
+
+[114:1] "Notes on Virginia." See his table of apportionment in Ford,
+"Writings of Thomas Jefferson," iii, p. 222.
+
+[115:1] "Debates of the Virginia State Convention, 1829-1830" (Richmond,
+1854), p. 87. These debates constitute a mine of material on the
+difficulty of reconciling the political philosophy of the Revolution
+with the protection of the property, including slaves, of the lowland
+planters.
+
+[115:2] _Loc. cit._, p. 407. The italics are mine.
+
+[116:1] McCrady, "South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 623.
+
+[117:1] Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws," i, pp. xxiv, 253; McCrady,
+"South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 637; Schaper, "Sectionalism in South
+Carolina," in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1900, i, pp. 334-338.
+
+[117:2] Schaper, _loc. cit._, pp. 338, 339; Calhoun, "Works" (N. Y.,
+1851-59), i, p. 402; _Columbia_ (S. C.) _Gazette_, Aug. 1, 1794; Ramsay,
+"South Carolina," pp. 64-66, 195, 217; Elliot, "Debates," iv, pp. 288,
+289, 296-299, 305, 309, 312.
+
+[117:3] Schaper, _loc. cit._, pp. 440-447 _et seq._
+
+[118:1] Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 50-52, 331; Calhoun,
+"Works," i, pp. 400-405.
+
+[118:2] "N. C. Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xvii.
+
+[118:3] See Bassett, "Regulators of N. C." in Amer. Hist. Assoc.
+"Report," 1894, pp. 141 (bibliog.) _et seq._; "N. C. Colon. Records,"
+pp. vii-x (Saunder's introductions are valuable); Caruthers, "David
+Caldwell" (Greensborough, N. C., 1842); Waddell, "Colonial Officer"
+(Raleigh, 1890); M. De L. Haywood, "Governor William Tryon" (Raleigh, N.
+C., 1903); Clewell, "Wachovia," chap. x; W. E. Fitch, "Some Neglected
+History of N. C." (N. Y., 1905); L. A. McCorkle and F. Nash, in "N. C.
+Booklet" (Raleigh, 1901-07), iii; Wheeler, "North Carolina," ii, pp. 301
+_et seq._; Cutter, "Lynch Law," chap. ii. and iii.
+
+[119:1] Bassett, _loc. cit._, p. 152.
+
+[119:2] Wheeler, "North Carolina," ii, pp. 301-306; "N. C. Colon.
+Records," vii, pp. 251, 699.
+
+[120:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," viii, p. xix.
+
+[120:2] Turner, in _Amer. Hist. Review_, i, p. 76.
+
+[120:3] "N. C. Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xxiv.
+
+[121:1] Weeks, "Church and State in North Carolina" (Baltimore, 1893);
+"N. C. Colon. Records," x, p. 870; Curry, "Establishment and
+Disestablishment" (Phila., 1889); C. F. James, "Documentary History of
+the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Virginia" (Lynchburg, Va., 1900);
+Semple, "The Virginia Baptists" (Richmond, 1810); Amer. Hist. Assoc.
+"Papers," ii, p. 21; iii, pp. 205, 213.
+
+[122:1] See Ballagh, "Slavery in Virginia," Johns Hopkins Univ.
+"Studies," extra, xxiv; Bassett, "Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of
+North Carolina," _Id._, xiv, pp. 169-254; Bassett, "Slavery in the State
+of North Carolina," _Id._, xvii; Bassett, "Antislavery Leaders in North
+Carolina," _Id._, xvi; Weeks, "Southern Quakers," _Id._, xv, extra;
+Schaper, "Sectionalism in South Carolina," Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report,"
+1900; Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 54-56, 76-78, 80, 90, 150-152.
+
+[122:2] See F. J. Turner, "State-Making in the West During the
+Revolutionary Era," in _American Historical Review_, i, p. 70.
+
+[122:3] Hening, x, p. 35; "Public Acts of N. C.," i, pp. 204, 306;
+"Revised Code of Va., 1819," ii, p. 357; Roosevelt, "Winning of the
+West," i, p. 261; ii, pp. 92, 220.
+
+[124:1] Alden, "New Governments West of the Alleghanies" (Madison,
+1897), gives an account of these colonies. [See the more recent work by
+C. W. Alvord, "The Mississippi Valley in British Politics, 1763-1774"
+(1917).]
+
+[124:2] Thwaites, "Daniel Boone" (N. Y., 1902); [A. Henderson, "Conquest
+of the Old Southwest" (N. Y., 1920), brings out the important share of
+up-country men of means in promoting colonization].
+
+[125:1] Turner, in "Alumni Quarterly of the University of Illinois," ii,
+133-136.
+
+[125:2] [It has seemed best in this volume not to attempt to deal with
+the French frontier or the Spanish-American frontier. Besides the works
+of Parkman, a multitude of monographs have appeared in recent years
+which set the French frontier in new light; and for the Spanish frontier
+in both the Southwest and California much new information has been
+secured, and illuminating interpretations made by Professors H. E.
+Bolton, I. J. Cox, Chapman, Father Engelhart, and other California and
+Texas investigators, although the works of Hubert Howe Bancroft remain a
+useful mine of material. There was, of course, a contemporaneous Old
+West on both the French and the Spanish frontiers. The formation,
+approach and ultimate collision and intermingling of these contrasting
+types of frontiers are worthy of a special study.]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE MIDDLE WEST[126:1]
+
+
+American sectional nomenclature is still confused. Once "the West"
+described the whole region beyond the Alleghanies; but the term has
+hopelessly lost its definiteness. The rapidity of the spread of
+settlement has broken down old usage, and as yet no substitute has been
+generally accepted. The "Middle West" is a term variously used by the
+public, but for the purpose of the present paper, it will be applied to
+that region of the United States included in the census reports under
+the name of the North Central division, comprising the States of Ohio,
+Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin (the old "Territory Northwest
+of the River Ohio"), and their trans-Mississippi sisters of the
+Louisiana Purchase,--Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, North
+Dakota, and South Dakota. It is an imperial domain. If the greater
+countries of Central Europe,--France, Germany, Italy, and
+Austro-Hungary,--were laid down upon this area, the Middle West would
+still show a margin of spare territory. Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and
+Buffalo constitute its gateways to the Eastern States; Kansas City,
+Omaha, St. Paul-Minneapolis, and Duluth-Superior dominate its western
+areas; Cincinnati and St. Louis stand on its southern borders; and
+Chicago reigns at the center. What Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and
+Baltimore are to the Atlantic seaboard these cities are to the Middle
+West. The Great Lakes and the Mississippi, with the Ohio and the
+Missouri as laterals, constitute the vast water system that binds the
+Middle West together. It is the economic and political center of the
+Republic. At one edge is the Populism of the prairies; at the other, the
+capitalism that is typified in Pittsburgh. Great as are the local
+differences within the Middle West, it possesses, in its physiography,
+in the history of its settlement, and in its economic and social life, a
+unity and interdependence which warrant a study of the area as an
+entity. Within the limits of this article, treatment of so vast a
+region, however, can at best afford no more than an outline sketch, in
+which old and well-known facts must, if possible, be so grouped as to
+explain the position of the section in American history.
+
+In spite of the difficulties of the task, there is a definite advantage
+in so large a view. By fixing our attention too exclusively upon the
+artificial boundary lines of the States, we have failed to perceive much
+that is significant in the westward development of the United States.
+For instance, our colonial system did not begin with the Spanish War;
+the United States has had a colonial history and policy from the
+beginning of the Republic; but they have been hidden under the
+phraseology of "interstate migration" and "territorial organization."
+
+The American people have occupied a spacious wilderness; vast
+physiographic provinces, each with its own peculiarities, have lain
+across the path of this migration, and each has furnished a special
+environment for economic and social transformation. It is possible to
+underestimate the importance of State lines, but if we direct our gaze
+rather to the physiographic province than to the State area, we shall be
+able to see some facts in a new light. Then it becomes clear that these
+physiographic provinces of America are in some respects comparable to
+the countries of Europe, and that each has its own history of occupation
+and development. General Francis A. Walker once remarked that "the
+course of settlement has called upon our people to occupy territory as
+extensive as Switzerland, as England, as Italy, and latterly, as France
+or Germany, every ten years." It is this element of vastness in the
+achievements of American democracy that gives a peculiar interest to the
+conquest and development of the Middle West. The effects of this
+conquest and development upon the present United States have been of
+fundamental importance.
+
+Geographically the Middle West is almost conterminous with the Provinces
+of the Lake and Prairie Plains; but the larger share of Kansas and
+Nebraska, and the western part of the two Dakotas belong to the Great
+Plains; the Ozark Mountains occupy a portion of Missouri, and the
+southern parts of Ohio and Indiana merge into the Alleghany Plateau. The
+relation of the Provinces of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the rest of
+the United States is an important element in the significance of the
+Middle West. On the north lies the similar region of Canada: the Great
+Lakes are in the center of the whole eastern and more thickly settled
+half of North America, and they bind the Canadian and Middle Western
+people together. On the south, the provinces meet the apex of that of
+the Gulf Plains, and the Mississippi unites them. To the west, they
+merge gradually into the Great Plains; the Missouri and its tributaries
+and the Pacific railroads make for them a bond of union; another rather
+effective bond is the interdependence of the cattle of the plains and
+the corn of the prairies. To the east, the province meets the Alleghany
+and New England Plateaus, and is connected with them by the upper Ohio
+and by the line of the Erie Canal. Here the interaction of industrial
+life and the historical facts of settlement have produced a close
+relationship. The intimate connection between the larger part of the
+North Central and the North Atlantic divisions of the United States will
+impress any one who examines the industrial and social maps of the
+census atlas. By reason of these interprovincial relationships, the
+Middle West is the mediator between Canada and the United States, and
+between the concentrated wealth and manufactures of the North Atlantic
+States and the sparsely settled Western mining, cattle-raising, and
+agricultural States. It has a connection with the South that was once
+still closer, and is likely before long to reassert itself with new
+power. Within the limits of the United States, therefore, we have
+problems of interprovincial trade and commerce similar to those that
+exist between the nations of the Old World.
+
+Over most of the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains the Laurentide
+glacier spread its drift, rich in limestone and other rock powder, which
+farmers in less favored sections must purchase to replenish the soil.
+The alluvial deposit from primeval lakes contributed to fatten the soil
+of other parts of the prairies. Taken as a whole, the Prairie Plains
+surpass in fertility any other region of America or Europe, unless we
+except some territory about the Black Sea. It is a land marked out as
+the granary of the nation; but it is more than a granary. On the rocky
+shores of Lake Superior were concealed copper mines rivaled only by
+those of Montana, and iron fields which now[129:1] furnish the ore for
+the production of eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States.
+The Great Lakes afford a highway between these iron fields and the coal
+areas of the Ohio Valley. The gas and oil deposits of the Ohio Valley,
+the coal of Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, and eastern Kansas, the lead and
+zinc of the Ozark region and of the upper Mississippi Valley, and the
+gold of the black Hills,--all contribute underground wealth to the
+Middle West.
+
+The primeval American forest once spread its shade over vast portions
+of the same province. Ohio, Indiana, southern Michigan, and central
+Wisconsin were almost covered with a growth of noble deciduous trees. In
+southern Illinois, along the broad bottom lands of the Mississippi and
+the Illinois, and in southern and southwestern Missouri, similar forests
+prevailed. To the north, in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, appeared
+the somber white pine wilderness, interlaced with hard woods, which
+swept in ample zone along the Great Lakes, till the deciduous forests
+triumphed again, and, in their turn, faded into the treeless expanse of
+the prairies. In the remaining portions were openings in the midst of
+the forested area, and then the grassy ocean of prairie that rolled to
+west and northwest, until it passed beyond the line of sufficient
+rainfall for agriculture without irrigation, into the semi-arid
+stretches of the Great Plains.
+
+In the middle of the eighteenth century, the forested region of this
+province was occupied by the wigwams of many different tribes of the
+Algonquin tongue, sparsely scattered in villages along the water
+courses, warring and trading through the vast wilderness. The western
+edge of the prairie and the Great Plains were held by the Sioux, chasing
+herds of bison across these far-stretching expanses. These horsemen of
+the plains and the canoemen of the Great Lakes and the Ohio were factors
+with which civilization had to reckon, for they constituted important
+portions of perhaps the fiercest native race with which the white man
+has ever battled for new lands.
+
+The Frenchman had done but little fighting for this region. He swore
+brotherhood with its savages, traded with them, intermarried with them,
+and explored the Middle West; but he left the wilderness much as he
+found it. Some six or seven thousand French people in all, about Detroit
+and Vincennes, and in the Illinois country, and scattered among the
+Indian villages of the remote lakes and streams, held possession when
+George Washington reached the site of Pittsburgh, bearing Virginia's
+summons of eviction to France. In his person fate knocked at the portals
+of a "rising empire." France hurried her commanders and garrisons, with
+Indian allies, from the posts about the Great Lakes and the upper
+Mississippi; but it was in vain. In vain, too, the aftermath of
+Pontiac's widespread Indian uprising against the English occupation.
+When she came into possession of the lands between the Ohio, the
+Mississippi, and the Great Lakes, England organized them as a part of
+the Province of Quebec. The daring conquest of George Rogers Clark left
+Virginia in military possession of the Illinois country at the
+conclusion of the Revolutionary War; but over all the remainder of the
+Old Northwest, England was in control. Although she ceded the region by
+the treaty which closed the Revolution, she remained for many years the
+mistress of the Indians and the fur trade. When Lord Shelburne was
+upbraided in parliament for yielding the Northwest to the United States,
+the complaint was that he had clothed the Americans "in the warm
+covering of our fur trade," and his defense was that the peltry trade of
+the ceded tract was not sufficiently profitable to warrant further war.
+But the English government became convinced that the Indian trade
+demanded the retention of the Northwest, and she did in fact hold her
+posts there in spite of the treaty of peace. Dundas, the English
+secretary for the colonies, expressed the policy, when he declared, in
+1792, that the object was to interpose an Indian barrier between Canada
+and the United States; and in pursuance of this policy of preserving the
+Northwest as an Indian buffer State, the Canadian authorities supported
+the Indians in their resistance to American settlement beyond the Ohio.
+The conception of the Northwest as an Indian reserve strikingly exhibits
+England's inability to foresee the future of the region, and to measure
+the forces of American expansion.
+
+By the cessions of Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut,
+the Old Congress had come into nominal possession of an extensive public
+domain, and a field for the exercise of national authority. The
+significance of this fact in the development of national power is not
+likely to be overestimated. The first result was the completion of the
+Ordinance of 1787, which provided a territorial government for the Old
+Northwest, with provisions for the admission of States into the Union.
+This federal colonial system guaranteed that the new national
+possessions should not be governed as dependent provinces, but should
+enter as a group of sister States into the federation.[132:1] While the
+importance of the article excluding slavery has often been pointed out,
+it is probable that the provisions for a federal colonial organization
+have been at least equally potential in our actual development. The full
+significance of this feature of the Ordinance is only appreciated when
+we consider its continuous influence upon the American territorial and
+State policy in the westward expansion to the Pacific, and the political
+preconceptions with which Americans approach the problems of government
+in the new insular possessions. The Land Ordinance of 1785 is also
+worthy of attention in this connection, for under its provisions almost
+all of the Middle West has been divided by the government surveyor into
+rectangles of sections and townships, by whose lines the settler has
+been able easily and certainly to locate his farm, and the forester his
+"forty." In the local organization of the Middle West these lines have
+played an important part.
+
+It would be impossible within the limits of this paper to detail the
+history of the occupation of the Middle West; but the larger aspects of
+the flow of population into the region may be sketched. Massachusetts
+men had formed the Ohio Company, and had been influential in shaping the
+liberal provisions of the Ordinance. Their land purchase, paid for in
+soldiers' certificates, embraced an area larger than the State of Rhode
+Island. At Marietta in 1788, under the shelter of Fort Harmar, their
+bullet-proof barge landed the first New England colony. A New Jersey
+colony was planted soon after at Cincinnati in the Symmes Purchase. Thus
+American civilization crossed the Ohio. The French settlements at
+Detroit and in Indiana and Illinois belonged to other times and had
+their own ideals; but with the entrance of the American pioneer into the
+forest of the Middle West, a new era began. The Indians, with the moral
+support of England, resisted the invasion, and an Indian war followed.
+The conquest of Wayne, in 1795, pushed back the Indians to the
+Greenville line, extending irregularly across the State of Ohio from the
+site of Cleveland to Fort Recovery in the middle point of her present
+western boundary, and secured certain areas in Indiana. In the same
+period Jay's treaty provided for the withdrawal of the British posts.
+After this extension of the area open to the pioneer, new settlements
+were rapidly formed. Connecticut disposed of her reserved land about
+Lake Erie to companies, and in 1796 General Moses Cleaveland led the way
+to the site of the city that bears his name. This was the beginning of
+the occupation of the Western Reserve, a district about as large as the
+parent State of Connecticut, a New England colony in the Middle West,
+which has maintained, even to the present time, the impress of New
+England traits. Virginia and Kentucky settlers sought the Virginia
+Military Bounty Lands, and the foundation of Chillicothe here, in 1796,
+afforded a center for Southern settlement. The region is a modified
+extension of the limestone area of Kentucky, and naturally attracted the
+emigrants from the Blue Grass State. Ohio's history is deeply marked by
+the interaction of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies within
+her borders.
+
+By the opening of the nineteenth century, when Napoleon's cession
+brought to the United States the vast spaces of the Louisiana Purchase
+beyond the Mississippi, the pioneers had hardly more than entered the
+outskirts of the forest along the Ohio and Lake Erie. But by 1810 the
+government had extinguished the Indian title to the unsecured portions
+of the Western Reserve, and to great tracts of Indiana, along the Ohio
+and up the Wabash Valley; thus protecting the Ohio highway from the
+Indians, and opening new lands to settlement. The embargo had destroyed
+the trade of New England, and had weighted down her citizens with debt
+and taxation; caravans of Yankee emigrant wagons, precursors of the
+"prairie schooner," had already begun to cross Pennsylvania on their way
+to Ohio; and they now greatly increased in number. North Carolina back
+countrymen flocked to the Indiana settlements, giving the peculiar
+Hoosier flavor to the State, and other Southerners followed,
+outnumbering the Northern immigrants, who sought the eastern edge of
+Indiana.
+
+Tecumthe, rendered desperate by the advance into his hunting grounds,
+took up the hatchet, made wide-reaching alliances among the Indians, and
+turned to England for protection. The Indian war merged into the War of
+1812, and the settlers strove in vain to add Canadian lands to their
+empire. In the diplomatic negotiations that followed the war, England
+made another attempt to erect the Old Northwest beyond the Greenville
+line into a permanent Indian barrier between Canada and the United
+States; but the demand was refused, and by the treaties of 1818, the
+Indians were pressed still farther north. In the meantime, Indian
+treaties had released additional land in southern Illinois, and pioneers
+were widening the bounds of the old French settlements. Avoiding the
+rich savannas of the prairie regions, as devoid of wood, remote from
+transportation facilities, and suited only to grazing, they entered the
+hard woods--and in the early twenties they were advancing in a
+wedge-shaped column up the Illinois Valley.
+
+The Southern element constituted the main portion of this phalanx of
+ax-bearers. Abraham Lincoln's father joined the throng of Kentuckians
+that entered the Indiana woods in 1816, and the boy, when he had learned
+to hew out a forest home, betook himself, in 1830, to Sangamon county,
+Illinois. He represents the pioneer of the period; but his ax sank
+deeper than other men's, and the plaster cast of his great sinewy hand,
+at Washington, embodies the training of these frontier railsplitters, in
+the days when Fort Dearborn, on the site of Chicago, was but a military
+outpost in a desolate country. While the hard woods of Illinois were
+being entered, the pioneer movement passed also into the Missouri
+Valley. The French lead miners had already opened the southeastern
+section, and Southern mountaineers had pushed up the Missouri; but now
+the planters from the Ohio Valley and the upper Tennessee followed,
+seeking the alluvial soils for slave labor. Moving across the southern
+border of free Illinois, they had awakened regrets in that State at the
+loss of so large a body of settlers.
+
+Looking at the Middle West, as a whole, in the decade from 1810 to 1820,
+we perceive that settlement extended from the shores of Lake Erie in an
+arc, following the banks of the Ohio till it joined the Mississippi, and
+thence along that river and up the Missouri well into the center of the
+State. The next decade was marked by the increased use of the steamboat;
+pioneers pressed farther up the streams, etching out the hard wood
+forests well up to the prairie lands, and forming additional tracts of
+settlement in the region tributary to Detroit and in the southeastern
+part of Michigan. In the area of the Galena lead mines of northwestern
+Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, and northeastern Iowa, Southerners had
+already begun operations; and if we except Ohio and Michigan, the
+dominant element in all this overflow of settlement into the Middle West
+was Southern, particularly from Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina.
+The settlements were still dependent on the rivers for transportation,
+and the areas between the rivers were but lightly occupied. The
+Mississippi constituted the principal outlet for the products of the
+Middle West; Pittsburgh furnished most of the supplies for the region,
+but New Orleans received its crops. The Old National road was built
+piecemeal, and too late, as a whole, to make a great artery of trade
+throughout the Middle West, in this early period; but it marked the
+northern borders of the Southern stream of population, running, as this
+did, through Columbus, Indianapolis, and Vandalia.
+
+The twenty years from 1830 to 1850 saw great changes in the composition
+of the population of the Middle West. The opening of the Erie Canal in
+1825 was an epoch-making event. It furnished a new outlet and inlet for
+northwestern traffic; Buffalo began to grow, and New York City changed
+from a local market to a great commercial center. But even more
+important was the place which the canal occupied as the highway for a
+new migration.
+
+In the march of the New England people from the coast, three movements
+are of especial importance: the advance from the seaboard up the
+Connecticut and Housatonic Valleys through Massachusetts and into
+Vermont; the advance thence to central and western New York; and the
+advance to the interior of the Old Northwest. The second of these stages
+occupied the generation from about 1790 to 1820; after that the second
+generation was ready to seek new lands; and these the Erie Canal and
+lake navigation opened to them, and to the Vermonters and other
+adventurous spirits of New England. It was this combined New York-New
+England stream that in the thirties poured in large volume into the zone
+north of the settlements which have been described. The newcomers filled
+in the southern counties of Michigan and Wisconsin, the northern
+countries of Illinois, and parts of the northern and central areas of
+Indiana. Pennsylvania and Ohio sent a similar type of people to the area
+adjacent to those States. In Iowa a stream combined of the Southern
+element and of these settlers sought the wooded tributaries of the
+Mississippi in the southeastern part of the State. In default of legal
+authority, in this early period, they formed squatter governments and
+land associations, comparable to the action of the Massachusetts men who
+in the first quarter of the seventeenth century "squatted" in the
+Connecticut Valley.
+
+A great forward movement had occurred, which took possession of oak
+openings and prairies, gave birth to the cities of Chicago, Milwaukee,
+St. Paul, and Minneapolis, as well as to a multitude of lesser cities,
+and replaced the dominance of the Southern element by that of a modified
+Puritan stock. The railroad system of the early fifties bound the
+Mississippi to the North Atlantic seaboard; New Orleans gave way to New
+York as the outlet for the Middle West, and the day of river settlement
+was succeeded by the era of inter-river settlement and railway
+transportation. The change in the political and social ideals was at
+least equal to the change in economic connections, and together these
+forces made an intimate organic union between New England, New York, and
+the newly settled West. In estimating the New England influence in the
+Middle West, it must not be forgotten that the New York settlers were
+mainly New Englanders of a later generation.
+
+Combined with the streams from the East came the German migration into
+the Middle West. Over half a million, mainly from the Palatinate,
+Würtemberg, and the adjacent regions, sought America between 1830 and
+1850, and nearly a million more Germans came in the next decade. The
+larger portion of these went into the Middle West; they became pioneers
+in the newer parts of Ohio, especially along the central ridge, and in
+Cincinnati; they took up the hardwood lands of the Wisconsin counties
+along Lake Michigan; and they came in important numbers to Missouri,
+Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, and to the river towns of Iowa. The
+migration in the thirties and forties contained an exceptionally large
+proportion of educated and forceful leaders, men who had struggled in
+vain for the ideal of a liberal German nation, and who contributed
+important intellectual forces to the communities in which they settled.
+The Germans, as a whole, furnished a conservative and thrifty
+agricultural element to the Middle West. In some of their social ideals
+they came into collision with the Puritan element from New England, and
+the outcome of the steady contest has been a compromise. Of all the
+States, Wisconsin has been most deeply influenced by the Germans.
+
+By the later fifties, therefore, the control of the Middle West had
+passed to its Northern zone of population, and this zone included
+representatives of the Middle States, New England, and Germany as its
+principal elements. The Southern people, north of the Ohio, differed in
+important respects from the Southerners across the river. They had
+sprung largely from the humbler classes of the South, although there
+were important exceptions. The early pioneer life, however, was
+ill-suited to the great plantations, and slavery was excluded under the
+Ordinance. Thus this Southern zone of the Middle West, particularly in
+Indiana and Illinois, constituted a mediating section between the South
+and the North. The Mississippi still acted as a bond of union, and up to
+the close of the War of 1812 the Valley, north and south, had been
+fundamentally of the same social organization. In order to understand
+what follows, we must bear in mind the outlines of the occupation of the
+Gulf Plains. While settlement had been crossing the Ohio to the
+Northwest, the spread of cotton culture and negro slavery into the
+Southwest had been equally significant. What the New England States and
+New York were in the occupation of the Middle West, Virginia, the
+Carolinas, and Georgia were in the occupation of the Gulf States. But,
+as in the case of the Northwest, a modification of the original stock
+occurred in the new environment. A greater energy and initiative
+appeared in the new Southern lands; the pioneer's devotion to exploiting
+the territory in which he was placed transferred slavery from the
+patriarchal to the commercial basis. The same expansive tendency seen in
+the Northwest revealed itself, with a belligerent seasoning, in the Gulf
+States. They had a program of action. Abraham Lincoln migrated from
+Kentucky to Indiana and to Illinois. Jefferson Davis moved from Kentucky
+to Louisiana, and thence to Mississippi, in the same period. Starting
+from the same locality, each represented the divergent flow of streams
+of settlement into contrasted environments. The result of these
+antagonistic streams of migration to the West was a struggle between the
+Lake and Prairie plainsmen, on the one side, and the Gulf plainsmen, on
+the other, for the possession of the Mississippi Valley. It was the
+crucial part of the struggle between the Northern and Southern sections
+of the nation. What gave slavery and State sovereignty their power as
+issues was the fact that they involved the question of dominance over
+common territory in an expanding nation. The place of the Middle West in
+the origin and settlement of the great slavery struggle is of the
+highest significance.
+
+In the early history of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, a modified form of
+slavery existed under a system of indenture of the colored servant; and
+the effort of Southern settlers in Indiana and in Illinois to
+reintroduce slavery are indicative of the importance of the pro-slavery
+element in the Northwest. But the most significant early manifestation
+of the rival currents of migration with respect to slavery is seen in
+the contest which culminated in the Missouri Compromise. The historical
+obstacle of the Ordinance, as well as natural conditions, gave an
+advantage to the anti-slavery settlers northwest of the Ohio; but when
+the Mississippi was crossed, and the rival streams of settlement mingled
+in the area of the Louisiana Purchase, the struggle followed. It was an
+Illinois man, with constituents in both currents of settlement, who
+introduced the Missouri Compromise, which made a _modus vivendi_ for the
+Middle West, until the Compromise of 1850 gave to Senator Douglas of
+Illinois, in 1854, the opportunity to reopen the issue by his
+Kansas-Nebraska bill. In his doctrine of "squatter-sovereignty," or the
+right of the territories to determine the question of slavery within
+their bounds, Douglas utilized a favorite Western political idea, one
+which Cass of Michigan had promulgated before. Douglas set the love of
+the Middle West for local self-government against its preponderant
+antipathy to the spread of slavery. At the same time he brought to the
+support of the doctrine the Democratic party, which ever since the days
+of Andrew Jackson had voiced the love of the frontier for individualism
+and for popular power. In his "Young America" doctrines Douglas had also
+made himself the spokesman of Western expansive tendencies. He thus
+found important sources of popular support when he invoked the localism
+of his section. Western appeals to Congress for aid in internal
+improvements, protective tariffs, and land grants had been indications
+of nationalism. The doctrine of squatter-sovereignty itself catered to
+the love of national union by presenting the appearance of a
+non-sectional compromise, which should allow the new areas of the Middle
+West to determine their own institutions. But the Free Soil party,
+strongest in the regions occupied by the New York-New England colonists,
+and having for its program national prohibition of the spread of slavery
+into the territories, had already found in the Middle West an important
+center of power. The strength of the movement far surpassed the actual
+voting power of the Free Soil party, for it compelled both Whigs and
+Democrats to propose fusion on the basis of concession to Free Soil
+doctrines. The New England settlers and the western New York
+settlers,--the children of New England,--were keenly alive to the
+importance of the issue. Indeed, Seward, in an address at Madison,
+Wisconsin, in 1860, declared that the Northwest, in reality, extended to
+the base of the Alleghanies, and that the new States had "matured just
+in the critical moment to rally the free States of the Atlantic coast,
+to call them back to their ancient principles."
+
+These Free Soil forces and the nationalistic tendencies of the Middle
+West proved too strong for the opposing doctrines when the real struggle
+came. Calhoun and Taney shaped the issue so logically that the Middle
+West saw that the contest was not only a war for the preservation of the
+Union, but also a war for the possession of the unoccupied West, a
+struggle between the Middle West and the States of the Gulf Plains. The
+economic life of the Middle West had been bound by the railroad to the
+North Atlantic, and its interests, as well as its love of national
+unity, made it in every way hostile to secession. When Dr. Cutler had
+urged the desires of the Ohio Company upon Congress, in 1787, he had
+promised to plant in the Ohio Valley a colony that would stand for the
+Union. Vinton of Ohio, in arguing for the admission of Iowa, urged the
+position of the Middle West as the great unifying section of the
+country: "Disunion," he said, "is ruin to them. They have no
+alternative but to resist it whenever or wherever attempted. . . .
+Massachusetts and South Carolina might, for aught I know, find a
+dividing line that would be mutually satisfactory to them; but, Sir,
+they can find no such line to which the western country can assent." But
+it was Abraham Lincoln who stated the issue with the greatest precision,
+and who voiced most clearly the nationalism of the Middle West, when he
+declared, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this
+government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free."
+
+So it was that when the civil war in Kansas grew into the Civil War in
+the Union, after Lincoln's election to the presidency, the Middle West,
+dominated by its combined Puritan and German population, ceased to
+compromise, and turned the scale in favor of the North. The Middle West
+furnished more than one-third of the Union troops. The names of Grant
+and Sherman are sufficient testimony to her leadership in the field. The
+names of Lincoln and Chase show that the presidential, the financial,
+and the war powers were in the hands of the Middle West. If we were to
+accept Seward's own classification, the conduct of foreign affairs as
+well belonged to the same section; it was, at least, in the hands of
+representatives of the dominant forces of the section. The Middle West,
+led by Grant and Sherman, hewed its way down the Mississippi and across
+the Gulf States, and Lincoln could exult in 1863, "The Father of Waters
+again goes unvexed to the sea. Thanks to the great Northwest for it, nor
+yet wholly to them."
+
+In thus outlining the relations of the Middle West to the slavery
+struggle, we have passed over important extensions of settlement in the
+decade before the war. In these years, not only did the density of
+settlement increase in the older portions of the region, but new waves
+of colonization passed into the remoter prairies. Iowa's pioneers,
+after Indian cessions had been secured, spread well toward her western
+limits. Minnesota, also, was recruited by a column of pioneers. The
+treaty of Traverse de Sioux, in 1851, opened over twenty million acres
+of arable land in that State, and Minnesota increased her population
+2730.7 per cent in the decade from 1850 to 1860.
+
+Up to this decade the pine belt of the Middle West, in northern
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota had been the field of operations of
+Indian traders. At first under English companies, and afterward under
+Astor's American Fur Company, the traders with their French and
+half-breed boatmen skirted the Great Lakes and followed the rivers into
+the forests, where they stationed their posts and spread goods and
+whiskey among the Indians. Their posts were centers of disintegration
+among the savages. The new wants and the demoralization which resulted
+from the Indian trade facilitated the purchases of their lands by the
+federal government. The trader was followed by the seeker for the best
+pine land "forties"; and by the time of the Civil War the exploitation
+of the pine belt had fairly begun. The Irish and Canadian choppers,
+followed by the Scandinavians, joined the forest men, and log drives
+succeeded the trading canoe. Men from the pine woods of Maine and
+Vermont directed the industry, and became magnates in the mill towns
+that grew up in the forests,--millionaires, and afterwards political
+leaders. In the prairie country of the Middle West, the Indian trade
+that centered at St. Louis had been important ever since 1820, with an
+influence upon the Indians of the plains similar to the influence of the
+northern fur trade upon the Indians of the forest. By 1840 the removal
+policy had effected the transfer of most of the eastern tribes to lands
+across the Mississippi. Tribal names that formerly belonged to Ohio and
+the rest of the Old Northwest were found on the map of the Kansas
+Valley. The Platte country belonged to the Pawnee and their neighbors,
+and to the north along the Upper Missouri were the Sioux, or Dakota,
+Crow, Cheyenne, and other horse Indians, following the vast herds of
+buffalo that grazed on the Great Plains. The discovery of California
+gold and the opening of the Oregon country, in the middle of the
+century, made it necessary to secure a road through the Indian lands for
+the procession of pioneers that crossed the prairies to the Pacific. The
+organization of Kansas and Nebraska, in 1854, was the first step in the
+withdrawal of these territories from the Indians. A period of almost
+constant Indian hostility followed, for the savage lords of the
+boundless prairies instinctively felt the significance of the entrance
+of the farmer into their empire. In Minnesota the Sioux took advantage
+of the Civil War to rise; but the outcome was the destruction of their
+reservations in that State, and the opening of great tracts to the
+pioneers. When the Pacific railways were begun, Red Cloud, the astute
+Sioux chief, who, in some ways, stands as the successor of Pontiac and
+of Tecumthe, rallied the principal tribes of the Great Plains to resist
+the march of civilization. Their hostility resulted in the peace measure
+of 1867 and 1868, which assigned to the Sioux and their allies
+reservations embracing the major portion of Dakota territory, west of
+the Missouri River. The systematic slaughter of millions of buffalo, in
+the years between 1866 and 1873, for the sake of their hides, put an end
+to the vast herds of the Great Plains, and destroyed the economic
+foundation of the Indians. Henceforth they were dependent on the whites
+for their food supply, and the Great Plains were open to the cattle
+ranchers.
+
+In a preface written in 1872 for a new edition of "The Oregon Trail,"
+which had appeared in 1847, Francis Parkman said, "The wild cavalcade
+that defiled with me down the gorges of the Black Hills, with its paint
+and war plumes, fluttering trophies and savage embroidery, bows, arrows,
+lances, and shields, will never be seen again." The prairies were ready
+for the final rush of occupation. The homestead law of 1862, passed in
+the midst of the war, did not reveal its full importance as an element
+in the settlement of the Middle West until after peace. It began to
+operate most actively, contemporaneously with the development of the
+several railways to the Pacific, in the two decades from 1870 to 1890,
+and in connection with the marketing of the railroad land grants. The
+outcome was an epoch-making extension of population.
+
+Before 1870 the vast and fertile valley of the Red River, once the level
+bed of an ancient lake, occupying the region where North Dakota and
+Minnesota meet, was almost virgin soil. But in 1875 the great Dalrymple
+farm showed its advantages for wheat raising, and a tide of farm seekers
+turned to the region. The "Jim River" Valley of South Dakota attracted
+still other settlers. The Northern Pacific and the Great Northern
+Railway thrust out laterals into these Minnesota and Dakota wheat areas
+from which to draw the nourishment for their daring passage to the
+Pacific. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Chicago and
+Northwestern Railway, Burlington, and other roads, gridironed the
+region; and the unoccupied lands of the Middle West were taken up by a
+migration that in its system and scale is unprecedented. The railroads
+sent their agents and their literature everywhere, "booming" the "Golden
+West"; the opportunity for economic and political fortunes in such
+rapidly growing communities attracted multitudes of Americans whom the
+cheap land alone would not have tempted. In 1870 the Dakotas had 14,000
+settlers; in 1890 they had over 510,000. Nebraska's population was
+28,000 in 1860; 123,000 in 1870; 452,000 in 1880; and 1,059,000 in
+1890. Kansas had 107,000 in 1860; 364,000 in 1870; 996,000 in 1880; and
+1,427,000 in 1890. Wisconsin and New York gave the largest fractions of
+the native element to Minnesota; Illinois and Ohio together sent perhaps
+one-third of the native element of Kansas and Nebraska, but the Missouri
+and Southern settlers were strongly represented in Kansas; Wisconsin,
+New York, Minnesota, and Iowa gave North Dakota the most of her native
+settlers; and Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York did the same for
+South Dakota.
+
+Railroads and steamships organized foreign immigration on scale and
+system never before equaled; a high-water mark of American immigration
+came in the early eighties. Germans and Scandinavians were rushed by
+emigrant trains out to the prairies, to fill the remaining spaces in the
+older States of the Middle West. The census of 1890 showed in Minnesota
+373,000 persons of Scandinavian parentage, and out of the total million
+and one-half persons of Scandinavian parentage in the United States, the
+Middle West received all but about three hundred thousand. The persons
+of German parentage in the Middle West numbered over four millions out
+of a total of less than seven millions in the whole country. The
+province had, in 1890, a smaller proportion of persons of foreign
+parentage than had the North Atlantic division, but the proportions
+varied greatly in the different States. Indiana had the lowest
+percentage, 20.38; and, rising in the scale, Missouri had 24.94; Kansas
+26.75; Ohio 33.93; Nebraska 42.45; Iowa 43.57; Illinois 49.01; Michigan
+54.58; Wisconsin 73.65; Minnesota 75.37; and North Dakota 78.87.
+
+What these statistics of settlement mean when translated into the
+pioneer life of the prairie, cannot be told here. There were sharp
+contrasts with the pioneer life of the Old Northwest; for the forest
+shade, there was substituted the boundless prairie; the sod house for
+the log hut; the continental railway for the old National Turnpike and
+the Erie Canal. Life moved faster, in larger masses, and with greater
+momentum in this pioneer movement. The horizon line was more remote.
+Things were done in the gross. The transcontinental railroad, the
+bonanza farm, the steam plow, harvester, and thresher, the "league-long
+furrow," and the vast cattle ranches, all suggested spacious combination
+and systematization of industry. The largest hopes were excited by these
+conquests of the prairie. The occupation of western Kansas may
+illustrate the movement which went on also in the west of Nebraska and
+the Dakotas. The pioneer farmer tried to push into the region with the
+old methods of settlement. Deceived by rainy seasons and the railroad
+advertisements, and recklessly optimistic, hosts of settlers poured out
+into the plains beyond the region of sufficient rainfall for successful
+agriculture without irrigation. Dry seasons starved them back; but a
+repetition of good rainfalls again aroused the determination to occupy
+the western plains. Boom towns flourished like prairie weeds; Eastern
+capital struggled for a chance to share in the venture, and the Kansas
+farmers eagerly mortgaged their possessions to secure the capital so
+freely offered for their attack on the arid lands. By 1887 the tide of
+the pioneer farmers had flowed across the semi-arid plains to the
+western boundary of the State. But it was a hopeless effort to conquer a
+new province by the forces that had won the prairies. The wave of
+settlement dashed itself in vain against the conditions of the Great
+Plains. The native American farmer had received his first defeat; farm
+products at the same period had depreciated, and he turned to the
+national government for reinforcements.
+
+The Populistic movement of the western half of the Middle West is a
+complex of many forces. In some respects it is the latest manifestation
+of the same forces that brought on the crisis of 1837 in the earlier
+region of pioneer exploitation. That era of over-confidence, reckless
+internal improvements, and land purchases by borrowed capital, brought a
+reaction when it became apparent that the future had been
+over-discounted. But, in that time, there were the farther free lands to
+which the ruined pioneer could turn. The demand for an expansion of the
+currency has marked each area of Western advance. The greenback movement
+of Ohio and the eastern part of the Middle West grew into the fiat
+money, free silver, and land bank propositions of the Populists across
+the Mississippi. Efforts for cheaper transportation also appear in each
+stage of Western advance. When the pioneer left the rivers and had to
+haul his crops by wagon to a market, the transportation factor
+determined both his profits and the extension of settlement. Demands for
+national aid to roads and canals had marked the pioneer advance of the
+first third of the century. The "Granger" attacks upon the railway
+rates, and in favor of governmental regulation, marked a second advance
+of Western settlement. The Farmers' Alliance and the Populist demand for
+government ownership of the railroad is a phase of the same effort of
+the pioneer farmer, on his latest frontier. The proposals have taken
+increasing proportions in each region of Western Advance. Taken as a
+whole, Populism is a manifestation of the old pioneer ideals of the
+native American, with the added element of increasing readiness to
+utilize the national government to effect its ends. This is not
+unnatural in a section whose lands were originally purchased by the
+government and given away to its settlers by the same authority, whose
+railroads were built largely by federal land grants, and whose
+settlements were protected by the United States army and governed by the
+national authority until they were carved into rectangular States and
+admitted into the Union. Its native settlers were drawn from many
+States, many of them former soldiers of the Civil War, who mingled in
+new lands with foreign immigrants accustomed to the vigorous authority
+of European national governments.
+
+But these old ideals of the American pioneer, phrased in the new
+language of national power, did not meet with the assent of the East.
+Even in the Middle West a change of deepest import had been in progress
+during these years of prairie settlement. The agricultural preponderance
+of the country has passed to the prairies, and manufacturing has
+developed in the areas once devoted to pioneer farming. In the decade
+prior to the Civil War, the area of greatest wheat production passed
+from Ohio and the States to the east, into Illinois, Indiana, and
+Wisconsin; after 1880, the center of wheat growing moved across the
+Mississippi; and in 1890 the new settlements produced half the crop of
+the United States. The corn area shows a similar migration. In 1840 the
+Southern States produced half the crop, and the Middle West one-fifth;
+by 1860 the situation was reversed and in 1890 nearly one-half the corn
+of the Union came from beyond the Mississippi. Thus the settlers of the
+Old Northwest and their crops have moved together across the
+Mississippi, and in the regions whence they migrated varied agriculture
+and manufacture have sprung up.
+
+As these movements in population and products have passed across the
+Middle West, and as the economic life of the eastern border has been
+intensified, a huge industrial organism has been created in the
+province,--an organism of tremendous power, activity, and unity.
+Fundamentally the Middle West is an agricultural area unequaled for its
+combination of space, variety, productiveness, and freedom from
+interruption by deserts or mountains. The huge water system of the Great
+Lakes has become the highway of a mighty commerce. The Sault Ste. Marie
+Canal, although open but two-thirds of the year, is the channel of a
+traffic of greater tonnage than that which passes through the Suez
+Canal, and nearly all this commerce moves almost the whole length of the
+Great Lakes system; the chief ports being Duluth, Chicago, Detroit,
+Cleveland, and Buffalo. The transportation facilities of the Great Lakes
+were revolutionized after 1886, to supply the needs of commerce between
+the East and the newly developed lands of the Middle West; the tonnage
+doubled; wooden ships gave way to steel; sailing vessels yielded to
+steam; and huge docks, derricks, and elevators, triumphs of mechanical
+skill, were constructed. A competent investigator has lately declared
+that "there is probably in the world to-day no place at tide water where
+ship plates can be laid down for a less price than they can be
+manufactured or purchased at the lake ports."
+
+This rapid rise of the merchant marine of our inland seas has led to the
+demand for deep water canals to connect them with the ocean road to
+Europe. When the fleets of the Great Lakes plow the Atlantic, and when
+Duluth and Chicago become seaports, the water transportation of the
+Middle West will have completed its evolution. The significance of the
+development of the railway systems is not inferior to that of the great
+water way. Chicago has become the greatest railroad center of the world,
+nor is there another area of like size which equals this in its railroad
+facilities; all the forces of the nation intersect here. Improved
+terminals, steel rails, better rolling stock, and consolidation of
+railway systems have accompanied the advance of the people of the Middle
+West.
+
+This unparalleled development of transportation facilities measures the
+magnitude of the material development of the province. Its wheat and
+corn surplus supplies the deficit of the rest of the United States and
+much of that of Europe. Such is the agricultural condition of the
+province of which Monroe wrote to Jefferson, in 1786, in these words: "A
+great part of the territory is miserably poor, especially that near
+Lakes Michigan and Erie, and that upon the Mississippi and the Illinois
+consists of extensive plains which have not had, from appearances, and
+will not have, a single bush on them for ages. The districts, therefore,
+within which these fall will never contain a sufficient number of
+inhabitants to entitle them to membership in the confederacy."
+
+Minneapolis and Duluth receive the spring wheat of the northern
+prairies, and after manufacturing great portions of it into flour,
+transmit it to Buffalo, the eastern cities, and to Europe. Chicago is
+still the great city of the corn belt, but its power as a milling and
+wheat center has been passing to the cities that receive tribute from
+the northern prairies. It lies in the region of winter wheat, corn,
+oats, and live stock. Kansas City, St. Louis, and Cincinnati are the
+sister cities of this zone, which reaches into the grazing country of
+the Great Plains. The meeting point of corn and cattle has led to the
+development of the packing industries,--large business systems that send
+the beef and pork of the region to supply the East and parts of Europe.
+The "feeding system" adopted in Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa, whereby the
+stock is fattened from the surplus corn of the region, constitutes a
+species of varied farming that has saved these States from the disasters
+of the failure of a single industry, and has been one solution of the
+economic life of the transition belt between the prairies and the Great
+Plains. Under a more complex agriculture, better adapted to the various
+sections of the State, and with better crops, Kansas has become more
+prosperous and less a center of political discontent.
+
+While this development of the agricultural interests of the Middle West
+has been in progress, the exploitation of the pine woods of the north
+has furnished another contribution to the commerce of the province. The
+center of activity has migrated from Michigan to Minnesota, and the
+lumber traffic furnishes one of the principal contributions to the
+vessels that ply the Great Lakes and supply the tributary mills. As the
+white pine vanishes before the organized forces of exploitation, the
+remaining hard woods serve to establish factories in the former mill
+towns. The more fertile denuded lands of the north are now receiving
+settlers who repeat the old pioneer life among the stumps.
+
+But the most striking development in the industrial history of the
+Middle West in recent years has been due to the opening up of the iron
+mines of Lake Superior. Even in 1873 the Lake Superior ores furnished a
+quarter of the total production of American blast furnaces. The opening
+of the Gogebic mines in 1884, and the development of the Vermillion and
+Mesabi mines adjacent to the head of the lake, in the early nineties,
+completed the transfer of iron ore production to the Lake Superior
+region. Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin together now produce the ore
+for eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States. Four-fifths of
+this great product moves to the ports on Lake Erie and the rest to the
+manufactories at Chicago and Milwaukee. The vast steel and iron industry
+that centers at Pittsburgh and Cleveland, with important outposts like
+Chicago and Milwaukee, is the outcome of the meeting of the coal of the
+eastern and southern borders of the province and of Pennsylvania, with
+the iron ores of the north. The industry has been systematized and
+consolidated by a few captains of industry. Steam shovels dig the ore
+from many of the Mesabi mines; gravity roads carry it to the docks and
+to the ships, and huge hoisting and carrying devices, built especially
+for the traffic, unload it for the railroad and the furnace. Iron and
+coal mines, transportation fleets, railroad systems, and iron
+manufactories are concentrated in a few corporations, principally the
+United States Steel Corporation. The world has never seen such a
+consolidation of capital and so complete a systematization of economic
+processes.
+
+Such is the economic appearance of the Middle West a century after the
+pioneers left the frontier village of Pittsburgh and crossed the Ohio
+into the forests. De Tocqueville exclaimed, with reason, in 1833: "This
+gradual and continuous progress of the European race toward the Rocky
+Mountains has the solemnity of a providential event. It is like a deluge
+of men, rising unabatedly, and driven daily onward by the hand of God."
+
+The ideals of the Middle West began in the log huts set in the midst of
+the forest a century ago. While his horizon was still bounded by the
+clearing that his ax had made, the pioneer dreamed of continental
+conquests. The vastness of the wilderness kindled his imagination. His
+vision saw beyond the dank swamp at the edge of the great lake to the
+lofty buildings and the jostling multitudes of a mighty city; beyond the
+rank, grass-clad prairie to the seas of golden grain; beyond the harsh
+life of the log hut and the sod house to the home of his children, where
+should dwell comfort and the higher things of life, though they might
+not be for him. The men and women who made the Middle West were
+idealists, and they had the power of will to make their dreams come
+true. Here, also, were the pioneer's traits,--individual activity,
+inventiveness, and competition for the prizes of the rich province that
+awaited exploitation under freedom and equality of opportunity. He
+honored the man whose eye was the quickest and whose grasp was the
+strongest in this contest: it was "every one for himself."
+
+The early society of the Middle West was not a complex, highly
+differentiated and organized society. Almost every family was a
+self-sufficing unit, and liberty and equality flourished in the
+frontier periods of the Middle West as perhaps never before in history.
+American democracy came from the forest, and its destiny drove it to
+material conquests; but the materialism of the pioneer was not the dull
+contented materialism of an old and fixed society. Both native settler
+and European immigrant saw in this free and competitive movement of the
+frontier the chance to break the bondage of social rank, and to rise to
+a higher plane of existence. The pioneer was passionately desirous to
+secure for himself and for his family a favorable place in the midst of
+these large and free but vanishing opportunities. It took a century for
+this society to fit itself into the conditions of the whole province.
+Little by little, nature pressed into her mold the plastic pioneer life.
+The Middle West, yesterday a pioneer province, is to-day the field of
+industrial resources and systematization so vast that Europe, alarmed
+for her industries in competition with this new power, is discussing the
+policy of forming protective alliances among the nations of the
+continent. Into this region flowed the great forces of modern
+capitalism. Indeed, the region itself furnished favorable conditions for
+the creation of these forces, and trained many of the famous American
+industrial leaders. The Prairies, the Great Plains, and the Great Lakes
+furnished new standards of industrial measurement. From this society,
+seated amidst a wealth of material advantages, and breeding
+individualism, energetic competition, inventiveness, and spaciousness of
+design, came the triumph of the strongest. The captains of industry
+arose and seized on nature's gifts. Struggling with one another,
+increasing the scope of their ambitions as the largeness of the
+resources and the extent of the fields of activity revealed themselves,
+they were forced to accept the natural conditions of a province vast in
+area but simple in structure. Competition grew into consolidation. On
+the Pittsburgh border of the Middle West the completion of the process
+is most clearly seen. On the prairies of Kansas stands the Populist, a
+survival of the pioneer, striving to adjust present conditions to his
+old ideals.
+
+The ideals of equality, freedom of opportunity, faith in the common man
+are deep rooted in all the Middle West. The frontier stage, through
+which each portion passed, left abiding traces on the older, as well as
+on the newer, areas of the province. Nor were these ideals limited to
+the native American settlers: Germans and Scandinavians who poured into
+the Middle West sought the country with like hopes and like faith. These
+facts must be remembered in estimating the effects of the economic
+transformation of the province upon its democracy. The peculiar
+democracy of the frontier has passed away with the conditions that
+produced it; but the democratic aspirations remain. They are held with
+passionate determination.
+
+The task of the Middle West is that of adapting democracy to the vast
+economic organization of the present. This region which has so often
+needed the reminder that bigness is not greatness, may yet show that its
+training has produced the power to reconcile popular government and
+culture with the huge industrial society of the modern world. The
+democracies of the past have been small communities, under simple and
+primitive economic conditions. At bottom the problem is how to reconcile
+real greatness with bigness.
+
+It is important that the Middle West should accomplish this; the future
+of the Republic is with her. Politically she is dominant, as is
+illustrated by the fact that six out of seven of the Presidents elected
+since 1860 have come from her borders. Twenty-six million people live in
+the Middle West as against twenty-one million in New England and the
+Middle States together, and the Middle West has indefinite capacity for
+growth. The educational forces are more democratic than in the East,
+and the Middle West has twice as many students (if we count together the
+common school, secondary, and collegiate attendance), as have New
+England and the Middle States combined. Nor is this educational system,
+as a whole, inferior to that of the Eastern States. State universities
+crown the public school system in every one of these States of the
+Middle West, and rank with the universities of the seaboard, while
+private munificence has furnished others on an unexampled scale. The
+public and private art collections of Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Paul, and
+other cities rival those of the seaboard. "World's fairs," with their
+important popular educational influences, have been held at Chicago,
+Omaha, and Buffalo; and the next of these national gatherings is to be
+at St. Louis. There is throughout the Middle West a vigor and a mental
+activity among the common people that bode well for its future. If the
+task of reducing the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the uses
+of civilization should for a time overweigh art and literature, and even
+high political and social ideals, it would not be surprising. But if the
+ideals of the pioneers shall survive the inundation of material success,
+we may expect to see in the Middle West the rise of a highly intelligent
+society where culture shall be reconciled with democracy in the large.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[126:1] With acknowledgments to the _International Monthly_, December,
+1901.
+
+[129:1] 1901.
+
+[132:1] See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the Revolutionary
+Era," in _Am. Historical Review_, i, pp. 70 _et seq._
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE OHIO VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY[157:1]
+
+
+In a notable essay Professor Josiah Royce has asserted the salutary
+influence of a highly organized provincial life in order to counteract
+certain evils arising from the tremendous development of nationalism in
+our own day. Among these evils he enumerates: first, the frequent
+changes of dwelling place, whereby the community is in danger of losing
+the well-knit organization of a common life; second, the tendency to
+reduce variety in national civilization, to assimilate all to a common
+type and thus to discourage individuality, and produce a "remorseless
+mechanism--vast, irrational;" third, the evils arising from the fact
+that waves of emotion, the passion of the mob, tend in our day to sweep
+across the nation.
+
+Against these surges of national feeling Professor Royce would erect
+dikes in the form of provincialism, the resistance of separate sections
+each with its own traditions, beliefs and aspirations. "Our national
+unities have grown so vast, our forces of social consolidation so
+paramount, the resulting problems, conflicts, evils, have become so
+intensified," he says, that we must seek in the province renewed
+strength, usefulness and beauty of American life.
+
+Whatever may be thought of this philosopher's appeal for a revival of
+sectionalism, on a higher level, in order to check the tendencies to a
+deadening uniformity of national consolidation (and to me this appeal,
+under the limitations which he gives it, seems warranted by the
+conditions)--it is certainly true that in the history of the United
+States sectionalism holds a place too little recognized by the
+historians.
+
+By sectionalism I do not mean the struggle between North and South which
+culminated in the Civil War. That extreme and tragic form of
+sectionalism indeed has almost engrossed the attention of historians,
+and it is, no doubt, the most striking and painful example of the
+phenomenon in our history. But there are older, and perhaps in the long
+run more enduring examples of the play of sectional forces than the
+slavery struggle, and there are various sections besides North and
+South.
+
+Indeed, the United States is, in size and natural resources, an empire,
+a collection of potential nations, rather than a single nation. It is
+comparable in area to Europe. If the coast of California be placed along
+the coast of Spain, Charleston, South Carolina, would fall near
+Constantinople; the northern shores of Lake Superior would touch the
+Baltic, and New Orleans would lie in southern Italy. Within this vast
+empire there are geographic provinces, separate in physical conditions,
+into which American colonization has flowed, and in each of which a
+special society has developed, with an economic, political and social
+life of its own. Each of these provinces, or sections, has developed its
+own leaders, who in the public life of the nation have voiced the needs
+of their section, contended with the representatives of other sections,
+and arranged compromises between sections in national legislation and
+policy, almost as ambassadors from separate countries in a European
+congress might make treaties.
+
+Between these sections commercial relations have sprung up, and economic
+combinations and contests may be traced by the student who looks beneath
+the surface of our national life to the actual grouping of States in
+congressional votes on tariff, internal improvement, currency and
+banking, and all the varied legislation in the field of commerce.
+American industrial life is the outcome of the combinations and contests
+of groups of States in sections. And the intellectual, the spiritual
+life of the nation is the result of the interplay of the sectional
+ideals, fundamental assumptions and emotions.
+
+In short, the real federal aspect of the nation, if we penetrate beneath
+constitutional forms to the deeper currents of social, economic and
+political life, will be found to lie in the relation of sections and
+nation, rather than in the relation of States and nation. Recently
+ex-secretary Root emphasized the danger that the States, by neglecting
+to fulfil their duties, might fall into decay, while the national
+government engrossed their former power. But even if the States
+disappeared altogether as effective factors in our national life, the
+sections might, in my opinion, gain from that very disappearance a
+strength and activity that would prove effective limitations upon the
+nationalizing process.
+
+Without pursuing the interesting speculation, I may note as evidence of
+the development of sectionalism, the various gatherings of business men,
+religious denominations and educational organizations in groups of
+States. Among the signs of growth of a healthy provincialism is the
+formation of sectional historical societies. While the American
+Historical Association has been growing vigorously and becoming a
+genuine gathering of historical students from all parts of the nation,
+there have also arisen societies in various sections to deal with the
+particular history of the groups of States. In part this is due to the
+great distances which render attendance difficult upon the meetings of
+the national body to-day, but we would be short-sighted, indeed, who
+failed to perceive in the formation of the Pacific Coast Historical
+Association, the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, and the
+Ohio Valley Historical Association, for example, genuine and spontaneous
+manifestations of a sectional consciousness.
+
+These associations spring in large part from the recognition in each of
+a common past, a common body of experiences, traditions, institutions
+and ideals. It is not necessary now to raise the question whether all of
+these associations are based on a real community of historical interest,
+whether there are overlapping areas, whether new combinations may not be
+made? They are at least substantial attempts to find a common sectional
+unity, and out of their interest in the past of the section, increasing
+tendencies to common sectional ideas and policies are certain to follow.
+I do not mean to prophesy any disruptive tendency in American life by
+the rejuvenation of sectional self-consciousness; but I do mean to
+assert that American life will be enriched and safe-guarded by the
+development of the greater variety of interest, purposes and ideals
+which seem to be arising. A measure of local concentration seems
+necessary to produce healthy, intellectual and moral life. The spread of
+social forces over too vast an area makes for monotony and stagnation.
+
+Let us, then, raise the question of how far the Ohio Valley has had a
+part of its own in the making of the nation. I have not the temerity to
+attempt a history of the Valley in the brief compass of this address.
+Nor am I confident of my ability even to pick out the more important
+features of its history in our common national life. But I venture to
+put the problem, to state some familiar facts from the special point of
+view, with the hope of arousing interest in the theme among the many
+students who are advancing the science of history in this section.
+
+To the physiographer the section is made up of the province of the
+Alleghany Plateaus and the southern portion of the Prairie Plains. In
+it are found rich mineral deposits which are changing the life of the
+section and of the nation. Although you reckon in your membership only
+the states that touch the Ohio River, parts of those states are, from
+the point of view of their social origins, more closely connected with
+the Northwest on the Lake Plains, than with the Ohio Valley; and, on the
+other hand, the Tennessee Valley, though it sweeps far toward the Lower
+South, and only joins the Ohio at the end of its course, has been
+through much of the history of the region an essential part of this
+society. Together these rivers made up the "Western World" of the
+pioneers of the Revolutionary era; the "Western Waters" of the
+backwoodsmen.
+
+But, after all, the unity of the section and its place in history were
+determined by the "beautiful river," as the French explorers called
+it--the Ohio, which pours its flood for over a thousand miles, a great
+highway to the West; a historic artery of commerce, a wedge of advance
+between powerful Indian confederacies, and rival European nations, to
+the Mississippi Valley; a home for six mighty States, now in the heart
+of the nation, rich in material wealth, richer in the history of
+American democracy, a society that holds a place midway between the
+industrial sections of the seaboard and the plains and prairies of the
+agricultural West; between the society that formed later along the
+levels about the Great Lakes, and the society that arose in the Lower
+South on the plains of the Gulf of Mexico. The Alleghanies bound it on
+the east, the Mississippi on the west. At the forks of the great river
+lies Pittsburgh, the historic gateway to the West, the present symbol
+and embodiment of the age of steel, the type of modern industrialism.
+Near its western border is St. Louis, looking toward the Prairies, the
+Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, the land into which the tide of
+modern colonization turns.
+
+Between these old cities, for whose sites European nations contended,
+stand the cities whose growth preëminently represents the Ohio valley;
+Cincinnati, the historic queen of the river; Louisville, the warder of
+the falls; the cities of the "Old National Road," Columbus,
+Indianapolis; the cities of the Blue Grass lands, which made Kentucky
+the goal of the pioneers; and the cities of that young commonwealth,
+whom the Ohio river by force of its attraction tore away from an
+uncongenial control by the Old Dominion, and joined to the social
+section where it belonged.
+
+The Ohio Valley is, therefore, not only a commercial highway, it is a
+middle kingdom between the East and the West, between the northern area,
+which was occupied by a greater New England and emigrants from northern
+Europe, and the southern area of the "Cotton Kingdom." As Pennsylvania
+and New York constituted the Middle Region in our earlier history,
+between New England and the seaboard South, so the Ohio Valley became
+the Middle Region of a later time. In its position as a highway and a
+Middle Region are found the keys to its place in American history.
+
+From the beginning the Ohio Valley seems to have been a highway for
+migration, and the home of a culture of its own. The sciences of
+American archeology and ethnology are too new to enable us to speak with
+confidence upon the origins and earlier distribution of the aborigines,
+but it is at least clear that the Ohio river played an important part in
+the movements of the earlier men in America, and that the mounds of the
+valley indicate a special type of development intermediate between that
+of the northern hunter folk, and the pueblo building races of the south.
+This dim and yet fascinating introduction to the history of the Ohio
+will afford ample opportunity for later students of the relations
+between geography and population to make contributions to our history.
+
+The French explorers saw the river, but failed to grasp its significance
+as a strategic line in the conquest of the West. Entangled in the water
+labyrinth of the vast interior, and kindled with aspirations to reach
+the "Sea of the West," their fur traders and explorers pushed their way
+through the forests of the North and across the plains of the South,
+from river to lake, from lake to river, until they met the mountains of
+the West. But while they were reaching the upper course of the Missouri
+and the Spanish outposts of Santa Fé, they missed the opportunity to
+hold the Ohio Valley, and before France could settle the Valley, the
+long and attenuated line of French posts in the west, reaching from
+Canada to Louisiana, was struck by the advancing column of the American
+backwoodsmen in the center by the way of the Ohio. Parkman, in whose
+golden pages is written the epic of the American wilderness, found his
+hero in the wandering Frenchman. Perhaps because he was a New Englander
+he missed a great opportunity and neglected to portray the formation and
+advance of the backwood society which was finally to erase the traces of
+French control in the interior of North America.
+
+It is not without significance in a consideration of the national
+aspects of the history of the Ohio Valley, that the messenger of English
+civilization, who summoned the French to evacuate the Valley and its
+approaches, and whose men near the forks of the Ohio fired the opening
+gun of the world-historic conflict that wrought the doom of New France
+in America, was George Washington, the first American to win a national
+position in the United States. The father of his country was the prophet
+of the Ohio Valley.
+
+Into this dominion, in the next scene of this drama, came the
+backwoodsmen, the men who began the formation of the society of the
+Valley. I wish to consider the effects of the formation of this society
+upon the nation. And first let us consider the stock itself.
+
+The Ohio Valley was settled, for the most part (though with important
+exceptions, especially in Ohio), by men of the Upland South, and this
+determined a large part of its influence in the nation through a long
+period. As the Ohio Valley, as a whole, was an extension of the Upland
+South, so the Upland South was, broadly speaking, an extension from the
+old Middle Region, chiefly from Pennsylvania. The society of pioneers,
+English, Scotch-Irish, Germans, and other nationalities which formed in
+the beginning of the eighteenth century in the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania and its lateral extensions was the nursery of the American
+backwoodsmen. Between about 1730 and the Revolution, successive tides of
+pioneers ascended the Shenandoah, occupied the Piedmont, or up-country
+of Virginia and the Carolinas, and received recruits from similar
+peoples who came by eastward advances from the coast toward this Old
+West.
+
+Thus by the middle of the eighteenth century a new section had been
+created in America, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania
+between the falls of the rivers of the South Atlantic colonies on the
+one side and the Alleghany mountains on the other. Its population showed
+a mixture of nationalities and religions. Less English than the colonial
+coast, it was built on a basis of religious feeling different from that
+of Puritan New England, and still different from the conservative
+Anglicans of the southern seaboard. The Scotch-Irish Presbyterians with
+the glow of the covenanters; German sectaries with serious-minded
+devotion to one or another of a multiplicity of sects, but withal deeply
+responsive to the call of the religious spirit, and the English Quakers
+all furnish a foundation of emotional responsiveness to religion and a
+readiness to find a new heaven and a new earth in politics as well as in
+religion. In spite of the influence of the backwoods in hampering
+religious organization, this upland society was a fertile field for
+tillage by such democratic and emotional sects as the Baptists,
+Methodists and the later Campbellites, as well as by Presbyterians. Mr.
+Bryce has well characterized the South as a region of "high religious
+voltage," but this characterization is especially applicable to the
+Upland South, and its colonies in the Ohio Valley. It is not necessary
+to assert that this religious spirit resulted in the kind of conduct
+associated with the religious life of the Puritans. What I wish to point
+out is the responsiveness of the Upland South to emotional religious and
+political appeal.
+
+Besides its variety of stocks and its religious sects responsive to
+emotion, the Upland South was intensely democratic and individualistic.
+It believed that government was based on a limited contract for the
+benefit of the individual, and it acted independently of governmental
+organs and restraints with such ease that in many regions this was the
+habitual mode of social procedure: voluntary coöperation was more
+natural to the Southern Uplanders than action through the machinery of
+government, especially when government checked rather than aided their
+industrial and social tendencies and desires. It was a naturally radical
+society. It was moreover a rural section not of the planter or merchant
+type, but characterized by the small farmer, building his log cabin in
+the wilderness, raising a small crop and a few animals for family use.
+It was this stock which began to pass into the Ohio Valley when Daniel
+Boone, and the pioneers associated with his name, followed the
+"Wilderness Trace" from the Upland South to the Blue Grass lands in the
+midst of the Kentucky hills, on the Ohio river. In the opening years of
+the Revolution these pioneers were recruited by westward extensions
+from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. With this colonization of the Ohio
+Valley begins a chapter in American history.
+
+This settlement contributed a new element to our national development
+and raised new national problems. It took a long time for the seaboard
+South to assimilate the upland section. We cannot think of the South as
+a unit through much of its ante-bellum history without doing violence to
+the facts. The struggle between the men of the up-country and the men of
+the tide-water, made a large part of the domestic history of the "Old
+South." Nevertheless, the Upland South, as slavery and cotton
+cultivation extended westward from the coast, gradually merged in the
+East. On the other hand, its children, who placed the wall of the
+Alleghanies between them and the East, gave thereby a new life to the
+conditions and ideals which were lost in their former home. Nor was this
+all. Beyond the mountains new conditions, new problems, aroused new
+ambitions and new social ideals. Its entrance into the "Western World"
+was a tonic to this stock. Its crossing put new fire into its
+veins--fires of militant expansion, creative social energy, triumphant
+democracy. A new section was added to the American nation, a new element
+was infused into the combination which we call the United States, a new
+flavor was given to the American spirit.
+
+We may next rapidly note some of the results. First, let us consider the
+national effects of the settlement of this new social type in the Ohio
+Valley upon the expansion and diplomacy of the nation. Almost from the
+first the Ohio valley had constituted the problem of westward expansion.
+It was the entering wedge to the possession of the Mississippi Valley,
+and, although reluctantly, the Eastern colonies and then the Eastern
+States were compelled to join in the struggle first to possess the Ohio,
+then to retain it, and finally to enforce its demand for the possession
+of the whole Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes as a
+means of outlet for its crops and of defense for its settlements. The
+part played by the pioneers of the Ohio Valley as a flying column of the
+nation, sent across the mountains and making a line of advance between
+hostile Indians and English on the north, and hostile Indians and
+Spaniards on the south, is itself too extensive a theme to be more than
+mentioned.
+
+Here in historic Kentucky, in the State which was the home of George
+Rogers Clark it is not necessary to dwell upon his clear insight and
+courage in carrying American arms into the Northwest. From the first,
+Washington also grasped the significance of the Ohio Valley as a "rising
+empire," whose population and trade were essential to the nation, but
+which found its natural outlet down the Mississippi, where Spain blocked
+the river, and which was in danger of withdrawing from the weak
+confederacy. The intrigues of England to attract the Valley to herself
+and those of Spain to add the settlements to the Spanish Empire, the use
+of the Indians by these rivals, and the efforts of France to use the
+pioneers of Kentucky to win New Orleans and the whole Valley between the
+Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains for a revived French Empire in
+America, are among the fascinating chapters of American, as well as of
+Ohio Valley, history. This position of the Valley explains much of the
+Indian wars, the foreign relations, and, indirectly, the domestic
+politics of the period from the Revolution to the purchase of Louisiana.
+Indeed, the purchase was in large measure due to the pressure of the
+settlers of the Ohio Valley to secure this necessary outlet. It was the
+Ohio Valley which forced the nation away from a narrow colonial attitude
+into its career as a nation among other nations with an adequate
+physical basis for future growth.
+
+In this development of a foreign policy in connection with the Ohio
+Valley, we find the germ of the Monroe doctrine, and the beginnings of
+the definite independence of the United States from the state system of
+the Old World, the beginning, in fact, of its career as a world power.
+This expansive impulse went on into the War of 1812, a war which was in
+no inconsiderable degree, the result of the aggressive leadership of a
+group of men from Kentucky and Tennessee, and especially of the daring
+and lofty demands of Henry Clay, who even thus early voiced the spirit
+of the Ohio Valley. That in this war William Henry Harrison and the
+Kentucky troops achieved the real conquest of the northwest province and
+Andrew Jackson with his Tennesseeans achieved the real conquest of the
+Gulf Plains, is in itself abundant evidence of the part played in the
+expansion of the nation by the section which formed on the Ohio and its
+tributaries. Nor was this the end of the process, for the annexation of
+Texas and the Pacific Coast was in a very real sense only an aftermath
+of the same movement of expansion.
+
+While the Ohio Valley was leading the way to the building of a greater
+nation, it was also the field wherein was formed an important
+contribution of the United States to political institutions. By this I
+mean what George Bancroft has well called "federal colonial system,"
+that is, our system of territories and new States. It is a mistake to
+attribute this system to the Ordinance of 1787 and to the leadership of
+New England. It was in large measure the work of the communities of the
+Ohio Valley who wrought out the essentials of the system for themselves,
+and by their attitude imposed it, of necessity, upon the nation. The
+great Ordinance only perfected the system.[168:1]
+
+Under the belief that all men going into vacant lands have the right to
+shape their own political institutions, the riflemen of western
+Virginia, western Pennsylvania, Kentucky and Tennessee, during the
+Revolution, protested against the rule of governments east of the
+mountains, and asserted with manly independence their right to
+self-government. But it is significant that in making this assertion,
+they at the same time petitioned congress to admit them to the
+sisterhood of States. Even when leaders like Wilkinson were attempting
+to induce Kentucky to act as an independent nation, the national spirit
+of the people as a whole led them to delay until at last they found
+themselves a State of the new Union. This recognition of the paramount
+authority of congress and this demand for self-government under that
+authority, constitute the foundations of the federal territorial system,
+as expressed in congressional resolutions, worked out tentatively in
+Jefferson's Ordinance of 1784, and finally shaped in the Ordinance of
+1787.
+
+Thus the Ohio Valley was not only the area to which this system was
+applied, but it was itself instrumental in shaping the system by its own
+demands and by the danger that too rigorous an assertion of either State
+or national power over these remote communities might result in their
+loss to the nation. The importance of the result can hardly be
+overestimated. It insured the peaceful and free development of the great
+West and gave it political organization not as the outcome of wars of
+hostile States, nor by arbitrary government by distant powers, but by
+territorial government combined with large local autonomy. These
+governments in turn were admitted as equal States of the Union. By this
+peaceful process of colonization a whole continent has been filled with
+free and orderly commonwealths so quietly, so naturally, that we can
+only appreciate the profound significance of the process by contrasting
+it with the spread of European nations through conquest and oppression.
+
+Next let me invite your attention to the part played by the Ohio Valley
+in the economic legislation which shaped our history in the years of the
+making of the nation between the War of 1812 and the rise of the slavery
+struggle. It needs but slight reflection to discover that in the area in
+question, the men and measures of the Ohio Valley held the balance of
+power and set the course of our national progress. The problems before
+the country at that time were problems of internal development: the mode
+of dealing with the public domain; the building of roads and digging of
+canals for the internal improvement of a nation which was separated into
+East and West by the Alleghany Mountains; the formation of a tariff
+system for the protection of home industries and to supply a market for
+the surplus of the West which no longer found an outlet in warring
+Europe; the framing of a banking and currency system which should meet
+the needs of the new interstate commerce produced by the rise of the
+western surplus.
+
+In the Ohio Valley, by the initiative of Ohio Valley men, and often
+against the protest of Eastern sections, the public land policy was
+developed by laws which subordinated the revenue idea to the idea of the
+upbuilding of a democracy of small landholders. The squatters of the
+Ohio Valley forced the passage of preëmption laws and these laws in
+their turn led to the homestead agitation. There has been no single
+element more influential in shaping American democracy and its ideals
+than this land policy. And whether the system be regarded as harmful or
+helpful, there can be, I think, no doubt that it was the outcome of
+conditions imposed by the settlers of the Ohio Valley.
+
+When one names the tariff, internal improvements and the bank, he is
+bound to add the title "The American System," and to think of Henry Clay
+of Kentucky, the captivating young statesman, who fashioned a national
+policy, raised issues and disciplined a party to support them and who
+finally imposed the system upon the nation. But, however clearly we
+recognize the genius and originality of Henry Clay as a political
+leader; however we recognize that he has a national standing as a
+constructive statesman, we must perceive, if we probe the matter deeply
+enough, that his policy and his power grew out of the economic and
+social conditions of the people whose needs he voiced--the people of the
+Ohio Valley. It was the fact that in this period they had begun to
+create an agricultural surplus, which made the necessity for this
+legislation.
+
+The nation has recently celebrated the one hundredth anniversary of
+Fulton's invention of the steamboat, and the Hudson river has been
+ablaze in his honor; but in truth it is on the Ohio and the Mississippi
+that the fires of celebration should really burn in honor of Fulton, for
+the historic significance to the United States of the invention of the
+steamboat does not lie in its use on Eastern rivers; not even in its use
+on the ocean; for our own internal commerce carried in our own ships has
+had a vaster influence upon our national life than has our foreign
+commerce. And this internal commerce was at first, and for many years,
+the commerce of the Ohio Valley carried by way of the Mississippi. When
+Fulton's steamboat was applied in 1811 to the Western Waters, it became
+possible to develop agriculture and to get the Western crops rapidly and
+cheaply to a market. The result was a tremendous growth in the entire
+Ohio Valley, but this invention did not solve the problem of cheap
+supplies of Eastern manufactures, nor satisfy the desire of the West to
+build up its own factories in order to consume its own products. The
+Ohio Valley had seen the advantage of home markets, as her towns grew
+up with their commerce and manufacturers close to the rural regions.
+Lands had increased in value in proportion to their nearness to these
+cities, and crops were in higher demand near them. Thus Henry Clay found
+a whole section standing behind him when he demanded a protective tariff
+to create home markets on a national scale, and when he urged the
+breaking of the Alleghany barrier by a national system of roads and
+canals. If we analyse the congressional votes by which the tariff and
+internal improvement acts were passed, we shall find that there was an
+almost unbroken South against them, a Middle Region largely for them, a
+New England divided, and the Ohio Valley almost a unit, holding the
+balance of power and casting it in favor of the American system.
+
+The next topic to which I ask your attention is the influence of the
+Ohio Valley in the promotion of democracy. On this I shall, by reason of
+lack of time, be obliged merely to point out that the powerful group of
+Ohio Valley States, which sprang out of the democracy of the backwoods,
+and which entered the Union one after the other with manhood suffrage,
+greatly recruited the effective forces of democracy in the Union. Not
+only did they add new recruits, but by their competitive pressure for
+population they forced the older States to break down their historic
+restraints upon the right of voting, unless they were to lose their
+people to the freer life of the West.
+
+But in the era of Jacksonian democracy, Henry Clay and his followers
+engaged the great Tennesseean in a fierce political struggle out of
+which was born the rival Whig and Democratic parties. This struggle was
+in fact reflective of the conditions which had arisen in the Ohio
+Valley. As the section had grown in population and wealth, as the trails
+changed into roads, the cabins into well-built houses, the clearings
+into broad farms, the hamlets into towns; as barter became commerce and
+all the modern processes of industrial development began to operate in
+this rising region, the Ohio Valley broke apart into the rival interests
+of the industrial forces (the town-makers and the business builders), on
+the one side and the old rural democracy of the uplands on the other.
+This division was symbolical of national processes. In the contest
+between these forces, Andrew Jackson was the champion of the cause of
+the upland democracy. He denounced the money power, banks and the whole
+credit system and sounded a fierce tocsin of danger against the
+increasing influence of wealth in politics. Henry Clay, on the other
+hand, represented the new industrial forces along the Ohio. It is
+certainly significant that in the rivalry between the great Whig of the
+Ohio Valley and the great Democrat of its Tennessee tributary lay the
+issues of American politics almost until the slavery struggle. The
+responsiveness of the Ohio Valley to leadership and its enthusiasm in
+action are illustrated by the Harrison campaign of 1840; in that "log
+cabin campaign" when the Whigs "stole the thunder" of pioneer Jacksonian
+democracy for another backwoods hero, the Ohio Valley carried its spirit
+as well as its political favorite throughout the nation.
+
+Meanwhile, on each side of the Ohio Valley, other sections were forming.
+New England and the children of New England in western New York and an
+increasing flood of German immigrants were pouring into the Great Lake
+basin and the prairies, north of the upland peoples who had chopped out
+homes in the forests along the Ohio. This section was tied to the East
+by the Great Lake navigation and the Erie canal, it became in fact an
+extension of New England and New York. Here the Free Soil party found
+its strength and New York newspapers expressed the political ideas.
+Although this section tried to attach the Ohio River interests to itself
+by canals and later by railroads, it was in reality for a long time
+separate in its ideals and its interests and never succeeded in
+dominating the Ohio Valley.
+
+On the south along the Gulf Plains there developed the "Cotton Kingdom,"
+a Greater South with a radical program of slavery expansion mapped out
+by bold and aggressive leaders. Already this Southern section had
+attempted to establish increasing commercial relations with the Ohio
+Valley. The staple-producing region was a principal consumer of its live
+stock and food products. South Carolina leaders like Calhoun tried to
+bind the Ohio to the chariot of the South by the Cincinnati and
+Charleston Railroad, designed to make an outlet for the Ohio Valley
+products to the southeast. Georgia in her turn was a rival of South
+Carolina in plans to drain this commerce itself. In all of these plans
+to connect the Ohio Valley commercially with the South, the political
+object was quite as prominent as the commercial.
+
+In short, various areas were bidding for the support of the zone of
+population along the Ohio River. The Ohio Valley recognized its old
+relationship to the South, but its people were by no means champions of
+slavery. In the southern portion of the States north of the Ohio where
+indented servitude for many years opened a way to a system of
+semi-slavery, there were divided counsels. Kentucky also spoke with no
+certain voice. As a result, it is in these regions that we find the
+stronghold of the compromising movement in the slavery struggle.
+Kentucky furnished Abraham Lincoln to Illinois, and Jefferson Davis to
+Mississippi, and was in reality the very center of the region of
+adjustment between these rival interests. Senator Thomas, of southern
+Illinois, moved the Missouri Compromise, and Henry Clay was the most
+effective champion of that compromise, as he was the architect of the
+Compromise of 1850. The Crittenden compromise proposals on the eve of
+the Civil War came also from Kentucky and represent the persistence of
+the spirit of Henry Clay.
+
+In a word, as I pointed out in the beginning, the Ohio Valley was a
+Middle Region with a strong national allegiance, striving to hold apart
+with either hand the sectional combatants in this struggle. In the
+cautious development of his policy of emancipation, we may see the
+profound influence of the Ohio Valley upon Abraham Lincoln--Kentucky's
+greatest son. No one can understand his presidency without proper
+appreciation of the deep influence of the Ohio Valley, its ideals and
+its prejudices upon America's original contribution to the great men of
+the world.
+
+Enough has been said to make it clear, I trust, that the Ohio Valley has
+not only a local history worthy of study, a rich heritage to its people,
+but also that it has been an independent and powerful force in shaping
+the development of a nation. Of the late history of this Valley, the
+rise of its vast industrial power, its far-reaching commercial
+influence, it is not necessary that I should speak. You know its
+statesmen and their influence upon our own time; you know the relation
+of Ohio to the office of President of the United States! Nor is it
+necessary that I should attempt to prophesy concerning the future which
+the Ohio Valley will hold in the nation.
+
+In that new age of inland water transportation, which is certain to
+supplement the age of the railroad, there can be no more important
+region than the Ohio Valley. Let us hope that its old love of democracy
+may endure, and that in this section, where the first trans-Alleghany
+pioneers struck blows at the forests, there may be brought to blossom
+and to fruit the ripe civilization of a people who know that whatever
+the glories of prosperity may be, there are greater glories of the
+spirit of man; who know that in the ultimate record of history, the
+place of the Ohio Valley will depend upon the contribution which her
+people and her leaders make to the cause of an enlightened, a
+cultivated, a God-fearing and a free, as well as a comfortable,
+democracy.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[157:1] An address before the Ohio Valley Historical Association,
+October 16, 1909.
+
+[168:1] See F. J. Turner, "New States West of the Alleghanies,"
+_American Historical Review_, i, pp. 70 ff.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY[177:1]
+
+
+The rise of a company of sympathetic and critical students of history in
+the South and in the West is bound to revolutionize the perspective of
+American history. Already our Eastern colleagues are aware in general,
+if not in detail, of the importance of the work of this nation in
+dealing with the vast interior, and with the influence of the West upon
+the nation. Indeed, I might take as the text for this address the words
+of one of our Eastern historians, Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, who, a
+decade ago, wrote:
+
+     The Mississippi Valley yields to no region in the world in
+     interest, in romance, and in promise for the future. Here, if
+     anywhere, is the real America--the field, the theater, and the
+     basis of the civilization of the Western World. The history of
+     the Mississippi Valley is the history of the United States;
+     its future is the future of one of the most powerful of modern
+     nations.[177:2]
+
+If those of us who have been insisting on the importance of our own
+region are led at times by the enthusiasm of the pioneer for the
+inviting historical domain that opens before us to overstate the
+importance of our subject, we may at least plead that we have gone no
+farther than some of our brethren of the East; and we may take comfort
+in this declaration of Theodore Roosevelt:
+
+     The states that have grown up around the Great Lakes and in
+     the Valley of the Upper Mississippi, [are] the states which
+     are destined to be the greatest, the richest, the most
+     prosperous of all the great, rich, and prosperous
+     commonwealths which go to make up the mightiest republic the
+     world has ever seen. These states . . . form the heart of the
+     country geographically, and they will soon become the heart in
+     population and in political and social importance. . . . I
+     should be sorry to think that before these states there loomed
+     a future of material prosperity merely. I regard this section
+     of the country as the heart of true American sentiment.[178:1]
+
+In studying the history of the whole Mississippi Valley, therefore, the
+members of this Association are studying the origins of that portion of
+the nation which is admitted by competent Eastern authorities to be the
+section potentially most influential in the future of America. They are
+also studying the region which has engaged the most vital activities of
+the whole nation; for the problems arising from the existence of the
+Mississippi Valley, whether of movement of population, diplomacy,
+politics, economic development, or social structure, have been
+fundamental problems in shaping the nation. It is not a narrow, not even
+a local, interest which determines the mission of this Association. It
+is nothing less than the study of the American people in the presence
+and under the influence of the vast spaces, the imperial resources of
+the great interior. The social destiny of this Valley will be the social
+destiny, and will mark the place in history, of the United States.
+
+In a large sense, and in the one usually given to it by geographers and
+historians, the Mississippi Valley includes the whole interior basin, a
+province which drains into nearly two thousand miles of navigable waters
+of the Mississippi itself, two thousand miles of the tawny flood of the
+Missouri, and a thousand miles of the Ohio--five thousand miles of main
+water highways open to the steamboat, nearly two and a half million
+square miles of drainage basin, a land greater than all Europe except
+Russia, Norway, and Sweden, a land of levels, marked by essential
+geographic unity, a land estimated to be able to support a population of
+two or three hundred millions, three times the present population of the
+whole nation, an empire of natural resources in which to build a noble
+social structure worthy to hold its place as the heart of American
+industrial, political and spiritual life.
+
+The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history was first
+shown in the fact that it opened to various nations visions of power in
+the New World--visions that sweep across the horizon of historical
+possibility like the luminous but unsubstantial aurora of a comet's
+train, portentous and fleeting.
+
+Out of the darkness of the primitive history of the continent are being
+drawn the evidences of the rise and fall of Indian cultures, the
+migrations through and into the great Valley by men of the Stone Age,
+hinted at in legends and languages, dimly told in the records of mounds
+and artifacts, but waiting still for complete interpretation.
+
+Into these spaces and among the savage peoples, came France and wrote a
+romantic page in our early history, a page that tells of unfulfilled
+empire. What is striking in the effect of the Mississippi Valley upon
+France is the pronounced influence of the unity of its great spaces. It
+is not without meaning that Radisson and Groseilliers not only reached
+the extreme of Lake Superior but also, in all probability, entered upon
+the waters of the Mississippi and learned of its western affluent; that
+Marquette not only received the Indians of the Illinois region in his
+post on the shores of Lake Superior, but traversed the length of the
+Mississippi almost to its mouth, and returning revealed the site of
+Chicago; that La Salle was inspired with the vision of a huge interior
+empire reaching from the Gulf to the Great Lakes. Before the close of
+the seventeenth century, Perrot's influence was supreme in the Upper
+Mississippi, while D'Iberville was laying the foundations of Louisiana
+toward the mouth of the river. Nor is it without significance that while
+the Verendryes were advancing toward the northwest (where they
+discovered the Big Horn Mountains and revealed the natural boundaries of
+the Valley) the Mallet brothers were ascending the Platte, crossing the
+Colorado plains to Santa Fé and so revealing the natural boundaries
+toward the southwest.
+
+To the English the great Valley was a land beyond the Alleghanies.
+Spotswood, the far-sighted Governor of Virginia, predecessor of frontier
+builders, grasped the situation when he proposed western settlements to
+prevent the French from becoming a great people at the back of the
+colonies. He realized the importance of the Mississippi Valley as the
+field for expansion, and the necessity to the English empire of
+dominating it, if England would remain the great power of the New World.
+
+In the war that followed between France and England, we now see what
+the men of the time could not have realized: that the main issue was
+neither the possession of the fisheries nor the approaches to the St.
+Lawrence on the one hemisphere, nor the possession of India on the
+other, but the mastery of the interior basin of North America.
+
+How little the nations realized the true meaning of the final victory of
+England is shown in the fact that Spain reluctantly received from France
+the cession of the lands beyond the Mississippi, accepting it as a means
+of preventing the infringement of her colonial monopoly in Spanish
+America rather than as a field for imperial expansion.
+
+But we know now that when George Washington came as a stripling to the
+camp of the French at the edge of the great Valley and demanded the
+relinquishment of the French posts in the name of Virginia, he was
+demanding in the name of the English speaking people the right to occupy
+and rule the real center of American resources and power. When
+Braddock's axmen cut their road from the Potomac toward the forks of the
+Ohio they were opening a channel through which the forces of
+civilization should flow with ever increasing momentum and "carving a
+cross on the wilderness rim" at the spot which is now the center of
+industrial power of the American nation.
+
+England trembled on the brink of her great conquest, fearful of the
+effect of these far-stretching rivers upon her colonial system, timorous
+in the presence of the fierce peoples who held the vast domain beyond
+the Alleghanies. It seems clear, however, that the Proclamation of 1763,
+forbidding settlement and the patenting of lands beyond the Alleghanies,
+was not intended as a permanent creation of an Indian reservation out of
+this Valley, but was rather a temporary arrangement in order that
+British plans might mature and a system of gradual colonization be
+devised. Already our greatest leaders, men like Washington and
+Franklin, had been quick to see the importance of this new area for
+enlarged activities of the American people. A sudden revelation that it
+was the West, rather than the ocean, which was the real theater for the
+creative energy of America came with the triumph over France. The Ohio
+Company and the Loyal Land Company indicate the interest at the outbreak
+of the war, while the Mississippi Company, headed by the Washingtons and
+Lees, organized to occupy southern Illinois, Indiana, and western
+Kentucky, mark the Virginia interest in the Mississippi Valley, and
+Franklin's activity in promoting a colony in the Illinois country
+illustrates the interest of the Philadelphians. Indeed, Franklin saw
+clearly the possibilities of a settlement there as a means of breaking
+up Spanish America. Writing to his son in 1767 he declared that a
+"settlement should be made in the Illinois country . . . raising a
+strength there which on occasions of a future war might easily be poured
+down the Mississippi upon the lower country and into the Bay of Mexico
+to be used against Cuba, the French Islands, or Mexico itself."[182:1]
+
+The Mississippi Valley had been the despair of France in the matter of
+governmental control. The coureurs de bois escaping from restraints of
+law and order took their way through its extensive wilderness, exploring
+and trading as they listed. Similarly, when the English colonists
+crossed the Alleghanies they escaped from the control of mother colonies
+as well as of the mother country. If the Mississippi Valley revealed to
+the statesmen of the East, in the exultation of the war with France, an
+opportunity for new empire building, it revealed to the frontiersmen,
+who penetrated the passes of the Alleghanies, and entered into their new
+inheritance, the sharp distinctions between them and the Eastern lands
+which they left behind. From the beginning it was clear that the lands
+beyond the Alleghanies furnished an opportunity and an incentive to
+develop American society on independent and unconventional lines. The
+"men of the Western Waters" broke with the old order of things,
+subordinated social restraint to the freedom of the individual, won
+their title to the rich lands which they entered by hard fighting
+against the Indians, hotly challenged the right of the East to rule
+them, demanded their own States, and would not be refused, spoke with
+contempt of the old social order of ranks and classes in the lands
+between the Alleghanies and the Atlantic, and proclaimed the ideal of
+democracy for the vast country which they had entered. Not with the
+mercurial facility of the French did they follow the river systems of
+the Great Valley. Like the advance of the glacier they changed the face
+of the country in their steady and inevitable progress, and they sought
+the sea. It was not long before the Spaniards at the mouth of the river
+realized the meaning of the new forces that had entered the Valley.
+
+In 1794 the Governor of Louisiana wrote:
+
+     This vast and restless population progressively driving the
+     Indian tribes before them and upon us, seek to possess
+     themselves of all the extensive regions which the Indians
+     occupy between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the Gulf of
+     Mexico, and the Appalachian Mountains, thus becoming our
+     neighbors, at the same time that they menacingly ask for the
+     free navigation of the Mississippi. If they achieve their
+     object, their ambitions would not be confined to this side of
+     the Mississippi. Their writings, public papers, and speeches,
+     all turn on this point, the free navigation of the Gulf by the
+     rivers . . . which empty into it, the rich fur trade of the
+     Missouri, and in time the possession of the rich mines of the
+     interior provinces of the very Kingdom of Mexico. Their mode
+     of growth and their policy are as formidable for Spain as
+     their armies. . . . Their roving spirit and the readiness with
+     which they procure sustenance and shelter facilitate rapid
+     settlement. A rifle and a little corn meal in a bag are
+     enough for an American wandering alone in the woods for a
+     month. . . . With logs crossed upon one another he makes a
+     house, and even an impregnable fort against the Indians. . . .
+     Cold does not terrify him, and when a family wearies of one
+     place, it moves to another and settles there with the same
+     ease.
+
+     If such men come to occupy the banks of the Mississippi and
+     Missouri, or secure their navigation, doubtless nothing will
+     prevent them from crossing and penetrating into our provinces
+     on the other side, which, being to a great extent unoccupied,
+     can oppose no resistance. . . . In my opinion, a general
+     revolution in America threatens Spain unless the remedy be
+     applied promptly.
+
+In fact, the pioneers who had occupied the uplands of the South, the
+backwoods stock with its Scotch-Irish leaders which had formed on the
+eastern edge of the Alleghanies, separate and distinct from the type of
+tidewater and New England, had found in the Mississippi Valley a new
+field for expansion under conditions of free land and unrestraint. These
+conditions gave it promise of ample time to work out its own social
+type. But, first of all, these men who were occupying the Western Waters
+must find an outlet for their surplus products, if they were to become
+a powerful people. While the Alleghanies placed a veto toward the east,
+the Mississippi opened a broad highway to the south. Its swift current
+took their flat boats in its strong arms to bear them to the sea, but
+across the outlet of the great river Spain drew the barrier of her
+colonial monopoly and denied them exit.
+
+The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history at the
+opening of the new republic, therefore, lay in the fact that, beyond the
+area of the social and political control of the thirteen colonies, there
+had arisen a new and aggressive society which imperiously put the
+questions of the public lands, internal communication, local
+self-government, defense, and aggressive expansion, before the
+legislators of the old colonial régime. The men of the Mississippi
+Valley compelled the men of the East to think in American terms instead
+of European. They dragged a reluctant nation on in a new course.
+
+From the Revolution to the end of the War of 1812 Europe regarded the
+destiny of the Mississippi Valley as undetermined. Spain desired to
+maintain her hold by means of the control given through the possession
+of the mouth of the river and the Gulf, by her influence upon the Indian
+tribes, and by intrigues with the settlers. Her object was primarily to
+safeguard the Spanish American monopoly which had made her a great
+nation in the world. Instinctively she seemed to surmise that out of
+this Valley were the issues of her future; here was the lever which
+might break successively, from her empire fragments about the
+Gulf--Louisiana, Florida and Texas, Cuba and Porto Rico--the Southwest
+and Pacific coast, and even the Philippines and the Isthmian Canal,
+while the American republic, building itself on the resources of the
+Valley, should become paramount over the independent republics into
+which her empire was to disintegrate.
+
+France, seeking to regain her former colonial power, would use the
+Mississippi Valley as a means of provisioning her West Indian islands;
+of dominating Spanish America, and of subordinating to her purposes the
+feeble United States, which her policy assigned to the lands between the
+Atlantic and the Alleghanies. The ancient Bourbon monarchy, the
+revolutionary republic, and the Napoleonic empire--all contemplated the
+acquisition of the whole Valley of the Mississippi from the Alleghanies
+to the Rocky Mountains.[186:1]
+
+England holding the Great Lakes, dominating the northern Indian
+populations and threatening the Gulf and the mouth of the Mississippi by
+her fleet, watched during the Revolution, the Confederation, and the
+early republic for the breaking of the fragile bonds of the thirteen
+States, ready to extend her protection over the settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley.
+
+Alarmed by the prospect of England's taking Louisiana and Florida from
+Spain, Jefferson wrote in 1790: "Embraced from St. Croix to St. Mary's
+on one side by their possessions, on the other by their fleet, we need
+not hesitate to say that they would soon find means to unite to them all
+the territory covered by the ramifications of the Mississippi." And
+that, he thought, must result in "bloody and eternal war or indissoluble
+confederacy" with England.
+
+None of these nations deemed it impossible that American settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley might be won to accept another flag than that of the
+United States. Gardoqui had the effrontery in 1787 to suggest to Madison
+that the Kentuckians would make good Spanish subjects. France enlisted
+the support of frontiersmen led by George Rogers Clark for her attempted
+conquest of Louisiana in 1793. England tried to win support among the
+western settlers. Indeed, when we recall that George Rogers Clark
+accepted a commission as Major General from France in 1793 and again in
+1798; that Wilkinson, afterwards commander-in-chief of the American
+army, secretly asked Spanish citizenship and promised renunciation of
+his American allegiance; that Governor Sevier of Franklin, afterwards
+Senator from Tennessee and its first Governor as a State, Robertson the
+founder of Cumberland, and Blount, Governor of the Southwest Territory
+and afterwards Senator from Tennessee, were all willing to accept the
+rule of another nation sooner than see the navigation of the Mississippi
+yielded by the American government we can easily believe that it lay
+within the realm of possibility that another allegiance might have been
+accepted by the frontiersmen themselves. We may well trust Rufus Putnam,
+whose federalism and devotion to his country had been proved and whose
+work in founding New England's settlement at Marietta is well known,
+when he wrote in 1790 in answer to Fisher Ames's question whether the
+Mississippi Valley could be retained in the Union: "Should Congress give
+up her claim to the navigation of the Mississippi or cede it to the
+Spaniards, I believe the people in the Western quarter would separate
+themselves from the United States very soon. Such a measure, I have no
+doubt, would excite so much rage and dissatisfaction that the people
+would sooner put themselves under the despotic government of Spain than
+remain the indented servants of Congress." He added that if Congress did
+not afford due protection also to these western settlers they might turn
+to England or Spain.[187:1]
+
+Prior to the railroad the Mississippi Valley was potentially the basis
+for an independent empire, in spite of the fact that its population
+would inevitably be drawn from the Eastern States. Its natural outlet
+was down the current to the Gulf. New Orleans controlled the Valley, in
+the words of Wilkinson, "as the key the lock, or the citadel the
+outworks." So long as the Mississippi Valley was menaced, or in part
+controlled, by rival European states, just so long must the United
+States be a part of the state system of Europe, involved in its
+fortunes. And particularly was this the case in view of the fact that
+until the Union made internal commerce, based upon the Mississippi
+Valley, its dominant economic interest, the merchants and sailors of the
+northeastern States and the staple producers of the southern sea-board
+were a commercial appanage of Europe. The significance of the
+Mississippi Valley was clearly seen by Jefferson. Writing to Livingston
+in 1802 he declared:
+
+     There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which
+     is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through
+     which the produce of three-eights of our territory must pass
+     to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more
+     than half of our whole produce and contain more than half of
+     our inhabitants. . . . The day that France takes possession of
+     New Orleans fixes the sentence which is to restrain her within
+     her low-water mark. It seals the union of two nations who in
+     conjunction can maintain exclusive possession of the ocean.
+     From that moment we must marry ourselves to the British fleet
+     and nation . . . holding the two continents of America in
+     sequestration for the common purposes of the united British
+     and American nations.[188:1]
+
+The acquisition of Louisiana was a recognition of the essential unity of
+the Mississippi Valley. The French engineer Collot reported to his
+government after an investigation in 1796:
+
+     All the positions on the left [east] bank of the Mississippi
+     . . . without the alliance of the Western states are far from
+     covering Louisiana. . . . When two nations possess, one the
+     coasts and the other the plains, the former must inevitably
+     embark or submit. From thence I conclude that the Western
+     States of the North American republic must unite themselves
+     with Louisiana and form in the future one single compact
+     nation; or else that colony to whatever power it shall belong
+     will be conquered or devoured.
+
+The effect of bringing political unity to the Mississippi Valley by the
+Louisiana Purchase was profound. It was the decisive step of the United
+States on an independent career as a world power, free from entangling
+foreign alliances. The victories of Harrison in the Northwest, in the
+War of 1812 that followed, ensured our expansion in the northern half of
+the Valley. Jackson's triumphal march to the Gulf and his defense of New
+Orleans in the same war won the basis for that Cotton Kingdom, so
+important in the economic life of the nation and so pregnant with the
+issue of slavery.[189:1] The acquisition of Florida, Texas, and the Far
+West followed naturally. Not only was the nation set on an independent
+path in foreign relations; its political system was revolutionized, for
+the Mississippi Valley now opened the way for adding State after State,
+swamping the New England section and its Federalism. The doctrine of
+strict construction had received a fatal blow at the hands of its own
+prophet. The old conception of historic sovereign States, makers of a
+federation, was shattered by this vast addition of raw material for an
+indefinite number of parallelograms called States, nursed through a
+Territorial period by the Federal government, admitted under conditions,
+and animated by national rather than by State patriotism.
+
+The area of the nation had been so enlarged and the development of the
+internal resources so promoted, by the acquisition of the whole course
+of the mighty river, its tributaries and its outlet, that the Atlantic
+coast soon turned its economic energies from the sea to the interior.
+Cities and sections began to struggle for ascendancy over its industrial
+life. A real national activity, a genuine American culture began. The
+vast spaces, the huge natural resources, of the Valley demanded
+exploitation and population. Later there came the tide of foreign
+immigration which has risen so steadily that it has made a composite
+American people whose amalgamation is destined to produce a new national
+stock.
+
+But without attempting to exhaust, or even to indicate, all the effects
+of the Louisiana Purchase, I wish next to ask your attention to the
+significance of the Mississippi Valley in the promotion of democracy and
+the transfer of the political center of gravity in the nation. The
+Mississippi Valley has been the especial home of democracy. Born of free
+land and the pioneer spirit, nurtured in the ideas of the Revolution and
+finding free play for these ideas in the freedom of the wilderness,
+democracy showed itself in the earliest utterances of the men of the
+Western Waters and it has persisted there. The demand for local
+self-government, which was insistent on the frontier, and the
+endorsement given by the Alleghanies to these demands led to the
+creation of a system of independent Western governments and to the
+Ordinance of 1787, an original contribution to colonial policy. This was
+framed in the period when any rigorous subjection of the West to Eastern
+rule would have endangered the ties that bound them to the Union
+itself. In the Constitutional Convention prominent Eastern statesmen
+expressed their fears of the Western democracy and would have checked
+its ability to out-vote the regions of property by limiting its
+political power, so that it should never equal that of the Atlantic
+coast. But more liberal counsels prevailed. In the first debates upon
+the public lands, also, it was clearly stated that the social system of
+the nation was involved quite as much as the question of revenue.
+Eastern fears that cheap lands in abundance would depopulate the
+Atlantic States and check their industrial growth by a scarcity of labor
+supply were met by the answer of one of the representatives in 1796:
+
+     I question if any man would be hardy enough to point out a
+     class of citizens by name that ought to be the servants of the
+     community; yet unless that is done to what class of the People
+     could you direct such a law? But if you passed such an act
+     [limiting the area offered for sale in the Mississippi
+     Valley], it would be tantamount to saying that there is some
+     class which must remain here, and by law be obliged to serve
+     the others for such wages as they please to give.
+
+Gallatin showed his comprehension of the basis of the prosperous
+American democracy in the same debate when he said:
+
+     If the cause of the happiness of this country was examined
+     into, it would be found to arise as much from the great plenty
+     of land in proportion to the inhabitants, which their citizens
+     enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions.
+
+Out of this frontier democratic society where the freedom and abundance
+of land in the great Valley opened a refuge to the oppressed in all
+regions, came the Jacksonian democracy which governed the nation after
+the downfall of the party of John Quincy Adams. Its center rested in
+Tennessee, the region from which so large a portion of the Mississippi
+Valley was settled by descendants of the men of the Upland South. The
+rule of the Mississippi Valley is seen when we recall the place that
+Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri held in both parties. Besides Jackson,
+Clay, Harrison and Polk, we count such presidential candidates as Hugh
+White and John Bell, Vice President R. M. Johnson, Grundy, the chairman
+of the finance committee, and Benton, the champion of western
+radicalism.
+
+It was in this same period, and largely by reason of the drainage of
+population to the West, and the stir in the air raised by the Western
+winds of Jacksonian democracy, that most of the older States
+reconstructed their constitutions on a more democratic basis. From the
+Mississippi Valley where there were liberal suffrage provisions (based
+on population alone instead of property and population), disregard of
+vested interests, and insistence on the rights of man, came the
+inspiration for this era of change in the franchise and apportionment,
+of reform of laws for imprisonment for debt, of general attacks upon
+monopoly and privilege. "It is now plain," wrote Jackson in 1837, "that
+the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of the few against
+the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the honest laborers
+hewers of wood and drawers of water . . . through the credit and paper
+system."
+
+By this time the Mississippi Valley had grown in population and
+political power so that it ranked with the older sections. The next
+indication of its significance in American history which I shall
+mention is its position in shaping the economic and political course of
+the nation between the close of the War of 1812 and the slavery
+struggle. In 1790 the Mississippi Valley had a population of about a
+hundred thousand, or one-fortieth of that of the United States as a
+whole; by 1810 it had over a million, or one-seventh; by 1830 it had
+three and two-thirds millions, or over one-fourth; by 1840 over six
+millions, more than one-third. While the Atlantic coast increased only a
+million and a half souls between 1830 and 1840, the Mississippi Valley
+gained nearly three millions. Ohio (virgin wilderness in 1790) was, half
+a century later, nearly as populous as Pennsylvania and twice as
+populous as Massachusetts. While Virginia, North Carolina, and South
+Carolina were gaining 60,000 souls between 1830 and 1840, Illinois
+gained 318,000. Indeed, the growth of this State alone excelled that of
+the entire South Atlantic States.
+
+These figures show the significance of the Mississippi Valley in its
+pressure upon the older section by the competition of its cheap lands,
+its abundant harvests, and its drainage of the labor supply. All of
+these things meant an upward lift to the Eastern wage earner. But they
+meant also an increase of political power in the Valley. Before the War
+of 1812 the Mississippi Valley had six senators, New England ten, the
+Middle States ten, and the South eight. By 1840 the Mississippi Valley
+had twenty-two senators, double those of the Middle States and New
+England combined, and nearly three times as many as the Old South; while
+in the House of Representatives the Mississippi Valley outweighed any
+one of the old sections. In 1810 it had less than one-third the power of
+New England and the South together in the House. In 1840 it outweighed
+them both combined and because of its special circumstances it held the
+balance of power.
+
+While the Mississippi Valley thus rose to superior political power as
+compared with any of the old sections, its economic development made it
+the inciting factor in the industrial life of the nation. After the War
+of 1812 the steamboat revolutionized the transportation facilities of
+the Mississippi Valley. In each economic area a surplus formed,
+demanding an outlet and demanding returns in manufactures. The spread of
+cotton into the lower Mississippi Valley and the Gulf Plains had a
+double significance. This transfer of the center of cotton production
+away from the Atlantic South not only brought increasing hardship and
+increasing unrest to the East as the competition of the virgin soils
+depressed Atlantic land values and made Eastern labor increasingly dear,
+but the price of cotton fell also in due proportion to the increase in
+production by the Mississippi Valley. While the transfer of economic
+power from the Seaboard South to the Cotton Kingdom of the lower
+Mississippi Valley was in progress, the upper Mississippi Valley was
+leaping forward, partly under the stimulus of a market for its surplus
+in the plantations of the South, where almost exclusive cultivation of
+the great staples resulted in a lack of foodstuffs and livestock.
+
+At the same time the great river and its affluents became the highway of
+a commerce that reached to the West Indies, the Atlantic Coast, Europe,
+and South America. The Mississippi Valley was an industrial entity, from
+Pittsburgh and Santa Fé to New Orleans. It became the most important
+influence in American politics and industry. Washington had declared in
+1784 that it was the part of wisdom for Virginia to bind the West to the
+East by ties of interest through internal improvement thereby taking
+advantage of the extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire.
+
+This realization of the fact that an economic empire was growing up
+beyond the mountains stimulated rival cities, New York, Philadelphia,
+and Baltimore, to engage in a struggle to supply the West with goods
+and receive its products. This resulted in an attempt to break down the
+barrier of the Alleghanies by internal improvements. The movement became
+especially active after the War of 1812, when New York carried out De
+Witt Clinton's vast conception of making by the Erie Canal a greater
+Hudson which should drain to the port of New York all the basin of the
+Great Lakes, and by means of other canals even divert the traffic from
+the tributaries of the Mississippi. New York City's commercial
+ascendancy dates from this connection with interior New York and the
+Mississippi Valley. A writer in Hunt's _Merchants' Magazine_ in 1869
+makes the significance of this clearer by these words:
+
+     There was a period in the history of the seaboard cities when
+     there was no West; and when the Alleghany Mountains formed the
+     frontier of settlement and agricultural production. During
+     that epoch the seaboard cities, North and South, grew in
+     proportion to the extent and fertility of the country in their
+     rear; and as Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia
+     were more productive in staples valuable to commerce than the
+     colonies north of them, the cities of Baltimore, Norfolk,
+     Charleston, and Savannah enjoyed a greater trade and
+     experienced a larger growth than those on the northern
+     seaboard.
+
+He, then, classifies the periods of city development into three: (1) the
+provincial, limited to the Atlantic seaboard; (2) that of canal and
+turnpike connected with the Mississippi Valley; and (3) that of railroad
+connection. Thus he was able to show how Norfolk, for example, was shut
+off from the enriching currents of interior trade and was outstripped
+by New York. The efforts of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and
+Savannah to divert the trade of the Mississippi system to their own
+ports on the Atlantic, and the rise or fall of these cities in
+proportion as they succeeded are a sufficient indication of the meaning
+of the Mississippi Valley in American industrial life. What colonial
+empire has been for London that the Mississippi Valley is to the
+seaboard cities of the United States, awakening visions of industrial
+empire, systematic control of vast spaces, producing the American type
+of the captain of industry.
+
+It was not alone city rivalry that converged upon the Mississippi Valley
+and sought its alliance. Sectional rivalry likewise saw that the balance
+of power possessed by the interior furnished an opportunity for
+combinations. This was a fundamental feature of Calhoun's policy when he
+urged the seaboard South to complete a railroad system to tap the
+Northwest. As Washington had hoped to make western trade seek its outlet
+in Virginia and build up the industrial power of the Old Dominion by
+enriching intercourse with the Mississippi Valley, as Monroe wished to
+bind the West to Virginia's political interests; and as De Witt Clinton
+wished to attach it to New York, so Calhoun and Hayne would make
+"Georgia and Carolina the commercial center of the Union, and the two
+most powerful and influential members of the confederacy," by draining
+the Mississippi Valley to their ports. "I believe," said Calhoun, "that
+the success of a connection of the West is of the last importance to us
+politically and commercially. . . . I do verily believe that Charleston
+has more advantages in her position for the Western trade, than any city
+on the Atlantic, but to develop them we ought to look to the Tennessee
+instead of the Ohio, and much farther to the West than Cincinnati or
+Lexington."
+
+This was the secret of Calhoun's advocacy in 1836 and 1837 both of the
+distribution of the surplus revenue and of the cession of the public
+lands to the States in which they lay, as an inducement to the West to
+ally itself with Southern policies; and it is the key to the readiness
+of Calhoun, even after he lost his nationalism, to promote internal
+improvements which would foster the southward current of trade on the
+Mississippi.
+
+Without going into details, I may simply call your attention to the fact
+that Clay's whole system of internal improvements and tariff was based
+upon the place of the Mississippi Valley in American life. It was the
+upper part of the Valley, and especially the Ohio Valley, that furnished
+the votes which carried the tariffs of 1816, 1824, and 1828. Its
+interests profoundly influenced the details of those tariffs and its
+need of internal improvement constituted a basis for sectional
+bargaining in all the constructive legislation after the War of 1812.
+New England, the Middle Region, and the South each sought alliance with
+the growing section beyond the mountains. American legislation bears the
+enduring evidence of these alliances. Even the National Bank found in
+this Valley the main sphere of its business. The nation had turned its
+energies to internal exploitation, and sections contended for the
+economic and political power derived from connection with the interior.
+
+But already the Mississippi Valley was beginning to stratify, both
+socially and geographically. As the railroads pushed across the
+mountains, the tide of New England and New York colonists and German
+immigrants sought the basin of the Great Lakes and the Upper
+Mississippi. A distinct zone, industrially and socially connected with
+New England, was forming. The railroad reinforced the Erie Canal and, as
+De Bow put it, turned back the tide of the Father of Waters so that its
+outlet was in New York instead of New Orleans for a large part of the
+Valley. Below the Northern zone was the border zone of the Upland
+South, the region of compromise, including both banks of the Ohio and
+the Missouri and reaching down to the hills on the north of the Gulf
+Plains. The Cotton Kingdom based on slavery found its center in the
+fertile soils along the Lower Mississippi and the black prairies of
+Georgia and Alabama, and was settled largely by planters from the old
+cotton lands of the Atlantic States. The Mississippi Valley had
+rejuvenated slavery, had given it an aggressive tone characteristic of
+Western life.
+
+Thus the Valley found itself in the midst of the slavery struggle at the
+very time when its own society had lost homogeneity. Let us allow two
+leaders, one of the South and one of the North, to describe the
+situation; and, first, let the South speak. Said Hammond, of South
+Carolina,[198:1] in a speech in the Senate on March 4, 1858:
+
+     I think it not improper that I should attempt to bring the
+     North and South face to face, and see what resources each of
+     us might have in the contingency of separate organizations.
+
+     Through the heart of our country runs the great Mississippi,
+     the father of waters, into whose bosom are poured thirty-six
+     thousand miles of tributary streams; and beyond we have the
+     desert prairie wastes to protect us in our rear. Can you hem
+     in such a territory as that? You talk of putting up a wall of
+     fire around eight hundred and fifty thousand miles so
+     situated! How absurd.
+
+     But in this territory lies the great valley of the
+     Mississippi, now the real and soon to be the acknowledged seat
+     of the empire of the world. The sway of that valley will be as
+     great as ever the Nile knew in the earlier ages of mankind.
+     We own the most of it. The most valuable part of it belongs to
+     us now; and although those who have settled above us are now
+     opposed to us, another generation will tell a different tale.
+     They are ours by all the laws of nature; slave labor will go
+     to every foot of this great valley where it will be found
+     profitable to use it, and some of those who may not use it are
+     soon to be united with us by such ties as will make us one and
+     inseparable. The iron horse will soon be clattering over the
+     sunny plains of the South to bear the products of its upper
+     tributaries to our Atlantic ports, as it now does through the
+     ice-bound North. There is the great Mississippi, bond of union
+     made by nature herself. She will maintain it forever.
+
+As the Seaboard South had transferred the mantle of leadership to
+Tennessee and then to the Cotton Kingdom of the Lower Mississippi, so
+New England and New York resigned their command to the northern half of
+the Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes. Seward, the
+old-time leader of the Eastern Whigs who had just lost the Republican
+nomination for the presidency to Lincoln, may rightfully speak for the
+Northeast. In the fall of 1860, addressing an audience at Madison,
+Wisconsin, he declared:[199:1]
+
+     The empire established at Washington is of less than a hundred
+     years' formation. It was the empire of thirteen Atlantic
+     states. Still, practically, the mission of that empire is
+     fulfilled. The power that directs it is ready to pass away
+     from those thirteen states, and although held and exercised
+     under the same constitution and national form of government,
+     yet it is now in the very act of being transferred from the
+     thirteen states east of the Alleghany mountains and on the
+     coast of the Atlantic ocean, to the twenty states that lie
+     west of the Alleghanies, and stretch away from their base to
+     the base of the Rocky mountains on the West, and you are the
+     heirs to it. When the next census shall reveal your power, you
+     will be found to be the masters of the United States of
+     America, and through them the dominating political power of
+     the world.
+
+Appealing to the Northwest on the slavery issue Seward declared:
+
+     The whole responsibility rests henceforth directly or
+     indirectly on the people of the Northwest. . . . There can be
+     no virtue in commercial and manufacturing communities to
+     maintain a democracy, when the democracy themselves do not
+     want a democracy. There is no virtue in Pearl street, in Wall
+     street, in Court street, in Chestnut street, in any other
+     street of great commercial cities, that can save the great
+     democratic government of ours, when you cease to uphold it
+     with your intelligent votes, your strong and mighty hands. You
+     must, therefore, lead us as we heretofore reserved and
+     prepared the way for you. We resign to you the banner of human
+     rights and human liberty, on this continent, and we bid you be
+     firm, bold and onward and then you may hope that we will be
+     able to follow you.
+
+When we survey the course of the slavery struggle in the United States
+it is clear that the form the question took was due to the Mississippi
+Valley. The Ordinance of 1787, the Missouri Compromise, the Texas
+question, the Free Soil agitation, the Compromise of 1850, the
+Kansas-Nebraska bill, the Dred Scott decision, "bleeding Kansas"--these
+are all Mississippi Valley questions, and the mere enumeration makes it
+plain that it was the Mississippi Valley as an area for expansion which
+gave the slavery issue its significance in American history. But for
+this field of expansion, slavery might have fulfilled the expectation of
+the fathers and gradually died away.
+
+Of the significance of the Mississippi Valley in the Civil War, it is
+unnecessary that I should speak. Illinois gave to the North its
+President; Mississippi gave to the South its President. Lincoln and
+Davis were both born in Kentucky. Grant and Sherman, the northern
+generals, came from the Mississippi Valley; and both of them believed
+that when Vicksburg fell the cause of the South was lost, and so it must
+have been if the Confederacy had been unable, after victories in the
+East, to regain the Father of Waters; for, as General Sherman said:
+"Whatever power holds that river can govern this continent."
+
+With the close of the war political power passed for many years to the
+northern half of the Mississippi Valley, as the names of Grant, Hayes,
+Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley indicate. The population of the Valley
+grew from about fifteen millions in 1860 to over forty millions in
+1900--over half the total population of the United States. The
+significance of its industrial growth is not likely to be overestimated
+or overlooked. On its northern border, from near Minnesota's boundary
+line, through the Great Lakes to Pittsburgh, on its eastern edge, runs a
+huge movement of iron from mine to factory. This industry is basal in
+American life, and it has revolutionized the industry of the world. The
+United States produces pig iron and steel in amount equal to her two
+greatest competitors combined, and the iron ores for this product are
+chiefly in the Mississippi Valley. It is the chief producer of coal,
+thereby enabling the United States almost to equal the combined
+production of Germany and Great Britain; and great oil fields of the
+nation are in its midst. Its huge crops of wheat and corn and its cattle
+are the main resources for the United States and are drawn upon by
+Europe. Its cotton furnishes two-thirds of the world's factory supply.
+Its railroad system constitutes the greatest transportation network in
+the world. Again it is seeking industrial consolidation by demanding
+improvement of its vast water system as a unit. If this design, favored
+by Roosevelt, shall at some time be accomplished, again the bulk of the
+commerce of the Valley may flow along the old routes to New Orleans; and
+to Galveston by the development of southern railroad outlets after the
+building of the Panama Canal. For the development and exploitation of
+these and of the transportation and trade interests of the Middle West,
+Eastern capital has been consolidated into huge corporations, trusts,
+and combinations. With the influx of capital, and the rise of cities and
+manufactures, portions of the Mississippi Valley have become assimilated
+with the East. With the end of the era of free lands the basis of its
+democratic society is passing away.
+
+The final topic on which I shall briefly comment in this discussion of
+the significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history is a
+corollary of this condition. Has the Mississippi Valley a permanent
+contribution to make to American society, or is it to be adjusted into a
+type characteristically Eastern and European? In other words, has the
+United States itself an original contribution to make to the history of
+society? This is what it comes to. The most significant fact in the
+Mississippi Valley is its ideals. Here has been developed, not by
+revolutionary theory, but by growth among free opportunities, the
+conception of a vast democracy made up of mobile ascending individuals,
+conscious of their power and their responsibilities. Can these ideals of
+individualism and democracy be reconciled and applied to the twentieth
+century type of civilization?
+
+Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful, art-loving and
+empire-building. No other nation on a vast scale has been controlled by
+a self-conscious, self-restrained democracy in the interests of progress
+and freedom, industrial as well as political. It is in the vast and
+level spaces of the Mississippi Valley, if anywhere, that the forces of
+social transformation and the modification of its democratic ideals may
+be arrested.
+
+Beginning with competitive individualism, as well as with belief in
+equality, the farmers of the Mississippi Valley gradually learned that
+unrestrained competition and combination meant the triumph of the
+strongest, the seizure in the interest of a dominant class of the
+strategic points of the nation's life. They learned that between the
+ideal of individualism, unrestrained by society, and the ideal of
+democracy, was an innate conflict; that their very ambitions and
+forcefulness had endangered their democracy. The significance of the
+Mississippi Valley in American history has lain partly in the fact that
+it was a region of revolt. Here have arisen varied, sometimes
+ill-considered, but always devoted, movements for ameliorating the lot
+of the common man in the interests of democracy. Out of the Mississippi
+Valley have come successive and related tidal waves of popular demand
+for real or imagined legislative safeguards to their rights and their
+social ideals. The Granger movement, the Greenback movement, the
+Populist movement, Bryan Democracy, and Roosevelt Republicanism all
+found their greatest strength in the Mississippi Valley. They were
+Mississippi Valley ideals in action. Its people were learning by
+experiment and experience how to grapple with the fundamental problem of
+creating a just social order that shall sustain the free, progressive,
+individual in a real democracy. The Mississippi Valley is asking, "What
+shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?"
+
+The Mississippi Valley has furnished a new social order to America. Its
+universities have set new types of institutions for social service and
+for the elevation of the plain people. Its historians should recount its
+old ambitions, and inventory its ideals, as well as its resources, for
+the information of the present age, to the end that building on its
+past, the mighty Valley may have a significance in the life of the
+nation even more profound than any which I have recounted.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[177:1] Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association for
+1909-10. Reprinted with the permission of the Association.
+
+[177:2] _Harper's Magazine_, February, 1900, p. 413.
+
+[178:1] Roosevelt, "The Northwest in the Nation," in "Proceedings of the
+Wisconsin Historical Society," Fortieth Annual Meeting, p. 92.
+
+[182:1] "Franklin's Works," iv, p. 141.
+
+[186:1] [See the author's paper in _American Historical Review_, x, p.
+245.]
+
+[187:1] Cutler's "Cutler," ii, p. 372.
+
+[188:1] "Jefferson's Works," iv, p. 431.
+
+[189:1] [See on the Cotton Kingdom, U. B. Phillips, "History of
+Slavery"; W. G. Brown, "Lower South"; W. E. Dodd, "Expansion and
+Conflict"; F. J. Turner, "New West."]
+
+[198:1] "Congressional Globe," 35th Congress, First Session, Appendix,
+p. 70.
+
+[199:1] "Seward's Works" (Boston, 1884), iv, p. 319.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+THE PROBLEM OF THE WEST[205:1]
+
+
+The problem of the West is nothing less than the problem of American
+development. A glance at the map of the United States reveals the truth.
+To write of a "Western sectionalism," bounded on the east by the
+Alleghanies, is, in itself, to proclaim the writer a provincial. What is
+the West? What has it been in American life? To have the answers to
+these questions, is to understand the most significant features of the
+United States of to-day.
+
+The West, at bottom, is a form of society, rather than an area. It is
+the term applied to the region whose social conditions result from the
+application of older institutions and ideas to the transforming
+influences of free land. By this application, a new environment is
+suddenly entered, freedom of opportunity is opened, the cake of custom
+is broken, and new activities, new lines of growth, new institutions and
+new ideals, are brought into existence. The wilderness disappears, the
+"West" proper passes on to a new frontier, and in the former area, a new
+society has emerged from its contact with the backwoods. Gradually this
+society loses its primitive conditions, and assimilates itself to the
+type of the older social conditions of the East; but it bears within it
+enduring and distinguishing survivals of its frontier experience. Decade
+after decade, West after West, this rebirth of American society has gone
+on, has left its traces behind it, and has reacted on the East. The
+history of our political institutions, our democracy, is not a history
+of imitation, of simple borrowing; it is a history of the evolution and
+adaptation of organs in response to changed environment, a history of
+the origin of new political species. In this sense, therefore, the West
+has been a constructive force of the highest significance in our life.
+To use the words of that acute and widely informed observer, Mr. Bryce,
+"The West is the most American part of America. . . . What Europe is to
+Asia, what America is to England, that the Western States and
+Territories are to the Atlantic States."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The West, as a phase of social organization, began with the Atlantic
+coast, and passed across the continent. But the colonial tide-water area
+was in close touch with the Old World, and soon lost its Western
+aspects. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the newer social
+conditions appeared along the upper waters of the tributaries of the
+Atlantic. Here it was that the West took on its distinguishing features,
+and transmitted frontier traits and ideals to this area in later days.
+On the coast, were the fishermen and skippers, the merchants and
+planters, with eyes turned toward Europe. Beyond the falls of the rivers
+were the pioneer farmers, largely of non-English stock, Scotch-Irish and
+German. They constituted a distinct people, and may be regarded as an
+expansion of the social and economic life of the middle region into the
+back country of the South. These frontiersmen were the ancestors of
+Boone, Andrew Jackson, Calhoun, Clay, and Lincoln. Washington and
+Jefferson were profoundly affected by these frontier conditions. The
+forest clearings have been the seed plots of American character.
+
+In the Revolutionary days, the settlers crossed the Alleghanies and put
+a barrier between them and the coast. They became, to use their phrases,
+"the men of the Western waters," the heirs of the "Western world." In
+this era, the backwoodsmen, all along the western slopes of the
+mountains, with a keen sense of the difference between them and the
+dwellers on the coast, demanded organization into independent States of
+the Union. Self-government was their ideal. Said one of their rude, but
+energetic petitions for statehood: "Some of our fellow-citizens may
+think we are not able to conduct our affairs and consult our interests;
+but if our society is rude, much wisdom is not necessary to supply our
+wants, and a fool can sometimes put on his clothes better than a wise
+man can do it for him." This forest philosophy is the philosophy of
+American democracy. But the men of the coast were not ready to admit its
+implications. They apportioned the State legislatures so that the
+property-holding minority of the tide-water lands were able to outvote
+the more populous back countries. A similar system was proposed by
+Federalists in the constitutional convention of 1787. Gouverneur Morris,
+arguing in favor of basing representation on property as well as
+numbers, declared that "he looked forward, also, to that range of new
+States which would soon be formed in the West. He thought the rule of
+representation ought to be so fixed, as to secure to the Atlantic States
+a prevalence in the national councils." "The new States," said he, "will
+know less of the public interest than these; will have an interest in
+many respects different; in particular will be little scrupulous of
+involving the community in wars, the burdens and operations of which
+would fall chiefly on the maritime States. Provision ought, therefore,
+to be made to prevent the maritime States from being hereafter outvoted
+by them." He added that the Western country "would not be able to
+furnish men equally enlightened to share in the administration of our
+common interests. The busy haunts of men, not the remote wilderness, was
+the proper school of political talents. If the Western people get power
+into their hands, they will ruin the Atlantic interest. The back
+members are always most averse to the best measures." Add to these
+utterances of Gouverneur Morris the impassioned protest of Josiah
+Quincy, of Massachusetts, in the debates in the House of
+Representatives, on the admission of Louisiana. Referring to the
+discussion over the slave votes and the West in the constitutional
+convention, he declared, "Suppose, then, that it had been distinctly
+foreseen that, in addition to the effect of this weight, the whole
+population of a world beyond the Mississippi was to be brought into this
+and the other branch of the legislature, to form our laws, control our
+rights, and decide our destiny. Sir, can it be pretended that the
+patriots of that day would for one moment have listened to it? . . .
+They had not taken degrees at the hospital of idiocy. . . . Why, sir, I
+have already heard of six States, and some say there will be, at no
+great distant time, more. I have also heard that the mouth of the Ohio
+will be far to the east of the center of the contemplated empire. . . .
+You have no authority to throw the rights and property of this people
+into 'hotch-pot' with the wild men on the Missouri, nor with the mixed,
+though more respectable, race of Anglo-Hispano-Gallo-Americans who bask
+on the sands in the mouth of the Mississippi. . . . Do you suppose the
+people of the Northern and Atlantic States will, or ought to, look on
+with patience and see Representatives and Senators from the Red River
+and Missouri, pouring themselves upon this and the other floor, managing
+the concerns of a seaboard fifteen hundred miles, at least, from their
+residence; and having a preponderancy in councils into which,
+constitutionally, they could never have been admitted?"
+
+Like an echo from the fears expressed by the East at the close of the
+eighteenth century come the words of an eminent Eastern man of
+letters[208:1] at the end of the nineteenth century, in warning against
+the West: "Materialized in their temper; with few ideals of an ennobling
+sort; little instructed in the lessons of history; safe from exposure to
+the direct calamities and physical horrors of war; with undeveloped
+imaginations and sympathies--they form a community unfortunate and
+dangerous from the possession of power without a due sense of its
+corresponding responsibilities; a community in which the passion for war
+may easily be excited as the fancied means by which its greatness may be
+convincingly exhibited, and its ambitions gratified. . . . Some chance
+spark may fire the prairie."
+
+Here, then, is the problem of the West, as it looked to New England
+leaders of thought in the beginning and at the end of this century. From
+the first, it was recognized that a new type was growing up beyond the
+seaboard, and that the time would come when the destiny of the nation
+would be in Western hands. The divergence of these societies became
+clear in the struggle over the ratification of the federal constitution.
+The up-country agricultural regions, the communities that were in debt
+and desired paper money, with some Western exceptions, opposed the
+instrument; but the areas of intercourse and property carried the day.
+
+It is important to understand, therefore, what were some of the ideals
+of this early Western democracy. How did the frontiersman differ from
+the man of the coast?
+
+The most obvious fact regarding the man of the Western Waters is that he
+had placed himself under influences destructive to many of the gains of
+civilization. Remote from the opportunity for systematic education,
+substituting a log hut in the forest-clearing for the social comforts of
+the town, he suffered hardships and privations, and reverted in many
+ways to primitive conditions of life. Engaged in a struggle to subdue
+the forest, working as an individual, and with little specie or
+capital, his interests were with the debtor class. At each stage of its
+advance, the West has favored an expansion of the currency. The pioneer
+had boundless confidence in the future of his own community, and when
+seasons of financial contraction and depression occurred, he, who had
+staked his all on confidence in Western development, and had fought the
+savage for his home, was inclined to reproach the conservative sections
+and classes. To explain this antagonism requires more than denunciation
+of dishonesty, ignorance, and boorishness as fundamental Western traits.
+Legislation in the United States has had to deal with two distinct
+social conditions. In some portions of the country there was, and is, an
+aggregation of property, and vested rights are in the foreground: in
+others, capital is lacking, more primitive conditions prevail, with
+different economic and social ideals, and the contentment of the average
+individual is placed in the foreground. That in the conflict between
+these two ideals an even hand has always been held by the government
+would be difficult to show.
+
+The separation of the Western man from the seaboard, and his
+environment, made him in a large degree free from European precedents
+and forces. He looked at things independently and with small regard or
+appreciation for the best Old World experience. He had no ideal of a
+philosophical, eclectic nation, that should advance civilization by
+"intercourse with foreigners and familiarity with their point of view,
+and readiness to adopt whatever is best and most suitable in their
+ideas, manners, and customs." His was rather the ideal of conserving and
+developing what was original and valuable in this new country. The
+entrance of old society upon free lands meant to him opportunity for a
+new type of democracy and new popular ideals. The West was not
+conservative: buoyant self-confidence and self-assertion were
+distinguishing traits in its composition. It saw in its growth nothing
+less than a new order of society and state. In this conception were
+elements of evil and elements of good.
+
+But the fundamental fact in regard to this new society was its relation
+to land. Professor Boutmy has said of the United States, "Their one
+primary and predominant object is to cultivate and settle these
+prairies, forests, and vast waste lands. The striking and peculiar
+characteristic of American society is that it is not so much a democracy
+as a huge commercial company for the discovery, cultivation, and
+capitalization of its enormous territory. The United States are
+primarily a commercial society, and only secondarily a nation." Of
+course, this involves a serious misapprehension. By the very fact of the
+task here set forth, far-reaching ideals of the state and of society
+have been evolved in the West, accompanied by loyalty to the nation
+representative of these ideals. But M. Boutmy's description hits the
+substantial fact, that the fundamental traits of the man of the interior
+were due to the free lands of the West. These turned his attention to
+the great task of subduing them to the purposes of civilization, and to
+the task of advancing his economic and social status in the new
+democracy which he was helping to create. Art, literature, refinement,
+scientific administration, all had to give way to this Titanic labor.
+Energy, incessant activity, became the lot of this new American. Says a
+traveler of the time of Andrew Jackson, "America is like a vast
+workshop, over the door of which is printed in blazing characters, 'No
+admittance here, except on business.'" The West of our own day reminds
+Mr. Bryce "of the crowd which Vathek found in the hall of Eblis, each
+darting hither and thither with swift steps and unquiet mien, driven to
+and fro by a fire in the heart. Time seems too short for what they have
+to do, and the result always to come short of their desire."
+
+But free lands and the consciousness of working out their social
+destiny did more than turn the Westerner to material interests and
+devote him to a restless existence. They promoted equality among the
+Western settlers, and reacted as a check on the aristocratic influences
+of the East. Where everybody could have a farm, almost for taking it,
+economic equality easily resulted, and this involved political equality.
+Not without a struggle would the Western man abandon this ideal, and it
+goes far to explain the unrest in the remote West to-day.
+
+Western democracy included individual liberty, as well as equality. The
+frontiersman was impatient of restraints. He knew how to preserve order,
+even in the absence of legal authority. If there were cattle thieves,
+lynch law was sudden and effective: the regulators of the Carolinas were
+the predecessors of the claims associations of Iowa and the vigilance
+committees of California. But the individual was not ready to submit to
+complex regulations. Population was sparse, there was no multitude of
+jostling interests, as in older settlements, demanding an elaborate
+system of personal restraints. Society became atomic. There was a
+reproduction of the primitive idea of the personality of the law, a
+crime was more an offense against the victim than a violation of the law
+of the land. Substantial justice, secured in the most direct way, was
+the ideal of the backwoodsman. He had little patience with finely drawn
+distinctions or scruples of method. If the thing was one proper to be
+done, then the most immediate, rough and ready, effective way was the
+best way.
+
+It followed from the lack of organized political life, from the atomic
+conditions of the backwoods society, that the individual was exalted and
+given free play. The West was another name for opportunity. Here were
+mines to be seized, fertile valleys to be preëmpted, all the natural
+resources open to the shrewdest and the boldest. The United States is
+unique in the extent to which the individual has been given an open
+field, unchecked by restraints of an old social order, or of scientific
+administration of government. The self-made man was the Western man's
+ideal, was the kind of man that all men might become. Out of his
+wilderness experience, out of the freedom of his opportunities, he
+fashioned a formula for social regeneration,--the freedom of the
+individual to seek his own. He did not consider that his conditions were
+exceptional and temporary.
+
+Under such conditions, leadership easily develops,--a leadership based
+on the possession of the qualities most serviceable to the young
+society. In the history of Western settlement, we see each forted
+village following its local hero. Clay, Jackson, Harrison, Lincoln, were
+illustrations of this tendency in periods when the Western hero rose to
+the dignity of national hero.
+
+The Western man believed in the manifest destiny of his country. On his
+border, and checking his advance, were the Indian, the Spaniard, and the
+Englishman. He was indignant at Eastern indifference and lack of
+sympathy with his view of his relations to these peoples; at the
+short-sightedness of Eastern policy. The closure of the Mississippi by
+Spain, and the proposal to exchange our claim of freedom of navigating
+the river, in return for commercial advantages to New England, nearly
+led to the withdrawal of the West from the Union. It was the Western
+demands that brought about the purchase of Louisiana, and turned the
+scale in favor of declaring the War of 1812. Militant qualities were
+favored by the annual expansion of the settled area in the face of
+hostile Indians and the stubborn wilderness. The West caught the vision
+of the nation's continental destiny. Henry Adams, in his History of the
+United States, makes the American of 1800 exclaim to the foreign
+visitor, "Look at my wealth! See these solid mountains of salt and
+iron, of lead, copper, silver, and gold. See these magnificent cities
+scattered broadcast to the Pacific! See my cornfields rustling and
+waving in the summer breeze from ocean to ocean, so far that the sun
+itself is not high enough to mark where the distant mountains bound my
+golden seas. Look at this continent of mine, fairest of created worlds,
+as she lies turning up to the sun's never failing caress her broad and
+exuberant breasts, overflowing with milk for her hundred million
+children." And the foreigner saw only dreary deserts, tenanted by
+sparse, ague-stricken pioneers and savages. The cities were log huts and
+gambling dens. But the frontiersman's dream was prophetic. In spite of
+his rude, gross nature, this early Western man was an idealist withal.
+He dreamed dreams and beheld visions. He had faith in man, hope for
+democracy, belief in America's destiny, unbounded confidence in his
+ability to make his dreams come true. Said Harriet Martineau in 1834, "I
+regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now moody, now wild,
+but bringing out results of absolute good sense: restless and wayward in
+action, but with deep peace at his heart; exulting that he has caught
+the true aspect of things past, and the depth of futurity which lies
+before him, wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
+scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a nation that
+is capable of being possessed with an idea."
+
+It is important to bear this idealism of the West in mind. The very
+materialism that has been urged against the West was accompanied by
+ideals of equality, of the exaltation of the common man, of national
+expansion, that makes it a profound mistake to write of the West as
+though it were engrossed in mere material ends. It has been, and is,
+preëminently a region of ideals, mistaken or not.
+
+It is obvious that these economic and social conditions were so
+fundamental in Western life that they might well dominate whatever
+accessions came to the West by immigration from the coast sections or
+from Europe. Nevertheless, the West cannot be understood without bearing
+in mind the fact that it has received the great streams from the North
+and from the South, and that the Mississippi compelled these currents to
+intermingle. Here it was that sectionalism first gave way under the
+pressure of unification. Ultimately the conflicting ideas and
+institutions of the old sections struggled for dominance in this area
+under the influence of the forces that made for uniformity, but this is
+merely another phase of the truth that the West must become unified,
+that it could not rest in sectional groupings. For precisely this reason
+the struggle occurred. In the period from the Revolution to the close of
+the War of 1812, the democracy of the Southern and Middle States
+contributed the main streams of settlement and social influence to the
+West. Even in Ohio political power was soon lost by the New England
+leaders. The democratic spirit of the Middle region left an indelible
+impress on the West in this its formative period. After the War of 1812,
+New England, its supremacy in the carrying trade of the world having
+vanished, became a hive from which swarms of settlers went out to
+western New York and the remoter regions.
+
+These settlers spread New England ideals of education and character and
+political institutions, and acted as a leaven of great significance in
+the Northwest. But it would be a mistake to believe that an unmixed New
+England influence took possession of the Northwest. These pioneers did
+not come from the class that conserved the type of New England
+civilization pure and undefiled. They represented a less contented, less
+conservative influence. Moreover, by their sojourn in the Middle Region,
+on their westward march, they underwent modification, and when the
+farther West received them, they suffered a forest-change, indeed. The
+Westernized New England man was no longer the representative of the
+section that he left. He was less conservative, less provincial, more
+adaptable and approachable, less rigorous in his Puritan ideals, less a
+man of culture, more a man of action.
+
+As might have been expected, therefore, the Western men, in the "era of
+good feeling," had much homogeneity throughout the Mississippi Valley,
+and began to stand as a new national type. Under the lead of Henry Clay
+they invoked the national government to break down the mountain barrier
+by internal improvements, and thus to give their crops an outlet to the
+coast. Under him they appealed to the national government for a
+protective tariff to create a home market. A group of frontier States
+entered the Union with democratic provisions respecting the suffrage,
+and with devotion to the nation that had given them their lands, built
+their roads and canals, regulated their territorial life, and made them
+equals in the sisterhood of States. At last these Western forces of
+aggressive nationalism and democracy took possession of the government
+in the person of the man who best embodied them, Andrew Jackson. This
+new democracy that captured the country and destroyed the ideals of
+statesmanship came from no theorist's dreams of the German forest. It
+came, stark and strong and full of life, from the American forest. But
+the triumph of this Western democracy revealed also the fact that it
+could rally to its aid the laboring classes of the coast, then just
+beginning to acquire self-consciousness and organization.
+
+The next phase of Western development revealed forces of division
+between the northern and southern portions of the West. With the spread
+of the cotton culture went the slave system and the great plantation.
+The small farmer in his log cabin, raising varied crops, was displaced
+by the planter raising cotton. In all except the mountainous areas the
+industrial organization of the tidewater took possession of the
+Southwest, the unity of the back country was broken, and the solid South
+was formed. In the Northwest this was the era of railroads and canals,
+opening the region to the increasing stream of Middle State and New
+England settlement, and strengthening the opposition to slavery. A map
+showing the location of the men of New England ancestry in the Northwest
+would represent also the counties in which the Free Soil party cast its
+heaviest votes. The commercial connections of the Northwest likewise
+were reversed by the railroad. The result is stated by a writer in _De
+Bow's Review_ in 1852 in these words:--
+
+     "What is New Orleans now? Where are her dreams of greatness
+     and glory? . . . Whilst she slept, an enemy has sowed tares in
+     her most prolific fields. Armed with energy, enterprise, and
+     an indomitable spirit, that enemy, by a system of bold,
+     vigorous, and sustained efforts, has succeeded in reversing
+     the very laws of nature and of nature's God,--rolled back the
+     mighty tide of the Mississippi and its thousand tributary
+     streams, until their mouth, practically and commercially, is
+     more at New York or Boston than at New Orleans."
+
+The West broke asunder, and the great struggle over the social system to
+be given to the lands beyond the Mississippi followed. In the Civil War
+the Northwest furnished the national hero,--Lincoln was the very flower
+of frontier training and ideals,--and it also took into its hands the
+whole power of the government. Before the war closed, the West could
+claim the President, Vice-President, Chief Justice, Speaker of the
+House, Secretary of the Treasury, Postmaster-General, Attorney-General,
+General of the army, and Admiral of the navy. The leading generals of
+the war had been furnished by the West. It was the region of action,
+and in the crisis it took the reins.
+
+The triumph of the nation was followed by a new era of Western
+development. The national forces projected themselves across the
+prairies and plains. Railroads, fostered by government loans and land
+grants, opened the way for settlement and poured a flood of European
+immigrants and restless pioneers from all sections of the Union into the
+government lands. The army of the United States pushed back the Indian,
+rectangular Territories were carved into checkerboard States, creations
+of the federal government, without a history, without physiographical
+unity, without particularistic ideas. The later frontiersman leaned on
+the strong arm of national power.
+
+At the same time the South underwent a revolution. The plantation, based
+on slavery, gave place to the farm, the gentry to the democratic
+elements. As in the West, new industries, of mining and of manufacture,
+sprang up as by magic. The New South, like the New West, was an area of
+construction, a debtor area, an area of unrest; and it, too, had learned
+the uses to which federal legislation might be put.
+
+In the meantime the Old Northwest[218:1] passed through an economic and
+social transformation. The whole West furnished an area over which
+successive waves of economic development have passed. The State of
+Wisconsin, now much like parts of the State of New York, was at an
+earlier period like the State of Nebraska of to-day; the Granger
+movement and Greenback party had for a time the ascendancy; and in the
+northern counties of the State, where there is a sparser population, and
+the country is being settled, its sympathies are still with the debtor
+class. Thus the Old Northwest is a region where the older frontier
+conditions survive in parts, and where the inherited ways of looking at
+things are largely to be traced to its frontier days. At the same time
+it is a region in many ways assimilated to the East. It understands both
+sections. It is not entirely content with the existing structure of
+economic society in the sections where wealth has accumulated and
+corporate organizations are powerful; but neither has it seemed to feel
+that its interests lie in supporting the program of the prairies and the
+South. In the Fifty-third Congress it voted for the income tax, but it
+rejected free coinage. It is still affected by the ideal of the
+self-made man, rather than by the ideal of industrial nationalism. It is
+more American, but less cosmopolitan than the seaboard.
+
+We are now in a position to see clearly some of the factors involved in
+the Western problem. For nearly three centuries the dominant fact in
+American life has been expansion. With the settlement of the Pacific
+coast and the occupation of the free lands, this movement has come to a
+check. That these energies of expansion will no longer operate would be
+a rash prediction; and the demands for a vigorous foreign policy, for an
+interoceanic canal, for a revival of our power upon the seas, and for
+the extension of American influence to outlying islands and adjoining
+countries, are indications that the movement will continue. The
+stronghold of these demands lies west of the Alleghanies.
+
+In the remoter West, the restless, rushing wave of settlement has broken
+with a shock against the arid plains. The free lands are gone, the
+continent is crossed, and all this push and energy is turning into
+channels of agitation. Failures in one area can no longer be made good
+by taking up land on a new frontier; the conditions of a settled society
+are being reached with suddenness and with confusion. The West has been
+built up with borrowed capital, and the question of the stability of
+gold, as a standard of deferred payments, is eagerly agitated by the
+debtor West, profoundly dissatisfied with the industrial conditions that
+confront it, and actuated by frontier directness and rigor in its
+remedies. For the most part, the men who built up the West beyond the
+Mississippi, and who are now leading the agitation,[220:1] came as
+pioneers from the old Northwest, in the days when it was just passing
+from the stage of a frontier section. For example, Senator Allen of
+Nebraska, president of the recent national Populist Convention, and a
+type of the political leaders of his section, was born in Ohio in the
+middle of the century, went in his youth to Iowa, and not long after the
+Civil War made his home in Nebraska. As a boy, he saw the buffalo driven
+out by the settlers; he saw the Indian retreat as the pioneer advanced.
+His training is that of the old West, in its frontier days. And now the
+frontier opportunities are gone. Discontent is demanding an extension of
+governmental activity in its behalf. In these demands, it finds itself
+in touch with the depressed agricultural classes and the workingmen of
+the South and East. The Western problem is no longer a sectional
+problem: it is a social problem on a national scale. The greater West,
+extending from the Alleghanies to the Pacific, cannot be regarded as a
+unit; it requires analysis into regions and classes. But its area, its
+population, and its material resources would give force to its assertion
+that if there is a sectionalism in the country, the sectionalism is
+Eastern. The old West, united to the new South, would produce, not a new
+sectionalism, but a new Americanism. It would not mean sectional
+disunion, as some have speculated, but it might mean a drastic assertion
+of national government and imperial expansion under a popular hero.
+
+This, then, is the real situation: a people composed of heterogeneous
+materials, with diverse and conflicting ideals and social interests,
+having passed from the task of filling up the vacant spaces of the
+continent, is now thrown back upon itself, and is seeking an
+equilibrium. The diverse elements are being fused into national unity.
+The forces of reorganization are turbulent and the nation seems like a
+witches' kettle.
+
+But the West has its own centers of industrial life and culture not
+unlike those of the East. It has State universities, rivaling in
+conservative and scientific economic instruction those of any other part
+of the Union, and its citizens more often visit the East, than do
+Eastern men the West. As time goes on, its industrial development will
+bring it more into harmony with the East.
+
+Moreover, the Old Northwest holds the balance of power, and is the
+battlefield on which these issues of American development are to be
+settled. It has more in common with all parts of the nation than has any
+other region. It understands the East, as the East does not understand
+the West. The White City which recently rose on the shores of Lake
+Michigan fitly typified its growing culture as well as its capacity for
+great achievement. Its complex and representative industrial
+organization and business ties, its determination to hold fast to what
+is original and good in its Western experience, and its readiness to
+learn and receive the results of the experience of other sections and
+nations, make it an open-minded and safe arbiter of the American
+destiny.
+
+In the long run the "Center of the Republic" may be trusted to strike a
+wise balance between the contending ideals. But she does not deceive
+herself; she knows that the problem of the West means nothing less than
+the problem of working out original social ideals and social adjustments
+for the American nation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[205:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, September, 1896. Reprinted by permission.
+
+[208:1] Charles Eliot Norton.
+
+[218:1] The present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and
+Wisconsin.
+
+[220:1] [Written in the year of Mr. Bryan's first presidential
+campaign.]
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+DOMINANT FORCES IN WESTERN LIFE[222:1]
+
+
+The Old Northwest is a name which tells of the vestiges which the march
+of settlement across the American continent has left behind it. The New
+Northwest fronts the watery labyrinth of Puget Sound and awaits its
+destiny upon the Pacific. The Old Northwest, the historic Northwest
+Territory, is now the new Middle Region of the United States. A century
+ago it was a wilderness, broken only by a few French settlements and the
+straggling American hamlets along the Ohio and its tributaries, while,
+on the shore of Lake Erie, Moses Cleaveland had just led a handful of
+men to the Connecticut Reserve. To-day it is the keystone of the
+American Commonwealth. Since 1860 the center of population of the United
+States has rested within its limits, and the center of manufacturing in
+the nation lies eight miles from President McKinley's Ohio home. Of the
+seven men who have been elected to the presidency of the United States
+since 1860, six have come from the Old Northwest, and the seventh came
+from the kindred region of western New York. The congressional
+Representatives from these five States of the Old Northwest already
+outnumber those from the old Middle States, and are three times as
+numerous as those from New England.
+
+The elements that have contributed to the civilization of this region
+are therefore well worth consideration. To know the States that make up
+the Old Northwest--Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin--one
+must understand their social origins.
+
+Eldest in this sisterhood was Ohio. New England gave the formative
+impulses to this State by the part which the Ohio Company played in
+securing the Ordinance of 1787, and at Marietta and Cleveland
+Massachusetts and Connecticut planted enduring centers of Puritan
+influence. During the same period New Jersey and Pennsylvania sent their
+colonists to the Symmes Purchase, in which Cincinnati was the
+rallying-point, while Virginians sought the Military Bounty Lands in the
+region of Chillicothe. The Middle States and the South, with their
+democratic ideas, constituted the dominant element in Ohio politics in
+the early part of her history. This dominance is shown by the nativity
+of the members of the Ohio legislature elected in 1820: New England
+furnished nine Senators and sixteen Representatives, chiefly from
+Connecticut; New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, seventeen Senators
+and twenty-one Representatives, mostly from Pennsylvania; while the
+South furnished nine Senators and twenty-seven Representatives, of whom
+the majority came from Virginia. Five of the Representatives were native
+of Ireland, presumably Scotch-Irishmen. In the Ohio Senate, therefore,
+the Middle States had as many representatives as had New England and the
+South together, while the Southern men slightly outnumbered the Middle
+States men in the Assembly. Together, the emigrants from the Democratic
+South and Middle Region outnumbered the Federalist New Englanders three
+to one. Although Ohio is popularly considered a child of New England, it
+is clear that in these formative years of her statehood the commonwealth
+was dominated by other forces.
+
+By the close of this early period, in 1820, the settlement in Ohio had
+covered more or less fully all except the northwest corner of the State,
+and Indiana's formative period was well started. Here, as in Ohio,
+there was a large Southern element. But while the Southern stream that
+flowed into Ohio had its sources in Virginia, the main current that
+sought Indiana came from North Carolina; and these settlers were for the
+most part from the humbler classes. In the settlement of Indiana from
+the South two separate elements are distinguishable: the Quaker
+migration from North Carolina, moving chiefly because of anti-slavery
+convictions; the "poor white" stream, made up in part of restless
+hunters and thriftless pioneers moving without definite ambitions, and
+in part of other classes, such as former overseers, migrating to the new
+country with definite purpose of improving their fortunes.
+
+These elements constituted well-marked features in the Southern
+contribution to Indiana, and they explain why she has been named the
+Hoosier State; but it should by no means be thought that all of the
+Southern immigrants came under these classes, nor that these have been
+the normal elements in the development of the Indiana of to-day. In the
+Northwest, where interstate migration has been so continuous and
+widespread, the lack of typical State peculiarities is obvious, and the
+student of society, like the traveler, is tempted, in his effort to
+distinguish the community from its neighbors, to exaggerate the odd and
+exceptional elements which give a particular flavor to the State.
+Indiana has suffered somewhat from this tendency; but it is undoubted
+that these peculiarities of origin left deep and abiding influences upon
+the State. In 1820 her settlement was chiefly in the southern counties,
+where Southern and Middle States influence was dominant. Her two United
+States Senators were Virginians by birth, while her Representative was
+from Pennsylvania. The Southern element continued so powerful that one
+student of Indiana origins has estimated that in 1850 one-third of the
+population of the State were native Carolinians and their children in
+the first generation. Not until a few years before the Civil War did the
+Northern current exert a decisive influence upon Indiana. She had no
+such lake ports as had her sister States, and extension of settlement
+into the State from ports like Chicago was interrupted by the less
+attractive area of the northwestern part of Indiana. Add to this the
+geological fact that the limestone ridges and the best soils ran in
+nearly perpendicular belts northward from the Ohio, and it will be seen
+how circumstances combined to diminish Northern and to facilitate
+Southern influences in the State prior to the railroad development.
+
+In Illinois, also, the current of migration was at first preponderantly
+Southern, but the settlers were less often from the Atlantic coast.
+Kentucky and Tennessee were generous contributors, but many of the
+distinguished leaders came from Virginia, and it is worthy of note that
+in 1820 the two United States Senators of Illinois were of Maryland
+ancestry, while her Representative was of Kentucky origin. The swarms of
+land-seekers between 1820 and 1830 ascended the Illinois river, and
+spread out between that river and the Mississippi. It was in this period
+that Abraham Lincoln's father, who had come from Kentucky to Indiana,
+again left his log cabin and traveled by ox-team with his family to the
+popular Illinois county of Sangamon. Here Lincoln split his famous rails
+to fence their land, and grew up under the influences of this migration
+of the Southern pioneers to the prairies. They were not predominantly of
+the planter class; but the fierce contest in 1824 over the proposition
+to open Illinois to slavery was won for freedom by a narrow majority.
+
+Looking at the three States, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, prior to 1850,
+we perceive how important was the voice of the South here, and we can
+the more easily understand the early affiliation of the Northwest with
+her sister States to the south on the Western waters. It was not
+without reason that the proposal of the Missouri Compromise came from
+Illinois, and it was a natural enthusiasm with which these States
+followed Henry Clay in the war policy of 1812. The combination of the
+South, the western portion of the Middle States, and the Mississippi
+Valley gave the ascendancy to the democratic ideals of the followers of
+Jefferson, and left New England a weakened and isolated section for
+nearly half a century. Many of the most characteristic elements in
+American life in the first part of the century were due to this
+relationship between the South and the trans-Alleghany region. But even
+thus early the Northwest had revealed strong predilections for the
+Northern economic ideals as against the peculiar institution of the
+South, and this tendency grew with the increase of New England
+immigration.
+
+The northern two in this sisterhood of Northwestern States were the
+first to be entered by the French, but latest by the English settlers.
+Why Michigan was not occupied by New York men at an earlier period is at
+first sight not easy to understand. Perhaps the adverse reports of
+surveyors who visited the interior of the State, the partial
+geographical isolation, and the unprogressive character of the French
+settlers account for the tardy occupation of the area. Certain it is
+that while the southern tier of States was sought by swarms of settlers,
+Wisconsin and Michigan still echoed to Canadian boating-songs, and
+voyageurs paddled their birch canoes along the streams of the wilderness
+to traffic with the savages. Great Britain maintained the dominant
+position until after the War of 1812, and the real center of authority
+was in Canada.
+
+But after the digging of the Erie Canal, settlement began to turn into
+Michigan. Between 1830 and 1840 the population of the State leaped from
+31,000 to 212,000, in the face of the fact that the heavy debt of the
+State and the crisis of 1837 turned from her borders many of the
+thrifty, debt-hating Germans. The vast majority of the settlers were New
+Yorkers. Michigan is distinctly a child of the Empire State. Canadians,
+both French and English, continued to come as the lumber interests of
+the region increased. By 1850 Michigan contained nearly 400,000
+inhabitants, who occupied the southern half of the State.
+
+But she now found an active competitor for settlement in Wisconsin. In
+this region two forces had attracted the earlier inhabitants. The
+fur-trading posts of Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, and Milwaukee
+constituted one element, in which the French influence was continued.
+The lead region of the southwest corner of the State formed the center
+of attraction for Illinois and Southern pioneers. The soldiers who
+followed Black Hawk's trail in 1832 reported the richness of the soil,
+and an era of immigration followed. To the port of Milwaukee came a
+combined migration from western New York and New England, and spread
+along the southern tier of prairie counties until it met the Southern
+settlers in the lead region. Many of the early political contests in the
+State were connected, as in Ohio and Illinois, with the antagonisms
+between the sections thus brought together in a limited area.
+
+The other element in the formation of Wisconsin was that of the Germans,
+then just entering upon their vast immigration to the United States.
+Wisconsin was free from debt; she made a constitution of exceptional
+liberality to foreigners, and instead of treasuring her school lands or
+using them for internal improvements, she sold them for almost nothing
+to attract immigration. The result was that the prudent Germans, who
+loved light taxes and cheap hard wood lands, turned toward
+Wisconsin,--another _Völkerwanderung_. From Milwaukee as a center they
+spread north along the shore of Lake Michigan, and later into northern
+central Wisconsin, following the belt of the hardwood forests. So
+considerable were their numbers that such an economist as Roscher wrote
+of the feasibility of making Wisconsin a German State. "They can plant
+the vine on the hills," cried Franz Löher in 1847, "and drink with happy
+song and dance; they can have German schools and universities, German
+literature and art, German science and philosophy, German courts and
+assemblies; in short, they can form a German State, in which the German
+language shall be as much the popular and official language as the
+English is now, and in which the German spirit shall rule." By 1860 the
+German-born were sixteen per cent of the population of the State. But
+the New York and New England stream proved even more broad and steady in
+its flow in these years before the war. Wisconsin's population rose from
+30,000 in 1840 to 300,000 in 1850.
+
+The New England element that entered this State is probably typical of
+the same element in Wisconsin's neighboring States, and demands notice.
+It came for the most part, not from the seaboard of Massachusetts, which
+has so frequently represented New England to the popular apprehension. A
+large element in this stock was the product of the migration that
+ascended the valleys of Connecticut and central Massachusetts through
+the hills into Vermont and New York,--a pioneer folk almost from the
+time of their origin. The Vermont colonists decidedly outnumbered those
+of Massachusetts in both Michigan and Wisconsin, and were far more
+numerous in other Northwestern States than the population of Vermont
+warranted. Together with this current came the settlers from western New
+York. These were generally descendants of this same pioneer New England
+stock, continuing into a remoter West the movement that had brought
+their parents to New York. The combined current from New England and New
+York thus constituted a distinctly modified New England stock, and was
+clearly the dominant native element in Michigan and Wisconsin.
+
+The decade of the forties was also the period of Iowa's rapid increase.
+Although not politically a part of the Old Northwest, in history she is
+closely related to that region. Her growth was by no means so rapid as
+was Wisconsin's, for the proportion of foreign immigration was less.
+Whereas in 1850 more than one-third of Wisconsin's population was
+foreign-born, the proportion for Iowa was not much over one-tenth. The
+main body of her people finally came from the Middle States, and
+Illinois and Ohio; but Southern elements were well represented,
+particularly among her political leaders.
+
+The middle of the century was the turning-point in the transfer of
+control in the Northwest. Below the line of the old national turnpike,
+marked by the cities of Columbus, Indianapolis, Vandalia, and St. Louis,
+the counties had acquired a stability of settlement; and partly because
+of the Southern element, partly because of a natural tendency of new
+communities toward Jacksonian ideals, these counties were preponderantly
+Democratic. But the Southern migration had turned to the cotton areas of
+the Southwest, and the development of railroads and canals had broken
+the historic commercial ascendancy of the Mississippi River; New Orleans
+was yielding the scepter to New York. The tide of migration from the
+North poured along these newly opened channels, and occupied the less
+settled counties above the national turnpike. In cities like Columbus
+and Indianapolis, where the two currents had run side by side, the
+combined elements were most clearly marked, but in the Northwest as a
+whole a varied population had been formed. This region seemed to
+represent and understand the various parts of the Union. It was this
+aspect which Mr. Vinton, of Ohio, urged in Congress when he made his
+notable speech in favor of the admission of Iowa. He pleaded the
+mission of the Northwest as the mediator between the sections and the
+unifying agency in the nation, with such power and pathos as to thrill
+even John Quincy Adams.
+
+But there are some issues which cannot be settled by compromise,
+tendencies one of which must conquer the other. Such an issue the slave
+power raised, and raised too late for support in the upper half of the
+Mississippi Basin. The Northern and the Southern elements found
+themselves in opposition to each other. "A house divided against itself
+cannot stand," said Abraham Lincoln, a Northern leader of Southern
+origin. Douglas, a leader of the Southern forces, though coming from New
+England, declared his indifference whether slavery were voted up or down
+in the Western Territories. The historic debates between these two
+champions reveal the complex conditions in the Northwest, and take on a
+new meaning when considered in the light of this contest between the
+Northern and the Southern elements. The State that had been so potent
+for compromise was at last the battle-ground itself, and the places
+selected for the various debates of Lincoln and Douglas marked the
+strongholds and the outposts of the antagonistic forces.
+
+At this time the kinship of western New York and the dominant element in
+the Northwest was clearly revealed. Speaking for the anti-slavery forces
+at Madison, Wisconsin, in 1860, Seward said: "The Northwest is by no
+means so small as you may think it. I speak to you because I feel that I
+am, and during all my mature life have been, one of you. Although of New
+York, I am still a citizen of the Northwest. The Northwest extends
+eastward to the base of the Alleghany Mountains, and does not all of
+western New York lie westward of the Alleghany Mountains? Whence comes
+all the inspiration of free soil which spreads itself with such cheerful
+voices over all these plains? Why, from New York westward of the
+Alleghany Mountains. The people before me,--who are you but New York
+men, while you are men of the Northwest?" In the Civil War, western New
+York and the Northwest were powerful in the forum and in the field. A
+million soldiers came from the States that the Ordinance, passed by
+Southern votes, had devoted to freedom.
+
+This was the first grave time of trial for the Northwest, and it did
+much eventually to give to the region a homogeneity and
+self-consciousness. But at the close of the war the region was still
+agricultural, only half-developed; still breaking ground in northern
+forests; still receiving contributions of peoples which radically
+modified the social organism, and undergoing economic changes almost
+revolutionary in their rapidity and extent. The changes since the war
+are of more social importance, in many respects, than those in the years
+commonly referred to as the formative period. As a result, the Northwest
+finds herself again between contending forces, sharing the interests of
+East and West, as once before those of North and South, and forced to
+give her voice on issues of equal significance for the destiny of the
+republic.
+
+In these transforming years since 1860, Ohio, finding the magician's
+talisman that revealed the treasury of mineral wealth, gas, and
+petroleum beneath her fields, has leaped to a front rank among the
+manufacturing States of the Union. Potential on the Great Lakes by
+reason of her ports of Toledo and Cleveland, tapping the Ohio river
+artery of trade at Cincinnati, and closely connected with all the vast
+material development of the upper waters of this river in western
+Pennsylvania and West Virginia, Ohio has become distinctly a part of the
+eastern social organism, much like the State of Pennsylvania. The
+complexity of her origin still persists. Ohio has no preponderant social
+center; her multiplicity of colleges and universities bears tribute to
+the diversity of the elements that have made the State. One-third of
+her people are of foreign parentage (one or both parents foreign-born),
+and the city of Cincinnati has been deeply affected by the German stock,
+while Cleveland strongly reflects the influence of the New England
+element. That influence is still very palpable, but it is New England in
+the presence of natural gas, iron, and coal, New England shaped by blast
+and forge. The Middle State ideals will dominate Ohio's future.
+
+Bucolic Indiana, too, within the last decade has come into the
+possession of gas-fields and has increased the exploitation of her coals
+until she seems destined to share in the industrial type represented by
+Ohio. Cities have arisen, like a dream, on the sites of country
+villages. But Indiana has a much smaller proportion of foreign elements
+than any other State of the Old Northwest, and it is the Southern
+element that still differentiates her from her sisters. While Ohio's
+political leaders still attest the Puritan migration, Indiana's clasp
+hands with the leaders from the South.
+
+The Southern elements continue also to reveal themselves in the
+Democratic southwestern counties of Illinois, grouped like a broad delta
+of the Illinois River, while northern Illinois holds a larger proportion
+of descendants of the Middle States and New England. About one-half her
+population is of foreign parentage, in which the German, Irish, and
+Scandinavians furnish the largest elements. She is a great agricultural
+State and a great manufacturing State, the connecting link between the
+Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Her metropolis, Chicago, is the very
+type of Northwestern development for good and for evil. It is an epitome
+of her composite nationality. A recent writer, analyzing the school
+census of Chicago, points out that "only two cities in the German
+Empire, Berlin and Hamburg, have a greater German population than
+Chicago; only two in Sweden, Stockholm and Göteborg, have more Swedes;
+and only two in Norway, Christiana and Bergen, have more Norwegians";
+while the Irish, Polish, Bohemians, and Dutch elements are also largely
+represented. But in spite of her rapidity of growth and her complex
+elements, Chicago stands as the representative of the will-power and
+genius for action of the Middle West, and the State of Illinois will be
+the battle-ground for social and economic ideals for the next
+generation.
+
+Michigan is two States. The northern peninsula is cut off from the
+southern physically, industrially, and in the history of settlement. It
+would seem that her natural destiny was with Wisconsin, or some possible
+new State embracing the iron and copper, forest and shipping areas of
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota on Lake Superior. The lower peninsula
+of Michigan is the daughter of New York and over twelve per cent of
+Michigan's present population were born in that State, and her traits
+are those of the parent State. Over half her population is of foreign
+parentage, of which Canada and England together have furnished one-half,
+while the Germans outnumber any other single foreign element. The State
+has undergone a steady industrial development, exploiting her northern
+mines and forests, developing her lumber interests with Saginaw as the
+center, raising fruits along the lake shore counties, and producing
+grain in the middle trough of counties running from Saginaw Bay to the
+south of Lake Michigan. Her state university has been her peculiar
+glory, furnishing the first model for the state university, and it is
+the educational contribution of the Northwest to the nation.
+
+Wisconsin's future is dependent upon the influence of the large
+proportion of her population of foreign parentage, for nearly
+three-fourths of her inhabitants are of that class. She thus has a
+smaller percentage of native population than any other of the States
+formed from the Old Northwest. Of this foreign element the Germans
+constitute by far the largest part, with the Scandinavians second. Her
+American population born outside of Wisconsin comes chiefly from New
+York. In contrast with the Ohio River States, she lacks the Southern
+element. Her greater foreign population and her dairy interests contrast
+with Michigan's Canadian and English elements and fruit culture. Her
+relations are more Western than Michigan's by reason of her connection
+with the Mississippi and the prairie States. Her foreign element is
+slightly less than Minnesota's, and in the latter State the
+Scandinavians take the place held by the Germans in Wisconsin. The
+facility with which the Scandinavians catch the spirit of Western
+America and assimilate with their neighbors is much greater than is the
+case with the Germans, so that Wisconsin seems to offer opportunity for
+non-English influence in a greater degree than her sister on the west.
+While Minnesota's economic development has heretofore been closely
+dependent on the wheat-producing prairies, the opening of the iron
+fields of the Mesabi and Vermilion ranges, together with the development
+of St. Paul and Minneapolis, Duluth and West Superior, and the
+prospective achievement of a deep-water communication with the Atlantic,
+seem to offer to that State a new and imperial industrial destiny.
+Between this stupendous economic future to the northwest and the
+colossal growth of Chicago on the southeast Wisconsin seems likely to
+become a middle agricultural area, developing particularly into a dairy
+State. She is powerfully affected by the conservative tendencies of her
+German element in times of political agitation and of proposals of
+social change.
+
+Some of the social modifications in this State are more or less typical
+of important processes at work among the neighboring States of the Old
+Northwest. In the north, the men who built up the lumber interests of
+the State, who founded a mill town surrounded by the stumps of the pine
+forests which they exploited for the prairie markets, have acquired
+wealth and political power. The spacious and well-appointed home of the
+town-builder may now be seen in many a northern community, in a group of
+less pretentious homes of operatives and tradesmen, the social
+distinctions between them emphasized by the difference in nationality. A
+few years before, this captain of industry was perhaps actively engaged
+in the task of seeking the best "forties" or directing the operations of
+his log-drivers. His wife and daughters make extensive visits to Europe,
+his sons go to some university, and he himself is likely to acquire
+political position, or to devote his energies to saving the town from
+industrial decline, as the timber is cut away, by transforming it into a
+manufacturing center for more finished products. Still others continue
+their activity among the forests of the South. This social history of
+the timber areas of Wisconsin has left clear indications in the
+development of the peculiar political leadership in the northern portion
+of the State.
+
+In the southern and middle counties of the State, the original
+settlement of the native American pioneer farmer, a tendency is showing
+itself to divide the farms and to sell to thrifty Germans, or to
+cultivate the soil by tenants, while the farmer retires to live in the
+neighboring village, and perhaps to organize creameries and develop a
+dairy business. The result is that a replacement of nationalities is in
+progress. Townships and even counties once dominated by the native
+American farmers of New York extraction are now possessed by Germans or
+other European nationalities. Large portions of the retail trades of the
+towns are also passing into German hands, while the native element seeks
+the cities, the professions, or mercantile enterprises of larger
+character. The non-native element shows distinct tendencies to dwell in
+groups. One of the most striking illustrations of this fact is the
+community of New Glarus, in Wisconsin, formed by a carefully organized
+migration from Glarus in Switzerland, aided by the canton itself. For
+some years this community was a miniature Swiss canton in social
+organization and customs, but of late it has become increasingly
+assimilated to the American type, and has left an impress by
+transforming the county in which it is from a grain-raising to a dairy
+region.
+
+From Milwaukee as a center, the influence of the Germans upon the social
+customs and ideals of Wisconsin has been marked. Milwaukee has many of
+the aspects of a German city, and has furnished a stronghold of
+resistance to native American efforts to enact rigid temperance
+legislation, laws regulative of parochial schools, and similar attempts
+to bend the German type to the social ideas of the pioneer American
+stock. In the last presidential election, the German area of the State
+deserted the Democratic party, and its opposition to free silver was a
+decisive factor in the overwhelming victory of the Republicans in
+Wisconsin. With all the evidence of the persistence of the influence of
+this nationality, it is nevertheless clear that each decade marks an
+increased assimilation and homogeneity in the State; but the result is a
+compromise, and not a conquest by either element.
+
+The States of the Old Northwest gave to McKinley a plurality of over
+367,000 out of a total vote of about 3,734,000. New England and the
+Middle States together gave him a plurality of 979,000 in about the same
+vote, while the farther West gave to Bryan a decisive net plurality. It
+thus appears that the Old Northwest occupied the position of a political
+middle region between East and West. The significance of this position
+is manifest when it is recalled that this section is the child of the
+East and the mother of the Populistic West.
+
+The occupation of the Western prairies was determined by forces similar
+to those which settled the Old Northwest. In the decade before the war,
+Minnesota succeeded to the place held by Wisconsin as the Mecca of
+settlers in the prior decade. To Wisconsin and New York she owes the
+largest proportion of her native settlers born outside of the State.
+Kansas and Nebraska were settled most rapidly in the decade following
+the war, and had a large proportion of soldiers in their American
+immigrants. Illinois and Ohio together furnished about one-third of the
+native settlers of these States, but the element coming from Southern
+States was stronger in Kansas than in Nebraska. Both these States have
+an exceptionally large proportion of native whites as compared with
+their neighbors among the prairie States. Kansas, for example, has about
+twenty-six per cent of persons of foreign parentage, while Nebraska has
+about forty-two, Iowa forty-three, South Dakota sixty, Wisconsin
+seventy-three, Minnesota seventy-five, and North Dakota seventy-nine.
+North Dakota's development was greatest in the decade prior to 1890. Her
+native stock came in largest numbers from Wisconsin, with New York,
+Minnesota, and Iowa next in order. The growth of South Dakota occupied
+the two decades prior to the census of 1890, and she has recruited her
+native element from Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York.
+
+In consequence of the large migration from the States of the Old
+Northwest to the virgin soils of these prairie States many counties in
+the parent States show a considerable decline in growth in the decade
+before 1890. There is significance in the fact that, with the exception
+of Iowa, these prairie States, the colonies of the Old Northwest, gave
+Bryan votes in the election of 1896 in the ratio of their proportion of
+persons of native parentage. North Dakota, with the heaviest foreign
+element, was carried for McKinley, while South Dakota, with a much
+smaller foreign vote, went for Bryan. Kansas and Nebraska rank with Ohio
+in their native percentage, and they were the center of prairie
+Populism. Of course, there were other important local economic and
+political explanations for this ratio, but it seems to have a basis of
+real meaning. Certain it is that the leaders of the silver movement came
+from the native element furnished by the Old Northwest. The original
+Populists in the Kansas legislature of 1891 were born in different
+States as follows: in Ohio, twelve; Indiana, six; Illinois, five; New
+York, four; Pennsylvania, two; Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine, one
+each,--making a total, for the Northern current, of thirty-two. Of the
+remaining eighteen, thirteen were from the South, and one each from
+Kansas, Missouri, California, England and Ireland. Nearly all were
+Methodists and former Republicans.[238:1]
+
+Looking at the silver movement more largely, we find that of the Kansas
+delegation in the Fifty-fourth Congress, one was born in Kansas, and the
+rest in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Maine.
+All of the Nebraska delegation in the House came from the Old Northwest
+or from Iowa. The biographies of the two Representatives from the State
+of Washington tell an interesting story. These men came as children to
+the pine woods of Wisconsin, took up public lands, and worked on the
+farm and in the pineries. One passed on to a homestead in Nebraska
+before settling in Washington. Thus they kept one stage ahead of the
+social transformations of the West. This is the usual training of the
+Western politicians. If the reader would see a picture of the
+representative Kansas Populist, let him examine the family portraits of
+the Ohio farmer in the middle of this century.
+
+In a word, the Populist is the American farmer who has kept in advance
+of the economic and social transformations that have overtaken those
+who remained behind. While, doubtless, investigation into the ancestry
+of the Populists and "silver men" who came to the prairies from the Old
+Northwest would show a large proportion of Southern origin, yet the
+center of discontent seems to have been among the men of the New England
+and New York current. If New England looks with care at these men, she
+may recognize in them the familiar lineaments of the embattled farmers
+who fired the shot heard round the world. The continuous advance of this
+pioneer stock from New England has preserved for us the older type of
+the pioneer of frontier New England.
+
+I do not overlook the transforming influences of the wilderness on this
+stock ever since it left the earlier frontier to follow up the valleys
+of western Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont, into western New
+York, into Ohio, into Iowa, and out to the arid plains of western Kansas
+and Nebraska; nor do I overlook the peculiar industrial conditions of
+the prairie States. But I desire to insist upon the other truth, also,
+that these westward immigrants, keeping for generations in advance of
+the transforming industrial and social forces that have wrought so vast
+a revolution in the older regions of the East which they left, could not
+but preserve important aspects of the older farmer type. In the arid
+West these pioneers have halted and have turned to perceive an altered
+nation and changed social ideals. They see the sharp contrast between
+their traditional idea of America, as the land of opportunity, the land
+of the self-made man, free from class distinctions and from the power of
+wealth, and the existing America, so unlike the earlier ideal. If we
+follow back the line of march of the Puritan farmer, we shall see how
+responsive he has always been to _isms_, and how persistently he has
+resisted encroachments on his ideals of individual opportunity and
+democracy. He is the prophet of the "higher law" in Kansas before the
+Civil War. He is the Prohibitionist of Iowa and Wisconsin, crying out
+against German customs as an invasion of his traditional ideals. He is
+the Granger of Wisconsin, passing restrictive railroad legislation. He
+is the Abolitionist, the Anti-mason, the Millerite, the Woman
+Suffragist, the Spiritualist, the Mormon, of Western New York. Follow
+him to his New England home in the turbulent days of Shays' rebellion,
+paper money, stay and tender laws, and land banks. The radicals among
+these New England farmers hated lawyers and capitalists. "I would not
+trust them," said Abraham White, in the ratification convention of
+Massachusetts, in 1788, "though every one of them should be a Moses."
+"These lawyers," cried Amos Singletary, "and men of learning and moneyed
+men that talk so finely and gloss over matters so smoothly to make us
+poor illiterate people swallow the pill, expect to get into Congress
+themselves! They mean to get all the money into their hands, and then
+they will swallow up all us little folk, like the Leviathan, Mr.
+President; yea, just as the whale swallowed up Jonah."
+
+If the voice of Mary Ellen Lease sounds raucous to the New England man
+to-day, while it is sweet music in the ears of the Kansas farmer, let
+him ponder the utterances of these frontier farmers in the days of the
+Revolution; and if he is still doubtful of this spiritual kinship, let
+him read the words of the levelers and sectaries of Cromwell's army.
+
+The story of the political leaders who remained in the place of their
+birth and shared its economic changes differs from the story of those
+who by moving to the West continued on a new area the old social type.
+In the throng of Scotch-Irish pioneers that entered the uplands of the
+Carolinas in the second quarter of the eighteenth century were the
+ancestors of Calhoun and of Andrew Jackson. Remaining in this region,
+Calhoun shared the transformations of the South Carolina interior. He
+saw it change from the area of the pioneer farmers to an area of great
+planters raising cotton by slave labor. This explains the transformation
+of the nationalist and protectionist Calhoun of 1816 into the
+state-sovereignty and free-trade Calhoun. Jackson, on the other hand,
+left the region while it was still a frontier, shared the frontier life
+of Tennessee, and reflected the democracy and nationalism of his people.
+Henry Clay lived long enough in the kindred State of Kentucky to see it
+pass from a frontier to a settled community, and his views on slavery
+reflected the transitional history of that State. Lincoln, on the other
+hand, born in Kentucky in 1809, while the State was still under frontier
+conditions, migrated in 1816 to Indiana, and in 1830 to Illinois. The
+pioneer influences of his community did much to shape his life, and the
+development of the raw frontiersman into the statesman was not unlike
+the development of his own State. Political leaders who experienced the
+later growth of the Northwest, like Garfield, Hayes, Harrison, and
+McKinley, show clearly the continued transformations of the section. But
+in the days when the Northwest was still in the gristle, she sent her
+sons into the newer West to continue the views of life and the policies
+of the half-frontier region they had left.
+
+To-day, the Northwest, standing between her ancestral connections in the
+East and her children in the West, partly like the East, partly like the
+West, finds herself in a position strangely like that in the days of the
+slavery struggle, when her origins presented to her a "divided duty."
+But these issues are not with the same imperious "Which?" as was the
+issue of freedom or slavery.
+
+Looking at the Northwest as a whole, one sees, in the character of its
+industries and in the elements of its population, it is identified on
+the east with the zone of States including the middle region and New
+England. Cotton culture and the negro make a clear line of division
+between the Old Northwest and the South. And yet in important historical
+ideals--in the process of expansion, in the persistence of agricultural
+interests, in impulsiveness, in imperialistic ways of looking at the
+American destiny, in hero-worship, in the newness of its present social
+structure--the Old Northwest has much in common with the South and the
+Far West.
+
+Behind her is the old pioneer past of simple democratic conditions, and
+freedom of opportunity for all men. Before her is a superb industrial
+development, the brilliancy of success as evinced in a vast population,
+aggregate wealth, and sectional power.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[222:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, April, 1897. Published by permission.
+
+[238:1] For this information I am indebted to Professor F. W. Blackmar,
+of the University of Kansas.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEST TO AMERICAN DEMOCRACY[243:1]
+
+
+Political thought in the period of the French Revolution tended to treat
+democracy as an absolute system applicable to all times and to all
+peoples, a system that was to be created by the act of the people
+themselves on philosophical principles. Ever since that era there has
+been an inclination on the part of writers on democracy to emphasize the
+analytical and theoretical treatment to the neglect of the underlying
+factors of historical development.
+
+If, however, we consider the underlying conditions and forces that
+create the democratic type of government, and at times contradict the
+external forms to which the name democracy is applied, we shall find
+that under this name there have appeared a multitude of political types
+radically unlike in fact.
+
+The careful student of history must, therefore, seek the explanation of
+the forms and changes of political institutions in the social and
+economic forces that determine them. To know that at any one time a
+nation may be called a democracy, an aristocracy, or a monarchy, is not
+so important as to know what are the social and economic tendencies of
+the state. These are the vital forces that work beneath the surface and
+dominate the external form. It is to changes in the economic and social
+life of a people that we must look for the forces, that ultimately
+create and modify organs of political action.
+
+For the time, adaptation of political structure may be incomplete or
+concealed. Old organs will be utilized to express new forces, and so
+gradual and subtle will be the change that it may hardly be recognized.
+The pseudo-democracies under the Medici at Florence and under Augustus
+at Rome are familiar examples of this type. Or again, if the political
+structure be rigid, incapable of responding to the changes demanded by
+growth, the expansive forces of social and economic transformation may
+rend it in some catastrophe like that of the French Revolution. In
+all these changes both conscious ideals and unconscious social
+reorganization are at work.
+
+These facts are familiar to the student, and yet it is doubtful if they
+have been fully considered in connection with American democracy. For a
+century at least, in conventional expression, Americans have referred to
+a "glorious Constitution" in explaining the stability and prosperity of
+their democracy. We have believed as a nation that other peoples had
+only to will our democratic institutions in order to repeat our own
+career.
+
+In dealing with Western contributions to democracy, it is essential that
+the considerations which have just been mentioned shall be kept in mind.
+Whatever these contributions may have been, we find ourselves at the
+present time in an era of such profound economic and social
+transformation as to raise the question of the effect of these changes
+upon the democratic institutions of the United States. Within a decade
+four marked changes have occurred in our national development; taken
+together they constitute a revolution.
+
+First, there is the exhaustion of the supply of free land and the
+closing of the movement of Western advance as an effective factor in
+American development. The first rough conquest of the wilderness is
+accomplished, and that great supply of free lands which year after year
+has served to reinforce the democratic influences in the United States
+is exhausted. It is true that vast tracts of government land are still
+untaken, but they constitute the mountain and arid regions, only a small
+fraction of them capable of conquest, and then only by the application
+of capital and combined effort. The free lands that made the American
+pioneer have gone.
+
+In the second place, contemporaneously with this there has been such a
+concentration of capital in the control of fundamental industries as to
+make a new epoch in the economic development of the United States. The
+iron, the coal, and the cattle of the country have all fallen under the
+domination of a few great corporations with allied interests, and by the
+rapid combination of the important railroad systems and steamship lines,
+in concert with these same forces, even the breadstuffs and the
+manufactures of the nation are to some degree controlled in a similar
+way. This is largely the work of the last decade. The development of the
+greatest iron mines of Lake Superior occurred in the early nineties, and
+in the same decade came the combination by which the coal and the coke
+of the country, and the transportation systems that connect them with
+the iron mines, have been brought under a few concentrated managements.
+Side by side with this concentration of capital has gone the combination
+of labor in the same vast industries. The one is in a certain sense the
+concomitant of the other, but the movement acquires an additional
+significance because of the fact that during the past fifteen years the
+labor class has been so recruited by a tide of foreign immigration that
+this class is now largely made up of persons of foreign parentage, and
+the lines of cleavage which begin to appear in this country between
+capital and labor have been accentuated by distinctions of nationality.
+
+A third phenomenon connected with the two just mentioned is the
+expansion of the United States politically and commercially into lands
+beyond the seas. A cycle of American development has been completed. Up
+to the close of the War of 1812, this country was involved in the
+fortunes of the European state system. The first quarter of a century of
+our national existence was almost a continual struggle to prevent
+ourselves being drawn into the European wars. At the close of that era
+of conflict, the United States set its face toward the West. It began
+the settlement and improvement of the vast interior of the country. Here
+was the field of our colonization, here the field of our political
+activity. This process being completed, it is not strange that we find
+the United States again involved in world-politics. The revolution that
+occurred four years ago, when the United States struck down that ancient
+nation under whose auspices the New World was discovered, is hardly yet
+more than dimly understood. The insular wreckage of the Spanish War,
+Porto Rico and the Philippines, with the problems presented by the
+Hawaiian Islands, Cuba, the Isthmian Canal, and China, all are
+indications of the new direction of the ship of state, and while we thus
+turn our attention overseas, our concentrated industrial strength has
+given us a striking power against the commerce of Europe that is already
+producing consternation in the Old World. Having completed the conquest
+of the wilderness, and having consolidated our interests, we are
+beginning to consider the relations of democracy and empire.
+
+And fourth, the political parties of the United States, now tend to
+divide on issues that involve the question of Socialism. The rise of the
+Populist party in the last decade, and the acceptance of so many of its
+principles by the Democratic party under the leadership of Mr. Bryan,
+show in striking manner the birth of new political ideas, the
+reformation of the lines of political conflict.
+
+It is doubtful if in any ten years of American history more significant
+factors in our growth have revealed themselves. The struggle of the
+pioneer farmers to subdue the arid lands of the Great Plains in the
+eighties was followed by the official announcement of the extinction of
+the frontier line in 1890. The dramatic outcome of the Chicago
+Convention of 1896 marked the rise into power of the representatives of
+Populistic change. Two years later came the battle of Manila, which
+broke down the old isolation of the nation, and started it on a path the
+goal of which no man can foretell; and finally, but two years ago came
+that concentration of which the billion and a half dollar steel trust
+and the union of the Northern continental railways are stupendous
+examples. Is it not obvious, then, that the student who seeks for the
+explanation of democracy in the social and economic forces that underlie
+political forms must make inquiry into the conditions that have produced
+our democratic institutions, if he would estimate the effect of these
+vast changes? As a contribution to this inquiry, let us now turn to an
+examination of the part that the West has played in shaping our
+democracy.
+
+From the beginning of the settlement of America, the frontier regions
+have exercised a steady influence toward democracy. In Virginia, to take
+an example, it can be traced as early as the period of Bacon's
+Rebellion, a hundred years before our Declaration of Independence. The
+small landholders, seeing that their powers were steadily passing into
+the hands of the wealthy planters who controlled Church and State and
+lands, rose in revolt. A generation later, in the governorship of
+Alexander Spotswood, we find a contest between the frontier settlers and
+the property-holding classes of the coast. The democracy with which
+Spotswood had to struggle, and of which he so bitterly complained, was a
+democracy made up of small landholders, of the newer immigrants, and of
+indented servants, who at the expiration of their time of servitude
+passed into the interior to take up lands and engage in pioneer farming.
+The "War of the Regulation," just on the eve of the American Revolution,
+shows the steady persistence of this struggle between the classes of the
+interior and those of the coast. The Declaration of Grievances which the
+back counties of the Carolinas then drew up against the aristocracy that
+dominated the politics of those colonies exhibits the contest between
+the democracy of the frontier and the established classes who
+apportioned the legislature in such fashion as to secure effective
+control of government. Indeed, in a period before the outbreak of the
+American Revolution, one can trace a distinct belt of democratic
+territory extending from the back country of New England down through
+western New York, Pennsylvania, and the South.[248:1]
+
+In each colony this region was in conflict with the dominant classes of
+the coast. It constituted a quasi-revolutionary area before the days of
+the Revolution, and it formed the basis on which the Democratic party
+was afterwards established. It was, therefore, in the West, as it was in
+the period before the Declaration of Independence, that the struggle for
+democratic development first revealed itself, and in that area the
+essential ideas of American democracy had already appeared. Through the
+period of the Revolution and of the Confederation a similar contest can
+be noted. On the frontier of New England, along the western border of
+Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, and in the communities beyond
+the Alleghany Mountains, there arose a demand of the frontier settlers
+for independent statehood based on democratic provisions. There is a
+strain of fierceness in their energetic petitions demanding
+self-government under the theory that every people have the right to
+establish their own political institutions in an area which they have
+won from the wilderness. Those revolutionary principles based on
+natural rights, for which the seaboard colonies were contending, were
+taken up with frontier energy in an attempt to apply them to the lands
+of the West. No one can read their petitions denouncing the control
+exercised by the wealthy landholders of the coast, appealing to the
+record of their conquest of the wilderness, and demanding the possession
+of the lands for which they have fought the Indians, and which they had
+reduced by their ax to civilization, without recognizing in these
+frontier communities the cradle of a belligerent Western democracy. "A
+fool can sometimes put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for
+him,"--such is the philosophy of its petitioners. In this period also
+came the contests of the interior agricultural portion of New England
+against the coast-wise merchants and property-holders, of which Shays'
+Rebellion is the best known, although by no means an isolated instance.
+
+By the time of the constitutional convention, this struggle for
+democracy had affected a fairly well-defined division into parties.
+Although these parties did not at first recognize their interstate
+connections, there were similar issues on which they split in almost all
+the States. The demands for an issue of paper money, the stay of
+execution against debtors, and the relief against excessive taxation
+were found in every colony in the interior agricultural regions. The
+rise of this significant movement wakened the apprehensions of the men
+of means, and in the debates over the basis of suffrage for the House of
+Representatives in the constitutional convention of 1787 leaders of the
+conservative party did not hesitate to demand that safeguards to the
+property should be furnished the coast against the interior. The outcome
+of the debate left the question of suffrage for the House of
+Representatives dependent upon the policy of the separate States. This
+was in effect imposing a property qualification throughout the nation as
+a whole, and it was only as the interior of the country developed that
+these restrictions gradually gave way in the direction of manhood
+suffrage.
+
+All of these scattered democratic tendencies Jefferson combined, in the
+period of Washington's presidency, into the Democratic-Republican party.
+Jefferson was the first prophet of American democracy, and when we
+analyse the essential features of his gospel, it is clear that the
+Western influence was the dominant element. Jefferson himself was born
+in the frontier region of Virginia, on the edge of the Blue Ridge, in
+the middle of the eighteenth century. His father was a pioneer.
+Jefferson's "Notes on Virginia" reveal clearly his conception that
+democracy should have an agricultural basis, and that manufacturing
+development and city life were dangerous to the purity of the body
+politic. Simplicity and economy in government, the right of revolution,
+the freedom of the individual, the belief that those who win the vacant
+lands are entitled to shape their own government in their own
+way,--these are all parts of the platform of political principles to
+which he gave his adhesion, and they are all elements eminently
+characteristic of the Western democracy into which he was born.
+
+In the period of the Revolution he had brought in a series of measures
+which tended to throw the power of Virginia into the hands of the
+settlers in the interior rather than of the coastwise aristocracy. The
+repeal of the laws of entail and primogeniture would have destroyed the
+great estates on which the planting aristocracy based its power. The
+abolition of the Established Church would still further have diminished
+the influence of the coastwise party in favor of the dissenting sects of
+the interior. His scheme of general public education reflected the same
+tendency, and his demand for the abolition of slavery was characteristic
+of a representative of the West rather than of the old-time aristocracy
+of the coast. His sympathy with the Western expansion culminated in the
+Louisiana Purchase. In short, the tendencies of Jefferson's legislation
+were to replace the dominance of the planting aristocracy by the
+dominance of the interior class, which had sought in vain to achieve its
+liberties in the period of Bacon's Rebellion.
+
+Nevertheless, Thomas Jefferson was the John the Baptist of democracy,
+not its Moses. Only with the slow setting of the tide of settlement
+farther and farther toward the interior did the democratic influence
+grow strong enough to take actual possession of the government. The
+period from 1800 to 1820 saw a steady increase in these tendencies. The
+established classes in New England and the South began to take alarm.
+Perhaps no better illustration of the apprehensions of the old-time
+Federal conservative can be given than these utterances of President
+Dwight, of Yale College, in the book of travels which he published in
+that period:--
+
+     The class of pioneers cannot live in regular society. They are
+     too idle, too talkative, too passionate, too prodigal, and too
+     shiftless to acquire either property or character. They are
+     impatient of the restraints of law, religion, and morality,
+     and grumble about the taxes by which the Rulers, Ministers,
+     and Schoolmasters are supported. . . . After exposing the
+     injustice of the community in neglecting to invest persons of
+     such superior merit in public offices, in many an eloquent
+     harangue uttered by many a kitchen fire, in every blacksmith
+     shop, in every corner of the streets, and finding all their
+     efforts vain, they become at length discouraged, and under the
+     pressure of poverty, the fear of the gaol, and consciousness
+     of public contempt, leave their native places and betake
+     themselves to the wilderness.
+
+Such was a conservative's impression of that pioneer movement of New
+England colonists who had spread up the valley of the Connecticut into
+New Hampshire, Vermont, and western New York in the period of which he
+wrote, and who afterwards went on to possess the Northwest. New England
+Federalism looked with a shudder at the democratic ideas of those who
+refused to recognize the established order. But in that period there
+came into the Union a sisterhood of frontier States--Ohio, Indiana,
+Illinois, Missouri--with provisions for the franchise that brought in
+complete democracy.
+
+Even the newly created States of the Southwest showed the tendency. The
+wind of democracy blew so strongly from the West, that even in the older
+States of New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia,
+conventions were called, which liberalized their constitutions by
+strengthening the democratic basis of the State. In the same time the
+labor population of the cities began to assert its power and its
+determination to share in government. Of this frontier democracy which
+now took possession of the nation, Andrew Jackson was the very
+personification. He was born in the backwoods of the Carolinas in the
+midst of the turbulent democracy that preceded the Revolution, and he
+grew up in the frontier State of Tennessee. In the midst of this region
+of personal feuds and frontier ideals of law, he quickly rose to
+leadership. The appearance of this frontiersman on the floor of Congress
+was an omen full of significance. He reached Philadelphia at the close
+of Washington's administration, having ridden on horseback nearly eight
+hundred miles to his destination. Gallatin, himself a Western man,
+describes Jackson as he entered the halls of Congress: "A tall, lank,
+uncouth-looking personage, with long locks of hair hanging over his face
+and a cue down his back tied in an eel-skin; his dress singular; his
+manners those of a rough backwoodsman." And Jefferson testified: "When I
+was President of the Senate he was a Senator, and he could never speak
+on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it
+repeatedly and as often choke with rage." At last the frontier in the
+person of its typical man had found a place in the Government. This
+six-foot backwoodsman, with blue eyes that could blaze on occasion, this
+choleric, impetuous, self-willed Scotch-Irish leader of men, this expert
+duelist, and ready fighter, this embodiment of the tenacious, vehement,
+personal West, was in politics to stay. The frontier democracy of that
+time had the instincts of the clansman in the days of Scotch border
+warfare. Vehement and tenacious as the democracy was, strenuously as
+each man contended with his neighbor for the spoils of the new country
+that opened before them, they all had respect for the man who best
+expressed their aspirations and their ideas. Every community had its
+hero. In the War of 1812 and the subsequent Indian fighting Jackson made
+good his claim, not only to the loyalty of the people of Tennessee, but
+of the whole West, and even of the nation. He had the essential traits
+of the Kentucky and Tennessee frontier. It was a frontier free from the
+influence of European ideas and institutions. The men of the "Western
+World" turned their backs upon the Atlantic Ocean, and with a grim
+energy and self-reliance began to build up a society free from the
+dominance of ancient forms.
+
+The Westerner defended himself and resented governmental restrictions.
+The duel and the blood-feud found congenial soil in Kentucky and
+Tennessee. The idea of the personality of law was often dominant over
+the organized machinery of justice. That method was best which was most
+direct and effective. The backwoodsman was intolerant of men who split
+hairs, or scrupled over the method of reaching the right. In a word, the
+unchecked development of the individual was the significant product of
+this frontier democracy. It sought rather to express itself by choosing
+a man of the people, than by the formation of elaborate governmental
+institutions.
+
+It was because Andrew Jackson personified these essential Western traits
+that in his presidency he became the idol and the mouthpiece of the
+popular will. In his assault upon the Bank as an engine of aristocracy,
+and in his denunciation of nullification, he went directly to his object
+with the ruthless energy of a frontiersman. For formal law and the
+subtleties of State sovereignty he had the contempt of a backwoodsman.
+Nor is it without significance that this typical man of the new
+democracy will always be associated with the triumph of the spoils
+system in national politics. To the new democracy of the West, office
+was an opportunity to exercise natural rights as an equal citizen of the
+community. Rotation in office served not simply to allow the successful
+man to punish his enemies and reward his friends, but it also furnished
+the training in the actual conduct of political affairs which every
+American claimed as his birthright. Only in a primitive democracy of the
+type of the United States in 1830 could such a system have existed
+without the ruin of the State. National government in that period was no
+complex and nicely adjusted machine, and the evils of the system were
+long in making themselves fully apparent.
+
+The triumph of Andrew Jackson marked the end of the old era of trained
+statesmen for the Presidency. With him began the era of the popular
+hero. Even Martin Van Buren, whom we think of in connection with the
+East, was born in a log house under conditions that were not unlike
+parts of the older West. Harrison was the hero of the Northwest, as
+Jackson had been of the Southwest. Polk was a typical Tennesseean, eager
+to expand the nation, and Zachary Taylor was what Webster called a
+"frontier colonel." During the period that followed Jackson, power
+passed from the region of Kentucky and Tennessee to the border of the
+Mississippi. The natural democratic tendencies that had earlier shown
+themselves in the Gulf States were destroyed, however, by the spread of
+cotton culture, and the development of great plantations in that region.
+What had been typical of the democracy of the Revolutionary frontier and
+of the frontier of Andrew Jackson was now to be seen in the States
+between the Ohio and the Mississippi. As Andrew Jackson is the typical
+democrat of the former region, so Abraham Lincoln is the very embodiment
+of the pioneer period of the Old Northwest. Indeed, he is the embodiment
+of the democracy of the West. How can one speak of him except in the
+words of Lowell's great "Commemoration Ode":--
+
+     "For him her Old-World moulds aside she threw,
+     And, choosing sweet clay from the breast
+         Of the unexhausted West,
+     With stuff untainted shaped a hero new,
+     Wise, steadfast in the strength of God, and true.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     His was no lonely mountain-peak of mind,
+     Thrusting to thin air o'er our cloudy bars,
+     A sea-mark now, now lost in vapors blind;
+     Broad prairie rather, genial, level-lined,
+     Fruitful and friendly for all human kind,
+     Yet also nigh to heaven and loved of loftiest stars.
+         Nothing of Europe here,
+     Or, then, of Europe fronting mornward still,
+     Ere any names of Serf and Peer,
+     Could Nature's equal scheme deface;
+     New birth of our new soil, the first American."
+
+The pioneer life from which Lincoln came differed in important respects
+from the frontier democracy typified by Andrew Jackson. Jackson's
+democracy was contentious, individualistic, and it sought the ideal of
+local self-government and expansion. Lincoln represents rather the
+pioneer folk who entered the forest of the great Northwest to chop out a
+home, to build up their fortunes in the midst of a continually ascending
+industrial movement. In the democracy of the Southwest, industrial
+development and city life were only minor factors, but to the democracy
+of the Northwest they were its very life. To widen the area of the
+clearing, to contend with one another for the mastery of the industrial
+resources of the rich provinces, to struggle for a place in the
+ascending movement of society, to transmit to one's offspring the chance
+for education, for industrial betterment, for the rise in life which the
+hardships of the pioneer existence denied to the pioneer himself, these
+were some of the ideals of the region to which Lincoln came. The men
+were commonwealth builders, industry builders. Whereas the type of hero
+in the Southwest was militant, in the Northwest he was industrial. It
+was in the midst of these "plain people," as he loved to call them, that
+Lincoln grew to manhood. As Emerson says: "He is the true history of the
+American people in his time." The years of his early life were the years
+when the democracy of the Northwest came into struggle with the
+institution of slavery which threatened to forbid the expansion of the
+democratic pioneer life in the West. In President Eliot's essay on "Five
+American Contributions to Civilization," he instances as one of the
+supreme tests of American democracy its attitude upon the question of
+slavery. But if democracy chose wisely and worked effectively toward the
+solution of this problem, it must be remembered that Western democracy
+took the lead. The rail-splitter himself became the nation's President
+in that fierce time of struggle, and armies of the woodsmen and pioneer
+farmers recruited in the Old Northwest made free the Father of Waters,
+marched through Georgia, and helped to force the struggle to a
+conclusion at Appomattox. The free pioneer democracy struck down the
+slave-holding aristocracy on its march to the West.
+
+The last chapter in the development of Western democracy is the one that
+deals with its conquest over the vast spaces of the new West. At each
+new stage of Western development, the people have had to grapple with
+larger areas, with bigger combinations. The little colony of
+Massachusetts veterans that settled at Marietta received a land grant as
+large as the State of Rhode Island. The band of Connecticut pioneers
+that followed Moses Cleaveland to the Connecticut Reserve occupied a
+region as large as the parent State. The area which settlers of New
+England stock occupied on the prairies of northern Illinois surpassed
+the combined area of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Men
+who had become accustomed to the narrow valleys and the little towns of
+the East found themselves out on the boundless spaces of the West
+dealing with units of such magnitude as dwarfed their former experience.
+The Great Lakes, the Prairies, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains,
+the Mississippi and the Missouri, furnished new standards of measurement
+for the achievement of this industrial democracy. Individualism began to
+give way to coöperation and to governmental activity. Even in the
+earlier days of the democratic conquest of the wilderness, demands had
+been made upon the government for support in internal improvements, but
+this new West showed a growing tendency to call to its assistance the
+powerful arm of national authority. In the period since the Civil War,
+the vast public domain has been donated to the individual farmer, to
+States for education, to railroads for the construction of
+transportation lines.
+
+Moreover, with the advent of democracy in the last fifteen years upon
+the Great Plains, new physical conditions have presented themselves
+which have accelerated the social tendency of Western democracy. The
+pioneer farmer of the days of Lincoln could place his family on a
+flatboat, strike into the wilderness, cut out his clearing, and with
+little or no capital go on to the achievement of industrial
+independence. Even the homesteader on the Western prairies found it
+possible to work out a similar independent destiny, although the factor
+of transportation made a serious and increasing impediment to the free
+working-out of his individual career. But when the arid lands and the
+mineral resources of the Far West were reached, no conquest was possible
+by the old individual pioneer methods. Here expensive irrigation works
+must be constructed, coöperative activity was demanded in utilization of
+the water supply, capital beyond the reach of the small farmer was
+required. In a word, the physiographic province itself decreed that the
+destiny of this new frontier should be social rather than individual.
+
+Magnitude of social achievement is the watchword of the democracy since
+the Civil War. From petty towns built in the marshes, cities arose whose
+greatness and industrial power are the wonder of our time. The
+conditions were ideal for the production of captains of industry. The
+old democratic admiration for the self-made man, its old deference to
+the rights of competitive individual development, together with the
+stupendous natural resources that opened to the conquest of the keenest
+and the strongest, gave such conditions of mobility as enabled the
+development of the large corporate industries which in our own decade
+have marked the West.
+
+Thus, in brief, have been outlined the chief phases of the development
+of Western democracy in the different areas which it has conquered.
+There has been a steady development of the industrial ideal, and a
+steady increase of the social tendency, in this later movement of
+Western democracy. While the individualism of the frontier, so prominent
+in the earliest days of the Western advance, has been preserved as an
+ideal, more and more these individuals struggling each with the other,
+dealing with vaster and vaster areas, with larger and larger problems,
+have found it necessary to combine under the leadership of the
+strongest. This is the explanation of the rise of those preëminent
+captains of industry whose genius has concentrated capital to control
+the fundamental resources of the nation. If now in the way of
+recapitulation, we try to pick out from the influences that have gone to
+the making of Western democracy the factors which constitute the net
+result of this movement, we shall have to mention at least the
+following:--
+
+Most important of all has been the fact that an area of free land has
+continually lain on the western border of the settled area of the United
+States. Whenever social conditions tended to crystallize in the East,
+whenever capital tended to press upon labor or political restraints to
+impede the freedom of the mass, there was this gate of escape to the
+free conditions of the frontier. These free lands promoted
+individualism, economic equality, freedom to rise, democracy. Men would
+not accept inferior wages and a permanent position of social
+subordination when this promised land of freedom and equality was theirs
+for the taking. Who would rest content under oppressive legislative
+conditions when with a slight effort he might reach a land wherein to
+become a co-worker in the building of free cities and free States on the
+lines of his own ideal? In a word, then, free lands meant free
+opportunities. Their existence has differentiated the American
+democracy from the democracies which have preceded it, because ever, as
+democracy in the East took the form of highly specialized and
+complicated industrial society, in the West it kept in touch with
+primitive conditions, and by action and reaction these two forces have
+shaped our history.
+
+In the next place, these free lands and this treasury of industrial
+resources have existed over such vast spaces that they have demanded of
+democracy increasing spaciousness of design and power of execution.
+Western democracy is contrasted with the democracy of all other times in
+the largeness of the tasks to which it has set its hand, and in the vast
+achievements which it has wrought out in the control of nature and of
+politics. It would be difficult to over-emphasize the importance of this
+training upon democracy. Never before in the history of the world has a
+democracy existed on so vast an area and handled things in the gross
+with such success, with such largeness of design, and such grasp upon
+the means of execution. In short, democracy has learned in the West of
+the United States how to deal with the problem of magnitude. The old
+historic democracies were but little states with primitive economic
+conditions.
+
+But the very task of dealing with vast resources, over vast areas, under
+the conditions of free competition furnished by the West, has produced
+the rise of those captains of industry whose success in consolidating
+economic power now raises the question as to whether democracy under
+such conditions can survive. For the old military type of Western
+leaders like George Rogers Clark, Andrew Jackson, and William Henry
+Harrison have been substituted such industrial leaders as James J. Hill,
+John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie.
+
+The question is imperative, then, What ideals persist from this
+democratic experience of the West; and have they acquired sufficient
+momentum to sustain themselves under conditions so radically unlike
+those in the days of their origin? In other words, the question put at
+the beginning of this discussion becomes pertinent. Under the forms of
+the American democracy is there in reality evolving such a concentration
+of economic and social power in the hands of a comparatively few men as
+may make political democracy an appearance rather than a reality? The
+free lands are gone. The material forces that gave vitality to Western
+democracy are passing away. It is to the realm of the spirit, to the
+domain of ideals and legislation, that we must look for Western
+influence upon democracy in our own days.
+
+Western democracy has been from the time of its birth idealistic. The
+very fact of the wilderness appealed to men as a fair, blank page on
+which to write a new chapter in the story of man's struggle for a higher
+type of society. The Western wilds, from the Alleghanies to the Pacific,
+constituted the richest free gift that was ever spread out before
+civilized man. To the peasant and artisan of the Old World, bound by the
+chains of social class, as old as custom and as inevitable as fate, the
+West offered an exit into a free life and greater well-being among the
+bounties of nature, into the midst of resources that demanded manly
+exertion, and that gave in return the chance for indefinite ascent in
+the scale of social advance. "To each she offered gifts after his will."
+Never again can such an opportunity come to the sons of men. It was
+unique, and the thing is so near us, so much a part of our lives, that
+we do not even yet comprehend its full significance. The existence of
+this land of opportunity has made America the goal of idealists from the
+days of the Pilgrim Fathers. With all the materialism of the pioneer
+movements, this idealistic conception of the vacant lands as an
+opportunity for a new order of things is unmistakably present.
+Kipling's "Song of the English" has given it expression:--
+
+     "We were dreamers, dreaming greatly, in the man-stifled town;
+     We yearned beyond the sky-line where the strange roads go down.
+     Came the Whisper, came the Vision, came the Power with the Need,
+     Till the Soul that is not man's soul was lent us to lead.
+     As the deer breaks--as the steer breaks--from the herd where they
+         graze,
+     In the faith of little children we went on our ways.
+     Then the wood failed--then the food failed--then the last water
+         dried--
+     In the faith of little children we lay down and died.
+
+     "On the sand-drift--on the veldt-side--in the fern-scrub we lay,
+     That our sons might follow after by the bones on the way.
+     Follow after--follow after! We have watered the root
+     And the bud has come to blossom that ripens for fruit!
+     Follow after--we are waiting by the trails that we lost
+     For the sound of many footsteps, for the tread of a host.
+
+     "Follow after--follow after--for the harvest is sown:
+     By the bones about the wayside ye shall come to your own!"
+
+This was the vision that called to Roger Williams,--that "prophetic soul
+ravished of truth disembodied," "unable to enter into treaty with its
+environment," and forced to seek the wilderness. "Oh, how sweet," wrote
+William Penn, from his forest refuge, "is the quiet of these parts,
+freed from the troubles and perplexities of woeful Europe." And here he
+projected what he called his "Holy Experiment in Government."
+
+If the later West offers few such striking illustrations of the relation
+of the wilderness to idealistic schemes, and if some of the designs were
+fantastic and abortive, none the less the influence is a fact. Hardly a
+Western State but has been the Mecca of some sect or band of social
+reformers, anxious to put into practice their ideals, in vacant land,
+far removed from the checks of a settled form of social organization.
+Consider the Dunkards, the Icarians, the Fourierists, the Mormons, and
+similar idealists who sought our Western wilds. But the idealistic
+influence is not limited to the dreamers' conception of a new State. It
+gave to the pioneer farmer and city builder a restless energy, a quick
+capacity for judgment and action, a belief in liberty, freedom of
+opportunity, and a resistance to the domination of class which infused a
+vitality and power into the individual atoms of this democratic mass.
+Even as he dwelt among the stumps of his newly-cut clearing, the pioneer
+had the creative vision of a new order of society. In imagination he
+pushed back the forest boundary to the confines of a mighty
+Commonwealth; he willed that log cabins should become the lofty
+buildings of great cities. He decreed that his children should enter
+into a heritage of education, comfort, and social welfare, and for this
+ideal he bore the scars of the wilderness. Possessed with this idea he
+ennobled his task and laid deep foundations for a democratic State. Nor
+was this idealism by any means limited to the American pioneer.
+
+To the old native democratic stock has been added a vast army of
+recruits from the Old World. There are in the Middle West alone four
+million persons of German parentage out of a total of seven millions in
+the country. Over a million persons of Scandinavian parentage live in
+the same region. The democracy of the newer West is deeply affected by
+the ideals brought by these immigrants from the Old World. To them
+America was not simply a new home; it was a land of opportunity, of
+freedom, of democracy. It meant to them, as to the American pioneer that
+preceded them, the opportunity to destroy the bonds of social caste that
+bound them in their older home, to hew out for themselves in a new
+country a destiny proportioned to the powers that God had given them, a
+chance to place their families under better conditions and to win a
+larger life than the life that they had left behind. He who believes
+that even the hordes of recent immigrants from southern Italy are drawn
+to these shores by nothing more than a dull and blind materialism has
+not penetrated into the heart of the problem. The idealism and
+expectation of these children of the Old World, the hopes which they
+have formed for a newer and freer life across the seas, are almost
+pathetic when one considers how far they are from the possibility of
+fruition. He who would take stock of American democracy must not forget
+the accumulation of human purposes and ideals which immigration has
+added to the American populace.
+
+In this connection it must also be remembered that these democratic
+ideals have existed at each stage of the advance of the frontier, and
+have left behind them deep and enduring effects on the thinking of the
+whole country. Long after the frontier period of a particular region of
+the United States has passed away, the conception of society, the ideals
+and aspirations which it produced, persist in the minds of the people.
+So recent has been the transition of the greater portion of the United
+States from frontier conditions to conditions of settled life, that we
+are, over the large portion of the United States, hardly a generation
+removed from the primitive conditions of the West. If, indeed, we
+ourselves were not pioneers, our fathers were, and the inherited ways of
+looking at things, the fundamental assumptions of the American people,
+have all been shaped by this experience of democracy on its westward
+march. This experience has been wrought into the very warp and woof of
+American thought.
+
+Even those masters of industry and capital who have risen to power by
+the conquest of Western resources came from the midst of this society
+and still profess its principles. John D. Rockefeller was born on a New
+York farm, and began his career as a young business man in St. Louis.
+Marcus Hanna was a Cleveland grocer's clerk at the age of twenty. Claus
+Spreckles, the sugar king, came from Germany as a steerage passenger to
+the United States in 1848. Marshall Field was a farmer boy in Conway,
+Massachusetts, until he left to grow up with the young Chicago. Andrew
+Carnegie came as a ten-year-old boy from Scotland to Pittsburgh, then a
+distinctively Western town. He built up his fortunes through successive
+grades until he became the dominating factor in the great iron
+industries, and paved the way for that colossal achievement, the Steel
+Trust. Whatever may be the tendencies of this corporation, there can be
+little doubt of the democratic ideals of Mr. Carnegie himself. With
+lavish hand he has strewn millions through the United States for the
+promotion of libraries. The effect of this library movement in
+perpetuating the democracy that comes from an intelligent and
+self-respecting people can hardly be measured. In his "Triumphant
+Democracy," published in 1886, Mr. Carnegie, the ironmaster, said, in
+reference to the mineral wealth of the United States: "Thank God, these
+treasures are in the hands of an intelligent people, the Democracy, to
+be used for the general good of the masses, and not made the spoils of
+monarchs, courts, and aristocracy, to be turned to the base and selfish
+ends of a privileged hereditary class." It would be hard to find a more
+rigorous assertion of democratic doctrine than the celebrated utterance,
+attributed to the same man, that he should feel it a disgrace to die
+rich.
+
+In enumerating the services of American democracy, President Eliot
+included the corporation as one of its achievements, declaring that
+"freedom of incorporation, though no longer exclusively a democratic
+agency, has given a strong support to democratic institutions." In one
+sense this is doubtless true, since the corporation has been one of the
+means by which small properties can be aggregated into an effective
+working body. Socialistic writers have long been fond of pointing out
+also that these various concentrations pave the way for and make
+possible social control. From this point of view it is possible that the
+masters of industry may prove to be not so much an incipient aristocracy
+as the pathfinders for democracy in reducing the industrial world to
+systematic consolidation suited to democratic control. The great
+geniuses that have built up the modern industrial concentration were
+trained in the midst of democratic society. They were the product of
+these democratic conditions. Freedom to rise was the very condition of
+their existence. Whether they will be followed by successors who will
+adopt the exploitation of the masses, and who will be capable of
+retaining under efficient control these vast resources, is one of the
+questions which we shall have to face.
+
+This, at least, is clear: American democracy is fundamentally the
+outcome of the experiences of the American people in dealing with the
+West. Western democracy through the whole of its earlier period tended
+to the production of a society of which the most distinctive fact was
+the freedom of the individual to rise under conditions of social
+mobility, and whose ambition was the liberty and well-being of the
+masses. This conception has vitalized all American democracy, and has
+brought it into sharp contrasts with the democracies of history, and
+with those modern efforts of Europe to create an artificial democratic
+order by legislation. The problem of the United States is not to create
+democracy, but to conserve democratic institutions and ideals. In the
+later period of its development, Western democracy has been gaining
+experience in the problem of social control. It has steadily enlarged
+the sphere of its action and the instruments for its perpetuation. By
+its system of public schools, from the grades to the graduate work of
+the great universities, the West has created a larger single body of
+intelligent plain people than can be found elsewhere in the world. Its
+political tendencies, whether we consider Democracy, Populism, or
+Republicanism, are distinctly in the direction of greater social control
+and the conservation of the old democratic ideals.
+
+To these ideals the West adheres with even a passionate determination.
+If, in working out its mastery of the resources of the interior, it has
+produced a type of industrial leader so powerful as to be the wonder of
+the world, nevertheless, it is still to be determined whether these men
+constitute a menace to democratic institutions, or the most efficient
+factor for adjusting democratic control to the new conditions.
+
+Whatever shall be the outcome of the rush of this huge industrial modern
+United States to its place among the nations of the earth, the formation
+of its Western democracy will always remain one of the wonderful
+chapters in the history of the human race. Into this vast shaggy
+continent of ours poured the first feeble tide of European settlement.
+European men, institutions, and ideas were lodged in the American
+wilderness, and this great American West took them to her bosom, taught
+them a new way of looking upon the destiny of the common man, trained
+them in adaptation to the conditions of the New World, to the creation
+of new institutions to meet new needs; and ever as society on her
+eastern border grew to resemble the Old World in its social forms and
+its industry, ever, as it began to lose faith in the ideals of
+democracy, she opened new provinces, and dowered new democracies in her
+most distant domains with her material treasures and with the ennobling
+influence that the fierce love of freedom, the strength that came from
+hewing out a home, making a school and a church, and creating a higher
+future for his family, furnished to the pioneer.
+
+She gave to the world such types as the farmer Thomas Jefferson, with
+his Declaration of Independence, his statute for religious toleration,
+and his purchase of Louisiana. She gave us Andrew Jackson, that fierce
+Tennessee spirit who broke down the traditions of conservative rule,
+swept away the privacies and privileges of officialdom, and, like a
+Gothic leader, opened the temple of the nation to the populace. She gave
+us Abraham Lincoln, whose gaunt frontier form and gnarled, massive hand
+told of the conflict with the forest, whose grasp of the ax-handle of
+the pioneer was no firmer than his grasp of the helm of the ship of
+state as it breasted the seas of civil war. She has furnished to this
+new democracy her stores of mineral wealth, that dwarf those of the Old
+World, and her provinces that in themselves are vaster and more
+productive than most of the nations of Europe. Out of her bounty has
+come a nation whose industrial competition alarms the Old World, and the
+masters of whose resources wield wealth and power vaster than the wealth
+and power of kings. Best of all, the West gave, not only to the
+American, but to the unhappy and oppressed of all lands, a vision of
+hope, and assurance that the world held a place where were to be found
+high faith in man and the will and power to furnish him the opportunity
+to grow to the full measure of his own capacity. Great and powerful as
+are the new sons of her loins, the Republic is greater than they. The
+paths of the pioneer have widened into broad highways. The forest
+clearing has expanded into affluent commonwealths. Let us see to it that
+the ideals of the pioneer in his log cabin shall enlarge into the
+spiritual life of a democracy where civic power shall dominate and
+utilize individual achievement for the common good.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[243:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, January, 1903. Reprinted by permission.
+
+[248:1] See chapter iii.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+PIONEER IDEALS AND THE STATE UNIVERSITY[269:1]
+
+
+The ideals of a people, their aspirations and convictions, their hopes
+and ambitions, their dreams and determinations, are assets in their
+civilization as real and important as per capita wealth or industrial
+skill.
+
+This nation was formed under pioneer ideals. During three centuries
+after Captain John Smith struck the first blow at the American forest on
+the eastern edge of the continent, the pioneers were abandoning settled
+society for the wilderness, seeking, for generation after generation,
+new frontiers. Their experiences left abiding influences upon the ideas
+and purposes of the nation. Indeed the older settled regions themselves
+were shaped profoundly by the very fact that the whole nation was
+pioneering and that in the development of the West the East had its own
+part.
+
+The first ideal of the pioneer was that of conquest. It was his task to
+fight with nature for the chance to exist. Not as in older countries did
+this contest take place in a mythical past, told in folk lore and epic.
+It has been continuous to our own day. Facing each generation of
+pioneers was the unmastered continent. Vast forests blocked the way;
+mountainous ramparts interposed; desolate, grass-clad prairies, barren
+oceans of rolling plains, arid deserts, and a fierce race of savages,
+all had to be met and defeated. The rifle and the ax are the symbols of
+the backwoods pioneer. They meant a training in aggressive courage, in
+domination, in directness of action, in destructiveness.
+
+To the pioneer the forest was no friendly resource for posterity, no
+object of careful economy. He must wage a hand-to-hand war upon it,
+cutting and burning a little space to let in the light upon a dozen
+acres of hard-won soil, and year after year expanding the clearing into
+new woodlands against the stubborn resistance of primeval trunks and
+matted roots. He made war against the rank fertility of the soil. While
+new worlds of virgin land lay ever just beyond, it was idle to expect
+the pioneer to stay his hand and turn to scientific farming. Indeed, as
+Secretary Wilson has said, the pioneer would, in that case, have raised
+wheat that no one wanted to eat, corn to store on the farm, and cotton
+not worth the picking.
+
+Thus, fired with the ideal of subduing the wilderness, the destroying
+pioneer fought his way across the continent, masterful and wasteful,
+preparing the way by seeking the immediate thing, rejoicing in rude
+strength and wilful achievement.
+
+But even this backwoodsman was more than a mere destroyer. He had
+visions. He was finder as well as fighter--the trail-maker for
+civilization, the inventor of new ways. Although Rudyard Kipling's
+"Foreloper"[270:1] deals with the English pioneer in lands beneath the
+Southern Cross, yet the poem portrays American traits as well:
+
+     "The gull shall whistle in his wake, the blind wave break in fire,
+     He shall fulfill God's utmost will, unknowing his desire;
+     And he shall see old planets pass and alien stars arise,
+     And give the gale his reckless sail in shadow of new skies.
+
+     "Strong lust of gear shall drive him out and hunger arm his hand
+     To wring food from desert nude, his foothold from the sand.
+     His neighbors' smoke shall vex his eyes, their voices break his
+         rest;
+     He shall go forth till south is north, sullen and dispossessed;
+     He shall desire loneliness and his desire shall bring
+     Hard on his heels, a thousand wheels, a people and a king.
+
+     "He shall come back on his own track, and by his scarce cool camp,
+     There shall he meet the roaring street, the derrick and the stamp;
+     For he must blaze a nation's way with hatchet and with brand,
+     Till on his last won wilderness an empire's bulwarks stand."
+
+This quest after the unknown, this yearning "beyond the sky line, where
+the strange roads go down," is of the very essence of the backwoods
+pioneer, even though he was unconscious of its spiritual significance.
+
+The pioneer was taught in the school of experience that the crops of one
+area would not do for a new frontier; that the scythe of the clearing
+must be replaced by the reaper of the prairies. He was forced to make
+old tools serve new uses; to shape former habits, institutions and ideas
+to changed conditions; and to find new means when the old proved
+inapplicable. He was building a new society as well as breaking new
+soil; he had the ideal of nonconformity and of change. He rebelled
+against the conventional.
+
+Besides the ideals of conquest and of discovery, the pioneer had the
+ideal of personal development, free from social and governmental
+constraint. He came from a civilization based on individual competition,
+and he brought the conception with him to the wilderness where a wealth
+of resources, and innumerable opportunities gave it a new scope. The
+prizes were for the keenest and the strongest; for them were the best
+bottom lands, the finest timber tracts, the best salt-springs, the
+richest ore beds; and not only these natural gifts, but also the
+opportunities afforded in the midst of a forming society. Here were mill
+sites, town sites, transportation lines, banking centers, openings in
+the law, in politics--all the varied chances for advancement afforded in
+a rapidly developing society where everything was open to him who knew
+how to seize the opportunity.
+
+The squatter enforced his claim to lands even against the government's
+title by the use of extra-legal combinations and force. He appealed to
+lynch law with little hesitation. He was impatient of any governmental
+restriction upon his individual right to deal with the wilderness.
+
+In our own day we sometimes hear of congressmen sent to jail for
+violating land laws; but the different spirit in the pioneer days may be
+illustrated by a speech of Delegate Sibley of Minnesota in Congress in
+1852. In view of the fact that he became the State's first governor, a
+regent of its university, president of its historical society, and a
+doctor of laws of Princeton, we may assume that he was a pillar of
+society. He said:
+
+     The government has watched its public domain with jealous eye,
+     and there are now enactments upon your statute books, aimed at
+     the trespassers upon it, which should be expunged as a
+     disgrace to the country and to the nineteenth century.
+     Especially is he pursued with unrelenting severity, who has
+     dared to break the silence of the primeval forest by the blows
+     of the American ax. The hardy lumberman who has penetrated to
+     the remotest wilds of the Northwest, to drag from their
+     recesses the materials for building up towns and cities in the
+     great valley of the Mississippi, has been particularly marked
+     out as a victim. After enduring all the privations and
+     subjecting himself to all the perils incident to his
+     vocation--when he has toiled for months to add by his honest
+     labor to the comfort of his fellow men, and to the aggregate
+     wealth of the nation, he finds himself suddenly in the
+     clutches of the law for trespassing on the public domain. The
+     proceeds of his long winter's work are reft from him, and
+     exposed to public sale for the benefit of his paternal
+     government . . . and the object of this oppression and wrong
+     is further harassed by vexatious law proceedings against him.
+
+Sibley's protest in congress against these "outrages" by which the
+northern lumbermen were "harassed" in their work of what would now be
+called stealing government timber, aroused no protest from his
+colleagues. No president called this congressman an undesirable citizen
+or gave him over to the courts.
+
+Thus many of the pioneers, following the ideal of the right of the
+individual to rise, subordinated the rights of the nation and posterity
+to the desire that the country should be "developed" and that the
+individual should advance with as little interference as possible.
+Squatter doctrines and individualism have left deep traces upon American
+conceptions.
+
+But quite as deeply fixed in the pioneer's mind as the ideal of
+individualism was the ideal of democracy. He had a passionate hatred for
+aristocracy, monopoly and special privilege; he believed in simplicity,
+economy and in the rule of the people. It is true that he honored the
+successful man, and that he strove in all ways to advance himself. But
+the West was so free and so vast, the barriers to individual achievement
+were so remote, that the pioneer was hardly conscious that any danger to
+equality could come from his competition for natural resources. He
+thought of democracy as in some way the result of our political
+institutions, and he failed to see that it was primarily the result of
+the free lands and immense opportunities which surrounded him.
+Occasional statesmen voiced the idea that American democracy was based
+on the abundance of unoccupied land, even in the first debates on the
+public domain.
+
+This early recognition of the influence of abundance of land in shaping
+the economic conditions of American democracy is peculiarly significant
+to-day in view of the practical exhaustion of the supply of cheap arable
+public lands open to the poor man, and the coincident development of
+labor unions to keep up wages.
+
+Certain it is that the strength of democratic movements has chiefly lain
+in the regions of the pioneer. "Our governments tend too much to
+democracy," wrote Izard, of South Carolina, to Jefferson, in 1785. "A
+handicraftsman thinks an apprenticeship necessary to make him acquainted
+with his business. But our backcountrymen are of the opinion that a
+politician may be born just as well as a poet."
+
+The Revolutionary ideas, of course, gave a great impetus to democracy,
+and in substantially every colony there was a double revolution, one for
+independence and the other for the overthrow of aristocratic control.
+But in the long run the effective force behind American democracy was
+the presence of the practically free land into which men might escape
+from oppression or inequalities which burdened them in the older
+settlements. This possibility compelled the coastwise States to
+liberalize the franchise; and it prevented the formation of a dominant
+class, whether based on property or on custom. Among the pioneers one
+man was as good as his neighbor. He had the same chance; conditions were
+simple and free. Economic equality fostered political equality. An
+optimistic and buoyant belief in the worth of the plain people, a
+devout faith in man prevailed in the West. Democracy became almost the
+religion of the pioneer. He held with passionate devotion the idea that
+he was building under freedom a new society, based on self government,
+and for the welfare of the average man.
+
+And yet even as he proclaimed the gospel of democracy the pioneer showed
+a vague apprehension lest the time be short--lest equality should not
+endure--lest he might fall behind in the ascending movement of Western
+society. This led him on in feverish haste to acquire advantages as
+though he only half believed his dream. "Before him lies a boundless
+continent," wrote De Tocqueville, in the days when pioneer democracy was
+triumphant under Jackson, "and he urges forward as if time pressed and
+he was afraid of finding no room for his exertions."
+
+Even while Jackson lived, labor leaders and speculative thinkers were
+demanding legislation to place a limit on the amount of land which one
+person might acquire and to provide free farms. De Tocqueville saw the
+signs of change. "Between the workman and the master," he said, "there
+are frequent relations but no real association. . . . I am of the
+opinion, upon the whole, that the manufacturing aristocracy which is
+growing up under our eyes is one of the harshest which ever existed in
+the world; . . . if ever a permanent inequality, of conditions and
+aristocracy again penetrate into the world, it may be predicted that
+this is the gate by which they will enter." But the sanative influences
+of the free spaces of the West were destined to ameliorate labor's
+condition, to afford new hopes and new faith to pioneer democracy, and
+to postpone the problem.
+
+As the settlers advanced into provinces whose area dwarfed that of the
+older sections, pioneer democracy itself began to undergo changes, both
+in its composition and in its processes of expansion. At the close of
+the Civil War, when settlement was spreading with greatest vigor across
+the Mississippi, the railways began their work as colonists. Their land
+grants from the government, amounting altogether by 1871 to an area five
+times that of the State of Pennsylvania, demanded purchasers, and so the
+railroads pioneered the way for the pioneer.
+
+The homestead law increased the tide of settlers. The improved farm
+machinery made it possible for him to go boldly out on to the prairie
+and to deal effectively with virgin soil in farms whose cultivated area
+made the old clearings of the backwoodsman seem mere garden plots. Two
+things resulted from these conditions, which profoundly modified pioneer
+ideals. In the first place the new form of colonization demanded an
+increasing use of capital; and the rapidity of the formation of towns,
+the speed with which society developed, made men the more eager to
+secure bank credit to deal with the new West. This made the pioneer more
+dependent on the eastern economic forces. In the second place the farmer
+became dependent as never before on transportation companies. In this
+speculative movement the railroads, finding that they had pressed too
+far in advance and had issued stock to freely for their earnings to
+justify the face of the investment, came into collision with the pioneer
+on the question of rates and of discriminations. The Greenback movement
+and the Granger movements were appeals to government to prevent what the
+pioneer thought to be invasions of pioneer democracy.
+
+As the western settler began to face the problem of magnitude in the
+areas he was occupying; as he began to adjust his life to the modern
+forces of capital and to complex productive processes; as he began to
+see that, go where he would, the question of credit and currency, of
+transportation and distribution in general conditioned his success, he
+sought relief by legislation. He began to lose his primitive attitude
+of individualism, government began to look less like a necessary evil
+and more like an instrument for the perpetuation of his democratic
+ideals. In brief, the defenses of the pioneer democrat began to shift,
+from free land to legislation, from the ideal of individualism to the
+ideal of social control through regulation by law. He had no sympathy
+with a radical reconstruction of society by the revolution of socialism;
+even his alliances with the movement of organized labor, which
+paralleled that of organized capital in the East, were only
+half-hearted. But he was becoming alarmed over the future of the free
+democratic ideal. The wisdom of his legislation it is not necessary to
+discuss here. The essential point is that his conception of the right of
+government to control social process had undergone a change. He was
+coming to regard legislation as an instrument of social construction.
+The individualism of the Kentucky pioneer of 1796 was giving way to the
+Populism of the Kansas pioneer of 1896.
+
+The later days of pioneer democracy are too familiar to require much
+exposition. But they are profoundly significant. As the pioneer doctrine
+of free competition for the resources of the nation revealed its
+tendencies; as individual, corporation and trust, like the pioneer,
+turned increasingly to legal devices to promote their contrasting
+ideals, the natural resources were falling into private possession.
+Tides of alien immigrants were surging into the country to replace the
+old American stock in the labor market, to lower the standard of living
+and to increase the pressure of population upon the land. These recent
+foreigners have lodged almost exclusively in the dozen great centers of
+industrial life, and there they have accented the antagonisms between
+capital and labor by the fact that the labor supply has become
+increasingly foreign born, and recruited from nationalities who arouse
+no sympathy on the part of capital and little on the part of the
+general public. Class distinctions are accented by national prejudices,
+and democracy is thereby invaded. But even in the dull brains of great
+masses of these unfortunates from southern and eastern Europe the idea
+of America as the land of freedom and of opportunity to rise, the land
+of pioneer democratic ideals, has found lodgment, and if it is given
+time and is not turned into revolutionary lines it will fructify.
+
+As the American pioneer passed on in advance of this new tide of
+European immigration, he found lands increasingly limited. In place of
+the old lavish opportunity for the settler to set his stakes where he
+would, there were frantic rushes of thousands of eager pioneers across
+the line of newly opened Indian reservations. Even in 1889, when
+Oklahoma was opened to settlement, twenty thousand settlers crowded at
+the boundaries, like straining athletes, waiting the bugle note that
+should start the race across the line. To-day great crowds gather at the
+land lotteries of the government as the remaining fragments of the
+public domain are flung to hungry settlers.
+
+Hundreds of thousands of pioneers from the Middle West have crossed the
+national boundary into Canadian wheat fields eager to find farms for
+their children, although under an alien flag. And finally the government
+has taken to itself great areas of arid land for reclamation by costly
+irrigation projects whereby to furnish twenty-acre tracts in the desert
+to settlers under careful regulation of water rights. The government
+supplies the capital for huge irrigation dams and reservoirs and builds
+them itself. It owns and operates quarries, coal mines and timber to
+facilitate this work. It seeks the remotest regions of the earth for
+crops suitable for these areas. It analyzes the soils and tells the
+farmer what and when and how to plant. It has even considered the rental
+to manufacturers of the surplus water, electrical and steam power
+generated in its irrigation works and the utilization of this power to
+extract nitrates from the air to replenish worn-out soils. The pioneer
+of the arid regions must be both a capitalist and the protégé of the
+government.
+
+Consider the contrast between the conditions of the pioneers at the
+beginning and at the end of this period of development. Three hundred
+years ago adventurous Englishmen on the coast of Virginia began the
+attack on the wilderness. Three years ago the President of the United
+States summoned the governors of forty-six states to deliberate upon the
+danger of the exhaustion of the natural resources of the nation.[279:1]
+
+The pressure of population upon the food supply is already felt and we
+are at the beginning only of this transformation. It is profoundly
+significant that at the very time when American democracy is becoming
+conscious that its pioneer basis of free land and sparse population is
+giving way, it is also brought face to face with the startling outcome
+of its old ideals of individualism and exploitation under competition
+uncontrolled by government. Pioneer society itself was not sufficiently
+sophisticated to work out to its logical result the conception of the
+self-made man. But the captains of industry by applying squatter
+doctrines to the evolution of American industrial society, have made the
+process so clear that he who runs may read. Contests imply alliances as
+well as rivalries. The increasing magnitude of the areas to be dealt
+with and the occurrences of times of industrial stress furnished
+occasion for such unions. The panic of 1873 was followed by an
+unprecedented combination of individual businesses and partnerships into
+corporations. The panic of 1893 marked the beginning of an extraordinary
+development of corporate combinations into pools and trusts, agreements
+and absorptions, until, by the time of the panic of 1907, it seemed not
+impossible that the outcome of free competition under individualism was
+to be monopoly of the most important natural resources and processes by
+a limited group of men whose vast fortunes were so invested in allied
+and dependent industries that they constituted the dominating force in
+the industrial life of the nation. The development of large scale
+factory production, the benefit of combination in the competitive
+struggle, and the tremendous advantage of concentration in securing
+possession of the unoccupied opportunities, were so great that vast
+accumulations of capital became the normal agency of the industrial
+world. In almost exact ratio to the diminution of the supply of
+unpossessed resources, combinations of capital have increased in
+magnitude and in efficiency of conquest. The solitary backwoodsman
+wielding his ax at the edge of a measureless forest is replaced by
+companies capitalized at millions, operating railroads, sawmills, and
+all the enginery of modern machinery to harvest the remaining
+trees.[280:1]
+
+A new national development is before us without the former safety valve
+of abundant resources open to him who would take. Classes are becoming
+alarmingly distinct: There is the demand on the one side voiced by Mr.
+Harriman so well and by others since, that nothing must be done to
+interfere with the early pioneer ideals of the exploitation and the
+development of the country's wealth; that restrictive and reforming
+legislation must on no account threaten prosperity even for a moment. In
+fact, we sometimes hear in these days, from men of influence, serious
+doubts of democracy, and intimations that the country would be better
+off if it freely resigned itself to guidance by the geniuses who are
+mastering the economic forces of the nation, and who, it is alleged,
+would work out the prosperity of the United States more effectively, if
+unvexed by politicians and people.
+
+On the other hand, an inharmonious group of reformers are sounding the
+warning that American democratic ideals and society are menaced and
+already invaded by the very conditions that make this apparent
+prosperity; that the economic resources are no longer limitless and
+free; that the aggregate national wealth is increasing at the cost of
+present social justice and moral health, and the future well-being of
+the American people. The Granger and the Populist were prophets of this
+reform movement. Mr. Bryan's Democracy, Mr. Debs' Socialism, and Mr.
+Roosevelt's Republicanism all had in common the emphasis upon the need
+of governmental regulation of industrial tendencies in the interest of
+the common man; the checking of the power of those business Titans who
+emerged successful out of the competitive individualism of pioneer
+America. As land values rise, as meat and bread grow dearer, as the
+process of industrial consolidation goes on, and as Eastern industrial
+conditions spread across the West, the problems of traditional American
+democracy will become increasingly grave.
+
+The time has come when University men may well consider pioneer ideals,
+for American society has reached the end of the first great period in
+its formation. It must survey itself, reflect upon its origins, consider
+what freightage of purposes it carried in its long march across the
+continent, what ambitions it had for the man, what rôle it would play in
+the world. How shall we conserve what was best in pioneer ideals? How
+adjust the old conceptions to the changed conditions of modern life?
+
+Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful. But the United
+States has believed that it had an original contribution to make to the
+history of society by the production of a self-determining,
+self-restrained, intelligent democracy. It is in the Middle West that
+society has formed on lines least like those of Europe. It is here, if
+anywhere, that American democracy will make its stand against the
+tendency to adjust to a European type.
+
+This consideration gives importance to my final topic, the relation of
+the University to pioneer ideals and to the changing conditions of
+American democracy. President Pritchett of the Carnegie Foundation has
+recently declared that in no other form of popular activity does a
+nation or State so clearly reveal its ideals or the quality of its
+civilization as in its system of education; and he finds, especially in
+the State University, "a conception of education from the standpoint of
+the whole people." "If our American democracy were to-day called to give
+proof of its constructive ability," he says, "the State University and
+the public school system which it crowns would be the strongest evidence
+of its fitness which it could offer."
+
+It may at least be conceded that an essential characteristic of the
+State University is its democracy in the largest sense. The provision in
+the Constitution of Indiana of 1816, so familiar to you all, for a
+"general system of education ascending in regular gradations from
+township schools to a State University, wherein tuition shall be gratis
+and equally open to all," expresses the Middle Western conception born
+in the days of pioneer society and doubtless deeply influenced by
+Jeffersonian democracy.
+
+The most obvious fact about these universities, perhaps, lies in their
+integral relation with the public schools, whereby the pupil has pressed
+upon him the question whether he shall go to college, and whereby the
+road is made open and direct to the highest training. By this means the
+State offers to every class the means of education, and even engages in
+propaganda to induce students to continue. It sinks deep shafts through
+the social strata to find the gold of real ability in the underlying
+rock of the masses. It fosters that due degree of individualism which is
+implied in the right of every human being to have opportunity to rise in
+whatever directions his peculiar abilities entitle him to go,
+subordinate to the welfare of the state. It keeps the avenues of
+promotion to the highest offices, the highest honors, open to the
+humblest and most obscure lad who has the natural gifts, at the same
+time that it aids in the improvement of the masses.
+
+Nothing in our educational history is more striking than the steady
+pressure of democracy upon its universities to adapt them to the
+requirements of all the people. From the State Universities of the
+Middle West, shaped under pioneer ideals, have come the fuller
+recognition of scientific studies, and especially those of applied
+science devoted to the conquest of nature; the breaking down of the
+traditional required curriculum; the union of vocational and college
+work in the same institution; the development of agricultural and
+engineering colleges and business courses; the training of lawyers,
+administrators, public men, and journalists--all under the ideal of
+service to democracy rather than of individual advancement alone. Other
+universities do the same thing; but the head springs and the main
+current of this great stream of tendency come from the land of the
+pioneers, the democratic states of the Middle West. And the people
+themselves, through their boards of trustees and the legislature, are in
+the last resort the court of appeal as to the directions and conditions
+of growth, as well as have the fountain of income from which these
+universities derive their existence.
+
+The State University has thus both a peculiar power in the directness of
+its influence upon the whole people and a peculiar limitation in its
+dependence upon the people. The ideals of the people constitute the
+atmosphere in which it moves, though it can itself affect this
+atmosphere. Herein is the source of its strength and the direction of
+its difficulties. For to fulfil its mission of uplifting the state to
+continuously higher levels the University must, in the words of Mr.
+Bryce, "serve the time without yielding to it;" it must recognize new
+needs without becoming subordinate to the immediately practical, to the
+short-sightedly expedient. It must not sacrifice the higher efficiency
+for the more obvious but lower efficiency. It must have the wisdom to
+make expenditures for results which pay manifold in the enrichment of
+civilization, but which are not immediate and palpable.
+
+In the transitional condition of American democracy which I have tried
+to indicate, the mission of the university is most important. The times
+call for educated leaders. General experience and rule-of-thumb
+information are inadequate for the solution of the problems of a
+democracy which no longer owns the safety fund of an unlimited quantity
+of untouched resources. Scientific farming must increase the yield of
+the field, scientific forestry must economize the woodlands, scientific
+experiment and construction by chemist, physicist, biologist and
+engineer must be applied to all of nature's forces in our complex modern
+society. The test tube and the microscope are needed rather than ax and
+rifle in this new ideal of conquest. The very discoveries of science in
+such fields as public health and manufacturing processes have made it
+necessary to depend upon the expert, and if the ranks of experts are to
+be recruited broadly from the democratic masses as well as from those of
+larger means, the State Universities must furnish at least as liberal
+opportunities for research and training as the universities based on
+private endowments furnish. It needs no argument to show that it is not
+to the advantage of democracy to give over the training of the expert
+exclusively to privately endowed institutions.
+
+But quite as much in the field of legislation and of public life in
+general as in the industrial world is the expert needed. The industrial
+conditions which shape society are too complex, problems of labor,
+finance, social reform too difficult to be dealt with intelligently and
+wisely without the leadership of highly educated men familiar with the
+legislation and literature on social questions in other States and
+nations.
+
+By training in science, in law, politics, economics and history the
+universities may supply from the ranks of democracy administrators,
+legislators, judges and experts for commissions who shall
+disinterestedly and intelligently mediate between contending interests.
+When the words "capitalistic classes" and "the proletariate" can be used
+and understood in America it is surely time to develop such men, with
+the ideal of service to the State, who may help to break the force of
+these collisions, to find common grounds between the contestants and to
+possess the respect and confidence of all parties which are genuinely
+loyal to the best American ideals.
+
+The signs of such a development are already plain in the expert
+commissions of some States; in the increasing proportion of university
+men in legislatures; in the university men's influence in federal
+departments and commissions. It is hardly too much to say that the best
+hope of intelligent and principled progress in economic and social
+legislation and administration lies in the increasing influence of
+American universities. By sending out these open-minded experts, by
+furnishing well-fitted legislators, public leaders and teachers, by
+graduating successive armies of enlightened citizens accustomed to deal
+dispassionately with the problems of modern life, able to think for
+themselves, governed not by ignorance, by prejudice or by impulse, but
+by knowledge and reason and high-mindedness, the State Universities will
+safeguard democracy. Without such leaders and followers democratic
+reactions may create revolutions, but they will not be able to produce
+industrial and social progress. America's problem is not violently to
+introduce democratic ideals, but to preserve and entrench them by
+courageous adaptation to new conditions. Educated leadership sets
+bulwarks against both the passionate impulses of the mob and the
+sinister designs of those who would subordinate public welfare to
+private greed. Lord Bacon's splendid utterance still rings true: "The
+learning of the few is despotism; the learning of the many is liberty.
+And intelligent and principled liberty is fame, wisdom and power."
+
+There is a danger to the universities in this very opportunity. At first
+pioneer democracy had scant respect for the expert. He believed that "a
+fool can put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for him."
+There is much truth in the belief; and the educated leader, even he who
+has been trained under present university conditions, in direct contact
+with the world about him, will still have to contend with this inherited
+suspicion of the expert. But if he be well trained and worthy of his
+training, if he be endowed with creative imagination and personality, he
+will make good his leadership.
+
+A more serious danger will come when the universities are fully
+recognized as powerful factors in shaping the life of the State--not
+mere cloisters, remote from its life, but an influential element in its
+life. Then it may easily happen that the smoke of the battle-field of
+political and social controversy will obscure their pure air, that
+efforts will be made to stamp out the exceptional doctrine and the
+exceptional man. Those who investigate and teach within the university
+walls must respond to the injunction of the church, "_Sursum
+corda_"--lift up the heart to high thinking and impartial search for
+the unsullied truth in the interests of all the people; this is the holy
+grail of the universities.
+
+That they may perform their work they must be left free, as the pioneer
+was free, to explore new regions and to report what they find; for like
+the pioneers they have the ideal of investigation, they seek new
+horizons. They are not tied to past knowledge; they recognize the fact
+that the universe still abounds in mystery, that science and society
+have not crystallized, but are still growing and need their pioneer
+trail-makers. New and beneficent discoveries in nature, new and
+beneficial discoveries in the processes and directions of the growth of
+society, substitutes for the vanishing material basis of pioneer
+democracy may be expected if the university pioneers are left free to
+seek the trail.
+
+In conclusion, the university has a duty in adjusting pioneer ideals to
+the new requirements of American democracy, even more important than
+those which I have named. The early pioneer was an individualist and a
+seeker after the undiscovered; but he did not understand the richness
+and complexity of life as a whole; he did not fully realize his
+opportunities of individualism and discovery. He stood in his somber
+forest as the traveler sometimes stands in a village on the Alps when
+the mist has shrouded everything, and only the squalid hut, the stony
+field, the muddy pathway are in view. But suddenly a wind sweeps the fog
+away. Vast fields of radiant snow and sparkling ice lie before him;
+profound abysses open at his feet; and as he lifts his eyes the
+unimaginable peak of the Matterhorn cleaves the thin air, far, far
+above. A new and unsuspected world is revealed all about him. Thus it is
+the function of the university to reveal to the individual the mystery
+and the glory of life as a whole--to open all the realms of rational
+human enjoyment and achievement; to preserve the consciousness of the
+past; to spread before the eye the beauty of the universe; and to throw
+wide its portals of duty and of power to the human soul. It must honor
+the poet and painter, the writer and the teacher, the scientist and the
+inventor, the musician and the prophet of righteousness--the men of
+genius in all fields who make life nobler. It must call forth anew, and
+for finer uses, the pioneer's love of creative individualism and provide
+for it a spiritual atmosphere friendly to the development of personality
+in all uplifting ways. It must check the tendency to act in mediocre
+social masses with undue emphasis upon the ideals of prosperity and
+politics. In short, it must summon ability of all kinds to joyous and
+earnest effort for the welfare and the spiritual enrichment of society.
+It must awaken new tastes and ambitions among the people.
+
+The light of these university watch towers should flash from State to
+State until American democracy itself is illuminated with higher and
+broader ideals of what constitutes service to the State and to mankind;
+of what are prizes; of what is worthy of praise and reward. So long as
+success in amassing great wealth for the aggrandizement of the
+individual is the exclusive or the dominant standard of success, so long
+as material prosperity, regardless of the conditions of its cost, or the
+civilization which results, is the shibboleth, American democracy, that
+faith in the common man which the pioneer cherishes, is in danger. For
+the strongest will make their way unerringly to whatever goal society
+sets up as the mark of conceded preëminence. What more effective agency
+is there for the cultivation of the seed wheat of ideals than the
+university? Where can we find a more promising body of sowers of the
+grain?
+
+The pioneer's clearing must be broadened into a domain where all that is
+worthy of human endeavor may find fertile soil on which to grow; and
+America must exact of the constructive business geniuses who owe their
+rise to the freedom of pioneer democracy supreme allegiance and devotion
+to the commonweal. In fostering such an outcome and in tempering the
+asperities of the conflicts that must precede its fulfilment, the nation
+has no more promising agency than the State Universities, no more
+hopeful product than their graduates.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[269:1] Commencement Address at the University of Indiana, 1910.
+
+[270:1] [Printed from an earlier version; since published in his "Songs
+from Books," p. 93, under the title, "The Voortrekker." Even fuller of
+insight into the idealistic side of the frontier, is his "Explorer," in
+"Collected Verse," p. 19.]
+
+[279:1] Written in 1910.
+
+[280:1] Omissions from the original are incorporated in later chapters.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE WEST AND AMERICAN IDEALS[290:1]
+
+
+True to American traditions that each succeeding generation ought to
+find in the Republic a better home, once in every year the colleges and
+universities summon the nation to lift its eyes from the routine of
+work, in order to take stock of the country's purposes and achievements,
+to examine its past and consider its future.
+
+This attitude of self-examination is hardly characteristic of the people
+as a whole. Particularly it is not characteristic of the historic
+American. He has been an opportunist rather than a dealer in general
+ideas. Destiny set him in a current which bore him swiftly along through
+such a wealth of opportunity that reflection and well-considered
+planning seemed wasted time. He knew not where he was going, but he was
+on his way, cheerful, optimistic, busy and buoyant.
+
+To-day we are reaching a changed condition, less apparent perhaps, in
+the newer regions than in the old, but sufficiently obvious to extend
+the commencement frame of mind from the college to the country as a
+whole. The swift and inevitable current of the upper reaches of the
+nation's history has borne it to the broader expanse and slower
+stretches which mark the nearness of the level sea. The vessel, no
+longer carried along by the rushing waters, finds it necessary to
+determine its own directions on this new ocean of its future, to give
+conscious consideration to its motive power and to its steering gear.
+
+It matters not so much that those who address these college men and
+women upon life, give conflicting answers to the questions of whence and
+whither: the pause for remembrance, for reflection and for aspiration is
+wholesome in itself.
+
+Although the American people are becoming more self-conscious, more
+responsive to the appeal to act by deliberate choices, we should be
+over-sanguine if we believed that even in this new day these
+commencement surveys were taken to heart by the general public, or that
+they were directly and immediately influential upon national thought and
+action.
+
+But even while we check our enthusiasm by this realization of the common
+thought, we must take heart. The University's peculiar privilege and
+distinction lie in the fact that it is not the passive instrument of the
+State to voice its current ideas. Its problem is not that of expressing
+tendencies. Its mission is to create tendencies and to direct them. Its
+problem is that of leadership and of ideals. It is called, of course, to
+justify the support which the public gives it, by working in close and
+sympathetic touch with those it serves. More than that, it would lose
+important element of strength if it failed to recognize the fact that
+improvement and creative movement often come from the masses themselves,
+instinctively moving toward a better order. The University's graduates
+must be fitted to take their places naturally and effectually in the
+common life of the time.
+
+But the University is called especially to justify its existence by
+giving to its sons and daughters something which they could not well
+have gotten through the ordinary experiences of the life outside its
+walls. It is called to serve the time by independent research and by
+original thought. If it were a mere recording instrument of conventional
+opinion and average information, it is hard to see why the University
+should exist at all. To clasp hands with the common life in order that
+it may lift that life, to be a radiant center enkindling the society in
+which it has its being, these are primary duties of the University.
+Fortunate the State which gives free play to this spirit of inquiry. Let
+it "grubstake" its intellectual prospectors and send them forth where
+"the trails run out and stop." A famous scientist holds that the
+universal ether bears vital germs which impinging upon a dead world
+would bring life to it. So, at least it is, in the world of thought,
+where energized ideals put in the air and carried here and there by the
+waves and currents of the intellectual atmosphere, fertilize vast inert
+areas.
+
+The University, therefore, has a double duty. On the one hand it must
+aid in the improvement of the general economic and social environment.
+It must help on in the work of scientific discovery and of making such
+conditions of existence, economic, political and social, as will produce
+more fertile and responsive soil for a higher and better life. It must
+stimulate a wider demand on the part of the public for right leadership.
+It must extend its operations more widely among the people and sink
+deeper shafts through social strata to find new supplies of intellectual
+gold in popular levels yet untouched. And on the other hand, it must
+find and fit men and women for leadership. It must both awaken new
+demands and it must satisfy those demands by trained leaders with new
+motives, with new incentives to ambition, with higher and broader
+conception of what constitute the prize in life, of what constitutes
+success. The University has to deal with both the soil and sifted seed
+in the agriculture of the human spirit.
+
+Its efficiency is not the efficiency which the business engineer is
+fitted to appraise. If it is a training ship, it is a training ship
+bound on a voyage of discovery, seeking new horizons. The economy of the
+University's consumption can only be rightly measured by the later times
+which shall possess those new realms of the spirit which its voyage
+shall reveal. If the ships of Columbus had engaged in a profitable
+coastwise traffic between Palos and Cadiz they might have saved sail
+cloth, but their keels would never have grated on the shores of a New
+World.
+
+The appeal of the undiscovered is strong in America. For three centuries
+the fundamental process in its history was the westward movement, the
+discovery and occupation of the vast free spaces of the continent. We
+are the first generation of Americans who can look back upon that era as
+a historic movement now coming to its end. Other generations have been
+so much a part of it that they could hardly comprehend its significance.
+To them it seemed inevitable. The free land and the natural resources
+seemed practically inexhaustible. Nor were they aware of the fact that
+their most fundamental traits, their institutions, even their ideals
+were shaped by this interaction between the wilderness and themselves.
+
+American democracy was born of no theorist's dream; it was not carried
+in the _Susan Constant_ to Virginia, nor in the _Mayflower_ to Plymouth.
+It came out of the American forest, and it gained new strength each time
+it touched a new frontier. Not the constitution, but free land and an
+abundance of natural resources open to a fit people, made the democratic
+type of society in America for three centuries while it occupied its
+empire.
+
+To-day we are looking with a shock upon a changed world. The national
+problem is no longer how to cut and burn away the vast screen of the
+dense and daunting forest; it is how to save and wisely use the
+remaining timber. It is no longer how to get the great spaces of
+fertile prairie land in humid zones out of the hands of the government
+into the hands of the pioneer; these lands have already passed into
+private possession. No longer is it a question of how to avoid or cross
+the Great Plains and the arid desert. It is a question of how to conquer
+those rejected lands by new method of farming and by cultivating new
+crops from seed collected by the government and by scientists from the
+cold, dry steppes of Siberia, the burning sands of Egypt, and the remote
+interior of China. It is a problem of how to bring the precious rills of
+water on to the alkali and sage brush. Population is increasing faster
+than the food supply.
+
+New farm lands no longer increase decade after decade in areas equal to
+those of European states. While the ratio of increase of improved land
+declines, the value of farm lands rise and the price of food leaps
+upward, reversing the old ratio between the two. The cry of scientific
+farming and the conservation of natural resources replaces the cry of
+rapid conquest of the wilderness. We have so far won our national home,
+wrested from it its first rich treasures, and drawn to it the
+unfortunate of other lands, that we are already obliged to compare
+ourselves with settled states of the Old World. In place of our attitude
+of contemptuous indifference to the legislation of such countries as
+Germany and England, even Western States like Wisconsin send commissions
+to study their systems of taxation, workingmen's insurance, old age
+pensions and a great variety of other remedies for social ills.
+
+If we look about the periphery of the nation, everywhere we see the
+indications that our world is changing. On the streets of Northeastern
+cities like New York and Boston, the faces which we meet are to a
+surprising extent those of Southeastern Europe. Puritan New England,
+which turned its capital into factories and mills and drew to its shores
+an army of cheap labor, governed these people for a time by a ruling
+class like an upper stratum between which and the lower strata there was
+no assimilation. There was no such evolution into an assimilated
+commonwealth as is seen in Middle Western agricultural States, where
+immigrant and old native stock came in together and built up a
+homogeneous society on the principle of give and take. But now the
+Northeastern coast finds its destiny, politically and economically,
+passing away from the descendants of the Puritans. It is the little
+Jewish boy, the Greek or the Sicilian, who takes the traveler through
+historic streets, now the home of these newer people to the Old North
+Church or to Paul Revere's house, or to Tea Wharf, and tells you in his
+strange patois the story of revolution against oppression.
+
+Along the Southern Atlantic and the Gulf coast, in spite of the
+preservative influence of the negro, whose presence has always called
+out resistance to change on the part of the whites, the forces of social
+and industrial transformation are at work. The old tidewater aristocracy
+has surrendered to the up-country democrats. Along the line of the
+Alleghanies like an advancing column, the forces of Northern capital,
+textile and steel mills, year after year extend their invasion into the
+lower South. New Orleans, once the mistress of the commerce of the
+Mississippi Valley, is awakening to new dreams of world commerce. On the
+southern border, similar invasions of American capital have been
+entering Mexico. At the same time, the opening of the Panama Canal has
+completed the dream of the ages of the Straits of Anian between Atlantic
+and Pacific. Four hundred years ago, Balboa raised the flag of Spain at
+the edge of the Sea of the West and we are now preparing to celebrate
+both that anniversary, and the piercing of the continent. New relations
+have been created between Spanish America and the United States and the
+world is watching the mediation of Argentina, Brazil and Chile between
+the contending forces of Mexico and the Union. Once more alien national
+interests lie threatening at our borders, but we no longer appeal to the
+Monroe Doctrine and send our armies of frontiersmen to settle our
+concerns off-hand. We take council with European nations and with the
+sisterhood of South America, and propose a remedy of social
+reorganization in place of imperious will and force. Whether the effort
+will succeed or not, it is a significant indication that an old order is
+passing away, when such a solution is undertaken by a President of
+Scotch Presbyterian stock, born in the State of Virginia.
+
+If we turn to the Northern border, where we are about to celebrate a
+century of peace with England, we see in progress, like a belated
+procession of our own history the spread of pioneers, the opening of new
+wildernesses, the building of new cities, the growth of a new and mighty
+nation. That old American advance of the wheat farmer from the
+Connecticut to the Mohawk, and the Genesee, from the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania to the Ohio Valley and the prairies of the Middle West, is
+now by its own momentum and under the stimulus of Canadian homesteads
+and the high price of wheat, carried across the national border to the
+once lone plains where the Hudson Bay dog trains crossed the desolate
+snows of the wild North Land. In the Pacific Northwest the era of
+construction has not ended, but it is so rapidly in progress that we can
+already see the closing of the age of the pioneer. Already Alaska
+beckons on the north, and pointing to her wealth of natural resources
+asks the nation on what new terms the new age will deal with her. Across
+the Pacific looms Asia, no longer a remote vision and a symbol of the
+unchanging, but borne as by mirage close to our shores and raising grave
+questions of the common destiny of the people of the ocean. The dreams
+of Benton and of Seward of a regenerated Orient, when the long march of
+westward civilization should complete its circle, seem almost to be in
+process of realization. The age of the Pacific Ocean begins, mysterious
+and unfathomable in its meaning for our own future.
+
+Turning to view the interior, we see the same picture of change. When
+the Superintendent of the Census in 1890 declared the frontier line no
+longer traceable, the beginning of the rush into Oklahoma had just
+occurred. Here where the broken fragments of Indian nations from the
+East had been gathered and where the wilder tribes of the Southwest were
+being settled, came the rush of the land-hungry pioneer. Almost at a
+blow the old Indian territory passed away, populous cities came into
+being and it was not long before gushing oil wells made a new era of
+sudden wealth. The farm lands of the Middle West taken as free
+homesteads or bought for a mere pittance, have risen so in value that
+the original owners have in an increasing degree either sold them in
+order to reinvest in the newer cheap lands of the West, or have moved
+into the town and have left the tillage to tenant farmers. The growth of
+absentee ownership of the soil is producing a serious problem in the
+former centers of the Granger and the Populist. Along the Old Northwest
+the Great Lakes are becoming a new Mediterranean Sea joining the realms
+of wheat and iron ore, at one end with the coal and furnaces of the
+forks of the Ohio, where the most intense and wide-reaching center of
+industrial energy exists. City life like that of the East, manufactures
+and accumulated capital, seem to be reproducing in the center of the
+Republic the tendencies already so plain on the Atlantic Coast.
+
+Across the Great Plains where buffalo and Indian held sway successive
+industrial waves are passing. The old free range gave place to the
+ranch, the ranch to the homestead and now in places in the arid lands
+the homestead is replaced by the ten or twenty acre irrigated fruit
+farm. The age of cheap land, cheap corn and wheat, and cheap cattle has
+gone forever. The federal government has undertaken vast paternal
+enterprises of reclamation of the desert.
+
+In the Rocky Mountains where at the time of Civil War, the first
+important rushes to gold and silver mines carried the frontier backward
+on a march toward the east, the most amazing transformations have
+occurred. Here, where prospectors made new trails, and lived the wild
+free life of mountain men, here where the human spirit seemed likely to
+attain the largest measure of individual freedom, and where fortune
+beckoned to the common man, have come revolutions wrought by the demand
+for organized industry and capital. In the regions where the popular
+tribunal and the free competitive life flourished, we have seen law and
+order break down in the unmitigated collision of great aggregations of
+capital, with each other and with organized socialistic labor. The
+Cripple Creek strikes, the contests at Butte, the Goldfield mobs, the
+recent Colorado fighting, all tell a similar story,--the solid impact of
+contending forces in regions where civic power and loyalty to the State
+have never fully developed. Like the Grand Cañon, where in dazzling
+light the huge geologic history is written so large that none may fail
+to read it, so in the Rocky Mountains the dangers of modern American
+industrial tendencies have been exposed.
+
+As we crossed the Cascades on our way to Seattle, one of the passengers
+was moved to explain his feeling on the excellence of Puget Sound in
+contrast with the remaining visible Universe. He did it well in spite of
+irreverent interruptions from those fellow travelers who were
+unconverted children of the East, and at last he broke forth in
+passionate challenge, "Why should I not love Seattle! It took me from
+the slums of the Atlantic Coast, a poor Swedish boy with hardly fifteen
+dollars in my pocket. It gave me a home by the beautiful sea; it spread
+before my eyes a vision of snow-capped peaks and smiling fields; it
+brought abundance and a new life to me and my children and I love it, I
+love it! If I were a multi-millionaire I would charter freight cars and
+carry away from the crowded tenements and noisome alleys of the eastern
+cities and the Old World the toiling masses, and let them loose in our
+vast forests and ore-laden mountains to learn what life really is!" And
+my heart was stirred by his words and by the whirling spaces of woods
+and peaks through which we passed.
+
+But as I looked and listened to this passionate outcry, I remembered the
+words of Talleyrand, the exiled Bishop of Autun, in Washington's
+administration. Looking down from an eminence not far from Philadelphia
+upon a wilderness which is now in the heart of that huge industrial
+society where population presses on the means of life, even the
+cold-blooded and cynical Talleyrand, gazing on those unpeopled hills and
+forests, kindled with the vision of coming clearings, the smiling farms
+and grazing herds that were to be, the populous towns that should be
+built, the newer and finer social organization that should there arise.
+And then I remembered the hall in Harvard's museum of social ethics
+through which I pass to my lecture room when I speak on the history of
+the Westward movement. That hall is covered with an exhibit of the work
+in Pittsburgh steel mills, and of the congested tenements. Its charts
+and diagrams tell of the long hours of work, the death rate, the
+relation of typhoid to the slums, the gathering of the poor of all
+Southeastern Europe to make a civilization at that center of American
+industrial energy and vast capital that is a social tragedy. As I enter
+my lecture room through that hall, I speak of the young Washington
+leading his Virginia frontiersmen to the magnificent forest at the
+forks of the Ohio. Where Braddock and his men, "carving a cross on the
+wilderness rim," were struck by the painted savages in the primeval
+woods, huge furnaces belch forth perpetual fires and Huns and Bulgars,
+Poles and Sicilians struggle for a chance to earn their daily bread, and
+live a brutal and degraded life. Irresistibly there rushed across my
+mind the memorable words of Huxley:
+
+     "Even the best of modern civilization appears to me to exhibit
+     a condition of mankind which neither embodies any worthy ideal
+     nor even possesses the merit of stability. I do not hesitate
+     to express the opinion that, if there is no hope of a large
+     improvement of the condition of the greater part of the human
+     family; if it is true that the increase of knowledge, the
+     winning of a greater dominion over Nature, which is its
+     consequence, and the wealth which follows upon that dominion,
+     are to make no difference in the extent and the intensity of
+     Want, with its concomitant physical and moral degradation,
+     among the masses of the people, I should hail the advent of
+     some kindly comet, which would sweep the whole affair away, as
+     a desirable consummation."
+
+But if there is disillusion and shock and apprehension as we come to
+realize these changes, to strong men and women there is challenge and
+inspiration in them too. In place of old frontiers of wilderness, there
+are new frontiers of unwon fields of science, fruitful for the needs of
+the race; there are frontiers of better social domains yet unexplored.
+Let us hold to our attitude of faith and courage, and creative zeal.
+Let us dream as our fathers dreamt and let us make our dreams come
+true.
+
+     "Daughters of Time, the hypocritic days,
+     Muffled and dumb like barefoot dervishes,
+     And marching single in an endless file,
+     Bear diadems and fagots in their hands.
+     To each they offer gifts after his will
+     Bread, kingdoms, stars, and sky that hold them all.
+     I, in my pleachéd garden watched the pomp,
+     Forgot my morning wishes, hastily
+     Took a few herbs and apples and the day
+     Turned and departed silent. I, too late,
+     Under her solemn fillet, saw the scorn!"
+
+What were America's "morning wishes"? From the beginning of that long
+westward march of the American people America has never been the home of
+mere contented materialism. It has continuously sought new ways and
+dreamed of a perfected social type.
+
+In the fifteenth century when men dealt with the New World which
+Columbus found, the ideal of discovery was dominant. Here was placed
+within the reach of men whose ideas had been bounded by the Atlantic,
+new realms to be explored. America became the land of European dreams,
+its Fortunate Islands were made real, where, in the imagination of old
+Europe, peace and happiness, as well as riches and eternal youth, were
+to be found. To Sir Edwin Sandys and his friends of the London Company,
+Virginia offered an opportunity to erect the Republic for which they had
+longed in vain in England. To the Puritans, New England was the new land
+of freedom, wherein they might establish the institutions of God,
+according to their own faith. As the vision died away in Virginia toward
+the close of the seventeenth century, it was taken up anew by the fiery
+Bacon with his revolution to establish a real democracy in place of the
+rule of the planter aristocracy, that formed along the coast. Hardly
+had he been overthrown when in the eighteenth century, the democratic
+ideal was rejuvenated by the strong frontiersmen, who pressed beyond the
+New England Coast into the Berkshires and up the valleys of the Green
+Mountains of Vermont, and by the Scotch-Irish and German pioneers who
+followed the Great Valley from Pennsylvania into the Upland South. In
+both the Yankee frontiersmen and the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of the
+South, the Calvinistic conception of the importance of the individual,
+bound by free covenant to his fellow men and to God, was a compelling
+influence, and all their wilderness experience combined to emphasize the
+ideals of opening new ways, of giving freer play to the individual, and
+of constructing democratic society.
+
+When the backwoodsmen crossed the Alleghanies they put between
+themselves and the Atlantic Coast a barrier which seemed to separate
+them from a region already too much like the Europe they had left, and
+as they followed the courses of the rivers that flowed to the
+Mississippi, they called themselves "Men of the Western Waters," and
+their new home in the Mississippi Valley was the "Western World." Here,
+by the thirties, Jacksonian democracy flourished, strong in the faith of
+the intrinsic excellence of the common man, in his right to make his own
+place in the world, and in his capacity to share in government. But
+while Jacksonian democracy demanded these rights, it was also loyal to
+leadership as the very name implies. It was ready to follow to the
+uttermost the man in whom it placed its trust, whether the hero were
+frontier fighter or president, and it even rebuked and limited its own
+legislative representatives and recalled its senators when they ran
+counter to their chosen executive. Jacksonian democracy was essentially
+rural. It was based on the good fellowship and genuine social feeling of
+the frontier, in which classes and inequalities of fortune played
+little part. But it did not demand equality of condition, for there was
+abundance of natural resources and the belief that the self-made man had
+a right to his success in the free competition which western life
+afforded, was as prominent in their thought as was the love of
+democracy. On the other hand, they viewed governmental restraints with
+suspicion as a limitation on their right to work out their own
+individuality.
+
+For the banking institutions and capitalists of the East they had an
+instinctive antipathy. Already they feared that the "money power" as
+Jackson called it, was planning to make hewers of wood and drawers of
+water of the common people.
+
+In this view they found allies among the labor leaders of the East, who
+in the same period began their fight for better conditions of the wage
+earner. These Locofocos were the first Americans to demand fundamental
+social changes for the benefit of the workers in the cities. Like the
+Western pioneers, they protested against monopolies and special
+privilege. But they also had a constructive policy, whereby society was
+to be kept democratic by free gifts of the public land, so that surplus
+labor might not bid against itself, but might find an outlet in the
+West. Thus to both the labor theorist and the practical pioneer, the
+existence of what seemed inexhaustible cheap land and unpossessed
+resources was the condition of democracy. In these years of the thirties
+and forties, Western democracy took on its distinctive form. Travelers
+like De Tocqueville and Harriet Martineau, came to study and to report
+it enthusiastically to Europe.
+
+Side by side with this westward marching army of individualistic
+liberty-loving democratic backwoodsmen, went a more northern stream of
+pioneers, who cherished similar ideas, but added to them the desire to
+create new industrial centers, to build up factories, to build
+railroads, and to develop the country by founding cities and extending
+prosperity. They were ready to call upon legislatures to aid in this, by
+subscriptions to stock, grants of franchises, promotion of banking and
+internal improvements. These were the Whig followers of that other
+Western leader, Henry Clay, and their early strength lay in the Ohio
+Valley, and particularly among the well-to-do. In the South their
+strength was found among the aristocracy of the Cotton Kingdom.
+
+Both of these Western groups, Whigs and Democrats alike, had one common
+ideal: the desire to leave their children a better heritage than they
+themselves had received, and both were fired with devotion to the ideal
+of creating in this New World a home more worthy of mankind. Both were
+ready to break with the past, to boldly strike out new lines of social
+endeavor, and both believed in American expansion.
+
+Before these tendencies had worked themselves out, three new forces
+entered. In the sudden extension of our boundaries to the Pacific Coast,
+which took place in the forties, the nation won so vast a domain that
+its resources seemed illimitable and its society seemed able to throw
+off all its maladies by the very presence of these vast new spaces. At
+the same period the great activity of railroad building to the
+Mississippi Valley occurred, making these lands available and diverting
+attention to the task of economic construction. The third influence was
+the slavery question which, becoming acute, shaped the American ideals
+and public discussion for nearly a generation. Viewed from one angle,
+this struggle involved the great question of national unity. From
+another it involved the question of the relations of labor and capital,
+democracy and aristocracy. It was not without significance that Abraham
+Lincoln became the very type of American pioneer democracy, the first
+adequate and elemental demonstration to the world that that democracy
+could produce a man who belonged to the ages.
+
+After the war, new national energies were set loose, and new
+construction and development engaged the attention of the Westerners as
+they occupied prairies and Great Plains and mountains. Democracy and
+capitalistic development did not seem antagonistic.
+
+With the passing of the frontier, Western social and political ideals
+took new form. Capital began to consolidate in even greater masses, and
+increasingly attempted to reduce to system and control the processes of
+industrial development. Labor with equal step organized its forces to
+destroy the old competitive system. It is not strange that the Western
+pioneers took alarm for their ideals of democracy as the outcome of the
+free struggle for the national resources became apparent. They espoused
+the cause of governmental activity.
+
+It was a new gospel, for the Western radical became convinced that he
+must sacrifice his ideal of individualism and free competition in order
+to maintain his ideal of democracy. Under this conviction the Populist
+revised the pioneer conception of government. He saw in government no
+longer something outside of him, but the people themselves shaping their
+own affairs. He demanded therefore an extension of the powers of
+governments in the interest of his historic ideal of democratic society.
+He demanded not only free silver, but the ownership of the agencies of
+communication and transportation, the income tax, the postal savings
+bank, the provision of means of credit for agriculture, the construction
+of more effective devices to express the will of the people, primary
+nominations, direct elections, initiative, referendum and recall. In a
+word, capital, labor, and the Western pioneer, all deserted the ideal of
+competitive individualism in order to organize their interests in more
+effective combinations. The disappearance of the frontier, the closing
+of the era which was marked by the influence of the West as a form of
+society, brings with it new problems of social adjustment, new demands
+for considering our past ideals and our present needs.
+
+Let us recall the conditions of the foreign relations along our borders,
+the dangers that wait us if we fail to unite in the solution of our
+domestic problems. Let us recall those internal evidences of the
+destruction of our old social order. If we take to heart this warning,
+we shall do well also to recount our historic ideals, to take stock of
+those purposes, and fundamental assumptions that have gone to make the
+American spirit and the meaning of America in world history.
+
+First of all, there was the ideal of discovery, the courageous
+determination to break new paths, indifference to the dogma that because
+an institution or a condition exists, it must remain. All American
+experience has gone to the making of the spirit of innovation; it is in
+the blood and will not be repressed.
+
+Then, there was the ideal of democracy, the ideal of a free
+self-directing people, responsive to leadership in the forming of
+programs and their execution, but insistent that the procedure should be
+that of free choice, not of compulsion.
+
+But there was also the ideal of individualism. This democratic society
+was not a disciplined army, where all must keep step and where the
+collective interests destroyed individual will and work. Rather it was a
+mobile mass of freely circulating atoms, each seeking its own place and
+finding play for its own powers and for its own original initiative. We
+cannot lay too much stress upon this point, for it was at the very heart
+of the whole American movement. The world was to be made a better world
+by the example of a democracy in which there was freedom of the
+individual, in which there was the vitality and mobility productive of
+originality and variety.
+
+Bearing in mind the far-reaching influence of the disappearance of
+unlimited resources open to all men for the taking, and considering the
+recoil of the common man when he saw the outcome of the competitive
+struggle for these resources as the supply came to its end over most of
+the nation, we can understand the reaction against individualism and in
+favor of drastic assertion of the powers of government. Legislation is
+taking the place of the free lands as the means of preserving the ideal
+of democracy. But at the same time it is endangering the other pioneer
+ideal of creative and competitive individualism. Both were essential and
+constituted what was best in America's contribution to history and to
+progress. Both must be preserved if the nation would be true to its
+past, and would fulfil its highest destiny. It would be a grave
+misfortune if these people so rich in experience, in self-confidence and
+aspiration, in creative genius, should turn to some Old World discipline
+of socialism or plutocracy, or despotic rule, whether by class or by
+dictator. Nor shall we be driven to these alternatives. Our ancient
+hopes, our courageous faith, our underlying good humor and love of fair
+play will triumph in the end. There will be give and take in all
+directions. There will be disinterested leadership, under loyalty to the
+best American ideals. Nowhere is this leadership more likely to arise
+than among the men trained in the Universities, aware of the promise of
+the past and the possibilities of the future. The times call for new
+ambitions and new motives.
+
+In a most suggestive essay on the Problems of Modern Democracy, Mr.
+Godkin has said:
+
+     M. de Tocqueville and all his followers take it for granted
+     that the great incentive to excellence, in all countries in
+     which excellence is found, is the patronage and encouragement
+     of an aristocracy; that democracy is generally content with
+     mediocrity. But where is the proof of this? The incentive to
+     exertion which is widest, most constant, and most powerful in
+     its operations in all civilized countries, is the desire of
+     distinction; and this may be composed either of love of fame
+     or love of wealth or of both. In literary and artistic and
+     scientific pursuits, sometimes the strongest influence is
+     exerted by a love of the subject. But it may safely be said
+     that no man has ever labored in any of the higher colleges to
+     whom the applause and appreciation of his fellows was not one
+     of the sweetest rewards of his exertions.
+
+     What is there we would ask, in the nature of democratic
+     institutions, that should render this great spring of action
+     powerless, that should deprive glory of all radiance, and put
+     ambition to sleep? Is it not notorious, on the contrary, that
+     one of the most marked peculiarities of democratic society, or
+     of a society drifting toward democracy, is the fire of
+     competition which rages in it, the fevered anxiety which
+     possesses all its members to rise above the dead level to
+     which the law is ever seeking to confine them, and by some
+     brilliant stroke become something higher and more remarkable
+     than their fellows? The secret of that great restlessness
+     which is one of the most disagreeable accompaniments of life
+     in democratic countries, is in fact due to the eagerness of
+     everybody to grasp the prizes of which in aristocratic
+     countries, only the few have much chance. And in no other
+     society is success more worshiped, is distinction of any kind
+     more widely flattered and caressed.
+
+     In democratic societies, in fact, excellence is the first
+     title to distinction; in aristocratic ones there are two or
+     three others which are far stronger and which must be stronger
+     or aristocracy could not exist. The moment you acknowledge
+     that the highest social position ought to be the reward of the
+     man who has the most talent, you make aristocratic
+     institutions impossible.
+
+All that was buoyant and creative in American life would be lost if we
+gave up the respect for distinct personality, and variety in genius, and
+came to the dead level of common standards. To be "socialized into an
+average" and placed "under the tutelage of the mass of us," as a recent
+writer has put it, would be an irreparable loss. Nor is it necessary in
+a democracy, as these words of Godkin well disclose. What is needed is
+the multiplication of motives for ambition and the opening of new lines
+of achievement for the strongest. As we turn from the task of the first
+rough conquest of the continent there lies before us a whole wealth of
+unexploited resources in the realm of the spirit. Arts and letters,
+science and better social creation, loyalty and political service to the
+commonweal,--these and a thousand other directions of activity are open
+to the men, who formerly under the incentive of attaining distinction by
+amassing extraordinary wealth, saw success only in material display.
+Newer and finer careers will open to the ambitious when once public
+opinion shall award the laurels to those who rise above their fellows in
+these new fields of labor. It has not been the gold, but the getting of
+the gold, that has caught the imaginations of our captains of industry.
+Their real enjoyment lay not in the luxuries which wealth brought, but
+in the work of construction and in the place which society awarded them.
+A new era will come if schools and universities can only widen the
+intellectual horizon of the people, help to lay the foundations of a
+better industrial life, show them new goals for endeavor, inspire them
+with more varied and higher ideals.
+
+The Western spirit must be invoked for new and nobler achievements. Of
+that matured Western spirit, Tennyson's Ulysses is a symbol.
+
+     ". . . I am become a name
+     For always roaming with an hungry heart,
+     Much have I seen and known . . .
+     I am a part of all that I have met;
+     Yet all experience is an arch, where thro'
+     Gleams that untravelled world, whose margin fades
+     Forever and forever when I move.
+     How dull it is to pause, to make an end,
+     To rust unburnished, not to shine in use!
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     And this gray spirit yearning in desire
+     To follow knowledge like a shining star
+     Beyond the utmost hound of human thought.
+     . . . Come my friends,
+     'Tis not too late to seek a newer world.
+     Push off, and sitting well in order smite
+     The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds
+     To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
+     Of all the Western stars until I die
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     To strive, to seek, to find and not to yield."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[290:1] Commencement Address, University of Washington, June 17, 1914.
+Reprinted by permission from _The Washington Historical Quarterly_,
+October, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+SOCIAL FORCES IN AMERICAN HISTORY[311:1]
+
+
+The transformations through which the United States is passing in our
+own day are so profound, so far-reaching, that it is hardly an
+exaggeration to say that we are witnessing the birth of a new nation in
+America. The revolution in the social and economic structure of this
+country during the past two decades is comparable to what occurred when
+independence was declared and the constitution was formed, or to the
+changes wrought by the era which began half a century ago, the era of
+Civil War and Reconstruction.
+
+These changes have been long in preparation and are, in part, the result
+of world-wide forces of reorganization incident to the age of steam
+production and large-scale industry, and, in part, the result of the
+closing of the period of the colonization of the West. They have been
+prophesied, and the course of the movement partly described by students
+of American development; but after all, it is with a shock that the
+people of the United States are coming to realize that the fundamental
+forces which have shaped their society up to the present are
+disappearing. Twenty years ago, as I have before had occasion to point
+out, the Superintendent of the Census declared that the frontier line,
+which its maps had depicted for decade after decade of the westward
+march of the nation, could no longer be described. To-day we must add
+that the age of free competition of individuals for the unpossessed
+resources of the nation is nearing its end. It is taking less than a
+generation to write the chapter which began with the disappearance of
+the line of the frontier--the last chapter in the history of the
+colonization of the United States, the conclusion to the annals of its
+pioneer democracy.
+
+It is a wonderful chapter, this final rush of American energy upon the
+remaining wilderness. Even the bare statistics become eloquent of a new
+era. They no longer derive their significance from the exhibit of vast
+proportions of the public domain transferred to agriculture, of
+wildernesses equal to European nations changed decade after decade into
+the farm area of the United States. It is true there was added to the
+farms of the nation between 1870 and 1880 a territory equal to that of
+France, and between 1880 and 1900 a territory equal to the European area
+of France, Germany, England, and Wales combined. The records of 1910 are
+not yet available, but whatever they reveal they will not be so full of
+meaning as the figures which tell of upleaping wealth and organization
+and concentration of industrial power in the East in the last decade. As
+the final provinces of the Western empire have been subdued to the
+purposes of civilization and have yielded their spoils, as the spheres
+of operation of the great industrial corporations have extended, with
+the extension of American settlement, production and wealth have
+increased beyond all precedent.
+
+The total deposits in all national banks have more than trebled in the
+present decade; the money in circulation has doubled since 1890. The
+flood of gold makes it difficult to gage the full meaning of the
+incredible increase in values, for in the decade ending with 1909 over
+41,600,000 ounces of gold were mined in the United States alone. Over
+four million ounces have been produced every year since 1905, whereas
+between 1880 and 1894 no year showed a production of two million ounces.
+As a result of this swelling stream of gold and instruments of credit,
+aided by a variety of other causes, prices have risen until their height
+has become one of the most marked features and influential factors in
+American life, producing social readjustments and contributing
+effectively to party revolutions.
+
+But if we avoid those statistics which require analysis because of the
+changing standard of value, we still find that the decade occupies an
+exceptional place in American history. More coal was mined in the United
+States in the ten years after 1897 than in all the life of the nation
+before that time.[313:1] Fifty years ago we mined less than fifteen
+million long tons of coal. In 1907 we mined nearly 429,000,000. At the
+present rate it is estimated that the supply of coal would be exhausted
+at a date no farther in the future than the formation of the
+constitution is in the past. Iron and coal are the measures of
+industrial power. The nation has produced three times as much iron ore
+in the past two decades as in all its previous history; the production
+of the past ten years was more than double that of the prior decade.
+Pig-iron production is admitted to be an excellent barometer of
+manufacture and of transportation. Never until 1898 had this reached an
+annual total of ten million long tons. But in the five years beginning
+with 1904 it averaged over twice that. By 1907 the United States had
+surpassed Great Britain, Germany, and France combined in the production
+of pig-iron and steel together, and in the same decade a single great
+corporation has established its domination over the iron mines and steel
+manufacture of the United States. It is more than a mere accident that
+the United States Steel Corporation with its stocks and bonds
+aggregating $1,400,000,000 was organized at the beginning of the present
+decade. The former wilderness about Lake Superior has, principally in
+the past two decades, established its position as overwhelmingly the
+preponderant source of iron ore, present and prospective, in the United
+States--a treasury from which Pittsburgh has drawn wealth and extended
+its unparalleled industrial empire in these years. The tremendous
+energies thus liberated at this center of industrial power in the United
+States revolutionized methods of manufacture in general, and in many
+indirect ways profoundly influenced the life of the nation.
+
+Railroad statistics also exhibit unprecedented development, the
+formation of a new industrial society. The number of passengers carried
+one mile more than doubled between 1890 and 1908; freight carried one
+mile has nearly trebled in the same period and has doubled in the past
+decade. Agricultural products tell a different story. The corn crop has
+only risen from about two billion bushels in 1891 to two and
+seven-tenths billions in 1909; wheat from six hundred and eleven million
+bushels in 1891 to only seven hundred and thirty-seven million in 1909;
+and cotton from about nine million bales in 1891 to ten and three-tenths
+million bales in 1909. Population has increased in the United States
+proper from about sixty-two and one-half millions in 1890 to
+seventy-five and one-half millions in 1900 and to over ninety millions
+in 1910.
+
+It is clear from these statistics that the ratio of the nation's
+increased production of immediate wealth by the enormously increased
+exploitation of its remaining natural resources vastly exceeds the ratio
+of increase of population and still more strikingly exceeds the ratio of
+increase of agricultural products. Already population is pressing upon
+the food supply while capital consolidates in billion-dollar
+organizations. The "Triumphant Democracy" whose achievements the
+iron-master celebrated has reached a stature even more imposing than he
+could have foreseen; but still less did he perceive the changes in
+democracy itself and the conditions of its life which have accompanied
+this material growth.
+
+Having colonized the Far West, having mastered its internal resources,
+the nation turned at the conclusion of the nineteenth and the beginning
+of the twentieth century to deal with the Far East to engage in the
+world-politics of the Pacific Ocean. Having continued its historic
+expansion into the lands of the old Spanish empire by the successful
+outcome of the recent war, the United States became the mistress of the
+Philippines at the same time that it came into possession of the
+Hawaiian Islands, and the controlling influence in the Gulf of Mexico.
+It provided early in the present decade for connecting its Atlantic and
+Pacific coasts by the Isthmian Canal, and became an imperial republic
+with dependencies and protectorates--admittedly a new world-power, with
+a potential voice in the problems of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
+
+This extension of power, this undertaking of grave responsibilities in
+new fields, this entry into the sisterhood of world-states, was no
+isolated event. It was, indeed, in some respects the logical outcome of
+the nation's march to the Pacific, the sequence to the era in which it
+was engaged in occupying the free lands and exploiting the resources of
+the West. When it had achieved this position among the nations of the
+earth, the United States found itself confronted, also, with the need of
+constitutional readjustment, arising from the relations of federal
+government and territorial acquisitions. It was obliged to reconsider
+questions of the rights of man and traditional American ideals of
+liberty and democracy, in view of the task of government of other races
+politically inexperienced and undeveloped.
+
+If we turn to consider the effect upon American society and domestic
+policy in these two decades of transition we are met with palpable
+evidences of the invasion of the old pioneer democratic order. Obvious
+among them is the effect of unprecedented immigration to supply the
+mobile army of cheap labor for the centers of industrial life. In the
+past ten years, beginning with 1900, over eight million immigrants have
+arrived. The newcomers of the eight years since 1900 would, according to
+a writer in 1908, "repopulate all the five older New England States as
+they stand to-day; or, if properly disseminated over the newer parts of
+the country they would serve to populate no less than nineteen states of
+the Union as they stand." In 1907 "there were one and one-quarter
+million arrivals. This number would entirely populate both New Hampshire
+and Maine, two of our oldest States." "The arrivals of this one year
+would found a State with more inhabitants than any one of twenty-one of
+our other existing commonwealths which could be named." Not only has the
+addition to the population from Europe been thus extraordinary, it has
+come in increasing measure from southern and eastern Europe. For the
+year 1907, Professor Ripley,[316:1] whom I am quoting, has redistributed
+the incomers on the basis of physical type and finds that one-quarter of
+them were of the Mediterranean race, one-quarter of the Slavic race,
+one-eighth Jewish, and only one-sixth of the Alpine, and one-sixth of
+the Teutonic. In 1882 Germans had come to the amount of 250,000; in 1907
+they were replaced by 330,000 South Italians. Thus it is evident that
+the ethnic elements of the United States have undergone startling
+changes; and instead of spreading over the nation these immigrants have
+concentrated especially in the cities and great industrial centers in
+the past decade. The composition of the labor class and its relation to
+wages and to the native American employer have been deeply influenced
+thereby; the sympathy of the employers with labor has been unfavorably
+affected by the pressure of great numbers of immigrants of alien
+nationality and of lower standards of life.
+
+The familiar facts of the massing of population in the cities and the
+contemporaneous increase of urban power, and of the massing of capital
+and production in fewer and vastly greater industrial units, especially
+attest the revolution. "It is a proposition too plain to require
+elucidation," wrote Richard Rush, Secretary of the Treasury, in his
+report of 1827, "that the creation of capital is retarded rather than
+accelerated by the diffusion of a thin population over a great surface
+of soil."[317:1] Thirty years before Rush wrote these words Albert
+Gallatin declared in Congress that "if the cause of the happiness of
+this country were examined into, it would be found to arise as much from
+the great plenty of land in proportion to the inhabitants which their
+citizens enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions."
+Possibly both of these Pennsylvania financiers were right under the
+conditions of the time; but it is at least significant that capital and
+labor entered upon a new era as the end of the free lands approached. A
+contemporary of Gallatin in Congress had replied to the argument that
+cheap lands would depopulate the Atlantic coast by saying that if a law
+were framed to prevent ready access to western lands it would be
+tantamount to saying that there is some class which must remain "and by
+law be obliged to serve the others for such wages as they pleased to
+give." The passage of the arable public domain into private possession
+has raised this question in a new form and has brought forth new
+answers. This is peculiarly the era when competitive individualism in
+the midst of vast unappropriated opportunities changed into the
+monopoly of the fundamental industrial processes by huge aggregations of
+capital as the free lands disappeared. All the tendencies of the
+large-scale production of the twentieth century, all the trend to the
+massing of capital in large combinations, all of the energies of the age
+of steam, found in America exceptional freedom of action and were
+offered regions of activity equal to the states of all Western Europe.
+Here they reached their highest development.
+
+The decade following 1897 is marked by the work of Mr. Harriman and his
+rivals in building up the various railroads into a few great groups, a
+process that had gone so far that before his death Mr. Harriman was
+ambitious to concentrate them all under his single control. High finance
+under the leadership of Mr. Morgan steadily achieved the consolidation
+of the greater industries into trusts or combinations and effected a
+community of interests between them and a few dominant banking
+organizations, with allied insurance companies and trust companies. In
+New York City have been centered, as never before, the banking reserves
+of the nation, and here, by the financial management of capital and
+speculative promotion, there has grown up a unified control over the
+nation's industrial life. Colossal private fortunes have arisen. No
+longer is the per capita wealth of the nation a real index to the
+prosperity of the average man. Labor on the other hand has shown an
+increasing self-consciousness, is combining and increasing its demands.
+In a word, the old pioneer individualism is disappearing, while the
+forces of social combination are manifesting themselves as never before.
+The self-made man has become, in popular speech, the coal baron, the
+steel king, the oil king, the cattle king, the railroad magnate, the
+master of high finance, the monarch of trusts. The world has never
+before seen such huge fortunes exercising combined control over the
+economic life of a people, and such luxury as has come out of the
+individualistic pioneer democracy of America in the course of
+competitive evolution.
+
+At the same time the masters of industry, who control interests which
+represent billions of dollars, do not admit that they have broken with
+pioneer ideals. They regard themselves as pioneers under changed
+conditions, carrying on the old work of developing the natural resources
+of the nation, compelled by the constructive fever in their veins, even
+in ill-health and old age and after the accumulation of wealth beyond
+their power to enjoy, to seek new avenues of action and of power, to
+chop new clearings, to find new trails, to expand the horizon of the
+nation's activity, and to extend the scope of their dominion. "This
+country," said the late Mr. Harriman in an interview a few years ago,
+"has been developed by a wonderful people, flush with enthusiasm,
+imagination and speculative bent. . . . They have been magnificent
+pioneers. They saw into the future and adapted their work to the
+possibilities. . . . Stifle that enthusiasm, deaden that imagination and
+prohibit that speculation by restrictive and cramping conservative law,
+and you tend to produce a moribund and conservative people and country."
+This is an appeal to the historic ideals of Americans who viewed the
+republic as the guardian of individual freedom to compete for the
+control of the natural resources of the nation.
+
+On the other hand, we have the voice of the insurgent West, recently
+given utterance in the New Nationalism of ex-President Roosevelt,
+demanding increase of federal authority to curb the special interests,
+the powerful industrial organizations, and the monopolies, for the sake
+of the conservation of our natural resources and the preservation of
+American democracy.
+
+The past decade has witnessed an extraordinary federal activity in
+limiting individual and corporate freedom for the benefit of society. To
+that decade belong the conservation congresses and the effective
+organization of the Forest Service, and the Reclamation Service. Taken
+together these developments alone would mark a new era, for over three
+hundred million acres are, as a result of this policy, reserved from
+entry and sale, an area more than equal to that of all the states which
+established the constitution, if we exclude their western claims; and
+these reserved lands are held for a more beneficial use of their
+forests, minerals, arid tracts, and water rights, by the nation as a
+whole. Another example is the extension of the activity of the
+Department of Agriculture, which seeks the remotest regions of the earth
+for crops suitable to the areas reclaimed by the government, maps and
+analyzes the soils, fosters the improvement of seeds and animals, tells
+the farmer when and how and what to plant, and makes war upon diseases
+of plants and animals and insect pests. The recent legislation for pure
+food and meat inspection, and the whole mass of regulative law under the
+Interstate Commerce clause of the constitution, further illustrates the
+same tendency.
+
+Two ideals were fundamental in traditional American thought, ideals that
+developed in the pioneer era. One was that of individual freedom to
+compete unrestrictedly for the resources of a continent--the squatter
+ideal. To the pioneer government was an evil. The other was the ideal of
+a democracy--"government of the people, by the people and for the
+people." The operation of these ideals took place contemporaneously with
+the passing into private possession of the free public domain and the
+natural resources of the United States. But American democracy was based
+on an abundance of free lands; these were the very conditions that
+shaped its growth and its fundamental traits. Thus time has revealed
+that these two ideals of pioneer democracy had elements of mutual
+hostility and contained the seeds of its dissolution. The present finds
+itself engaged in the task of readjusting its old ideals to new
+conditions and is turning increasingly to government to preserve its
+traditional democracy. It is not surprising that socialism shows
+noteworthy gains as elections continue; that parties are forming on new
+lines; that the demand for primary elections, for popular choice of
+senators, initiative, referendum, and recall, is spreading, and that the
+regions once the center of pioneer democracy exhibit these tendencies in
+the most marked degree. They are efforts to find substitutes for that
+former safeguard of democracy, the disappearing free lands. They are the
+sequence to the extinction of the frontier.
+
+It is necessary next to notice that in the midst of all this national
+energy, and contemporaneous with the tendency to turn to the national
+government for protection to democracy, there is clear evidence of the
+persistence and the development of sectionalism.[321:1] Whether we
+observe the grouping of votes in Congress and in general elections, or
+the organization and utterances of business leaders, or the association
+of scholars, churches, or other representatives of the things of the
+spirit, we find that American life is not only increasing in its
+national intensity but that it is integrating by sections. In part this
+is due to the factor of great spaces which make sectional rather than
+national organization the line of least resistance; but, in part, it is
+also the expression of the separate economic, political, and social
+interests and the separate spiritual life of the various geographic
+provinces or sections. The votes on the tariff, and in general the
+location of the strongholds of the Progressive Republican movement,
+illustrate this fact. The difficulty of a national adjustment of railway
+rates to the diverse interests of different sections is another
+example. Without attempting to enter upon a more extensive discussion of
+sectionalism, I desire simply to point out that there are evidences that
+now, as formerly, the separate geographical interests have their leaders
+and spokesmen, that much Congressional legislation is determined by the
+contests, triumphs, or compromises between the rival sections, and that
+the real federal relations of the United States are shaped by the
+interplay of sectional with national forces rather than by the relation
+of State and Nation. As time goes on and the nation adjusts itself more
+durably to the conditions of the differing geographic sections which
+make it up, they are coming to a new self-consciousness and a revived
+self-assertion. Our national character is a composite of these
+sections.[322:1]
+
+Obviously in attempting to indicate even a portion of the significant
+features of our recent history we have been obliged to take note of a
+complex of forces. The times are so close at hand that the relations
+between events and tendencies force themselves upon our attention. We
+have had to deal with the connections of geography, industrial growth,
+politics, and government. With these we must take into consideration the
+changing social composition, the inherited beliefs and habitual attitude
+of the masses of the people, the psychology of the nation and of the
+separate sections, as well as of the leaders. We must see how these
+leaders are shaped partly by their time and section, and how they are in
+part original, creative, by virtue of their own genius and initiative.
+We cannot neglect the moral tendencies and the ideals. All are related
+parts of the same subject and can no more be properly understood in
+isolation than the movement as a whole can be understood by neglecting
+some of these important factors, or by the use of a single method of
+investigation. Whatever be the truth regarding European history,
+American history is chiefly concerned with social forces, shaping and
+reshaping under the conditions of a nation changing as it adjusts to its
+environment. And this environment progressively reveals new aspects of
+itself, exerts new influences, and calls out new social organs and
+functions.
+
+I have undertaken this rapid survey of recent history for two purposes.
+First, because it has seemed fitting to emphasize the significance of
+American development since the passing of the frontier, and, second,
+because in the observation of present conditions we may find assistance
+in our study of the past.
+
+It is a familiar doctrine that each age studies its history anew and
+with interests determined by the spirit of the time. Each age finds it
+necessary to reconsider at least some portion of the past, from points
+of view furnished by new conditions which reveal the influence and
+significance of forces not adequately known by the historians of the
+previous generation. Unquestionably each investigator and writer is
+influenced by the times in which he lives and while this fact exposes
+the historian to a bias, at the same time it affords him new instruments
+and new insight for dealing with his subject.
+
+If recent history, then, gives new meaning to past events, if it has to
+deal with the rise into a commanding position of forces, the origin and
+growth of which may have been inadequately described or even overlooked
+by historians of the previous generation, it is important to study the
+present and the recent past, not only for themselves but also as the
+source of new hypotheses, new lines of inquiry, new criteria of the
+perspective of the remoter past. And, moreover, a just public opinion
+and a statesmanlike treatment of present problems demand that they be
+seen in their historical relations in order that history may hold the
+lamp for conservative reform.
+
+Seen from the vantage-ground of present developments what new light
+falls upon past events! When we consider what the Mississippi Valley has
+come to be in American life, and when we consider what it is yet to be,
+the young Washington, crossing the snows of the wilderness to summon the
+French to evacuate the portals of the great valley, becomes the herald
+of an empire. When we recall the huge industrial power that has centered
+at Pittsburgh, Braddock's advance to the forks of the Ohio takes on new
+meaning. Even in defeat, he opened a road to what is now the center of
+the world's industrial energy. The modifications which England proposed
+in 1794 to John Jay in the northwestern boundary of the United States
+from the Lake of the Woods to the Mississippi, seemed to him, doubtless,
+significant chiefly as a matter of principle and as a question of the
+retention or loss of beaver grounds. The historians hardly notice the
+proposals. But they involved, in fact, the ownership of the richest and
+most extensive deposits of iron ore in America, the all-important source
+of a fundamental industry of the United States, the occasion for the
+rise of some of the most influential forces of our time.
+
+What continuity and meaning are furnished by the outcome in present
+times of the movements of minor political parties and reform agitations!
+To the historian they have often seemed to be mere curious side eddies,
+vexatious distractions to the course of his literary craft as it
+navigated the stream of historical tendency. And yet, by the revelation
+of the present, what seemed to be side eddies have not seldom proven to
+be the concealed entrances to the main current, and the course which
+seemed the central one has led to blind channels and stagnant waters,
+important in their day, but cut off like oxbow lakes from the mighty
+river of historical progress by the mere permanent and compelling forces
+of the neglected currents.
+
+We may trace the contest between the capitalist and the democratic
+pioneer from the earliest colonial days. It is influential in colonial
+parties. It is seen in the vehement protests of Kentucky frontiersmen in
+petition after petition to the Congress of the Confederation against the
+"nabobs" and men of wealth who took out titles to the pioneers' farms
+while they themselves were too busy defending those farms from the
+Indians to perfect their claims. It is seen in the attitude of the Ohio
+Valley in its backwoods days before the rise of the Whig party, as when
+in 1811 Henry Clay denounced the Bank of the United States as a
+corporation which throve on special privileges--"a special association
+of favored individuals taken from the mass of society, and invested with
+exemptions and surrounded by immunities and privileges." Benton voiced
+the same contest twenty years later when he denounced the bank as
+
+     a company of private individuals, many of them foreigners, and
+     the mass of them residing in a remote and narrow corner of the
+     Union, unconnected by any sympathy with the fertile regions of
+     the Great Valley in which the natural power of this Union, the
+     power of numbers, will be found to reside long before the
+     renewed term of the second charter would expire.
+
+"And where," he asked, "would all this power and money center? In the
+great cities of the Northeast, which have been for forty years and that
+by force of federal legislation, the lion's den of Southern and Western
+money--that den into which all the tracks point inward; from which the
+returning track of a solitary dollar has never yet been seen."
+Declaring, in words that have a very modern sound, that the bank tended
+to multiply nabobs and paupers, and that "a great moneyed power is
+favorable to great capitalists, for it is the principle of capital to
+favor capital," he appealed to the fact of the country's extent and its
+sectional divergences against the nationalizing of capital.
+
+     What a condition for a confederacy of states! What grounds for
+     alarm and terrible apprehension when in a confederacy of such
+     vast extent, so many rival commercial cities, so much
+     sectional jealousy, such violent political parties, such
+     fierce contests for power, there should be but one moneyed
+     tribunal before which all the rival and contending elements
+     must appear.
+
+Even more vehement were the words of Jackson in 1837. "It is now plain,"
+he wrote, "that the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of
+the few against the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the
+honest laborers hewers of wood and drawers of water through the credit
+and paper system."
+
+Van Buren's administration is usually passed hastily over with hardly
+more than mention of his Independent Treasury plan, and with particular
+consideration of the slavery discussion. But some of the most important
+movements in American social and political history began in these years
+of Jackson and Van Buren. Read the demands of the obscure labor papers
+and the reports of labor's open-air meetings anew, and you will find in
+the utterances of so-called labor visionaries and the Locofoco champions
+of "equal rights for all and special privileges for none," like Evans
+and Jacques, Byrdsall and Leggett, the finger points to the currents
+that now make the main channel of our history; you will find in them
+some of the important planks of the platforms of the triumphant parties
+of our own day. As Professor Commons has shown by his papers and the
+documents which he has published on labor history, an idealistic but
+widespread and influential humanitarian movement, strikingly similar to
+that of the present, arose in the years between 1830 and 1850, dealing
+with social forces in American life, animated by a desire to apply the
+public lands to social amelioration, eager to find new forms of
+democratic development. But the flood of the slavery struggle swept all
+of these movements into its mighty inundation for the time. After the
+war, other influences delayed the revival of the movement. The railroads
+opened the wide prairies after 1850 and made it easy to reach them; and
+decade after decade new sections were reduced to the purposes of
+civilization and to the advantages of the common man as well as the
+promotion of great individual fortunes. The nation centered its
+interests in the development of the West. It is only in our own day that
+this humanitarian democratic wave has reached the level of those earlier
+years. But in the meantime there are clear evidences of the persistence
+of the forces, even though under strange guise. Read the platforms of
+the Greenback-Labor, the Granger, and the Populist parties, and you will
+find in those platforms, discredited and reprobated by the major parties
+of the time, the basic proposals of the Democratic party after its
+revolution under the leadership of Mr. Bryan, and of the Republican
+party after its revolution by Mr. Roosevelt. The Insurgent movement is
+so clearly related to the areas and elements that gave strength to this
+progressive assertion of old democratic ideals with new weapons, that it
+must be regarded as the organized refusal of these persistent
+tendencies to be checked by the advocates of more moderate measures.
+
+I have dealt with these fragments of party history, not, of course, with
+the purpose of expressing any present judgment upon them, but to
+emphasize and give concreteness to the fact that there is disclosed by
+present events a new significance to these contests of radical democracy
+and conservative interests; that they are rather a continuing expression
+of deep-seated forces than fragmentary and sporadic curios for the
+historical museum.
+
+If we should survey the history of our lands from a similar point of
+view, considering the relations of legislation and administration of the
+public domain to the structure of American democracy, it would yield a
+return far beyond that offered by the formal treatment of the subject in
+most of our histories. We should find in the squatter doctrines and
+practices, the seizure of the best soils, the taking of public timber on
+the theory of a right to it by the labor expended on it, fruitful
+material for understanding the atmosphere and ideals under which the
+great corporations developed the West. Men like Senator Benton and
+Delegate Sibley in successive generations defended the trespasses of the
+pioneer and the lumberman upon the public forest lands, and denounced
+the paternal government that "harassed" these men, who were engaged in
+what we should call stealing government timber. It is evident that at
+some time between the middle of the nineteenth century and the present
+time, when we impose jail sentences upon Congressmen caught in such
+violations of the land laws, a change came over the American conscience
+and the civic ideals were modified. That our great industrial
+enterprises developed in the midst of these changing ideals is important
+to recall when we write the history of their activity.
+
+We should find also that we cannot understand the land question without
+seeing its relations to the struggle of sections and classes bidding
+against each other and finding in the public domain a most important
+topic of political bargaining. We should find, too, that the settlement
+of unlike geographic areas in the course of the nation's progress
+resulted in changes in the effect of the land laws; that a system
+intended for the humid prairies was ill-adjusted to the grazing lands
+and coal fields and to the forests in the days of large-scale
+exploitation by corporations commanding great capital. Thus changing
+geographic factors as well as the changing character of the forces which
+occupied the public domain must be considered, if we would understand
+the bearing of legislation and policy in this field.[329:1] It is
+fortunate that suggestive studies of democracy and the land policy have
+already begun to appear.
+
+The whole subject of American agriculture viewed in relation to the
+economic, political, and social life of the nation has important
+contributions to make. If, for example, we study the maps showing the
+transition of the wheat belt from the East to the West, as the virgin
+soils were conquered and made new bases for destructive competition with
+the older wheat States, we shall see how deeply they affected not only
+land values, railroad building, the movement of population, and the
+supply of cheap food, but also how the regions once devoted to single
+cropping of wheat were forced to turn to varied and intensive
+agriculture and to diversified industry, and we shall see also how these
+transformations affected party politics and even the ideals of the
+Americans of the regions thus changed. We shall find in the
+over-production of wheat in the provinces thus rapidly colonized, and in
+the over-production of silver in the mountain provinces which were
+contemporaneously exploited, important explanations of the peculiar
+form which American politics took in the period when Mr. Bryan mastered
+the Democratic party, just as we shall find in the opening of the new
+gold fields in the years immediately following, and in the passing of
+the era of almost free virgin wheat soils, explanations of the more
+recent period when high prices are giving new energy and aggressiveness
+to the demands of the new American industrial democracy.
+
+Enough has been said, it may be assumed, to make clear the point which I
+am trying to elucidate, namely that a comprehension of the United States
+of to-day, an understanding of the rise and progress of the forces which
+have made it what it is, demands that we should rework our history from
+the new points of view afforded by the present. If this is done, it will
+be seen, for example, that the progress of the struggle between North
+and South over slavery and the freed negro, which held the principal
+place in American interest in the two decades after 1850, was, after
+all, only one of the interests in the time. The pages of the
+Congressional debates, the contemporary newspapers, the public documents
+of those twenty years, remain a rich mine for those who will seek
+therein the sources of movements dominant in the present day.
+
+The final consideration to which I ask your attention in this discussion
+of social forces in American life, is with reference to the mode of
+investigating them and the bearing of these investigations upon the
+relations and the goal of history. It has become a precedent, fairly
+well established by the distinguished scholars who have held the office
+which I am about to lay down, to state a position with reference to the
+relations of history and its sister-studies, and even to raise the
+question of the attitude of the historian toward the laws of
+thermodynamics and to seek to find the key of historical development or
+of historical degradation. It is not given to all to bend the bow of
+Ulysses. I shall attempt a lesser task.
+
+We may take some lessons from the scientist. He has enriched knowledge
+especially in recent years by attacking the no-man's lands left
+unexplored by the too sharp delimitation of spheres of activity. These
+new conquests have been especially achieved by the combination of old
+sciences. Physical chemistry, electro-chemistry, geo-physics,
+astro-physics, and a variety of other scientic unions have led to
+audacious hypotheses, veritable flashes of vision, which open new
+regions of activity for a generation of investigators. Moreover they
+have promoted such investigations by furnishing new instruments of
+research. Now in some respects there is an analogy between geology and
+history. The new geologist aims to describe the inorganic earth
+dynamically in terms of natural law, using chemistry, physics,
+mathematics, and even botany and zoölogy so far as they relate to
+paleontology. But he does not insist that the relative importance of
+physical or chemical factors shall be determined before he applies the
+methods and data of these sciences to his problem. Indeed, he has
+learned that a geological area is too complex a thing to be reduced to a
+single explanation. He has abandoned the single hypothesis for the
+multiple hypothesis. He creates a whole family of possible explanations
+of a given problem and thus avoids the warping influence of partiality
+for a simple theory.
+
+Have we not here an illustration of what is possible and necessary for
+the historian? Is it not well, before attempting to decide whether
+history requires an economic interpretation, or a psychological, or any
+other ultimate interpretation, to recognize that the factors in human
+society are varied and complex; that the political historian handling
+his subject in isolation is certain to miss fundamental facts and
+relations in his treatment of a given age or nation; that the economic
+historian is exposed to the same danger; and so of all of the other
+special historians?
+
+Those who insist that history is simply the effort to tell the thing
+exactly as it was, to state the facts, are confronted with the
+difficulty that the fact which they would represent is not planted on
+the solid ground of fixed conditions; it is in the midst and is itself a
+part of the changing currents, the complex and interacting influences of
+the time, deriving its significance as a fact from its relations to the
+deeper-seated movements of the age, movements so gradual that often only
+the passing years can reveal the truth about the fact and its right to a
+place on the historian's page.
+
+The economic historian is in danger of making his analysis and his
+statement of a law on the basis of present conditions and then passing
+to history for justificatory appendixes to his conclusions. An American
+economist of high rank has recently expressed his conception of "the
+full relation of economic theory, statistics, and history" in these
+words:
+
+     A principle is formulated by _a priori_ reasoning concerning
+     facts of common experience; it is then tested by statistics
+     and promoted to the rank of a known and acknowledged truth;
+     illustrations of its action are then found in narrative
+     history and, on the other hand, the economic law becomes the
+     interpreter of records that would otherwise be confusing and
+     comparatively valueless; the law itself derives its final
+     confirmation from the illustrations of its working which the
+     records afford; but what is at least of equal importance is
+     the parallel fact that the law affords the decisive test of
+     the correctness of those assertions concerning the causes and
+     the effects of past events which it is second nature to make
+     and which historians almost invariably do make in connection
+     with their narrations.[333:1]
+
+There is much in this statement by which the historian may profit, but
+he may doubt also whether the past should serve merely as the
+"illustration" by which to confirm the law deduced from common
+experience by _a priori_ reasoning tested by statistics. In fact the
+pathway of history is strewn with the wrecks of the "known and
+acknowledged truths" of economic law, due not only to defective analysis
+and imperfect statistics, but also to the lack of critical historical
+methods, of insufficient historical-mindedness on the part of the
+economist, to failure to give due attention to the relativity and
+transiency of the conditions from which his laws were deduced.
+
+But the point on which I would lay stress is this. The economist, the
+political scientist, the psychologist, the sociologist, the geographer,
+the student of literature, of art, of religion--all the allied laborers
+in the study of society--have contributions to make to the equipment of
+the historian. These contributions are partly of material, partly of
+tools, partly of new points of view, new hypotheses, new suggestions of
+relations, causes, and emphasis. Each of these special students is in
+some danger of bias by his particular point of view, by his exposure to
+see simply the thing in which he is primarily interested, and also by
+his effort to deduce the universal laws of his separate science. The
+historian, on the other hand, is exposed to the danger of dealing with
+the complex and interacting social forces of a period or of a country,
+from some single point of view to which his special training or interest
+inclines him. If the truth is to be made known, the historian must so
+far familiarize himself with the work, and equip himself with the
+training of his sister-subjects that he can at least avail himself of
+their results and in some reasonable degree master the essential tools
+of their trade. And the followers of the sister-studies must likewise
+familiarize themselves and their students with the work and the methods
+of the historians, and coöperate in the difficult task.
+
+It is necessary that the American historian shall aim at this equipment,
+not so much that he may possess the key to history or satisfy himself in
+regard to its ultimate laws. At present a different duty is before him.
+He must see in American society with its vast spaces, its sections equal
+to European nations, its geographic influences, its brief period of
+development, its variety of nationalities and races, its extraordinary
+industrial growth under the conditions of freedom, its institutions,
+culture, ideals, social psychology, and even its religions forming and
+changing almost under his eyes, one of the richest fields ever offered
+for the preliminary recognition and study of the forces that operate and
+interplay in the making of society.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[311:1] Annual address as the president of the American Historical
+Association, delivered at Indianapolis, December 28, 1910. Reprinted by
+permission from _The American Historical Review_, January, 1911.
+
+[313:1] Van Hise, "Conservation of Natural Resources," pp. 23, 24.
+
+[316:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, December, 1908, vii, p. 745.
+
+[317:1] [Although the words of these early land debates are quoted above
+in Chapter VI, they are repeated because of the light they cast upon the
+present problem.]
+
+[321:1] [I have outlined this subject in various essays, including the
+article on "Sectionalism" in McLaughlin and Hart, "Cyclopedia of
+Government."]
+
+[322:1] [It is not impossible that they may ultimately replace the State
+as the significant administrative and legislative units. There are
+strong evidences of this tendency, such as the organization of the
+Federal Reserve districts, and proposals for railroad administration by
+regions.]
+
+[329:1] [See R. G. Wellington, "Public Lands, 1820-1840"; G. M.
+Stephenson, "Public Lands, 1841-1862"; J. Ise, "Forest Policy."]
+
+[333:1] Professor J. B. Clark, in Commons, ed., "Documentary History of
+American Industrial Society," I. 43-44.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+MIDDLE WESTERN PIONEER DEMOCRACY[335:1]
+
+
+In time of war, when all that this nation has stood for, all the things
+in which it passionately believes, are at stake, we have met to dedicate
+this beautiful home for history.
+
+There is a fitness in the occasion. It is for historic ideals that we
+are fighting. If this nation is one for which we should pour out our
+savings, postpone our differences, go hungry, and even give up life
+itself, it is not because it is a rich, extensive, well-fed and populous
+nation; it is because from its early days America has pressed onward
+toward a goal of its own; that it has followed an ideal, the ideal of a
+democracy developing under conditions unlike those of any other age or
+country.
+
+We are fighting not for an Old World ideal, not for an abstraction, not
+for a philosophical revolution. Broad and generous as are our
+sympathies, widely scattered in origin as are our people, keenly as we
+feel the call of kinship, the thrill of sympathy with the stricken
+nations across the Atlantic, we are fighting for the historic ideals of
+the United States, for the continued existence of the type of society in
+which we believe, because we have proved it good, for the things which
+drew European exiles to our shores, and which inspired the hopes of the
+pioneers.
+
+We are at war that the history of the United States, rich with the
+record of high human purposes, and of faith in the destiny of the common
+man under freedom, filled with the promises of a better world, may not
+become the lost and tragic story of a futile dream.
+
+Yes, it is an American ideal and an American example for which we fight;
+but in that ideal and example lies medicine for the healing of the
+nations. It is the best we have to give to Europe, and it is a matter of
+vital import that we shall safeguard and preserve our power to serve the
+world, and not be overwhelmed in the flood of imperialistic force that
+wills the death of democracy and would send the freeman under the yoke.
+Essential as are our contributions of wealth, the work of our
+scientists, the toil of our farmers and our workmen in factory and
+shipyard, priceless as is the stream of young American manhood which we
+pour forth to stop the flood which flows like moulten lava across the
+green fields and peaceful hamlets of Europe toward the sea and turns to
+ashes and death all that it covers, these contributions have their
+deeper meaning in the American spirit. They are born of the love of
+Democracy.
+
+Long ago in prophetic words Walt Whitman voiced the meaning of our
+present sacrifices:
+
+     "Sail, sail thy best, ship of Democracy,
+     Of value is thy freight, 'tis not the Present only,
+     The Past is also stored in thee,
+     Thou holdest not the venture of thyself alone, not of the Western
+         Continent alone,
+     Earth's résumé entire floats on thy keel, O ship, is steadied by
+         thy spars,
+     With thee Time voyages in trust, the antecedent nations sink or
+         swim with thee,
+     With all their ancient struggles, martyrs, heroes, epics, wars,
+         thou bear'st the other continents,
+     Theirs, theirs as much as thine, the destination-port triumphant."
+
+Shortly before the Civil War, a great German, exiled from his native
+land for his love of freedom, came from his new home among the pioneers
+of the Middle West to set forth in Faneuil Hall, the "cradle of
+liberty," in Boston, his vision of the young America that was forming in
+the West, "the last depository of the hopes of all true friends of
+humanity." Speaking of the contrast between the migrations to the
+Mississippi Valley and those of the Old World in other centuries, he
+said:
+
+     It is now not a barbarous multitude pouncing upon old and
+     decrepit empires, not a violent concussion of tribes
+     accompanied by all the horrors of general destruction, but we
+     see the vigorous elements--peaceably congregating and mingling
+     together on virgin soil--; led together by the irresistible
+     attraction of free and broad principles; undertaking to
+     commence a new era in the history of the world, without first
+     destroying the results of the progress of past periods;
+     undertaking to found a cosmopolitan nation without marching
+     over the dead bodies of slain millions.
+
+If Carl Schurz had lived to see the outcome of that Germany from which
+he was sent as an exile, in the days when Prussian bayonets dispersed
+the legislatures and stamped out the beginnings of democratic rule in
+his former country, could he have better pictured the contrasts between
+the Prussian and the American spirit? He went on to say:
+
+     Thus was founded the _great colony of free humanity_, which
+     has not old England alone, but the _world_ for its mother
+     country. And in the colony of free humanity, whose mother
+     country is the world, they established the Republic of equal
+     rights where the title of manhood is the title to citizenship.
+     My friends, if I had a thousand tongues, and a voice as strong
+     as the thunder of heaven, they would not be sufficient to
+     impress upon your minds forcibly enough the greatness of this
+     idea, the overshadowing glory of this result. This was the
+     dream of the truest friends of man from the beginning; for
+     this the noblest blood of martyrs has been shed; for this has
+     mankind waded through seas of blood and tears. There it is
+     now; there it stands, the noble fabric in all the splendor of
+     reality.
+
+It is in a solemn and inspiring time, therefore, that we meet to
+dedicate this building, and the occasion is fitting to the time. We may
+now see, as never before, the deeper significance, the larger meaning of
+these pioneers, whose plain lives and homely annals are glorified as a
+part of the story of the building of a better system of social justice
+under freedom, a broader, and as we fervently hope, a more enduring
+foundation for the welfare and progress under individual liberty of the
+common man, an example of federation, of peaceful adjustments by
+compromise and concession under a self-governing Republic, where
+sections replace nations over a Union as large as Europe, where party
+discussions take the place of warring countries, where the _Pax
+Americana_ furnishes an example for a better world.
+
+As our forefathers, the pioneers, gathered in their neighborhood to
+raise the log cabin, and sanctified it by the name of home, the dwelling
+place of pioneer ideals, so we meet to celebrate the raising of this
+home, this shrine of Minnesota's historic life. It symbolizes the
+conviction that the past and the future of this people are tied
+together; that this Historical Society is the keeper of the records of a
+noteworthy movement in the progress of mankind; that these records are
+not unmeaning and antiquarian, but even in their details are worthy of
+preservation for their revelation of the beginnings of society in the
+midst of a nation caught by the vision of a better future for the world.
+
+Let me repeat the words of Harriet Martineau, who portrayed the American
+of the thirties:
+
+     I regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now
+     moody, now wild, but bringing out results of absolute good
+     sense; restless and wayward in action, but with deep peace at
+     his heart; exulting that he has caught the true aspect of
+     things past and the depth of futurity which lies before him,
+     wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
+     scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a
+     nation that is capable of being possessed with an idea.
+
+And recall her appeal to the American people to "cherish their high
+democratic hope, their faith in man. The older they grow the more they
+must reverence the dreams of their youth."
+
+The dreams of their youth! Here they shall be preserved, and the
+achievements as well as the aspirations of the men who made the State,
+the men who built on their foundations, the men with large vision and
+power of action, the lesser men in the mass, the leaders who served the
+State and nation with devotion to the cause. Here shall be preserved the
+record of the men who failed to see the larger vision and worked
+impatiently with narrow or selfish or class ends, as well as of those
+who labored with patience and sympathy and mutual concession, with
+readiness to make adjustments and to subordinate their immediate
+interests to the larger good and the immediate safety of the nation.
+
+In the archives of such an old institution as that of the Historical
+Society of Massachusetts, whose treasures run to the beginnings of the
+Puritan colonization, the students cannot fail to find the evidence that
+a State Historical Society is a Book of Judgment wherein is made up the
+record of a people and its leaders. So, as time unfolds, shall be the
+collections of this Society, the depository of the material that shall
+preserve the memory of this people. Each section of this widely extended
+and varied nation has its own peculiar past, its special form of
+society, its traits and its leaders. It were a pity if any section left
+its annals solely to the collectors of a remote region, and it were a
+pity if its collections were not transformed into printed documents and
+monographic studies which can go to the libraries of all the parts of
+the Union and thus enable the student to see the nation as a whole in
+its past as well as in its present.
+
+This Society finds its special field of activity in a great State of the
+Middle West, so new, as history reckons time, that its annals are still
+predominantly those of the pioneers, but so rapidly growing that already
+the era of the pioneers is a part of the history of the past, capable of
+being handled objectively, seen in a perspective that is not possible to
+the observer of the present conditions.
+
+Because of these facts I have taken as the special theme of this address
+the Middle Western Pioneer Democracy, which I would sketch in some of
+its outstanding aspects, and chiefly in the generation before the Civil
+War, for it was from those pioneers that the later colonization to the
+newer parts of the Mississippi Valley derived much of their traits, and
+from whom large numbers of them came.
+
+The North Central States as a whole is a region comparable to all of
+Central Europe. Of these States, a large part of the old
+Northwest,--Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin; and their
+sisters beyond the Mississippi--Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota--were
+still, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the home of an
+essentially pioneer society. Within the lifetime of many living men,
+Wisconsin was called the "Far West," and Minnesota was a land of the
+Indian and the fur traders, a wilderness of forest and prairie beyond
+the "edge of cultivation." That portion of this great region which was
+still in the pioneering period of settlement by 1850 was alone about as
+extensive as the old thirteen States, or Germany and Austria-Hungary
+combined. The region was a huge geographic mold for a new society,
+modeled by nature on the scale of the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, the
+upper Mississippi and the Missouri. Simple and majestic in its vast
+outlines it was graven into a variety that in its detail also had a
+largeness of design. From the Great Lakes extended the massive glacial
+sheet which covered that mighty basin and laid down treasures of soil.
+Vast forests of pine shrouded its upper zone, breaking into hardwood and
+the oak openings as they neared the ocean-like expanses of the prairies.
+Forests again along the Ohio Valley, and beyond, to the west, lay the
+levels of the Great Plains. Within the earth were unexploited treasures
+of coal and lead, copper and iron in such form and quantity as were to
+revolutionize the industrial processes of the world. But nature's
+revelations are progressive, and it was rather the marvelous adaptation
+of the soil to the raising of corn and wheat that drew the pioneers to
+this land of promise, and made a new era of colonization. In the unity
+with variety of this pioneer empire and in its broad levels we have a
+promise of its society.
+
+First had come the children of the interior of the South, and with ax
+and rifle in hand had cut their clearings in the forest, raised their
+log cabins, fought the Indians and by 1830 had pushed their way to the
+very edge of the prairies along the Ohio and Missouri Valleys, leaving
+unoccupied most of the Basin of the Great Lakes.
+
+These slashers of the forest, these self-sufficing pioneers, raising the
+corn and live stock for their own need, living scattered and apart, had
+at first small interest in town life or a share in markets. They were
+passionately devoted to the ideal of equality, but it was an ideal which
+assumed that under free conditions in the midst of unlimited resources,
+the homogeneous society of the pioneers _must_ result in equality. What
+they objected to was arbitrary obstacles, artificial limitations upon
+the freedom of each member of this frontier folk to work out his own
+career without fear or favor. What they instinctively opposed was the
+crystallization of differences, the monopolization of opportunity and
+the fixing of that monopoly by government or by social customs. The road
+must be open. The game must be played according to the rules. There must
+be no artificial stifling of equality of opportunity, no closed doors to
+the able, no stopping the free game before it was played to the end.
+More than that, there was an unformulated, perhaps, but very real
+feeling, that mere success in the game, by which the abler men were able
+to achieve preëminence gave to the successful ones no right to look down
+upon their neighbors, no vested title to assert superiority as a matter
+of pride and to the diminution of the equal right and dignity of the
+less successful.
+
+If this democracy of Southern pioneers, this Jacksonian democracy, was,
+as its socialist critics have called it, in reality a democracy of
+"expectant capitalists," it was not one which expected or acknowledged
+on the part of the successful ones the right to harden their triumphs
+into the rule of a privileged class. In short, if it is indeed true that
+the backwoods democracy was based upon equality of opportunity, it is
+also true that it resented the conception that opportunity under
+competition should result in the hopeless inequality, or rule of class.
+Ever a new clearing must be possible. And because the wilderness seemed
+so unending, the menace to the enjoyment of this ideal seemed rather to
+be feared from government, within or without, than from the operations
+of internal evolution.
+
+From the first, it became evident that these men had means of
+supplementing their individual activity by informal combinations. One of
+the things that impressed all early travelers in the United States was
+the capacity for extra-legal, voluntary association.[343:1] This was
+natural enough; in all America we can study the process by which in a
+new land social customs form and crystallize into law. We can even see
+how the personal leader becomes the governmental official. This power of
+the newly arrived pioneers to join together for a common end without the
+intervention of governmental institutions was one of their marked
+characteristics. The log rolling, the house-raising, the husking bee,
+the apple paring, and the squatters' associations whereby they protected
+themselves against the speculators in securing title to their clearings
+on the public domain, the camp meeting, the mining camp, the vigilantes,
+the cattle-raisers' associations, the "gentlemen's agreements," are a
+few of the indications of this attitude. It is well to emphasize this
+American trait, because in a modified way it has come to be one of the
+most characteristic and important features of the United States of
+to-day. America does through informal association and understandings on
+the part of the people many of the things which in the Old World are and
+can be done only by governmental intervention and compulsion. These
+associations were in America not due to immemorial custom of tribe or
+village community. They were extemporized by voluntary action.
+
+The actions of these associations had an authority akin to that of law.
+They were usually not so much evidences of a disrespect for law and
+order as the only means by which real law and order were possible in a
+region where settlement and society had gone in advance of the
+institutions and instrumentalities of organized society.
+
+Because of these elements of individualistic competition and the power
+of spontaneous association, pioneers were responsive to leadership. The
+backwoodsmen knew that under the free opportunities of his life the
+abler man would reveal himself, and show them the way. By free choice
+and not by compulsion, by spontaneous impulse, and not by the domination
+of a caste, they rallied around a cause, they supported an issue. They
+yielded to the principle of government by agreement, and they hated the
+doctrine of autocracy even before it gained a name.
+
+They looked forward to the extension of their American principles to the
+Old World and their keenest apprehensions came from the possibility of
+the extension of the Old World's system of arbitrary rule, its class
+wars and rivalries and interventions to the destruction of the free
+States and democratic institutions which they were building in the
+forests of America.
+
+If we add to these aspects of early backwoods democracy, its spiritual
+qualities, we shall more easily understand them. These men were
+emotional. As they wrested their clearing from the woods and from the
+savages who surrounded them, as they expanded that clearing and saw the
+beginnings of commonwealths, where only little communities had been, and
+as they saw these commonwealths touch hands with each other along the
+great course of the Mississippi River, they became enthusiastically
+optimistic and confident of the continued expansion of this democracy.
+They had faith in themselves and their destiny. And that optimistic
+faith was responsible both for their confidence in their own ability to
+rule and for the passion for expansion. They looked to the future.
+"Others appeal to history: an American appeals to prophecy; and with
+Malthus in one hand and a map of the back country in the other, he
+boldly defies us to a comparison with America as she is to be," said a
+London periodical in 1821. Just because, perhaps, of the usual isolation
+of their lives, when they came together in associations whether of the
+camp meeting or of the political gathering, they felt the influence of a
+common emotion and enthusiasm. Whether Scotch-Irish Presbyterian,
+Baptist, or Methodist, these people saturated their religion and their
+politics with feeling. Both the stump and the pulpit were centers of
+energy, electric cells capable of starting widespreading fires. They
+_felt_ both their religion and their democracy, and were ready to fight
+for it.
+
+This democracy was one that involved a real feeling of social
+comradeship among its widespread members. Justice Catron, who came from
+Arkansas to the Supreme Court in the presidency of Jackson, said: "The
+people of New Orleans and St. Louis are next neighbors--if we desire to
+know a man in any quarter of the union we inquire of our next neighbor,
+who but the other day lived by him." Exaggerated as this is, it
+nevertheless had a surprising measure of truth for the Middle West as
+well. For the Mississippi River was the great highway down which groups
+of pioneers like Abraham Lincoln, on their rafts and flat boats, brought
+the little neighborhood surplus. After the steamboat came to the western
+waters the voyages up and down by merchants and by farmers shifting
+their homes, brought people into contact with each other over wide
+areas.
+
+This enlarged neighborhood democracy was determined not by a reluctant
+admission that under the law one man is as good as another; it was based
+upon "good fellowship," sympathy and understanding. They were of a
+stock, moreover, which sought new trails and were ready to follow where
+the trail led, innovators in society as well as finders of new lands.
+
+By 1830 the Southern inundation ebbed and a different tide flowed in
+from the northeast by way of the Erie Canal and steam navigation on the
+Great Lakes to occupy the zone unreached by Southern settlement. This
+new tide spread along the margins of the Great Lakes, found the oak
+openings and small prairie islands of Southern Michigan and Wisconsin;
+followed the fertile forested ribbons along the river courses far into
+the prairie lands; and by the end of the forties began to venture into
+the margin of the open prairie.
+
+In 1830 the Middle West contained a little over a million and a half
+people; in 1840, over three and a third millions; in 1850, nearly five
+and a half millions. Although in 1830 the North Atlantic States numbered
+between three and four times as many people as the Middle West, yet in
+those two decades the Middle West made an actual gain of several hundred
+thousand more than did the old section. Counties in the newer states
+rose from a few hundred to ten or fifteen thousand people in the space
+of less than five years. Suddenly, with astonishing rapidity and volume,
+a new people was forming with varied elements, ideals and institutions
+drawn from all over this nation and from Europe. They were confronted
+with the problem of adjusting different stocks, varied customs and
+habits, to their new home.
+
+In comparison with the Ohio Valley, the peculiarity of the occupation of
+the northern zone of the Middle West, lay in the fact that the native
+element was predominantly from the older settlements of the Middle West
+itself and from New York and New England. But it was from the central
+and western counties of New York and from the western and northern parts
+of New England, the rural regions of declining agricultural prosperity,
+that the bulk of this element came.
+
+Thus the influence of the Middle West stretched into the Northeast, and
+attracted a farming population already suffering from western
+competition. The advantage of abundant, fertile, and cheap land, the
+richer agricultural returns, and especially the opportunities for youth
+to rise in all the trades and professions, gave strength to this
+competition. By it New England was profoundly and permanently modified.
+
+This Yankee stock carried with it a habit of community life, in contrast
+with the individualistic democracy of the Southern element. The
+colonizing land companies, the town, the school, the church, the feeling
+of local unity, furnished the evidences of this instinct for
+communities. This instinct was accompanied by the creation of cities,
+the production of a surplus for market, the reaching out to connections
+with the trading centers of the East, the evolution of a more complex
+and at the same time a more integrated industrial society than that of
+the Southern pioneer.
+
+But they did not carry with them the unmodified New England institutions
+and traits. They came at a time and from a people less satisfied with
+the old order than were their neighbors in the East. They were the young
+men with initiative, with discontent; the New York element especially
+was affected by the radicalism of Locofoco democracy which was in
+itself a protest against the established order.
+
+The winds of the prairies swept away almost at once a mass of old habits
+and prepossessions. Said one of these pioneers in a letter to friends in
+the East:
+
+     If you value ease more than money or prosperity, don't
+     come. . . . Hands are too few for the work, houses for the
+     inhabitants, and days for the day's work to be done. . . .
+     Next if you can't stand seeing your old New England ideas,
+     ways of doing, and living and in fact, all of the good old
+     Yankee fashions knocked out of shape and altered, or thrown by
+     as unsuited to the climate, don't be caught out here. But if
+     you can bear grief with a smile, can put up with a scale of
+     accommodations ranging from the soft side of a plank before
+     the fire (and perhaps three in a bed at that) down through the
+     middling and inferior grades; if you are never at a loss for
+     ways to do the most unpracticable things without tools; if you
+     can do all this and some more come on. . . . It is a universal
+     rule here to help one another, each one keeping an eye single
+     to his own business.
+
+They knew that they were leaving many dear associations of the old home,
+giving up many of the comforts of life, sacrificing things which those
+who remained thought too vital to civilization to be left. But they were
+not mere materialists ready to surrender all that life is worth for
+immediate gain. They were idealists themselves, sacrificing the ease of
+the immediate future for the welfare of their children, and convinced of
+the possibility of helping to bring about a better social order and a
+freer life. They were social idealists. But they based their ideals on
+trust in the common man and the readiness to make adjustments, not on
+the rule of a benevolent despot or a controlling class.
+
+The attraction of this new home reached also into the Old World and gave
+a new hope and new impulses to the people of Germany, of England, of
+Ireland, and of Scandinavia. Both economic influences and revolutionary
+discontent promoted German migration at this time; economic causes
+brought the larger volume, but the quest for liberty brought the
+leaders, many of whom were German political exiles. While the latter
+urged, with varying degrees of emphasis, that their own contribution
+should be preserved in their new surroundings, and a few visionaries
+even talked of a German State in the federal system, what was noteworthy
+was the adjustment of the emigrants of the thirties and forties to
+Middle Western conditions; the response to the opportunity to create a
+new type of society in which all gave and all received and no element
+remained isolated. Society was plastic. In the midst of more or less
+antagonism between "bowie knife Southerners," "cow-milking Yankee
+Puritans," "beer-drinking Germans," "wild Irishmen," a process of mutual
+education, a giving and taking, was at work. In the outcome, in spite of
+slowness of assimilation where different groups were compact and
+isolated from the others, and a certain persistence of inherited
+_morale_, there was the creation of a new type, which was neither the
+sum of all its elements, nor a complete fusion in a melting pot. They
+were American pioneers, not outlying fragments of New England, of
+Germany, or of Norway.
+
+The Germans were most strongly represented in the Missouri Valley, in
+St. Louis, in Illinois opposite that city, and in the Lake Shore
+counties of eastern Wisconsin north from Milwaukee. In Cincinnati and
+Cleveland there were many Germans, while in nearly half the counties of
+Ohio, the German immigrants and the Pennsylvania Germans held nearly or
+quite the balance of political power. The Irish came primarily as
+workers on turnpikes, canals and railroads, and tended to remain along
+such lines, or to gather in the growing cities. The Scandinavians, of
+whom the largest proportion were Norwegians, founded their colonies in
+Northern Illinois, and in Southern Wisconsin about the Fox and the head
+waters of Rock River, whence in later years they spread into Iowa,
+Minnesota and North Dakota.
+
+By 1850 about one-sixth of the people of the Middle West were of North
+Atlantic birth, about one-eighth of Southern birth, and a like fraction
+of foreign birth, of whom the Germans were twice as numerous as the
+Irish, and the Scandinavians only slightly more numerous than the Welsh,
+and fewer than the Scotch. There were only a dozen Scandinavians in
+Minnesota. The natives of the British Islands, together with the natives
+of British North America in the Middle West, numbered nearly as many as
+the natives of German lands. But in 1850 almost three-fifths of the
+population were natives of the Middle West itself, and over a third of
+the population lived in Ohio. The cities were especially a mixture of
+peoples. In the five larger cities of the section natives and foreigners
+were nearly balanced. In Chicago the Irish, Germans and natives of the
+North Atlantic States about equaled each other. But in all the other
+cities, the Germans exceeded the Irish in varying proportions. There
+were nearly three to one in Milwaukee.
+
+It is not merely that the section was growing rapidly and was made up of
+various stocks with many different cultures, sectional and European;
+what is more significant is that these elements did not remain as
+separate strata underneath an established ruling order, as was the case
+particularly in New England. All were accepted and intermingling
+components of a forming society, plastic and absorptive. This
+characteristic of the section as "a good mixer" became fixed before the
+large immigrations of the eighties. The foundations of the section were
+laid firmly in a period when the foreign elements were particularly free
+and eager to contribute to a new society and to receive an impress from
+the country which offered them a liberty denied abroad. Significant as
+is this fact, and influential in the solution of America's present
+problems, it is no more important than the fact that in the decade
+before the Civil War, the Southern element in the Middle West had also
+had nearly two generations of direct association with the Northern, and
+had finally been engulfed in a tide of Northeastern and Old World
+settlers.
+
+In this society of pioneers men learned to drop their old national
+animosities. One of the Immigrant Guides of the fifties urged the
+newcomers to abandon their racial animosities. "The American laughs at
+these steerage quarrels," said the author.
+
+Thus the Middle West was teaching the lesson of national
+cross-fertilization instead of national enmities, the possibility of a
+newer and richer civilization, not by preserving unmodified or isolated
+the old component elements, but by breaking down the line-fences, by
+merging the individual life in the common product--a new product, which
+held the promise of world brotherhood. If the pioneers divided their
+allegiance between various parties, Whig, Democrat, Free Soil or
+Republican, it does not follow that the western Whig was like the
+eastern Whig. There was an infiltration of a western quality into all of
+these. The western Whig supported Harrison more because he was a pioneer
+than because he was a Whig. It saw in him a legitimate successor of
+Andrew Jackson. The campaign of 1840 was a Middle Western camp meeting
+on a huge scale. The log cabins, the cider and the coonskins were the
+symbols of the triumph of Middle Western ideas, and were carried with
+misgivings by the merchants, the bankers and the manufacturers of the
+East. In like fashion, the Middle Western wing of the Democratic party
+was as different from the Southern wing wherein lay its strength, as
+Douglas was from Calhoun. It had little in common with the slaveholding
+classes of the South, even while it felt the kinship of the pioneer with
+the people of the Southern upland stock from which so many Westerners
+were descended.
+
+In the later forties and early fifties most of the Middle Western States
+made constitutions. The debates in their conventions and the results
+embodied in the constitutions themselves tell the story of their
+political ideals. Of course, they based the franchise on the principle
+of manhood suffrage. But they also provided for an elective judiciary,
+for restrictions on the borrowing power of the State, lest it fall under
+the control of what they feared as the money power, and several of them
+either provided for the extinguishment of banks of issue, or rigidly
+restrained them. Some of them exempted the homestead from forced sale
+for debt; married women's legal rights were prominent topics in the
+debates of the conventions, and Wisconsin led off by permitting the
+alien to vote after a year's residence. It welcomed the newcomer to the
+freedom and to the obligations of American citizenship.
+
+Although this pioneer society was preponderantly an agricultural society
+it was rapidly learning that agriculture alone was not sufficient for
+its life. It was developing manufactures, trade, mining, the
+professions, and becoming conscious that in a progressive modern state
+it was possible to pass from one industry to another and that all were
+bound by common ties. But it is significant that in the census of 1850,
+Ohio, out of a population of two millions, reported only a thousand
+servants, Iowa only ten in two hundred thousand and Minnesota fifteen
+in its six thousand.
+
+In the intellectual life of this new democracy there was already the
+promise of original contributions even in the midst of the engrossing
+toil and hard life of the pioneer.
+
+The country editor was a leader of his people, not a patent-insides
+recorder of social functions, but a vigorous and independent thinker and
+writer. The subscribers to the newspaper published in the section were
+higher in proportion to population than in the State of New York and not
+greatly inferior to those of New England, although such eastern papers
+as the _New York Tribune_ had an extensive circulation throughout the
+Middle West. The agricultural press presupposed in its articles and
+contributions a level of general intelligence and interest above that of
+the later farmers of the section, at least before the present day.
+
+Farmer boys walked behind the plow with their book in hand and sometimes
+forgot to turn at the end of the furrow; even rare boys, who, like the
+young Howells, "limped barefoot by his father's side with his eyes on
+the cow and his mind on Cervantes and Shakespeare."
+
+Periodicals flourished and faded like the prairie flowers. Some of
+Emerson's best poems first appeared in one of these Ohio Valley
+magazines. But for the most part the literature of the region and the
+period was imitative or reflective of the common things in a not
+uncommon way. It is to its children that the Middle West had to look for
+the expression of its life and its ideals rather than to the busy
+pioneer who was breaking a prairie farm or building up a new community.
+Illiteracy was least among the Yankee pioneers and highest among the
+Southern element. When illiteracy is mapped for 1850 by percentages
+there appears two distinct zones, the one extending from New England,
+the other from the South.
+
+The influence of New England men was strong in the Yankee regions of
+the Middle West. Home missionaries, and representatives of societies for
+the promotion of education in the West, both in the common school and
+denominational colleges, scattered themselves throughout the region and
+left a deep impress in all these States. The conception was firmly fixed
+in the thirties and forties that the West was the coming power in the
+Union, that the fate of civilization was in its hands, and therefore
+rival sects and rival sections strove to influence it to their own
+types. But the Middle West shaped all these educational contributions
+according to her own needs and ideals.
+
+The State Universities were for the most part the result of agitation
+and proposals of men of New England origin; but they became
+characteristic products of Middle Western society, where the community
+as a whole, rather than wealthy benefactors, supported these
+institutions. In the end the community determined their directions in
+accord with popular ideals. They reached down more deeply into the ranks
+of the common people than did the New England or Middle State Colleges;
+they laid more emphasis upon the obviously useful, and became
+coëducational at an early date. This dominance of the community ideals
+had dangers for the Universities, which were called to raise ideals and
+to point new ways, rather than to conform.
+
+Challenging the spaces of the West, struck by the rapidity with which a
+new society was unfolding under their gaze, it is not strange that the
+pioneers dealt in the superlative and saw their destiny with optimistic
+eyes. The meadow lot of the small intervale had become the prairie,
+stretching farther than their gaze could reach.
+
+All was motion and change. A restlessness was universal. Men moved, in
+their single life, from Vermont to New York, from New York to Ohio,
+from Ohio to Wisconsin, from Wisconsin to California, and longed for the
+Hawaiian Islands. When the bark started from their fence rails, they
+felt the call to change. They were conscious of the mobility of their
+society and gloried in it. They broke with the Past and thought to
+create something finer, more fitting for humanity, more beneficial for
+the average man than the world had ever seen.
+
+"With the Past we have literally nothing to do," said B. Gratz Brown in
+a Missouri Fourth of July oration in 1850, "save to dream of it. Its
+lessons are lost and its tongue is silent. We are ourselves at the head
+and front of all political experience. Precedents have lost their virtue
+and all their authority is gone. . . . Experience can profit us only to
+guard from antequated delusions."
+
+"The yoke of opinion," wrote Channing to a Western friend, speaking of
+New England, "is a heavy one, often crushing individuality of judgment
+and action," and he added that the habits, rules, and criticisms under
+which he had grown up had not left him the freedom and courage which are
+needed in the style of address best suited to the Western people.
+Channing no doubt unduly stressed the freedom of the West in this
+respect. The frontier had its own conventions and prejudices, and New
+England was breaking its own cake of custom and proclaiming a new
+liberty at the very time he wrote. But there was truth in the Eastern
+thought of the West, as a land of intellectual toleration, one which
+questioned the old order of things and made innovation its very creed.
+
+The West laid emphasis upon the practical and demanded that ideals
+should be put to work for useful ends; ideals were tested by their
+direct contributions to the betterment of the average man, rather than
+by the production of the man of exceptional genius and distinction.
+
+For, in fine this was the goal of the Middle West, the welfare of the
+average man; not only the man of the South, or of the East, the Yankee,
+or the Irishman, or the German, but all men in one common fellowship.
+This was the hope of their youth, of that youth when Abraham Lincoln
+rose from rail-splitter to country lawyer, from Illinois legislator to
+congressman and from congressman to President.
+
+It is not strange that in all this flux and freedom and novelty and vast
+spaces, the pioneer did not sufficiently consider the need of
+disciplined devotion to the government which he himself created and
+operated. But the name of Lincoln and the response of the pioneer to the
+duties of the Civil War,--to the sacrifices and the restraints on
+freedom which it entailed under his presidency, reminds us that they
+knew how to take part in a common cause, even while they knew that war's
+conditions were destructive of many of the things for which they worked.
+
+There are two kinds of governmental discipline: that which proceeds from
+free choice, in the conviction that restraint of individual or class
+interests is necessary for the common good; and that which is imposed by
+a dominant class, upon a subjected and helpless people. The latter is
+Prussian discipline, the discipline of a harsh machine-like, logical
+organization, based on the rule of a military autocracy. It assumes that
+if you do not crush your opponent first, he will crush you. It is the
+discipline of a nation ruled by its General Staff, assuming war as the
+normal condition of peoples, and attempting with remorseless logic to
+extend its operations to the destruction of freedom everywhere. It can
+only be met by the discipline of a people who use their own government
+for worthy ends, who preserve individuality and mobility in society and
+respect the rights of others, who follow the dictates of humanity and
+fair play, the principles of give and take. The Prussian discipline is
+the discipline of Thor, the War God, against the discipline of the White
+Christ.
+
+Pioneer democracy has had to learn lessons by experience: the lesson
+that government on principles of free democracy can accomplish many
+things which the men of the middle of the nineteenth century did not
+realize were even possible. They have had to sacrifice something of
+their passion for individual unrestraint; they have had to learn that
+the specially trained man, the man fitted for his calling by education
+and experience, whether in the field of science or of industry, has a
+place in government; that the rule of the people is effective and
+enduring only as it incorporates the trained specialist into the
+organization of that government, whether as umpire between contending
+interests or as the efficient instrument in the hands of democracy.
+
+Organized democracy after the era of free land has learned that popular
+government to be successful must not only be legitimately the choice of
+the whole people; that the offices of that government must not only be
+open to all, but that in the fierce struggle of nations in the field of
+economic competition and in the field of war, the salvation and
+perpetuity of the republic depend upon recognition of the fact that
+specialization of the organs of the government, the choice of the fit
+and the capable for office, is quite as important as the extension of
+popular control. When we lost our free lands and our isolation from the
+Old World, we lost our immunity from the results of mistakes, of waste,
+of inefficiency, and of inexperience in our government.
+
+But in the present day we are also learning another lesson which was
+better known to the pioneers than to their immediate successors. We are
+learning that the distinction arising from devotion to the interests of
+the commonwealth is a higher distinction than mere success in economic
+competition. America is now awarding laurels to the men who sacrifice
+their triumphs in the rivalry of business in order to give their service
+to the cause of a liberty-loving nation, their wealth and their genius
+to the success of her ideals. That craving for distinction which once
+drew men to pile up wealth and exhibit power over the industrial
+processes of the nation, is now finding a new outlet in the craving for
+distinction that comes from service to the Union, in satisfaction in the
+use of great talent for the good of the republic.
+
+And all over the nation, in voluntary organizations for aid to the
+government, is being shown the pioneer principle of association that was
+expressed in the "house raising." It is shown in the Red Cross, the Y.
+M. C. A., the Knights of Columbus, the councils and boards of science,
+commerce, labor, agriculture; and in all the countless other types, from
+the association of women in their kitchen who carry out the
+recommendations of the Food Director and revive the plain living of the
+pioneer, to the Boy Scouts who are laying the foundations for a
+self-disciplined and virile generation worthy to follow the trail of the
+backwoodsmen. It is an inspiring prophecy of the revival of the old
+pioneer conception of the obligations and opportunities of
+neighborliness, broadening to a national and even to an international
+scope. The promise of what that wise and lamented philosopher, Josiah
+Royce called, "the beloved community." In the spirit of the pioneer's
+"house raising" lies the salvation of the Republic.
+
+This then is the heritage of pioneer experience,--a passionate belief
+that a democracy was possible which should leave the individual a part
+to play in free society and not make him a cog in a machine operated
+from above; which trusted in the common man, in his tolerance, his
+ability to adjust differences with good humor, and to work out an
+American type from the contributions of all nations--a type for which
+he would fight against those who challenged it in arms, and for which in
+time of war he would make sacrifices, even the temporary sacrifice of
+individual freedom and his life, lest that freedom be lost forever.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[335:1] An address delivered at the dedication of the building of the
+State Historical Society of Minnesota, May 11, 1918. Printed by
+permission of the Society.
+
+[343:1] See De Tocqueville's interesting appreciation of this American
+phenomenon.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Absentee proprietors, 55, 297
+
+Achievement, 309
+
+Adams, Henry, 213
+
+Adams, J. Q., 26, 192, 230
+
+Agriculture, 314, 329;
+  Middle West, 149, 150
+
+Agriculture, Department of, 320
+
+Alamance, 119, 120
+
+Alaska, 296
+
+Albany, 43, 52
+
+Albany congress of 1754, 15
+
+Algonquin Indians, 130
+
+Aliens, land tenure by, 110
+
+Alleghany Mountains, 9, 18, 67;
+  as barrier to be overcome, 195
+
+Allen, Ethan, 54
+
+Allen, W. V., 220
+
+American Historical Assoc., 159
+
+American history, social forces, 311;
+  survey of recent, 311
+
+American life, distinguishing feature, 2
+
+American people, 339
+
+American spirit, 306, 336, 337
+
+"American System," 171, 172
+
+Americanization, effective, 4
+
+Arid lands, 9, 147, 219, 239, 245, 278
+
+Aristocracy, 250, 254, 257, 275
+
+Army posts, frontier, 16;
+  prototypes, 47
+
+Asia, 296
+
+Association, voluntary, 343, 344, 358
+
+Astor's American Fur Co., 6, 143
+
+Atlantic coast, as early frontier, 4;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 190, 191;
+  Northern, History, 295
+
+Atlantic frontier, composition, 12
+
+Atlantic states, 207, 208
+
+Augusta, Ga., 98
+
+Autocracy, 344
+
+
+Back country, 68, 70;
+  democracy of, 248;
+  New England, 75
+
+Backwoods society, 212
+
+Backwoodsmen, 163, 164
+
+Bacon, Francis, 286
+
+Bacon's Rebellion, 84, 247, 251, 301
+
+Baltimore, trade, 108
+
+Bancroft, George, 168
+
+Bank, 171, 254, 325
+
+Bedford, Pa., 5
+
+Beecher, Lyman, 35
+
+Bell, John, 192
+
+Benton, T. H., 26, 35, 192, 325, 328
+
+Berkshires, 60, 71, 77
+
+Beverley, Robert, 85, 91;
+  manor, 92
+
+"Birch seal," 78
+
+Black Hills, 145
+
+Blackmar, F. W., 238
+
+Blank patents, 95
+
+Blood-feud, 253
+
+Blount, William, 187
+
+Blue Ridge, 90, 99
+
+Boone, A. J., 19
+
+Boone, Daniel, 18, 105, 124, 165, 206
+
+Boston, trade, 108
+
+Boutmy, E. G., 211
+
+Braddock, Edward, 181, 324
+
+Brattle, Thomas, 56
+
+British and Middle West, 350
+
+Brown, B. Gratz, 355
+
+Brunswick County, Va., 91
+
+Bryan, W. J., 204, 236, 237, 246, 281, 327, 329
+
+Bryce, James, 165, 206, 211, 284
+
+Buffalo, N. Y., 136, 150, 151
+
+Buffalo herds, 144
+
+Buffer state, 131, 134
+
+Burke, Edmund, 33;
+  on the Germans, 109
+
+Byrd, Col. William, 84, 87, 98
+
+
+Calhoun, J. C., 2, 105, 141, 174, 206, 241;
+  on representation, 117;
+  policy of obtaining western trade for the South, 196
+
+California, 8;
+  gold, 144
+
+Canada, 53, 226;
+  barrier between, and the United States, 131;
+  border warfare, 44;
+  homesteads, 296;
+  Middle West and, 128;
+  wheat fields, 278
+
+Canadians, 227
+
+Canals, deep water, 150
+
+Capital, 276, 305, 325;
+  concentration and combinations, 245, 261, 266, 280, 305-306
+
+"Capitalistic classes," 285
+
+Capitalists, 20;
+  "expectant," 343
+
+Capitals, state, transfers, 121
+
+Captains of industry, 258, 259, 260
+
+Carnegie, Andrew, 260, 265
+
+Caroline cow-pens, 16
+
+Catron, John, 345
+
+Cattle raising in Virginia, 88, 89, 92
+
+Census, first, frontier at, 5
+
+Census of 1820, frontier, 6
+
+Census of 1890, extinction of frontier, 1, 9, 38, 39, 297
+
+Center of nation, 222
+
+Channing, W. E., 355
+
+Charleston, S. C., 88, 108, 196
+
+Chase, S. P., 104, 142
+
+Cherry Valley, 104
+
+Chicago, 137, 150, 151, 180, 350;
+  character, 232
+
+Chillicothe, 133, 223
+
+Cincinnati, 133, 151, 162, 223, 231, 232
+
+Cincinnati and Charleston R. R., 174
+
+Cities, 297, 316-317;
+  northeastern, 294-295;
+  seaboard, 194, 195, 196;
+  three periods of development, 195
+
+Civil War, 356;
+  Middle West and, 142;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 201;
+  Northwest and, 217
+
+Clark, G. R., 131, 167, 186
+
+Clark, J. B., 332
+
+Class distinctions, 280, 285
+
+Clay, Henry, 26, 168, 171, 172, 173, 174, 192, 197, 206, 213, 216, 226,
+    241, 304, 325
+
+Cleaveland, Gen. Moses, 133, 222, 257
+
+Cleveland, 133, 150, 223, 231, 232
+
+Clinton, De Witt, 195, 196
+
+Coal supply, 313
+
+Coast, Atlantic, 206;
+  destiny, 295;
+  interior and, antagonisms, 110
+
+Coeducation, 353
+
+Colden, Cadwallader, 80
+
+Colonial life, 11
+
+Colonial system, 127
+
+Colonization, 312;
+  English and French contrasted, 13-14;
+  peaceful, 169
+
+Colony of free humanity, 337-338
+
+Columbus, Ohio, 162, 229
+
+Combinations of capital and of labor, 245
+
+Commencement seasons, 290
+
+Commons, J. R., 327
+
+Community, "beloved community," 358;
+  life, 347;
+  type of settlement, 73, 74, 125
+
+Competition, 154, 203, 277, 308, 312
+
+Compromise, 174, 198, 230, 236;
+  slavery, 140, 142
+
+Concentration of power and wealth, 245, 261, 266, 280
+
+Concord, Mass., 39
+
+Concurrent majority, 118
+
+Congregational church, 74, 112
+
+Congress and frontiersmen, 252-253
+
+Connecticut, frontier towns, 42, 45, 53;
+  land policy, 76
+
+Connecticut River, 52, 53, 72
+
+Connecticut Valley, 63, 73
+
+Conquest, 269
+
+Conscience, American, 328
+
+Constitution, U. S., 209, 244
+
+Constitutional convention of 1787, 249
+
+Constitutions, state, 121, 252, 352;
+  reconstruction, 192
+
+Coöperation, voluntary, 165, 257, 258
+
+Corn, areas, 149;
+  belt, 151
+
+Corporations, 265, 328
+
+Cotton culture, 28, 139, 255;
+  early extension, 7;
+  transfer from the East to Mississippi Valley, 194
+
+"Cotton Kingdom," 174, 189, 194, 198
+
+Coureurs de bois, 182
+
+Cow pens, 16, 88
+
+Crockett, Davy, 105
+
+Crops, migration, 149
+
+Currency, 148;
+  evil, 32;
+  expansion, 210
+
+Cutler, Manasseh, 141
+
+
+Dairy interests in Wisconsin, 234, 236
+
+Dakotas, settlement, 145, 146
+
+Darien, Ga., 98
+
+Davis, Jefferson, 105, 139, 174
+
+De Bow, J. D. B., 197
+
+De Bow's _Review_, 217
+
+Debs, E. V., 281
+
+Dedham, 40, 58
+
+Deerfield, 48, 52, 58, 70
+
+Democracy, 32, 54, 306;
+  doubts of, 280;
+  established in Old West, 107;
+  free land and, 274;
+  frontier, early, 106;
+  frontier and, 30, 31, 247, 249;
+  Godkin on, 307;
+  in early 18th century, 98;
+  Jacksonian, 192, 302, 342-343;
+  Jeffersonian, 250, 251;
+  magnitude of achievement in the West, 258;
+  Middle West, 154;
+  Mississippi Valley, 183;
+  neighborhood, 346;
+  new type in West, 210, 216;
+  Ohio Valley, influence, 172;
+  Ohio Valley and, 175;
+  organized, 357;
+  origin, 293;
+  outcome of American experiences, 266;
+  pressure on the universities, 283;
+  significance of Mississippi Valley in promoting, 190;
+  Upland South, 165;
+  Western contributions, 243;
+  Western ideals, 261;
+  _see also_ Pioneer democracy
+
+Democratic party, 327, 330;
+  basis, 248;
+  Middle Western wing, 352
+
+Democratic-Republican party, 250
+
+Denver, Colo., 19
+
+De Tocqueville. _See_ Tocqueville
+
+Detroit, 135, 150
+
+Development, American, 205, 221;
+  four changes, 244;
+  personal, 271;
+  significant decade, 246-247;
+  study of, 10;
+  true point of view, 3;
+  Western, 218
+
+D'Iberville. _See_ Iberville
+
+Discovery, 271, 293, 301, 306
+
+Doddridge, Joseph, 115
+
+Dogs for hunting Indians, 45
+
+Douglas, S. A., 140;
+  Lincoln debates, 230
+
+Douglas, William, 109
+
+Down east, 79
+
+Dracut, 111
+
+Dreams, 301, 339
+
+Duel, 253
+
+Duluth, 150, 151, 234
+
+Dunkards, 263
+
+Dunstable, 48, 56
+
+Duquesne, Abraham, 14
+
+Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817), 63;
+  fears of pioneer class, 251
+
+
+East, efforts to restrict advance of frontier, 33, 34;
+  fears of the West, 208;
+  out of touch with West, 18
+
+Economic forces and political institutions, 243
+
+Economic historian, 332
+
+Economic legislation and Ohio Valley, 170
+
+Education, 282;
+  Middle West, 156
+
+Edwards, Jonathan, 63
+
+Egleston, Melville, 55
+
+Eliot, C. W., on corporation, 265;
+  on democracy and slavery, 256
+
+Emerson, R. W., 353;
+  on Lincoln, 256
+
+England, decrease of dependence on, 23;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 180, 186;
+  Old Northwest and, 131, 134
+
+English pioneers, 270
+
+English settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, 226
+
+English stock and English speech, 23
+
+Equality, 274;
+  New England, 61, 62, 63;
+  Western settlers, 212
+
+Erie Canal, 7, 136, 195, 197
+
+Europe, American democracy and, 282;
+  how America reacted on, 3;
+  Southeastern, 294, 295, 316
+
+Europeans, 267
+
+Evolution, American, as key to history, 11
+
+Expansion, 206, 219, 304, 345;
+  Ohio Valley and, 166;
+  world politics, 246
+
+Experts, 284, 285, 286
+
+
+"Fall line," 4, 9, 68;
+  efforts to establish military frontier on, 84
+
+Fairfax, Lord, 92, 123
+
+Far East, 315
+
+Far West, 315, 341
+
+Farm lands, 297
+
+Farm machinery, 276
+
+Farmers, 238, 239
+
+Farmer's frontier, 12, 16, 18
+
+Federal colonial system, 168, 169
+
+Federal Reserve districts, 322
+
+Fertility, 129
+
+Field, Marshall, 265
+
+Finance, 318, 325;
+  pioneer ideas, 148
+
+Fire-arms and Indians, 13
+
+Firmin, Giles, 56
+
+Food supply, 279, 294, 314
+
+Foreign parentage, Indiana and Illinois, 232;
+  Michigan, 233;
+  Western States, 237;
+  Wisconsin, 233-234
+
+Foreign policy, 168, 219
+
+Forest Service, 320
+
+Forest philosophy, 207
+
+"Foresters," 63
+
+Forests, 270, 293;
+  Middle West, 130
+
+Fortified houses, 71
+
+Fourierists, 263
+
+France, efforts to revive empire in America, 167;
+  Middle West and, 131;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 180, 186;
+  western exploration, 163;
+
+Franchise, 249-250, 252
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, Mississippi Valley and, 182;
+  on the Germans, 109
+
+Free Soil party, 141, 173, 217
+
+French explorers, 163
+
+French frontier, 125
+
+French settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, 226
+
+Frontier, conservative attitude toward advance, 63;
+  definition, 3, 41;
+  demand for independent statehood, 248;
+  efforts to check and restrict it, 33;
+  evil effects, 32;
+  extinction, 1, 9, 38, 39, 321;
+  farmers, 239, 240;
+  first official, 39, 54;
+  French, 125;
+  importance as a military training school, 15;
+  influence toward democracy, 247, 249;
+  kinds and modes of advance, 12;
+  Massachusetts, 65;
+  military, of Old West, 106-107;
+  religious aspects, 36;
+  Spanish, 125;
+  towns in Massachusetts, 42, 45, 53, 70;
+  various comparisons, 10
+
+Frontiersmen, 206, 209, 212;
+  in Congress, 252-253;
+  Mississippi Valley, 182;
+  Virginia idea, 86
+
+Fulton, Robert, 171
+
+Fur trade, 13;
+  England after Revolution, 131;
+  Hudson River, 80;
+  Southern, Old West, 87
+
+
+Gallatin, Albert, 191, 252, 317
+
+Galveston, 202
+
+Garfield, J. A., 241
+
+Geographic factors, 329
+
+Geographic provinces, 158
+
+Georgia, 174, 196;
+  restriction of land tenure, 97;
+  settlement, 97
+
+Germanic germs, 3, 4
+
+Germans, 263;
+  in New York in early times, 5;
+  Middle West and, 137-138, 146;
+  Palatine, 5, 82, 100, 109, 124;
+  political exiles, 349;
+  sectaries, 164;
+  Wisconsin, 23, 227, 236;
+  zone of settlement in Great Valley, 102
+
+Glarus, 236
+
+Glenn, James, 23, 108
+
+Godkin, E. L., 307
+
+Goochland County, Va., 93
+
+Government, 321;
+  paternal, 328;
+  popular, 357
+
+Government discipline, 356
+
+Government expeditions, 17
+
+Government intervention, 344
+
+Government ownership, 148
+
+Government powers, 307
+
+Government regulation, 281
+
+Granger movement, 148, 203, 218, 276, 281
+
+Grant, U. S., 142
+
+Granville, Lord, 95, 123
+
+Great Lakes, 128, 149, 150, 173, 297
+
+Great Plains, 8, 128, 147;
+  Indian trade and war, 144
+
+Great Valley, 100;
+  colonization, 100-101
+
+Greater South, 174
+
+Greeley, Horace, 104
+
+Green Mountain Boys, 78
+
+Greenback movement, 148, 203, 218, 276
+
+Greenway manor, 92
+
+Groseilliers, 180
+
+Groton, 48, 57
+
+Grund, F. J., 7
+
+Grundy, Felix, 192
+
+Gulf coast, 295
+
+Gulf States, 141;
+  occupation, 139
+
+
+Hammond, J. H., on slavery problem in the Mississippi Valley, 198
+
+Hanna, Marcus, 265
+
+Harriman, E. H., 280, 318
+
+Harrison, W. H., 168, 173, 189, 192, 213, 255
+
+Hart, A. B., 177
+
+Hartford, 76
+
+Haverhill, 51, 62
+
+Hayes, R. B., 241
+
+Henry, Patrick, 94
+
+Heroes, 254, 256;
+  Western, 213
+
+High thinking, 287
+
+Higher law, 239
+
+Hill, J. J., 260
+
+Historian, 333
+
+Historic ideals, 306, 335
+
+Historical societies, 159-160, 339
+
+History, character, 331-332;
+  new viewpoints, 330
+
+Holland, J. G., 73
+
+Holst, H. E. von, 24
+
+Home markets, 108, 216
+
+Home missions, 36, 354
+
+Homestead law of 1862, 145, 276
+
+Hoosier State, 224
+
+Housatonic River, 71
+
+Housatonic Valley, 72
+
+Houston, Sam, 105
+
+Howells, W. D., 353
+
+Hudson River, 53, 79;
+  frontier, 43;
+  fur trade, 80
+
+Humanitarian movement, 327
+
+Huxley, T. H., on modern civilization, 300
+
+
+Iberville, P. le M. d', 180
+
+Icarians, 263
+
+Idealists, America the goal, 261;
+  social, 349
+
+Ideals, 239;
+  American, and the West, 290;
+  American, loyalty to, 307;
+  American historic, 306, 335;
+  immigrants, 264;
+  Middle West, 153;
+  Mississippi Valley, 203;
+  pioneer, and the State university, 269;
+  readjustment, 321, 328;
+  Western, 209, 214, 267;
+  Western democracy and, 261
+
+Illinois, composite nationality, 232;
+  elements of settlement, 225;
+  settlement, 135
+
+Illiteracy in Middle West, 353
+
+Immigrants, 277;
+  idealism, 264
+
+Immigration, 146, 215, 316
+
+Indian guides, 17
+
+Indian policy, 10
+
+Indian question, early, 9
+
+Indian reservations, 278
+
+Indian trade, 6, 13, 14;
+  Middle West, 143, 144
+
+Indian wars, 9;
+  New England and, 69;
+  Ohio Valley and, 167
+
+Indiana, character, 232;
+  constitution, 282;
+  elements in settlement, 223-224;
+  settlement, 134
+
+Indianapolis, 162, 229
+
+Indians, buffer state for England, 131, 134;
+  congresses to treat with, 15;
+  effects of trades on, 13;
+  hunting Indians with dogs, 45;
+  influence on Puritans and New England, 44;
+  Middle West and, 133, 134;
+  society, 13
+
+Individualism, 30, 32, 37, 78, 125, 140, 203, 254, 259, 271, 273, 302,
+    306;
+  in the Old West, 107;
+  reaction against, 307;
+  Upland South, 165
+
+Industrial conditions, 280, 281, 285;
+  Middle West, 149, 154;
+  Mississippi Valley, 194, 201;
+  Ohio Valley and, 175
+
+Industry, captains of, and large undertakings, 258, 259, 260;
+  control, 318
+
+Inland waterways, 202
+
+Insurgent movement, 327
+
+Intellectual life and the frontier, 37
+
+Intercolonial congresses, 15
+
+Interior and coast, antagonisms, 110
+
+Internal commerce, 171, 188
+
+Internal improvements, 27, 28, 29, 111, 170, 172, 216, 257;
+  after 1812 to break down barrier to West, 195;
+  Old West, 109
+
+Internal trade, Old West, 108, 109
+
+Iowa, 141, 143;
+  elements and growth, 229;
+  settlement, 137
+
+Ipswich, 56
+
+Irish, 350
+
+Iron mines in Middle West, 152
+
+Iron ore, 313
+
+Iroquois Indians, 13, 80
+
+Irrigation, 258, 279
+
+Isms, 239
+
+Izard, Ralph, 274
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew, 105, 168, 173, 189, 206, 213, 216, 241, 252, 253, 268,
+    326;
+  personification of frontier traits, 252, 254
+
+Jackson, Stonewall, 105
+
+Jacksonian democracy, 192, 302, 342-343
+
+James River, 84, 90;
+  settlement, 93
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, 93, 105, 114, 268;
+  conception of democracy, 250, 251;
+  on England and the Mississippi, 186;
+  on the pioneer in Congress, 253;
+  on the importance of the Mississippi Valley, 188
+
+"Jim River" Valley, 145
+
+Johnson, R. M., 192
+
+Johnson, Sir William, 81, 104
+
+Justice, direct forms in the West, 212
+
+
+Kansas, 142, 144, 146, 151;
+  Populists, 238;
+  settlers, 237
+
+Kansas City, 151
+
+Kentucky, 19, 122, 162, 167, 168, 169, 192, 225, 253;
+  slavery, 174
+
+King Philip's War 40, 46, 69
+
+Kipling, Rudyard, "Foreloper," 270;
+  "Son of the English," 262
+
+
+Labor, combinations, 245;
+  composition of laboring class, 316
+
+Labor theorists, 303, 326
+
+Lamar, L. Q. C. (1825-1893), 25
+
+Lancaster, Mass., 48, 57, 61
+
+Land, 328-329;
+  abundance, 274;
+  abundance, as basis of democracy, 191, 192;
+  alien tenure, 110;
+  free, exhausted, 244-245;
+  free Western, 211, 259;
+  fundamental fact in Western society, 211;
+  "mongering," 61;
+  _see also_ Public lands
+
+Land companies, 123, 347
+
+Land grants, 9;
+  for schools and colleges, 74;
+  to railroads, 276
+
+Land Ordinance of 1785, 132
+
+Land policies, 10
+
+Land system, "equality" principle in New England, 61, 62, 63;
+  Georgia, 97;
+  later federal, 123;
+  New England, 54;
+  New England conflicts, 75;
+  New York State, 80;
+  North Carolina, 95;
+  Old West, 122;
+  Pennsylvania, 101;
+  Virginia, 91;
+  Virginia grants to societies, 85
+
+La Salle, 180
+
+Laurentide glacier, 129
+
+Law and order, 298, 344
+
+Leadership, 213, 291, 292, 307;
+  educated, 286
+
+Lease, Mary Ellen, 240
+
+Legislation, 277, 307;
+  frontier and, 24;
+
+Leicester, 59
+
+Leigh, B. W., 115
+
+Lewis and Clark, 13, 17
+
+Liberty, Bacon on, 286;
+  for universities, 287;
+  individual, 213;
+  Western, 212
+
+Life as a whole, 287
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, 105, 135, 142, 174, 206, 213, 217, 225, 241, 268, 304,
+    356;
+  Douglas debates, 230;
+  embodiment of pioneer period, 255-256;
+  Ohio Valley, influence of, 175
+
+Lincoln, C. H., 113
+
+Litchfield, 71, 76, 124
+
+Livingston manor, 81, 82
+
+Locofocos, 303, 326, 348
+
+Log cabin, 338
+
+"Log cabin campaign," 173
+
+London Company, 301
+
+Loria, Achille, 11
+
+Louisiana, 180, 208
+
+Louisiana Purchase, 25, 34, 140, 167, 213, 251;
+  effect on Mississippi Valley, 189-190
+
+Louisville, 162
+
+Lowell, J. R., on Lincoln, 255
+
+Loyal Land Co., 123, 182
+
+Lumber industry, 152;
+  Wisconsin, 234-235
+
+Lumbermen, 272, 273
+
+Lynch law, 212, 272;
+  New England, 78
+
+
+McKinley, William, 236, 237, 241
+
+Magnitude, 258, 260, 276
+
+Maine, 52-53
+
+Maine coast, 79
+
+Mallet brothers, 180
+
+Manila, battle of, 247
+
+Manorial practice in New York, 83
+
+Marietta, 124, 133, 223, 257
+
+"Mark colonies," 70
+
+Marquette, Jacques, 180
+
+Martineau, Harriet, 214, 303, 339
+
+Massachusetts, attempt to locate frontier line, 39;
+  frontier, 65;
+  frontier towns, 42, 45, 53, 70;
+  locating towns before settlement, 76
+
+Mather, Cotton, attitude as to advancing frontier, 63
+
+Mesabi mines, 152, 234
+
+Mendon, 57
+
+Methodists, 238
+
+Mexico, 295
+
+Michigan, 135-136, 137;
+  development and resources, 233;
+  settlement, 226, 228
+
+Middle region, 27;
+  in formation of the Old West, 79;
+  typical American, 28
+
+Middle West, agriculture, 150;
+  Canada and, 128;
+  Civil War and, 142;
+  early society, 153-154;
+  education, 282;
+  elements of settlement--Northern and Southern, 346, 351;
+  Europe and, 282;
+  flow of population into, 132-133;
+  forests, 130;
+  Germans and, 137-138;
+  Germans and Scandinavians, 146;
+  idealism, 153;
+  immigrants of varied nationalities, 349;
+  importance, 126, 128;
+  increase of settlement in the fifties, 142-143;
+  industrial organism, 149;
+  meaning of term, 126;
+  nationalism, 142;
+  natural resources, 129;
+  New England element, 137;
+  peculiarity and influence, 347;
+  pioneer democracy, 335;
+  settlement, 135, 342;
+  slavery question and, 139;
+  southern zone, 138
+
+Migration, 21, 237, 337;
+  communal vs. individual, 125;
+  crops, 149;
+  interstate, 224;
+  labor, 62;
+  New England, and land policy, 77
+
+Militant expansive movement, 105
+
+Military frontier, 41, 47;
+  early form, 47;
+  Old West, significance, 106-107;
+  Virginia in later 17th century, 83, 84
+
+Milwaukee, 137, 227, 236, 350
+
+Miner's frontier, 12
+
+Mining camps, 9
+
+Mining laws, 10
+
+Minneapolis, 137, 151, 234
+
+Minnesota, 143, 144, 237;
+  economic development, 234;
+  Historical Society, 335, 338-339
+
+Missions to the Indians, 79
+
+Mississippi Company, 123, 182
+
+Mississippi River, 7, 9, 142, 185, 194, 345
+
+Mississippi Valley, 10, 139, 166-167, 324;
+  beginning of stratification, 197;
+  Civil War and, 201;
+  democracy and, 190;
+  early population, 183;
+  economic progress after 1812, 194;
+  England's efforts to control, 180-181;
+  extent, 179;
+  French explorers in, 180;
+  frontiersmen's allegiance, 186-187;
+  idealism, social order, 203-204;
+  industrial growth after the Civil War, 201-202;
+  political power and growth from 1810 to 1840, 193;
+  primitive history, 179;
+  question of severance from the Union, 187;
+  significance in American history, 177, 185;
+  slavery struggle and, 201;
+  social forces, early, 183
+
+Missouri, 192
+
+Missouri Compromise, 140, 174, 226
+
+Missouri Valley, 135
+
+Mohawk Valley, 68, 82
+
+Monroe, James, 150
+
+Monroe Doctrine, 296;
+  germ, 168
+
+Monticello, 93
+
+Moravians, 95, 102
+
+Morgan, J. P., 318
+
+Mormons, 263
+
+Morris, Gouverneur, 207
+
+
+Nashaway, 57
+
+National problem, 293
+
+Nationalism, 29;
+  evils of, 157;
+  Middle West and, 142
+
+Nationalities, mixture, 27;
+  replacement in Wisconsin, 235
+
+Naturalization, 110
+
+Nebraska, 144, 145, 220;
+  settlers, 237
+
+Negro, 295
+
+New England, 27, 301;
+  back lands, 75;
+  coast vs. interior, 111;
+  colonies from, 124;
+  culmination of frontier movement, 78;
+  early official frontier line, 43;
+  economic life, 78;
+  effect on the West, 36;
+  foreign element, 294;
+  frontier protection, 46-47;
+  frontier types, 43-44;
+  Greater New England, 66, 70;
+  ideas, and Middle West, 348;
+  Indian wars, 69;
+  land system, 54;
+  Middle West and, 347;
+  Ohio settlement and, 223;
+  Old West and, 68;
+  Old West and interior New England, 70;
+  pioneer type, 239;
+  streams of settlement from, 215;
+  two New Englands of the formative period of the Old West, 78-79
+
+New Englanders in the Middle West, 137;
+  in Wisconsin and the lake region, 228;
+  three movements of advance from the coast, 136;
+  Westernized, 215, 216
+
+New Glarus, 236
+
+New Hampshire, 69, 72, 77, 111
+
+New Hampshire grants, 77
+
+New Northwest, 222
+
+New Orleans, 136, 137, 167, 187, 188, 189, 217, 295
+
+New South, 218;
+  Old West and, 100
+
+New West, 257
+
+New York City, 136, 195, 318
+
+New York State, early frontier, 43;
+  lack of expansive power, 80;
+  land system, 80;
+  settlement from New England, 83;
+  western, 230
+
+Newspapers of the Middle West, 353
+
+Nitrates, 279
+
+Norfolk, 195
+
+North Carolina, 87, 106;
+  coast vs. upland, 116;
+  in Indiana Settlement, 224;
+  public lands, 95;
+  settlement, 94, 95;
+  slavery, 122;
+  taxation, 118, 119
+
+North Central States, 126;
+  region as a whole, 341
+
+North Dakota, development, 237
+
+Northampton, 63
+
+Northfield, 53
+
+Northwest, democracy, 356;
+  Old and New, 222;
+  _see also_ Old Northwest
+
+Northwest Territory, 222
+
+Northwestern boundary, 324
+
+Norton, C. E., 208-209
+
+Norwegians, 232
+
+Nullification, 117, 254
+
+
+Ohio, diversity of interests, 231-232;
+  elements of settlement, 223;
+  history, 133-134;
+  New England element, 223;
+  Southern contribution to settlement, 223
+
+Ohio Company, 123, 133, 141, 182, 223
+
+Ohio River, 5, 161
+
+Ohio Valley, 104;
+  as a highway, 162;
+  economic legislation and, 170;
+  effects on national expansion, 166;
+  in American history, 157;
+  influence on Lincoln, 175;
+  part in making of the nation, 160;
+  physiography, 160-161;
+  relation to the South, 174;
+  religious spirit, 164, 165;
+  stock and settlement, 164
+
+Oil wells, 297
+
+Oklahoma, 278, 297
+
+Old National road, 136
+
+Old Northwest, 131, 132, 136, 221;
+  as a whole, 241-242;
+  defined, 218;
+  elements of settlement, 222;
+  political position, 236;
+  social origin, 222-223;
+  Southern element in settlement, 223, 225-226;
+  turning point of control, 229
+
+"Old South," 166
+
+Old West, colonization of areas beyond the mountains, 124;
+  consequences of formation, 106;
+  New South and, 100;
+  summary of frontier movement in 17th and early 18th centuries, 98;
+  term defined, 68
+
+Old World, 261, 267, 294, 299, 344, 349;
+  effect of American frontier, 22;
+  West and, 206, 210
+
+Opportunity, 37, 212, 239, 259-260, 261, 263, 271-272, 342, 343
+
+Orangeburg, 96
+
+Ordinance of 1787, 25, 132, 168, 190, 223
+
+Oregon country, 144
+
+Orient, 297
+
+Osgood, H. L., 30
+
+
+Pacific coast, 168, 219, 304
+
+Pacific Northwest, 296
+
+Pacific Ocean, 297, 315
+
+Packing industries, 151
+
+Palatine Germans, 5, 22, 100, 109, 124;
+  New York State and, 82
+
+Palisades, 71
+
+Panama Canal, 295
+
+Panics, 279-280
+
+Paper money, 32, 111, 121, 122, 209
+
+Parkman, Francis, 70, 72, 144, 163
+
+"Particular plantations," 41
+
+Past, lessons of, 355
+
+Patroon estates, 80
+
+Paxton Boys, 112
+
+Pecks "New Guide to the West," 19
+
+Penn, William, 262
+
+Pennsylvania, 23, 27;
+  coast and interior, antagonisms, 112;
+  German settlement, 82, 100;
+  Great Valley of, 68, 164;
+  land grants, 101;
+  new Pennsylvania of the Great Valley, 100;
+  Scotch-Irish, 103, 104;
+  settlement Of Old West part, 83
+
+Pennsylvania Dutch, 22, 100, 110
+
+Perrot, Nicolas, 180
+
+Philadelphia, 106;
+  trade, 108
+
+Physiographic provinces, 127
+
+Piedmont, 68;
+  Virginia, 87, 89
+
+Pig iron, 152, 313
+
+Pine, 151
+
+Pine belt in Middle West, 143
+
+Pioneer democracy, lessons learned, 357;
+  Middle West, 335
+
+Pioneer farmers, 21, 206, 257
+
+Pioneers, conservative fears about, 251, 252;
+  contest with capitalist, 325;
+  contrast of conditions, 279;
+  deeper significance, 338;
+  essence, 271;
+  ideals and the State university, 269;
+  Middle West, 146, 154;
+  Ohio Valley, 167;
+  old ideals, 148;
+  sketch, 19
+
+Pittsburgh, 104, 127, 136, 154-155, 161, 265, 299, 314, 324
+
+Plain people, 256, 267
+
+Political institutions, 243;
+  frontier and, 24
+
+Political parties, 249, 324
+
+Polk, J. K., 105, 192, 255
+
+Pontiac, 131, 144
+
+Poor whites, 224
+
+Population center, 222
+
+Populists, 32, 127, 147, 155, 203, 220, 247, 277, 281, 305;
+  Kansas, 238
+
+Prairie Plains, 129
+
+Prairie states, 239
+
+Prairies, 218, 236, 276, 348;
+  settlement, 145, 147
+
+Presbyterians, 105, 106, 109, 164
+
+Presidency, 254;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 192;
+  Ohio Valley and, 175;
+  Old Northwest and, 222
+
+Prices, 313
+
+Princeton college, 106
+
+Pritchett, H. S., 282
+
+Privilege, 192;
+  conflict against, 120, 121
+
+Proclamation of 1763, 181
+
+Progressive Republican movement, 321
+
+Prohibitionists, 240
+
+"Proletariat," 285
+
+Property, 210;
+  as basis of suffrage, 249
+
+Prosperity, 281
+
+Protection. _See_ Tariff
+
+Provinces, geographic, 158
+
+Provincialism, desirable, 157, 159
+
+Prussianism, 337, 356
+
+Public lands, 25, 132, 303;
+  policy of America, 26, 170;
+  Western lands, first debates on, 191
+
+Public schools, 266, 282
+
+Puget Sound, 298
+
+Puritan ideals, 73, 75, 78;
+  German conflict with, 138
+
+Puritanism, 27
+
+Puritans and Indians, 44
+
+Purrysburg, 97
+
+Pynchon, John, 51, 52
+
+
+Quakers, 105, 112, 164;
+  in settlement of Indiana, 224
+
+Quebec, Province of, 131
+
+Quincy, Josiah, 208
+
+
+Radisson, Sieur de, 180
+
+Railroads, administration by regions, 322;
+  Chicago and, 150;
+  continental, 247;
+  in early fifties, 137;
+  land grants to, 276;
+  Mississippi Valley, 304;
+  northwestern, 145;
+  origin, 14;
+  speculative movement, 276;
+  statistics, 314;
+  western, 218
+
+Rancher's frontier, 12, 16
+
+Ranches, 9, 16;
+  Virginia, 88
+
+Rappahannock River, 84, 90;
+  settlement, 93
+
+Reclamation, 298
+
+Reclamation Service, 320
+
+Red Cloud (Indian), 144
+
+Red River valley, 145
+
+Redemptioners, 22, 90, 97, 100
+
+Reformers, 281, 324;
+  social, 262-263
+
+Regulation, War of the, 248
+
+Regulators, 116, 119, 120, 212
+
+Religion of the Middle West, 345
+
+Religious freedom of the Old West, 121
+
+Religious spirit, Ohio Valley, 164, 165;
+  Upland South, 164, 165
+
+Rensselaerswyck, 80
+
+Representation, 114, 117, 120
+
+Republican party, 327
+
+Research, 284, 287, 331
+
+Revolution, American, 30
+
+Rhodes, J. F., 24
+
+Richmond, Va., 108
+
+Rights, equal, 326-327, 338;
+  of man, 192
+
+Ripley, W. Z., 316
+
+Robertson, James, 105, 187
+
+Rockefeller, J. D., 260, 264-265
+
+Rocky Mountains, 8, 9, 10, 298
+
+Roosevelt, Theodore, 202, 204, 281, 319, 327;
+  on the Mississippi Valley, 178;
+  "Winning of the West," 67
+
+Root, Elihu, 159
+
+Roxbury, 59
+
+Royce, Josiah, 157, 358
+
+Rush, Richard, 317
+
+
+St. Louis, 151, 161, 229
+
+St. Paul, 137, 234
+
+Salisbury, Mass., 56
+
+Salt, 17;
+  annual pilgrimage to coast for, 17
+
+Salt springs, 17, 18
+
+Salzburgers, 97
+
+Sandys, Sir Edwin, 301
+
+Sault Ste. Marie Canal, 149
+
+Scalps, Massachusetts bounty for, 45
+
+Scandinavians, 263, 350;
+  Middle West, 146;
+  Western life, 232-233, 234
+
+Schools, early difficulties, 107;
+  _see also_ Public schools
+
+Schurz, Carl, 337
+
+Science, 284, 330-331
+
+Scientific farming, 294
+
+Scotch Highlanders, 104;
+  Georgia, 98
+
+Scotch-Irish, 5, 22, 71;
+  migration in Great Valley and Piedmont, 103;
+  Pennsylvania, 104;
+  South Carolina, 97;
+  Virginia, 86, 91-92
+
+Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, 105, 109, 164
+
+Scovillites, 116
+
+Seaboard cities, 194, 195, 196
+
+Seattle, 298
+
+"Section" of land, 123, 132
+
+Sectionalism, 27, 28, 52, 157, 215, 220, 321
+
+Sections, relation, 159
+
+Self-government, 169, 190, 207, 248, 275
+
+Self-made man, 219, 318
+
+Servants, 60, 353
+
+Service to the Union, 358
+
+Settlement, community type, 73, 74
+
+Settler, 20
+
+Sevier, John, 105, 187
+
+Seward, W. H., 141;
+  on the Northwest, 230;
+  on the slavery issue in the Mississippi Valley, 199, 200
+
+Shays' Rebellion, 112, 119, 122, 249
+
+Sheffield, 71
+
+Sheldon, George, 58
+
+Shenandoah Valley, 68, 90, 91, 92, 99, 105
+
+Sherman, W. T., 142
+
+Sibley, H. H. (1811-1891), 272, 273, 328
+
+Silver movement, 238, 239, 329
+
+Simsbury, 63
+
+Singletary, Amos, 240
+
+Sioux Indians, 130
+
+Six Nations, 15, 83
+
+Slavery question, 24, 29, 98, 111, 139, 304, 330;
+  compromise movement, 174;
+  democracy and, 256;
+  expansion, 174;
+  Middle West and, 139;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 198, 201;
+  Northwest and, 230;
+  slaves as property, 115;
+  Virginia and North Carolina, 122
+
+Smith, Major Lawrence, 84
+
+Social control, 277
+
+Social forces, in American history, 311;
+  mode of investigating, 330;
+  on the Atlantic coast, 295;
+  political institutions and, 243
+
+Social mobility, 355
+
+Social order, Mississippi Valley, 203-204;
+  new, 263
+
+Social reformers, 262-263
+
+Socialism, 246, 277, 307, 321
+
+Society, backwoods, 212;
+  rebirth of in the West, 205
+
+Soils, 278, 279;
+  search for, 18
+
+Solid South, 217
+
+South, 27, 166, 218;
+  contribution to settlement of Old Northwest (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois),
+    223, 225-226;
+  Ohio Valley and, 174;
+  solid, 217;
+  transforming forces, 295;
+  West and, 196, 197;
+  _see also_ Upland South
+
+South Carolina, 174;
+  condition of antagonism between coast and interior, 116;
+  land system, townships, 96;
+  trade, 108
+
+South Dakota, development, 237
+
+Southeastern Europe, 294, 299, 316
+
+Southerners and the Middle West, 133-134, 135, 138
+
+Southwest, 297
+
+Spain, 167, 181, 246;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 184, 185
+
+Spangenburg, A. G., 17
+
+Spanish America 181, 182, 295
+
+Spanish frontier, 125
+
+Spanish War, 246
+
+Speculation, 319
+
+Spoils system, 32, 254
+
+Spotswood, Alexander, 22, 88, 90, 91, 113, 247;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 180
+
+Spotsylvania County, Va., 90
+
+Spreckles, Claus, 265
+
+Squatter-sovereignty, 140
+
+Squatters, 272, 343;
+  doctrines, 273, 328;
+  ideal, 320;
+  Middle West, 137;
+  Ohio Valley, 170;
+  Pennsylvania in 1726, 101
+
+Stark, John, 103-104
+
+State historical societies, 340
+
+State lines, 127
+
+State universities, 221, 354;
+  as safeguard of democracy, 286;
+  Michigan, 233;
+  peculiar power, 283-284;
+  pioneer ideals and, 269, 281
+
+States, checkerboard, 218;
+  frontier pioneers' demand for statehood, 248;
+  groups, 159;
+  new states vs. Atlantic States, 207;
+  System of, 168
+
+Staunton, Va., 92
+
+Steam navigation, 7, 135, 171
+
+Steel, 313
+
+Steel and iron industry, 152
+
+Stockbridge, 79
+
+Stoddard, Solomon, 45
+
+Success, 288, 309
+
+Sudbury, 39
+
+Suffrage, 192, 216;
+  basis, 249;
+  frontier and extension, 30;
+  manhood, 250, 352
+
+Superior, Lake, 180, 314;
+  iron mines, 152
+
+Swedes, 233
+
+Symmes Purchase, 223
+
+
+Talleyrand, 299
+
+Taney, R. B., 141
+
+Tariff, 25, 27, 170, 172, 197, 216
+
+Taylor, Zachary, 255
+
+Tecumthe, 134, 144
+
+Tennessee, 122, 168, 187, 225, 252, 253;
+  democracy, 192
+
+Tennyson's "Ulysses," 310
+
+Territories, system of, 168, 169
+
+Texas, 168
+
+Thomas, J. B., 174
+
+Tocqueville, A. C. H. C. de, 153, 275, 303, 343
+
+Toledo, Ohio, 231
+
+Toleration, 355
+
+Town meeting, 62
+
+Towns, legislating into existence, 125;
+  locating, Massachusetts, 76;
+  New England and Virginia, 41;
+  new settlements in New England, 55;
+  South Carolina, 96;
+  typical form of establishing in New England, 74;
+  Virginia, 85, 86
+
+Trader's frontier, 12;
+  effects following, 12;
+  rapidity of advance, 12, 13
+
+Trading posts, 14
+
+Transportation, 148;
+  Great Lakes, 150
+
+Tryon, William, 106
+
+Tuscarora War, 94, 95
+
+
+Ulstermen, 103
+
+Unification of the West, 215
+
+United States, collection of nations, 158;
+  development since 1890, 311;
+  federal aspect, 159;
+  fundamental forces, 311;
+  original contribution to society, 281-282;
+  wealth, 312
+
+U. S. Steel Corporation, 152-153, 247, 265, 313
+
+Universities, duties, 292;
+  function, 287;
+  influence of university men, 285;
+  need of freedom, 287;
+  pressure of democracies on, 283;
+  State and, 286;
+  _see also_ State universities
+
+Upland South, 164;
+  religious spirit, 164, 165
+
+
+Van Buren, Martin, 254, 326
+
+Van Rensselaer manor, 81
+
+Vandalia, 229
+
+Verendryes, the, 180
+
+Vermont, 69, 72, 77, 78, 111, 122, 136
+
+Vermonters in Wisconsin and Michigan, 228
+
+Vicksburg, 201
+
+Vigilance committees, 212
+
+Vinton, S. F., 141, 229
+
+Virginia, 301;
+  early attempt to establish frontier, 41;
+  Indian wars, 69-70;
+  inequalities, coast vs. interior, 113;
+  interest in Mississippi Valley, 182;
+  land grants, 91;
+  land grants to societies, 85;
+  Piedmont, society, 95;
+  Piedmont portions, 87, 89;
+  settlement in latter part of 17th century, 83;
+  slavery, 122;
+  two Virginias in later 17th century, 94;
+  Western democracy and, 250
+
+Virginia Convention of 1829-30, 28, 31
+
+Visions, 270, 331, 339-340
+
+Voyageurs, 17
+
+
+Wachovia, 95
+
+Walker, F. A., 128
+
+War of 1812, 168, 213
+
+Washington, George, 92, 124;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 181, 182, 194, 196, 324;
+  Ohio Valley and, 163, 167
+
+Wealth, 213-214, 219, 288, 319;
+  democracy versus, 192;
+  in politics, 173;
+  United States, 312
+
+Wells (town), 47
+
+"Welsh tract," 97
+
+Wentworth, Benning, 77
+
+West, American ideals and, 290;
+  beginning of, 6;
+  center of interest, 327;
+  constructive force, 206;
+  contributions to democracy, 243;
+  factor in American history, 1, 3;
+  ideals, 209, 214, 267;
+  indefiniteness of term, 126;
+  insurgent voice, 319;
+  main streams of settlement, 215;
+  mark of New England, 36;
+  phase of division, 216-217;
+  population, 35;
+  problem of, 205;
+  South and, 196, 197;
+  warnings against, 208, 209;
+  Middle West; _see also_ Old West; Old Northwest
+
+West Virginia, 114
+
+Westchester County, N. Y., 81
+
+Western colleges, 36
+
+Western life, dominant forces, 222
+
+Western Reserve, 124, 133
+
+Western spirit, 310
+
+"Western Waters," 161, 206, 302;
+  men of freedom and independence, 183
+
+"Western World," 161, 166, 206, 302;
+  basis of its civilization, 177
+
+Wheat, 329;
+  areas, 149
+
+Whig party, 27, 173, 304, 351
+
+White, Abraham, 240
+
+White, Hugh, 192
+
+Whitman, Walt, 336
+
+Wilderness, 262, 269, 270, 279
+
+Wilkinson, James, 169, 187
+
+Williams, John (1664-1729), 70
+
+Williams, Roger, 262
+
+Windsor, 76
+
+Winthrop, John, 62
+
+Wisconsin, 137, 138, 218, 294, 341;
+  development and elements, 233-234;
+  German element, 227, 228, 236;
+  New England element, 228;
+  settlement, 226, 227
+
+Wood, Abraham, 98
+
+Woodstock, 59
+
+World's fairs, 156
+
+World-politics, 246, 315
+
+Wyoming Valley, 79, 124
+
+
+Yemassee War, 95
+
+"Young America" doctrine, 140
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+The following words appear in the text with and without hyphens.
+They have been left as in the original.
+
+     battle-field     battlefield
+     coast-wise       coastwise
+     cow-pens         cowpens
+     head-rights      headrights
+     iron-master      ironmaster
+     new-comers       newcomers
+     non-sectional    nonsectional
+     out-vote         outvote
+     rail-splitter    railsplitters
+     sea-board        seaboard
+     slave-holding    slaveholding
+     tide-water       tidewater
+     un-won           unwon
+
+The following corrections have been made to the text:
+
+     page 25--as the nation marched westward.[period is missing in
+     original]
+
+     page 40, footnote 40:5--"American Colonies in the Seventeenth
+     Century,"[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     page 48, footnote 48:4--Sheldon, "Deerfield,"[quotation mark
+     missing in original]
+
+     page 49--your honours [original has opening parenthesis]we
+     haue but litel laft
+
+     page 53--the frontier Towns.[original has extraneous quotation
+     mark]
+
+     page 68, footnote 68:1--Powell, "Physiographic
+     Regions[original has extraneous single quote]"
+
+     page 75, footnote 75:1--Egleston[original has Eggleston],
+     "Land System of the New England Colonies,"
+
+     page 86--at least three foot within the ground."[quotation
+     mark missing in original]
+
+     page 96, footnote 96:3--(N. Y., 1899)[closing parenthesis
+     missing in original], pp. 149, 151;
+
+     page 117, footnote 117:3--pp. 440-447[original has 440-437]
+
+     page 118--it was being exploited,[original has period]
+
+     page 118, footnote 118:2--N. C.[original has N .C.]
+
+     page 123--Preëmption and preëmptions are hyphenated across
+     line breaks in the original. The diaresis has been reinserted
+     in the rejoined words.
+
+     page 163--American backwoodsmen[original has backswoodsmen]
+
+     page 167--to add the settlements[original has setlements]
+
+     page 171--social conditions of the people whose[original has
+     who] needs
+
+     page 236--stronghold of resistance[original has resistence]
+
+     page 254--formal law and the subtleties[original has
+     subleties]
+
+     page 268--that dwarf [original has extraneous word of] those
+     of the Old World
+
+     page 310--to pause, to make an end,[original has period]
+
+     page 348--to his own business.[original has extraneous
+     quotation mark]
+
+     page 353--at least before [original has extraneous word at]
+     the present day
+
+     page 362--Bryan, W. J., 204, 236, 237, 246, 281, 327,
+     330[original has 329]
+
+     page 363, under Democracy--Godkin[original has Gookin] on, 307
+
+     page 363--Democratic party, 327, 330[original has 329]
+
+     page 363--Discovery, 271[original has 270], 293, 301, 306
+
+     page 363--Douglas[original has Douglass], William, 109
+
+     page 364--Forest[original has Foreign] Service, 320
+
+     page 364, under Germans--Palatine, 5, 82, 100, 109,
+     124[original also lists page 32 in error]
+
+     page 366--Henry, Patrick, 94[original has 95]
+
+     page 366, under Indians: hunting Indians with dogs,
+     45[original has 95]
+
+     page 367--Kipling, Rudyard, "Foreloper[original has
+     Toreloper]," 270
+
+     page 368--Marietta, 124, 133[original has 132], 223, 257
+
+     page 368, under Michigan--development and resources,
+     233[original has 232]
+
+     page 371--Pynchon[original has Pyrichon], John, 51, 52
+
+     page 373--Spangenburg[original has Spangenberg], A. G.
+
+Spelling and punctuation errors in quoted material have been left as in
+the original.
+
+The index entry for James Glenn was after the entry for E. L. Godkin.
+The two entries were reversed to maintain alphabetical order. Index
+entries for Leicester and Leigh, B. W., were combined with the
+Legislation entry. Entries were moved as appropriate.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY***
+
+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Frontier in American History, by
+Frederick Jackson Turner</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Frontier in American History</p>
+<p>Author: Frederick Jackson Turner</p>
+<p>Release Date: October 14, 2007  [eBook #22994]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Fritz Ohrenschall, Michael Zeug, Lisa Reigel,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="notebox">
+<p>Transcriber's Notes:</p>
+<p>A few typographical errors have been corrected. They have been <ins
+class="corr" title="like this">underlined</ins> in the text. Position
+your mouse over the word to see the correction. A complete list of
+changes <a href="#TN">follows</a> the text.</p>
+
+<p>On page 45, the original has the words "co[=m]ander" and "su[=m]e". [=m]
+represents the letter m with a macron. It is a shortcut indicating that the
+word should have two m's in succession.</p>
+
+<p>Ellipses are represented as in the original.</p>
+
+<p>To see an image of the original page, click on the page number
+in the right margin.</p>
+</div><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="biggap"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a>[<a href="./images/i.png">i</a>]</span></p>
+<h1>THE FRONTIER<br /><br />
+IN AMERICAN HISTORY</h1>
+
+
+<p class="gap">&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER</h2>
+
+<p class="smallgap">&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/titlepageimage.png" alt="owl bookplate" width="10%" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="smallgap">&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>NEW YORK<br />
+HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY<br />
+1921</h4>
+
+
+<p class="gapctr">&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a>[<a href="./images/ii.png">ii</a>]</span></p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1920<br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span><br />
+FREDERICK J. TURNER</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="gapctr">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a>[<a href="./images/iii.png">iii</a>]</span>TO<br />
+CAROLINE M. TURNER<br />
+MY WIFE</p>
+<p class="smallgap">&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a>[<a href="./images/iv.png">iv</a>]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a>[<a href="./images/v.png">v</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>In republishing these essays in collected form, it has seemed best to
+issue them as they were originally printed, with the exception of a few
+slight corrections of slips in the text and with the omission of
+occasional duplication of language in the different essays. A
+considerable part of whatever value they may possess arises from the
+fact that they are commentaries in different periods on the central
+theme of the influence of the frontier in American history. Consequently
+they may have some historical significance as contemporaneous attempts
+of a student of American history, at successive transitions in our
+development during the past quarter century to interpret the relations
+of the present to the past. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the
+various societies and periodicals which have given permission to reprint
+the essays.</p>
+
+<p>Various essays dealing with the connection of diplomatic history and the
+frontier and others stressing the significance of the section, or
+geographic province, in American history, are not included in the
+present collection. Neither the French nor the Spanish frontier is
+within the scope of the volume.</p>
+
+<p>The future alone can disclose how far these interpretations are correct
+for the age of colonization which came gradually to an end with the
+disappearance of the frontier and free land. It alone can reveal how
+much of the courageous, creative American spirit, and how large a part
+of the historic American ideals are to be carried over into that new age
+which is replacing the era of free lands and of measurable isolation by
+consolidated and complex industrial development and by increasing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi"></a>[<a href="./images/vi.png">vi</a>]</span>resemblances and connections between the New World and the Old.</p>
+
+<p>But the larger part of what has been distinctive and valuable in
+America's contribution to the history of the human spirit has been due
+to this nation's peculiar experience in extending its type of frontier
+into new regions; and in creating peaceful societies with new ideals in
+the successive vast and differing geographic provinces which together
+make up the United States. Directly or indirectly these experiences
+shaped the life of the Eastern as well as the Western States, and even
+reacted upon the Old World and influenced the direction of its thought
+and its progress. This experience has been fundamental in the economic,
+political and social characteristics of the American people and in their
+conceptions of their destiny.</p>
+
+<p>Writing at the close of 1796, the French minister to the United States,
+M. Adet, reported to his government that Jefferson could not be relied
+on to be devoted to French interests, and he added: "Jefferson, I say,
+is American, and by that name, he cannot be sincerely our friend. An
+American is the born enemy of all European peoples." Obviously erroneous
+as are these words, there was an element of truth in them. If we would
+understand this element of truth, we must study the transforming
+influence of the American wilderness, remote from Europe, and by its
+resources and its free opportunities affording the conditions under
+which a new people, with new social and political types and ideals,
+could arise to play its own part in the world, and to influence Europe.</p>
+
+<p class="authorsc">Frederick J. Turner.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Harvard University</span>, March, 1920.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a>[<a href="./images/vii.png">vii</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table width="70%" border="0" summary="Table of Contents" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright" style="width: 5%;"><span style='font-size:x-small'>CHAPTER</span></td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="tdright"><span style='font-size:x-small'>PAGE</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">I</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc" style="width: 60%;">The Significance of the Frontier in American History</td>
+  <td class="tdright" style="width: 5%;"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">II</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">The First Official Frontier of the Massachusetts Bay</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">III</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">The Old West</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">IV</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">The Middle West</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">V</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">The Ohio Valley in American History</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">VI</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">The Significance of the Mississippi Valley in American History</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">VII</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">The Problem of the West</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">VIII</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Dominant Forces in Western Life</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">IX</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Contributions of the West to American Democracy</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">X</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Pioneer Ideals and the State University</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">XI</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">The West and American Ideals</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">XII</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Social Forces in American History</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright">XIII</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Middle Western Pioneer Democracy</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Index</td>
+  <td class="tdright"><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a>[<a href="./images/viii.png">viii</a>]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>[<a href="./images/1.png">1</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>I</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Significance of the Frontier in American History</span><a name="FNanchor_1:1_1" id="FNanchor_1:1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1:1_1" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[1:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>In a recent bulletin of the Superintendent of the Census for 1890 appear
+these significant words: "Up to and including 1880 the country had a
+frontier of settlement, but at present the unsettled area has been so
+broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can hardly be
+said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its extent, its
+westward movement, etc., it can not, therefore, any longer have a place
+in the census reports." This brief official statement marks the closing
+of a great historic movement. Up to our own day American history has
+been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great
+West. The existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession,
+and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American
+development.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>[<a href="./images/2.png">2</a>]</span></p><p>Behind institutions, behind constitutional forms and modifications, lie
+the vital forces that call these organs into life and shape them to meet
+changing conditions. The peculiarity of American institutions is, the
+fact that they have been compelled to adapt themselves to the changes of
+an expanding people&mdash;to the changes involved in crossing a continent, in
+winning a wilderness, and in developing at each area of this progress
+out of the primitive economic and political conditions of the frontier
+into the complexity of city life. Said Calhoun in 1817, "We are great,
+and rapidly&mdash;I was about to say fearfully&mdash;growing!"<a name="FNanchor_2:1_2" id="FNanchor_2:1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2:1_2" class="fnanchor">[2:1]</a> So saying, he
+touched the distinguishing feature of American life. All peoples show
+development; the germ theory of politics has been sufficiently
+emphasized. In the case of most nations, however, the development has
+occurred in a limited area; and if the nation has expanded, it has met
+other growing peoples whom it has conquered. But in the case of the
+United States we have a different phenomenon. Limiting our attention to
+the Atlantic coast, we have the familiar phenomenon of the evolution of
+institutions in a limited area, such as the rise of representative
+government; the differentiation of simple colonial governments into
+complex organs; the progress from primitive industrial society, without
+division of labor, up to manufacturing civilization. But we have in
+addition to this a recurrence of the process of evolution in each
+western area reached in the process of expansion. Thus American
+development has exhibited not merely advance along a single line, but a
+return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier line,
+and a new development for that area. American social development has
+been continually beginning over again on the frontier. This perennial
+rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with
+its new opportunities, its continuous touch with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>[<a href="./images/3.png">3</a>]</span>the simplicity of
+primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character. The
+true point of view in the history of this nation is not the Atlantic
+coast, it is the Great West. Even the slavery struggle, which is made so
+exclusive an object of attention by writers like Professor von Holst,
+occupies its important place in American history because of its relation
+to westward expansion.</p>
+
+<p>In this advance, the frontier is the outer edge of the wave&mdash;the meeting
+point between savagery and civilization. Much has been written about the
+frontier from the point of view of border warfare and the chase, but as
+a field for the serious study of the economist and the historian it has
+been neglected.</p>
+
+<p>The American frontier is sharply distinguished from the European
+frontier&mdash;a fortified boundary line running through dense populations.
+The most significant thing about the American frontier is, that it lies
+at the hither edge of free land. In the census reports it is treated as
+the margin of that settlement which has a density of two or more to the
+square mile. The term is an elastic one, and for our purposes does not
+need sharp definition. We shall consider the whole frontier belt,
+including the Indian country and the outer margin of the "settled area"
+of the census reports. This paper will make no attempt to treat the
+subject exhaustively; its aim is simply to call attention to the
+frontier as a fertile field for investigation, and to suggest some of
+the problems which arise in connection with it.</p>
+
+<p>In the settlement of America we have to observe how European life
+entered the continent, and how America modified and developed that life
+and reacted on Europe. Our early history is the study of European germs
+developing in an American environment. Too exclusive attention has been
+paid by institutional students to the Germanic origins, too little to
+the American factors. The frontier is the line of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>[<a href="./images/4.png">4</a>]</span>most rapid and
+effective Americanization. The wilderness masters the colonist. It finds
+him a European in dress, industries, tools, modes of travel, and
+thought. It takes him from the railroad car and puts him in the birch
+canoe. It strips off the garments of civilization and arrays him in the
+hunting shirt and the moccasin. It puts him in the log cabin of the
+Cherokee and Iroquois and runs an Indian palisade around him. Before
+long he has gone to planting Indian corn and plowing with a sharp stick;
+he shouts the war cry and takes the scalp in orthodox Indian fashion. In
+short, at the frontier the environment is at first too strong for the
+man. He must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so
+he fits himself into the Indian clearings and follows the Indian trails.
+Little by little he transforms the wilderness, but the outcome is not
+the old Europe, not simply the development of Germanic germs, any more
+than the first phenomenon was a case of reversion to the Germanic mark.
+The fact is, that here is a new product that is American. At first, the
+frontier was the Atlantic coast. It was the frontier of Europe in a very
+real sense. Moving westward, the frontier became more and more American.
+As successive terminal moraines result from successive glaciations, so
+each frontier leaves its traces behind it, and when it becomes a settled
+area the region still partakes of the frontier characteristics. Thus the
+advance of the frontier has meant a steady movement away from the
+influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines.
+And to study this advance, the men who grew up under these conditions,
+and the political, economic, and social results of it, is to study the
+really American part of our history.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the seventeenth century the frontier was advanced up
+the Atlantic river courses, just beyond the "fall line," and the
+tidewater region became the settled area. In <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>[<a href="./images/5.png">5</a>]</span>the first half of the
+eighteenth century another advance occurred. Traders followed the
+Delaware and Shawnese Indians to the Ohio as early as the end of the
+first quarter of the century.<a name="FNanchor_5:1_3" id="FNanchor_5:1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_5:1_3" class="fnanchor">[5:1]</a> Gov. Spotswood, of Virginia, made an
+expedition in 1714 across the Blue Ridge. The end of the first quarter
+of the century saw the advance of the Scotch-Irish and the Palatine
+Germans up the Shenandoah Valley into the western part of Virginia, and
+along the Piedmont region of the Carolinas.<a name="FNanchor_5:2_4" id="FNanchor_5:2_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_5:2_4" class="fnanchor">[5:2]</a> The Germans in New York
+pushed the frontier of settlement up the Mohawk to German Flats.<a name="FNanchor_5:3_5" id="FNanchor_5:3_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5:3_5" class="fnanchor">[5:3]</a> In
+Pennsylvania the town of Bedford indicates the line of settlement.
+Settlements soon began on the New River, or the Great Kanawha, and on
+the sources of the Yadkin and French Broad.<a name="FNanchor_5:4_6" id="FNanchor_5:4_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_5:4_6" class="fnanchor">[5:4]</a> The King attempted to
+arrest the advance by his proclamation of 1763,<a name="FNanchor_5:5_7" id="FNanchor_5:5_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_5:5_7" class="fnanchor">[5:5]</a> forbidding
+settlements beyond the sources of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic;
+but in vain. In the period of the Revolution the frontier crossed the
+Alleghanies into Kentucky and Tennessee, and the upper waters of the
+Ohio were settled.<a name="FNanchor_5:6_8" id="FNanchor_5:6_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_5:6_8" class="fnanchor">[5:6]</a> When the first census was taken in 1790, the
+continuous settled area was bounded by a line which ran near the coast
+of Maine, and included New England except a portion of Vermont and New
+Hampshire, New York along the Hudson <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>[<a href="./images/6.png">6</a>]</span>and up the Mohawk about
+Schenectady, eastern and southern Pennsylvania, Virginia well across the
+Shenandoah Valley, and the Carolinas and eastern Georgia.<a name="FNanchor_6:1_9" id="FNanchor_6:1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_6:1_9" class="fnanchor">[6:1]</a> Beyond
+this region of continuous settlement were the small settled areas of
+Kentucky and Tennessee, and the Ohio, with the mountains intervening
+between them and the Atlantic area, thus giving a new and important
+character to the frontier. The isolation of the region increased its
+peculiarly American tendencies, and the need of transportation
+facilities to connect it with the East called out important schemes of
+internal improvement, which will be noted farther on. The "West," as a
+self-conscious section, began to evolve.</p>
+
+<p>From decade to decade distinct advances of the frontier occurred. By the
+census of 1820<a name="FNanchor_6:2_10" id="FNanchor_6:2_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_6:2_10" class="fnanchor">[6:2]</a> the settled area included Ohio, southern Indiana and
+Illinois, southeastern Missouri, and about one-half of Louisiana. This
+settled area had surrounded Indian areas, and the management of these
+tribes became an object of political concern. The frontier region of the
+time lay along the Great Lakes, where Astor's American Fur Company
+operated in the Indian trade,<a name="FNanchor_6:3_11" id="FNanchor_6:3_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_6:3_11" class="fnanchor">[6:3]</a> and beyond the Mississippi, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>[<a href="./images/7.png">7</a>]</span>where
+Indian traders extended their activity even to the Rocky Mountains;
+Florida also furnished frontier conditions. The Mississippi River region
+was the scene of typical frontier settlements.<a name="FNanchor_7:1_12" id="FNanchor_7:1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_7:1_12" class="fnanchor">[7:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The rising steam navigation<a name="FNanchor_7:2_13" id="FNanchor_7:2_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_7:2_13" class="fnanchor">[7:2]</a> on western waters, the opening of the
+Erie Canal, and the westward extension of cotton<a name="FNanchor_7:3_14" id="FNanchor_7:3_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_7:3_14" class="fnanchor">[7:3]</a> culture added five
+frontier states to the Union in this period. Grund, writing in 1836,
+declares: "It appears then that the universal disposition of Americans
+to emigrate to the western wilderness, in order to enlarge their
+dominion over inanimate nature, is the actual result of an expansive
+power which is inherent in them, and which by continually agitating all
+classes of society is constantly throwing a large portion of the whole
+population on the extreme confines of the State, in order to gain space
+for its development. Hardly is a new State or Territory formed before
+the same principle manifests itself again and gives rise to a further
+emigration; and so is it destined to go on until a physical barrier must
+finally obstruct its progress."<a name="FNanchor_7:4_15" id="FNanchor_7:4_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_7:4_15" class="fnanchor">[7:4]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>[<a href="./images/8.png">8</a>]</span></p><p>In the middle of this century the line indicated by the present eastern
+boundary of Indian Territory, Nebraska, and Kansas marked the frontier
+of the Indian country.<a name="FNanchor_8:1_16" id="FNanchor_8:1_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_8:1_16" class="fnanchor">[8:1]</a> Minnesota and Wisconsin still exhibited
+frontier conditions,<a name="FNanchor_8:2_17" id="FNanchor_8:2_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_8:2_17" class="fnanchor">[8:2]</a> but the distinctive frontier of the period is
+found in California, where the gold discoveries had sent a sudden tide
+of adventurous miners, and in Oregon, and the settlements in Utah.<a name="FNanchor_8:3_18" id="FNanchor_8:3_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_8:3_18" class="fnanchor">[8:3]</a>
+As the frontier had leaped over the Alleghanies, so now it skipped the
+Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains; and in the same way that the
+advance of the frontiersmen beyond the Alleghanies had caused the rise
+of important questions of transportation and internal improvement, so
+now the settlers beyond the Rocky Mountains needed means of
+communication with the East, and in the furnishing of these arose the
+settlement of the Great Plains and the development of still another kind
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>[<a href="./images/9.png">9</a>]</span>of frontier life. Railroads, fostered by land grants, sent an
+increasing tide of immigrants into the Far West. The United States Army
+fought a series of Indian wars in Minnesota, Dakota, and the Indian
+Territory.</p>
+
+<p>By 1880 the settled area had been pushed into northern Michigan,
+Wisconsin, and Minnesota, along Dakota rivers, and in the Black Hills
+region, and was ascending the rivers of Kansas and Nebraska. The
+development of mines in Colorado had drawn isolated frontier settlements
+into that region, and Montana and Idaho were receiving settlers. The
+frontier was found in these mining camps and the ranches of the Great
+Plains. The superintendent of the census for 1890 reports, as previously
+stated, that the settlements of the West lie so scattered over the
+region that there can no longer be said to be a frontier line.</p>
+
+<p>In these successive frontiers we find natural boundary lines which have
+served to mark and to affect the characteristics of the frontiers,
+namely: the "fall line;" the Alleghany Mountains; the Mississippi; the
+Missouri where its direction approximates north and south; the line of
+the arid lands, approximately the ninety-ninth meridian; and the Rocky
+Mountains. The fall line marked the frontier of the seventeenth century;
+the Alleghanies that of the eighteenth; the Mississippi that of the
+first quarter of the nineteenth; the Missouri that of the middle of this
+century (omitting the California movement); and the belt of the Rocky
+Mountains and the arid tract, the present frontier. Each was won by a
+series of Indian wars.</p>
+
+<p>At the Atlantic frontier one can study the germs of processes repeated
+at each successive frontier. We have the complex European life sharply
+precipitated by the wilderness into the simplicity of primitive
+conditions. The first frontier had to meet its Indian question, its
+question of the disposition of the public domain, of the means of
+intercourse with older settlements, of the extension of political
+organization, of religious <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>[<a href="./images/10.png">10</a>]</span>and educational activity. And the settlement
+of these and similar questions for one frontier served as a guide for
+the next. The American student needs not to go to the "prim little
+townships of Sleswick" for illustrations of the law of continuity and
+development. For example, he may study the origin of our land policies
+in the colonial land policy; he may see how the system grew by adapting
+the statutes to the customs of the successive frontiers.<a name="FNanchor_10:1_19" id="FNanchor_10:1_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_10:1_19" class="fnanchor">[10:1]</a> He may
+see how the mining experience in the lead regions of Wisconsin,
+Illinois, and Iowa was applied to the mining laws of the Sierras,<a name="FNanchor_10:2_20" id="FNanchor_10:2_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_10:2_20" class="fnanchor">[10:2]</a>
+and how our Indian policy has been a series of experimentations on
+successive frontiers. Each tier of new States has found in the older
+ones material for its constitutions.<a name="FNanchor_10:3_21" id="FNanchor_10:3_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_10:3_21" class="fnanchor">[10:3]</a> Each frontier has made
+similar contributions to American character, as will be discussed
+farther on.</p>
+
+<p>But with all these similarities there are essential differences due to
+the place element and the time element. It is evident that the farming
+frontier of the Mississippi Valley presents different conditions from
+the mining frontier of the Rocky Mountains. The frontier reached by the
+Pacific Railroad, surveyed into rectangles, guarded by the United States
+Army, and recruited by the daily immigrant ship, moves forward at a
+swifter pace and in a different way than the frontier reached by the
+birch canoe or the pack horse. The geologist traces patiently the shores
+of ancient seas, maps their areas, and compares the older and the newer.
+It would be a work worth the historian's labors to mark these various
+frontiers and in detail compare one with another. Not only would there
+result a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>[<a href="./images/11.png">11</a>]</span>more adequate conception of American development and
+characteristics, but invaluable additions would be made to the history
+of society.</p>
+
+<p>Loria,<a name="FNanchor_11:1_22" id="FNanchor_11:1_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_11:1_22" class="fnanchor">[11:1]</a> the Italian economist, has urged the study of colonial life
+as an aid in understanding the stages of European development, affirming
+that colonial settlement is for economic science what the mountain is
+for geology, bringing to light primitive stratifications. "America," he
+says, "has the key to the historical enigma which Europe has sought for
+centuries in vain, and the land which has no history reveals luminously
+the course of universal history." There is much truth in this. The
+United States lies like a huge page in the history of society. Line by
+line as we read this continental page from West to East we find the
+record of social evolution. It begins with the Indian and the hunter; it
+goes on to tell of the disintegration of savagery by the entrance of the
+trader, the pathfinder of civilization; we read the annals of the
+pastoral stage in ranch life; the exploitation of the soil by the
+raising of unrotated crops of corn and wheat in sparsely settled farming
+communities; the intensive culture of the denser farm settlement; and
+finally the manufacturing organization with city and factory
+system.<a name="FNanchor_11:2_23" id="FNanchor_11:2_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_11:2_23" class="fnanchor">[11:2]</a> This page is familiar to the student of census statistics,
+but how little of it has been used by our historians. Particularly in
+eastern States this page is a palimpsest. What is now a manufacturing
+State was in an earlier decade an area of intensive farming. Earlier yet
+it had been a wheat area, and still earlier the "range" had attracted
+the cattle-herder. Thus Wisconsin, now developing manufacture, is a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>[<a href="./images/12.png">12</a>]</span>State with varied agricultural interests. But earlier it was given over
+to almost exclusive grain-raising, like North Dakota at the present
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Each of these areas has had an influence in our economic and political
+history; the evolution of each into a higher stage has worked political
+transformations. But what constitutional historian has made any adequate
+attempt to interpret political facts by the light of these social areas
+and changes?<a name="FNanchor_12:1_24" id="FNanchor_12:1_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_12:1_24" class="fnanchor">[12:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Atlantic frontier was compounded of fisherman, fur-trader, miner,
+cattle-raiser, and farmer. Excepting the fisherman, each type of
+industry was on the march toward the West, impelled by an irresistible
+attraction. Each passed in successive waves across the continent. Stand
+at Cumberland Gap and watch the procession of civilization, marching
+single file&mdash;the buffalo following the trail to the salt springs, the
+Indian, the fur-trader and hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pioneer
+farmer&mdash;and the frontier has passed by. Stand at South Pass in the
+Rockies a century later and see the same procession with wider intervals
+between. The unequal rate of advance compels us to distinguish the
+frontier into the trader's frontier, the rancher's frontier, or the
+miner's frontier, and the farmer's frontier. When the mines and the cow
+pens were still near the fall line the traders' pack trains were
+tinkling across the Alleghanies, and the French on the Great Lakes were
+fortifying their posts, alarmed by the British trader's birch canoe.
+When the trappers scaled the Rockies, the farmer was still near the
+mouth of the Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>Why was it that the Indian trader passed so rapidly across the
+continent? What effects followed from the trader's frontier? The trade
+was coeval with American discovery. The Norsemen, Vespuccius, Verrazani,
+Hudson, John Smith, all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>[<a href="./images/13.png">13</a>]</span>trafficked for furs. The Plymouth pilgrims
+settled in Indian cornfields, and their first return cargo was of beaver
+and lumber. The records of the various New England colonies show how
+steadily exploration was carried into the wilderness by this trade. What
+is true for New England is, as would be expected, even plainer for the
+rest of the colonies. All along the coast from Maine to Georgia the
+Indian trade opened up the river courses. Steadily the trader passed
+westward, utilizing the older lines of French trade. The Ohio, the Great
+Lakes, the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Platte, the lines of
+western advance, were ascended by traders. They found the passes in the
+Rocky Mountains and guided Lewis and Clark,<a name="FNanchor_13:1_25" id="FNanchor_13:1_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_13:1_25" class="fnanchor">[13:1]</a> Fr&eacute;mont, and Bidwell.
+The explanation of the rapidity of this advance is connected with the
+effects of the trader on the Indian. The trading post left the unarmed
+tribes at the mercy of those that had purchased fire-arms&mdash;a truth which
+the Iroquois Indians wrote in blood, and so the remote and unvisited
+tribes gave eager welcome to the trader. "The savages," wrote La Salle,
+"take better care of us French than of their own children; from us only
+can they get guns and goods." This accounts for the trader's power and
+the rapidity of his advance. Thus the disintegrating forces of
+civilization entered the wilderness. Every river valley and Indian trail
+became a fissure in Indian society, and so that society became
+honeycombed. Long before the pioneer farmer appeared on the scene,
+primitive Indian life had passed away. The farmers met Indians armed
+with guns. The trading frontier, while steadily undermining Indian power
+by making the tribes ultimately dependent on the whites, yet, through
+its sale of guns, gave to the Indian increased power of resistance to
+the farming frontier. French colonization was dominated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>[<a href="./images/14.png">14</a>]</span>by its trading
+frontier; English colonization by its farming frontier. There was an
+antagonism between the two frontiers as between the two nations. Said
+Duquesne to the Iroquois, "Are you ignorant of the difference between
+the king of England and the king of France? Go see the forts that our
+king has established and you will see that you can still hunt under
+their very walls. They have been placed for your advantage in places
+which you frequent. The English, on the contrary, are no sooner in
+possession of a place than the game is driven away. The forest falls
+before them as they advance, and the soil is laid bare so that you can
+scarce find the wherewithal to erect a shelter for the night."</p>
+
+<p>And yet, in spite of this opposition of the interests of the trader and
+the farmer, the Indian trade pioneered the way for civilization. The
+buffalo trail became the Indian trail, and this became the trader's
+"trace;" the trails widened into roads, and the roads into turnpikes,
+and these in turn were transformed into railroads. The same origin can
+be shown for the railroads of the South, the Far West, and the Dominion
+of Canada.<a name="FNanchor_14:1_26" id="FNanchor_14:1_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_14:1_26" class="fnanchor">[14:1]</a> The trading posts reached by these trails were on the
+sites of Indian villages which had been placed in positions suggested by
+nature; and these trading posts, situated so as to command the water
+systems of the country, have grown into such cities as Albany,
+Pittsburgh, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, Council Bluffs, and Kansas
+City. Thus civilization in America has followed the arteries made by
+geology, pouring an ever richer tide through them, until at last the
+slender paths of aboriginal intercourse have been broadened and
+interwoven into the complex mazes of modern commercial lines; the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>[<a href="./images/15.png">15</a>]</span>wilderness has been interpenetrated by lines of civilization growing
+ever more numerous. It is like the steady growth of a complex nervous
+system for the originally simple, inert continent. If one would
+understand why we are to-day one nation, rather than a collection of
+isolated states, he must study this economic and social consolidation of
+the country. In this progress from savage conditions lie topics for the
+evolutionist.<a name="FNanchor_15:1_27" id="FNanchor_15:1_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_15:1_27" class="fnanchor">[15:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The effect of the Indian frontier as a consolidating agent in our
+history is important. From the close of the seventeenth century various
+intercolonial congresses have been called to treat with Indians and
+establish common measures of defense. Particularism was strongest in
+colonies with no Indian frontier. This frontier stretched along the
+western border like a cord of union. The Indian was a common danger,
+demanding united action. Most celebrated of these conferences was the
+Albany congress of 1754, called to treat with the Six Nations, and to
+consider plans of union. Even a cursory reading of the plan proposed by
+the congress reveals the importance of the frontier. The powers of the
+general council and the officers were, chiefly, the determination of
+peace and war with the Indians, the regulation of Indian trade, the
+purchase of Indian lands, and the creation and government of new
+settlements as a security against the Indians. It is evident that the
+unifying tendencies of the Revolutionary period were facilitated by the
+previous co&ouml;peration in the regulation of the frontier. In this
+connection may be mentioned the importance of the frontier, from that
+day to this, as a military training school, keeping alive the power of
+resistance to aggression, and developing the stalwart and rugged
+qualities of the frontiersman.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>[<a href="./images/16.png">16</a>]</span></p><p>It would not be possible in the limits of this paper to trace the other
+frontiers across the continent. Travelers of the eighteenth century
+found the "cowpens" among the canebrakes and peavine pastures of the
+South, and the "cow drivers" took their droves to Charleston,
+Philadelphia, and New York.<a name="FNanchor_16:1_28" id="FNanchor_16:1_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_16:1_28" class="fnanchor">[16:1]</a> Travelers at the close of the War of
+1812 met droves of more than a thousand cattle and swine from the
+interior of Ohio going to Pennsylvania to fatten for the Philadelphia
+market.<a name="FNanchor_16:2_29" id="FNanchor_16:2_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_16:2_29" class="fnanchor">[16:2]</a> The ranges of the Great Plains, with ranch and cowboy and
+nomadic life, are things of yesterday and of to-day. The experience of
+the Carolina cowpens guided the ranchers of Texas. One element favoring
+the rapid extension of the rancher's frontier is the fact that in a
+remote country lacking transportation facilities the product must be in
+small bulk, or must be able to transport itself, and the cattle raiser
+could easily drive his product to market. The effect of these great
+ranches on the subsequent agrarian history of the localities in which
+they existed should be studied.</p>
+
+<p>The maps of the census reports show an uneven advance of the farmer's
+frontier, with tongues of settlement pushed forward and with
+indentations of wilderness. In part this is due to Indian resistance, in
+part to the location of river valleys and passes, in part to the unequal
+force of the centers of frontier attraction. Among the important centers
+of attraction may be mentioned the following: fertile and favorably
+situated soils, salt springs, mines, and army posts.</p>
+
+<p>The frontier army post, serving to protect the settlers from the
+Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open the Indian country, and has
+been a nucleus for settlement.<a name="FNanchor_16:3_30" id="FNanchor_16:3_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_16:3_30" class="fnanchor">[16:3]</a> In this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>[<a href="./images/17.png">17</a>]</span>connection mention should
+also be made of the government military and exploring expeditions in
+determining the lines of settlement. But all the more important
+expeditions were greatly indebted to the earliest pathmakers, the Indian
+guides, the traders and trappers, and the French voyageurs, who were
+inevitable parts of governmental expeditions from the days of Lewis and
+Clark.<a name="FNanchor_17:1_31" id="FNanchor_17:1_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_17:1_31" class="fnanchor">[17:1]</a> Each expedition was an epitome of the previous factors in
+western advance.</p>
+
+<p>In an interesting monograph, Victor Hehn<a name="FNanchor_17:2_32" id="FNanchor_17:2_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_17:2_32" class="fnanchor">[17:2]</a> has traced the effect of
+salt upon early European development, and has pointed out how it
+affected the lines of settlement and the form of administration. A
+similar study might be made for the salt springs of the United States.
+The early settlers were tied to the coast by the need of salt, without
+which they could not preserve their meats or live in comfort. Writing in
+1752, Bishop Spangenburg says of a colony for which he was seeking lands
+in North Carolina, "They will require salt &amp; other necessaries which
+they can neither manufacture nor raise. Either they must go to
+Charleston, which is 300 miles distant .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Or else they must go to
+Boling's Point in V<sup>a</sup> on a branch of the James &amp; is also 300 miles from
+here &nbsp;.&nbsp;. Or else they must go down the Roanoke&mdash;I know not how many
+miles&mdash;where salt is brought up from the Cape Fear."<a name="FNanchor_17:3_33" id="FNanchor_17:3_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_17:3_33" class="fnanchor">[17:3]</a> This may
+serve as a typical illustration. An annual pilgrimage to the coast for
+salt thus became essential. Taking flocks or furs and ginseng root, the
+early settlers sent their pack trains after seeding time each year to
+the coast.<a name="FNanchor_17:4_34" id="FNanchor_17:4_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_17:4_34" class="fnanchor">[17:4]</a> This proved to be an important educational influence,
+since it was almost the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>[<a href="./images/18.png">18</a>]</span>only way in which the pioneer learned what was
+going on in the East. But when discovery was made of the salt springs of
+the Kanawha, and the Holston, and Kentucky, and central New York, the
+West began to be freed from dependence on the coast. It was in part the
+effect of finding these salt springs that enabled settlement to cross
+the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>From the time the mountains rose between the pioneer and the seaboard, a
+new order of Americanism arose. The West and the East began to get out
+of touch of each other. The settlements from the sea to the mountains
+kept connection with the rear and had a certain solidarity. But the
+over-mountain men grew more and more independent. The East took a narrow
+view of American advance, and nearly lost these men. Kentucky and
+Tennessee history bears abundant witness to the truth of this statement.
+The East began to try to hedge and limit westward expansion. Though
+Webster could declare that there were no Alleghanies in his politics,
+yet in politics in general they were a very solid factor.</p>
+
+<p>The exploitation of the beasts took hunter and trader to the west, the
+exploitation of the grasses took the rancher west, and the exploitation
+of the virgin soil of the river valleys and prairies attracted the
+farmer. Good soils have been the most continuous attraction to the
+farmer's frontier. The land hunger of the Virginians drew them down the
+rivers into Carolina, in early colonial days; the search for soils took
+the Massachusetts men to Pennsylvania and to New York. As the eastern
+lands were taken up migration flowed across them to the west. Daniel
+Boone, the great backwoodsman, who combined the occupations of hunter,
+trader, cattle-raiser, farmer, and surveyor&mdash;learning, probably from the
+traders, of the fertility of the lands of the upper Yadkin, where the
+traders were wont to rest as they took their way to the Indians, left
+his Pennsylvania home with his father, and passed down the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>[<a href="./images/19.png">19</a>]</span>Great Valley
+road to that stream. Learning from a trader of the game and rich
+pastures of Kentucky, he pioneered the way for the farmers to that
+region. Thence he passed to the frontier of Missouri, where his
+settlement was long a landmark on the frontier. Here again he helped to
+open the way for civilization, finding salt licks, and trails, and land.
+His son was among the earliest trappers in the passes of the Rocky
+Mountains, and his party are said to have been the first to camp on the
+present site of Denver. His grandson, Col. A. J. Boone, of Colorado, was
+a power among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and was appointed an
+agent by the government. Kit Carson's mother was a Boone.<a name="FNanchor_19:1_35" id="FNanchor_19:1_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_19:1_35" class="fnanchor">[19:1]</a> Thus
+this family epitomizes the backwoodsman's advance across the continent.</p>
+
+<p>The farmer's advance came in a distinct series of waves. In Peck's New
+Guide to the West, published in Boston in 1837, occurs this suggestive
+passage:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Generally, in all the western settlements, three classes, like
+the waves of the ocean, have rolled one after the other. First
+comes the pioneer, who depends for the subsistence of his
+family chiefly upon the natural growth of vegetation, called
+the "range," and the proceeds of hunting. His implements of
+agriculture are rude, chiefly of his own make, and his efforts
+directed mainly to a crop of corn and a "truck patch." The
+last is a rude garden for growing cabbage, beans, corn for
+roasting ears, cucumbers, and potatoes. A log cabin, and,
+occasionally, a stable and corn-crib, and a field of a dozen
+acres, the timber girdled or "deadened," and fenced, are
+enough for his occupancy. It is quite immaterial whether he
+ever becomes the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>[<a href="./images/20.png">20</a>]</span>owner of the soil. He is the occupant for
+the time being, pays no rent, and feels as independent as the
+"lord of the manor." With a horse, cow, and one or two
+breeders of swine, he strikes into the woods with his family,
+and becomes the founder of a new county, or perhaps state. He
+builds his cabin, gathers around him a few other families of
+similar tastes and habits, and occupies till the range is
+somewhat subdued, and hunting a little precarious, or, which
+is more frequently the case, till the neighbors crowd around,
+roads, bridges, and fields annoy him, and he lacks elbow room.
+The pre&euml;mption law enables him to dispose of his cabin and
+cornfield to the next class of emigrants; and, to employ his
+own figures, he "breaks for the high timber," "clears out for
+the New Purchase," or migrates to Arkansas or Texas, to work
+the same process over.</p>
+
+<p>The next class of emigrants purchase the lands, add field to
+field, clear out the roads, throw rough bridges over the
+streams, put up hewn log houses with glass windows and brick
+or stone chimneys, occasionally plant orchards, build mills,
+school-houses, court-houses, etc., and exhibit the picture and
+forms of plain, frugal, civilized life.</p>
+
+<p>Another wave rolls on. The men of capital and enterprise come.
+The settler is ready to sell out and take the advantage of the
+rise in property, push farther into the interior and become,
+himself, a man of capital and enterprise in turn. The small
+village rises to a spacious town or city; substantial edifices
+of brick, extensive fields, orchards, gardens, colleges, and
+churches are seen. Broadcloths, silks, leghorns, crapes, and
+all the refinements, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>[<a href="./images/21.png">21</a>]</span>luxuries, elegancies, frivolities, and
+fashions are in vogue. Thus wave after wave is rolling
+westward; the real Eldorado is still farther on.</p>
+
+<p>A portion of the two first classes remain stationary amidst
+the general movement, improve their habits and condition, and
+rise in the scale of society.</p>
+
+<p>The writer has traveled much amongst the first class, the real
+pioneers. He has lived many years in connection with the
+second grade; and now the third wave is sweeping over large
+districts of Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. Migration has
+become almost a habit in the West. Hundreds of men can be
+found, not over 50 years of age, who have settled for the
+fourth, fifth, or sixth time on a new spot. To sell out and
+remove only a few hundred miles makes up a portion of the
+variety of backwoods life and manners.<a name="FNanchor_21:1_36" id="FNanchor_21:1_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_21:1_36" class="fnanchor">[21:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Omitting those of the pioneer farmers who move from the love of
+adventure, the advance of the more steady farmer is easy to understand.
+Obviously the immigrant was attracted by the cheap lands of the
+frontier, and even the native farmer felt their influence strongly. Year
+by year the farmers who lived on soil whose returns were diminished by
+unrotated crops were offered the virgin soil of the frontier at nominal
+prices. Their growing families demanded more lands, and these were dear.
+The competition of the unexhausted, cheap, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>[<a href="./images/22.png">22</a>]</span>and easily tilled prairie
+lands compelled the farmer either to go west and continue the exhaustion
+of the soil on a new frontier, or to adopt intensive culture. Thus the
+census of 1890 shows, in the Northwest, many counties in which there is
+an absolute or a relative decrease of population. These States have been
+sending farmers to advance the frontier on the plains, and have
+themselves begun to turn to intensive farming and to manufacture. A
+decade before this, Ohio had shown the same transition stage. Thus the
+demand for land and the love of wilderness freedom drew the frontier
+ever onward.</p>
+
+<p>Having now roughly outlined the various kinds of frontiers, and their
+modes of advance, chiefly from the point of view of the frontier itself,
+we may next inquire what were the influences on the East and on the Old
+World. A rapid enumeration of some of the more noteworthy effects is all
+that I have time for.</p>
+
+<p>First, we note that the frontier promoted the formation of a composite
+nationality for the American people. The coast was preponderantly
+English, but the later tides of continental immigration flowed across to
+the free lands. This was the case from the early colonial days. The
+Scotch-Irish and the Palatine Germans, or "Pennsylvania Dutch,"
+furnished the dominant element in the stock of the colonial frontier.
+With these peoples were also the freed indented servants, or
+redemptioners, who at the expiration of their time of service passed to
+the frontier. Governor Spotswood of Virginia writes in 1717, "The
+inhabitants of our frontiers are composed generally of such as have been
+transported hither as servants, and, being out of their time, settle
+themselves where land is to be taken up and that will produce the
+necessarys of life with little labour."<a name="FNanchor_22:1_37" id="FNanchor_22:1_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_22:1_37" class="fnanchor">[22:1]</a> Very generally these
+redemptioners were of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>[<a href="./images/23.png">23</a>]</span>non-English stock. In the crucible of the
+frontier the immigrants were Americanized, liberated, and fused into a
+mixed race, English in neither nationality nor characteristics. The
+process has gone on from the early days to our own. Burke and other
+writers in the middle of the eighteenth century believed that
+Pennsylvania<a name="FNanchor_23:1_38" id="FNanchor_23:1_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_23:1_38" class="fnanchor">[23:1]</a> was "threatened with the danger of being wholly
+foreign in language, manners, and perhaps even inclinations." The German
+and Scotch-Irish elements in the frontier of the South were only less
+great. In the middle of the present century the German element in
+Wisconsin was already so considerable that leading publicists looked to
+the creation of a German state out of the commonwealth by concentrating
+their colonization.<a name="FNanchor_23:2_39" id="FNanchor_23:2_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_23:2_39" class="fnanchor">[23:2]</a> Such examples teach us to beware of
+misinterpreting the fact that there is a common English speech in
+America into a belief that the stock is also English.</p>
+
+<p>In another way the advance of the frontier decreased our dependence on
+England. The coast, particularly of the South, lacked diversified
+industries, and was dependent on England for the bulk of its supplies.
+In the South there was even a dependence on the Northern colonies for
+articles of food. Governor Glenn, of South Carolina, writes in the
+middle of the eighteenth century: "Our trade with New York and
+Philadelphia was of this sort, draining us of all the little money and
+bills we could gather from other places for their bread, flour, beer,
+hams, bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except beer,
+our new townships begin to supply us with, which are settled with very
+industrious and thriving Germans. This no doubt diminishes the number of
+shipping and the appearance of our trade, but it is far from being a
+detriment to us."<a name="FNanchor_23:3_40" id="FNanchor_23:3_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_23:3_40" class="fnanchor">[23:3]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>[<a href="./images/24.png">24</a>]</span></p><p>Before long the frontier created a demand for merchants. As it
+retreated from the coast it became less and less possible for England to
+bring her supplies directly to the consumer's wharfs, and carry away
+staple crops, and staple crops began to give way to diversified
+agriculture for a time. The effect of this phase of the frontier action
+upon the northern section is perceived when we realize how the advance
+of the frontier aroused seaboard cities like Boston, New York, and
+Baltimore, to engage in rivalry for what Washington called "the
+extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire."</p>
+
+<p>The legislation which most developed the powers of the national
+government, and played the largest part in its activity, was conditioned
+on the frontier. Writers have discussed the subjects of tariff, land,
+and internal improvement, as subsidiary to the slavery question. But
+when American history comes to be rightly viewed it will be seen that
+the slavery question is an incident. In the period from the end of the
+first half of the present century to the close of the Civil War slavery
+rose to primary, but far from exclusive, importance. But this does not
+justify Dr. von Holst (to take an example) in treating our
+constitutional history in its formative period down to 1828 in a single
+volume, giving six volumes chiefly to the history of slavery from 1828
+to 1861, under the title "Constitutional History of the United States."
+The growth of nationalism and the evolution of American political
+institutions were dependent on the advance of the frontier. Even so
+recent a writer as Rhodes, in his "History of the United States since
+the Compromise of 1850," has treated the legislation called out by the
+western advance as incidental to the slavery struggle.</p>
+
+<p>This is a wrong perspective. The pioneer needed the goods of the coast,
+and so the grand series of internal improvement and railroad legislation
+began, with potent nationalizing effects. Over internal improvements
+occurred great debates, in which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>[<a href="./images/25.png">25</a>]</span>grave constitutional questions were
+discussed. Sectional groupings appear in the votes, profoundly
+significant for the historian. Loose construction increased as the
+nation marched westward<ins class="corr" title="period is missing in original">.</ins><a name="FNanchor_25:1_41" id="FNanchor_25:1_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_25:1_41" class="fnanchor">[25:1]</a> But the West was not content with
+bringing the farm to the factory. Under the lead of Clay&mdash;"Harry of the
+West"&mdash;protective tariffs were passed, with the cry of bringing the
+factory to the farm. The disposition of the public lands was a third
+important subject of national legislation influenced by the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The public domain has been a force of profound importance in the
+nationalization and development of the government. The effects of the
+struggle of the landed and the landless States, and of the Ordinance of
+1787, need no discussion.<a name="FNanchor_25:2_42" id="FNanchor_25:2_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_25:2_42" class="fnanchor">[25:2]</a> Administratively the frontier called out
+some of the highest and most vitalizing activities of the general
+government. The purchase of Louisiana was perhaps the constitutional
+turning point in the history of the Republic, inasmuch as it afforded
+both a new area for national legislation and the occasion of the
+downfall of the policy of strict construction. But the purchase of
+Louisiana was called out by frontier needs and demands. As frontier
+States accrued to the Union the national power grew. In a speech on the
+dedication of the Calhoun monument Mr. Lamar explained: "In 1789 the
+States were the creators of the Federal Government; in 1861 the Federal
+Government was the creator of a large majority of the States."</p>
+
+<p>When we consider the public domain from the point of view of the sale
+and disposal of the public lands we are again brought face to face with
+the frontier. The policy of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>[<a href="./images/26.png">26</a>]</span>United States in dealing with its lands
+is in sharp contrast with the European system of scientific
+administration. Efforts to make this domain a source of revenue, and to
+withhold it from emigrants in order that settlement might be compact,
+were in vain. The jealousy and the fears of the East were powerless in
+the face of the demands of the frontiersmen. John Quincy Adams was
+obliged to confess: "My own system of administration, which was to make
+the national domain the inexhaustible fund for progressive and unceasing
+internal improvement, has failed." The reason is obvious; a system of
+administration was not what the West demanded; it wanted land. Adams
+states the situation as follows: "The slaveholders of the South have
+bought the co&ouml;peration of the western country by the bribe of the
+western lands, abandoning to the new Western States their own proportion
+of the public property and aiding them in the design of grasping all the
+lands into their own hands." Thomas H. Benton was the author of this
+system, which he brought forward as a substitute for the American system
+of Mr. Clay, and to supplant him as the leading statesman of the West.
+Mr. Clay, by his tariff compromise with Mr. Calhoun, abandoned his own
+American system. At the same time he brought forward a plan for
+distributing among all the States of the Union the proceeds of the sales
+of the public lands. His bill for that purpose passed both Houses of
+Congress, but was vetoed by President Jackson, who, in his annual
+message of December, 1832, formally recommended that all public lands
+should be gratuitously given away to individual adventurers and to the
+States in which the lands are situated.<a name="FNanchor_26:1_43" id="FNanchor_26:1_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_26:1_43" class="fnanchor">[26:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>"No subject," said Henry Clay, "which has presented itself to the
+present, or perhaps any preceding, Congress, is of greater magnitude
+than that of the public lands." When we <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>[<a href="./images/27.png">27</a>]</span>consider the far-reaching
+effects of the government's land policy upon political, economic, and
+social aspects of American life, we are disposed to agree with him. But
+this legislation was framed under frontier influences, and under the
+lead of Western statesmen like Benton and Jackson. Said Senator Scott of
+Indiana in 1841: "I consider the pre&euml;mption law merely declaratory of
+the custom or common law of the settlers."</p>
+
+<p>It is safe to say that the legislation with regard to land, tariff, and
+internal improvements&mdash;the American system of the nationalizing Whig
+party&mdash;was conditioned on frontier ideas and needs. But it was not
+merely in legislative action that the frontier worked against the
+sectionalism of the coast. The economic and social characteristics of
+the frontier worked against sectionalism. The men of the frontier had
+closer resemblances to the Middle region than to either of the other
+sections. Pennsylvania had been the seed-plot of frontier emigration,
+and, although she passed on her settlers along the Great Valley into the
+west of Virginia and the Carolinas, yet the industrial society of these
+Southern frontiersmen was always more like that of the Middle region
+than like that of the tide-water portion of the South, which later came
+to spread its industrial type throughout the South.</p>
+
+<p>The Middle region, entered by New York harbor, was an open door to all
+Europe. The tide-water part of the South represented typical Englishmen,
+modified by a warm climate and servile labor, and living in baronial
+fashion on great plantations; New England stood for a special English
+movement&mdash;Puritanism. The Middle region was less English than the other
+sections. It had a wide mixture of nationalities, a varied society, the
+mixed town and county system of local government, a varied economic
+life, many religious sects. In short, it was a region mediating between
+New England and the South, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>[<a href="./images/28.png">28</a>]</span>and the East and the West. It represented
+that composite nationality which the contemporary United States
+exhibits, that juxtaposition of non-English groups, occupying a valley
+or a little settlement, and presenting reflections of the map of Europe
+in their variety. It was democratic and nonsectional, if not national;
+"easy, tolerant, and contented;" rooted strongly in material prosperity.
+It was typical of the modern United States. It was least sectional, not
+only because it lay between North and South, but also because with no
+barriers to shut out its frontiers from its settled region, and with a
+system of connecting waterways, the Middle region mediated between East
+and West as well as between North and South. Thus it became the
+typically American region. Even the New Englander, who was shut out from
+the frontier by the Middle region, tarrying in New York or Pennsylvania
+on his westward march, lost the acuteness of his sectionalism on the
+way.<a name="FNanchor_28:1_44" id="FNanchor_28:1_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_28:1_44" class="fnanchor">[28:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The spread of cotton culture into the interior of the South finally
+broke down the contrast between the "tide-water" region and the rest of
+the State, and based Southern interests on slavery. Before this process
+revealed its results the western portion of the South, which was akin to
+Pennsylvania in stock, society, and industry, showed tendencies to fall
+away from the faith of the fathers into internal improvement legislation
+and nationalism. In the Virginia convention of 1829-30, called to revise
+the constitution, Mr. Leigh, of Chesterfield, one of the tide-water
+counties, declared:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>One of the main causes of discontent which led to this
+convention, that which had the strongest influence in
+overcoming our veneration for the work of our fathers, which
+taught us to contemn the sentiments <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>[<a href="./images/29.png">29</a>]</span>of Henry and Mason and
+Pendleton, which weaned us from our reverence for the
+constituted authorities of the State, was an overweening
+passion for internal improvement. I say this with perfect
+knowledge, for it has been avowed to me by gentlemen from the
+West over and over again. And let me tell the gentleman from
+Albemarle (Mr. Gordon) that it has been another principal
+object of those who set this ball of revolution in motion, to
+overturn the doctrine of State rights, of which Virginia has
+been the very pillar, and to remove the barrier she has
+interposed to the interference of the Federal Government in
+that same work of internal improvement, by so reorganizing the
+legislature that Virginia, too, may be hitched to the Federal
+car.</p></div>
+
+<p>It was this nationalizing tendency of the West that transformed the
+democracy of Jefferson into the national republicanism of Monroe and the
+democracy of Andrew Jackson. The West of the War of 1812, the West of
+Clay, and Benton and Harrison, and Andrew Jackson, shut off by the
+Middle States and the mountains from the coast sections, had a
+solidarity of its own with national tendencies.<a name="FNanchor_29:1_45" id="FNanchor_29:1_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_29:1_45" class="fnanchor">[29:1]</a> On the tide of the
+Father of Waters, North and South met and mingled into a nation.
+Interstate migration went steadily on&mdash;a process of cross-fertilization
+of ideas and institutions. The fierce struggle of the sections over
+slavery on the western frontier does not diminish the truth of this
+statement; it proves the truth of it. Slavery was a sectional trait that
+would not down, but in the West it could not remain sectional. It was
+the greatest of frontiersmen who declared: "I believe this Government
+can not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>[<a href="./images/30.png">30</a>]</span>endure permanently half slave and half free. It will become all
+of one thing or all of the other." Nothing works for nationalism like
+intercourse within the nation. Mobility of population is death to
+localism, and the western frontier worked irresistibly in unsettling
+population. The effect reached back from the frontier and affected
+profoundly the Atlantic coast and even the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important effect of the frontier has been in the promotion
+of democracy here and in Europe. As has been indicated, the frontier is
+productive of individualism. Complex society is precipitated by the
+wilderness into a kind of primitive organization based on the family.
+The tendency is anti-social. It produces antipathy to control, and
+particularly to any direct control. The tax-gatherer is viewed as a
+representative of oppression. Prof. Osgood, in an able article,<a name="FNanchor_30:1_46" id="FNanchor_30:1_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_30:1_46" class="fnanchor">[30:1]</a>
+has pointed out that the frontier conditions prevalent in the colonies
+are important factors in the explanation of the American Revolution,
+where individual liberty was sometimes confused with absence of all
+effective government. The same conditions aid in explaining the
+difficulty of instituting a strong government in the period of the
+confederacy. The frontier individualism has from the beginning promoted
+democracy.</p>
+
+<p>The frontier States that came into the Union in the first quarter of a
+century of its existence came in with democratic suffrage provisions,
+and had reactive effects of the highest importance upon the older States
+whose peoples were being attracted there. An extension of the franchise
+became essential. It was <i>western</i> New York that forced an extension of
+suffrage in the constitutional convention of that State in 1821; and it
+was <i>western</i> Virginia that compelled the tide-water <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>[<a href="./images/31.png">31</a>]</span>region to put a
+more liberal suffrage provision in the constitution framed in 1830, and
+to give to the frontier region a more nearly proportionate
+representation with the tide-water aristocracy. The rise of democracy as
+an effective force in the nation came in with western preponderance
+under Jackson and William Henry Harrison, and it meant the triumph of
+the frontier&mdash;with all of its good and with all of its evil
+elements.<a name="FNanchor_31:1_47" id="FNanchor_31:1_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_31:1_47" class="fnanchor">[31:1]</a> An interesting illustration of the tone of frontier
+democracy in 1830 comes from the same debates in the Virginia convention
+already referred to. A representative from western Virginia declared:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>But, sir, it is not the increase of population in the West
+which this gentleman ought to fear. It is the energy which the
+mountain breeze and western habits impart to those emigrants.
+They are regenerated, politically I mean, sir. They soon
+become <i>working politicians</i>; and the difference, sir, between
+a <i>talking</i> and a <i>working</i> politician is immense. The Old
+Dominion has long been celebrated for producing great orators;
+the ablest metaphysicians in policy; men that can split hairs
+in all abstruse questions of political economy. But at home,
+or when they return from Congress, they have negroes to fan
+them asleep. But a Pennsylvania, a New York, an Ohio, or a
+western Virginia statesman, though far inferior in logic,
+metaphysics, and rhetoric to an old Virginia statesman, has
+this advantage, that when he returns home he takes off his
+coat and takes hold of the plow. This gives him bone and
+muscle, sir, and preserves his republican principles pure and
+uncontaminated.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>[<a href="./images/32.png">32</a>]</span></p><p>So long as free land exists, the opportunity for a competency exists,
+and economic power secures political power. But the democracy born of
+free land, strong in selfishness and individualism, intolerant of
+administrative experience and education, and pressing individual liberty
+beyond its proper bounds, has its dangers as well as its benefits.
+Individualism in America has allowed a laxity in regard to governmental
+affairs which has rendered possible the spoils system and all the
+manifest evils that follow from the lack of a highly developed civic
+spirit. In this connection may be noted also the influence of frontier
+conditions in permitting lax business honor, inflated paper currency and
+wild-cat banking. The colonial and revolutionary frontier was the region
+whence emanated many of the worst forms of an evil currency.<a name="FNanchor_32:1_48" id="FNanchor_32:1_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_32:1_48" class="fnanchor">[32:1]</a> The
+West in the War of 1812 repeated the phenomenon on the frontier of that
+day, while the speculation and wild-cat banking of the period of the
+crisis of 1837 occurred on the new frontier belt of the next tier of
+States. Thus each one of the periods of lax financial integrity
+coincides with periods when a new set of frontier communities had
+arisen, and coincides in area with these successive frontiers, for the
+most part. The recent Populist agitation is a case in point. Many a
+State that now declines any connection with the tenets of the Populists,
+itself adhered to such ideas in an earlier stage of the development of
+the State. A primitive society can hardly be expected to show the
+intelligent appreciation of the complexity of business interests in a
+developed society. The continual recurrence of these areas of
+paper-money agitation is another evidence that the frontier can be
+isolated and studied as a factor in American history of the highest
+importance.<a name="FNanchor_32:2_49" id="FNanchor_32:2_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_32:2_49" class="fnanchor">[32:2]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>[<a href="./images/33.png">33</a>]</span></p><p>The East has always feared the result of an unregulated advance of the
+frontier, and has tried to check and guide it. The English authorities
+would have checked settlement at the headwaters of the Atlantic
+tributaries and allowed the "savages to enjoy their deserts in quiet
+lest the peltry trade should decrease." This called out Burke's splendid
+protest:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If you stopped your grants, what would be the consequence? The
+people would occupy without grants. They have already so
+occupied in many places. You can not station garrisons in
+every part of these deserts. If you drive the people from one
+place, they will carry on their annual tillage and remove with
+their flocks and herds to another. Many of the people in the
+back settlements are already little attached to particular
+situations. Already they have topped the Appalachian
+Mountains. From thence they behold before them an immense
+plain, one vast, rich, level meadow; a square of five hundred
+miles. Over this they would wander without a possibility of
+restraint; they would change their manners with their habits
+of life; would soon forget a government by which they were
+disowned; would become hordes of English Tartars; and, pouring
+down upon your unfortified frontiers a fierce and irresistible
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>[<a href="./images/34.png">34</a>]</span>cavalry, become masters of your governors and your
+counselers, your collectors and comptrollers, and of all the
+slaves that adhered to them. Such would, and in no long time
+must, be the effect of attempting to forbid as a crime and to
+suppress as an evil the command and blessing of Providence,
+"Increase and multiply." Such would be the happy result of an
+endeavor to keep as a lair of wild beasts that earth which
+God, by an express charter, has given to the children of men.</p></div>
+
+<p>But the English Government was not alone in its desire to limit the
+advance of the frontier and guide its destinies. Tidewater
+Virginia<a name="FNanchor_34:1_50" id="FNanchor_34:1_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_34:1_50" class="fnanchor">[34:1]</a> and South Carolina<a name="FNanchor_34:2_51" id="FNanchor_34:2_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_34:2_51" class="fnanchor">[34:2]</a> gerrymandered those colonies to
+insure the dominance of the coast in their legislatures. Washington
+desired to settle a State at a time in the Northwest; Jefferson would
+reserve from settlement the territory of his Louisiana Purchase north of
+the thirty-second parallel, in order to offer it to the Indians in
+exchange for their settlements east of the Mississippi. "When we shall
+be full on this side," he writes, "we may lay off a range of States on
+the western bank from the head to the mouth, and so range after range,
+advancing compactly as we multiply." Madison went so far as to argue to
+the French minister that the United States had no interest in seeing
+population extend itself on the right bank of the Mississippi, but
+should rather fear it. When the Oregon question was under debate, in
+1824, Smyth, of Virginia, would draw an unchangeable line for the limits
+of the United States at the outer limit of two tiers of States beyond
+the Mississippi, complaining that the seaboard States were being drained
+of the flower of their population by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>[<a href="./images/35.png">35</a>]</span>bringing of too much land into
+market. Even Thomas Benton, the man of widest views of the destiny of
+the West, at this stage of his career declared that along the ridge of
+the Rocky mountains "the western limits of the Republic should be drawn,
+and the statue of the fabled god Terminus should be raised upon its
+highest peak, never to be thrown down."<a name="FNanchor_35:1_52" id="FNanchor_35:1_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_35:1_52" class="fnanchor">[35:1]</a> But the attempts to limit
+the boundaries, to restrict land sales and settlement, and to deprive
+the West of its share of political power were all in vain. Steadily the
+frontier of settlement advanced and carried with it individualism,
+democracy, and nationalism, and powerfully affected the East and the Old
+World.</p>
+
+<p>The most effective efforts of the East to regulate the frontier came
+through its educational and religious activity, exerted by interstate
+migration and by organized societies. Speaking in 1835, Dr. Lyman
+Beecher declared: "It is equally plain that the religious and political
+destiny of our nation is to be decided in the West," and he pointed out
+that the population of the West "is assembled from all the States of the
+Union and from all the nations of Europe, and is rushing in like the
+waters of the flood, demanding for its moral preservation the immediate
+and universal action of those institutions which discipline the mind and
+arm the conscience and the heart. And so various are the opinions and
+habits, and so recent and imperfect is the acquaintance, and so sparse
+are the settlements of the West, that no homogeneous public sentiment
+can be formed to legislate immediately into being the requisite
+institutions. And yet they are all needed immediately in their utmost
+perfection and power. A nation is being 'born in a day.'&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. But what
+will become of the West if her prosperity rushes up to such a majesty of
+power, while those great institutions linger which are necessary to form
+the mind and the conscience <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>[<a href="./images/36.png">36</a>]</span>and the heart of that vast world. It must
+not be permitted.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Let no man at the East quiet himself and dream of
+liberty, whatever may become of the West.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Her destiny is our
+destiny."<a name="FNanchor_36:1_53" id="FNanchor_36:1_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_36:1_53" class="fnanchor">[36:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>With the appeal to the conscience of New England, he adds appeals to her
+fears lest other religious sects anticipate her own. The New England
+preacher and school-teacher left their mark on the West. The dread of
+Western emancipation from New England's political and economic control
+was paralleled by her fears lest the West cut loose from her religion.
+Commenting in 1850 on reports that settlement was rapidly extending
+northward in Wisconsin, the editor of the <i>Home Missionary</i> writes: "We
+scarcely know whether to rejoice or mourn over this extension of our
+settlements. While we sympathize in whatever tends to increase the
+physical resources and prosperity of our country, we can not forget that
+with all these dispersions into remote and still remoter corners of the
+land the supply of the means of grace is becoming relatively less and
+less." Acting in accordance with such ideas, home missions were
+established and Western colleges were erected. As seaboard cities like
+Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore strove for the mastery of Western
+trade, so the various denominations strove for the possession of the
+West. Thus an intellectual stream from New England sources fertilized
+the West. Other sections sent their missionaries; but the real struggle
+was between sects. The contest for power and the expansive tendency
+furnished to the various sects by the existence of a moving frontier
+must have had important results on the character of religious
+organization in the United States. The multiplication of rival churches
+in the little frontier towns had deep and lasting social effects. The
+religious aspects of the frontier make a chapter in our history which
+needs study.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>[<a href="./images/37.png">37</a>]</span></p><p>From the conditions of frontier life came intellectual traits of
+profound importance. The works of travelers along each frontier from
+colonial days onward describe certain common traits, and these traits
+have, while softening down, still persisted as survivals in the place of
+their origin, even when a higher social organization succeeded. The
+result is that to the frontier the American intellect owes its striking
+characteristics. That coarseness and strength combined with acuteness
+and inquisitiveness; that practical, inventive turn of mind, quick to
+find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things, lacking in the
+artistic but powerful to effect great ends; that restless, nervous
+energy;<a name="FNanchor_37:1_54" id="FNanchor_37:1_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_37:1_54" class="fnanchor">[37:1]</a> that dominant individualism, working for good and for
+evil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with
+freedom&mdash;these are traits of the frontier, or traits called out
+elsewhere because of the existence of the frontier. Since the days when
+the fleet of Columbus sailed into the waters of the New World, America
+has been another name for opportunity, and the people of the United
+States have taken their tone from the incessant expansion which has not
+only been open but has even been forced upon them. He would be a rash
+prophet who should assert that the expansive character of American life
+has now entirely ceased. Movement has been its dominant fact, and,
+unless this training has no effect upon a people, the American energy
+will continually demand a wider field for its exercise. But never again
+will such gifts of free land offer themselves. For a moment, at the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>[<a href="./images/38.png">38</a>]</span>frontier, the bonds of custom are broken and unrestraint is triumphant.
+There is not <i>tabula rasa</i>. The stubborn American environment is there
+with its imperious summons to accept its conditions; the inherited ways
+of doing things are also there; and yet, in spite of environment, and in
+spite of custom, each frontier did indeed furnish a new field of
+opportunity, a gate of escape from the bondage of the past; and
+freshness, and confidence, and scorn of older society, impatience of its
+restraints and its ideas, and indifference to its lessons, have
+accompanied the frontier. What the Mediterranean Sea was to the Greeks,
+breaking the bond of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new
+institutions and activities, that, and more, the ever retreating
+frontier has been to the United States directly, and to the nations of
+Europe more remotely. And now, four centuries from the discovery of
+America, at the end of a hundred years of life under the Constitution,
+the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the first period of
+American history.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1:1_1" id="Footnote_1:1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1:1_1"><span class="label">[1:1]</span></a> A paper read at the meeting of the American Historical
+Association in Chicago, July 12, 1893. It first appeared in the
+Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, December 14,
+1893, with the following note: "The foundation of this paper is my
+article entitled 'Problems in American History,' which appeared in <i>The
+&AElig;gis</i>, a publication of the students of the University of Wisconsin,
+November 4, 1892.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. It is gratifying to find that Professor Woodrow
+Wilson&mdash;whose volume on 'Division and Reunion' in the Epochs of American
+History Series, has an appreciative estimate of the importance of the
+West as a factor in American history&mdash;accepts some of the views set
+forth in the papers above mentioned, and enhances their value by his
+lucid and suggestive treatment of them in his article in <i>The Forum</i>,
+December, 1893, reviewing Goldwin Smith's 'History of the United
+States.'" The present text is that of the <i>Report of the American
+Historical Association</i> for 1893, 199-227. It was printed with additions
+in the <i>Fifth Year Book of the National Herbart Society</i>, and in various
+other publications.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2:1_2" id="Footnote_2:1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2:1_2"><span class="label">[2:1]</span></a> "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," v, p. 706.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5:1_3" id="Footnote_5:1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5:1_3"><span class="label">[5:1]</span></a> Bancroft (1860 ed.), iii, pp. 344, 345, citing Logan
+MSS.; [Mitchell] "Contest in America," etc. (1752), p. 237.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5:2_4" id="Footnote_5:2_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5:2_4"><span class="label">[5:2]</span></a> Kercheval, "History of the Valley"; Bernheim, "German
+Settlements in the Carolinas"; Winsor, "Narrative and Critical History
+of America," v, p. 304; Colonial Records of North Carolina, iv, p. xx;
+Weston, "Documents Connected with the History of South Carolina," p. 82;
+Ellis and Evans, "History of Lancaster County, Pa.," chs. iii, xxvi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5:3_5" id="Footnote_5:3_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5:3_5"><span class="label">[5:3]</span></a> Parkman, "Pontiac," ii; Griffis, "Sir William Johnson,"
+p. 6; Simms's "Frontiersmen of New York."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5:4_6" id="Footnote_5:4_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5:4_6"><span class="label">[5:4]</span></a> Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 311.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5:5_7" id="Footnote_5:5_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5:5_7"><span class="label">[5:5]</span></a> Wis. Hist. Cols., xi, p. 50; Hinsdale, "Old Northwest,"
+p. 121; Burke, "Oration on Conciliation," Works (1872 ed.), i, p. 473.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5:6_8" id="Footnote_5:6_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5:6_8"><span class="label">[5:6]</span></a> Roosevelt, "Winning of the West," and citations there
+given; Cutler's "Life of Cutler."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6:1_9" id="Footnote_6:1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6:1_9"><span class="label">[6:1]</span></a> Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxviii, pl. 13; McMaster,
+"Hist. of People of U. S.," i, pp. 4, 60, 61; Imlay and Filson, "Western
+Territory of America" (London, 1793); Rochefoucault-Liancourt, "Travels
+Through the United States of North America" (London, 1799); Michaux's
+"Journal," in <i>Proceedings American Philosophical Society</i>, xxvi, No.
+129; Forman, "Narrative of a Journey Down the Ohio and Mississippi in
+1780-'90" (Cincinnati, 1888); Bartram, "Travels Through North Carolina,"
+etc. (London, 1792); Pope, "Tour Through the Southern and Western
+Territories," etc. (Richmond, 1792); Weld, "Travels Through the States
+of North America" (London, 1799); Baily, "Journal of a Tour in the
+Unsettled States of North America, 1796-'97" (London, 1856);
+Pennsylvania Magazine of History, July, 1886; Winsor, "Narrative and
+Critical History of America," vii, pp. 491, 492, citations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6:2_10" id="Footnote_6:2_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6:2_10"><span class="label">[6:2]</span></a> Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6:3_11" id="Footnote_6:3_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6:3_11"><span class="label">[6:3]</span></a> Turner, "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in
+Wisconsin" (Johns Hopkins University Studies, Series ix), pp. 61 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7:1_12" id="Footnote_7:1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7:1_12"><span class="label">[7:1]</span></a> Monette, "History of the Mississippi Valley," ii; Flint,
+"Travels and Residence in Mississippi," Flint, "Geography and History of
+the Western States," "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," vii, pp. 397,
+398, 404; Holmes, "Account of the U. S."; Kingdom, "America and the
+British Colonies" (London, 1820); Grund, "Americans," ii, chs. i, iii,
+vi (although writing in 1836, he treats of conditions that grew out of
+western advance from the era of 1820 to that time); Peck, "Guide for
+Emigrants" (Boston, 1831); Darby, "Emigrants' Guide to Western and
+Southwestern States and Territories"; Dana, "Geographical Sketches in
+the Western Country"; Kinzie, "Waubun"; Keating, "Narrative of Long's
+Expedition"; Schoolcraft, "Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
+River," "Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley," and
+"Lead Mines of the Missouri"; Andreas, "History of Illinois," i, 86-99;
+Hurlbut, "Chicago Antiquities"; McKenney, "Tour to the Lakes"; Thomas,
+"Travels Through the Western Country," etc. (Auburn, N. Y., 1819).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7:2_13" id="Footnote_7:2_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7:2_13"><span class="label">[7:2]</span></a> Darby, "Emigrants' Guide," pp. 272 ff; Benton,
+"Abridgment of Debates," vii, p. 397.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7:3_14" id="Footnote_7:3_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7:3_14"><span class="label">[7:3]</span></a> De Bow's <i>Review</i>, iv, p. 254; xvii, p. 428.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7:4_15" id="Footnote_7:4_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7:4_15"><span class="label">[7:4]</span></a> Grund, "Americans," ii, p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8:1_16" id="Footnote_8:1_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8:1_16"><span class="label">[8:1]</span></a> Peck, "New Guide to the West" (Cincinnati, 1848), ch. iv;
+Parkman, "Oregon Trail"; Hall, "The West" (Cincinnati, 1848); Pierce,
+"Incidents of Western Travel"; Murray, "Travels in North America";
+Lloyd, "Steamboat Directory" (Cincinnati, 1856); "Forty Days in a
+Western Hotel" (Chicago), in <i>Putnam's Magazine</i>, December, 1894;
+Mackay, "The Western World," ii, ch. ii, iii; Meeker, "Life in the
+West"; Bogen, "German in America" (Boston, 1851); Olmstead, "Texas
+Journey"; Greeley, "Recollections of a Busy Life"; Schouler, "History of
+the United States," v, 261-267; Peyton, "Over the Alleghanies and Across
+the Prairies" (London, 1870); Loughborough, "The Pacific Telegraph and
+Railway" (St. Louis, 1849); Whitney, "Project for a Railroad to the
+Pacific" (New York, 1849); Peyton, "Suggestions on Railroad
+Communication with the Pacific, and the Trade of China and the Indian
+Islands"; Benton, "Highway to the Pacific" (a speech delivered in the U.
+S. Senate, December 16, 1850).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8:2_17" id="Footnote_8:2_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8:2_17"><span class="label">[8:2]</span></a> A writer in <i>The Home Missionary</i> (1850), p. 239,
+reporting Wisconsin conditions, exclaims: "Think of this, people of the
+enlightened East. What an example, to come from the very frontier of
+civilization!" But one of the missionaries writes: "In a few years
+Wisconsin will no longer be considered as the West, or as an outpost of
+civilization, any more than Western New York, or the Western Reserve."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8:3_18" id="Footnote_8:3_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8:3_18"><span class="label">[8:3]</span></a> Bancroft (H. H.), "History of California," "History of
+Oregon," and "Popular Tribunals"; Shinn, "Mining Camps."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10:1_19" id="Footnote_10:1_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10:1_19"><span class="label">[10:1]</span></a> See the suggestive paper by Prof. Jesse Macy, "The
+Institutional Beginnings of a Western State."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10:2_20" id="Footnote_10:2_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10:2_20"><span class="label">[10:2]</span></a> Shinn, "Mining Camps."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10:3_21" id="Footnote_10:3_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10:3_21"><span class="label">[10:3]</span></a> Compare Thorpe, in <i>Annals American Academy of Political
+and Social Science</i>, September, 1891; Bryce, "American Commonwealth"
+(1888), ii, p. 689.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11:1_22" id="Footnote_11:1_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11:1_22"><span class="label">[11:1]</span></a> Loria, Analisi della Proprieta Capitalista, ii, p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11:2_23" id="Footnote_11:2_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11:2_23"><span class="label">[11:2]</span></a> Compare "Observations on the North American Land
+Company," London, 1796, pp. xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South
+Carolina," i, pp. 149-151; Turner, "Character and Influence of Indian
+Trade in Wisconsin," p. 18; Peck, "New Guide for Emigrants" (Boston,
+1837), ch. iv; "Compendium Eleventh Census," i, p. xl.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12:1_24" id="Footnote_12:1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12:1_24"><span class="label">[12:1]</span></a> See <i>post</i>, for illustrations of the political
+accompaniments of changed industrial conditions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13:1_25" id="Footnote_13:1_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13:1_25"><span class="label">[13:1]</span></a> But Lewis and Clark were the first to explore the route
+from the Missouri to the Columbia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14:1_26" id="Footnote_14:1_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14:1_26"><span class="label">[14:1]</span></a> "Narrative and Critical History of America," viii, p.
+10; Sparks' "Washington Works," ix, pp. 303, 327; Logan, "History of
+Upper South Carolina," i; McDonald, "Life of Kenton," p. 72; Cong.
+Record, xxiii, p. 57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15:1_27" id="Footnote_15:1_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15:1_27"><span class="label">[15:1]</span></a> On the effect of the fur trade in opening the routes of
+migration, see the author's "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade
+in Wisconsin."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16:1_28" id="Footnote_16:1_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16:1_28"><span class="label">[16:1]</span></a> Lodge, "English Colonies," p. 152 and citations; Logan,
+"Hist. of Upper South Carolina," i, p. 151.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16:2_29" id="Footnote_16:2_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16:2_29"><span class="label">[16:2]</span></a> Flint, "Recollections," p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16:3_30" id="Footnote_16:3_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16:3_30"><span class="label">[16:3]</span></a> See Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 344.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17:1_31" id="Footnote_17:1_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17:1_31"><span class="label">[17:1]</span></a> Coues', "Lewis and Clark's Expedition," i, pp. 2,
+253-259; Benton, in Cong. Record, xxiii, p. 57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17:2_32" id="Footnote_17:2_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17:2_32"><span class="label">[17:2]</span></a> Hehn, <i>Das Salz</i> (Berlin, 1873).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17:3_33" id="Footnote_17:3_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17:3_33"><span class="label">[17:3]</span></a> Col. Records of N. C., v, p. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17:4_34" id="Footnote_17:4_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17:4_34"><span class="label">[17:4]</span></a> Findley, "History of the Insurrection in the Four
+Western Counties of Pennsylvania in the Year 1794" (Philadelphia, 1796),
+p. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19:1_35" id="Footnote_19:1_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19:1_35"><span class="label">[19:1]</span></a> Hale, "Daniel Boone" (pamphlet).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21:1_36" id="Footnote_21:1_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21:1_36"><span class="label">[21:1]</span></a> Compare Baily, "Tour in the Unsettled Parts of North
+America" (London, 1856), pp. 217-219, where a similar analysis is made
+for 1796. See also Collot, "Journey in North America" (Paris, 1826), p.
+109; "Observations on the North American Land Company" (London, 1796),
+pp. xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South Carolina."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22:1_37" id="Footnote_22:1_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22:1_37"><span class="label">[22:1]</span></a> "Spotswood Papers," in Collections of Virginia
+Historical Society, i, ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23:1_38" id="Footnote_23:1_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23:1_38"><span class="label">[23:1]</span></a> [Burke], "European Settlements" (1765 ed.), ii, p. 200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23:2_39" id="Footnote_23:2_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23:2_39"><span class="label">[23:2]</span></a> Everest, in "Wisconsin Historical Collections," xii, pp.
+7 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23:3_40" id="Footnote_23:3_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23:3_40"><span class="label">[23:3]</span></a> Weston, "Documents connected with History of South
+Carolina," p. 61.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25:1_41" id="Footnote_25:1_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25:1_41"><span class="label">[25:1]</span></a> See, for example, the speech of Clay, in the House of
+Representatives, January 30, 1824.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25:2_42" id="Footnote_25:2_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25:2_42"><span class="label">[25:2]</span></a> See the admirable monograph by Prof. H. B. Adams,
+"Maryland's Influence on the Land Cessions"; and also President Welling,
+in Papers American Historical Association, iii, p. 411.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26:1_43" id="Footnote_26:1_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26:1_43"><span class="label">[26:1]</span></a> Adams' Memoirs, ix, pp. 247, 248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28:1_44" id="Footnote_28:1_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28:1_44"><span class="label">[28:1]</span></a> Author's article in <i>The &AElig;gis</i> (Madison, Wis.), November
+4, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29:1_45" id="Footnote_29:1_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29:1_45"><span class="label">[29:1]</span></a> Compare Roosevelt, "Thomas Benton," ch. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30:1_46" id="Footnote_30:1_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30:1_46"><span class="label">[30:1]</span></a> <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, ii, p. 457. Compare
+Sumner, "Alexander Hamilton," chs. ii-vii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31:1_47" id="Footnote_31:1_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31:1_47"><span class="label">[31:1]</span></a> Compare Wilson, "Division and Reunion," pp. 15, 24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32:1_48" id="Footnote_32:1_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32:1_48"><span class="label">[32:1]</span></a> On the relation of frontier conditions to Revolutionary
+taxation, see Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, ch. iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32:2_49" id="Footnote_32:2_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32:2_49"><span class="label">[32:2]</span></a> I have refrained from dwelling on the lawless
+characteristics of the frontier, because they are sufficiently well
+known. The gambler and desperado, the regulators of the Carolinas and
+the vigilantes of California, are types of that line of scum that the
+waves of advancing civilization bore before them, and of the growth of
+spontaneous organs of authority where legal authority was absent.
+Compare Barrows, "United States of Yesterday and To-morrow"; Shinn,
+"Mining Camps"; and Bancroft, "Popular Tribunals." The humor, bravery,
+and rude strength, as well as the vices of the frontier in its worst
+aspect, have left traces on American character, language, and
+literature, not soon to be effaced.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34:1_50" id="Footnote_34:1_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34:1_50"><span class="label">[34:1]</span></a> Debates in the Constitutional Convention, 1829-1830.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34:2_51" id="Footnote_34:2_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34:2_51"><span class="label">[34:2]</span></a> [McCrady] Eminent and Representative Men of the
+Carolinas, i, p. 43; Calhoun's Works, i, pp. 401-406.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35:1_52" id="Footnote_35:1_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35:1_52"><span class="label">[35:1]</span></a> Speech in the Senate, March 1, 1825; Register of
+Debates, i, 721.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36:1_53" id="Footnote_36:1_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36:1_53"><span class="label">[36:1]</span></a> Plea for the West (Cincinnati, 1835), pp. 11 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37:1_54" id="Footnote_37:1_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37:1_54"><span class="label">[37:1]</span></a> Colonial travelers agree in remarking on the phlegmatic
+characteristics of the colonists. It has frequently been asked how such
+a people could have developed that strained nervous energy now
+characteristic of them. Compare Sumner, "Alexander Hamilton," p. 98, and
+Adams, "History of the United States," i, p. 60; ix, pp. 240, 241. The
+transition appears to become marked at the close of the War of 1812, a
+period when interest centered upon the development of the West, and the
+West was noted for restless energy. Grund, "Americans," ii, ch. i.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>[<a href="./images/39.png">39</a>]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="chapter_ii" id="chapter_ii"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The First Official Frontier of the Massachusetts Bay</span><a name="FNanchor_39:1_55" id="FNanchor_39:1_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_39:1_55" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[39:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>In the Significance of the "Frontier in American History," I took for my
+text the following announcement of the Superintendent of the Census of
+1890:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Up to and including 1880 the country had a frontier of
+settlement but at present the unsettled area has been so
+broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can
+hardly be said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its
+extent, the westward movement, etc., it cannot therefore any
+longer have a place in the census reports.</p></div>
+
+<p>Two centuries prior to this announcement, in 1690, a committee of the
+General Court of Massachusetts recommended the Court to order what shall
+be the frontier and to maintain a committee to settle garrisons on the
+frontier with forty soldiers to each frontier town as a main
+guard.<a name="FNanchor_39:2_56" id="FNanchor_39:2_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_39:2_56" class="fnanchor">[39:2]</a> In the two hundred years between this official attempt to
+locate the Massachusetts frontier line, and the official announcement of
+the ending of the national frontier line, westward expansion was the
+most important single process in American history.</p>
+
+<p>The designation "frontier town" was not, however, a new one. As early as
+1645 inhabitants of Concord, Sudbury, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>[<a href="./images/40.png">40</a>]</span>Dedham, "being inland townes
+&amp; but thinly peopled," were forbidden to remove without authority;<a name="FNanchor_40:1_57" id="FNanchor_40:1_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_40:1_57" class="fnanchor">[40:1]</a>
+in 1669, certain towns had been the subject of legislation as "frontier
+towns;"<a name="FNanchor_40:2_58" id="FNanchor_40:2_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_40:2_58" class="fnanchor">[40:2]</a> and in the period of King Philip's War there were various
+enactments regarding frontier towns.<a name="FNanchor_40:3_59" id="FNanchor_40:3_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_40:3_59" class="fnanchor">[40:3]</a> In the session of 1675-6 it
+had been proposed to build a fence of stockades or stone eight feet high
+from the Charles "where it is navigable" to the Concord at Billerica and
+thence to the Merrimac and down the river to the Bay, "by which meanes
+that whole tract will [be] environed, for the security &amp; safty (vnder
+God) of the people, their houses, goods &amp; cattel; from the rage &amp; fury
+of the enimy."<a name="FNanchor_40:4_60" id="FNanchor_40:4_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_40:4_60" class="fnanchor">[40:4]</a> This project, however, of a kind of Roman Wall did
+not appeal to the frontiersmen of the time. It was a part of the
+antiquated ideas of defense which had been illustrated by the impossible
+equipment of the heavily armored soldier of the early Puritan r&eacute;gime
+whose corslets and head pieces, pikes, matchlocks, fourquettes and
+bandoleers, went out of use about the period of King Philip's War. The
+fifty-seven postures provided in the approved manual of arms for loading
+and firing the matchlock proved too great a handicap in the chase of the
+nimble savage. In this era the frontier fighter adapted himself to a
+more open order, and lighter equipment suggested by the Indian warrior's
+practice.<a name="FNanchor_40:5_61" id="FNanchor_40:5_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_40:5_61" class="fnanchor">[40:5]</a></p>
+
+<p>The settler on the outskirts of Puritan civilization took up the task of
+bearing the brunt of attack and pushing forward the line of advance
+which year after year carried American settlements <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>[<a href="./images/41.png">41</a>]</span>into the wilderness.
+In American thought and speech the term "frontier" has come to mean the
+edge of settlement, rather than, as in Europe, the political boundary.
+By 1690 it was already evident that the frontier of settlement and the
+frontier of military defense were coinciding. As population advanced
+into the wilderness and thus successively brought new exposed areas
+between the settlements on the one side and the Indians with their
+European backers on the other, the military frontier ceased to be
+thought of as the Atlantic coast, but rather as a moving line bounding
+the un-won wilderness. It could not be a fortified boundary along the
+charter limits, for those limits extended to the South Sea, and
+conflicted with the bounds of sister colonies. The thing to be defended
+was the outer edge of this expanding society, a changing frontier, one
+that needed designation and re-statement with the changing location of
+the "West."</p>
+
+<p>It will help to illustrate the significance of this new frontier when we
+see that Virginia at about the same time as Massachusetts underwent a
+similar change and attempted to establish frontier towns, or
+"co-habitations," at the "heads," that is the first falls, the vicinity
+of Richmond, Petersburg, etc., of her rivers.<a name="FNanchor_41:1_62" id="FNanchor_41:1_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_41:1_62" class="fnanchor">[41:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Virginia system of "particular plantations" introduced along the
+James at the close of the London Company's activity had furnished a type
+for the New England town. In recompense, at this later day the New
+England town may have furnished a model for Virginia's efforts to create
+frontier settlements by legislation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>[<a href="./images/42.png">42</a>]</span></p><p>An act of March 12, 1694-5, by the General Court of Massachusetts
+enumerated the "Frontier Towns" which the inhabitants were forbidden to
+desert on pain of loss of their lands (if landholders) or of
+imprisonment (if not landholders), unless permission to remove were
+first obtained.<a name="FNanchor_42:1_63" id="FNanchor_42:1_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_42:1_63" class="fnanchor">[42:1]</a> These eleven frontier towns included Wells, York,
+and Kittery on the eastern frontier, and Amesbury, Haverhill, Dunstable,
+Chelmsford, Groton, Lancaster, Marlborough,<a name="FNanchor_42:2_64" id="FNanchor_42:2_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_42:2_64" class="fnanchor">[42:2]</a> and Deerfield. In
+March, 1699-1700, the law was re&euml;nacted with the addition of Brookfield,
+Mendon, and Woodstock, together with seven others, Salisbury,
+Andover,<a name="FNanchor_42:3_65" id="FNanchor_42:3_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_42:3_65" class="fnanchor">[42:3]</a> Billerica, Hatfield, Hadley, Westfield, and Northampton,
+which, "tho' they be not frontiers as those towns first named, yet lye
+more open than many others to an attack of an Enemy."<a name="FNanchor_42:4_66" id="FNanchor_42:4_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_42:4_66" class="fnanchor">[42:4]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1704 the General Court of Connecticut, following
+closely the act of Massachusetts, named as her frontier <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>[<a href="./images/43.png">43</a>]</span>towns, not to
+be deserted, Symsbury, Waterbury, Danbury, Colchester, Windham,
+Mansfield, and Plainfield.</p>
+
+<p>Thus about the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
+eighteenth century there was an officially designated frontier line for
+New England. The line passing through these enumerated towns represents:
+(1) the outskirts of settlement along the eastern coast and up the
+Merrimac and its tributaries,&mdash;a region threatened from the Indian
+country by way of the Winnepesaukee Lake; (2) the end of the ribbon of
+settlement up the Connecticut Valley, menaced by the Canadian Indians by
+way of the Lake Champlain and Winooski River route to the Connecticut;
+(3) boundary towns which marked the edges of that inferior agricultural
+region, where the hard crystalline rocks furnished a later foundation
+for Shays' Rebellion, opposition to the adoption of the Federal
+Constitution, and the abandoned farm; and (4) the isolated intervale of
+Brookfield which lay intermediate between these frontiers.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this New England frontier there was a belt of settlement in New
+York, ascending the Hudson to where Albany and Schenectady served as
+outposts against the Five Nations, who menaced the Mohawk, and against
+the French and the Canadian Indians, who threatened the Hudson by way of
+Lake Champlain and Lake George.<a name="FNanchor_43:1_67" id="FNanchor_43:1_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_43:1_67" class="fnanchor">[43:1]</a> The sinister relations of leading
+citizens of Albany engaged in the fur trade with these Indians, even
+during time of war, tended to protect the Hudson River frontier at the
+expense of the frontier towns of New England.</p>
+
+<p>The common sequence of frontier types (fur trader, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>[<a href="./images/44.png">44</a>]</span>cattle-raising
+pioneer, small primitive farmer, and the farmer engaged in intensive
+varied agriculture to produce a surplus for export) had appeared, though
+confusedly, in New England. The traders and their posts had prepared the
+way for the frontier towns,<a name="FNanchor_44:1_68" id="FNanchor_44:1_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_44:1_68" class="fnanchor">[44:1]</a> and the cattle industry was most
+important to the early farmers.<a name="FNanchor_44:2_69" id="FNanchor_44:2_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_44:2_69" class="fnanchor">[44:2]</a> But the stages succeeded rapidly
+and intermingled. After King Philip's War, while Albany was still in the
+fur-trading stage, the New England frontier towns were rather like mark
+colonies, military-agricultural outposts against the Indian enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the border warfare between Canada and the frontier towns
+furnishes ample material for studying frontier life and institutions;
+but I shall not attempt to deal with the narrative of the wars. The
+palisaded meeting-house square, the fortified isolated garrison houses,
+the massacres and captivities are familiar features of New England's
+history. The Indian was a very real influence upon the mind and morals
+as well as upon the institutions of frontier New England. The occasional
+instances of Puritans returning from captivity to visit the frontier
+towns, Catholic in religion, painted and garbed as Indians and speaking
+the Indian tongue,<a name="FNanchor_44:3_70" id="FNanchor_44:3_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_44:3_70" class="fnanchor">[44:3]</a> and the half-breed children of captive Puritan
+mothers, tell a sensational part of the story; but in the normal, as
+well as in such exceptional relations of the frontier townsmen to the
+Indians, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>[<a href="./images/45.png">45</a>]</span>there are clear evidences of the transforming influence of the
+Indian frontier upon the Puritan type of English colonist.</p>
+
+<p>In 1703-4, for example, the General Court of Massachusetts ordered five
+hundred pairs of snowshoes and an equal number of moccasins for use in
+specified counties "lying Frontier next to the Wilderness."<a name="FNanchor_45:1_71" id="FNanchor_45:1_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_45:1_71" class="fnanchor">[45:1]</a>
+Connecticut in 1704 after referring to her frontier towns and garrisons
+ordered that "said company of English and Indians shall, from time to
+time at the discretion of their chief co[=m]ander, range the woods to
+indevour the discovery of an approaching enemy, and in especiall manner
+from Westfield to Ousatunnuck.<a name="FNanchor_45:2_72" id="FNanchor_45:2_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_45:2_72" class="fnanchor">[45:2]</a>&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. And for the incouragement of our
+forces gone or going against the enemy, this Court will allow out of the
+publick treasurie the su[=m]e of five pounds for every mans scalp of the
+enemy killed in this Colonie."<a name="FNanchor_45:3_73" id="FNanchor_45:3_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_45:3_73" class="fnanchor">[45:3]</a> Massachusetts offered bounties for
+scalps, varying in amount according to whether the scalp was of men, or
+women and youths, and whether it was taken by regular forces under pay,
+volunteers in service, or volunteers without pay.<a name="FNanchor_45:4_74" id="FNanchor_45:4_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_45:4_74" class="fnanchor">[45:4]</a> One of the most
+striking phases of frontier adjustment, was the proposal of the Rev.
+Solomon Stoddard of Northampton in the fall of 1703, urging the use of
+dogs "to hunt Indians as they do Bears." The argument was that the dogs
+would catch many an Indian who would be too light of foot for the
+townsmen, nor was it to be thought of as inhuman; for the Indians "act
+like wolves and are to be dealt with as wolves."<a name="FNanchor_45:5_75" id="FNanchor_45:5_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_45:5_75" class="fnanchor">[45:5]</a> In fact
+Massachusetts passed an act in 1706 for the raising and increasing of
+dogs for the better security of the frontiers, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>[<a href="./images/46.png">46</a>]</span>both Massachusetts
+and Connecticut in 1708 paid money from their treasury for the trailing
+of dogs.<a name="FNanchor_46:1_76" id="FNanchor_46:1_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_46:1_76" class="fnanchor">[46:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus we come to familiar ground: the Massachusetts frontiersman like his
+western successor hated the Indians; the "tawney serpents," of Cotton
+Mather's phrase, were to be hunted down and scalped in accord with law
+and, in at least one instance by the chaplain himself, a Harvard
+graduate, the hero of the Ballad of Pigwacket, who</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8">many Indians slew,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And some of them he scalp'd when bullets round him flew.<a name="FNanchor_46:2_77" id="FNanchor_46:2_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_46:2_77" class="fnanchor">[46:2]</a></span><br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Within the area bounded by the frontier line, were the broken fragments
+of Indians defeated in the era of King Philip's War, restrained within
+reservations, drunken and degenerate survivors, among whom the
+missionaries worked with small results, a vexation to the border
+towns,<a name="FNanchor_46:3_78" id="FNanchor_46:3_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_46:3_78" class="fnanchor">[46:3]</a> as they were in the case of later frontiers. Although, as
+has been said, the frontier towns had scattered garrison houses, and
+palisaded enclosures similar to the neighborhood forts, or stations, of
+Kentucky in the Revolution, and of Indiana and Illinois in the War of
+1812, one difference is particularly noteworthy. In the case of
+frontiersmen who came down from Pennsylvania into the Upland South along
+the eastern edge of the Alleghanies, as well as in the more obvious case
+of the backwoodsmen of Kentucky and Tennessee, the frontier towns were
+too isolated from the main settled regions to allow much military
+protection <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>[<a href="./images/47.png">47</a>]</span>by the older areas. On the New England frontier, because it
+was adjacent to the coast towns, this was not the case, and here, as in
+seventeenth century Virginia, great activity in protecting the frontier
+was evinced by the colonial authorities, and the frontier towns
+themselves called loudly for assistance. This phase of frontier defense
+needs a special study, but at present it is sufficient to recall that
+the colony sent garrisons to the frontier besides using the militia of
+the frontier towns; and that it employed rangers to patrol from garrison
+to garrison.<a name="FNanchor_47:1_79" id="FNanchor_47:1_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_47:1_79" class="fnanchor">[47:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>These were prototypes of the regular army post, and of rangers,
+dragoons, cavalry and mounted police who have carried the remoter
+military frontier forward. It is possible to trace this military cordon
+from New England to the Carolinas early in the eighteenth century, still
+neighboring the coast; by 1840 it ran from Fort Snelling on the upper
+Mississippi through various posts to the Sabine boundary of Texas, and
+so it passed forward until to-day it lies at the edge of Mexico and the
+Pacific Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>A few examples of frontier appeals for garrison aid will help to an
+understanding of the early form of the military frontier. Wells asks,
+June 30, 1689:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1 That yo<sup>r</sup> Hon<sup>rs</sup> will please to send us speedily twenty
+Eight good brisk men that may be serviceable as a guard to us
+whilest we get in our Harvest of Hay &amp; Corn, (we being unable
+to Defend ourselves &amp; to Do our work), &amp; also to Persue &amp;
+destroy the Enemy as occasion may require</p>
+
+<p>2 That these men may be compleatly furnished with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>[<a href="./images/48.png">48</a>]</span>Arms,
+Amunition &amp; Provision, and that upon the Countrys account, it
+being a Generall War.<a name="FNanchor_48:1_80" id="FNanchor_48:1_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_48:1_80" class="fnanchor">[48:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Dunstable, "still weak and unable both to keep our Garrisons and to send
+out men to get hay for our Cattle; without doeing which wee cannot
+subsist," petitioned July 23, 1689, for twenty footmen for a month "to
+scout about the towne while wee get our hay." Otherwise, they say, they
+must be forced to leave.<a name="FNanchor_48:2_81" id="FNanchor_48:2_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_48:2_81" class="fnanchor">[48:2]</a> Still more indicative of this temper is
+the petition of Lancaster, March 11, 1675-6, to the Governor and
+Council: "As God has made you father over us so you will have a father's
+pity to us." They asked a guard of men and aid, without which they must
+leave.<a name="FNanchor_48:3_82" id="FNanchor_48:3_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_48:3_82" class="fnanchor">[48:3]</a> Deerfield pled in 1678 to the General Court, "unlest you
+will be pleased to take us (out of your fatherlike pitty) and Cherish us
+in yo<sup>r</sup> Bosomes we are like Suddainly to breathe out o<sup>r</sup> Last
+Breath."<a name="FNanchor_48:4_83" id="FNanchor_48:4_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_48:4_83" class="fnanchor">[48:4]</a></p>
+
+<p>The perils of the time, the hardships of the frontier towns and
+readiness of this particular frontier to ask appropriations for losses
+and wounds,<a name="FNanchor_48:5_84" id="FNanchor_48:5_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_48:5_84" class="fnanchor">[48:5]</a> are abundantly illustrated in similar petitions from
+other towns. One is tempted at times to attribute the very frank
+self-pity and dependent attitude to a minister's phrasing, and to the
+desire to secure remission of taxes, the latter a frontier trait more
+often associated with riot than with religion in other regions.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of various petitions the following from Groton in 1704 is
+suggestive. Here the minister's hand is probably absent:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1 That wharas by the all dessposing hand of god who orders all
+things in infinit wisdom it is our <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>[<a href="./images/49.png">49</a>]</span>portion to liue In such a
+part of the land which by reson of the enemy Is becom vary
+dangras as by wofull experiants we haue falt both formarly and
+of late to our grat damidg &amp; discoridgment and espashaly this
+last yere hauing lost so many parsons som killed som
+captauated and som remoued and allso much corn &amp; cattell and
+horses &amp; hay wharby wee ar gratly Impouerrished and brought
+uary low &amp; in a uary pore capasity to subsist any longer As
+the barers her of can inform your honors</p>
+
+<p>2 And more then all this our paster mr hobard is &amp; hath been
+for aboue a yere uncapable of desspansing the ordinances of
+god amongst us &amp; we haue advised with th Raurant Elders of our
+nayboring churches and they aduise to hyare another minister
+and to saport mr hobard and to make our adras to your honours
+<ins class="corr" title="original has extraneous opening parenthesis">we</ins> haue but litel laft to pay our deus with being so pore and
+few In numbr ather to town or cuntrey &amp; we being a frantere
+town &amp; lyable to dangor there being no safty in going out nor
+coming in but for a long time we haue got our brad with the
+parel of our liues &amp; allso broght uery low by so grat a charg
+of bilding garisons &amp; fortefycations by ordur of athorety &amp;
+thar is saural of our Inhabitants ramoued out of town &amp; others
+are prouiding to remoue, axcapt somthing be don for our
+Incoridgment for we are so few &amp; so por that we canot pay two
+ministors nathar ar we wiling to liue without any we spand so
+much time in waching and warding that we can doe but litel els
+&amp; truly we haue liued allmost 2 yers more like soulders then
+other wise &amp; accapt <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>[<a href="./images/50.png">50</a>]</span>your honars can find out some bater way
+for our safty and support we cannot uphold as a town ather by
+remitting our tax or tow alow pay for building the sauarall
+forts alowed and ordred by athority or alls to alow the one
+half of our own Inhabitants to be under pay or to grant
+liberty for our remufe Into our naiburing towns to tak cer for
+oursalfs all which if your honors shall se meet to grant you
+will hereby gratly incoridg your humble pateceners to conflect
+with th many trubls we are ensadant unto.<a name="FNanchor_50:1_85" id="FNanchor_50:1_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_50:1_85" class="fnanchor">[50:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Forced together into houses for protection, getting in their crops at
+the peril of their lives, the frontier townsmen felt it a hardship to
+contribute also to the taxes of the province <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>[<a href="./images/51.png">51</a>]</span>while they helped to
+protect the exposed frontier. In addition there were grievances of
+absentee proprietors who paid no town taxes and yet profited by the
+exertions of the frontiersmen; of that I shall speak later.</p>
+
+<p>If we were to trust to these petitions asking favors from the government
+of the colony, we might impute to these early frontiersmen a degree of
+submission to authority unlike that of other frontiersmen,<a name="FNanchor_51:1_86" id="FNanchor_51:1_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_51:1_86" class="fnanchor">[51:1]</a> and
+indeed not wholly warranted by the facts. Reading carefully, we find
+that, however prudently phrased, the petitions are in fact complaints
+against taxation; demands for expenditures by the colony in their
+behalf; criticisms of absentee proprietors; intimations that they may be
+forced to abandon the frontier position so essential to the defense of
+the settled eastern country.</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of military insubordination characteristic of the frontier is
+evident in the accounts of these towns, such as Pynchon's in 1694,
+complaining of the decay of the fortifications at Hatfield, Hadley, and
+Springfield: "the people a little wilful. Inclined to doe when and how
+they please or not at all."<a name="FNanchor_51:2_87" id="FNanchor_51:2_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_51:2_87" class="fnanchor">[51:2]</a> Saltonstall writes from Haverhill
+about the same time regarding his ill success in recruiting: "I will
+never plead for an Haverhill man more," and he begs that some meet
+person be sent "to tell us what we should, may or must do. I have
+laboured in vain: some go this, and that, and the other way at pleasure,
+and do what they list."<a name="FNanchor_51:3_88" id="FNanchor_51:3_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_51:3_88" class="fnanchor">[51:3]</a> This has a familiar ring to the student of
+the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of the later frontier also, the existence of a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>[<a href="./images/52.png">52</a>]</span>common
+danger on the borders of settlement tended to consolidate not only the
+towns of Massachusetts into united action for defense, but also the
+various colonies. The frontier was an incentive to sectional combination
+then as it was to nationalism afterward. When in 1692 Connecticut sent
+soldiers from her own colony to aid the Massachusetts towns on the
+Connecticut River,<a name="FNanchor_52:1_89" id="FNanchor_52:1_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_52:1_89" class="fnanchor">[52:1]</a> she showed a realization that the Deerfield
+people, who were "in a sense in the enemy's Mouth almost," as Pynchon
+wrote, constituted her own frontier<a name="FNanchor_52:2_90" id="FNanchor_52:2_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_52:2_90" class="fnanchor">[52:2]</a> and that the facts of
+geography were more compelling than arbitrary colonial boundaries.
+Thereby she also took a step that helped to break down provincial
+antagonisms. When in 1689 Massachusetts and Connecticut sent agents to
+Albany to join with New York in making presents to the Indians of that
+colony in order to engage their aid against the French,<a name="FNanchor_52:3_91" id="FNanchor_52:3_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_52:3_91" class="fnanchor">[52:3]</a> they
+recognized (as their leaders put it) that Albany was "the hinge" of the
+frontier in this exposed quarter. In thanking Connecticut for the
+assistance furnished in 1690 Livingston said: "I hope your honors do not
+look upon Albany as Albany, but as the frontier of your honor's Colony
+and of all their Majesties countries."<a name="FNanchor_52:4_92" id="FNanchor_52:4_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_52:4_92" class="fnanchor">[52:4]</a></p>
+
+<p>The very essence of the American frontier is that it is the graphic line
+which records the expansive energies of the people behind it, and which
+by the law of its own being continually draws that advance after it to
+new conquests. This is one of the most significant things about New
+England's frontier in these years. That long blood-stained line of the
+eastern frontier which skirted the Maine coast was of great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>[<a href="./images/53.png">53</a>]</span>importance,
+for it imparted a western tone to the life and characteristics of the
+Maine people which endures to this day, and it was one line of advance
+for New England toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence, leading again and
+again to diplomatic negotiations with the powers that held that river.
+The line of the towns that occupied the waters of the Merrimac, tempted
+the province continually into the wilderness of New Hampshire. The
+Connecticut river towns pressed steadily up that stream, along its
+tributaries into the Hoosatonic valleys, and into the valleys between
+the Green Mountains of Vermont. By the end of 1723, the General Court of
+Massachusetts enacted,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>That It will be of Great Service to all the Western Frontiers,
+both in this and the Neighboring Government of Conn., to Build
+a Block House above Northfield, in the most convenient Place
+on the Lands called the Equivilant Lands, &amp; to post in it
+forty Able Men, English &amp; Western Indians, to be employed in
+Scouting at a Good Distance up Conn. River, West River, Otter
+Creek, and sometimes Eastwardly above the Great Manadnuck, for
+the Discovery of the Enemy Coming towards anny of the frontier
+Towns<ins class="corr" title="original has extraneous quotation mark">.</ins><a name="FNanchor_53:1_93" id="FNanchor_53:1_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_53:1_93" class="fnanchor">[53:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The "frontier Towns" were preparing to swarm. It was not long before
+Fort Dummer replaced "the Block House," and the Berkshires and Vermont
+became new frontiers.</p>
+
+<p>The Hudson River likewise was recognized as another line of advance
+pointing the way to Lake Champlain and Montreal, calling out demands
+that protection should be secured by means of an aggressive advance of
+the frontier. <i>Canada</i> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>[<a href="./images/54.png">54</a>]</span><i>delenda est</i> became the rallying cry in New
+England as well as in New York, and combined diplomatic pressure and
+military expeditions followed in the French and Indian wars and in the
+Revolution, in which the children of the Connecticut and Massachusetts
+frontier towns, acclimated to Indian fighting, followed Ethan Allen and
+his fellows to the north.<a name="FNanchor_54:1_94" id="FNanchor_54:1_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_54:1_94" class="fnanchor">[54:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Having touched upon some of the military and expansive tendencies of
+this first official frontier, let us next turn to its social, economic,
+and political aspects. How far was this first frontier a field for the
+investment of eastern capital and for political control by it? Were
+there evidences of antagonism between the frontier and the settled,
+property-holding classes of the coast? Restless democracy, resentfulness
+over taxation and control, and recriminations between the Western
+pioneer and the Eastern capitalist, have been characteristic features of
+other frontiers: were similar phenomena in evidence here? Did
+"Populistic" tendencies appear in this frontier, and were there
+grievances which explained these tendencies?<a name="FNanchor_54:2_95" id="FNanchor_54:2_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_54:2_95" class="fnanchor">[54:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>In such colonies as New York and Virginia the land grants were often
+made to members of the Council and their influential friends, even when
+there were actual settlers already on the grants. In the case of New
+England the land system is usually so described as to give the
+impression that it was based on a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>[<a href="./images/55.png">55</a>]</span>non-commercial policy, creating new
+Puritan towns by free grants of land made in advance to approved
+settlers. This description does not completely fit the case. That there
+was an economic interest on the part of absentee proprietors, and that
+men of political influence with the government were often among the
+grantees seems also to be true. Melville Egleston states the case thus:
+"The court was careful not to authorize new plantations unless they were
+to be in a measure under the influence of men in whom confidence could
+be placed, and commonly acted upon their application."<a name="FNanchor_55:1_96" id="FNanchor_55:1_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_55:1_96" class="fnanchor">[55:1]</a> The
+frontier, as we shall observe later, was not always disposed to see the
+practice in so favorable a light.</p>
+
+<p>New towns seem to have been the result in some cases of the aggregation
+of settlers upon and about a large private grant; more often they
+resulted from settlers in older towns, where the town limits were
+extensive, spreading out to the good lands of the outskirts, beyond easy
+access to the meeting-house, and then asking recognition as a separate
+town. In some cases they may have been due to squatting on unassigned
+lands, or purchasing the Indian title and then asking confirmation. In
+others grants were made in advance of settlement.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1636 the General Court had ordered that none go to new
+plantations without leave of a majority of the magistrates.<a name="FNanchor_55:2_97" id="FNanchor_55:2_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_55:2_97" class="fnanchor">[55:2]</a> This
+made the legal situation clear, but it would be dangerous to conclude
+that it represented the actual situation. In any case there would be a
+necessity for the settlers finally to secure the assent of the Court.
+This could be facilitated by a grant to leading men having political
+influence with the magistrates. The complaints of absentee proprietors
+which find expression in the frontier petitions of the seventeenth and
+early eighteenth century seems to indicate that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>[<a href="./images/56.png">56</a>]</span>this happened. In the
+succeeding years of the eighteenth century the grants to leading men and
+the economic and political motives in the grants are increasingly
+evident. This whole topic should be made the subject of special study.
+What is here offered is merely suggestive of a problem.<a name="FNanchor_56:1_98" id="FNanchor_56:1_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_56:1_98" class="fnanchor">[56:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The frontier settlers criticized the absentee proprietors, who profited
+by the pioneers' expenditure of labor and blood upon their farms, while
+they themselves enjoyed security in an eastern town. A few examples from
+town historians will illustrate this. Among the towns of the Merrimac
+Valley, Salisbury was planted on the basis of a grant to a dozen
+proprietors including such men as Mr. Bradstreet and the younger Dudley,
+only two of whom actually lived and died in Salisbury.<a name="FNanchor_56:2_99" id="FNanchor_56:2_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_56:2_99" class="fnanchor">[56:2]</a> Amesbury
+was set off from Salisbury by division, one half of the signers of the
+agreement signing by mark. Haverhill was first seated in 1641, following
+petitions from Mr. Ward, the Ipswich minister, his son-in-law, Giles
+Firmin, and others. Firmin's letter to Governor Winthrop, in 1640,
+complains that Ipswich had given him his ground in that town on
+condition that he should stay in the town three years or else he could
+not sell it, "whenas others have no business but range from place to
+place on purpose to live upon the countrey."<a name="FNanchor_56:3_100" id="FNanchor_56:3_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_56:3_100" class="fnanchor">[56:3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dunstable's large grant was brought about by a combination of leading
+men who had received grants after the survey of 1652; among such grants
+was one to the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company and another to
+Thomas Brattle of Boston. Apparently it was settled chiefly by others
+than the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>[<a href="./images/57.png">57</a>]</span>original grantees.<a name="FNanchor_57:1_101" id="FNanchor_57:1_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_57:1_101" class="fnanchor">[57:1]</a> Groton voted in 1685 to sue the
+"non-Residenc" to assist in paying the rate, and in 1679 the General
+Court had ordered non-residents having land at Groton to pay rates for
+their lands as residents did.<a name="FNanchor_57:2_102" id="FNanchor_57:2_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_57:2_102" class="fnanchor">[57:2]</a> Lancaster (Nashaway) was granted to
+proprietors including various craftsmen in iron, indicating, perhaps, an
+expectation of iron works, and few of the original proprietors actually
+settled in the town.<a name="FNanchor_57:3_103" id="FNanchor_57:3_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_57:3_103" class="fnanchor">[57:3]</a> The grant of 1653-4 was made by the Court
+after reciting: (1) that it had ordered in 1647 that the "ordering and
+disposeing of the Plantation at Nashaway is wholly in the Courts power";
+(2) "Considering that there is allredy at Nashaway about nine Families
+and that severall both freemen and others intend to goe and setle there,
+some whereof are named in this Petition," etc.</p>
+
+<p>Mendon, begun in 1660 by Braintree people, is a particularly significant
+example. In 1681 the inhabitants petitioned that while they are not "of
+the number of those who dwell in their ceiled houses &amp; yet say the time
+is not come that the Lord's house should be built," yet they have gone
+outside of their strength "unless others who are proprietors as well as
+ourselves, (the price of whose lands is much raysed by our carrying on
+public work &amp; will be nothing worth if we are forced to quit the place)
+doo beare an equal share in Town charges with us. Those who are not yet
+come up to us are a great and far yet abler part of our
+Proprietors&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;."<a name="FNanchor_57:4_104" id="FNanchor_57:4_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_57:4_104" class="fnanchor">[57:4]</a> In 1684 the selectmen inform the General Court
+that one half of the proprietors, two only excepted, are dwelling in
+other places, "Our proprietors, abroad," say they, "object that they see
+no reason why they should pay as much for thayer lands as we do for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>[<a href="./images/58.png">58</a>]</span>our
+Land and stock, which we answer that if their be not a noff of reason
+for it, we are sure there is more than enough of necessity to supply
+that is wanting in reason."<a name="FNanchor_58:1_105" id="FNanchor_58:1_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_58:1_105" class="fnanchor">[58:1]</a> This is the authentic voice of the
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>Deerfield furnishes another type, inasmuch as a considerable part of its
+land was first held by Dedham, to which the grant was made as a
+recompense for the location of the Natick Indian reservation. Dedham
+shares in the town often fell into the hands of speculators, and
+Sheldon, the careful historian of Deerfield, declares that not a single
+Dedham man became a permanent resident of the grant. In 1678 Deerfield
+petitioned the General Court as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>You may be pleased to know that the very principle &amp; best of
+the land; the best for soile; the best for situation; as lying
+in y<sup>e</sup> centre &amp; midle of the town: &amp; as to quantity, nere
+half, belongs unto eight or 9 proprietors each and every of
+which, are never like to come to a settlement amongst us,
+which we have formerly found grievous &amp; doe Judge for the
+future will be found intollerable if not altered. O<sup>r</sup>
+minister, Mr. Mather .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. &amp; we ourselves are much discouraged
+as judging the Plantation will be spoiled if thes proprietors
+may not be begged, or will not be bought up on very easy terms
+outt of their Right&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Butt as long as the maine of the
+plantation Lies in men's hands that can't improve it
+themselves, neither are ever like to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>[<a href="./images/59.png">59</a>]</span>putt such tenants on to
+it as shall be likely to advance the good of y<sup>e</sup> place in
+Civill or sacred Respects; he, ourselves, and all others that
+think of going to it, are much discouraged.<a name="FNanchor_59:1_106" id="FNanchor_59:1_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_59:1_106" class="fnanchor">[59:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Woodstock, later a Connecticut town, was settled under a grant in the
+Nipmuc country made to the town of Roxbury. The settlers, who located
+their farms near the trading post about which the Indians still
+collected, were called the "go-ers," while the "stayers" were those who
+remained in Roxbury, and retained half of the new grant; but it should
+be added that they paid the go-ers a sum of money to facilitate the
+settlement.</p>
+
+<p>This absentee proprietorship and the commercial attitude toward the
+lands of new towns became more evident in succeeding years of the
+eighteenth century. Leicester, for example, was confirmed by the General
+Court in 1713. The twenty shares were divided among twenty-two
+proprietors, including Jeremiah Dummer, Paul Dudley (Attorney-General),
+William Dudley (like Paul a son of the Governor, Joseph Dudley), Thomas
+Hutchinson (father of the later Governor), John Clark (the political
+leader), and Samuel Sewall (son of the Chief Justice). These were all
+men of influence, and none of the proprietors became inhabitants of
+Leicester. The proprietors tried to induce the fifty families, whose
+settlement was one of the conditions on which the grant was made, to
+occupy the eastern half of the township reserving the rest as their
+absolute property.<a name="FNanchor_59:2_107" id="FNanchor_59:2_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_59:2_107" class="fnanchor">[59:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The author of a currency tract, in 1716, entitled "Some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>[<a href="./images/60.png">60</a>]</span>Considerations
+upon the Several Sorts of Banks," remarks that formerly, when land was
+easy to be obtained, good men came over as indentured servants; but now,
+he says, they are runaways, thieves, and disorderly persons. The remedy
+for this, in his opinion, would be to induce servants to come over by
+offering them homes when the terms of indenture should expire.<a name="FNanchor_60:1_108" id="FNanchor_60:1_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_60:1_108" class="fnanchor">[60:1]</a> He
+therefore advocates that townships should be laid out four or five miles
+square in which grants of fifty or sixty acres could be made to
+servants.<a name="FNanchor_60:2_109" id="FNanchor_60:2_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_60:2_109" class="fnanchor">[60:2]</a> Concern over the increase of negro slaves in
+Massachusetts seems to have been the reason for this proposal. It
+indicates that the current practice in disposing of the lands did not
+provide for the poorer people.</p>
+
+<p>But Massachusetts did not follow this suggestion of a homestead policy.
+On the contrary, the desire to locate towns to create continuous lines
+of settlement along the roads between the disconnected frontiers and to
+protect boundary claims by granting tiers of towns in the disputed
+tract, as well, no doubt, as pressure from financial interests, led the
+General Court between 1715 and 1762 to dispose of the remaining public
+domain of Massachusetts under conditions that made speculation and
+colonization by capitalists important factors.<a name="FNanchor_60:3_110" id="FNanchor_60:3_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_60:3_110" class="fnanchor">[60:3]</a> When in 1762
+Massachusetts sold a group of townships in the Berkshires to the highest
+bidders (by whole townships),<a name="FNanchor_60:4_111" id="FNanchor_60:4_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_60:4_111" class="fnanchor">[60:4]</a> the transfer from the
+social-religious to the economic conception <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>[<a href="./images/61.png">61</a>]</span>was complete, and the
+frontier was deeply influenced by the change to "land mongering."</p>
+
+<p>In one respect, however, there was an increasing recognition of the
+religious and social element in settling the frontier, due in part, no
+doubt, to a desire to provide for the preservation of eastern ideals and
+influences in the West. Provisions for reserving lands within the
+granted townships for the support of an approved minister, and for
+schools, appear in the seventeenth century and become a common feature
+of the grants for frontier towns in the eighteenth.<a name="FNanchor_61:1_112" id="FNanchor_61:1_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_61:1_112" class="fnanchor">[61:1]</a> This practice
+with respect to the New England frontier became the foundation for the
+system of grants of land from the public domain for the support of
+common schools and state universities by the federal government from its
+beginning, and has been profoundly influential in later Western States.</p>
+
+<p>Another ground for discontent over land questions was furnished by the
+system of granting lands within the town by the commoners. The principle
+which in many, if not all, cases guided the proprietors in distributing
+the town lots is familiar and is well stated in the Lancaster town
+records (1653):</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>And, whereas Lotts are Now Laid out for the most part Equally
+to Rich and poore, Partly to keepe the Towne from Scatering to
+farr, and partly out of Charitie and Respect to men of meaner
+estate, yet that Equallitie (which is the rule of God) may be
+observed, we Covenant and Agree, That in a second Devition and
+so through all other Devitions of Land the mater shall be
+drawne as neere to <i>equallitie according to mens estates</i> as
+wee <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>[<a href="./images/62.png">62</a>]</span>are able to doe, That he which hath now more then his
+estate Deserveth in home Lotts and entervale Lotts shall haue
+so much Less: and he that hath Less then his estate Deserveth
+shall haue so much more.<a name="FNanchor_62:1_113" id="FNanchor_62:1_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_62:1_113" class="fnanchor">[62:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>This peculiar doctrine of "equality" had early in the history of the
+colony created discontents. Winthrop explained the principle which
+governed himself and his colleagues in the case of the Boston committee
+of 1634 by saying that their divisions were arranged "partly to prevent
+the neglect of trades." This is a pregnant idea; it underlay much of the
+later opposition of New England as a manufacturing section to the free
+homestead or cheap land policy, demanded by the West and by the labor
+party, in the national public domain. The migration of labor to free
+lands meant that higher wages must be paid to those who remained. The
+use of the town lands by the established classes to promote an approved
+form of society naturally must have had some effect on migration.</p>
+
+<p>But a more effective source of disputes was with respect to the relation
+of the town proprietors to the public domain of the town in contrast
+with the non-proprietors as a class. The need of keeping the town
+meeting and the proprietors' meeting separate in the old towns in
+earlier years was not so great as it was when the new-comers became
+numerous. In an increasing degree these new-comers were either not
+granted lands at all, or were not admitted to the body of proprietors
+with rights in the possession of the undivided town lands. Contentions
+on the part of the town meeting that it had the right of dealing with
+the town lands occasionally appear, significantly, in the frontier towns
+of Haverhill, Massachusetts, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>[<a href="./images/63.png">63</a>]</span>Simsbury, Connecticut, and in the towns of
+the Connecticut Valley.<a name="FNanchor_63:1_114" id="FNanchor_63:1_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_63:1_114" class="fnanchor">[63:1]</a> Jonathan Edwards, in 1751, declared that
+there had been in Northampton for forty or fifty years "two parties
+somewhat like the court and country parties of England.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. The first
+party embraced the great proprietors of land, and the parties concerned
+about land and other matters."<a name="FNanchor_63:2_115" id="FNanchor_63:2_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_63:2_115" class="fnanchor">[63:2]</a> The tendency to divide up the
+common lands among the proprietors in individual possession did not
+become marked until the eighteenth century; but the exclusion of some
+from possession of the town lands and the "equality" in allotment
+favoring men with already large estates must have attracted ambitious
+men who were not of the favored class to join in the movement to new
+towns. Religious dissensions would combine to make frontier society as
+it formed early in the eighteenth century more and more democratic,
+dissatisfied with the existing order, and less respectful of authority.
+We shall not understand the relative radicalism of parts of the
+Berkshires, Vermont and interior New Hampshire without enquiry into the
+degree in which the control over the lands by a proprietary monopoly
+affected the men who settled on the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The final aspect of this frontier to be examined, is the attitude of the
+conservatives of the older sections towards this movement of westward
+advance. President Dwight in the era of the War of 1812 was very
+critical of the "foresters," but saw in such a movement a safety valve
+to the institutions of New England by allowing the escape of the
+explosive advocates of "Innovation."<a name="FNanchor_63:3_116" id="FNanchor_63:3_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_63:3_116" class="fnanchor">[63:3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cotton Mather is perhaps not a typical representative of the
+conservative sentiment at the close of the seventeenth century, but his
+writings may partly reflect the attitude of Boston Bay <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>[<a href="./images/64.png">64</a>]</span>toward New
+England's first Western frontier. Writing in 1694 of "Wonderful Passages
+which have Occurred, First in the Protections and then in the
+Afflictions of New England," he says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>One while the Enclosing of <i>Commons</i> hath made Neighbours,
+that should have been like Sheep, to <i>Bite and devour one
+another</i>.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Again, Do our <i>Old</i> People, any of them <i>Go Out</i>
+from the Institutions of God, Swarming into New Settlements,
+where they and their Untaught Families are like to <i>Perish for
+Lack of Vision</i>? They that have done so, heretofore, have to
+their Cost found, that they were got unto the <i>Wrong side of
+the Hedge</i>, in their doing so. Think, here <i>Should this be
+done any more?</i> We read of Balaam, in Num. 22, 23. He was to
+his Damage, <i>driven to the</i> Wall, when he would needs make an
+unlawful Salley forth after the <i>Gain</i> of this World.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Why,
+when men, for the Sake of Earthly Gain, would be <i>going out</i>
+into the <i>Warm</i> Sun, they drive <i>Through the Wall</i>, and the
+<i>Angel of the Lord</i> becomes their Enemy.</p></div>
+
+<p>In his essay on "Frontiers Well-Defended" (1707) Mather assures the
+pioneers that they "dwell in a Hatsarmaneth," a place of "tawney
+serpents," are "inhabitants of the Valley of Achor," and are "the Poor
+of this World." There may be significance in his assertion: "It is
+remarkable to see that when the Unchurched Villages, have been so many
+of them, <i>utterly broken up</i>, in the <i>War</i>, that has been upon us, those
+that have had <i>Churches</i> regularly formed in them, have generally been
+under a more <i>sensible Protection</i> of Heaven." "Sirs," he says, "a
+<i>Church-State</i> well form'd may fortify you wonderfully!" He recommends
+abstention from profane swearing, furious <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>[<a href="./images/65.png">65</a>]</span>cursing, Sabbath breaking,
+unchastity, dishonesty, robbing of God by defrauding the ministers of
+their dues, drunkenness, and revels and he reminds them that even the
+Indians have family prayers! Like his successors who solicited
+missionary contributions for the salvation of the frontier in the
+Mississippi Valley during the forties of the nineteenth century, this
+early spokesman for New England laid stress upon teaching anti-popery,
+particularly in view of the captivity that might await them.</p>
+
+<p>In summing up, we find many of the traits of later frontiers in this
+early prototype, the Massachusetts frontier. It lies at the edge of the
+Indian country and tends to advance. It calls out militant qualities and
+reveals the imprint of wilderness conditions upon the psychology and
+morals as well as upon the institutions of the people. It demands common
+defense and thus becomes a factor for consolidation. It is built on the
+basis of a preliminary fur trade, and is settled by the combined and
+sometimes antagonistic forces of eastern men of property (the absentee
+proprietors) and the democratic pioneers. The East attempted to regulate
+and control it. Individualistic and democratic tendencies were
+emphasized both by the wilderness conditions and, probably, by the prior
+contentions between the proprietors and non-proprietors of the towns
+from which settlers moved to the frontier. Removal away from the control
+of the customary usages of the older communities and from the
+conservative influence of the body of the clergy, increased the
+innovating tendency. Finally the towns were regarded by at least one
+prominent representative of the established order in the East, as an
+undesirable place for the re-location of the pillars of society. The
+temptation to look upon the frontier as a field for investment was
+viewed by the clergy as a danger to the "institutions of God." The
+frontier was "the Wrong side of the Hedge."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>[<a href="./images/66.png">66</a>]</span></p><p>But to this "wrong side of the hedge" New England men continued to
+migrate. The frontier towns of 1695 were hardly more than suburbs of
+Boston. The frontier of a century later included New England's colonies
+in Vermont, Western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the Connecticut
+Reserve, and the Ohio Company's settlement in the Old Northwest
+Territory. By the time of the Civil War the frontier towns of New
+England had occupied the great prairie zone of the Middle West and were
+even planted in Mormon Utah and in parts of the Pacific Coast. New
+England's sons had become the organizers of a Greater New England in the
+West, captains of industry, political leaders, founders of educational
+systems, and prophets of religion, in a section that was to influence
+the ideals and shape the destiny of the nation in ways to which the eyes
+of men like Cotton Mather were sealed.<a name="FNanchor_66:1_117" id="FNanchor_66:1_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_66:1_117" class="fnanchor">[66:1]</a></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39:1_55" id="Footnote_39:1_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39:1_55"><span class="label">[39:1]</span></a> Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts,
+April, 1914, xvii, 250-271. Reprinted with permission of the Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39:2_56" id="Footnote_39:2_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39:2_56"><span class="label">[39:2]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, xxxvi, p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40:1_57" id="Footnote_40:1_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40:1_57"><span class="label">[40:1]</span></a> Massachusetts Colony Records, ii, p. 122.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40:2_58" id="Footnote_40:2_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40:2_58"><span class="label">[40:2]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. iv, pt. ii, p. 439; Massachusetts
+Archives, cvii, pp. 160-161.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40:3_59" id="Footnote_40:3_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40:3_59"><span class="label">[40:3]</span></a> See, for example, Massachusetts Colony Records, v, 79;
+Green, "Groton During the Indian Wars," p. 39; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion
+of New England," p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40:4_60" id="Footnote_40:4_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40:4_60"><span class="label">[40:4]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, pp. 174-176.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40:5_61" id="Footnote_40:5_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40:5_61"><span class="label">[40:5]</span></a> Osgood, "American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century,<ins class="corr" title="quotation mark missing in original">"</ins>
+i, p. 501, and citations: cf. Publications of this Society, xii, pp.
+38-39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41:1_62" id="Footnote_41:1_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41:1_62"><span class="label">[41:1]</span></a> Hening, "Statutes at Large," iii, p. 204: cf. 1
+Massachusetts Historical Collections, v, p. 129, for influence of the
+example of the New England town. On Virginia frontier conditions see
+Alvord and Bidgood, "First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region,"
+pp. 23-34, 93-95. P. A. Bruce, "Institutional History of Virginia," ii,
+p. 97, discusses frontier defense in the seventeenth century. [See
+<a href="#chapter_iii">chapter iii</a>, <i>post</i>.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42:1_63" id="Footnote_42:1_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42:1_63"><span class="label">[42:1]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, lxx, 240; Massachusetts Province
+Laws, i, pp. 194, 293.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42:2_64" id="Footnote_42:2_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42:2_64"><span class="label">[42:2]</span></a> In a petition (read March 3, 1692-3) of settlers "in
+Sundry Farms granted in those Remote Lands Scituate and Lyeing between
+Sudbury, Concord, Marlbury, Natick and Sherburne &amp; Westerly is the
+Wilderness," the petitioners ask easement of taxes and extension into
+the Natick region in order to have means to provide for the worship of
+God, and say:
+</p><p>
+"Wee are not Ignorant that by reason of the present Distressed Condition
+of those that dwell in these Frontier Towns, divers are meditating to
+remove themselves into such places where they have not hitherto been
+conserned in the present Warr and desolation thereby made, as also that
+thereby they may be freed from that great burthen of public taxes
+necessarily accruing thereby, Some haveing already removed themselves.
+Butt knowing for our parts that wee cannot run from the hand of a
+Jealous God, doe account it our duty to take such Measures as may inable
+us to the performance of that duty wee owe to God, the King, &amp; our
+Familyes" (Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 1).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42:3_65" id="Footnote_42:3_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42:3_65"><span class="label">[42:3]</span></a> In a petition of 1658 Andover speaks of itself as "a
+remote upland plantation" (Massachusetts Archives, cxii, p. 99).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42:4_66" id="Footnote_42:4_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42:4_66"><span class="label">[42:4]</span></a> Massachusetts Province Laws, i, p. 402.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43:1_67" id="Footnote_43:1_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43:1_67"><span class="label">[43:1]</span></a> Convenient maps of settlement, 1660-1700, are in E.
+Channing, "History of the United States," i, pp. 510-511, ii, end;
+Avery, "History of the United States and its People," ii, p. 398. A
+useful contemporaneous map for conditions at the close of King Philip's
+War is Hubbard's map of New England in his "Narrative" published in
+Boston, 1677. See also L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New England," pp.
+56-57, 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44:1_68" id="Footnote_44:1_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44:1_68"><span class="label">[44:1]</span></a> Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England,"
+pp. 90, 95, 129-132; F. J. Turner, "Indian Trade in Wisconsin," p. 13;
+McIlwain, "Wraxall's Abridgement," introduction; the town histories
+abound in evidence of the significance of the early Indian traders'
+posts, transition to Indian land cessions, and then to town grants.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44:2_69" id="Footnote_44:2_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44:2_69"><span class="label">[44:2]</span></a> Weeden, <i>loc. cit.</i>, pp. 64-67; M. Egleston, "New
+England Land System," pp. 31-32; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 37, 206,
+267-268; Connecticut Colonial Records, vii, p. 111, illustrations of
+cattle brands in 1727.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44:3_70" id="Footnote_44:3_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44:3_70"><span class="label">[44:3]</span></a> Hutchinson, "History" (1795), ii, p. 129, note, relates
+such a case of a Groton man; see also Parkman, "Half-Century," vol. i,
+ch. iv, citing Maurault, "Histoire des Abenakis," p. 377.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45:1_71" id="Footnote_45:1_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45:1_71"><span class="label">[45:1]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, pp. 4, 84, 85, 87, 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45:2_72" id="Footnote_45:2_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45:2_72"><span class="label">[45:2]</span></a> Hoosatonic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45:3_73" id="Footnote_45:3_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45:3_73"><span class="label">[45:3]</span></a> Connecticut Records, iv, pp. 463, 464.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45:4_74" id="Footnote_45:4_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45:4_74"><span class="label">[45:4]</span></a> Massachusetts Colony Records, v, p. 72; Massachusetts
+Province Laws, i, pp. 176, 211, 292, 558, 594, 600; Massachusetts
+Archives, lxxi, pp. 7, 89, 102. Cf. Publications of this Society, vii,
+275-278.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45:5_75" id="Footnote_45:5_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45:5_75"><span class="label">[45:5]</span></a> Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 290.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46:1_76" id="Footnote_46:1_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46:1_76"><span class="label">[46:1]</span></a> Judd, "Hadley," p. 272; 4 Massachusetts Historical
+Collections, ii, p. 235.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46:2_77" id="Footnote_46:2_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46:2_77"><span class="label">[46:2]</span></a> Farmer and Moore, "Collections," iii, p. 64. The
+frontier woman of the farther west found no more extreme representative
+than Hannah Dustan of Haverhill, with her trophy of ten scalps, for
+which she received a bounty of &pound;50 (Parkman, "Frontenac," 1898, p. 407,
+note).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46:3_78" id="Footnote_46:3_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46:3_78"><span class="label">[46:3]</span></a> For illustrations of resentment against those who
+protected the Christian Indians, see F. W. Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp.
+145-155.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47:1_79" id="Footnote_47:1_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47:1_79"><span class="label">[47:1]</span></a> For example, Massachusetts Archives, lxx, p. 261;
+Bailey, "Andover," p. 179; Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 63;
+Proceedings Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp. 504-519.
+Parkman, "Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390, and "Half-Century of
+Conflict" (Boston, 1898), i, p. 55, sketches the frontier defense.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48:1_80" id="Footnote_48:1_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48:1_80"><span class="label">[48:1]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, cvii, p. 155.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48:2_81" id="Footnote_48:2_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48:2_81"><span class="label">[48:2]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, cvii, p. 230; cf. 230 a.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48:3_82" id="Footnote_48:3_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48:3_82"><span class="label">[48:3]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, p. 156.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48:4_83" id="Footnote_48:4_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48:4_83"><span class="label">[48:4]</span></a> Sheldon, "Deerfield,<ins class="corr" title="quotation mark missing in original">"</ins> i, p. 189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48:5_84" id="Footnote_48:5_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48:5_84"><span class="label">[48:5]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, 46-48, 131, 134, 135 <i>et
+passim</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50:1_85" id="Footnote_50:1_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50:1_85"><span class="label">[50:1]</span></a> Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, p. 107: cf. Metcalf,
+"Mendon," p. 130; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 288. The frontier of
+Virginia in 1755 and 1774 showed similar conditions: see, for example,
+the citations to Washington's Writings in Thwaites, "France in America,"
+pp. 193-195; and frontier letters in Thwaites and Kellogg, "Dunmore's
+War," pp. 227, 228 <i>et passim</i>. The following petition to Governor Gooch
+of Virginia, dated July 30, 1742, affords a basis for comparison with a
+Scotch-Irish frontier:
+</p><p>
+We your pettionours humbly sheweth that we your Honours Loly and
+Dutifull Subganckes hath ventred our Lives &amp; all that we have In
+settling ye back parts of Virginia which was a veri Great Hassirt &amp;
+Dengrous, for it is the Hathins [heathens] Road to ware, which has
+proved hortfull to severil of ous that were ye first settlers of these
+back woods &amp; wee your Honibill pettionors some time a goo petitioned
+your Honnour for to have Commisioned men amungst ous which we your
+Honnours most Duttifull subjects thought properist men &amp; men that had
+Hart and Curidg to hed us yn time of [war] &amp; to defend your Contray &amp;
+your poor Sogbacks Intrist from ye voilince of ye Haithen&mdash;But yet agine
+we Humbly persume to poot your Honnour yn mind of our Great want of them
+in hopes that your Honner will Grant a Captins' Commission to John
+McDowell, with follring ofishers, and your Honnours' Complyence in this
+will be Great settisfiction to your most Duttifull and Humbil
+pettioners&mdash;and we as in Duty bond shall Ever pray .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. (Calendar of
+Virginia State Papers, i, p. 235).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51:1_86" id="Footnote_51:1_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51:1_86"><span class="label">[51:1]</span></a> But there is a note of deference in Southern frontier
+petitions to the Continental Congress&mdash;to be discounted, however, by the
+remoteness of that body. See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the
+Revolutionary Era" (<i>American Historical Review</i>, i, pp. 70, 251). The
+demand for remission of taxes is a common feature of the petitions there
+quoted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51:2_87" id="Footnote_51:2_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51:2_87"><span class="label">[51:2]</span></a> Proceedings Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp.
+506 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51:3_88" id="Footnote_51:3_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51:3_88"><span class="label">[51:3]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xliii, p. 518.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52:1_89" id="Footnote_52:1_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52:1_89"><span class="label">[52:1]</span></a> Connecticut Colonial Records, iv, p. 67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52:2_90" id="Footnote_52:2_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52:2_90"><span class="label">[52:2]</span></a> In a petition of February 22, 1693-4, Deerfield calls
+itself the "most Utmost Frontere Town in the County of West Hampshire"
+(Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 57 a).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52:3_91" id="Footnote_52:3_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52:3_91"><span class="label">[52:3]</span></a> Judd, "Hadley," p. 249.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52:4_92" id="Footnote_52:4_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52:4_92"><span class="label">[52:4]</span></a> W. D. Schuyler-Lighthall, "Glorious Enterprise," p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53:1_93" id="Footnote_53:1_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53:1_93"><span class="label">[53:1]</span></a> Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 405.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54:1_94" id="Footnote_54:1_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54:1_94"><span class="label">[54:1]</span></a> "I want to have your warriours come and see me," wrote
+Allen to the Indians of Canada in 1775, "and help me fight the King's
+Regular Troops. You know they stand all close together, rank and file,
+and my men fight so as Indians do, and I want your warriours to join
+with me and my warriours, like brothers, and ambush the Regulars: if you
+will, I will give you money, blankets, tomahawks, knives, paint, and any
+thing that there is in the army, just like brothers; and I will go with
+you into the woods to scout; and my men and your men will sleep
+together, and eat and drink together, and fight Regulars, because they
+first killed our brothers" (American Archives, 4th Series, ii, p. 714).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54:2_95" id="Footnote_54:2_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54:2_95"><span class="label">[54:2]</span></a> Compare A. McF. Davis, "The Shays Rebellion a Political
+Aftermath" (Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, xxi, pp. 58, 62,
+75-79).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55:1_96" id="Footnote_55:1_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55:1_96"><span class="label">[55:1]</span></a> "Land System of the New England Colonies," p. 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55:2_97" id="Footnote_55:2_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55:2_97"><span class="label">[55:2]</span></a> Massachusetts Colony Records, i, p. 167.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56:1_98" id="Footnote_56:1_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56:1_98"><span class="label">[56:1]</span></a> Compare Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New
+England," i, pp. 270-271; Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp. 106-161; and the
+histories of Worcester for illustrations of how the various factors
+noted could be combined in a single town.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56:2_99" id="Footnote_56:2_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56:2_99"><span class="label">[56:2]</span></a> F. Merrill, "Amesbury," pp. 5, 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56:3_100" id="Footnote_56:3_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56:3_100"><span class="label">[56:3]</span></a> B. L. Mirick, "Haverhill," pp. 9, 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57:1_101" id="Footnote_57:1_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57:1_101"><span class="label">[57:1]</span></a> Green, "Early Records of Groton," pp. 49, 70, 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57:2_102" id="Footnote_57:2_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57:2_102"><span class="label">[57:2]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57:3_103" id="Footnote_57:3_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57:3_103"><span class="label">[57:3]</span></a> Worcester County History, i, pp. 2, 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57:4_104" id="Footnote_57:4_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57:4_104"><span class="label">[57:4]</span></a> J. G. Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58:1_105" id="Footnote_58:1_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58:1_105"><span class="label">[58:1]</span></a> P. 96. Compare the Kentucky petition of 1780 given in
+Roosevelt, "Winning of the West," ii, p. 398, and the letter from that
+frontier cited in Turner, "Western State-Making" (<i>American Historical
+Review</i>, i, p. 262), attacking the Virginia "Nabobs," who hold absentee
+land titles. "Let the <i>great men</i>," say they, "whom the land belongs to
+come and defend it."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59:1_106" id="Footnote_59:1_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59:1_106"><span class="label">[59:1]</span></a> Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 188-189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59:2_107" id="Footnote_59:2_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59:2_107"><span class="label">[59:2]</span></a> These facts are stated on the authority of E. Washburn,
+"Leicester," pp. 5-15: compare Major Stephen Sewall to Jeremiah Dummer,
+1717, quoted in Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England,"
+ii, p. 505, note 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60:1_108" id="Footnote_60:1_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60:1_108"><span class="label">[60:1]</span></a> Compare the Virginia system, Bruce, "Economic History of
+Virginia in the Seventeenth Century," ii, pp. 42, 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60:2_109" id="Footnote_60:2_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60:2_109"><span class="label">[60:2]</span></a> For this item I am indebted to our associate, Mr. Andrew
+McF. Davis: see his "Colonial Currency Reprints," i, pp. 335-349.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60:3_110" id="Footnote_60:3_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60:3_110"><span class="label">[60:3]</span></a> Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts" (1768), ii, pp.
+331, 332, has an instructive comment. A. C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents
+of Our National Land System," p. 84; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New
+England," pp. 82 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60:4_111" id="Footnote_60:4_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60:4_111"><span class="label">[60:4]</span></a> J. G. Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61:1_112" id="Footnote_61:1_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61:1_112"><span class="label">[61:1]</span></a> Jos. Schafer, "Origin of the System of Land Grants for
+Education," pp. 25-33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62:1_113" id="Footnote_62:1_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62:1_113"><span class="label">[62:1]</span></a> H. D. Hurd (ed.), "History of Worcester County," i, p.
+6. The italics are mine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63:1_114" id="Footnote_63:1_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63:1_114"><span class="label">[63:1]</span></a> Egleston, "Land System of the New England Colonies," pp.
+39-41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63:2_115" id="Footnote_63:2_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63:2_115"><span class="label">[63:2]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63:3_116" id="Footnote_63:3_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63:3_116"><span class="label">[63:3]</span></a> T. Dwight, "Travels" (1821), ii, pp. 459-463.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66:1_117" id="Footnote_66:1_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66:1_117"><span class="label">[66:1]</span></a> [See F. J. Turner, "Greater New England in the Middle of
+the Nineteenth Century," in American Antiquarian Society "Proceedings,"
+1920.]</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>[<a href="./images/67.png">67</a>]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="chapter_iii" id="chapter_iii"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Old West</span><a name="FNanchor_67:1_118" id="FNanchor_67:1_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_67:1_118" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[67:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>It is not the oldest West with which this chapter deals. The oldest West
+was the Atlantic coast. Roughly speaking, it took a century of Indian
+fighting and forest felling for the colonial settlements to expand into
+the interior to a distance of about a hundred miles from the coast.
+Indeed, some stretches were hardly touched in that period. This conquest
+of the nearest wilderness in the course of the seventeenth century and
+in the early years of the eighteenth, gave control of the maritime
+section of the nation and made way for the new movement of westward
+expansion which I propose to discuss.</p>
+
+<p>In his "Winning of the West," Roosevelt dealt chiefly with the region
+beyond the Alleghanies, and with the period of the later eighteenth
+century, although he prefaced his account with an excellent chapter
+describing the backwoodsmen of the Alleghanies and their social
+conditions from 1769 to 1774. It is important to notice, however, that
+he is concerned with a backwoods society already formed; that he ignores
+the New England frontier and its part in the winning of the West, and
+does not recognize that there was a West to be won between New England
+and the Great Lakes. In short, he is interested in the winning of the
+West beyond the Alleghanies by the southern half of the frontier folk.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>[<a href="./images/68.png">68</a>]</span></p><p>There is, then, a western area intermediate between the coastal
+colonial settlements of the seventeenth century and the trans-Alleghany
+settlements of the latter portion of the eighteenth century. This
+section I propose to isolate and discuss under the name of the Old West,
+and in the period from about 1676 to 1763. It includes the back country
+of New England, the Mohawk Valley, the Great Valley of Pennsylvania, the
+Shenandoah Valley, and the Piedmont&mdash;that is, the interior or upland
+portion of the South, lying between the Alleghanies and the head of
+navigation of the Atlantic rivers marked by the "fall line."<a name="FNanchor_68:1_119" id="FNanchor_68:1_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_68:1_119" class="fnanchor">[68:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this region, and in these years, are to be found the beginnings of
+much that is characteristic in Western society, for the Atlantic coast
+was in such close touch with Europe that its frontier experience was
+soon counteracted, and it developed along other lines. It is unfortunate
+that the colonial back country appealed so long to historians solely in
+connection with the colonial wars, for the development of its society,
+its institutions and mental attitude all need study. Its history has
+been dealt with in separate fragments, by states, or towns, or in
+discussions of special phases, such as German and Scotch-Irish
+immigration. The Old West as a whole can be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>[<a href="./images/69.png">69</a>]</span>appreciated only by
+obliterating the state boundaries which conceal its unity, by
+correlating the special and fragmentary studies, and by filling the gaps
+in the material for understanding the formation of its society. The
+present paper is rather a reconnaissance than a conquest of the field, a
+program for study of the Old West rather than an exposition of it.</p>
+
+<p>The end of the period proposed may be placed about 1763, and the
+beginning between 1676 and 1700. The termination of the period is marked
+by the Peace of Paris in 1763, and the royal proclamation of that year
+forbidding settlement beyond the Alleghanies. By this time the
+settlement of the Old West was fairly accomplished, and new advances
+were soon made into the "Western Waters" beyond the mountains and into
+the interior of Vermont and New Hampshire. The isolation of the
+transmontane settlements, and the special conditions and doctrines of
+the Revolutionary era during which they were formed, make a natural
+distinction between the period of which I am to speak and the later
+extension of the West.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of the period is necessarily an indeterminate date, owing
+to the different times of colonizing the coastal areas which served as
+bases of operations in the westward advance. The most active movements
+into the Old West occurred after 1730. But in 1676 New England, having
+closed the exhausting struggle with the Indians, known as King Philip's
+War, could regard her established settlements as secure, and go on to
+complete her possession of the interior. This she did in the midst of
+conflicts with the exterior Indian tribes which invaded her frontiers
+from New York and Canada during the French and Indian wars from 1690 to
+1760, and under frontier conditions different from the conditions of the
+earlier Puritan colonization. In 1676, Virginia was passing through
+Indian fighting&mdash;keenest along the fall line, where the frontier
+lay&mdash;and also experiencing a social revolt which resulted in the defeat
+of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>[<a href="./images/70.png">70</a>]</span>democratic forces that sought to stay the progress of
+aristocratic control in the colony.<a name="FNanchor_70:1_120" id="FNanchor_70:1_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_70:1_120" class="fnanchor">[70:1]</a> The date marks the end of the
+period when the Virginia tidewater could itself be regarded as a
+frontier region, and consequently the beginning of a more special
+interest in the interior.</p>
+
+<p>Let us first examine the northern part of the movement into the back
+country. The expansion of New England into the vacant spaces of its own
+section, in the period we have chosen for discussion, resulted in the
+formation of an interior society which contrasted in many ways with that
+of the coast, and which has a special significance in Western history,
+in that it was this interior New England people who settled the Greater
+New England in central and western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the
+Connecticut Reserve of Ohio, and much of the prairie areas of the Old
+Northwest. It is important to realize that the Old West included
+interior New England.</p>
+
+<p>The situation in New England at the close of the seventeenth century is
+indicated by the Massachusetts act of 1694 enumerating eleven towns,
+then on the frontier and exposed to raids, none of which might be
+voluntarily deserted without leave of the governor and council, on
+penalty of loss of their freeholds by the landowners, or fine of other
+inhabitants.<a name="FNanchor_70:2_121" id="FNanchor_70:2_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_70:2_121" class="fnanchor">[70:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus these frontier settlers were made substantially garrisons, or "mark
+colonies." Crowded into the palisades of the town, and obliged in spite
+of their poverty to bear the brunt of Indian attack, their hardships are
+illustrated in the manly but pathetic letters of Deerfield's minister,
+Mr. Williams,<a name="FNanchor_70:3_122" id="FNanchor_70:3_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_70:3_122" class="fnanchor">[70:3]</a> in 1704. Parkman succinctly describes the general
+conditions in these words:<a name="FNanchor_70:4_123" id="FNanchor_70:4_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_70:4_123" class="fnanchor">[70:4]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>[<a href="./images/71.png">71</a>]</span></p><div class="blockquot"><p>The exposed frontier of New England was between two and three
+hundred miles long, and consisted of farms and hamlets loosely
+scattered through an almost impervious forest.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Even in
+so-called villages the houses were far apart, because, except
+on the seashore, the people lived by farming. Such as were
+able to do so fenced their dwellings with palisades, or built
+them of solid timber, with loopholes, a projecting upper story
+like a block house, and sometimes a flanker at one or more of
+the corners. In the more considerable settlements the largest
+of these fortified houses was occupied in time of danger by
+armed men and served as a place of refuge for the neighbors.</p></div>
+
+<p>Into these places, in days of alarm, were crowded the outlying settlers,
+just as was the case in later times in the Kentucky "stations."</p>
+
+<p>In spite of such frontier conditions, the outlying towns continued to
+multiply. Between 1720 and the middle of the century, settlement crept
+up the Housatonic and its lateral valley into the Berkshires. About 1720
+Litchfield was established; in 1725, Sheffield; in 1730, Great
+Barrington; and in 1735 a road was cut and towns soon established
+between Westfield and these Housatonic settlements, thus uniting them
+with the older extensions along the Connecticut and its tributaries.</p>
+
+<p>In this period, scattered and sometimes unwelcome Scotch-Irish
+settlements were established, such as that at Londonderry, New
+Hampshire, and in the Berkshires, as well as in the region <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>[<a href="./images/72.png">72</a>]</span>won in King
+Philip's War from the Nipmucks, whither there came also Huguenots.<a name="FNanchor_72:1_124" id="FNanchor_72:1_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_72:1_124" class="fnanchor">[72:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>In King George's War, the Connecticut River settlers found their
+frontier protection in such rude stockades as those at the sites of
+Keene, of Charlestown, New Hampshire (Number Four), Fort Shirley at the
+head of Deerfield River (Heath), and Fort Pelham (Rowe); while Fort
+Massachusetts (Adams) guarded the Hoosac gateway to the Hoosatonic
+Valley. These frontier garrisons and the self-defense of the
+backwoodsmen of New England are well portrayed in the pages of
+Parkman.<a name="FNanchor_72:2_125" id="FNanchor_72:2_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_72:2_125" class="fnanchor">[72:2]</a> At the close of the war, settlement again expanded into
+the Berkshires, where Lennox, West Hoosac (Williamstown), and Pittsfield
+were established in the middle of the century. Checked by the fighting
+in the last French and Indian War, the frontier went forward after the
+Peace of Paris (1763) at an exceptional rate, especially into Vermont
+and interior New Hampshire. An anonymous writer gives a contemporary
+view of the situation on the eve of the Revolution:<a name="FNanchor_72:3_126" id="FNanchor_72:3_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_72:3_126" class="fnanchor">[72:3]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The richest parts remaining to be granted are on the northern
+branches of the Connecticut river, towards Crown Point where
+are great districts of fertile soil still unsettled. The North
+part of New Hampshire, the province of Maine, and the
+territory of Sagadahock have but few settlements in them
+compared with the tracts yet unsettled.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</p>
+
+<p>I should further observe that these tracts have since the
+peace [<i>i. e.</i>, 1763], been settling pretty fast: farms on the
+river Connecticut are every day extending beyond the old fort
+Dummer, for near <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>[<a href="./images/73.png">73</a>]</span>thirty miles; and will in a few years reach
+to Kohasser which is nearly two hundred miles; not that such
+an extent will be one-tenth settled, but the new-comers do not
+fix near their neighbors, and go on regularly, but take spots
+that please them best, though twenty or thirty miles beyond
+any others. This to people of a sociable disposition in Europe
+would appear very strange, but the Americans do not regard the
+near neighborhood of other farmers; twenty or thirty miles by
+water they esteem no distance in matters of this sort; besides
+in a country that promises well the intermediate space is not
+long in filling up. Between Connecticut river and Lake
+Champlain upon Otter Creek, and all along Lake Sacrament
+[George] and the rivers that fall into it, and the whole
+length of Wood Creek, are numerous settlements made since the
+peace.<a name="FNanchor_73:1_127" id="FNanchor_73:1_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_73:1_127" class="fnanchor">[73:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>For nearly a hundred years, therefore, New England communities had been
+pushed out to new frontiers in the intervals between the almost
+continuous wars with the French and Indians. Probably the most
+distinctive feature in this frontier was the importance of the community
+type of settlement; in other words, of the towns, with their Puritan
+ideals in education, morals, and religion. This has always been a matter
+of pride to the statesmen and annalists of New England, as is
+illustrated by these words of Holland in his "Western Massachusetts,"
+commenting on the settlement of the Connecticut Valley in villages,
+whereby in his judgment morality, education, and urbanity were
+preserved:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>[<a href="./images/74.png">74</a>]</span></p><div class="blockquot"><p>The influence of this policy can only be fully appreciated
+when standing by the side of the solitary settler's hut in the
+West, where even an Eastern man has degenerated to a boor in
+manners, where his children have grown up uneducated, and
+where the Sabbath has become an unknown day, and religion and
+its obligations have ceased to exercise control upon the heart
+and life.</p></div>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the real value of the community type of settlement, its
+establishment in New England was intimately connected both with the
+Congregational religious organization and with the land system of the
+colonies of that section, under which the colonial governments made
+grants&mdash;not in tracts to individuals, but in townships to groups of
+proprietors who in turn assigned lands to the inhabitants without cost.
+The typical form of establishing a town was as follows: On application
+of an approved body of men, desiring to establish a new settlement, the
+colonial General Court would appoint a committee to view the desired
+land and report on its fitness; an order for the grant would then issue,
+in varying areas, not far from the equivalent of six miles square. In
+the eighteenth century especially, it was common to reserve certain lots
+of the town for the support of schools and the ministry. This was the
+origin of that very important feature of Western society, federal land
+grants for schools and colleges.<a name="FNanchor_74:1_128" id="FNanchor_74:1_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_74:1_128" class="fnanchor">[74:1]</a> The General Courts also made
+regulations regarding the common lands, the terms for admitting
+inhabitants, etc., and thus kept a firm hand upon the social structure
+of the new settlements as they formed on the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>This practice, seen in its purity in the seventeenth century
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>[<a href="./images/75.png">75</a>]</span>especially, was markedly different from the practices of other colonies
+in the settlement of their back lands. For during most of the period New
+England did not use her wild lands, or public domain, as a source of
+revenue by sale to individuals or to companies, with the reservation of
+quit-rents; nor attract individual settlers by "head rights," or
+fifty-acre grants, after the Virginia type; nor did the colonies of the
+New England group often make extensive grants to individuals, on the
+ground of special services, or because of influence with the government,
+or on the theory that the grantee would introduce settlers on his grant.
+They donated their lands to groups of men who became town proprietors
+for the purpose of establishing communities. These proprietors were
+supposed to hold the lands in trust, to be assigned to inhabitants under
+restraints to ensure the persistence of Puritan ideals.</p>
+
+<p>During most of the seventeenth century the proprietors awarded lands to
+the new-comers in accordance with this theory. But as density of
+settlement increased, and lands grew scarce in the older towns, the
+proprietors began to assert their legal right to the unoccupied lands
+and to refuse to share them with inhabitants who were not of the body of
+proprietors. The distinction resulted in class conflicts in the towns,
+especially in the eighteenth century,<a name="FNanchor_75:1_129" id="FNanchor_75:1_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_75:1_129" class="fnanchor">[75:1]</a> over the ownership and
+disposal of the common lands.</p>
+
+<p>The new settlements, by a process of natural selection, would afford
+opportunity to the least contented, whether <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>[<a href="./images/76.png">76</a>]</span>because of grievances, or
+ambitions, to establish themselves. This tended to produce a Western
+flavor in the towns on the frontier. But it was not until the original
+ideals of the land system began to change, that the opportunity to make
+new settlements for such reasons became common. As the economic and
+political ideal replaced the religious and social ideal, in the
+conditions under which new towns could be established, this became more
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>Such a change was in progress in the latter part of the seventeenth
+century and during the eighteenth. In 1713, 1715, and 1727,
+Massachusetts determined upon a policy of locating towns in advance of
+settlement, to protect her boundary claims. In 1736 she laid out five
+towns near the New Hampshire border, and a year earlier opened four
+contiguous towns to connect her Housatonic and Connecticut Valley
+settlements.<a name="FNanchor_76:1_130" id="FNanchor_76:1_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_76:1_130" class="fnanchor">[76:1]</a> Grants in non-adjacent regions were sometimes made to
+old towns, the proprietors of which sold them to those who wished to
+move.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the town of Litchfield illustrates the increasing
+importance of the economic factor. At a time when Connecticut feared
+that Andros might dispose of the public lands to the disadvantage of the
+colony, the legislature granted a large part of Western Connecticut to
+the towns of Hartford and Windsor, <i>pro forma</i>, as a means of
+withdrawing the lands from his hands. But these towns refused to give up
+the lands after the danger had passed, and proceeded to sell part of
+them.<a name="FNanchor_76:2_131" id="FNanchor_76:2_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_76:2_131" class="fnanchor">[76:2]</a> Riots occurred when the colonial authorities attempted to
+assert possession, and the matter was at length compromised <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>[<a href="./images/77.png">77</a>]</span>in 1719 by
+allowing Litchfield to be settled in accordance with the town grants,
+while the colony reserved the larger part of northwestern Connecticut.
+In 1737 the colony disposed of its last unlocated lands by sale in lots.
+In 1762 Massachusetts sold a group of entire townships in the Berkshires
+to the highest bidders.<a name="FNanchor_77:1_132" id="FNanchor_77:1_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_77:1_132" class="fnanchor">[77:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the most striking illustration of the tendency, is afforded by the
+"New Hampshire grants" of Governor Wentworth, who, chiefly in the years
+about 1760, made grants of a hundred and thirty towns west of the
+Connecticut, in what is now the State of Vermont, but which was then in
+dispute between New Hampshire and New York. These grants, while in form
+much like other town grants, were disposed of for cash, chiefly to
+speculators who hastened to sell their rights to the throngs of
+land-seekers who, after the peace, began to pour into the Green Mountain
+region.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to point out how this would affect the movement of
+Western settlement in respect to individualistic speculation in public
+lands; how it would open a career to the land jobbers, as well as to the
+natural leaders in the competitive movement for acquiring the best
+lands, for laying out town sites and building up new communities under
+"boom" conditions. The migratory tendency of New Englanders was
+increased by this gradual change in its land policy; the attachment to a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>[<a href="./images/78.png">78</a>]</span>locality was diminished. The later years showed increasing emphasis by
+New England upon individual success, greater respect for the self-made
+man who, in the midst of opportunities under competitive conditions,
+achieved superiority. The old dominance of town settlement, village
+moral police, and traditional class control gave way slowly. Settlement
+in communities and rooted Puritan habits and ideals had enduring
+influences in the regions settled by New Englanders; but it was in this
+Old West, in the years just before the Revolution, that individualism
+began to play an important r&ocirc;le, along with the traditional habit of
+expanding in organized communities.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the Vermont towns revealed more fully than before, the
+capability of New Englanders to become democratic pioneers, under
+characteristic frontier conditions. Their economic life was simple and
+self-sufficing. They readily adopted lynch law (the use of the "birch
+seal" is familiar to readers of Vermont history) to protect their land
+titles in the troubled times when these "Green Mountain Boys" resisted
+New York's assertion of authority. They later became an independent
+Revolutionary state with frontier directness, and in very many respects
+their history in the Revolutionary epoch is similar to that of settlers
+in Kentucky and Tennessee, both in assertion of the right to independent
+self government and in a frontier separatism.<a name="FNanchor_78:1_133" id="FNanchor_78:1_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_78:1_133" class="fnanchor">[78:1]</a> Vermont may be
+regarded as the culmination of the frontier movement which I have been
+describing in New England.</p>
+
+<p>By this time two distinct New Englands existed&mdash;the one coastal, and
+dominated by commercial interests and the established congregational
+churches; the other a primitive <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>[<a href="./images/79.png">79</a>]</span>agricultural area, democratic in
+principle, and with various sects increasingly indifferent to the fear
+of "innovation" which the dominant classes of the old communities felt.
+Already speculative land companies had begun New England settlements in
+the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, as well as on the lower Mississippi;
+and New England missions among the Indians, such as that at Stockbridge,
+were beginning the noteworthy religious and educational expansion of the
+section to the west.</p>
+
+<p>That this movement of expansion had been chiefly from south to north,
+along the river valleys, should not conceal from us the fact that it was
+in essential characteristics a Western movement, especially in the
+social traits that were developing. Even the men who lived in the long
+line of settlements on the Maine coast, under frontier conditions, and
+remote from the older centers of New England, developed traits and a
+democratic spirit that relate them closely to the Westerners, in spite
+of the fact that Maine is "down east" by pre&euml;minence.<a name="FNanchor_79:1_134" id="FNanchor_79:1_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_79:1_134" class="fnanchor">[79:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The frontier of the Middle region in this period of the formation of the
+Old West, was divided into two parts, which happen to coincide with the
+colonies of New York and Pennsylvania. In the latter colony the trend of
+settlement was into the Great Valley, and so on to the Southern uplands;
+while the advance of settlement in New York was like that of New
+England, chiefly northward, following the line of Hudson River.</p>
+
+<p>The Hudson and the Mohawk constituted the area of the Old West in this
+part of the eighteenth century. With them were associated the Wallkill,
+tributary to the Hudson, and Cherry Valley near the Mohawk, along the
+sources of the Susquehanna. The Berkshires walled the Hudson in to the
+east; the Adirondacks and the Catskills to the west. Where the Mohawk
+Valley <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>[<a href="./images/80.png">80</a>]</span>penetrated between the mountainous areas, the Iroquois Indians
+were too formidable for advance on such a slender line. Nothing but
+dense settlement along the narrow strip of the Hudson, if even that,
+could have furnished the necessary momentum for overcoming the Indian
+barrier; and this pressure was lacking, for the population was
+comparatively sparse in contrast with the task to be performed. What
+most needs discussion in the case of New York, therefore, is not the
+history of expansion as in other sections, but the absence of expansive
+power.</p>
+
+<p>The fur-trade had led the way up the Hudson, and made beginnings of
+settlements at strategic points near the confluence of the Mohawk. But
+the fur-trader was not followed by a tide of pioneers. One of the most
+important factors in restraining density of population in New York, in
+retarding the settlement of its frontier, and in determining the
+conditions there, was the land system of that colony.</p>
+
+<p>From the time of the patroon grants along the lower Hudson, great
+estates had been the common form of land tenure. Rensselaerswyck reached
+at one time over seven hundred thousand acres. These great patroon
+estates were confirmed by the English governors, who in their turn
+followed a similar policy. By 1732 two and one-half million acres were
+engrossed in manorial grants.<a name="FNanchor_80:1_135" id="FNanchor_80:1_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_80:1_135" class="fnanchor">[80:1]</a> In 1764, Governor Colden wrote<a name="FNanchor_80:2_136" id="FNanchor_80:2_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_80:2_136" class="fnanchor">[80:2]</a>
+that three of the extravagant grants contain,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>as the proprietors claim, above a million acres each, several
+others above 200,000. *&nbsp;*&nbsp;* Although these grants contain a
+great part of the province, they are made in trifling
+acknowledgements. The far greater part of them still remain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>[<a href="./images/81.png">81</a>]</span>uncultivated, without any benefit to the community, and are
+likewise a discouragement to the settling and improving the
+lands in the neighborhood of them, for from the uncertainty of
+their boundaries, the patentees of these great tracts are
+daily enlarging their pretensions, and by tedious and most
+expensive law suits, distress and ruin poor families who have
+taken out grants near them.</p></div>
+
+<p>He adds that "the proprietors of the great tracts are not only freed
+from the quit-rents, which the other landholders in the province pay,
+but by their influence in the assembly are freed from every other public
+tax on their lands."</p>
+
+<p>In 1769 it was estimated that at least five-sixths of the inhabitants of
+Westchester County lived within the bounds of the great manors
+there.<a name="FNanchor_81:1_137" id="FNanchor_81:1_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_81:1_137" class="fnanchor">[81:1]</a> In Albany County the Livingston manor spread over seven
+modern townships, and the great Van Rensselaer manor stretched
+twenty-four by twenty-eight miles along the Hudson; while still farther,
+on the Mohawk, were the vast possessions of Sir William Johnson.<a name="FNanchor_81:2_138" id="FNanchor_81:2_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_81:2_138" class="fnanchor">[81:2]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>[<a href="./images/82.png">82</a>]</span></p><p>It was not simply that the grants were extensive, but that the policy
+of the proprietors favored the leasing rather than the sale of the
+lands&mdash;frequently also of the stock, and taking payment in shares. It
+followed that settlers preferred to go to frontiers where a more liberal
+land policy prevailed. At one time it seemed possible that the tide of
+German settlement, which finally sought Pennsylvania and the up-country
+of the South, might flow into New York. In 1710, Governor Hunter
+purchased a tract in Livingston's manor and located nearly fifteen
+hundred Palatines on it to produce naval stores.<a name="FNanchor_82:1_139" id="FNanchor_82:1_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_82:1_139" class="fnanchor">[82:1]</a> But the attempt
+soon failed; the Germans applied to the Indians on Schoharie Creek, a
+branch of the Mohawk, for a grant of land and migrated there, only to
+find that the governor had already granted the land. Again were the
+villages broken up, some remaining and some moving farther up the
+Mohawk, where they and accessions to their number established the
+frontier settlements about Palatine Bridge, in the region where, in the
+Revolution, Herkimer led these German frontiersmen to stem the British
+attack in the battle of Oriskany. They constituted the most effective
+military defense of Mohawk Valley. Still another portion took their way
+across to the waters of the Susquehanna, and at Tulpehockon Creek began
+an important center of German settlement in the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania.<a name="FNanchor_82:2_140" id="FNanchor_82:2_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_82:2_140" class="fnanchor">[82:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The most important aspect of the history of the movement into the
+frontier of New York at this period, therefore, was the evidence which
+it afforded that in the competition for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>[<a href="./images/83.png">83</a>]</span>settlement between colonies
+possessing a vast area of vacant land, those which imposed feudal
+tenures and undemocratic restraints, and which exploited settlers, were
+certain to lose.</p>
+
+<p>The manorial practice gave a bad name to New York as a region for
+settlement, which not even the actual opportunities in certain parts of
+the colony could counteract. The diplomacy of New York governors during
+this period of the Old West, in securing a protectorate over the Six
+Nations and a consequent claim to their territory, and in holding them
+aloof from France, constituted the most effective contribution of that
+colony to the movement of American expansion. When lands of these tribes
+were obtained after Sullivan's expedition in the Revolution (in which
+New England soldiers played a prominent part), it was by the New England
+inundation into this interior that they were colonized. And it was under
+conditions like those prevailing in the later years of the expansion of
+settlements in New England itself, that this settlement of interior and
+western New York was effected.</p>
+
+<p>The result was, that New York became divided into two distinct peoples:
+the dwellers along Hudson Valley, and the Yankee pioneers of the
+interior. But the settlement of central and western New York, like the
+settlement of Vermont, is a story that belongs to the era in which the
+trans-Alleghany West was occupied.</p>
+
+<p>We can best consider the settlement of the share of the Old West which
+is located in Pennsylvania as a part of the migration which occupied the
+Southern Uplands, and before entering upon this it will be advantageous
+to survey that part of the movement toward the interior which proceeded
+westward from the coast. First let us observe the conditions at the
+eastern edge of these uplands, along the fall line in Virginia, in the
+latter part of the seventeenth century, in order that the process and
+the significance of the movement may be better understood.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>[<a href="./images/84.png">84</a>]</span></p><p>About the time of Bacon's Rebellion, in Virginia, strenuous efforts
+were made to protect the frontier line which ran along the falls of the
+river, against the attacks of Indians. This "fall line," as the
+geographers call it, marking the head of navigation, and thus the
+boundary of the maritime or lowland South, runs from the site of
+Washington, through Richmond, and on to Raleigh, North Carolina, and
+Columbia, South Carolina. Virginia having earliest advanced thus far to
+the interior, found it necessary in the closing years of the seventeenth
+century to draw a military frontier along this line. As early as 1675 a
+statute was enacted,<a name="FNanchor_84:1_141" id="FNanchor_84:1_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_84:1_141" class="fnanchor">[84:1]</a> providing that paid troops of five hundred
+men should be drawn from the midland and most secure parts of the
+country and placed on the "heads of the rivers" and other places
+fronting upon the Indians. What was meant by the "heads of the rivers,"
+is shown by the fact that several of these forts were located either at
+the falls of the rivers or just above tidewater, as follows: one on the
+lower Potomac in Stafford County; one near the falls of the
+Rappahannock; one on the Mattapony; one on the Pamunky; one at the falls
+of the James (near the site of Richmond); one near the falls of the
+Appomattox, and others on the Blackwater, the Nansemond, and the Accomac
+peninsula, all in the eastern part of Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in 1679, similar provision was made,<a name="FNanchor_84:2_142" id="FNanchor_84:2_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_84:2_142" class="fnanchor">[84:2]</a> and an especially
+interesting act was passed, making <i>quasi</i> manorial grants to Major
+Lawrence Smith and Captain William Byrd, "to seate certain lands at the
+head [falls] of Rappahannock and James river" respectively. This scheme
+failed for lack of approval by the authorities in England.<a name="FNanchor_84:3_143" id="FNanchor_84:3_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_84:3_143" class="fnanchor">[84:3]</a> But
+Byrd at the falls of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>[<a href="./images/85.png">85</a>]</span>James near the present site of Richmond,
+Robert Beverley on the Rappahannock, and other frontier commanders on
+the York and Potomac, continued to undertake colonial defense. The
+system of mounted rangers was established in 1691, by which a
+lieutenant, eleven soldiers, and two Indians at the "heads" or falls of
+each great river were to scout for enemy,<a name="FNanchor_85:1_144" id="FNanchor_85:1_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_85:1_144" class="fnanchor">[85:1]</a> and the Indian boundary
+line was strictly defined.</p>
+
+<p>By the opening years of the eighteenth century (1701), the assembly of
+Virginia had reached the conclusion that settlement would be the best
+means of protecting the frontiers, and that the best way of "settling in
+co-habitations upon the said land frontiers within this government will
+be by encouragements to induce societies of men to undertake the
+same."<a name="FNanchor_85:2_145" id="FNanchor_85:2_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_85:2_145" class="fnanchor">[85:2]</a> It was declared to be inexpedient to have less than twenty
+fighting men in each "society," and provision was made for a land grant
+to be given to these societies (or towns) not less than 10,000 nor more
+than 30,000 acres upon any of the frontiers, to be held in common by the
+society. The power of ordering and managing these lands, and the
+settling and planting of them, was to remain in the society. Virginia
+was to pay the cost of survey, also quit-rents for the first twenty
+years for the two-hundred-acre tract as the site of the "co-habitation."
+Within this two hundred acres each member was to have a half-acre lot
+for living upon, and a right to two hundred acres next adjacent, until
+the thirty thousand acres were taken up. The members of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>[<a href="./images/86.png">86</a>]</span>society
+were exempt from taxes for twenty years, and from the requirements of
+military duty except such as they imposed upon themselves. The
+resemblance to the New England town is obvious.</p>
+
+<p>"Provided alwayes," ran the quaint statute, "and it is the true intent
+and meaning of this act that for every five hundred acres of land to be
+granted in pursuance of this act there shall be and shall be continually
+kept upon the said land one christian man between sixteen and sixty
+years of age perfect of limb, able and fitt for service who shall alsoe
+be continually provided with a well fixed musquett or fuzee, a good
+pistoll, sharp simeter, tomahawk and five pounds of good clean pistoll
+powder and twenty pounds of sizable leaden bulletts or swan or goose
+shott to be kept within the fort directed by this act besides the powder
+and shott for his necessary or useful shooting at game. Provided also
+that the said warlike christian man shall have his dwelling and
+continual abode within the space of two hundred acres of land to be laid
+out in a geometricall square or as near that figure as conveniency will
+admit," etc. Within two years the society was required to cause a half
+acre in the middle of the "co-habitation" to be palisaded "with good
+sound pallisadoes at least thirteen foot long and six inches diameter in
+the middle of the length thereof, and set double and at least three foot
+within the ground.<ins class="corr" title="quotation mark missing in original">"</ins></p>
+
+<p>Such in 1701 was the idea of the Virginia tidewater assembly of a
+frontiersman, and of the frontier towns by which the Old Dominion should
+spread her population into the upland South. But the "warlike Christian
+man" who actually came to furnish the firing line for Virginia, was
+destined to be the Scotch-Irishman and the German with long rifle in
+place of "fuzee" and "simeter," and altogether too restless to have his
+continual abode within the space of two hundred acres. Nevertheless
+there are points of resemblance between this idea of societies <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>[<a href="./images/87.png">87</a>]</span>settled
+about a fortified town and the later "stations" of Kentucky.<a name="FNanchor_87:1_146" id="FNanchor_87:1_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_87:1_146" class="fnanchor">[87:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>By the beginning of the eighteenth century the engrossing of the lands
+of lowland Virginia had progressed so far, the practice of holding large
+tracts of wasteland for reserves in the great plantations had become so
+common, that the authorities of Virginia reported to the home government
+that the best lands were all taken up,<a name="FNanchor_87:2_147" id="FNanchor_87:2_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_87:2_147" class="fnanchor">[87:2]</a> and settlers were passing
+into North Carolina seeking cheap lands near navigable rivers. Attention
+was directed also to the Piedmont portions of Virginia, for by this time
+the Indians were conquered in this region. It was now possible to
+acquire land by purchase<a name="FNanchor_87:3_148" id="FNanchor_87:3_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_87:3_148" class="fnanchor">[87:3]</a> at five shillings sterling for fifty
+acres, as well as by head-rights for importation or settlement, and land
+speculation soon turned to the new area.</p>
+
+<p>Already the Piedmont had been somewhat explored.<a name="FNanchor_87:4_149" id="FNanchor_87:4_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_87:4_149" class="fnanchor">[87:4]</a> Even by the
+middle of the seventeenth century, fur-traders had followed the trail
+southwest from the James more than four hundred miles to the Catawbas
+and later to the Cherokees. Col. William Byrd had, as we have seen, not
+only been absorbing good lands in the lowlands, and defending his post
+at the falls of the James, like a Count of the Border, but he also
+engaged in this fur-trade and sent his pack trains along this trail
+through the Piedmont of the Carolinas,<a name="FNanchor_87:5_150" id="FNanchor_87:5_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_87:5_150" class="fnanchor">[87:5]</a> and took note of the rich
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>[<a href="./images/88.png">88</a>]</span>savannas of that region. Charleston traders engaged in rivalry for this
+trade.</p>
+
+<p>It was not long before cattle raisers from the older settlements,
+learning from the traders of the fertile plains and peavine pastures of
+this land, followed the fur-traders and erected scattered "cow-pens" or
+ranches beyond the line of plantations in the Piedmont. Even at the
+close of the seventeenth century, herds of wild horses and cattle ranged
+at the outskirts of the Virginia settlements, and were hunted by the
+planters, driven into pens, and branded somewhat after the manner of the
+later ranching on the Great Plains.<a name="FNanchor_88:1_151" id="FNanchor_88:1_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_88:1_151" class="fnanchor">[88:1]</a> Now the cow-drovers and the
+cow-pens<a name="FNanchor_88:2_152" id="FNanchor_88:2_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_88:2_152" class="fnanchor">[88:2]</a> began to enter the uplands. The Indians had by this time
+been reduced to submission in most of the Virginia Piedmont&mdash;as Governor
+Spotswood<a name="FNanchor_88:3_153" id="FNanchor_88:3_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_88:3_153" class="fnanchor">[88:3]</a> reported in 1712, living "quietly on our frontiers,
+trafficking with the Inhabitants."</p>
+
+<p>After the defeat of the Tuscaroras and Yemassees about this time in the
+Carolinas, similar opportunities for expansion existed there. The cattle
+drovers sometimes took their herds from range to range; sometimes they
+were gathered permanently near the pens, finding the range sufficient
+throughout the year. They were driven to Charleston, or later <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>[<a href="./images/89.png">89</a>]</span>sometimes
+even to Philadelphia and Baltimore markets. By the middle of the
+century, disease worked havoc with them in South Carolina<a name="FNanchor_89:1_154" id="FNanchor_89:1_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_89:1_154" class="fnanchor">[89:1]</a> and
+destroyed seven-eighths of those in North Carolina; Virginia made
+regulations governing the driving of cattle through her frontier
+counties to avoid the disease, just as in our own time the northern
+cattlemen attempted to protect their herds against the Texas fever.</p>
+
+<p>Thus cattle raisers from the coast followed the fur-traders toward the
+uplands, and already pioneer farmers were straggling into the same
+region, soon to be outnumbered by the tide of settlement that flowed
+into the region from Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>The descriptions of the uplands by contemporaneous writers are in
+glowing terms. Makemie, in his "Plain and Friendly Persuasion" (1705),
+declared "The best, richest, and most healthy part of your Country is
+yet to be inhabited, above the falls of every River, to the Mountains."
+Jones, in his "Present State of Virginia" (1724), comments on the
+convenience of tidewater transportation, etc., but declares that section
+"not nearly so healthy as the uplands and Barrens which serve for Ranges
+for Stock," although he speaks less enthusiastically of the savannas and
+marshes which lay in the midst of the forest areas. In fact, the
+Piedmont was by no means the unbroken forest that might have been
+imagined, for in addition to natural meadows, the Indians had burned
+over large tracts.<a name="FNanchor_89:2_155" id="FNanchor_89:2_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_89:2_155" class="fnanchor">[89:2]</a> It was a rare combination of woodland and
+pasture, with clear running streams and mild climate.<a name="FNanchor_89:3_156" id="FNanchor_89:3_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_89:3_156" class="fnanchor">[89:3]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>[<a href="./images/90.png">90</a>]</span></p><p>The occupation of the Virginia Piedmont received a special impetus from
+the interest which Governor Spotswood took in the frontier. In 1710 he
+proposed a plan for intercepting the French in their occupation of the
+interior, by inducing Virginia settlement to proceed along one side of
+James River only, until this column of advancing pioneers should strike
+the attenuated line of French posts in the center. In the same year he
+sent a body of horsemen to the top of the Blue Ridge, where they could
+overlook the Valley of Virginia.<a name="FNanchor_90:1_157" id="FNanchor_90:1_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_90:1_157" class="fnanchor">[90:1]</a> By 1714 he became active as a
+colonizer himself. Thirty miles above the falls of the Rappahannock, on
+the Rapidan at Germanna,<a name="FNanchor_90:2_158" id="FNanchor_90:2_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_90:2_158" class="fnanchor">[90:2]</a> he settled a little village of German
+redemptioners (who in return for having the passage paid agreed to serve
+without wages for a term of years), to engage in his iron works, also to
+act as rangers on the frontier. From here, in 1716, with two companies
+of rangers and four Indians, Governor Spotswood and a band of Virginia
+gentlemen made a summer picnic excursion of two weeks across the Blue
+Ridge into the Shenandoah Valley. <i>Sic juvat transcendere montes</i> was
+the motto of these Knights of the Golden Horse Shoe, as the governor
+dubbed them. But they were not the "warlike christian men" destined to
+occupy the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>Spotswood's interest in the advance along the Rappahannock, probably
+accounts for the fact that in 1720 Spotsylvania and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>[<a href="./images/91.png">91</a>]</span>Brunswick were
+organized as frontier counties of Virginia.<a name="FNanchor_91:1_159" id="FNanchor_91:1_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_91:1_159" class="fnanchor">[91:1]</a> Five hundred dollars
+were contributed by the colony to the church, and a thousand dollars for
+arms and ammunition for the settlers in these counties. The fears of the
+French and Indians beyond the high mountains, were alleged as reasons
+for this advance. To attract settlers to these new counties, they were
+(1723) exempt from purchasing the lands under the system of head rights,
+and from payment of quit-rents for seven years after 1721. The free
+grants so obtained were not to exceed a thousand acres. This was soon
+extended to six thousand acres, but with provision requiring the
+settlement of a certain number of families upon the grant within a
+certain time. In 1729 Spotswood was ordered by the Council to produce
+"rights" and pay the quit-rents for the 59,786 acres which he claimed in
+this county.</p>
+
+<p>Other similar actions by the Council show that large holdings were
+developing there, also that the difficulty of establishing a frontier
+democracy in contact with the area of expanding plantations, was very
+real.<a name="FNanchor_91:2_160" id="FNanchor_91:2_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_91:2_160" class="fnanchor">[91:2]</a> By the time of the occupation of the Shenandoah Valley,
+therefore, the custom was established in this part of Virginia,<a name="FNanchor_91:3_161" id="FNanchor_91:3_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_91:3_161" class="fnanchor">[91:3]</a> of
+making grants of a thousand acres for each family settled. Speculative
+planters, influential with the Governor and Council secured grants of
+many thousand acres, conditioned upon seating a certain number of
+families, and satisfying the requirements of planting. Thus what had
+originally been intended as direct grants to the actual settler,
+frequently became grants to great planters like Beverley, who promoted
+the coming of Scotch-Irish and German <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>[<a href="./images/92.png">92</a>]</span>settlers, or took advantage of
+the natural drift into the Valley, to sell lands in their grants, as a
+rule, reserving quit-rents. The liberal grants per family enabled these
+speculative planters, while satisfying the terms of settlement, to hold
+large portions of the grant for themselves. Under the lax requirements,
+and probably still more lax enforcement, of the provisions for actual
+cultivation or cattle-raising,<a name="FNanchor_92:1_162" id="FNanchor_92:1_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_92:1_162" class="fnanchor">[92:1]</a> it was not difficult to hold such
+wild land. These conditions rendered possible the extension of a measure
+of aristocratic planter life in the course of time to the Piedmont and
+Valley lands of Virginia. It must be added, however, that some of the
+newcomers, both Germans and Scotch-Irish, like the Van Meters, Stover,
+and Lewis, also showed an ability to act as promoters in locating
+settlers and securing grants to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley, lay part of the estate of
+Lord Fairfax, some six million acres in extent, which came to the family
+by dower from the old Culpeper and Arlington grant of Northern Neck. In
+1748, the youthful Washington was surveying this estate along the upper
+waters of the Potomac, finding a bed under the stars and learning the
+life of the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Fairfax established his own Greenway manor,<a name="FNanchor_92:2_163" id="FNanchor_92:2_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_92:2_163" class="fnanchor">[92:2]</a> and divided his
+domain into other manors, giving ninety-nine-year leases to settlers
+already on the ground at twenty shillings annually per hundred acres;
+while of the new-comers he exacted two shillings annual quit-rent for
+this amount of land in fee simple. Litigation kept land titles uncertain
+here, for many years. Similarly, Beverley's manor, about Staunton,
+represented a grant of 118,000 acres to Beverley and his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>[<a href="./images/93.png">93</a>]</span>associates on
+condition of placing the proper number of families on the tract.<a name="FNanchor_93:1_164" id="FNanchor_93:1_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_93:1_164" class="fnanchor">[93:1]</a>
+Thus speculative planters on this frontier shared in the movement of
+occupation and made an aristocratic element in the up-country; but the
+increasing proportion of Scotch-Irish immigrants, as well as German
+settlers, together with the contrast in natural conditions, made the
+interior a different Virginia from that of the tidewater.</p>
+
+<p>As settlement ascended the Rappahannock, and emigrants began to enter
+the Valley from the north, so, contemporaneously, settlement ascended
+the James above the falls, succeeding to the posts of the
+fur-traders.<a name="FNanchor_93:2_165" id="FNanchor_93:2_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_93:2_165" class="fnanchor">[93:2]</a> Goochland County was set off in 1728, and the growth
+of population led, as early as 1729, to proposals for establishing a
+city (Richmond) at the falls. Along the upper James, as on the
+Rappahannock, speculative planters bought headrights and located
+settlers and tenants to hold their grants.<a name="FNanchor_93:3_166" id="FNanchor_93:3_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_93:3_166" class="fnanchor">[93:3]</a> Into this region came
+natives of Virginia, emigrants from the British isles, and scattered
+representatives of other lands, some of them coming up the James, others
+up the York, and still others arriving with the southward-moving current
+along both sides of the Blue Ridge.</p>
+
+<p>Before 1730 few settlers lived above the mouth of the Rivanna. In 1732
+Peter Jefferson patented a thousand acres at the eastern opening of its
+mountain gap, and here, under frontier conditions, Thomas Jefferson was
+born in 1743 near his later estate of Monticello. About him were pioneer
+farmers, as well as foresighted engrossers of the land. In the main his
+country was that of a democratic frontier people&mdash;Scotch-Irish
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>[<a href="./images/94.png">94</a>]</span>Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and other sects,<a name="FNanchor_94:1_167" id="FNanchor_94:1_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_94:1_167" class="fnanchor">[94:1]</a> out of
+sympathy with the established church and the landed gentry of the
+lowlands. This society in which he was born, was to find in Jefferson a
+powerful exponent of its ideals.<a name="FNanchor_94:2_168" id="FNanchor_94:2_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_94:2_168" class="fnanchor">[94:2]</a> Patrick Henry was born in 1736
+above the falls, not far from Richmond, and he also was a mouthpiece of
+interior Virginia in the Revolutionary era. In short, a society was
+already forming in the Virginia Piedmont which was composed of many
+sects, of independent yeomen as well as their great planter leaders&mdash;a
+society naturally expansive, seeing its opportunity to deal in
+unoccupied lands along the frontier which continually moved toward the
+West, and in this era of the eighteenth century dominated by the
+democratic ideals of pioneers rather than by the aristocratic tendencies
+of slaveholding planters. As there were two New Englands, so there were
+by this time two Virginias, and the uplands belonged with the Old West.</p>
+
+<p>The advance across the fall line from the coast was, in North Carolina,
+much slower than in Virginia. After the Tuscarora War (1712-13) an
+extensive region west from Pamlico Sound was opened (1724). The region
+to the north, about the Roanoke, had before this begun to receive
+frontier settlers, largely from Virginia. Their traits are interestingly
+portrayed in Byrd's "Dividing Line." By 1728 the farthest inhabitants
+along the Virginia boundary were frontiersmen about Great Creek, a
+branch of the Roanoke.<a name="FNanchor_94:3_169" id="FNanchor_94:3_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_94:3_169" class="fnanchor">[94:3]</a> The North Carolina commissioners desired to
+stop running the line after going a hundred and seventy miles, on the
+plea that they were already fifty miles beyond the outermost inhabitant,
+and there would be no need for an age or two to carry the line farther;
+but the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>[<a href="./images/95.png">95</a>]</span>Virginia surveyors pointed out that already speculators were
+taking up the land. A line from Weldon to Fayetteville would roughly
+mark the western boundary of North Carolina's sparse population of forty
+thousand souls.<a name="FNanchor_95:1_170" id="FNanchor_95:1_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_95:1_170" class="fnanchor">[95:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The slower advance is explained, partly because of the later settlement
+of the Carolinas, partly because the Indians continued to be troublesome
+on the flanks of the advancing population, as seen in the Tuscarora and
+Yemassee wars, and partly because the pine barrens running parallel with
+the fall line made a zone of infertile land not attractive to settlers.
+The North Carolina low country, indeed, had from the end of the
+seventeenth century been a kind of southern frontier for overflow from
+Virginia; and in many ways was assimilated to the type of the up-country
+in its turbulent democracy, its variety of sects and peoples, and its
+primitive conditions. But under the lax management of the public lands,
+the use of "blank patents" and other evasions made possible the
+development of large landholding, side by side with headrights to
+settlers. Here, as in Virginia, a great proprietary grant extended
+across the colony&mdash;Lord Granville's proprietary was a zone embracing the
+northern half of North Carolina. Within the area, sales and quit-rents
+were administered by the agents of the owner, with the result that
+uncertainty and disorder of an agrarian nature extended down to the
+Revolution. There were likewise great speculative holdings, conditioned
+on seating a certain proportion of settlers, into which the frontiersmen
+were drifting.<a name="FNanchor_95:2_171" id="FNanchor_95:2_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_95:2_171" class="fnanchor">[95:2]</a> But this system also made it possible for agents of
+later migrating congregations to establish colonies like that of the
+Moravians at Wachovia.<a name="FNanchor_95:3_172" id="FNanchor_95:3_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_95:3_172" class="fnanchor">[95:3]</a> Thus, by the time settlers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>[<a href="./images/96.png">96</a>]</span>came into the
+uplands from the north, a land system existed similar to that of
+Virginia. A common holding was a square mile (640 acres), but in
+practice this did not prevent the accumulation of great estates.<a name="FNanchor_96:1_173" id="FNanchor_96:1_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_96:1_173" class="fnanchor">[96:1]</a>
+Whereas Virginia's Piedmont area was to a large extent entered by
+extensions from the coast, that of North Carolina remained almost
+untouched by 1730.<a name="FNanchor_96:2_174" id="FNanchor_96:2_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_96:2_174" class="fnanchor">[96:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The same is true of South Carolina. By 1730, settlement had progressed
+hardly eighty miles from the coast, even in the settled area of the
+lowlands. The tendency to engross the lowlands for large plantations was
+clear, here as elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_96:3_175" id="FNanchor_96:3_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_96:3_175" class="fnanchor">[96:3]</a> The surveyor-general reports in 1732
+that not as many as a thousand acres within a hundred miles of
+Charleston, or within twenty miles of a river or navigable creek, were
+unpossessed. In 1729 the crown ordered eleven townships of twenty
+thousand acres each to be laid out in rectangles, divided into fifty
+acres for each actual settler under a quit-rent of four shillings a year
+for every hundred acres, or proportionally, to be paid after the first
+ten years.<a name="FNanchor_96:4_176" id="FNanchor_96:4_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_96:4_176" class="fnanchor">[96:4]</a> By 1732 these townships, designed to attract foreign
+Protestants, were laid out on the great rivers of the colony. As they
+were located in the middle region, east of the fall line, among pine
+barrens, or in malarial lands in the southern corner of the colony, they
+all proved abortive as towns, except Orangeburg<a name="FNanchor_96:5_177" id="FNanchor_96:5_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_96:5_177" class="fnanchor">[96:5]</a> on the North
+Edisto, where <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>[<a href="./images/97.png">97</a>]</span>German redemptioners made a settlement. The Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterians who came to Williamsburg, on Black River, suffered
+hardships; as did the Swiss who, under the visionary leadership of
+Purry, settled in the deadly climate of Purrysburg, on the lower
+Savannah. To Welsh colonists from Pennsylvania there was made a
+grant&mdash;known as the "Welsh tract," embracing over 173,000 acres on the
+Great Pedee (Marion County)<a name="FNanchor_97:1_178" id="FNanchor_97:1_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_97:1_178" class="fnanchor">[97:1]</a> under headrights of fifty acres, also
+a bounty in provisions, tools, and livestock.</p>
+
+<p>These attempts, east of the fall line, are interesting as showing the
+colonial policy of marking out towns (which were to be
+politically-organized parishes, with representation in the legislature),
+and attracting foreigners thereto, prior to the coming of settlers from
+the North.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement of Georgia, in 1732, completed the southern line of
+colonization toward the Piedmont. Among the objects of the colony, as
+specified in the charters, were the relief of the poor and the
+protection of the frontiers. To guard against the tendency to engross
+the lands in great estates, already so clearly revealed in the older
+colonies, the Georgia trustees provided that the grants of fifty acres
+should not be alienated or divided, but should pass to the male heirs
+and revert to the trustees in case heirs were lacking. No grant greater
+than five hundred acres was permitted, and even this was made
+conditionally upon the holder settling ten colonists. However, under
+local conditions and the competition and example of neighboring
+colonies, this attempt to restrict land tenure in the interest of
+democracy broke down by 1750, and Georgia's land system became not
+unlike that of the other Southern colonies.<a name="FNanchor_97:2_179" id="FNanchor_97:2_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_97:2_179" class="fnanchor">[97:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1734, Salzburgers had been located above Savannah, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>[<a href="./images/98.png">98</a>]</span>within seven
+years some twelve hundred German Protestants were dwelling on the
+Georgia frontier; while a settlement of Scotch Highlanders at Darien,
+near the mouth of the Altamaha, protected the southern frontier. At
+Augusta, an Indian trading fort (1735), whence the dealers in peltry
+visited the Cherokee, completed the familiar picture of frontier
+advance.<a name="FNanchor_98:1_180" id="FNanchor_98:1_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_98:1_180" class="fnanchor">[98:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>We have now hastily surveyed the movement of the frontier of settlement
+westward from the lowlands, in the later years of the seventeenth and
+early part of the eighteenth century. There is much that is common in
+the whole line of advance. The original settlers engross the desirable
+lands of the older area. Indented servants and new-comers pass to the
+frontier seeking a place to locate their headrights, or plant new towns.
+Adventurous and speculative wealthy planters acquire large holdings in
+the new areas, and bring over settlers to satisfy the requirements of
+seating and cultivating their extensive grants, thus building up a
+yeomanry of small landholders side by side with the holders of large
+estates. The most far-sighted of the new-comers follow the example of
+the planters, and petition for increasing extensive grants. Meanwhile,
+pioneers like Abraham Wood, himself once an indented servant, and
+gentlemen like Col. William Byrd&mdash;prosecuting the Indian trade from
+their posts at the "heads" of the rivers, and combining frontier
+protection, exploring, and surveying&mdash;make known the more distant
+fertile soils of the Piedmont. Already in the first part of the
+eighteenth century, the frontier population tended to be a rude
+democracy, with a large representation of Scotch-Irish, Germans, Welsh,
+and Huguenot French settlers, holding religious faiths unlike that of
+the followers of the established church in the lowlands. The movement of
+slaves into the region was unimportant, but not unknown.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>[<a href="./images/99.png">99</a>]</span></p><p>The Virginia Valley was practically unsettled in 1730, as was much of
+Virginia's Piedmont area and all the Piedmont area of the Carolinas. The
+significance of the movement of settlers from the North into this vacant
+Valley and Piedmont, behind the area occupied by expansion from the
+coast is, that it was geographically separated from the westward
+movement from the coast, and that it was sufficient in volume to recruit
+the democratic forces and postpone for a long time the process of social
+assimilation to the type of the lowlands.</p>
+
+<p>As has been pointed out, especially in the Carolinas a belt of pine
+barrens, roughly eighty miles in breadth, ran parallel with the fall
+line and thus discouraged western advance across this belt, even before
+the head of navigation was reached. In Virginia, the Blue Ridge made an
+almost equally effective barrier, walling off the Shenandoah Valley from
+the westward advance. At the same time this valley was but a
+continuation of the Great Valley, that ran along the eastern edge of the
+Alleghanies in southeastern Pennsylvania, and included in its mountain
+trough the Cumberland and Hagerstown valleys. In short, a broad
+limestone band of fertile soil was stretched within mountain walls,
+southerly from Pennsylvania to southwestern Virginia; and here the
+watergaps opened the way to descend to the Carolina Piedmont. This whole
+area, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania, was rendered
+comparatively inaccessible to the westward movement from the lowlands,
+and was equally accessible to the population which was entering
+Pennsylvania.<a name="FNanchor_99:1_181" id="FNanchor_99:1_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_99:1_181" class="fnanchor">[99:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus it happened that from about 1730 to 1760 a generation of settlers
+poured along this mountain trough into the southern uplands, or
+Piedmont, creating a new continuous social and economic area, which cut
+across the artificial colonial boundary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>[<a href="./images/100.png">100</a>]</span>lines, disarranged the regular
+extension of local government from the coast westward, and built up a
+new Pennsylvania in contrast with the old Quaker colonies, and a new
+South in contrast with the tidewater South. This New South composed the
+southern half of the Old West.</p>
+
+<p>From its beginning, Pennsylvania was advertised as a home for dissenting
+sects seeking freedom in the wilderness. But it was not until the exodus
+of German redemptioners,<a name="FNanchor_100:1_182" id="FNanchor_100:1_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_100:1_182" class="fnanchor">[100:1]</a> from about 1717, that the Palatinate and
+neighboring areas sent the great tide of Germans which by the time of
+the Revolution made them nearly a third of the total population of
+Pennsylvania. It has been carefully estimated that in 1775 over 200,000
+Germans lived in the thirteen colonies, chiefly along the frontier zone
+of the Old West. Of these, a hundred thousand had their home in
+Pennsylvania, mainly in the Great Valley, in the region which is still
+so notably the abode of the "Pennsylvania Dutch."<a name="FNanchor_100:2_183" id="FNanchor_100:2_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_100:2_183" class="fnanchor">[100:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Space does not permit us to describe this movement of
+colonization.<a name="FNanchor_100:3_184" id="FNanchor_100:3_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_100:3_184" class="fnanchor">[100:3]</a> The entrance to the fertile limestone soils of the
+Great Valley of Pennsylvania was easy, in view of the low elevation of
+the South Mountain ridge, and the watergaps thereto. The continuation
+along the similar valley to the south, in Maryland and Virginia, was a
+natural one, especially as the increasing tide of emigrants raised the
+price of lands.<a name="FNanchor_100:4_185" id="FNanchor_100:4_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_100:4_185" class="fnanchor">[100:4]</a> In <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>[<a href="./images/101.png">101</a>]</span>1719 the proprietor's price for Pennsylvania
+lands was ten pounds per hundred acres, and two shillings quit-rents. In
+1732 this became fifteen and one-half pounds, with a quit-rent of a half
+penny per acre.<a name="FNanchor_101:1_186" id="FNanchor_101:1_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_101:1_186" class="fnanchor">[101:1]</a> During the period 1718 to 1732, when the Germans
+were coming in great numbers, the management of the lands fell into
+confusion, and many seated themselves as squatters, without
+title.<a name="FNanchor_101:2_187" id="FNanchor_101:2_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_101:2_187" class="fnanchor">[101:2]</a> This was a fortunate possibility for the poor
+redemptioners, who had sold their service for a term of years in order
+to secure their transportation to America.</p>
+
+<p>By 1726 it was estimated that there were 100,000 squatters;<a name="FNanchor_101:3_188" id="FNanchor_101:3_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_101:3_188" class="fnanchor">[101:3]</a> and
+of the 670,000 acres occupied between 1732 and 1740, it is estimated
+that 400,000 acres were settled without grants.<a name="FNanchor_101:4_189" id="FNanchor_101:4_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_101:4_189" class="fnanchor">[101:4]</a> Nevertheless
+these must ultimately be paid for, with interest, and the concession of
+the right of pre&euml;mption to squatters made this easier. But it was not
+until 1755 that the governor offered land free from purchase, and this
+was to be taken only west of the Alleghanies.<a name="FNanchor_101:5_190" id="FNanchor_101:5_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_101:5_190" class="fnanchor">[101:5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although the credit system relieved the difficulty in Pennsylvania, the
+lands of that colony were in competition with the Maryland lands,
+offered between 1717 and 1738 at forty shillings sterling per hundred
+acres, which in 1738 was raised to five pounds sterling.<a name="FNanchor_101:6_191" id="FNanchor_101:6_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_101:6_191" class="fnanchor">[101:6]</a> At the
+same time, in the Virginia Valley, as will be recalled, free grants were
+being made of a thousand acres per family. Although large tracts of the
+Shenandoah Valley had been granted to speculators like Beverley,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>[<a href="./images/102.png">102</a>]</span>Borden, and the Carters, as well as to Lord Fairfax, the owners sold
+six or seven pounds cheaper per hundred acres than did the Pennsylvania
+land office.<a name="FNanchor_102:1_192" id="FNanchor_102:1_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_102:1_192" class="fnanchor">[102:1]</a> Between 1726 and 1734, therefore, the Germans began
+to enter this valley,<a name="FNanchor_102:2_193" id="FNanchor_102:2_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_102:2_193" class="fnanchor">[102:2]</a> and before long they extended their
+settlements into the Piedmont of the Carolinas,<a name="FNanchor_102:3_194" id="FNanchor_102:3_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_102:3_194" class="fnanchor">[102:3]</a> being recruited
+in South Carolina by emigrants coming by way of Charleston&mdash;especially
+after Governor Glenn's purchase from the Cherokee in 1755, of the
+extreme western portion of the colony. Between 1750 and the Revolution,
+these settlers in the Carolinas greatly increased in numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a zone of almost continuous German settlements had been
+established, running from the head of the Mohawk in New York to the
+Savannah in Georgia. They had found the best soils, and they knew how to
+till them intensively and thriftily, as attested by their large,
+well-filled barns, good stock, and big canvas-covered Conestoga wagons.
+They preferred to dwell in groups, often of the same religious
+denomination&mdash;Lutherans, Reformed, Moravians, Mennonites, and many
+lesser sects. The diaries of Moravian missionaries from Pennsylvania,
+who visited them, show how the parent congregations kept in touch with
+their colonies<a name="FNanchor_102:4_195" id="FNanchor_102:4_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_102:4_195" class="fnanchor">[102:4]</a> and how intimate, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>[<a href="./images/103.png">103</a>]</span>in general, was the bond of
+connection between this whole German frontier zone and that of
+Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p>Side by side with this German occupation of Valley and Piedmont, went
+the migration of the Scotch-Irish.<a name="FNanchor_103:1_196" id="FNanchor_103:1_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_103:1_196" class="fnanchor">[103:1]</a> These lowland Scots had been
+planted in Ulster early in the seventeenth century. Followers of John
+Knox, they had the contentious individualism and revolutionary temper
+that seem natural to Scotch Presbyterianism. They were brought up on the
+Old Testament, and in the doctrine of government by covenant or compact.
+In Ireland their fighting qualities had been revealed in the siege of
+Londonderry, where their stubborn resistance balked the hopes of James
+II. However, religious and political disabilities were imposed upon
+these Ulstermen, which made them discontented, and hard times
+contributed to detach them from their homes. Their movement to America
+was contemporaneous with the heavy German migration. By the Revolution,
+it is believed that a third of the population of Pennsylvania was
+Scotch-Irish; and it has been estimated, probably too liberally, that a
+half million came to the United States between 1730 and 1770.<a name="FNanchor_103:2_197" id="FNanchor_103:2_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_103:2_197" class="fnanchor">[103:2]</a>
+Especially after the Rebellion of 1745, large numbers of Highlanders
+came to increase the Scotch blood in the nation.<a name="FNanchor_103:3_198" id="FNanchor_103:3_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_103:3_198" class="fnanchor">[103:3]</a> Some of the
+Scotch-Irish went to New England.<a name="FNanchor_103:4_199" id="FNanchor_103:4_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_103:4_199" class="fnanchor">[103:4]</a> Given the cold shoulder by
+congregational Puritans, they passed to unsettled lands about Worcester,
+to the frontier in the Berkshires, and in southern New Hampshire at
+Londonderry&mdash;whence came John Stark, a frontier <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>[<a href="./images/104.png">104</a>]</span>leader in the French
+and Indian War, and the hero of Bennington in the Revolution, as well as
+the ancestors of Horace Greeley and S. P. Chase. In New York, a
+Scotch-Irish settlement was planted on the frontier at Cherry
+Valley.<a name="FNanchor_104:1_200" id="FNanchor_104:1_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_104:1_200" class="fnanchor">[104:1]</a> Scotch Highlanders came to the Mohawk,<a name="FNanchor_104:2_201" id="FNanchor_104:2_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_104:2_201" class="fnanchor">[104:2]</a> where they
+followed Sir William Johnson and became Tory raiders in the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>But it was in Pennsylvania that the center of Scotch-Irish power lay.
+"These bold and indigent strangers, saying as their excuse when
+challenged for titles that we had solicited for colonists and they had
+come accordingly,"<a name="FNanchor_104:3_202" id="FNanchor_104:3_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_104:3_202" class="fnanchor">[104:3]</a> and asserting that "it was against the laws of
+God and nature that so much land should be idle while so many christians
+wanted it to work on and to raise their bread," squatted on the vacant
+lands, especially in the region disputed between Pennsylvania and
+Maryland, and remained in spite of efforts to drive them off. Finding
+the Great Valley in the hands of the Germans, they planted their own
+outposts along the line of the Indian trading path from Lancaster to
+Bedford; they occupied Cumberland Valley, and before 1760 pressed up the
+Juniata somewhat beyond the narrows, spreading out along its
+tributaries, and by 1768 had to be warned off from the Redstone country
+to avoid Indian trouble. By the time of the Revolution, their
+settlements made Pittsburgh a center from which was to come a new era in
+Pennsylvania history. It was the Scotch-Irish and German
+fur-traders<a name="FNanchor_104:4_203" id="FNanchor_104:4_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_104:4_203" class="fnanchor">[104:4]</a> whose pack trains pioneered into the Ohio Valley in
+the days before the French and Indian wars. The messengers between
+civilization and savagery were such <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>[<a href="./images/105.png">105</a>]</span>men,<a name="FNanchor_105:1_204" id="FNanchor_105:1_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_105:1_204" class="fnanchor">[105:1]</a> as the Irish Croghan,
+and the Germans Conrad Weiser and Christian Post.</p>
+
+<p>Like the Germans, the Scotch-Irish passed into the Shenandoah
+Valley,<a name="FNanchor_105:2_205" id="FNanchor_105:2_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_105:2_205" class="fnanchor">[105:2]</a> and on to the uplands of the South. In 1738 a delegation
+of the Philadelphia Presbyterian synod was sent to the Virginia governor
+and received assurances of security of religious freedom; the same
+policy was followed by the Carolinas. By 1760 a zone of Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterian churches extended from the frontiers of New England to the
+frontiers of South Carolina. This zone combined in part with the German
+zone, but in general Scotch-Irishmen tended to follow the valleys
+farther toward the mountains, to be the outer edge of this frontier.
+Along with this combined frontier stream were English, Welsh and Irish
+Quakers, and French Huguenots.<a name="FNanchor_105:3_206" id="FNanchor_105:3_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_105:3_206" class="fnanchor">[105:3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among this moving mass, as it passed along the Valley into the Piedmont,
+in the middle of the eighteenth century, were Daniel Boone, John Sevier,
+James Robertson, and the ancestors of John C. Calhoun, Abraham Lincoln,
+Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson, James K. Polk, Sam Houston, and Davy
+Crockett, while the father of Andrew Jackson came to the Carolina
+Piedmont at the same time from the coast. Recalling that Thomas
+Jefferson's home was on the frontier, at the edge of the Blue Ridge, we
+perceive that these names represent the militant expansive movement in
+American life. They foretell the settlement across the Alleghanies in
+Kentucky and Tennessee; the Louisiana Purchase, and Lewis and Clark's
+transcontinental <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>[<a href="./images/106.png">106</a>]</span>exploration; the conquest of the Gulf Plains in the
+War of 1812-15; the annexation of Texas; the acquisition of California
+and the Spanish Southwest. They represent, too, frontier democracy in
+its two aspects personified in Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln. It
+was a democracy responsive to leadership, susceptible to waves of
+emotion, of a "high religeous voltage"&mdash;quick and direct in action.</p>
+
+<p>The volume of this Northern movement into the Southern uplands is
+illustrated by the statement of Governor Tryon, of North Carolina, that
+in the summer and winter of 1765 more than a thousand immigrant wagons
+passed through Salisbury, in that colony.<a name="FNanchor_106:1_207" id="FNanchor_106:1_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_106:1_207" class="fnanchor">[106:1]</a> Coming by families, or
+groups of families or congregations, they often drove their herds with
+them. Whereas in 1746 scarce a hundred fighting men were found in Orange
+and the western counties of North Carolina, there were in 1753 fully
+three thousand, in addition to over a thousand Scotch in the Cumberland;
+and they covered the province more or less thickly, from Hillsboro and
+Fayetteville to the mountains.<a name="FNanchor_106:2_208" id="FNanchor_106:2_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_106:2_208" class="fnanchor">[106:2]</a> Bassett remarks that the
+Presbyterians received their first ministers from the synod of New York
+and Pennsylvania, and later on sent their ministerial students to
+Princeton College. "Indeed it is likely that the inhabitants of this
+region knew more about Philadelphia at that time than about Newbern or
+Edenton."<a name="FNanchor_106:3_209" id="FNanchor_106:3_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_106:3_209" class="fnanchor">[106:3]</a></p>
+
+<p>We are now in a position to note briefly, in conclusion, some of the
+results of the occupation of this new frontier during the first half of
+the eighteenth century&mdash;some of the consequences of this formation of
+the Old West.</p>
+
+<p>I. A fighting frontier had been created all along the line from New
+England to Georgia, which bore the brunt of French <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>[<a href="./images/107.png">107</a>]</span>and Indian attacks
+and gave indispensable service during the Revolution. The significance
+of this fact could only be developed by an extended survey of the
+scattered border warfare of this era. We should have to see Rogers
+leading his New England Rangers, and Washington defending interior
+Virginia with his frontiersmen in their hunting shirts, in the French
+and Indian War. When all of the campaigns about the region of Canada,
+Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, central New York (Oriskany, Cherry
+Valley, Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois), Wyoming Valley,
+western Pennsylvania, the Virginia Valley, and the back country of the
+South are considered as a whole from this point of view, the meaning of
+the Old West will become more apparent.</p>
+
+<p>II. A new society had been established, differing in essentials from the
+colonial society of the coast. It was a democratic self-sufficing,
+primitive agricultural society, in which individualism was more
+pronounced than the community life of the lowlands. The indented servant
+and the slave were not a normal part of its labor system. It was engaged
+in grain and cattle raising, not in producing staples, and it found a
+partial means of supplying its scarcity of specie by the peltries which
+it shipped to the coast. But the hunter folk were already pushing
+farther on; the cow-pens and the range were giving place to the small
+farm, as in our own day they have done in the cattle country. It was a
+region of hard work and poverty, not of wealth and leisure. Schools and
+churches were secured under serious difficulty,<a name="FNanchor_107:1_210" id="FNanchor_107:1_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_107:1_210" class="fnanchor">[107:1]</a> if at all; but in
+spite of the natural <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>[<a href="./images/108.png">108</a>]</span>tendencies of a frontier life, a large portion of
+the interior showed a distinctly religious atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Old West began the movement of internal trade which developed
+home markets and diminished that colonial dependence on Europe in
+industrial matters shown by the maritime and staple-raising sections.
+Not only did Boston and other New England towns increase as trading
+centers when the back country settled up, but an even more significant
+interchange occurred along the Valley and Piedmont. The German farmers
+of the Great Valley brought their woven linen, knitted stockings,
+firkins of butter, dried apples, grain, etc., to Philadelphia and
+especially to Baltimore, which was laid out in 1730. To this city also
+came trade from the Shenandoah Valley, and even from the Piedmont came
+peltry trains and droves of cattle and hogs to the same market.<a name="FNanchor_108:1_211" id="FNanchor_108:1_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_108:1_211" class="fnanchor">[108:1]</a>
+The increase of settlement on the upper James resulted in the
+establishment of the city of Richmond at the falls of the river in 1737.
+Already the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the lowlands were finding
+rivals in the grain-raising area of interior Virginia and Maryland.
+Charleston prospered as the up-country of the Carolinas grew. Writing in
+the middle of the eighteenth century, Governor Glenn, of South Carolina,
+explained the apparent diminution of the colony's shipping thus:<a name="FNanchor_108:2_212" id="FNanchor_108:2_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_108:2_212" class="fnanchor">[108:2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Our trade with New York and Philadelphia was of this sort,
+draining us of all the little money and bills that we could
+gather from other places, for their bread, flour, beer, hams,
+bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except
+beer, our new townships begin to supply us with which are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>[<a href="./images/109.png">109</a>]</span>settled with very industrious and consequently thriving
+Germans.</p></div>
+
+<p>It was not long before this interior trade produced those rivalries for
+commercial ascendancy, between the coastwise cities, which still
+continue. The problem of internal improvements became a pressing one,
+and the statutes show increasing provision for roads, ferries, bridges,
+river improvements, etc.<a name="FNanchor_109:1_213" id="FNanchor_109:1_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:1_213" class="fnanchor">[109:1]</a> The basis was being laid for a national
+economy, and at the same time a new source for foreign export was
+created.</p>
+
+<p>IV. The Old West raised the issues of nativism and a lower standard of
+comfort. In New England, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians had been frowned
+upon and pushed away by the Puritan townsmen.<a name="FNanchor_109:2_214" id="FNanchor_109:2_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:2_214" class="fnanchor">[109:2]</a> In Pennsylvania,
+the coming of the Germans and the Scotch-Irish in such numbers caused
+grave anxiety. Indeed, a bill was passed to limit the importation of the
+Palatines, but it was vetoed.<a name="FNanchor_109:3_215" id="FNanchor_109:3_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:3_215" class="fnanchor">[109:3]</a> Such astute observers as Franklin
+feared in 1753 that Pennsylvania would be unable to preserve its
+language and that even its government would become precarious.<a name="FNanchor_109:4_216" id="FNanchor_109:4_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:4_216" class="fnanchor">[109:4]</a> "I
+remember," he declares, "when they modestly declined intermeddling in
+our elections, but now they come in droves and carry all before them,
+except in one or two counties;" and he lamented that the English could
+not remove their prejudices by addressing them in German.<a name="FNanchor_109:5_217" id="FNanchor_109:5_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:5_217" class="fnanchor">[109:5]</a> Dr.
+Douglas<a name="FNanchor_109:6_218" id="FNanchor_109:6_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_109:6_218" class="fnanchor">[109:6]</a> apprehended that Pennsylvania would "degenerate into a
+foreign colony" and endanger the quiet of the adjacent provinces. Edmund
+Burke, regretting that the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>[<a href="./images/110.png">110</a>]</span>Germans adhered to their own schools,
+literature, and language, and that they possessed great tracts without
+admixture of English, feared that they would not blend and become one
+people with the British colonists, and that the colony was threatened
+with the danger of being wholly foreign. He also noted that "these
+foreigners by their industry, frugality, and a hard way of living, in
+which they greatly exceed our people, have in a manner thrust them out
+in several places."<a name="FNanchor_110:1_219" id="FNanchor_110:1_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_110:1_219" class="fnanchor">[110:1]</a> This is a phenomenon with which a succession
+of later frontiers has familiarized us. In point of fact the
+"Pennsylvania Dutch" remained through our history a very stubborn area
+to assimilate, with corresponding effect upon Pennsylvania politics.</p>
+
+<p>It should be noted also that this coming of non-English stock to the
+frontier raised in all the colonies affected, questions of
+naturalization and land tenure by aliens.<a name="FNanchor_110:2_220" id="FNanchor_110:2_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_110:2_220" class="fnanchor">[110:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>V. The creation of this frontier society&mdash;of which so large a portion
+differed from that of the coast in language and religion as well as in
+economic life, social structure, and ideals&mdash;produced an antagonism
+between interior and coast, which worked itself out in interesting
+fashion. In general this took these forms: contests between the
+property-holding class of the coast and the debtor class of the
+interior, where specie was lacking, and where paper money and a
+readjustment of the basis of taxation were demanded; contests over
+defective or unjust local government in the administration of taxes,
+fees, lands, and the courts; contests over apportionment in the
+legislature, whereby the coast was able to dominate, even when its white
+population was in the minority; contests to secure the complete
+separation of church and state; and, later, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>[<a href="./images/111.png">111</a>]</span>contests over slavery,
+internal improvements, and party politics in general. These contests are
+also intimately connected with the political philosophy of the
+Revolution and with the development of American democracy. In nearly
+every colony prior to the Revolution, struggles had been in progress
+between the party of privilege, chiefly the Eastern men of property
+allied with the English authorities, and the democratic classes,
+strongest in the West and the cities.</p>
+
+<p>This theme deserves more space than can here be allotted to it; but a
+rapid survey of conditions in this respect, along the whole frontier,
+will at least serve to bring out the point.</p>
+
+<p>In New England as a whole, the contest is less in evidence. That part of
+the friction elsewhere seen as the result of defective local government
+in the back country, was met by the efficiency of the town system; but
+between the interior and the coast there were struggles over
+apportionment and religious freedom. The former is illustrated by the
+convention that met in Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1776, to petition the
+States of Massachusetts and New Hampshire to relieve the financial
+distress and unfair legislative representation. Sixteen of the border
+towns of New Hampshire sent delegates to this convention. Two years
+later, these New Hampshire towns attempted to join Vermont.<a name="FNanchor_111:1_221" id="FNanchor_111:1_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_111:1_221" class="fnanchor">[111:1]</a> As a
+Revolutionary State, Vermont itself was an illustration of the same
+tendency of the interior to break away from the coast. Massachusetts in
+this period witnessed a campaign between the paper money party which was
+entrenched in the more recently and thinly-settled areas of the interior
+and west, and the property-holding classes of the coast.<a name="FNanchor_111:2_222" id="FNanchor_111:2_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_111:2_222" class="fnanchor">[111:2]</a> The
+opposition to the constitutions of 1778 and 1780 is tinctured <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>[<a href="./images/112.png">112</a>]</span>with the
+same antagonism between the ideas of the newer part of the interior and
+of the coast.<a name="FNanchor_112:1_223" id="FNanchor_112:1_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_112:1_223" class="fnanchor">[112:1]</a> Shays' Rebellion and the anti-federal opposition of
+1787-88 found its stronghold in the same interior areas.<a name="FNanchor_112:2_224" id="FNanchor_112:2_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_112:2_224" class="fnanchor">[112:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The religious struggles continued until the democratic interior, where
+dissenting sects were strong, and where there was antagonism to the
+privileges of the congregational church, finally secured complete
+disestablishment in New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. But
+this belongs to a later period.<a name="FNanchor_112:3_225" id="FNanchor_112:3_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_112:3_225" class="fnanchor">[112:3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Pennsylvania affords a clear illustration of these sectional
+antagonisms. The memorial of the frontier "Paxton Boys," in 1764,
+demanded a right to share in political privileges with the older part of
+the colony, and protested against the apportionment by which the
+counties of Chester, Bucks, and Philadelphia, together with the city of
+Philadelphia, elected twenty-six delegates, while the five frontier
+counties had but ten.<a name="FNanchor_112:4_226" id="FNanchor_112:4_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_112:4_226" class="fnanchor">[112:4]</a> The frontier complained against the failure
+of the dominant Quaker party of the coast to protect the interior
+against the Indians.<a name="FNanchor_112:5_227" id="FNanchor_112:5_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_112:5_227" class="fnanchor">[112:5]</a> The three old wealthy counties under Quaker
+rule feared the growth of the West, therefore made few new counties, and
+carefully restricted the representation in each to preserve the majority
+in the old section. At the same time, by a property qualification they
+met the danger of the democratic city population. Among the points of
+grievance in this colony, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>[<a href="./images/113.png">113</a>]</span>in addition to apportionment and
+representation, was the difficulty of access to the county seat, owing
+to the size of the back counties. Dr. Lincoln has well set forth the
+struggle of the back country, culminating in its triumph in the
+constitutional convention of 1776, which was chiefly the work of the
+Presbyterian counties.<a name="FNanchor_113:1_228" id="FNanchor_113:1_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_113:1_228" class="fnanchor">[113:1]</a> Indeed, there were two revolutions in
+Pennsylvania, which went on side by side: one a revolt against the
+coastal property-holding classes, the old dominant Quaker party, and the
+other a revolt against Great Britain, which was in this colony made
+possible only by the triumph of the interior.</p>
+
+<p>In Virginia, as early as 1710, Governor Spotswood had complained that
+the old counties remained small while the new ones were sometimes ninety
+miles long, the inhabitants being obliged to travel thirty or forty
+miles to their own court-house. Some of the counties had 1,700
+tithables, while others only a dozen miles square had 500. Justices of
+the peace disliked to ride forty or fifty miles to their monthly courts.
+Likewise there was disparity in the size of parishes&mdash;for example, that
+of Varina, on the upper James, had nine hundred tithables, many of whom
+lived fifty miles from their church. But the vestry refused to allow the
+remote parishioners to separate, because it would increase the parish
+levy of those that remained. He feared lest this would afford
+"opportunity to Sectarys to establish their opinions among 'em, and
+thereby shake that happy establishment of the Church of England which
+this colony enjoys with less mixture of Dissenters than any other of her
+Maj'tie's plantations, and when once Schism has crept into the Church,
+it will soon create faction in the Civil Government."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>[<a href="./images/114.png">114</a>]</span></p><p>That Spotswood's fears were well founded, we have already seen. As the
+sectaries of the back country increased, dissatisfaction with the
+established church grew. After the Revolution came, Jefferson, with the
+back country behind him, was able finally to destroy the establishment,
+and to break down the system of entails and primogeniture behind which
+the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the coast was entrenched. The desire
+of Jefferson to see slavery gradually abolished and popular education
+provided, is a further illustration of the attitude of the interior. In
+short, Jeffersonian democracy, with its idea of separation of church and
+state, its wish to popularize education, and its dislike for special
+privilege, was deeply affected by the Western society of the Old
+Dominion.</p>
+
+<p>The Virginian reform movement, however, was unable to redress the
+grievance of unequal apportionment. In 1780 Jefferson pointed out that
+the practice of allowing each county an equal representation in the
+legislature gave control to the numerous small counties of the
+tidewater, while the large populous counties of the up-country suffered.
+"Thus," he wrote, "the 19,000 men below the falls give law to more than
+30,000 living in other parts of the state, and appoint all their chief
+officers, executive and judiciary."<a name="FNanchor_114:1_229" id="FNanchor_114:1_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_114:1_229" class="fnanchor">[114:1]</a> This led to a long struggle
+between coast and interior, terminated only when the slave population
+passed across the fall line, and more nearly assimilated coast and
+up-country. In the mountain areas which did not undergo this change, the
+independent state of West Virginia remains as a monument of the contest.
+In the convention of 1829-30, the whole philosophy of representation was
+discussed, and the coast defended its control as necessary to protect
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>[<a href="./images/115.png">115</a>]</span>property from the assaults of a numerical majority. They feared that
+the interior would tax their slaves in order to secure funds for
+internal improvements.</p>
+
+<p>As Doddridge put the case:<a name="FNanchor_115:1_230" id="FNanchor_115:1_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_115:1_230" class="fnanchor">[115:1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The principle is that the owners of slave property must be
+possessed of all the powers of government, however small their
+own numbers may be, to secure that property from the rapacity
+of an overgrown majority of white men. This principle admits
+of no relaxation, because the weaker the minority becomes, the
+greater will their need for power be according to their own
+doctrines.</p></div>
+
+<p>Leigh of Chesterfield county declared:<a name="FNanchor_115:2_231" id="FNanchor_115:2_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_115:2_231" class="fnanchor">[115:2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is remarkable&mdash;I mention it for the curiosity of the
+fact&mdash;that if any evil, physical or moral, arise in any of the
+states south of us, it never takes a northerly direction, or
+taints the Southern breeze; whereas, if any plague originate
+in the North, it is sure to spread to the South and to invade
+us sooner or later; the influenza&mdash;the smallpox&mdash;the
+varioloid&mdash;the Hessian fly&mdash;the Circuit Court
+system&mdash;Universal Suffrage&mdash;all come from the North, <i>and they
+always cross above the falls of the great rivers</i>; below, it
+seems, the broad expanse of waters interposing, effectually
+arrests their progress.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>[<a href="./images/116.png">116</a>]</span></p><p>Nothing could more clearly bring out the sense of contrast between
+upland and lowland Virginia, and the continued intimacy of the bond of
+connection between the North and its Valley and Piedmont colonies, than
+this unconscious testimony.</p>
+
+<p>In North and South Carolina the upland South, beyond the pine barrens
+and the fall line, had similar grievances against the coast; but as the
+zone of separation was more strongly marked, the grievances were more
+acute. The tide of backwoods settlement flowing down the Piedmont from
+the north, had cut across the lines of local government and disarranged
+the regular course of development of the colonies from the
+seacoast.<a name="FNanchor_116:1_232" id="FNanchor_116:1_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_116:1_232" class="fnanchor">[116:1]</a> Under the common practice, large counties in North
+Carolina and parishes in South Carolina had been projected into the
+unoccupied interior from the older settlements along their eastern edge.</p>
+
+<p>But the Piedmont settlers brought their own social order, and could not
+be well governed by the older planters living far away toward the
+seaboard. This may be illustrated by conditions in South Carolina. The
+general court in Charleston had absorbed county and precinct courts,
+except the minor jurisdiction of justices of the peace. This was well
+enough for the great planters who made their regular residence there for
+a part of each year; but it was a source of oppression to the up-country
+settlers, remote from the court. The difficulty of bringing witnesses,
+the delay of the law, and the costs all resulted in the escape of
+criminals as well as in the immunity of reckless debtors. The extortions
+of officials, and their occasional collusion with horse and cattle
+thieves, and the lack of regular administration of the law, led the
+South Carolina up-country men to take affairs in their own hands, and in
+1764 to establish associations to administer lynch law under the name of
+"Regulators." The "Scovillites," or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>[<a href="./images/117.png">117</a>]</span>government party, and the
+Regulators met in arms on the Saluda in 1769, but hostilities were
+averted and remedial measures passed, which alleviated the difficulty
+until the Revolution.<a name="FNanchor_117:1_233" id="FNanchor_117:1_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_117:1_233" class="fnanchor">[117:1]</a> There still remained, however, the
+grievance of unjust legislative representation.<a name="FNanchor_117:2_234" id="FNanchor_117:2_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_117:2_234" class="fnanchor">[117:2]</a> Calhoun stated
+the condition in these words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The upper country had no representation in the government and
+no political existence as a constituent portion of the state
+until a period near the commencement of the revolution.
+Indeed, during the revolution, and until the formation of the
+present constitution, in 1790, its political weight was
+scarcely felt in the government. Even then although it had
+become the most populous section, power was so distributed
+under the constitution as to leave it in a minority in every
+department of government.</p></div>
+
+<p>Even in 1794 it was claimed by the up-country leaders that four-fifths
+of the people were governed by one-fifth. Nor was the difficulty met
+until the constitutional amendment of 1808, the effect of which was to
+give the control of the senate to the lower section and of the house of
+representatives to the upper section, thus providing a mutual
+veto.<a name="FNanchor_117:3_235" id="FNanchor_117:3_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_117:3_235" class="fnanchor">[117:3]</a> This South Carolina experience furnished the historical
+basis for Calhoun's argument for nullification, and for the political
+philosophy underlying <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>[<a href="./images/118.png">118</a>]</span>his theory of the "concurrent majority."<a name="FNanchor_118:1_236" id="FNanchor_118:1_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_118:1_236" class="fnanchor">[118:1]</a>
+This adjustment was effected, however, only after the advance of the
+black belt toward the interior had assimilated portions of the Piedmont
+to lowland ideals.</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to North Carolina's upper country we find the familiar
+story, but with a more tragic ending. The local officials owed their
+selection to the governor and the council whom he appointed. Thus power
+was all concentrated in the official "ring" of the lowland area. The men
+of the interior resented the extortionate fees and the poll tax, which
+bore with unequal weight upon the poor settlers of the back country.
+This tax had been continued after sufficient funds had been collected to
+extinguish the debt for which it was originally levied, but venal
+sheriffs had failed to pay it into the treasury. A report of 1770 showed
+at least one defaulting sheriff in every county of the province.<a name="FNanchor_118:2_237" id="FNanchor_118:2_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_118:2_237" class="fnanchor">[118:2]</a>
+This tax, which was almost the sole tax of the colony, was to be
+collected in specie, for the warehouse system, by which staples might be
+accepted, while familiar on the coast, did not apply to the interior.
+The specie was exceedingly difficult to obtain; in lack of it, the
+farmer saw the sheriff, who owed his appointment to the dominant lowland
+planters, sell the lands of the delinquent to his speculative friends.
+Lawyers and court fees followed.</p>
+
+<p>In short, the interior felt that it was being exploited<ins class="corr" title="original has period">,</ins><a name="FNanchor_118:3_238" id="FNanchor_118:3_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_118:3_238" class="fnanchor">[118:3]</a> and it
+had no redress, for the legislature was so apportioned that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>[<a href="./images/119.png">119</a>]</span>all power
+rested in the old lowland region. Efforts to secure paper money failed
+by reason of the governor's opposition under instructions from the
+crown, and the currency was contracting at the very time when population
+was rapidly increasing in the interior.<a name="FNanchor_119:1_239" id="FNanchor_119:1_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_119:1_239" class="fnanchor">[119:1]</a> As in New England, in the
+days of Shays' Rebellion, violent prejudice existed against the
+judiciary and the lawyers, and it must, of course, be understood that
+the movement was not free from frontier dislike of taxation and the
+restraints of law and order in general. In 1766 and 1768, meetings were
+held in the upper counties to organize the opposition, and an
+"association"<a name="FNanchor_119:2_240" id="FNanchor_119:2_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_119:2_240" class="fnanchor">[119:2]</a> was formed, the members of which pledged themselves
+to pay no more taxes or fees until they satisfied themselves that these
+were agreeable to law.</p>
+
+<p>The Regulators, as they called themselves, assembled in the autumn of
+1768 to the number of nearly four thousand, and tried to secure terms of
+adjustment. In 1770 the court-house at Hillsboro was broken into by a
+mob. The assembly passed some measures designed to conciliate the back
+country; but before they became operative, Governor Tryon's militia,
+about twelve hundred men, largely from the lowlands, and led by the
+gentry whose privileges were involved, met the motley army of the
+Regulators, who numbered about two thousand, in the battle of the
+Alamance (May, 1771). Many were killed and wounded, the Regulators
+dispersed, and over six thousand men came into camp and took the oath of
+submission to the colonial authorities. The battle was not the first
+battle of the Revolution, as it has been sometimes called, for it had
+little or no <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>[<a href="./images/120.png">120</a>]</span>relation to the stamp act; and many of the frontiersmen
+involved, later refused to fight against England because of the very
+hatred which had been inspired for the lowland Revolutionary leaders in
+this battle of the Alamance. The interior of the Carolinas was a region
+where neighbors, during the Revolution, engaged in internecine conflicts
+of Tories against Whigs.</p>
+
+<p>But in the sense that the battle of Alamance was a conflict against
+privilege, and for equality of political rights and power, it was indeed
+a preliminary battle of the Revolution, although fought against many of
+the very men who later professed Revolutionary doctrines in North
+Carolina. The need of recognizing the importance of the interior led to
+concessions in the convention of 1776 in that state. "Of the forty-four
+sections of the constitution, thirteen are embodiments of reforms sought
+by the Regulators."<a name="FNanchor_120:1_241" id="FNanchor_120:1_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_120:1_241" class="fnanchor">[120:1]</a> But it was in this period that hundreds of
+North Carolina backwoodsmen crossed the mountains to Tennessee and
+Kentucky, many of them coming from the heart of the Regulator region.
+They used the device of "associations" to provide for government in
+their communities.<a name="FNanchor_120:2_242" id="FNanchor_120:2_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_120:2_242" class="fnanchor">[120:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the matter of apportionment, North Carolina showed the same lodgment
+of power in the hands of the coast, even after population preponderated
+in the Piedmont.<a name="FNanchor_120:3_243" id="FNanchor_120:3_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_120:3_243" class="fnanchor">[120:3]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is needless to comment on the uniformity of the evidence which has
+been adduced, to show that the Old West, the interior region from New
+England to Georgia, had a common grievance against the coast; that it
+was deprived throughout most of the region of its due share of
+representation, and neglected and oppressed in local government in large
+portions of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>[<a href="./images/121.png">121</a>]</span>the section. The familiar struggle of West against East, of
+democracy against privileged classes, was exhibited along the entire
+line. The phenomenon must be considered as a unit, not in the fragments
+of state histories. It was a struggle of interior against coast.</p>
+
+<p>VI. Perhaps the most noteworthy Western activity in the Revolutionary
+era, aside from the aspects already mentioned, was in the part which the
+multitude of sects in the Old West played in securing the great
+contribution which the United States made to civilization by providing
+for complete religious liberty, a secular state with free churches.
+Particularly the Revolutionary constitutions of Pennsylvania and
+Virginia, under the influence of the back country, insured religious
+freedom. The effects of the North Carolina upland area to secure a
+similar result were noteworthy, though for the time ineffective.<a name="FNanchor_121:1_244" id="FNanchor_121:1_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_121:1_244" class="fnanchor">[121:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>VII. As population increased in these years, the coast gradually yielded
+to the up-country's demands. This may be illustrated by the transfer of
+the capitals from the lowlands to the fall line and Valley. In 1779,
+Virginia changed her seat of government from Williamsburg to Richmond;
+in 1790, South Carolina, from Charleston to Columbia; in 1791, North
+Carolina, from Edenton to Raleigh; in 1797, New York, from New York City
+to Albany; in 1799, Pennsylvania, from Philadelphia to Lancaster.</p>
+
+<p>VIII. The democratic aspect of the new constitutions was also influenced
+by the frontier as well as by the prevalent Revolutionary philosophy;
+and the demands for paper money, stay <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>[<a href="./images/122.png">122</a>]</span>and tender laws, etc., of this
+period were strongest in the interior. It was this region that supported
+Shays' Rebellion; it was (with some important exceptions) the same area
+that resisted the ratification of the federal constitution, fearful of a
+stronger government and of the loss of paper money.</p>
+
+<p>IX. The interior later showed its opposition to the coast by the
+persistent contest against slavery, carried on in the up-country of
+Virginia, and North and South Carolina. Until the decade 1830-40, it was
+not certain that both Virginia and North Carolina would not find some
+means of gradual abolition. The same influence accounts for much of the
+exodus of the Piedmont pioneers into Indiana and Illinois, in the first
+half of the nineteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_122:1_245" id="FNanchor_122:1_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_122:1_245" class="fnanchor">[122:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>X. These were the regions, also, in which were developed the desire of
+the pioneers who crossed the mountains, and settled on the "Western
+waters," to establish new States free from control by the lowlands,
+owning their own lands, able to determine their own currency, and in
+general to govern themselves in accordance with the ideals of the Old
+West. They were ready also, if need be, to become independent of the Old
+Thirteen. Vermont must be considered in this aspect, as well as Kentucky
+and Tennessee.<a name="FNanchor_122:2_246" id="FNanchor_122:2_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_122:2_246" class="fnanchor">[122:2]</a></p>
+
+<p>XI. The land system of the Old West furnished precedents which developed
+into the land system of the trans-Alleghany West.<a name="FNanchor_122:3_247" id="FNanchor_122:3_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_122:3_247" class="fnanchor">[122:3]</a> The squatters
+of Pennsylvania and the Carolinas <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>[<a href="./images/123.png">123</a>]</span>found it easy to repeat the operation
+on another frontier. Preemption laws became established features. The
+Revolution gave opportunity to confiscate the claims of Lord Fairfax,
+Lord Granville, and McCulloh to their vast estates, as well as the
+remaining lands of the Pennsylvania proprietors. The 640 acre (or one
+square mile) unit of North Carolina for preemptions, and frontier land
+bounties, became the area awarded to frontier stations by Virginia in
+1779, and the "section" of the later federal land system. The Virginia
+pre&euml;mption right of four hundred acres on the Western waters, or a
+thousand for those who came prior to 1778, was, in substance, the
+continuation of a system familiar in the Old West.</p>
+
+<p>The grants to Beverley, of over a hundred thousand acres in the Valley,
+conditioned on seating a family for every thousand acres, and the
+similar grants to Borden, Carter, and Lewis, were followed by the great
+grant to the Ohio Company. This company, including leading Virginia
+planters and some frontiersmen, asked in 1749 for two hundred thousand
+acres on the upper Ohio, conditioned on seating a hundred families in
+seven years, and for an additional grant of three hundred thousand acres
+after this should be accomplished. It was proposed to settle Germans on
+these lands.</p>
+
+<p>The Loyal Land Company, by order of the Virginia council (1749), was
+authorized to take up eight hundred thousand acres west and north of the
+southern boundary of Virginia, on condition of purchasing "rights" for
+the amount within four years. The company sold many tracts for &pound;3 per
+hundred acres to settlers, but finally lost its claim. The Mississippi
+Company, including in its membership the Lees, Washingtons, and other
+great Virginia planters, applied for two and one-half million acres in
+the West in 1769. Similar land companies <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>[<a href="./images/124.png">124</a>]</span>of New England origin, like
+the Susquehanna Company and Lyman's Mississippi Company, exhibit the
+same tendency of the Old West on the northern side. New England's Ohio
+Company of Associates, which settled Marietta, had striking resemblances
+to town proprietors.</p>
+
+<p>These were only the most noteworthy of many companies of this period,
+and it is evident that they were a natural outgrowth of speculations in
+the Old West. Washington, securing military bounty land claims of
+soldiers of the French and Indian War, and selecting lands in West
+Virginia until he controlled over seventy thousand acres for
+speculation, is an excellent illustration of the tendency. He also
+thought of colonizing German Palatines upon his lands. The formation of
+the Transylvania and Vandalia companies were natural developments on a
+still vaster scale.<a name="FNanchor_124:1_248" id="FNanchor_124:1_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_124:1_248" class="fnanchor">[124:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>XII. The final phase of the Old West, which I wish merely to mention, in
+conclusion, is its colonization of areas beyond the mountains. The
+essential unity of the movement is brought out by a study of how New
+England's Old West settled northern Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont,
+the Adirondacks, central and Western New York, the Wyoming Valley (once
+organized as a part of Litchfield, Connecticut), the Ohio Company's
+region about Marietta, and Connecticut's Western Reserve on the shores
+of Lake Erie; and how the pioneers of the Great Valley and the Piedmont
+region of the South crossed the Alleghanies and settled on the Western
+Waters. Daniel Boone, going from his Pennsylvania home to the Yadkin,
+and from the Yadkin to Tennessee and Kentucky, took part in the whole
+process, and later in its continuation into Missouri.<a name="FNanchor_124:2_249" id="FNanchor_124:2_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_124:2_249" class="fnanchor">[124:2]</a> The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>[<a href="./images/125.png">125</a>]</span>social
+conditions and ideals of the Old West powerfully shaped those of the
+trans-Alleghany West.</p>
+
+<p>The important contrast between the spirit of individual colonization,
+resentful of control, which the Southern frontiersmen showed, and the
+spirit of community colonization and control to which the New England
+pioneers inclined, left deep traces on the later history of the
+West.<a name="FNanchor_125:1_250" id="FNanchor_125:1_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_125:1_250" class="fnanchor">[125:1]</a> The Old West diminished the importance of the town as a
+colonizing unit, even in New England. In the Southern area, efforts to
+legislate towns into existence, as in Virginia, South Carolina, and
+Georgia, failed. They faded away before wilderness conditions. But in
+general, the Northern stream of migration was communal, and the Southern
+individual. The difference which existed between that portion of the Old
+West which was formed by the northward colonization, chiefly of the New
+England Plateau (including New York), and that portion formed by the
+southward colonization of the Virginia Valley and the Southern Piedmont
+was reflected in the history of the Middle West and the Mississippi
+Valley.<a name="FNanchor_125:2_251" id="FNanchor_125:2_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_125:2_251" class="fnanchor">[125:2]</a></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67:1_118" id="Footnote_67:1_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67:1_118"><span class="label">[67:1]</span></a> <i>Proceedings of the State Historical Society of
+Wisconsin for 1908.</i> Reprinted with the permission of the Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68:1_119" id="Footnote_68:1_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68:1_119"><span class="label">[68:1]</span></a> For the settled area in 1660, see the map by Lois
+Mathews in Channing, "United Stales" (N. Y., 1905), i, p. 510; and by
+Albert Cook Myers in Avery, "United States" (Cleveland, 1905), ii,
+following p. 398. In Channing, ii, following p. 603, is Marion F.
+Lansing's map of settlement in 1760, which is on a rather conservative
+basis, especially the part showing the interior of the Carolinas.
+</p><p>
+Contemporaneous maps of the middle of the eighteenth century, useful in
+studying the progress of settlement, are: Mitchell, "Map of the British
+Colonies" (1755); Evans, "Middle British Colonies" (1758); Jefferson and
+Frye, "Map of Virginia" (1751 and 1755).
+</p><p>
+On the geographical conditions, see maps and text in Powell,
+"Physiographic Regions<ins class="corr" title="original has extraneous single quote">"</ins> (N. Y., 1896), and Willis, "Northern
+Appalachians," in "Physiography of the United States" (N. Y., 1896), pp.
+73-82, 169-176, 196-201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70:1_120" id="Footnote_70:1_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70:1_120"><span class="label">[70:1]</span></a> See Osgood, "American Colonies" (N. Y., 1907), iii,
+chap. iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70:2_121" id="Footnote_70:2_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70:2_121"><span class="label">[70:2]</span></a> See <a href="#chapter_ii">chapter ii</a>, <i>ante</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70:3_122" id="Footnote_70:3_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70:3_122"><span class="label">[70:3]</span></a> Sheldon, "Deerfield" (Deerfield, Mass., 1895), i, p.
+288.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70:4_123" id="Footnote_70:4_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70:4_123"><span class="label">[70:4]</span></a> Parkman, "Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390; compare his
+description of Deerfield in 1704, in "Half Century of Conflict" (Boston,
+1898), i, p. 55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72:1_124" id="Footnote_72:1_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72:1_124"><span class="label">[72:1]</span></a> Hanna, "Scotch Irish" (N. Y. and London, 1902), ii, pp.
+17-24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72:2_125" id="Footnote_72:2_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72:2_125"><span class="label">[72:2]</span></a> "Half Century of Conflict," ii, pp. 214-234.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72:3_126" id="Footnote_72:3_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72:3_126"><span class="label">[72:3]</span></a> "American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, p. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73:1_127" id="Footnote_73:1_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73:1_127"><span class="label">[73:1]</span></a> For the extent of New England settlements in 1760,
+compared with 1700, see the map in Channing, "United States," ii, at end
+of volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74:1_128" id="Footnote_74:1_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74:1_128"><span class="label">[74:1]</span></a> Schafer, "Land Grants for Education," Univ. of Wis.
+<i>Bulletin</i> (Madison, 1902), chap. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75:1_129" id="Footnote_75:1_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75:1_129"><span class="label">[75:1]</span></a> On New England's land system see Osgood, "American
+Colonies" (N. Y., 1904), i, chap. xi; and <ins class="corr" title="original has Eggleston">Egleston</ins>, "Land System of the
+New England Colonies," Johns Hopkins Univ. <i>Studies</i> (Baltimore, 1886),
+iv. Compare the account of Virginia, about 1696, in "Mass. Hist. Colls."
+(Boston, 1835), 1st series, v, p. 129, for a favorable view of the New
+England town system; and note the probable influence of New England's
+system upon Virginia's legislation about 1700. See <a href="#chapter_ii">chapter ii</a>, <i>ante</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76:1_130" id="Footnote_76:1_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76:1_130"><span class="label">[76:1]</span></a> Amelia C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents of our National
+Land System," citing Massachusetts Bay, House of Rep. "Journal," 1715,
+pp. 5, 22, 46; Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts Bay" (London,
+1768), ii, p. 331; Holland, "Western Massachusetts" (Springfield, 1855),
+pp. 66, 169.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76:2_131" id="Footnote_76:2_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76:2_131"><span class="label">[76:2]</span></a> "Conn. Colon. Records" (Hartford, 1874), viii, p. 134.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77:1_132" id="Footnote_77:1_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77:1_132"><span class="label">[77:1]</span></a> Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197. See the
+comments of Hutchinson in his "History of Massachusetts Bay," ii, pp.
+331, 332. Compare the steps of Connecticut men in 1753 and 1755 to
+secure a land grant in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, for the Susquehanna
+Company, and the Connecticut governor's remark that there was no
+unappropriated land in the latter colony&mdash;"Pa. Colon. Records"
+(Harrisburg, 1851), v, p. 771; "Pa. Archives," 2d series, xviii,
+contains the important documents, with much valuable information on the
+land system of the Wyoming Valley region. See also General Lyman's
+projects for a Mississippi colony in the Yazoo delta area&mdash;all
+indicative of the pressure for land and the speculative spirit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78:1_133" id="Footnote_78:1_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78:1_133"><span class="label">[78:1]</span></a> Compare Vermont's dealings with the British, and the
+negotiations of Kentucky and Tennessee leaders with Spaniards and
+British. See <i>Amer. Hist. Review</i>, i, p. 252, note 2, for references on
+Vermont's Revolutionary philosophy and influence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79:1_134" id="Footnote_79:1_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79:1_134"><span class="label">[79:1]</span></a> See H. C. Emery, "Artemas Jean Haynes" (New Haven,
+1908), pp. 8-10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80:1_135" id="Footnote_80:1_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80:1_135"><span class="label">[80:1]</span></a> Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, p. 110.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80:2_136" id="Footnote_80:2_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80:2_136"><span class="label">[80:2]</span></a> "N. Y. Colon. Docs," vii, pp. 654, 795.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81:1_137" id="Footnote_81:1_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81:1_137"><span class="label">[81:1]</span></a> Becker, in <i>Amer. Hist. Review</i>, vi, p. 261.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81:2_138" id="Footnote_81:2_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81:2_138"><span class="label">[81:2]</span></a> Becker, <i>loc. cit.</i> For maps of grants in New York, see
+O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y." (Albany, 1850), i, pp. 421, 774;
+especially Southier, "Chorographical Map of New York"; Winsor,
+"America," v, p. 236. In general on these grants, consult also "Doc.
+Hist. of N. Y.," i, pp. 249-257; "N. Y. Colon. Docs.," iv, pp. 397, 791,
+874; v, pp. 459, 651, 805; vi, pp. 486, 549, 743, 876, 950; Kip, "Olden
+Time" (N. Y., 1872), p. 12; Scharf, "History of Westchester County"
+(Phila., 1886), i, p. 91; Libby, "Distribution of Vote on Ratification
+of Constitution" (Madison, 1894), pp. 21-25.
+</p><p>
+For the region of the Wallkill, including New Paltz, etc., see Eager,
+"Outline History of Orange County, New York" (Newburgh, 1846-47); and
+Ruttenber and Clark, "History of Orange County" (Phila., 1881), pp.
+11-20. On Cherry Valley and upper Susquehanna settlements, in general,
+in New York, see Halsey, "Old New York Frontier," pp. 5, 119, and the
+maps by De Witt and Southier in O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y.," i,
+pp. 421, 774.
+</p><p>
+Note the French Huguenots and Scotch-Irish in Orange County, and the
+Scotch-Irish settlers of Cherry Valley and their relation to
+Londonderry, N. H., as well as the missionary visits from Stockbridge,
+Mass., to the upper Susquehanna.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82:1_139" id="Footnote_82:1_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82:1_139"><span class="label">[82:1]</span></a> Lord, "Industrial Experiments" (Baltimore, 1898), p. 45;
+Diffenderfer, "German Exodus" (Lancaster, Pa., 1897).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82:2_140" id="Footnote_82:2_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82:2_140"><span class="label">[82:2]</span></a> See <i>post</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84:1_141" id="Footnote_84:1_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84:1_141"><span class="label">[84:1]</span></a> Hening, "Va. Statutes at Large" (N. Y., 1823), ii, p.
+326.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84:2_142" id="Footnote_84:2_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84:2_142"><span class="label">[84:2]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 433.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84:3_143" id="Footnote_84:3_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84:3_143"><span class="label">[84:3]</span></a> Bassett, "Writings of William Byrd" (N. Y., 1901), p.
+xxi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85:1_144" id="Footnote_85:1_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85:1_144"><span class="label">[85:1]</span></a> Hening, iii, p. 82. Similar acts were passed almost
+annually in successive years of the seventeenth century; cf. <i>loc.
+cit.</i>, <i>pp.</i> 98, 115, 119, 126, 164; the system was discontinued in
+1722&mdash;see Beverley, "Virginia and its Government" (London, 1722), p.
+234.
+</p><p>
+It is interesting to compare the recommendation of Governor Dodge for
+Wisconsin Territory in 1836&mdash;see Wis. Terr. House of Reps. "Journal,"
+1836, pp. 11 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85:2_145" id="Footnote_85:2_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85:2_145"><span class="label">[85:2]</span></a> Hening, iii, pp. 204-209.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87:1_146" id="Footnote_87:1_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87:1_146"><span class="label">[87:1]</span></a> Compare the law of 1779 in "Va. Revised Code" (1819),
+ii, p. 357; Ranck's "Boonesborough" (Louisville, 1901).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87:2_147" id="Footnote_87:2_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87:2_147"><span class="label">[87:2]</span></a> Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p. xii; "Calendar of
+British State Papers, Am. and W. I.," 1677-80 (London, 1896), p. 168.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87:3_148" id="Footnote_87:3_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87:3_148"><span class="label">[87:3]</span></a> Bassett, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. x, and Hening, iii, p. 304
+(1705).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87:4_149" id="Footnote_87:4_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87:4_149"><span class="label">[87:4]</span></a> [See Alvord and Bidgood, "First Explorations of the
+Trans-Allegheny Region."]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87:5_150" id="Footnote_87:5_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87:5_150"><span class="label">[87:5]</span></a> Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," pp. xvii, xviii, quotes
+Byrd's description of the trail; Logan, "Upper South Carolina"
+(Columbia, 1859), i, p. 167; Adair describes the trade somewhat later;
+cf. Bartram, "Travels" (London, 1792), <i>passim</i>, and Monette,
+"Mississippi Valley" (N. Y., 1846), ii, p. 13.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88:1_151" id="Footnote_88:1_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88:1_151"><span class="label">[88:1]</span></a> Bruce, "Economic Hist. of Va." (N. Y., 1896), i, pp.
+473, 475, 477.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88:2_152" id="Footnote_88:2_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88:2_152"><span class="label">[88:2]</span></a> See descriptions of cow-pens in Logan, "History of Upper
+S. C.," i, p. 151; Bartram, "Travels," p. 308. On cattle raising
+generally in the Piedmont, see: Gregg, "Old Cheraws" (N. Y., 1867), pp.
+68, 108-110; Salley, "Orangeburg" (Orangeburg, 1898), pp. 219-221;
+Lawson, "New Voyage to Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), p. 135; Ramsay, "South
+Carolina" (Charleston, 1809), i, p. 207; J. F. D. Smyth, "Tour" (London,
+1784), i, p. 143, ii, pp. 78, 97; Foote, "Sketches of N. C." (N. Y.,
+1846), p. 77; "N. C. Colon. Records" (Raleigh, 1887), v, pp. xli, 1193,
+1223; "American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, pp. 336, 350, 384; Hening,
+v. pp. 176, 245.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88:3_153" id="Footnote_88:3_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88:3_153"><span class="label">[88:3]</span></a> Spotswood, "Letters" (Richmond, 1882), i, p. 167;
+compare <i>Va. Magazine</i>, iii, pp. 120, 189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89:1_154" id="Footnote_89:1_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89:1_154"><span class="label">[89:1]</span></a> "N. C. Colon. Records," v, p. xli.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89:2_155" id="Footnote_89:2_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89:2_155"><span class="label">[89:2]</span></a> Lawson, "Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), gives a description
+early in the eighteenth century; his map is reproduced in Avery, "United
+States" (Cleveland, 1907), iii, p. 224.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89:3_156" id="Footnote_89:3_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89:3_156"><span class="label">[89:3]</span></a> The advantages and disadvantages of the Piedmont region
+of the Carolinas in the middle of the eighteenth century are illustrated
+in Spangenburg's diary, in "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 6, 7, 13, 14.
+Compare "American Husbandry," i, pp. 220, 332, 357, 388.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90:1_157" id="Footnote_90:1_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90:1_157"><span class="label">[90:1]</span></a> Spotswood, "Letters," i, p. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90:2_158" id="Footnote_90:2_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90:2_158"><span class="label">[90:2]</span></a> On Germanna see Spotswood, "Letters" (index); Fontaine's
+journal in A. Maury, "Huguenot Family" (1853), p. 268; Jones, "Present
+State of Virginia" (N. Y., 1865), p. 59; Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p.
+356; <i>Va. Magazine</i>, xiii, pp. 362, 365; vi, p. 385; xii, pp. 342, 350;
+xiv, p. 136.
+</p><p>
+Spotswood's interest in the Indian trade on the southern frontier of
+Virginia is illustrated in his fort Christanna, on which the above
+references afford information.
+</p><p>
+The contemporaneous account of Spotswood's expedition into Shenandoah
+Valley is Fontaine's journey, cited above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91:1_159" id="Footnote_91:1_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91:1_159"><span class="label">[91:1]</span></a> See the excellent paper by C. E. Kemper, in <i>Va.
+Magazine</i>, xii, on "Early Westward Movement in Virginia."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91:2_160" id="Footnote_91:2_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91:2_160"><span class="label">[91:2]</span></a> Compare Phillips, "Origin and Growth of the Southern
+Black Belts," in <i>Amer. Hist. Review</i>, xi, p. 799.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91:3_161" id="Footnote_91:3_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91:3_161"><span class="label">[91:3]</span></a> <i>Va. Magazine</i>, xiii, p. 113.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92:1_162" id="Footnote_92:1_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92:1_162"><span class="label">[92:1]</span></a> "Revised Code of Virginia" (Richmond, 1819), ii, p.
+339.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92:2_163" id="Footnote_92:2_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92:2_163"><span class="label">[92:2]</span></a> <i>Mag. Amer. Hist.</i>, xiii, pp. 217, 230; Winsor, "Narr.
+and Crit. Hist. of America," v, p. 268; Kercheval, "The Valley"
+(Winchester, Va., 1833), pp. 67, 209; <i>Va. Magazine</i>, xiii, p. 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93:1_164" id="Footnote_93:1_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93:1_164"><span class="label">[93:1]</span></a> "William and Mary College Quarterly" (Williamsburg,
+1895), iii, p. 226. See Jefferson and Frye, "Map of Virginia, 1751," for
+location of this and Borden's manor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93:2_165" id="Footnote_93:2_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93:2_165"><span class="label">[93:2]</span></a> Brown, "The Cabells" (Boston, 1895), p. 53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93:3_166" id="Footnote_93:3_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93:3_166"><span class="label">[93:3]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, pp. 57, 66.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94:1_167" id="Footnote_94:1_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94:1_167"><span class="label">[94:1]</span></a> Meade, "Old Churches" (Phila., 1861), 2 vols.; Foote,
+"Sketches" (Phila., 1855); Brown, "The Cabells," p. 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94:2_168" id="Footnote_94:2_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94:2_168"><span class="label">[94:2]</span></a> <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, vol. xci, pp. 83 <i>et seq.</i>; Ford,
+"Writing of Thomas Jefferson" (N. Y., 1892), i, pp. xix <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94:3_169" id="Footnote_94:3_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94:3_169"><span class="label">[94:3]</span></a> Byrd, "Dividing Line" (Richmond, 1866), pp. 85, 271.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95:1_170" id="Footnote_95:1_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95:1_170"><span class="label">[95:1]</span></a> "N. C. Colon. Records," iii, p. xiii. Compare Hawks,
+"Hist. of North Carolina" (Fayetteville, 1859), map of precincts,
+1663-1729.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95:2_171" id="Footnote_95:2_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95:2_171"><span class="label">[95:2]</span></a> Raper, "North Carolina" (N. Y., 1904), chap. v; W. R.
+Smith, "South Carolina" (N. Y., 1903), pp. 48, 57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95:3_172" id="Footnote_95:3_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95:3_172"><span class="label">[95:3]</span></a> Clewell, "Wachovia" (N. Y., 1902).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96:1_173" id="Footnote_96:1_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96:1_173"><span class="label">[96:1]</span></a> Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 120,
+121, citing Bassett, in "Law Quarterly Review," April, 1895, pp.
+159-161.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96:2_174" id="Footnote_96:2_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96:2_174"><span class="label">[96:2]</span></a> See map in Hawks, "North Carolina."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96:3_175" id="Footnote_96:3_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96:3_175"><span class="label">[96:3]</span></a> McCrady, "South Carolina," 1719-1776 (N. Y., 1899<ins class="corr" title="closing parenthesis missing in original">)</ins>, pp.
+149, 151; Smith, "South Carolina," p. 40; Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc.
+"Report," 1897, pp. 117-119; Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws"
+(Charleston, 1857), i, p. xi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96:4_176" id="Footnote_96:4_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96:4_176"><span class="label">[96:4]</span></a> McCrady, "South Carolina," pp. 121 <i>et seq.</i>; Phillips,
+"Transportation in the Eastern Cotton Belt" (N. Y., 1908), p. 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96:5_177" id="Footnote_96:5_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96:5_177"><span class="label">[96:5]</span></a> This was not originally provided for among the eleven
+towns. For its history see Salley, "Orangeburg"&mdash;frontier conditions
+about 1769 are described on pp. 219 <i>et seq.</i>; see map opposite p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97:1_178" id="Footnote_97:1_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97:1_178"><span class="label">[97:1]</span></a> Gregg, "Old Cheraws," p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97:2_179" id="Footnote_97:2_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97:2_179"><span class="label">[97:2]</span></a> Ballagh, <i>loc. cit.</i>, pp. 119, 120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98:1_180" id="Footnote_98:1_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98:1_180"><span class="label">[98:1]</span></a> Compare the description of Georgia frontier traders,
+cattle raisers, and land speculators, about 1773, in Bartram, "Travels,"
+pp. 18, 36, 308.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99:1_181" id="Footnote_99:1_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99:1_181"><span class="label">[99:1]</span></a> See Willis, "Northern Appalachians," in "Physiography of
+the U. S." in National Geog. Soc. "Monographs" (N. Y., 1895), no. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100:1_182" id="Footnote_100:1_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100:1_182"><span class="label">[100:1]</span></a> Diffenderfer, "German Immigration into Pennsylvania,"
+in Pa. German Soc. "Proc.," v, p. 10; "Redemptioners" (Lancaster, Pa.,
+1900).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100:2_183" id="Footnote_100:2_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100:2_183"><span class="label">[100:2]</span></a> A. B. Faust, "German Element in the United States."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100:3_184" id="Footnote_100:3_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100:3_184"><span class="label">[100:3]</span></a> See the bibliographies in Kuhns, "German and Swiss
+Settlements of Pennsylvania" (N. Y., 1901); Wayland, "German Element of
+the Shenandoah Valley" (N. Y., 1908); Channing, "United States," ii, p.
+421; Griffin, "List of Works Relating to the Germans in the U. S."
+(Library of Congress, Wash., 1904).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100:4_185" id="Footnote_100:4_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100:4_185"><span class="label">[100:4]</span></a> See in illustration, the letter in Myers, "Irish
+Quakers" (Swarthmore, Pa., 1902), p. 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101:1_186" id="Footnote_101:1_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101:1_186"><span class="label">[101:1]</span></a> Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania" (N.
+Y., 1896), p. 34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101:2_187" id="Footnote_101:2_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101:2_187"><span class="label">[101:2]</span></a> Gordon, "Pennsylvania" (Phila., 1829), p. 225.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101:3_188" id="Footnote_101:3_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101:3_188"><span class="label">[101:3]</span></a> Shepherd, <i>loc. cit.</i>, pp. 49-51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101:4_189" id="Footnote_101:4_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101:4_189"><span class="label">[101:4]</span></a> Ballagh, Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 112,
+113. Compare Smith, "St. Clair Papers" (Cincinnati, 1882), ii, p. 101.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101:5_190" id="Footnote_101:5_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101:5_190"><span class="label">[101:5]</span></a> Shepherd, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101:6_191" id="Footnote_101:6_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101:6_191"><span class="label">[101:6]</span></a> Mereness, "Maryland" (N. Y., 1901), p. 77.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102:1_192" id="Footnote_102:1_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102:1_192"><span class="label">[102:1]</span></a> "Calendar Va. State Papers" (Richmond, 1875), i, p.
+217; on these grants see Kemper, "Early Westward Movement in Virginia"
+in <i>Va. Mag.</i>, xii and xiii; Wayland, "German Element of the Shenandoah
+Valley," <i>William and Mary College Quarterly</i>, iii. The speculators,
+both planters and new-comers, soon made application for lands beyond the
+Alleghanies.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102:2_193" id="Footnote_102:2_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102:2_193"><span class="label">[102:2]</span></a> In 1794 the Virginia House of Delegates resolved to
+publish the most important laws of the state in German.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102:3_194" id="Footnote_102:3_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102:3_194"><span class="label">[102:3]</span></a> See Bernheim, "German Settlements in the Carolinas"
+(Phila., 1872); Clewell, "Wachovia"; Allen, "German Palatines in N. C."
+(Raleigh, 1905).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102:4_195" id="Footnote_102:4_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102:4_195"><span class="label">[102:4]</span></a> See Wayland, <i>loc. cit.</i>, bibliography, for references;
+and especially <i>Va. Mag.</i>, xi, pp. 113, 225, 370; xii, pp. 55, 134, 271;
+"German American Annals," N. S. iii, pp. 342, 369; iv, p. 16; Clewell,
+"Wachovia; N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 1-14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103:1_196" id="Footnote_103:1_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103:1_196"><span class="label">[103:1]</span></a> On the Scotch-Irish, see the bibliography in Green,
+"Scotch-Irish in America," Amer. Antiquarian Soc. "Proceedings," April,
+1895; Hanna, "Scotch-Irish" (N. Y., 1902), is a comprehensive
+presentation of the subject; see also Myers, "Irish Quakers."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103:2_197" id="Footnote_103:2_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103:2_197"><span class="label">[103:2]</span></a> Fiske, "Old Virginia" (Boston, 1897), ii, p. 394.
+Compare Linehan, "The Irish Scots and the Scotch-Irish" (Concord, N. H.,
+1902).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103:3_198" id="Footnote_103:3_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103:3_198"><span class="label">[103:3]</span></a> See MacLean, "Scotch Highlanders in America"
+(Cleveland, 1900).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103:4_199" id="Footnote_103:4_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103:4_199"><span class="label">[103:4]</span></a> Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 17-24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104:1_200" id="Footnote_104:1_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104:1_200"><span class="label">[104:1]</span></a> Halsey, "Old New York Frontier" (N. Y., 1901).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104:2_201" id="Footnote_104:2_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104:2_201"><span class="label">[104:2]</span></a> MacLean, pp. 196-230.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104:3_202" id="Footnote_104:3_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104:3_202"><span class="label">[104:3]</span></a> The words of Logan, Penn's agent, in 1724, in Hanna,
+ii, pp. 60, 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104:4_203" id="Footnote_104:4_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104:4_203"><span class="label">[104:4]</span></a> Winsor, "Mississippi Basin" (Boston, 1895), pp.
+238-243.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105:1_204" id="Footnote_105:1_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105:1_204"><span class="label">[105:1]</span></a> See Thwaites, "Early Western Travels" (Cleveland,
+1904-06), i; Walton, "Conrad Weiser" (Phila., 1900); Heckewelder,
+"Narrative" (Phila., 1820).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105:2_205" id="Footnote_105:2_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105:2_205"><span class="label">[105:2]</span></a> Christian, "Scotch-Irish Settlers in the Valley of
+Virginia" (Richmond, 1860).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105:3_206" id="Footnote_105:3_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105:3_206"><span class="label">[105:3]</span></a> Roosevelt gives an interesting picture of this society
+in his "Winning of the West" (N. Y., 1889-96), i, chap. v; see also his
+citations, especially Doddridge, "Settlements and Indian Wars"
+(Wellsburgh, W. Va., 1824).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106:1_207" id="Footnote_106:1_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106:1_207"><span class="label">[106:1]</span></a> Bassett, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1894, p. 145.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106:2_208" id="Footnote_106:2_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106:2_208"><span class="label">[106:2]</span></a> "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. xxxix, xl; <i>cf.</i> p.
+xxi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106:3_209" id="Footnote_106:3_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106:3_209"><span class="label">[106:3]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, pp. 146, 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107:1_210" id="Footnote_107:1_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107:1_210"><span class="label">[107:1]</span></a> See the interesting account of Rev. Moses Waddell's
+school in South Carolina, on the upper Savannah, where the students,
+including John C. Calhoun, McDuffe, Legar&eacute;, and Petigru, were educated
+in the wilderness. They lived in log huts in the woods, furnished their
+own supplies, or boarded near by, were called to the log school-house by
+horn for morning prayers, and then scattered in groups to the woods for
+study. Hunt, "Calhoun" (Phila., 1907), p. 13.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108:1_211" id="Footnote_108:1_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108:1_211"><span class="label">[108:1]</span></a> Scharf, "Maryland" (Baltimore, 1879), ii, p. 61, and
+chaps. i and xviii; Kercheval, "The Valley."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108:2_212" id="Footnote_108:2_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108:2_212"><span class="label">[108:2]</span></a> Weston, "Documents," p. 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109:1_213" id="Footnote_109:1_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:1_213"><span class="label">[109:1]</span></a> See, for example, Phillips, "Transportation in the
+Eastern Cotton Belt," pp. 21-53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109:2_214" id="Footnote_109:2_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:2_214"><span class="label">[109:2]</span></a> Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 19, 22-24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109:3_215" id="Footnote_109:3_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:3_215"><span class="label">[109:3]</span></a> Cobb, "Story of the Palatines" (Wilkes-Barre, Pa.,
+1897), p. 300, citing "Penn. Colon. Records," iv, pp. 225, 345.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109:4_216" id="Footnote_109:4_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:4_216"><span class="label">[109:4]</span></a> "Works" (Bigelow ed.), ii, pp. 296-299.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109:5_217" id="Footnote_109:5_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:5_217"><span class="label">[109:5]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, iii, p. 297; <i>cf.</i> p. 221.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109:6_218" id="Footnote_109:6_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109:6_218"><span class="label">[109:6]</span></a> "Summary" (1755), ii, p. 326.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110:1_219" id="Footnote_110:1_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110:1_219"><span class="label">[110:1]</span></a> "European Settlements" (London, 1793), ii, p. 200
+(1765); <i>cf.</i> Franklin, "Works" (N. Y., 1905-07), ii, p. 221, to the
+same effect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110:2_220" id="Footnote_110:2_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110:2_220"><span class="label">[110:2]</span></a> Proper, "Colonial Immigration Laws," in Columbia Univ.,
+"Studies," xii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111:1_221" id="Footnote_111:1_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111:1_221"><span class="label">[111:1]</span></a> Libby, "Distribution of the Vote on the Federal
+Constitution," Univ. of Wis. <i>Bulletin</i>, pp. 8, 9, and citations. Note
+especially "New Hampshire State Papers," x, pp. 228 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111:2_222" id="Footnote_111:2_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111:2_222"><span class="label">[111:2]</span></a> Libby, <i>loc. cit.</i>, pp. 12-14, 46, 54-57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112:1_223" id="Footnote_112:1_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112:1_223"><span class="label">[112:1]</span></a> Farrand, in <i>Yale Review</i>, May, 1908, p. 52 and
+citation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112:2_224" id="Footnote_112:2_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112:2_224"><span class="label">[112:2]</span></a> Libby, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112:3_225" id="Footnote_112:3_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112:3_225"><span class="label">[112:3]</span></a> See Turner, "Rise of the New West" (Amer. Nation
+series, N. Y., 1906), pp. 16-18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112:4_226" id="Footnote_112:4_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112:4_226"><span class="label">[112:4]</span></a> Parkman, "Pontiac" (Boston, 1851), ii, p. 352.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112:5_227" id="Footnote_112:5_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112:5_227"><span class="label">[112:5]</span></a> Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania," in
+Columbia Univ. <i>Studies</i>, vi, pp. 546 <i>et seq.</i> Compare Watson,
+"Annals," ii, p. 259; Green, "Provincial America" (Amer. Nation series,
+N. Y., 1905), p. 234.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113:1_228" id="Footnote_113:1_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113:1_228"><span class="label">[113:1]</span></a> Lincoln, "Revolutionary Movement in Pennsylvania"
+(Boston, 1901); McMaster and Stone, "Pennsylvania and the Federal
+Constitution" (Lancaster, 1888).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114:1_229" id="Footnote_114:1_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114:1_229"><span class="label">[114:1]</span></a> "Notes on Virginia." See his table of apportionment in
+Ford, "Writings of Thomas Jefferson," iii, p. 222.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115:1_230" id="Footnote_115:1_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115:1_230"><span class="label">[115:1]</span></a> "Debates of the Virginia State Convention, 1829-1830"
+(Richmond, 1854), p. 87. These debates constitute a mine of material on
+the difficulty of reconciling the political philosophy of the Revolution
+with the protection of the property, including slaves, of the lowland
+planters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115:2_231" id="Footnote_115:2_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115:2_231"><span class="label">[115:2]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, p. 407. The italics are mine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116:1_232" id="Footnote_116:1_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116:1_232"><span class="label">[116:1]</span></a> McCrady, "South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 623.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117:1_233" id="Footnote_117:1_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117:1_233"><span class="label">[117:1]</span></a> Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws," i, pp. xxiv, 253;
+McCrady, "South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 637; Schaper, "Sectionalism in
+South Carolina," in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1900, i, pp. 334-338.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117:2_234" id="Footnote_117:2_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117:2_234"><span class="label">[117:2]</span></a> Schaper, <i>loc. cit.</i>, pp. 338, 339; Calhoun, "Works"
+(N. Y., 1851-59), i, p. 402; <i>Columbia</i> (S. C.) <i>Gazette</i>, Aug. 1, 1794;
+Ramsay, "South Carolina," pp. 64-66, 195, 217; Elliot, "Debates," iv,
+pp. 288, 289, 296-299, 305, 309, 312.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117:3_235" id="Footnote_117:3_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117:3_235"><span class="label">[117:3]</span></a> Schaper, <i>loc. cit.</i>, pp. <ins class="corr" title="original has 440-437">440-447</ins> <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118:1_236" id="Footnote_118:1_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118:1_236"><span class="label">[118:1]</span></a> Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 50-52, 331;
+Calhoun, "Works," i, pp. 400-405.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118:2_237" id="Footnote_118:2_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118:2_237"><span class="label">[118:2]</span></a> "<ins class="corr" title="original has N .C.">N. C.</ins> Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xvii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118:3_238" id="Footnote_118:3_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118:3_238"><span class="label">[118:3]</span></a> See Bassett, "Regulators of N. C." in Amer. Hist.
+Assoc. "Report," 1894, pp. 141 (bibliog.) <i>et seq.</i>; "N. C. Colon.
+Records," pp. vii-x (Saunder's introductions are valuable); Caruthers,
+"David Caldwell" (Greensborough, N. C., 1842); Waddell, "Colonial
+Officer" (Raleigh, 1890); M. De L. Haywood, "Governor William Tryon"
+(Raleigh, N. C., 1903); Clewell, "Wachovia," chap. x; W. E. Fitch, "Some
+Neglected History of N. C." (N. Y., 1905); L. A. McCorkle and F. Nash,
+in "N. C. Booklet" (Raleigh, 1901-07), iii; Wheeler, "North Carolina,"
+ii, pp. 301 <i>et seq.</i>; Cutter, "Lynch Law," chap. ii. and iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119:1_239" id="Footnote_119:1_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119:1_239"><span class="label">[119:1]</span></a> Bassett, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 152.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119:2_240" id="Footnote_119:2_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119:2_240"><span class="label">[119:2]</span></a> Wheeler, "North Carolina," ii, pp. 301-306; "N. C.
+Colon. Records," vii, pp. 251, 699.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120:1_241" id="Footnote_120:1_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120:1_241"><span class="label">[120:1]</span></a> "N. C. Colon. Records," viii, p. xix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120:2_242" id="Footnote_120:2_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120:2_242"><span class="label">[120:2]</span></a> Turner, in <i>Amer. Hist. Review</i>, i, p. 76.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120:3_243" id="Footnote_120:3_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120:3_243"><span class="label">[120:3]</span></a> "N. C. Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xxiv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121:1_244" id="Footnote_121:1_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121:1_244"><span class="label">[121:1]</span></a> Weeks, "Church and State in North Carolina" (Baltimore,
+1893); "N. C. Colon. Records," x, p. 870; Curry, "Establishment and
+Disestablishment" (Phila., 1889); C. F. James, "Documentary History of
+the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Virginia" (Lynchburg, Va., 1900);
+Semple, "The Virginia Baptists" (Richmond, 1810); Amer. Hist. Assoc.
+"Papers," ii, p. 21; iii, pp. 205, 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122:1_245" id="Footnote_122:1_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122:1_245"><span class="label">[122:1]</span></a> See Ballagh, "Slavery in Virginia," Johns Hopkins Univ.
+"Studies," extra, xxiv; Bassett, "Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of
+North Carolina," <i>Id.</i>, xiv, pp. 169-254; Bassett, "Slavery in the State
+of North Carolina," <i>Id.</i>, xvii; Bassett, "Antislavery Leaders in North
+Carolina," <i>Id.</i>, xvi; Weeks, "Southern Quakers," <i>Id.</i>, xv, extra;
+Schaper, "Sectionalism in South Carolina," Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report,"
+1900; Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 54-56, 76-78, 80, 90,
+150-152.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122:2_246" id="Footnote_122:2_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122:2_246"><span class="label">[122:2]</span></a> See F. J. Turner, "State-Making in the West During the
+Revolutionary Era," in <i>American Historical Review</i>, i, p. 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122:3_247" id="Footnote_122:3_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122:3_247"><span class="label">[122:3]</span></a> Hening, x, p. 35; "Public Acts of N. C.," i, pp. 204,
+306; "Revised Code of Va., 1819," ii, p. 357; Roosevelt, "Winning of the
+West," i, p. 261; ii, pp. 92, 220.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124:1_248" id="Footnote_124:1_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124:1_248"><span class="label">[124:1]</span></a> Alden, "New Governments West of the Alleghanies"
+(Madison, 1897), gives an account of these colonies. [See the more
+recent work by C. W. Alvord, "The Mississippi Valley in British
+Politics, 1763-1774" (1917).]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124:2_249" id="Footnote_124:2_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124:2_249"><span class="label">[124:2]</span></a> Thwaites, "Daniel Boone" (N. Y., 1902); [A. Henderson,
+"Conquest of the Old Southwest" (N. Y., 1920), brings out the important
+share of up-country men of means in promoting colonization].</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125:1_250" id="Footnote_125:1_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125:1_250"><span class="label">[125:1]</span></a> Turner, in "Alumni Quarterly of the University of
+Illinois," ii, 133-136.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125:2_251" id="Footnote_125:2_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125:2_251"><span class="label">[125:2]</span></a> [It has seemed best in this volume not to attempt to
+deal with the French frontier or the Spanish-American frontier. Besides
+the works of Parkman, a multitude of monographs have appeared in recent
+years which set the French frontier in new light; and for the Spanish
+frontier in both the Southwest and California much new information has
+been secured, and illuminating interpretations made by Professors H. E.
+Bolton, I. J. Cox, Chapman, Father Engelhart, and other California and
+Texas investigators, although the works of Hubert Howe Bancroft remain a
+useful mine of material. There was, of course, a contemporaneous Old
+West on both the French and the Spanish frontiers. The formation,
+approach and ultimate collision and intermingling of these contrasting
+types of frontiers are worthy of a special study.]</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>[<a href="./images/126.png">126</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>IV</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Middle West</span><a name="FNanchor_126:1_252" id="FNanchor_126:1_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_126:1_252" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[126:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>American sectional nomenclature is still confused. Once "the West"
+described the whole region beyond the Alleghanies; but the term has
+hopelessly lost its definiteness. The rapidity of the spread of
+settlement has broken down old usage, and as yet no substitute has been
+generally accepted. The "Middle West" is a term variously used by the
+public, but for the purpose of the present paper, it will be applied to
+that region of the United States included in the census reports under
+the name of the North Central division, comprising the States of Ohio,
+Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin (the old "Territory Northwest
+of the River Ohio"), and their trans-Mississippi sisters of the
+Louisiana Purchase,&mdash;Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, North
+Dakota, and South Dakota. It is an imperial domain. If the greater
+countries of Central Europe,&mdash;France, Germany, Italy, and
+Austro-Hungary,&mdash;were laid down upon this area, the Middle West would
+still show a margin of spare territory. Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and
+Buffalo constitute its gateways to the Eastern States; Kansas City,
+Omaha, St. Paul-Minneapolis, and Duluth-Superior dominate its western
+areas; Cincinnati and St. Louis stand on its southern borders; and
+Chicago reigns at the center. What Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and
+Baltimore are to the Atlantic seaboard these cities are to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>[<a href="./images/127.png">127</a>]</span>the Middle
+West. The Great Lakes and the Mississippi, with the Ohio and the
+Missouri as laterals, constitute the vast water system that binds the
+Middle West together. It is the economic and political center of the
+Republic. At one edge is the Populism of the prairies; at the other, the
+capitalism that is typified in Pittsburgh. Great as are the local
+differences within the Middle West, it possesses, in its physiography,
+in the history of its settlement, and in its economic and social life, a
+unity and interdependence which warrant a study of the area as an
+entity. Within the limits of this article, treatment of so vast a
+region, however, can at best afford no more than an outline sketch, in
+which old and well-known facts must, if possible, be so grouped as to
+explain the position of the section in American history.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the difficulties of the task, there is a definite advantage
+in so large a view. By fixing our attention too exclusively upon the
+artificial boundary lines of the States, we have failed to perceive much
+that is significant in the westward development of the United States.
+For instance, our colonial system did not begin with the Spanish War;
+the United States has had a colonial history and policy from the
+beginning of the Republic; but they have been hidden under the
+phraseology of "interstate migration" and "territorial organization."</p>
+
+<p>The American people have occupied a spacious wilderness; vast
+physiographic provinces, each with its own peculiarities, have lain
+across the path of this migration, and each has furnished a special
+environment for economic and social transformation. It is possible to
+underestimate the importance of State lines, but if we direct our gaze
+rather to the physiographic province than to the State area, we shall be
+able to see some facts in a new light. Then it becomes clear that these
+physiographic provinces of America are in some respects <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>[<a href="./images/128.png">128</a>]</span>comparable to
+the countries of Europe, and that each has its own history of occupation
+and development. General Francis A. Walker once remarked that "the
+course of settlement has called upon our people to occupy territory as
+extensive as Switzerland, as England, as Italy, and latterly, as France
+or Germany, every ten years." It is this element of vastness in the
+achievements of American democracy that gives a peculiar interest to the
+conquest and development of the Middle West. The effects of this
+conquest and development upon the present United States have been of
+fundamental importance.</p>
+
+<p>Geographically the Middle West is almost conterminous with the Provinces
+of the Lake and Prairie Plains; but the larger share of Kansas and
+Nebraska, and the western part of the two Dakotas belong to the Great
+Plains; the Ozark Mountains occupy a portion of Missouri, and the
+southern parts of Ohio and Indiana merge into the Alleghany Plateau. The
+relation of the Provinces of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the rest of
+the United States is an important element in the significance of the
+Middle West. On the north lies the similar region of Canada: the Great
+Lakes are in the center of the whole eastern and more thickly settled
+half of North America, and they bind the Canadian and Middle Western
+people together. On the south, the provinces meet the apex of that of
+the Gulf Plains, and the Mississippi unites them. To the west, they
+merge gradually into the Great Plains; the Missouri and its tributaries
+and the Pacific railroads make for them a bond of union; another rather
+effective bond is the interdependence of the cattle of the plains and
+the corn of the prairies. To the east, the province meets the Alleghany
+and New England Plateaus, and is connected with them by the upper Ohio
+and by the line of the Erie Canal. Here the interaction of industrial
+life and the historical facts of settlement have produced a close
+relationship. The intimate connection between the larger part <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>[<a href="./images/129.png">129</a>]</span>of the
+North Central and the North Atlantic divisions of the United States will
+impress any one who examines the industrial and social maps of the
+census atlas. By reason of these interprovincial relationships, the
+Middle West is the mediator between Canada and the United States, and
+between the concentrated wealth and manufactures of the North Atlantic
+States and the sparsely settled Western mining, cattle-raising, and
+agricultural States. It has a connection with the South that was once
+still closer, and is likely before long to reassert itself with new
+power. Within the limits of the United States, therefore, we have
+problems of interprovincial trade and commerce similar to those that
+exist between the nations of the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>Over most of the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains the Laurentide
+glacier spread its drift, rich in limestone and other rock powder, which
+farmers in less favored sections must purchase to replenish the soil.
+The alluvial deposit from primeval lakes contributed to fatten the soil
+of other parts of the prairies. Taken as a whole, the Prairie Plains
+surpass in fertility any other region of America or Europe, unless we
+except some territory about the Black Sea. It is a land marked out as
+the granary of the nation; but it is more than a granary. On the rocky
+shores of Lake Superior were concealed copper mines rivaled only by
+those of Montana, and iron fields which now<a name="FNanchor_129:1_253" id="FNanchor_129:1_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_129:1_253" class="fnanchor">[129:1]</a> furnish the ore for
+the production of eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States.
+The Great Lakes afford a highway between these iron fields and the coal
+areas of the Ohio Valley. The gas and oil deposits of the Ohio Valley,
+the coal of Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, and eastern Kansas, the lead and
+zinc of the Ozark region and of the upper Mississippi Valley, and the
+gold of the black Hills,&mdash;all contribute underground wealth to the
+Middle West.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>[<a href="./images/130.png">130</a>]</span></p><p>The primeval American forest once spread its shade over vast portions
+of the same province. Ohio, Indiana, southern Michigan, and central
+Wisconsin were almost covered with a growth of noble deciduous trees. In
+southern Illinois, along the broad bottom lands of the Mississippi and
+the Illinois, and in southern and southwestern Missouri, similar forests
+prevailed. To the north, in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, appeared
+the somber white pine wilderness, interlaced with hard woods, which
+swept in ample zone along the Great Lakes, till the deciduous forests
+triumphed again, and, in their turn, faded into the treeless expanse of
+the prairies. In the remaining portions were openings in the midst of
+the forested area, and then the grassy ocean of prairie that rolled to
+west and northwest, until it passed beyond the line of sufficient
+rainfall for agriculture without irrigation, into the semi-arid
+stretches of the Great Plains.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the eighteenth century, the forested region of this
+province was occupied by the wigwams of many different tribes of the
+Algonquin tongue, sparsely scattered in villages along the water
+courses, warring and trading through the vast wilderness. The western
+edge of the prairie and the Great Plains were held by the Sioux, chasing
+herds of bison across these far-stretching expanses. These horsemen of
+the plains and the canoemen of the Great Lakes and the Ohio were factors
+with which civilization had to reckon, for they constituted important
+portions of perhaps the fiercest native race with which the white man
+has ever battled for new lands.</p>
+
+<p>The Frenchman had done but little fighting for this region. He swore
+brotherhood with its savages, traded with them, intermarried with them,
+and explored the Middle West; but he left the wilderness much as he
+found it. Some six or seven thousand French people in all, about Detroit
+and Vincennes, and in the Illinois country, and scattered among the
+Indian villages <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>[<a href="./images/131.png">131</a>]</span>of the remote lakes and streams, held possession when
+George Washington reached the site of Pittsburgh, bearing Virginia's
+summons of eviction to France. In his person fate knocked at the portals
+of a "rising empire." France hurried her commanders and garrisons, with
+Indian allies, from the posts about the Great Lakes and the upper
+Mississippi; but it was in vain. In vain, too, the aftermath of
+Pontiac's widespread Indian uprising against the English occupation.
+When she came into possession of the lands between the Ohio, the
+Mississippi, and the Great Lakes, England organized them as a part of
+the Province of Quebec. The daring conquest of George Rogers Clark left
+Virginia in military possession of the Illinois country at the
+conclusion of the Revolutionary War; but over all the remainder of the
+Old Northwest, England was in control. Although she ceded the region by
+the treaty which closed the Revolution, she remained for many years the
+mistress of the Indians and the fur trade. When Lord Shelburne was
+upbraided in parliament for yielding the Northwest to the United States,
+the complaint was that he had clothed the Americans "in the warm
+covering of our fur trade," and his defense was that the peltry trade of
+the ceded tract was not sufficiently profitable to warrant further war.
+But the English government became convinced that the Indian trade
+demanded the retention of the Northwest, and she did in fact hold her
+posts there in spite of the treaty of peace. Dundas, the English
+secretary for the colonies, expressed the policy, when he declared, in
+1792, that the object was to interpose an Indian barrier between Canada
+and the United States; and in pursuance of this policy of preserving the
+Northwest as an Indian buffer State, the Canadian authorities supported
+the Indians in their resistance to American settlement beyond the Ohio.
+The conception of the Northwest as an Indian reserve strikingly exhibits
+England's inability to foresee the future of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>[<a href="./images/132.png">132</a>]</span>region, and to measure
+the forces of American expansion.</p>
+
+<p>By the cessions of Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut,
+the Old Congress had come into nominal possession of an extensive public
+domain, and a field for the exercise of national authority. The
+significance of this fact in the development of national power is not
+likely to be overestimated. The first result was the completion of the
+Ordinance of 1787, which provided a territorial government for the Old
+Northwest, with provisions for the admission of States into the Union.
+This federal colonial system guaranteed that the new national
+possessions should not be governed as dependent provinces, but should
+enter as a group of sister States into the federation.<a name="FNanchor_132:1_254" id="FNanchor_132:1_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_132:1_254" class="fnanchor">[132:1]</a> While the
+importance of the article excluding slavery has often been pointed out,
+it is probable that the provisions for a federal colonial organization
+have been at least equally potential in our actual development. The full
+significance of this feature of the Ordinance is only appreciated when
+we consider its continuous influence upon the American territorial and
+State policy in the westward expansion to the Pacific, and the political
+preconceptions with which Americans approach the problems of government
+in the new insular possessions. The Land Ordinance of 1785 is also
+worthy of attention in this connection, for under its provisions almost
+all of the Middle West has been divided by the government surveyor into
+rectangles of sections and townships, by whose lines the settler has
+been able easily and certainly to locate his farm, and the forester his
+"forty." In the local organization of the Middle West these lines have
+played an important part.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible within the limits of this paper to detail the
+history of the occupation of the Middle West; but the larger aspects of
+the flow of population into the region may <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>[<a href="./images/133.png">133</a>]</span>be sketched. Massachusetts
+men had formed the Ohio Company, and had been influential in shaping the
+liberal provisions of the Ordinance. Their land purchase, paid for in
+soldiers' certificates, embraced an area larger than the State of Rhode
+Island. At Marietta in 1788, under the shelter of Fort Harmar, their
+bullet-proof barge landed the first New England colony. A New Jersey
+colony was planted soon after at Cincinnati in the Symmes Purchase. Thus
+American civilization crossed the Ohio. The French settlements at
+Detroit and in Indiana and Illinois belonged to other times and had
+their own ideals; but with the entrance of the American pioneer into the
+forest of the Middle West, a new era began. The Indians, with the moral
+support of England, resisted the invasion, and an Indian war followed.
+The conquest of Wayne, in 1795, pushed back the Indians to the
+Greenville line, extending irregularly across the State of Ohio from the
+site of Cleveland to Fort Recovery in the middle point of her present
+western boundary, and secured certain areas in Indiana. In the same
+period Jay's treaty provided for the withdrawal of the British posts.
+After this extension of the area open to the pioneer, new settlements
+were rapidly formed. Connecticut disposed of her reserved land about
+Lake Erie to companies, and in 1796 General Moses Cleaveland led the way
+to the site of the city that bears his name. This was the beginning of
+the occupation of the Western Reserve, a district about as large as the
+parent State of Connecticut, a New England colony in the Middle West,
+which has maintained, even to the present time, the impress of New
+England traits. Virginia and Kentucky settlers sought the Virginia
+Military Bounty Lands, and the foundation of Chillicothe here, in 1796,
+afforded a center for Southern settlement. The region is a modified
+extension of the limestone area of Kentucky, and naturally attracted the
+emigrants from the Blue Grass State. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>[<a href="./images/134.png">134</a>]</span>Ohio's history is deeply marked by
+the interaction of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies within
+her borders.</p>
+
+<p>By the opening of the nineteenth century, when Napoleon's cession
+brought to the United States the vast spaces of the Louisiana Purchase
+beyond the Mississippi, the pioneers had hardly more than entered the
+outskirts of the forest along the Ohio and Lake Erie. But by 1810 the
+government had extinguished the Indian title to the unsecured portions
+of the Western Reserve, and to great tracts of Indiana, along the Ohio
+and up the Wabash Valley; thus protecting the Ohio highway from the
+Indians, and opening new lands to settlement. The embargo had destroyed
+the trade of New England, and had weighted down her citizens with debt
+and taxation; caravans of Yankee emigrant wagons, precursors of the
+"prairie schooner," had already begun to cross Pennsylvania on their way
+to Ohio; and they now greatly increased in number. North Carolina back
+countrymen flocked to the Indiana settlements, giving the peculiar
+Hoosier flavor to the State, and other Southerners followed,
+outnumbering the Northern immigrants, who sought the eastern edge of
+Indiana.</p>
+
+<p>Tecumthe, rendered desperate by the advance into his hunting grounds,
+took up the hatchet, made wide-reaching alliances among the Indians, and
+turned to England for protection. The Indian war merged into the War of
+1812, and the settlers strove in vain to add Canadian lands to their
+empire. In the diplomatic negotiations that followed the war, England
+made another attempt to erect the Old Northwest beyond the Greenville
+line into a permanent Indian barrier between Canada and the United
+States; but the demand was refused, and by the treaties of 1818, the
+Indians were pressed still farther north. In the meantime, Indian
+treaties had released additional land in southern Illinois, and pioneers
+were widening the bounds of the old French settlements. Avoiding the
+rich <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>[<a href="./images/135.png">135</a>]</span>savannas of the prairie regions, as devoid of wood, remote from
+transportation facilities, and suited only to grazing, they entered the
+hard woods&mdash;and in the early twenties they were advancing in a
+wedge-shaped column up the Illinois Valley.</p>
+
+<p>The Southern element constituted the main portion of this phalanx of
+ax-bearers. Abraham Lincoln's father joined the throng of Kentuckians
+that entered the Indiana woods in 1816, and the boy, when he had learned
+to hew out a forest home, betook himself, in 1830, to Sangamon county,
+Illinois. He represents the pioneer of the period; but his ax sank
+deeper than other men's, and the plaster cast of his great sinewy hand,
+at Washington, embodies the training of these frontier railsplitters, in
+the days when Fort Dearborn, on the site of Chicago, was but a military
+outpost in a desolate country. While the hard woods of Illinois were
+being entered, the pioneer movement passed also into the Missouri
+Valley. The French lead miners had already opened the southeastern
+section, and Southern mountaineers had pushed up the Missouri; but now
+the planters from the Ohio Valley and the upper Tennessee followed,
+seeking the alluvial soils for slave labor. Moving across the southern
+border of free Illinois, they had awakened regrets in that State at the
+loss of so large a body of settlers.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at the Middle West, as a whole, in the decade from 1810 to 1820,
+we perceive that settlement extended from the shores of Lake Erie in an
+arc, following the banks of the Ohio till it joined the Mississippi, and
+thence along that river and up the Missouri well into the center of the
+State. The next decade was marked by the increased use of the steamboat;
+pioneers pressed farther up the streams, etching out the hard wood
+forests well up to the prairie lands, and forming additional tracts of
+settlement in the region tributary to Detroit and in the southeastern
+part of Michigan. In the area of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>[<a href="./images/136.png">136</a>]</span>Galena lead mines of northwestern
+Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, and northeastern Iowa, Southerners had
+already begun operations; and if we except Ohio and Michigan, the
+dominant element in all this overflow of settlement into the Middle West
+was Southern, particularly from Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina.
+The settlements were still dependent on the rivers for transportation,
+and the areas between the rivers were but lightly occupied. The
+Mississippi constituted the principal outlet for the products of the
+Middle West; Pittsburgh furnished most of the supplies for the region,
+but New Orleans received its crops. The Old National road was built
+piecemeal, and too late, as a whole, to make a great artery of trade
+throughout the Middle West, in this early period; but it marked the
+northern borders of the Southern stream of population, running, as this
+did, through Columbus, Indianapolis, and Vandalia.</p>
+
+<p>The twenty years from 1830 to 1850 saw great changes in the composition
+of the population of the Middle West. The opening of the Erie Canal in
+1825 was an epoch-making event. It furnished a new outlet and inlet for
+northwestern traffic; Buffalo began to grow, and New York City changed
+from a local market to a great commercial center. But even more
+important was the place which the canal occupied as the highway for a
+new migration.</p>
+
+<p>In the march of the New England people from the coast, three movements
+are of especial importance: the advance from the seaboard up the
+Connecticut and Housatonic Valleys through Massachusetts and into
+Vermont; the advance thence to central and western New York; and the
+advance to the interior of the Old Northwest. The second of these stages
+occupied the generation from about 1790 to 1820; after that the second
+generation was ready to seek new lands; and these the Erie Canal and
+lake navigation opened to them, and to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>[<a href="./images/137.png">137</a>]</span>Vermonters and other
+adventurous spirits of New England. It was this combined New York-New
+England stream that in the thirties poured in large volume into the zone
+north of the settlements which have been described. The newcomers filled
+in the southern counties of Michigan and Wisconsin, the northern
+countries of Illinois, and parts of the northern and central areas of
+Indiana. Pennsylvania and Ohio sent a similar type of people to the area
+adjacent to those States. In Iowa a stream combined of the Southern
+element and of these settlers sought the wooded tributaries of the
+Mississippi in the southeastern part of the State. In default of legal
+authority, in this early period, they formed squatter governments and
+land associations, comparable to the action of the Massachusetts men who
+in the first quarter of the seventeenth century "squatted" in the
+Connecticut Valley.</p>
+
+<p>A great forward movement had occurred, which took possession of oak
+openings and prairies, gave birth to the cities of Chicago, Milwaukee,
+St. Paul, and Minneapolis, as well as to a multitude of lesser cities,
+and replaced the dominance of the Southern element by that of a modified
+Puritan stock. The railroad system of the early fifties bound the
+Mississippi to the North Atlantic seaboard; New Orleans gave way to New
+York as the outlet for the Middle West, and the day of river settlement
+was succeeded by the era of inter-river settlement and railway
+transportation. The change in the political and social ideals was at
+least equal to the change in economic connections, and together these
+forces made an intimate organic union between New England, New York, and
+the newly settled West. In estimating the New England influence in the
+Middle West, it must not be forgotten that the New York settlers were
+mainly New Englanders of a later generation.</p>
+
+<p>Combined with the streams from the East came the German migration into
+the Middle West. Over half a million, mainly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>[<a href="./images/138.png">138</a>]</span>from the Palatinate,
+W&uuml;rtemberg, and the adjacent regions, sought America between 1830 and
+1850, and nearly a million more Germans came in the next decade. The
+larger portion of these went into the Middle West; they became pioneers
+in the newer parts of Ohio, especially along the central ridge, and in
+Cincinnati; they took up the hardwood lands of the Wisconsin counties
+along Lake Michigan; and they came in important numbers to Missouri,
+Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, and to the river towns of Iowa. The
+migration in the thirties and forties contained an exceptionally large
+proportion of educated and forceful leaders, men who had struggled in
+vain for the ideal of a liberal German nation, and who contributed
+important intellectual forces to the communities in which they settled.
+The Germans, as a whole, furnished a conservative and thrifty
+agricultural element to the Middle West. In some of their social ideals
+they came into collision with the Puritan element from New England, and
+the outcome of the steady contest has been a compromise. Of all the
+States, Wisconsin has been most deeply influenced by the Germans.</p>
+
+<p>By the later fifties, therefore, the control of the Middle West had
+passed to its Northern zone of population, and this zone included
+representatives of the Middle States, New England, and Germany as its
+principal elements. The Southern people, north of the Ohio, differed in
+important respects from the Southerners across the river. They had
+sprung largely from the humbler classes of the South, although there
+were important exceptions. The early pioneer life, however, was
+ill-suited to the great plantations, and slavery was excluded under the
+Ordinance. Thus this Southern zone of the Middle West, particularly in
+Indiana and Illinois, constituted a mediating section between the South
+and the North. The Mississippi still acted as a bond of union, and up to
+the close of the War <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>[<a href="./images/139.png">139</a>]</span>of 1812 the Valley, north and south, had been
+fundamentally of the same social organization. In order to understand
+what follows, we must bear in mind the outlines of the occupation of the
+Gulf Plains. While settlement had been crossing the Ohio to the
+Northwest, the spread of cotton culture and negro slavery into the
+Southwest had been equally significant. What the New England States and
+New York were in the occupation of the Middle West, Virginia, the
+Carolinas, and Georgia were in the occupation of the Gulf States. But,
+as in the case of the Northwest, a modification of the original stock
+occurred in the new environment. A greater energy and initiative
+appeared in the new Southern lands; the pioneer's devotion to exploiting
+the territory in which he was placed transferred slavery from the
+patriarchal to the commercial basis. The same expansive tendency seen in
+the Northwest revealed itself, with a belligerent seasoning, in the Gulf
+States. They had a program of action. Abraham Lincoln migrated from
+Kentucky to Indiana and to Illinois. Jefferson Davis moved from Kentucky
+to Louisiana, and thence to Mississippi, in the same period. Starting
+from the same locality, each represented the divergent flow of streams
+of settlement into contrasted environments. The result of these
+antagonistic streams of migration to the West was a struggle between the
+Lake and Prairie plainsmen, on the one side, and the Gulf plainsmen, on
+the other, for the possession of the Mississippi Valley. It was the
+crucial part of the struggle between the Northern and Southern sections
+of the nation. What gave slavery and State sovereignty their power as
+issues was the fact that they involved the question of dominance over
+common territory in an expanding nation. The place of the Middle West in
+the origin and settlement of the great slavery struggle is of the
+highest significance.</p>
+
+<p>In the early history of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, a modified <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>[<a href="./images/140.png">140</a>]</span>form of
+slavery existed under a system of indenture of the colored servant; and
+the effort of Southern settlers in Indiana and in Illinois to
+reintroduce slavery are indicative of the importance of the pro-slavery
+element in the Northwest. But the most significant early manifestation
+of the rival currents of migration with respect to slavery is seen in
+the contest which culminated in the Missouri Compromise. The historical
+obstacle of the Ordinance, as well as natural conditions, gave an
+advantage to the anti-slavery settlers northwest of the Ohio; but when
+the Mississippi was crossed, and the rival streams of settlement mingled
+in the area of the Louisiana Purchase, the struggle followed. It was an
+Illinois man, with constituents in both currents of settlement, who
+introduced the Missouri Compromise, which made a <i>modus vivendi</i> for the
+Middle West, until the Compromise of 1850 gave to Senator Douglas of
+Illinois, in 1854, the opportunity to reopen the issue by his
+Kansas-Nebraska bill. In his doctrine of "squatter-sovereignty," or the
+right of the territories to determine the question of slavery within
+their bounds, Douglas utilized a favorite Western political idea, one
+which Cass of Michigan had promulgated before. Douglas set the love of
+the Middle West for local self-government against its preponderant
+antipathy to the spread of slavery. At the same time he brought to the
+support of the doctrine the Democratic party, which ever since the days
+of Andrew Jackson had voiced the love of the frontier for individualism
+and for popular power. In his "Young America" doctrines Douglas had also
+made himself the spokesman of Western expansive tendencies. He thus
+found important sources of popular support when he invoked the localism
+of his section. Western appeals to Congress for aid in internal
+improvements, protective tariffs, and land grants had been indications
+of nationalism. The doctrine of squatter-sovereignty itself catered to
+the love of national <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>[<a href="./images/141.png">141</a>]</span>union by presenting the appearance of a
+non-sectional compromise, which should allow the new areas of the Middle
+West to determine their own institutions. But the Free Soil party,
+strongest in the regions occupied by the New York-New England colonists,
+and having for its program national prohibition of the spread of slavery
+into the territories, had already found in the Middle West an important
+center of power. The strength of the movement far surpassed the actual
+voting power of the Free Soil party, for it compelled both Whigs and
+Democrats to propose fusion on the basis of concession to Free Soil
+doctrines. The New England settlers and the western New York
+settlers,&mdash;the children of New England,&mdash;were keenly alive to the
+importance of the issue. Indeed, Seward, in an address at Madison,
+Wisconsin, in 1860, declared that the Northwest, in reality, extended to
+the base of the Alleghanies, and that the new States had "matured just
+in the critical moment to rally the free States of the Atlantic coast,
+to call them back to their ancient principles."</p>
+
+<p>These Free Soil forces and the nationalistic tendencies of the Middle
+West proved too strong for the opposing doctrines when the real struggle
+came. Calhoun and Taney shaped the issue so logically that the Middle
+West saw that the contest was not only a war for the preservation of the
+Union, but also a war for the possession of the unoccupied West, a
+struggle between the Middle West and the States of the Gulf Plains. The
+economic life of the Middle West had been bound by the railroad to the
+North Atlantic, and its interests, as well as its love of national
+unity, made it in every way hostile to secession. When Dr. Cutler had
+urged the desires of the Ohio Company upon Congress, in 1787, he had
+promised to plant in the Ohio Valley a colony that would stand for the
+Union. Vinton of Ohio, in arguing for the admission of Iowa, urged the
+position of the Middle West as the great unifying section of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>[<a href="./images/142.png">142</a>]</span>country: "Disunion," he said, "is ruin to them. They have no
+alternative but to resist it whenever or wherever attempted.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.
+Massachusetts and South Carolina might, for aught I know, find a
+dividing line that would be mutually satisfactory to them; but, Sir,
+they can find no such line to which the western country can assent." But
+it was Abraham Lincoln who stated the issue with the greatest precision,
+and who voiced most clearly the nationalism of the Middle West, when he
+declared, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this
+government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free."</p>
+
+<p>So it was that when the civil war in Kansas grew into the Civil War in
+the Union, after Lincoln's election to the presidency, the Middle West,
+dominated by its combined Puritan and German population, ceased to
+compromise, and turned the scale in favor of the North. The Middle West
+furnished more than one-third of the Union troops. The names of Grant
+and Sherman are sufficient testimony to her leadership in the field. The
+names of Lincoln and Chase show that the presidential, the financial,
+and the war powers were in the hands of the Middle West. If we were to
+accept Seward's own classification, the conduct of foreign affairs as
+well belonged to the same section; it was, at least, in the hands of
+representatives of the dominant forces of the section. The Middle West,
+led by Grant and Sherman, hewed its way down the Mississippi and across
+the Gulf States, and Lincoln could exult in 1863, "The Father of Waters
+again goes unvexed to the sea. Thanks to the great Northwest for it, nor
+yet wholly to them."</p>
+
+<p>In thus outlining the relations of the Middle West to the slavery
+struggle, we have passed over important extensions of settlement in the
+decade before the war. In these years, not only did the density of
+settlement increase in the older portions of the region, but new waves
+of colonization passed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>[<a href="./images/143.png">143</a>]</span>into the remoter prairies. Iowa's pioneers,
+after Indian cessions had been secured, spread well toward her western
+limits. Minnesota, also, was recruited by a column of pioneers. The
+treaty of Traverse de Sioux, in 1851, opened over twenty million acres
+of arable land in that State, and Minnesota increased her population
+2730.7 per cent in the decade from 1850 to 1860.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this decade the pine belt of the Middle West, in northern
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota had been the field of operations of
+Indian traders. At first under English companies, and afterward under
+Astor's American Fur Company, the traders with their French and
+half-breed boatmen skirted the Great Lakes and followed the rivers into
+the forests, where they stationed their posts and spread goods and
+whiskey among the Indians. Their posts were centers of disintegration
+among the savages. The new wants and the demoralization which resulted
+from the Indian trade facilitated the purchases of their lands by the
+federal government. The trader was followed by the seeker for the best
+pine land "forties"; and by the time of the Civil War the exploitation
+of the pine belt had fairly begun. The Irish and Canadian choppers,
+followed by the Scandinavians, joined the forest men, and log drives
+succeeded the trading canoe. Men from the pine woods of Maine and
+Vermont directed the industry, and became magnates in the mill towns
+that grew up in the forests,&mdash;millionaires, and afterwards political
+leaders. In the prairie country of the Middle West, the Indian trade
+that centered at St. Louis had been important ever since 1820, with an
+influence upon the Indians of the plains similar to the influence of the
+northern fur trade upon the Indians of the forest. By 1840 the removal
+policy had effected the transfer of most of the eastern tribes to lands
+across the Mississippi. Tribal names that formerly belonged to Ohio and
+the rest of the Old Northwest <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>[<a href="./images/144.png">144</a>]</span>were found on the map of the Kansas
+Valley. The Platte country belonged to the Pawnee and their neighbors,
+and to the north along the Upper Missouri were the Sioux, or Dakota,
+Crow, Cheyenne, and other horse Indians, following the vast herds of
+buffalo that grazed on the Great Plains. The discovery of California
+gold and the opening of the Oregon country, in the middle of the
+century, made it necessary to secure a road through the Indian lands for
+the procession of pioneers that crossed the prairies to the Pacific. The
+organization of Kansas and Nebraska, in 1854, was the first step in the
+withdrawal of these territories from the Indians. A period of almost
+constant Indian hostility followed, for the savage lords of the
+boundless prairies instinctively felt the significance of the entrance
+of the farmer into their empire. In Minnesota the Sioux took advantage
+of the Civil War to rise; but the outcome was the destruction of their
+reservations in that State, and the opening of great tracts to the
+pioneers. When the Pacific railways were begun, Red Cloud, the astute
+Sioux chief, who, in some ways, stands as the successor of Pontiac and
+of Tecumthe, rallied the principal tribes of the Great Plains to resist
+the march of civilization. Their hostility resulted in the peace measure
+of 1867 and 1868, which assigned to the Sioux and their allies
+reservations embracing the major portion of Dakota territory, west of
+the Missouri River. The systematic slaughter of millions of buffalo, in
+the years between 1866 and 1873, for the sake of their hides, put an end
+to the vast herds of the Great Plains, and destroyed the economic
+foundation of the Indians. Henceforth they were dependent on the whites
+for their food supply, and the Great Plains were open to the cattle
+ranchers.</p>
+
+<p>In a preface written in 1872 for a new edition of "The Oregon Trail,"
+which had appeared in 1847, Francis Parkman said, "The wild cavalcade
+that defiled with me down <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>[<a href="./images/145.png">145</a>]</span>the gorges of the Black Hills, with its paint
+and war plumes, fluttering trophies and savage embroidery, bows, arrows,
+lances, and shields, will never be seen again." The prairies were ready
+for the final rush of occupation. The homestead law of 1862, passed in
+the midst of the war, did not reveal its full importance as an element
+in the settlement of the Middle West until after peace. It began to
+operate most actively, contemporaneously with the development of the
+several railways to the Pacific, in the two decades from 1870 to 1890,
+and in connection with the marketing of the railroad land grants. The
+outcome was an epoch-making extension of population.</p>
+
+<p>Before 1870 the vast and fertile valley of the Red River, once the level
+bed of an ancient lake, occupying the region where North Dakota and
+Minnesota meet, was almost virgin soil. But in 1875 the great Dalrymple
+farm showed its advantages for wheat raising, and a tide of farm seekers
+turned to the region. The "Jim River" Valley of South Dakota attracted
+still other settlers. The Northern Pacific and the Great Northern
+Railway thrust out laterals into these Minnesota and Dakota wheat areas
+from which to draw the nourishment for their daring passage to the
+Pacific. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Chicago and
+Northwestern Railway, Burlington, and other roads, gridironed the
+region; and the unoccupied lands of the Middle West were taken up by a
+migration that in its system and scale is unprecedented. The railroads
+sent their agents and their literature everywhere, "booming" the "Golden
+West"; the opportunity for economic and political fortunes in such
+rapidly growing communities attracted multitudes of Americans whom the
+cheap land alone would not have tempted. In 1870 the Dakotas had 14,000
+settlers; in 1890 they had over 510,000. Nebraska's population was
+28,000 in 1860; 123,000 in 1870; 452,000 in 1880; and 1,059,000 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>[<a href="./images/146.png">146</a>]</span>in
+1890. Kansas had 107,000 in 1860; 364,000 in 1870; 996,000 in 1880; and
+1,427,000 in 1890. Wisconsin and New York gave the largest fractions of
+the native element to Minnesota; Illinois and Ohio together sent perhaps
+one-third of the native element of Kansas and Nebraska, but the Missouri
+and Southern settlers were strongly represented in Kansas; Wisconsin,
+New York, Minnesota, and Iowa gave North Dakota the most of her native
+settlers; and Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York did the same for
+South Dakota.</p>
+
+<p>Railroads and steamships organized foreign immigration on scale and
+system never before equaled; a high-water mark of American immigration
+came in the early eighties. Germans and Scandinavians were rushed by
+emigrant trains out to the prairies, to fill the remaining spaces in the
+older States of the Middle West. The census of 1890 showed in Minnesota
+373,000 persons of Scandinavian parentage, and out of the total million
+and one-half persons of Scandinavian parentage in the United States, the
+Middle West received all but about three hundred thousand. The persons
+of German parentage in the Middle West numbered over four millions out
+of a total of less than seven millions in the whole country. The
+province had, in 1890, a smaller proportion of persons of foreign
+parentage than had the North Atlantic division, but the proportions
+varied greatly in the different States. Indiana had the lowest
+percentage, 20.38; and, rising in the scale, Missouri had 24.94; Kansas
+26.75; Ohio 33.93; Nebraska 42.45; Iowa 43.57; Illinois 49.01; Michigan
+54.58; Wisconsin 73.65; Minnesota 75.37; and North Dakota 78.87.</p>
+
+<p>What these statistics of settlement mean when translated into the
+pioneer life of the prairie, cannot be told here. There were sharp
+contrasts with the pioneer life of the Old Northwest; for the forest
+shade, there was substituted the boundless prairie; the sod house for
+the log hut; the continental railway <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>[<a href="./images/147.png">147</a>]</span>for the old National Turnpike and
+the Erie Canal. Life moved faster, in larger masses, and with greater
+momentum in this pioneer movement. The horizon line was more remote.
+Things were done in the gross. The transcontinental railroad, the
+bonanza farm, the steam plow, harvester, and thresher, the "league-long
+furrow," and the vast cattle ranches, all suggested spacious combination
+and systematization of industry. The largest hopes were excited by these
+conquests of the prairie. The occupation of western Kansas may
+illustrate the movement which went on also in the west of Nebraska and
+the Dakotas. The pioneer farmer tried to push into the region with the
+old methods of settlement. Deceived by rainy seasons and the railroad
+advertisements, and recklessly optimistic, hosts of settlers poured out
+into the plains beyond the region of sufficient rainfall for successful
+agriculture without irrigation. Dry seasons starved them back; but a
+repetition of good rainfalls again aroused the determination to occupy
+the western plains. Boom towns flourished like prairie weeds; Eastern
+capital struggled for a chance to share in the venture, and the Kansas
+farmers eagerly mortgaged their possessions to secure the capital so
+freely offered for their attack on the arid lands. By 1887 the tide of
+the pioneer farmers had flowed across the semi-arid plains to the
+western boundary of the State. But it was a hopeless effort to conquer a
+new province by the forces that had won the prairies. The wave of
+settlement dashed itself in vain against the conditions of the Great
+Plains. The native American farmer had received his first defeat; farm
+products at the same period had depreciated, and he turned to the
+national government for reinforcements.</p>
+
+<p>The Populistic movement of the western half of the Middle West is a
+complex of many forces. In some respects it is the latest manifestation
+of the same forces that brought on the crisis of 1837 in the earlier
+region of pioneer exploitation. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>[<a href="./images/148.png">148</a>]</span>That era of over-confidence, reckless
+internal improvements, and land purchases by borrowed capital, brought a
+reaction when it became apparent that the future had been
+over-discounted. But, in that time, there were the farther free lands to
+which the ruined pioneer could turn. The demand for an expansion of the
+currency has marked each area of Western advance. The greenback movement
+of Ohio and the eastern part of the Middle West grew into the fiat
+money, free silver, and land bank propositions of the Populists across
+the Mississippi. Efforts for cheaper transportation also appear in each
+stage of Western advance. When the pioneer left the rivers and had to
+haul his crops by wagon to a market, the transportation factor
+determined both his profits and the extension of settlement. Demands for
+national aid to roads and canals had marked the pioneer advance of the
+first third of the century. The "Granger" attacks upon the railway
+rates, and in favor of governmental regulation, marked a second advance
+of Western settlement. The Farmers' Alliance and the Populist demand for
+government ownership of the railroad is a phase of the same effort of
+the pioneer farmer, on his latest frontier. The proposals have taken
+increasing proportions in each region of Western Advance. Taken as a
+whole, Populism is a manifestation of the old pioneer ideals of the
+native American, with the added element of increasing readiness to
+utilize the national government to effect its ends. This is not
+unnatural in a section whose lands were originally purchased by the
+government and given away to its settlers by the same authority, whose
+railroads were built largely by federal land grants, and whose
+settlements were protected by the United States army and governed by the
+national authority until they were carved into rectangular States and
+admitted into the Union. Its native settlers were drawn from many
+States, many of them former soldiers of the Civil War, who mingled in
+new <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>[<a href="./images/149.png">149</a>]</span>lands with foreign immigrants accustomed to the vigorous authority
+of European national governments.</p>
+
+<p>But these old ideals of the American pioneer, phrased in the new
+language of national power, did not meet with the assent of the East.
+Even in the Middle West a change of deepest import had been in progress
+during these years of prairie settlement. The agricultural preponderance
+of the country has passed to the prairies, and manufacturing has
+developed in the areas once devoted to pioneer farming. In the decade
+prior to the Civil War, the area of greatest wheat production passed
+from Ohio and the States to the east, into Illinois, Indiana, and
+Wisconsin; after 1880, the center of wheat growing moved across the
+Mississippi; and in 1890 the new settlements produced half the crop of
+the United States. The corn area shows a similar migration. In 1840 the
+Southern States produced half the crop, and the Middle West one-fifth;
+by 1860 the situation was reversed and in 1890 nearly one-half the corn
+of the Union came from beyond the Mississippi. Thus the settlers of the
+Old Northwest and their crops have moved together across the
+Mississippi, and in the regions whence they migrated varied agriculture
+and manufacture have sprung up.</p>
+
+<p>As these movements in population and products have passed across the
+Middle West, and as the economic life of the eastern border has been
+intensified, a huge industrial organism has been created in the
+province,&mdash;an organism of tremendous power, activity, and unity.
+Fundamentally the Middle West is an agricultural area unequaled for its
+combination of space, variety, productiveness, and freedom from
+interruption by deserts or mountains. The huge water system of the Great
+Lakes has become the highway of a mighty commerce. The Sault Ste. Marie
+Canal, although open but two-thirds of the year, is the channel of a
+traffic of greater tonnage than that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>[<a href="./images/150.png">150</a>]</span>which passes through the Suez
+Canal, and nearly all this commerce moves almost the whole length of the
+Great Lakes system; the chief ports being Duluth, Chicago, Detroit,
+Cleveland, and Buffalo. The transportation facilities of the Great Lakes
+were revolutionized after 1886, to supply the needs of commerce between
+the East and the newly developed lands of the Middle West; the tonnage
+doubled; wooden ships gave way to steel; sailing vessels yielded to
+steam; and huge docks, derricks, and elevators, triumphs of mechanical
+skill, were constructed. A competent investigator has lately declared
+that "there is probably in the world to-day no place at tide water where
+ship plates can be laid down for a less price than they can be
+manufactured or purchased at the lake ports."</p>
+
+<p>This rapid rise of the merchant marine of our inland seas has led to the
+demand for deep water canals to connect them with the ocean road to
+Europe. When the fleets of the Great Lakes plow the Atlantic, and when
+Duluth and Chicago become seaports, the water transportation of the
+Middle West will have completed its evolution. The significance of the
+development of the railway systems is not inferior to that of the great
+water way. Chicago has become the greatest railroad center of the world,
+nor is there another area of like size which equals this in its railroad
+facilities; all the forces of the nation intersect here. Improved
+terminals, steel rails, better rolling stock, and consolidation of
+railway systems have accompanied the advance of the people of the Middle
+West.</p>
+
+<p>This unparalleled development of transportation facilities measures the
+magnitude of the material development of the province. Its wheat and
+corn surplus supplies the deficit of the rest of the United States and
+much of that of Europe. Such is the agricultural condition of the
+province of which Monroe wrote to Jefferson, in 1786, in these words: "A
+great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>[<a href="./images/151.png">151</a>]</span>part of the territory is miserably poor, especially that near
+Lakes Michigan and Erie, and that upon the Mississippi and the Illinois
+consists of extensive plains which have not had, from appearances, and
+will not have, a single bush on them for ages. The districts, therefore,
+within which these fall will never contain a sufficient number of
+inhabitants to entitle them to membership in the confederacy."</p>
+
+<p>Minneapolis and Duluth receive the spring wheat of the northern
+prairies, and after manufacturing great portions of it into flour,
+transmit it to Buffalo, the eastern cities, and to Europe. Chicago is
+still the great city of the corn belt, but its power as a milling and
+wheat center has been passing to the cities that receive tribute from
+the northern prairies. It lies in the region of winter wheat, corn,
+oats, and live stock. Kansas City, St. Louis, and Cincinnati are the
+sister cities of this zone, which reaches into the grazing country of
+the Great Plains. The meeting point of corn and cattle has led to the
+development of the packing industries,&mdash;large business systems that send
+the beef and pork of the region to supply the East and parts of Europe.
+The "feeding system" adopted in Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa, whereby the
+stock is fattened from the surplus corn of the region, constitutes a
+species of varied farming that has saved these States from the disasters
+of the failure of a single industry, and has been one solution of the
+economic life of the transition belt between the prairies and the Great
+Plains. Under a more complex agriculture, better adapted to the various
+sections of the State, and with better crops, Kansas has become more
+prosperous and less a center of political discontent.</p>
+
+<p>While this development of the agricultural interests of the Middle West
+has been in progress, the exploitation of the pine woods of the north
+has furnished another contribution to the commerce of the province. The
+center of activity has migrated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>[<a href="./images/152.png">152</a>]</span>from Michigan to Minnesota, and the
+lumber traffic furnishes one of the principal contributions to the
+vessels that ply the Great Lakes and supply the tributary mills. As the
+white pine vanishes before the organized forces of exploitation, the
+remaining hard woods serve to establish factories in the former mill
+towns. The more fertile denuded lands of the north are now receiving
+settlers who repeat the old pioneer life among the stumps.</p>
+
+<p>But the most striking development in the industrial history of the
+Middle West in recent years has been due to the opening up of the iron
+mines of Lake Superior. Even in 1873 the Lake Superior ores furnished a
+quarter of the total production of American blast furnaces. The opening
+of the Gogebic mines in 1884, and the development of the Vermillion and
+Mesabi mines adjacent to the head of the lake, in the early nineties,
+completed the transfer of iron ore production to the Lake Superior
+region. Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin together now produce the ore
+for eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States. Four-fifths of
+this great product moves to the ports on Lake Erie and the rest to the
+manufactories at Chicago and Milwaukee. The vast steel and iron industry
+that centers at Pittsburgh and Cleveland, with important outposts like
+Chicago and Milwaukee, is the outcome of the meeting of the coal of the
+eastern and southern borders of the province and of Pennsylvania, with
+the iron ores of the north. The industry has been systematized and
+consolidated by a few captains of industry. Steam shovels dig the ore
+from many of the Mesabi mines; gravity roads carry it to the docks and
+to the ships, and huge hoisting and carrying devices, built especially
+for the traffic, unload it for the railroad and the furnace. Iron and
+coal mines, transportation fleets, railroad systems, and iron
+manufactories are concentrated in a few corporations, principally the
+United States <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>[<a href="./images/153.png">153</a>]</span>Steel Corporation. The world has never seen such a
+consolidation of capital and so complete a systematization of economic
+processes.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the economic appearance of the Middle West a century after the
+pioneers left the frontier village of Pittsburgh and crossed the Ohio
+into the forests. De Tocqueville exclaimed, with reason, in 1833: "This
+gradual and continuous progress of the European race toward the Rocky
+Mountains has the solemnity of a providential event. It is like a deluge
+of men, rising unabatedly, and driven daily onward by the hand of God."</p>
+
+<p>The ideals of the Middle West began in the log huts set in the midst of
+the forest a century ago. While his horizon was still bounded by the
+clearing that his ax had made, the pioneer dreamed of continental
+conquests. The vastness of the wilderness kindled his imagination. His
+vision saw beyond the dank swamp at the edge of the great lake to the
+lofty buildings and the jostling multitudes of a mighty city; beyond the
+rank, grass-clad prairie to the seas of golden grain; beyond the harsh
+life of the log hut and the sod house to the home of his children, where
+should dwell comfort and the higher things of life, though they might
+not be for him. The men and women who made the Middle West were
+idealists, and they had the power of will to make their dreams come
+true. Here, also, were the pioneer's traits,&mdash;individual activity,
+inventiveness, and competition for the prizes of the rich province that
+awaited exploitation under freedom and equality of opportunity. He
+honored the man whose eye was the quickest and whose grasp was the
+strongest in this contest: it was "every one for himself."</p>
+
+<p>The early society of the Middle West was not a complex, highly
+differentiated and organized society. Almost every family was a
+self-sufficing unit, and liberty and equality flourished <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>[<a href="./images/154.png">154</a>]</span>in the
+frontier periods of the Middle West as perhaps never before in history.
+American democracy came from the forest, and its destiny drove it to
+material conquests; but the materialism of the pioneer was not the dull
+contented materialism of an old and fixed society. Both native settler
+and European immigrant saw in this free and competitive movement of the
+frontier the chance to break the bondage of social rank, and to rise to
+a higher plane of existence. The pioneer was passionately desirous to
+secure for himself and for his family a favorable place in the midst of
+these large and free but vanishing opportunities. It took a century for
+this society to fit itself into the conditions of the whole province.
+Little by little, nature pressed into her mold the plastic pioneer life.
+The Middle West, yesterday a pioneer province, is to-day the field of
+industrial resources and systematization so vast that Europe, alarmed
+for her industries in competition with this new power, is discussing the
+policy of forming protective alliances among the nations of the
+continent. Into this region flowed the great forces of modern
+capitalism. Indeed, the region itself furnished favorable conditions for
+the creation of these forces, and trained many of the famous American
+industrial leaders. The Prairies, the Great Plains, and the Great Lakes
+furnished new standards of industrial measurement. From this society,
+seated amidst a wealth of material advantages, and breeding
+individualism, energetic competition, inventiveness, and spaciousness of
+design, came the triumph of the strongest. The captains of industry
+arose and seized on nature's gifts. Struggling with one another,
+increasing the scope of their ambitions as the largeness of the
+resources and the extent of the fields of activity revealed themselves,
+they were forced to accept the natural conditions of a province vast in
+area but simple in structure. Competition grew into consolidation. On
+the Pittsburgh border of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>[<a href="./images/155.png">155</a>]</span>the Middle West the completion of the process
+is most clearly seen. On the prairies of Kansas stands the Populist, a
+survival of the pioneer, striving to adjust present conditions to his
+old ideals.</p>
+
+<p>The ideals of equality, freedom of opportunity, faith in the common man
+are deep rooted in all the Middle West. The frontier stage, through
+which each portion passed, left abiding traces on the older, as well as
+on the newer, areas of the province. Nor were these ideals limited to
+the native American settlers: Germans and Scandinavians who poured into
+the Middle West sought the country with like hopes and like faith. These
+facts must be remembered in estimating the effects of the economic
+transformation of the province upon its democracy. The peculiar
+democracy of the frontier has passed away with the conditions that
+produced it; but the democratic aspirations remain. They are held with
+passionate determination.</p>
+
+<p>The task of the Middle West is that of adapting democracy to the vast
+economic organization of the present. This region which has so often
+needed the reminder that bigness is not greatness, may yet show that its
+training has produced the power to reconcile popular government and
+culture with the huge industrial society of the modern world. The
+democracies of the past have been small communities, under simple and
+primitive economic conditions. At bottom the problem is how to reconcile
+real greatness with bigness.</p>
+
+<p>It is important that the Middle West should accomplish this; the future
+of the Republic is with her. Politically she is dominant, as is
+illustrated by the fact that six out of seven of the Presidents elected
+since 1860 have come from her borders. Twenty-six million people live in
+the Middle West as against twenty-one million in New England and the
+Middle States together, and the Middle West has indefinite capacity for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>[<a href="./images/156.png">156</a>]</span>growth. The educational forces are more democratic than in the East,
+and the Middle West has twice as many students (if we count together the
+common school, secondary, and collegiate attendance), as have New
+England and the Middle States combined. Nor is this educational system,
+as a whole, inferior to that of the Eastern States. State universities
+crown the public school system in every one of these States of the
+Middle West, and rank with the universities of the seaboard, while
+private munificence has furnished others on an unexampled scale. The
+public and private art collections of Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Paul, and
+other cities rival those of the seaboard. "World's fairs," with their
+important popular educational influences, have been held at Chicago,
+Omaha, and Buffalo; and the next of these national gatherings is to be
+at St. Louis. There is throughout the Middle West a vigor and a mental
+activity among the common people that bode well for its future. If the
+task of reducing the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the uses
+of civilization should for a time overweigh art and literature, and even
+high political and social ideals, it would not be surprising. But if the
+ideals of the pioneers shall survive the inundation of material success,
+we may expect to see in the Middle West the rise of a highly intelligent
+society where culture shall be reconciled with democracy in the large.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126:1_252" id="Footnote_126:1_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126:1_252"><span class="label">[126:1]</span></a> With acknowledgments to the <i>International Monthly</i>,
+December, 1901.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129:1_253" id="Footnote_129:1_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129:1_253"><span class="label">[129:1]</span></a> 1901.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132:1_254" id="Footnote_132:1_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132:1_254"><span class="label">[132:1]</span></a> See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the
+Revolutionary Era," in <i>Am. Historical Review</i>, i, pp. 70 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>[<a href="./images/157.png">157</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>V</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Ohio Valley in American History</span><a name="FNanchor_157:1_255" id="FNanchor_157:1_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_157:1_255" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[157:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>In a notable essay Professor Josiah Royce has asserted the salutary
+influence of a highly organized provincial life in order to counteract
+certain evils arising from the tremendous development of nationalism in
+our own day. Among these evils he enumerates: first, the frequent
+changes of dwelling place, whereby the community is in danger of losing
+the well-knit organization of a common life; second, the tendency to
+reduce variety in national civilization, to assimilate all to a common
+type and thus to discourage individuality, and produce a "remorseless
+mechanism&mdash;vast, irrational;" third, the evils arising from the fact
+that waves of emotion, the passion of the mob, tend in our day to sweep
+across the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Against these surges of national feeling Professor Royce would erect
+dikes in the form of provincialism, the resistance of separate sections
+each with its own traditions, beliefs and aspirations. "Our national
+unities have grown so vast, our forces of social consolidation so
+paramount, the resulting problems, conflicts, evils, have become so
+intensified," he says, that we must seek in the province renewed
+strength, usefulness and beauty of American life.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be thought of this philosopher's appeal for a revival of
+sectionalism, on a higher level, in order to check the tendencies to a
+deadening uniformity of national <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>[<a href="./images/158.png">158</a>]</span>consolidation (and to me this appeal,
+under the limitations which he gives it, seems warranted by the
+conditions)&mdash;it is certainly true that in the history of the United
+States sectionalism holds a place too little recognized by the
+historians.</p>
+
+<p>By sectionalism I do not mean the struggle between North and South which
+culminated in the Civil War. That extreme and tragic form of
+sectionalism indeed has almost engrossed the attention of historians,
+and it is, no doubt, the most striking and painful example of the
+phenomenon in our history. But there are older, and perhaps in the long
+run more enduring examples of the play of sectional forces than the
+slavery struggle, and there are various sections besides North and
+South.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, the United States is, in size and natural resources, an empire,
+a collection of potential nations, rather than a single nation. It is
+comparable in area to Europe. If the coast of California be placed along
+the coast of Spain, Charleston, South Carolina, would fall near
+Constantinople; the northern shores of Lake Superior would touch the
+Baltic, and New Orleans would lie in southern Italy. Within this vast
+empire there are geographic provinces, separate in physical conditions,
+into which American colonization has flowed, and in each of which a
+special society has developed, with an economic, political and social
+life of its own. Each of these provinces, or sections, has developed its
+own leaders, who in the public life of the nation have voiced the needs
+of their section, contended with the representatives of other sections,
+and arranged compromises between sections in national legislation and
+policy, almost as ambassadors from separate countries in a European
+congress might make treaties.</p>
+
+<p>Between these sections commercial relations have sprung up, and economic
+combinations and contests may be traced by the student who looks beneath
+the surface of our national <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>[<a href="./images/159.png">159</a>]</span>life to the actual grouping of States in
+congressional votes on tariff, internal improvement, currency and
+banking, and all the varied legislation in the field of commerce.
+American industrial life is the outcome of the combinations and contests
+of groups of States in sections. And the intellectual, the spiritual
+life of the nation is the result of the interplay of the sectional
+ideals, fundamental assumptions and emotions.</p>
+
+<p>In short, the real federal aspect of the nation, if we penetrate beneath
+constitutional forms to the deeper currents of social, economic and
+political life, will be found to lie in the relation of sections and
+nation, rather than in the relation of States and nation. Recently
+ex-secretary Root emphasized the danger that the States, by neglecting
+to fulfil their duties, might fall into decay, while the national
+government engrossed their former power. But even if the States
+disappeared altogether as effective factors in our national life, the
+sections might, in my opinion, gain from that very disappearance a
+strength and activity that would prove effective limitations upon the
+nationalizing process.</p>
+
+<p>Without pursuing the interesting speculation, I may note as evidence of
+the development of sectionalism, the various gatherings of business men,
+religious denominations and educational organizations in groups of
+States. Among the signs of growth of a healthy provincialism is the
+formation of sectional historical societies. While the American
+Historical Association has been growing vigorously and becoming a
+genuine gathering of historical students from all parts of the nation,
+there have also arisen societies in various sections to deal with the
+particular history of the groups of States. In part this is due to the
+great distances which render attendance difficult upon the meetings of
+the national body to-day, but we would be short-sighted, indeed, who
+failed to perceive in the formation of the Pacific Coast Historical
+Association, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>[<a href="./images/160.png">160</a>]</span>Mississippi Valley Historical Association, and the
+Ohio Valley Historical Association, for example, genuine and spontaneous
+manifestations of a sectional consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>These associations spring in large part from the recognition in each of
+a common past, a common body of experiences, traditions, institutions
+and ideals. It is not necessary now to raise the question whether all of
+these associations are based on a real community of historical interest,
+whether there are overlapping areas, whether new combinations may not be
+made? They are at least substantial attempts to find a common sectional
+unity, and out of their interest in the past of the section, increasing
+tendencies to common sectional ideas and policies are certain to follow.
+I do not mean to prophesy any disruptive tendency in American life by
+the rejuvenation of sectional self-consciousness; but I do mean to
+assert that American life will be enriched and safe-guarded by the
+development of the greater variety of interest, purposes and ideals
+which seem to be arising. A measure of local concentration seems
+necessary to produce healthy, intellectual and moral life. The spread of
+social forces over too vast an area makes for monotony and stagnation.</p>
+
+<p>Let us, then, raise the question of how far the Ohio Valley has had a
+part of its own in the making of the nation. I have not the temerity to
+attempt a history of the Valley in the brief compass of this address.
+Nor am I confident of my ability even to pick out the more important
+features of its history in our common national life. But I venture to
+put the problem, to state some familiar facts from the special point of
+view, with the hope of arousing interest in the theme among the many
+students who are advancing the science of history in this section.</p>
+
+<p>To the physiographer the section is made up of the province of the
+Alleghany Plateaus and the southern portion of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>[<a href="./images/161.png">161</a>]</span>Prairie Plains. In
+it are found rich mineral deposits which are changing the life of the
+section and of the nation. Although you reckon in your membership only
+the states that touch the Ohio River, parts of those states are, from
+the point of view of their social origins, more closely connected with
+the Northwest on the Lake Plains, than with the Ohio Valley; and, on the
+other hand, the Tennessee Valley, though it sweeps far toward the Lower
+South, and only joins the Ohio at the end of its course, has been
+through much of the history of the region an essential part of this
+society. Together these rivers made up the "Western World" of the
+pioneers of the Revolutionary era; the "Western Waters" of the
+backwoodsmen.</p>
+
+<p>But, after all, the unity of the section and its place in history were
+determined by the "beautiful river," as the French explorers called
+it&mdash;the Ohio, which pours its flood for over a thousand miles, a great
+highway to the West; a historic artery of commerce, a wedge of advance
+between powerful Indian confederacies, and rival European nations, to
+the Mississippi Valley; a home for six mighty States, now in the heart
+of the nation, rich in material wealth, richer in the history of
+American democracy, a society that holds a place midway between the
+industrial sections of the seaboard and the plains and prairies of the
+agricultural West; between the society that formed later along the
+levels about the Great Lakes, and the society that arose in the Lower
+South on the plains of the Gulf of Mexico. The Alleghanies bound it on
+the east, the Mississippi on the west. At the forks of the great river
+lies Pittsburgh, the historic gateway to the West, the present symbol
+and embodiment of the age of steel, the type of modern industrialism.
+Near its western border is St. Louis, looking toward the Prairies, the
+Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, the land into which the tide of
+modern colonization turns.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>[<a href="./images/162.png">162</a>]</span></p><p>Between these old cities, for whose sites European nations contended,
+stand the cities whose growth pre&euml;minently represents the Ohio valley;
+Cincinnati, the historic queen of the river; Louisville, the warder of
+the falls; the cities of the "Old National Road," Columbus,
+Indianapolis; the cities of the Blue Grass lands, which made Kentucky
+the goal of the pioneers; and the cities of that young commonwealth,
+whom the Ohio river by force of its attraction tore away from an
+uncongenial control by the Old Dominion, and joined to the social
+section where it belonged.</p>
+
+<p>The Ohio Valley is, therefore, not only a commercial highway, it is a
+middle kingdom between the East and the West, between the northern area,
+which was occupied by a greater New England and emigrants from northern
+Europe, and the southern area of the "Cotton Kingdom." As Pennsylvania
+and New York constituted the Middle Region in our earlier history,
+between New England and the seaboard South, so the Ohio Valley became
+the Middle Region of a later time. In its position as a highway and a
+Middle Region are found the keys to its place in American history.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning the Ohio Valley seems to have been a highway for
+migration, and the home of a culture of its own. The sciences of
+American archeology and ethnology are too new to enable us to speak with
+confidence upon the origins and earlier distribution of the aborigines,
+but it is at least clear that the Ohio river played an important part in
+the movements of the earlier men in America, and that the mounds of the
+valley indicate a special type of development intermediate between that
+of the northern hunter folk, and the pueblo building races of the south.
+This dim and yet fascinating introduction to the history of the Ohio
+will afford ample opportunity for later students of the relations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>[<a href="./images/163.png">163</a>]</span>between geography and population to make contributions to our history.</p>
+
+<p>The French explorers saw the river, but failed to grasp its significance
+as a strategic line in the conquest of the West. Entangled in the water
+labyrinth of the vast interior, and kindled with aspirations to reach
+the "Sea of the West," their fur traders and explorers pushed their way
+through the forests of the North and across the plains of the South,
+from river to lake, from lake to river, until they met the mountains of
+the West. But while they were reaching the upper course of the Missouri
+and the Spanish outposts of Santa F&eacute;, they missed the opportunity to
+hold the Ohio Valley, and before France could settle the Valley, the
+long and attenuated line of French posts in the west, reaching from
+Canada to Louisiana, was struck by the advancing column of the American
+<ins class="corr" title="original has backswoodsmen">backwoodsmen</ins> in the center by the way of the Ohio. Parkman, in whose
+golden pages is written the epic of the American wilderness, found his
+hero in the wandering Frenchman. Perhaps because he was a New Englander
+he missed a great opportunity and neglected to portray the formation and
+advance of the backwood society which was finally to erase the traces of
+French control in the interior of North America.</p>
+
+<p>It is not without significance in a consideration of the national
+aspects of the history of the Ohio Valley, that the messenger of English
+civilization, who summoned the French to evacuate the Valley and its
+approaches, and whose men near the forks of the Ohio fired the opening
+gun of the world-historic conflict that wrought the doom of New France
+in America, was George Washington, the first American to win a national
+position in the United States. The father of his country was the prophet
+of the Ohio Valley.</p>
+
+<p>Into this dominion, in the next scene of this drama, came <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>[<a href="./images/164.png">164</a>]</span>the
+backwoodsmen, the men who began the formation of the society of the
+Valley. I wish to consider the effects of the formation of this society
+upon the nation. And first let us consider the stock itself.</p>
+
+<p>The Ohio Valley was settled, for the most part (though with important
+exceptions, especially in Ohio), by men of the Upland South, and this
+determined a large part of its influence in the nation through a long
+period. As the Ohio Valley, as a whole, was an extension of the Upland
+South, so the Upland South was, broadly speaking, an extension from the
+old Middle Region, chiefly from Pennsylvania. The society of pioneers,
+English, Scotch-Irish, Germans, and other nationalities which formed in
+the beginning of the eighteenth century in the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania and its lateral extensions was the nursery of the American
+backwoodsmen. Between about 1730 and the Revolution, successive tides of
+pioneers ascended the Shenandoah, occupied the Piedmont, or up-country
+of Virginia and the Carolinas, and received recruits from similar
+peoples who came by eastward advances from the coast toward this Old
+West.</p>
+
+<p>Thus by the middle of the eighteenth century a new section had been
+created in America, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania
+between the falls of the rivers of the South Atlantic colonies on the
+one side and the Alleghany mountains on the other. Its population showed
+a mixture of nationalities and religions. Less English than the colonial
+coast, it was built on a basis of religious feeling different from that
+of Puritan New England, and still different from the conservative
+Anglicans of the southern seaboard. The Scotch-Irish Presbyterians with
+the glow of the covenanters; German sectaries with serious-minded
+devotion to one or another of a multiplicity of sects, but withal deeply
+responsive to the call of the religious spirit, and the English Quakers
+all furnish <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>[<a href="./images/165.png">165</a>]</span>a foundation of emotional responsiveness to religion and a
+readiness to find a new heaven and a new earth in politics as well as in
+religion. In spite of the influence of the backwoods in hampering
+religious organization, this upland society was a fertile field for
+tillage by such democratic and emotional sects as the Baptists,
+Methodists and the later Campbellites, as well as by Presbyterians. Mr.
+Bryce has well characterized the South as a region of "high religious
+voltage," but this characterization is especially applicable to the
+Upland South, and its colonies in the Ohio Valley. It is not necessary
+to assert that this religious spirit resulted in the kind of conduct
+associated with the religious life of the Puritans. What I wish to point
+out is the responsiveness of the Upland South to emotional religious and
+political appeal.</p>
+
+<p>Besides its variety of stocks and its religious sects responsive to
+emotion, the Upland South was intensely democratic and individualistic.
+It believed that government was based on a limited contract for the
+benefit of the individual, and it acted independently of governmental
+organs and restraints with such ease that in many regions this was the
+habitual mode of social procedure: voluntary co&ouml;peration was more
+natural to the Southern Uplanders than action through the machinery of
+government, especially when government checked rather than aided their
+industrial and social tendencies and desires. It was a naturally radical
+society. It was moreover a rural section not of the planter or merchant
+type, but characterized by the small farmer, building his log cabin in
+the wilderness, raising a small crop and a few animals for family use.
+It was this stock which began to pass into the Ohio Valley when Daniel
+Boone, and the pioneers associated with his name, followed the
+"Wilderness Trace" from the Upland South to the Blue Grass lands in the
+midst of the Kentucky hills, on the Ohio river. In the opening years of
+the Revolution these <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>[<a href="./images/166.png">166</a>]</span>pioneers were recruited by westward extensions
+from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. With this colonization of the Ohio
+Valley begins a chapter in American history.</p>
+
+<p>This settlement contributed a new element to our national development
+and raised new national problems. It took a long time for the seaboard
+South to assimilate the upland section. We cannot think of the South as
+a unit through much of its ante-bellum history without doing violence to
+the facts. The struggle between the men of the up-country and the men of
+the tide-water, made a large part of the domestic history of the "Old
+South." Nevertheless, the Upland South, as slavery and cotton
+cultivation extended westward from the coast, gradually merged in the
+East. On the other hand, its children, who placed the wall of the
+Alleghanies between them and the East, gave thereby a new life to the
+conditions and ideals which were lost in their former home. Nor was this
+all. Beyond the mountains new conditions, new problems, aroused new
+ambitions and new social ideals. Its entrance into the "Western World"
+was a tonic to this stock. Its crossing put new fire into its
+veins&mdash;fires of militant expansion, creative social energy, triumphant
+democracy. A new section was added to the American nation, a new element
+was infused into the combination which we call the United States, a new
+flavor was given to the American spirit.</p>
+
+<p>We may next rapidly note some of the results. First, let us consider the
+national effects of the settlement of this new social type in the Ohio
+Valley upon the expansion and diplomacy of the nation. Almost from the
+first the Ohio valley had constituted the problem of westward expansion.
+It was the entering wedge to the possession of the Mississippi Valley,
+and, although reluctantly, the Eastern colonies and then the Eastern
+States were compelled to join in the struggle first to possess the Ohio,
+then to retain it, and finally to enforce <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>[<a href="./images/167.png">167</a>]</span>its demand for the possession
+of the whole Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes as a
+means of outlet for its crops and of defense for its settlements. The
+part played by the pioneers of the Ohio Valley as a flying column of the
+nation, sent across the mountains and making a line of advance between
+hostile Indians and English on the north, and hostile Indians and
+Spaniards on the south, is itself too extensive a theme to be more than
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Here in historic Kentucky, in the State which was the home of George
+Rogers Clark it is not necessary to dwell upon his clear insight and
+courage in carrying American arms into the Northwest. From the first,
+Washington also grasped the significance of the Ohio Valley as a "rising
+empire," whose population and trade were essential to the nation, but
+which found its natural outlet down the Mississippi, where Spain blocked
+the river, and which was in danger of withdrawing from the weak
+confederacy. The intrigues of England to attract the Valley to herself
+and those of Spain to add the <ins class="corr" title="original has setlements">settlements</ins> to the Spanish Empire, the use
+of the Indians by these rivals, and the efforts of France to use the
+pioneers of Kentucky to win New Orleans and the whole Valley between the
+Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains for a revived French Empire in
+America, are among the fascinating chapters of American, as well as of
+Ohio Valley, history. This position of the Valley explains much of the
+Indian wars, the foreign relations, and, indirectly, the domestic
+politics of the period from the Revolution to the purchase of Louisiana.
+Indeed, the purchase was in large measure due to the pressure of the
+settlers of the Ohio Valley to secure this necessary outlet. It was the
+Ohio Valley which forced the nation away from a narrow colonial attitude
+into its career as a nation among other nations with an adequate
+physical basis for future growth.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>[<a href="./images/168.png">168</a>]</span></p><p>In this development of a foreign policy in connection with the Ohio
+Valley, we find the germ of the Monroe doctrine, and the beginnings of
+the definite independence of the United States from the state system of
+the Old World, the beginning, in fact, of its career as a world power.
+This expansive impulse went on into the War of 1812, a war which was in
+no inconsiderable degree, the result of the aggressive leadership of a
+group of men from Kentucky and Tennessee, and especially of the daring
+and lofty demands of Henry Clay, who even thus early voiced the spirit
+of the Ohio Valley. That in this war William Henry Harrison and the
+Kentucky troops achieved the real conquest of the northwest province and
+Andrew Jackson with his Tennesseeans achieved the real conquest of the
+Gulf Plains, is in itself abundant evidence of the part played in the
+expansion of the nation by the section which formed on the Ohio and its
+tributaries. Nor was this the end of the process, for the annexation of
+Texas and the Pacific Coast was in a very real sense only an aftermath
+of the same movement of expansion.</p>
+
+<p>While the Ohio Valley was leading the way to the building of a greater
+nation, it was also the field wherein was formed an important
+contribution of the United States to political institutions. By this I
+mean what George Bancroft has well called "federal colonial system,"
+that is, our system of territories and new States. It is a mistake to
+attribute this system to the Ordinance of 1787 and to the leadership of
+New England. It was in large measure the work of the communities of the
+Ohio Valley who wrought out the essentials of the system for themselves,
+and by their attitude imposed it, of necessity, upon the nation. The
+great Ordinance only perfected the system.<a name="FNanchor_168:1_256" id="FNanchor_168:1_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_168:1_256" class="fnanchor">[168:1]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>[<a href="./images/169.png">169</a>]</span></p><p>Under the belief that all men going into vacant lands have the right to
+shape their own political institutions, the riflemen of western
+Virginia, western Pennsylvania, Kentucky and Tennessee, during the
+Revolution, protested against the rule of governments east of the
+mountains, and asserted with manly independence their right to
+self-government. But it is significant that in making this assertion,
+they at the same time petitioned congress to admit them to the
+sisterhood of States. Even when leaders like Wilkinson were attempting
+to induce Kentucky to act as an independent nation, the national spirit
+of the people as a whole led them to delay until at last they found
+themselves a State of the new Union. This recognition of the paramount
+authority of congress and this demand for self-government under that
+authority, constitute the foundations of the federal territorial system,
+as expressed in congressional resolutions, worked out tentatively in
+Jefferson's Ordinance of 1784, and finally shaped in the Ordinance of
+1787.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Ohio Valley was not only the area to which this system was
+applied, but it was itself instrumental in shaping the system by its own
+demands and by the danger that too rigorous an assertion of either State
+or national power over these remote communities might result in their
+loss to the nation. The importance of the result can hardly be
+overestimated. It insured the peaceful and free development of the great
+West and gave it political organization not as the outcome of wars of
+hostile States, nor by arbitrary government by distant powers, but by
+territorial government combined with large local autonomy. These
+governments in turn were admitted as equal States of the Union. By this
+peaceful process of colonization a whole continent has been filled with
+free and orderly commonwealths so quietly, so naturally, that we can
+only appreciate the profound significance of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>[<a href="./images/170.png">170</a>]</span>process by contrasting
+it with the spread of European nations through conquest and oppression.</p>
+
+<p>Next let me invite your attention to the part played by the Ohio Valley
+in the economic legislation which shaped our history in the years of the
+making of the nation between the War of 1812 and the rise of the slavery
+struggle. It needs but slight reflection to discover that in the area in
+question, the men and measures of the Ohio Valley held the balance of
+power and set the course of our national progress. The problems before
+the country at that time were problems of internal development: the mode
+of dealing with the public domain; the building of roads and digging of
+canals for the internal improvement of a nation which was separated into
+East and West by the Alleghany Mountains; the formation of a tariff
+system for the protection of home industries and to supply a market for
+the surplus of the West which no longer found an outlet in warring
+Europe; the framing of a banking and currency system which should meet
+the needs of the new interstate commerce produced by the rise of the
+western surplus.</p>
+
+<p>In the Ohio Valley, by the initiative of Ohio Valley men, and often
+against the protest of Eastern sections, the public land policy was
+developed by laws which subordinated the revenue idea to the idea of the
+upbuilding of a democracy of small landholders. The squatters of the
+Ohio Valley forced the passage of pre&euml;mption laws and these laws in
+their turn led to the homestead agitation. There has been no single
+element more influential in shaping American democracy and its ideals
+than this land policy. And whether the system be regarded as harmful or
+helpful, there can be, I think, no doubt that it was the outcome of
+conditions imposed by the settlers of the Ohio Valley.</p>
+
+<p>When one names the tariff, internal improvements and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>[<a href="./images/171.png">171</a>]</span>bank, he is
+bound to add the title "The American System," and to think of Henry Clay
+of Kentucky, the captivating young statesman, who fashioned a national
+policy, raised issues and disciplined a party to support them and who
+finally imposed the system upon the nation. But, however clearly we
+recognize the genius and originality of Henry Clay as a political
+leader; however we recognize that he has a national standing as a
+constructive statesman, we must perceive, if we probe the matter deeply
+enough, that his policy and his power grew out of the economic and
+social conditions of the people <ins class="corr" title="original has who">whose</ins> needs he voiced&mdash;the people of the
+Ohio Valley. It was the fact that in this period they had begun to
+create an agricultural surplus, which made the necessity for this
+legislation.</p>
+
+<p>The nation has recently celebrated the one hundredth anniversary of
+Fulton's invention of the steamboat, and the Hudson river has been
+ablaze in his honor; but in truth it is on the Ohio and the Mississippi
+that the fires of celebration should really burn in honor of Fulton, for
+the historic significance to the United States of the invention of the
+steamboat does not lie in its use on Eastern rivers; not even in its use
+on the ocean; for our own internal commerce carried in our own ships has
+had a vaster influence upon our national life than has our foreign
+commerce. And this internal commerce was at first, and for many years,
+the commerce of the Ohio Valley carried by way of the Mississippi. When
+Fulton's steamboat was applied in 1811 to the Western Waters, it became
+possible to develop agriculture and to get the Western crops rapidly and
+cheaply to a market. The result was a tremendous growth in the entire
+Ohio Valley, but this invention did not solve the problem of cheap
+supplies of Eastern manufactures, nor satisfy the desire of the West to
+build up its own factories in order to consume its own products. The
+Ohio Valley had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>[<a href="./images/172.png">172</a>]</span>seen the advantage of home markets, as her towns grew
+up with their commerce and manufacturers close to the rural regions.
+Lands had increased in value in proportion to their nearness to these
+cities, and crops were in higher demand near them. Thus Henry Clay found
+a whole section standing behind him when he demanded a protective tariff
+to create home markets on a national scale, and when he urged the
+breaking of the Alleghany barrier by a national system of roads and
+canals. If we analyse the congressional votes by which the tariff and
+internal improvement acts were passed, we shall find that there was an
+almost unbroken South against them, a Middle Region largely for them, a
+New England divided, and the Ohio Valley almost a unit, holding the
+balance of power and casting it in favor of the American system.</p>
+
+<p>The next topic to which I ask your attention is the influence of the
+Ohio Valley in the promotion of democracy. On this I shall, by reason of
+lack of time, be obliged merely to point out that the powerful group of
+Ohio Valley States, which sprang out of the democracy of the backwoods,
+and which entered the Union one after the other with manhood suffrage,
+greatly recruited the effective forces of democracy in the Union. Not
+only did they add new recruits, but by their competitive pressure for
+population they forced the older States to break down their historic
+restraints upon the right of voting, unless they were to lose their
+people to the freer life of the West.</p>
+
+<p>But in the era of Jacksonian democracy, Henry Clay and his followers
+engaged the great Tennesseean in a fierce political struggle out of
+which was born the rival Whig and Democratic parties. This struggle was
+in fact reflective of the conditions which had arisen in the Ohio
+Valley. As the section had grown in population and wealth, as the trails
+changed into roads, the cabins into well-built houses, the clearings
+into broad farms, the hamlets into towns; as barter <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>[<a href="./images/173.png">173</a>]</span>became commerce and
+all the modern processes of industrial development began to operate in
+this rising region, the Ohio Valley broke apart into the rival interests
+of the industrial forces (the town-makers and the business builders), on
+the one side and the old rural democracy of the uplands on the other.
+This division was symbolical of national processes. In the contest
+between these forces, Andrew Jackson was the champion of the cause of
+the upland democracy. He denounced the money power, banks and the whole
+credit system and sounded a fierce tocsin of danger against the
+increasing influence of wealth in politics. Henry Clay, on the other
+hand, represented the new industrial forces along the Ohio. It is
+certainly significant that in the rivalry between the great Whig of the
+Ohio Valley and the great Democrat of its Tennessee tributary lay the
+issues of American politics almost until the slavery struggle. The
+responsiveness of the Ohio Valley to leadership and its enthusiasm in
+action are illustrated by the Harrison campaign of 1840; in that "log
+cabin campaign" when the Whigs "stole the thunder" of pioneer Jacksonian
+democracy for another backwoods hero, the Ohio Valley carried its spirit
+as well as its political favorite throughout the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, on each side of the Ohio Valley, other sections were forming.
+New England and the children of New England in western New York and an
+increasing flood of German immigrants were pouring into the Great Lake
+basin and the prairies, north of the upland peoples who had chopped out
+homes in the forests along the Ohio. This section was tied to the East
+by the Great Lake navigation and the Erie canal, it became in fact an
+extension of New England and New York. Here the Free Soil party found
+its strength and New York newspapers expressed the political ideas.
+Although this section tried to attach the Ohio River interests to itself
+by canals <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>[<a href="./images/174.png">174</a>]</span>and later by railroads, it was in reality for a long time
+separate in its ideals and its interests and never succeeded in
+dominating the Ohio Valley.</p>
+
+<p>On the south along the Gulf Plains there developed the "Cotton Kingdom,"
+a Greater South with a radical program of slavery expansion mapped out
+by bold and aggressive leaders. Already this Southern section had
+attempted to establish increasing commercial relations with the Ohio
+Valley. The staple-producing region was a principal consumer of its live
+stock and food products. South Carolina leaders like Calhoun tried to
+bind the Ohio to the chariot of the South by the Cincinnati and
+Charleston Railroad, designed to make an outlet for the Ohio Valley
+products to the southeast. Georgia in her turn was a rival of South
+Carolina in plans to drain this commerce itself. In all of these plans
+to connect the Ohio Valley commercially with the South, the political
+object was quite as prominent as the commercial.</p>
+
+<p>In short, various areas were bidding for the support of the zone of
+population along the Ohio River. The Ohio Valley recognized its old
+relationship to the South, but its people were by no means champions of
+slavery. In the southern portion of the States north of the Ohio where
+indented servitude for many years opened a way to a system of
+semi-slavery, there were divided counsels. Kentucky also spoke with no
+certain voice. As a result, it is in these regions that we find the
+stronghold of the compromising movement in the slavery struggle.
+Kentucky furnished Abraham Lincoln to Illinois, and Jefferson Davis to
+Mississippi, and was in reality the very center of the region of
+adjustment between these rival interests. Senator Thomas, of southern
+Illinois, moved the Missouri Compromise, and Henry Clay was the most
+effective champion of that compromise, as he was the architect of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>[<a href="./images/175.png">175</a>]</span>Compromise of 1850. The Crittenden compromise proposals on the eve of
+the Civil War came also from Kentucky and represent the persistence of
+the spirit of Henry Clay.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, as I pointed out in the beginning, the Ohio Valley was a
+Middle Region with a strong national allegiance, striving to hold apart
+with either hand the sectional combatants in this struggle. In the
+cautious development of his policy of emancipation, we may see the
+profound influence of the Ohio Valley upon Abraham Lincoln&mdash;Kentucky's
+greatest son. No one can understand his presidency without proper
+appreciation of the deep influence of the Ohio Valley, its ideals and
+its prejudices upon America's original contribution to the great men of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said to make it clear, I trust, that the Ohio Valley has
+not only a local history worthy of study, a rich heritage to its people,
+but also that it has been an independent and powerful force in shaping
+the development of a nation. Of the late history of this Valley, the
+rise of its vast industrial power, its far-reaching commercial
+influence, it is not necessary that I should speak. You know its
+statesmen and their influence upon our own time; you know the relation
+of Ohio to the office of President of the United States! Nor is it
+necessary that I should attempt to prophesy concerning the future which
+the Ohio Valley will hold in the nation.</p>
+
+<p>In that new age of inland water transportation, which is certain to
+supplement the age of the railroad, there can be no more important
+region than the Ohio Valley. Let us hope that its old love of democracy
+may endure, and that in this section, where the first trans-Alleghany
+pioneers struck blows at the forests, there may be brought to blossom
+and to fruit the ripe civilization of a people who know that whatever
+the glories of prosperity may be, there are greater glories of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>[<a href="./images/176.png">176</a>]</span>spirit of man; who know that in the ultimate record of history, the
+place of the Ohio Valley will depend upon the contribution which her
+people and her leaders make to the cause of an enlightened, a
+cultivated, a God-fearing and a free, as well as a comfortable,
+democracy.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157:1_255" id="Footnote_157:1_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157:1_255"><span class="label">[157:1]</span></a> An address before the Ohio Valley Historical
+Association, October 16, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168:1_256" id="Footnote_168:1_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168:1_256"><span class="label">[168:1]</span></a> See F. J. Turner, "New States West of the Alleghanies,"
+<i>American Historical Review</i>, i, pp. 70 ff.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>[<a href="./images/177.png">177</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>VI</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Significance of the Mississippi Valley in American History</span><a name="FNanchor_177:1_257" id="FNanchor_177:1_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_177:1_257" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[177:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The rise of a company of sympathetic and critical students of history in
+the South and in the West is bound to revolutionize the perspective of
+American history. Already our Eastern colleagues are aware in general,
+if not in detail, of the importance of the work of this nation in
+dealing with the vast interior, and with the influence of the West upon
+the nation. Indeed, I might take as the text for this address the words
+of one of our Eastern historians, Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, who, a
+decade ago, wrote:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Mississippi Valley yields to no region in the world in
+interest, in romance, and in promise for the future. Here, if
+anywhere, is the real America&mdash;the field, the theater, and the
+basis of the civilization of the Western World. The history of
+the Mississippi Valley is the history of the United States;
+its future is the future of one of the most powerful of modern
+nations.<a name="FNanchor_177:2_258" id="FNanchor_177:2_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_177:2_258" class="fnanchor">[177:2]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>If those of us who have been insisting on the importance of our own
+region are led at times by the enthusiasm of the pioneer for the
+inviting historical domain that opens before <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>[<a href="./images/178.png">178</a>]</span>us to overstate the
+importance of our subject, we may at least plead that we have gone no
+farther than some of our brethren of the East; and we may take comfort
+in this declaration of Theodore Roosevelt:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The states that have grown up around the Great Lakes and in
+the Valley of the Upper Mississippi, [are] the states which
+are destined to be the greatest, the richest, the most
+prosperous of all the great, rich, and prosperous
+commonwealths which go to make up the mightiest republic the
+world has ever seen. These states .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. form the heart of the
+country geographically, and they will soon become the heart in
+population and in political and social importance.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. I should
+be sorry to think that before these states there loomed a
+future of material prosperity merely. I regard this section of
+the country as the heart of true American sentiment.<a name="FNanchor_178:1_259" id="FNanchor_178:1_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_178:1_259" class="fnanchor">[178:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In studying the history of the whole Mississippi Valley, therefore, the
+members of this Association are studying the origins of that portion of
+the nation which is admitted by competent Eastern authorities to be the
+section potentially most influential in the future of America. They are
+also studying the region which has engaged the most vital activities of
+the whole nation; for the problems arising from the existence of the
+Mississippi Valley, whether of movement of population, diplomacy,
+politics, economic development, or social structure, have been
+fundamental problems in shaping the nation. It is not a narrow, not even
+a local, interest which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>[<a href="./images/179.png">179</a>]</span>determines the mission of this Association. It
+is nothing less than the study of the American people in the presence
+and under the influence of the vast spaces, the imperial resources of
+the great interior. The social destiny of this Valley will be the social
+destiny, and will mark the place in history, of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In a large sense, and in the one usually given to it by geographers and
+historians, the Mississippi Valley includes the whole interior basin, a
+province which drains into nearly two thousand miles of navigable waters
+of the Mississippi itself, two thousand miles of the tawny flood of the
+Missouri, and a thousand miles of the Ohio&mdash;five thousand miles of main
+water highways open to the steamboat, nearly two and a half million
+square miles of drainage basin, a land greater than all Europe except
+Russia, Norway, and Sweden, a land of levels, marked by essential
+geographic unity, a land estimated to be able to support a population of
+two or three hundred millions, three times the present population of the
+whole nation, an empire of natural resources in which to build a noble
+social structure worthy to hold its place as the heart of American
+industrial, political and spiritual life.</p>
+
+<p>The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history was first
+shown in the fact that it opened to various nations visions of power in
+the New World&mdash;visions that sweep across the horizon of historical
+possibility like the luminous but unsubstantial aurora of a comet's
+train, portentous and fleeting.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the darkness of the primitive history of the continent are being
+drawn the evidences of the rise and fall of Indian cultures, the
+migrations through and into the great Valley by men of the Stone Age,
+hinted at in legends and languages, dimly told in the records of mounds
+and artifacts, but waiting still for complete interpretation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>[<a href="./images/180.png">180</a>]</span></p><p>Into these spaces and among the savage peoples, came France and wrote a
+romantic page in our early history, a page that tells of unfulfilled
+empire. What is striking in the effect of the Mississippi Valley upon
+France is the pronounced influence of the unity of its great spaces. It
+is not without meaning that Radisson and Groseilliers not only reached
+the extreme of Lake Superior but also, in all probability, entered upon
+the waters of the Mississippi and learned of its western affluent; that
+Marquette not only received the Indians of the Illinois region in his
+post on the shores of Lake Superior, but traversed the length of the
+Mississippi almost to its mouth, and returning revealed the site of
+Chicago; that La Salle was inspired with the vision of a huge interior
+empire reaching from the Gulf to the Great Lakes. Before the close of
+the seventeenth century, Perrot's influence was supreme in the Upper
+Mississippi, while D'Iberville was laying the foundations of Louisiana
+toward the mouth of the river. Nor is it without significance that while
+the Verendryes were advancing toward the northwest (where they
+discovered the Big Horn Mountains and revealed the natural boundaries of
+the Valley) the Mallet brothers were ascending the Platte, crossing the
+Colorado plains to Santa F&eacute; and so revealing the natural boundaries
+toward the southwest.</p>
+
+<p>To the English the great Valley was a land beyond the Alleghanies.
+Spotswood, the far-sighted Governor of Virginia, predecessor of frontier
+builders, grasped the situation when he proposed western settlements to
+prevent the French from becoming a great people at the back of the
+colonies. He realized the importance of the Mississippi Valley as the
+field for expansion, and the necessity to the English empire of
+dominating it, if England would remain the great power of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>In the war that followed between France and England, we <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>[<a href="./images/181.png">181</a>]</span>now see what
+the men of the time could not have realized: that the main issue was
+neither the possession of the fisheries nor the approaches to the St.
+Lawrence on the one hemisphere, nor the possession of India on the
+other, but the mastery of the interior basin of North America.</p>
+
+<p>How little the nations realized the true meaning of the final victory of
+England is shown in the fact that Spain reluctantly received from France
+the cession of the lands beyond the Mississippi, accepting it as a means
+of preventing the infringement of her colonial monopoly in Spanish
+America rather than as a field for imperial expansion.</p>
+
+<p>But we know now that when George Washington came as a stripling to the
+camp of the French at the edge of the great Valley and demanded the
+relinquishment of the French posts in the name of Virginia, he was
+demanding in the name of the English speaking people the right to occupy
+and rule the real center of American resources and power. When
+Braddock's axmen cut their road from the Potomac toward the forks of the
+Ohio they were opening a channel through which the forces of
+civilization should flow with ever increasing momentum and "carving a
+cross on the wilderness rim" at the spot which is now the center of
+industrial power of the American nation.</p>
+
+<p>England trembled on the brink of her great conquest, fearful of the
+effect of these far-stretching rivers upon her colonial system, timorous
+in the presence of the fierce peoples who held the vast domain beyond
+the Alleghanies. It seems clear, however, that the Proclamation of 1763,
+forbidding settlement and the patenting of lands beyond the Alleghanies,
+was not intended as a permanent creation of an Indian reservation out of
+this Valley, but was rather a temporary arrangement in order that
+British plans might mature and a system of gradual colonization be
+devised. Already our greatest leaders, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>[<a href="./images/182.png">182</a>]</span>men like Washington and
+Franklin, had been quick to see the importance of this new area for
+enlarged activities of the American people. A sudden revelation that it
+was the West, rather than the ocean, which was the real theater for the
+creative energy of America came with the triumph over France. The Ohio
+Company and the Loyal Land Company indicate the interest at the outbreak
+of the war, while the Mississippi Company, headed by the Washingtons and
+Lees, organized to occupy southern Illinois, Indiana, and western
+Kentucky, mark the Virginia interest in the Mississippi Valley, and
+Franklin's activity in promoting a colony in the Illinois country
+illustrates the interest of the Philadelphians. Indeed, Franklin saw
+clearly the possibilities of a settlement there as a means of breaking
+up Spanish America. Writing to his son in 1767 he declared that a
+"settlement should be made in the Illinois country .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. raising a
+strength there which on occasions of a future war might easily be poured
+down the Mississippi upon the lower country and into the Bay of Mexico
+to be used against Cuba, the French Islands, or Mexico itself."<a name="FNanchor_182:1_260" id="FNanchor_182:1_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_182:1_260" class="fnanchor">[182:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Mississippi Valley had been the despair of France in the matter of
+governmental control. The coureurs de bois escaping from restraints of
+law and order took their way through its extensive wilderness, exploring
+and trading as they listed. Similarly, when the English colonists
+crossed the Alleghanies they escaped from the control of mother colonies
+as well as of the mother country. If the Mississippi Valley revealed to
+the statesmen of the East, in the exultation of the war with France, an
+opportunity for new empire building, it revealed to the frontiersmen,
+who penetrated the passes of the Alleghanies, and entered into their new
+inheritance, the sharp distinctions between them and the Eastern lands
+which they <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>[<a href="./images/183.png">183</a>]</span>left behind. From the beginning it was clear that the lands
+beyond the Alleghanies furnished an opportunity and an incentive to
+develop American society on independent and unconventional lines. The
+"men of the Western Waters" broke with the old order of things,
+subordinated social restraint to the freedom of the individual, won
+their title to the rich lands which they entered by hard fighting
+against the Indians, hotly challenged the right of the East to rule
+them, demanded their own States, and would not be refused, spoke with
+contempt of the old social order of ranks and classes in the lands
+between the Alleghanies and the Atlantic, and proclaimed the ideal of
+democracy for the vast country which they had entered. Not with the
+mercurial facility of the French did they follow the river systems of
+the Great Valley. Like the advance of the glacier they changed the face
+of the country in their steady and inevitable progress, and they sought
+the sea. It was not long before the Spaniards at the mouth of the river
+realized the meaning of the new forces that had entered the Valley.</p>
+
+<p>In 1794 the Governor of Louisiana wrote:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This vast and restless population progressively driving the
+Indian tribes before them and upon us, seek to possess
+themselves of all the extensive regions which the Indians
+occupy between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the Gulf of
+Mexico, and the Appalachian Mountains, thus becoming our
+neighbors, at the same time that they menacingly ask for the
+free navigation of the Mississippi. If they achieve their
+object, their ambitions would not be confined to this side of
+the Mississippi. Their writings, public papers, and speeches,
+all turn on this point, the free navigation of the Gulf by the
+rivers .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. which empty into it, the rich <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>[<a href="./images/184.png">184</a>]</span>fur trade of the
+Missouri, and in time the possession of the rich mines of the
+interior provinces of the very Kingdom of Mexico. Their mode
+of growth and their policy are as formidable for Spain as
+their armies.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Their roving spirit and the readiness with
+which they procure sustenance and shelter facilitate rapid
+settlement. A rifle and a little corn meal in a bag are enough
+for an American wandering alone in the woods for a month.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.
+With logs crossed upon one another he makes a house, and even
+an impregnable fort against the Indians.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Cold does not
+terrify him, and when a family wearies of one place, it moves
+to another and settles there with the same ease.</p>
+
+<p>If such men come to occupy the banks of the Mississippi and
+Missouri, or secure their navigation, doubtless nothing will
+prevent them from crossing and penetrating into our provinces
+on the other side, which, being to a great extent unoccupied,
+can oppose no resistance.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. In my opinion, a general
+revolution in America threatens Spain unless the remedy be
+applied promptly.</p></div>
+
+<p>In fact, the pioneers who had occupied the uplands of the South, the
+backwoods stock with its Scotch-Irish leaders which had formed on the
+eastern edge of the Alleghanies, separate and distinct from the type of
+tidewater and New England, had found in the Mississippi Valley a new
+field for expansion under conditions of free land and unrestraint. These
+conditions gave it promise of ample time to work out its own social
+type. But, first of all, these men who were occupying the Western Waters
+must find an outlet for their surplus products, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>[<a href="./images/185.png">185</a>]</span>if they were to become
+a powerful people. While the Alleghanies placed a veto toward the east,
+the Mississippi opened a broad highway to the south. Its swift current
+took their flat boats in its strong arms to bear them to the sea, but
+across the outlet of the great river Spain drew the barrier of her
+colonial monopoly and denied them exit.</p>
+
+<p>The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history at the
+opening of the new republic, therefore, lay in the fact that, beyond the
+area of the social and political control of the thirteen colonies, there
+had arisen a new and aggressive society which imperiously put the
+questions of the public lands, internal communication, local
+self-government, defense, and aggressive expansion, before the
+legislators of the old colonial r&eacute;gime. The men of the Mississippi
+Valley compelled the men of the East to think in American terms instead
+of European. They dragged a reluctant nation on in a new course.</p>
+
+<p>From the Revolution to the end of the War of 1812 Europe regarded the
+destiny of the Mississippi Valley as undetermined. Spain desired to
+maintain her hold by means of the control given through the possession
+of the mouth of the river and the Gulf, by her influence upon the Indian
+tribes, and by intrigues with the settlers. Her object was primarily to
+safeguard the Spanish American monopoly which had made her a great
+nation in the world. Instinctively she seemed to surmise that out of
+this Valley were the issues of her future; here was the lever which
+might break successively, from her empire fragments about the
+Gulf&mdash;Louisiana, Florida and Texas, Cuba and Porto Rico&mdash;the Southwest
+and Pacific coast, and even the Philippines and the Isthmian Canal,
+while the American republic, building itself on the resources of the
+Valley, should become paramount over the independent republics into
+which her empire was to disintegrate.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>[<a href="./images/186.png">186</a>]</span></p><p>France, seeking to regain her former colonial power, would use the
+Mississippi Valley as a means of provisioning her West Indian islands;
+of dominating Spanish America, and of subordinating to her purposes the
+feeble United States, which her policy assigned to the lands between the
+Atlantic and the Alleghanies. The ancient Bourbon monarchy, the
+revolutionary republic, and the Napoleonic empire&mdash;all contemplated the
+acquisition of the whole Valley of the Mississippi from the Alleghanies
+to the Rocky Mountains.<a name="FNanchor_186:1_261" id="FNanchor_186:1_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_186:1_261" class="fnanchor">[186:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>England holding the Great Lakes, dominating the northern Indian
+populations and threatening the Gulf and the mouth of the Mississippi by
+her fleet, watched during the Revolution, the Confederation, and the
+early republic for the breaking of the fragile bonds of the thirteen
+States, ready to extend her protection over the settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley.</p>
+
+<p>Alarmed by the prospect of England's taking Louisiana and Florida from
+Spain, Jefferson wrote in 1790: "Embraced from St. Croix to St. Mary's
+on one side by their possessions, on the other by their fleet, we need
+not hesitate to say that they would soon find means to unite to them all
+the territory covered by the ramifications of the Mississippi." And
+that, he thought, must result in "bloody and eternal war or indissoluble
+confederacy" with England.</p>
+
+<p>None of these nations deemed it impossible that American settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley might be won to accept another flag than that of the
+United States. Gardoqui had the effrontery in 1787 to suggest to Madison
+that the Kentuckians would make good Spanish subjects. France enlisted
+the support of frontiersmen led by George Rogers Clark for her attempted
+conquest of Louisiana in 1793. England tried to win support among the
+western settlers. Indeed, when we recall that George Rogers Clark
+accepted a commission as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>[<a href="./images/187.png">187</a>]</span>Major General from France in 1793 and again in
+1798; that Wilkinson, afterwards commander-in-chief of the American
+army, secretly asked Spanish citizenship and promised renunciation of
+his American allegiance; that Governor Sevier of Franklin, afterwards
+Senator from Tennessee and its first Governor as a State, Robertson the
+founder of Cumberland, and Blount, Governor of the Southwest Territory
+and afterwards Senator from Tennessee, were all willing to accept the
+rule of another nation sooner than see the navigation of the Mississippi
+yielded by the American government we can easily believe that it lay
+within the realm of possibility that another allegiance might have been
+accepted by the frontiersmen themselves. We may well trust Rufus Putnam,
+whose federalism and devotion to his country had been proved and whose
+work in founding New England's settlement at Marietta is well known,
+when he wrote in 1790 in answer to Fisher Ames's question whether the
+Mississippi Valley could be retained in the Union: "Should Congress give
+up her claim to the navigation of the Mississippi or cede it to the
+Spaniards, I believe the people in the Western quarter would separate
+themselves from the United States very soon. Such a measure, I have no
+doubt, would excite so much rage and dissatisfaction that the people
+would sooner put themselves under the despotic government of Spain than
+remain the indented servants of Congress." He added that if Congress did
+not afford due protection also to these western settlers they might turn
+to England or Spain.<a name="FNanchor_187:1_262" id="FNanchor_187:1_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_187:1_262" class="fnanchor">[187:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Prior to the railroad the Mississippi Valley was potentially the basis
+for an independent empire, in spite of the fact that its population
+would inevitably be drawn from the Eastern States. Its natural outlet
+was down the current to the Gulf. New Orleans controlled the Valley, in
+the words of Wilkinson, "as the key the lock, or the citadel the
+outworks." So long <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>[<a href="./images/188.png">188</a>]</span>as the Mississippi Valley was menaced, or in part
+controlled, by rival European states, just so long must the United
+States be a part of the state system of Europe, involved in its
+fortunes. And particularly was this the case in view of the fact that
+until the Union made internal commerce, based upon the Mississippi
+Valley, its dominant economic interest, the merchants and sailors of the
+northeastern States and the staple producers of the southern sea-board
+were a commercial appanage of Europe. The significance of the
+Mississippi Valley was clearly seen by Jefferson. Writing to Livingston
+in 1802 he declared:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which
+is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through
+which the produce of three-eights of our territory must pass
+to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more
+than half of our whole produce and contain more than half of
+our inhabitants.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. The day that France takes possession of
+New Orleans fixes the sentence which is to restrain her within
+her low-water mark. It seals the union of two nations who in
+conjunction can maintain exclusive possession of the ocean.
+From that moment we must marry ourselves to the British fleet
+and nation .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. holding the two continents of America in
+sequestration for the common purposes of the united British
+and American nations.<a name="FNanchor_188:1_263" id="FNanchor_188:1_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_188:1_263" class="fnanchor">[188:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The acquisition of Louisiana was a recognition of the essential unity of
+the Mississippi Valley. The French engineer Collot reported to his
+government after an investigation in 1796:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>[<a href="./images/189.png">189</a>]</span></p><div class="blockquot"><p>All the positions on the left [east] bank of the Mississippi
+.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. without the alliance of the Western states are far from
+covering Louisiana.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. When two nations possess, one the
+coasts and the other the plains, the former must inevitably
+embark or submit. From thence I conclude that the Western
+States of the North American republic must unite themselves
+with Louisiana and form in the future one single compact
+nation; or else that colony to whatever power it shall belong
+will be conquered or devoured.</p></div>
+
+<p>The effect of bringing political unity to the Mississippi Valley by the
+Louisiana Purchase was profound. It was the decisive step of the United
+States on an independent career as a world power, free from entangling
+foreign alliances. The victories of Harrison in the Northwest, in the
+War of 1812 that followed, ensured our expansion in the northern half of
+the Valley. Jackson's triumphal march to the Gulf and his defense of New
+Orleans in the same war won the basis for that Cotton Kingdom, so
+important in the economic life of the nation and so pregnant with the
+issue of slavery.<a name="FNanchor_189:1_264" id="FNanchor_189:1_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_189:1_264" class="fnanchor">[189:1]</a> The acquisition of Florida, Texas, and the Far
+West followed naturally. Not only was the nation set on an independent
+path in foreign relations; its political system was revolutionized, for
+the Mississippi Valley now opened the way for adding State after State,
+swamping the New England section and its Federalism. The doctrine of
+strict construction had received a fatal blow at the hands of its own
+prophet. The old conception of historic sovereign States, makers of a
+federation, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>[<a href="./images/190.png">190</a>]</span>was shattered by this vast addition of raw material for an
+indefinite number of parallelograms called States, nursed through a
+Territorial period by the Federal government, admitted under conditions,
+and animated by national rather than by State patriotism.</p>
+
+<p>The area of the nation had been so enlarged and the development of the
+internal resources so promoted, by the acquisition of the whole course
+of the mighty river, its tributaries and its outlet, that the Atlantic
+coast soon turned its economic energies from the sea to the interior.
+Cities and sections began to struggle for ascendancy over its industrial
+life. A real national activity, a genuine American culture began. The
+vast spaces, the huge natural resources, of the Valley demanded
+exploitation and population. Later there came the tide of foreign
+immigration which has risen so steadily that it has made a composite
+American people whose amalgamation is destined to produce a new national
+stock.</p>
+
+<p>But without attempting to exhaust, or even to indicate, all the effects
+of the Louisiana Purchase, I wish next to ask your attention to the
+significance of the Mississippi Valley in the promotion of democracy and
+the transfer of the political center of gravity in the nation. The
+Mississippi Valley has been the especial home of democracy. Born of free
+land and the pioneer spirit, nurtured in the ideas of the Revolution and
+finding free play for these ideas in the freedom of the wilderness,
+democracy showed itself in the earliest utterances of the men of the
+Western Waters and it has persisted there. The demand for local
+self-government, which was insistent on the frontier, and the
+endorsement given by the Alleghanies to these demands led to the
+creation of a system of independent Western governments and to the
+Ordinance of 1787, an original contribution to colonial policy. This was
+framed in the period when any rigorous subjection of the West to Eastern
+rule <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>[<a href="./images/191.png">191</a>]</span>would have endangered the ties that bound them to the Union
+itself. In the Constitutional Convention prominent Eastern statesmen
+expressed their fears of the Western democracy and would have checked
+its ability to out-vote the regions of property by limiting its
+political power, so that it should never equal that of the Atlantic
+coast. But more liberal counsels prevailed. In the first debates upon
+the public lands, also, it was clearly stated that the social system of
+the nation was involved quite as much as the question of revenue.
+Eastern fears that cheap lands in abundance would depopulate the
+Atlantic States and check their industrial growth by a scarcity of labor
+supply were met by the answer of one of the representatives in 1796:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I question if any man would be hardy enough to point out a
+class of citizens by name that ought to be the servants of the
+community; yet unless that is done to what class of the People
+could you direct such a law? But if you passed such an act
+[limiting the area offered for sale in the Mississippi
+Valley], it would be tantamount to saying that there is some
+class which must remain here, and by law be obliged to serve
+the others for such wages as they please to give.</p></div>
+
+<p>Gallatin showed his comprehension of the basis of the prosperous
+American democracy in the same debate when he said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If the cause of the happiness of this country was examined
+into, it would be found to arise as much from the great plenty
+of land in proportion to the inhabitants, which their citizens
+enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>[<a href="./images/192.png">192</a>]</span></p><p>Out of this frontier democratic society where the freedom and abundance
+of land in the great Valley opened a refuge to the oppressed in all
+regions, came the Jacksonian democracy which governed the nation after
+the downfall of the party of John Quincy Adams. Its center rested in
+Tennessee, the region from which so large a portion of the Mississippi
+Valley was settled by descendants of the men of the Upland South. The
+rule of the Mississippi Valley is seen when we recall the place that
+Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri held in both parties. Besides Jackson,
+Clay, Harrison and Polk, we count such presidential candidates as Hugh
+White and John Bell, Vice President R. M. Johnson, Grundy, the chairman
+of the finance committee, and Benton, the champion of western
+radicalism.</p>
+
+<p>It was in this same period, and largely by reason of the drainage of
+population to the West, and the stir in the air raised by the Western
+winds of Jacksonian democracy, that most of the older States
+reconstructed their constitutions on a more democratic basis. From the
+Mississippi Valley where there were liberal suffrage provisions (based
+on population alone instead of property and population), disregard of
+vested interests, and insistence on the rights of man, came the
+inspiration for this era of change in the franchise and apportionment,
+of reform of laws for imprisonment for debt, of general attacks upon
+monopoly and privilege. "It is now plain," wrote Jackson in 1837, "that
+the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of the few against
+the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the honest laborers
+hewers of wood and drawers of water .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. through the credit and paper
+system."</p>
+
+<p>By this time the Mississippi Valley had grown in population and
+political power so that it ranked with the older sections. The next
+indication of its significance in American <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>[<a href="./images/193.png">193</a>]</span>history which I shall
+mention is its position in shaping the economic and political course of
+the nation between the close of the War of 1812 and the slavery
+struggle. In 1790 the Mississippi Valley had a population of about a
+hundred thousand, or one-fortieth of that of the United States as a
+whole; by 1810 it had over a million, or one-seventh; by 1830 it had
+three and two-thirds millions, or over one-fourth; by 1840 over six
+millions, more than one-third. While the Atlantic coast increased only a
+million and a half souls between 1830 and 1840, the Mississippi Valley
+gained nearly three millions. Ohio (virgin wilderness in 1790) was, half
+a century later, nearly as populous as Pennsylvania and twice as
+populous as Massachusetts. While Virginia, North Carolina, and South
+Carolina were gaining 60,000 souls between 1830 and 1840, Illinois
+gained 318,000. Indeed, the growth of this State alone excelled that of
+the entire South Atlantic States.</p>
+
+<p>These figures show the significance of the Mississippi Valley in its
+pressure upon the older section by the competition of its cheap lands,
+its abundant harvests, and its drainage of the labor supply. All of
+these things meant an upward lift to the Eastern wage earner. But they
+meant also an increase of political power in the Valley. Before the War
+of 1812 the Mississippi Valley had six senators, New England ten, the
+Middle States ten, and the South eight. By 1840 the Mississippi Valley
+had twenty-two senators, double those of the Middle States and New
+England combined, and nearly three times as many as the Old South; while
+in the House of Representatives the Mississippi Valley outweighed any
+one of the old sections. In 1810 it had less than one-third the power of
+New England and the South together in the House. In 1840 it outweighed
+them both combined and because of its special circumstances it held the
+balance of power.</p>
+
+<p>While the Mississippi Valley thus rose to superior political <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>[<a href="./images/194.png">194</a>]</span>power as
+compared with any of the old sections, its economic development made it
+the inciting factor in the industrial life of the nation. After the War
+of 1812 the steamboat revolutionized the transportation facilities of
+the Mississippi Valley. In each economic area a surplus formed,
+demanding an outlet and demanding returns in manufactures. The spread of
+cotton into the lower Mississippi Valley and the Gulf Plains had a
+double significance. This transfer of the center of cotton production
+away from the Atlantic South not only brought increasing hardship and
+increasing unrest to the East as the competition of the virgin soils
+depressed Atlantic land values and made Eastern labor increasingly dear,
+but the price of cotton fell also in due proportion to the increase in
+production by the Mississippi Valley. While the transfer of economic
+power from the Seaboard South to the Cotton Kingdom of the lower
+Mississippi Valley was in progress, the upper Mississippi Valley was
+leaping forward, partly under the stimulus of a market for its surplus
+in the plantations of the South, where almost exclusive cultivation of
+the great staples resulted in a lack of foodstuffs and livestock.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time the great river and its affluents became the highway of
+a commerce that reached to the West Indies, the Atlantic Coast, Europe,
+and South America. The Mississippi Valley was an industrial entity, from
+Pittsburgh and Santa F&eacute; to New Orleans. It became the most important
+influence in American politics and industry. Washington had declared in
+1784 that it was the part of wisdom for Virginia to bind the West to the
+East by ties of interest through internal improvement thereby taking
+advantage of the extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire.</p>
+
+<p>This realization of the fact that an economic empire was growing up
+beyond the mountains stimulated rival cities, New York, Philadelphia,
+and Baltimore, to engage in a struggle <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>[<a href="./images/195.png">195</a>]</span>to supply the West with goods
+and receive its products. This resulted in an attempt to break down the
+barrier of the Alleghanies by internal improvements. The movement became
+especially active after the War of 1812, when New York carried out De
+Witt Clinton's vast conception of making by the Erie Canal a greater
+Hudson which should drain to the port of New York all the basin of the
+Great Lakes, and by means of other canals even divert the traffic from
+the tributaries of the Mississippi. New York City's commercial
+ascendancy dates from this connection with interior New York and the
+Mississippi Valley. A writer in Hunt's <i>Merchants' Magazine</i> in 1869
+makes the significance of this clearer by these words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>There was a period in the history of the seaboard cities when
+there was no West; and when the Alleghany Mountains formed the
+frontier of settlement and agricultural production. During
+that epoch the seaboard cities, North and South, grew in
+proportion to the extent and fertility of the country in their
+rear; and as Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia
+were more productive in staples valuable to commerce than the
+colonies north of them, the cities of Baltimore, Norfolk,
+Charleston, and Savannah enjoyed a greater trade and
+experienced a larger growth than those on the northern
+seaboard.</p></div>
+
+<p>He, then, classifies the periods of city development into three: (1) the
+provincial, limited to the Atlantic seaboard; (2) that of canal and
+turnpike connected with the Mississippi Valley; and (3) that of railroad
+connection. Thus he was able to show how Norfolk, for example, was shut
+off from the enriching currents of interior trade and was outstripped
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>[<a href="./images/196.png">196</a>]</span>by New York. The efforts of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and
+Savannah to divert the trade of the Mississippi system to their own
+ports on the Atlantic, and the rise or fall of these cities in
+proportion as they succeeded are a sufficient indication of the meaning
+of the Mississippi Valley in American industrial life. What colonial
+empire has been for London that the Mississippi Valley is to the
+seaboard cities of the United States, awakening visions of industrial
+empire, systematic control of vast spaces, producing the American type
+of the captain of industry.</p>
+
+<p>It was not alone city rivalry that converged upon the Mississippi Valley
+and sought its alliance. Sectional rivalry likewise saw that the balance
+of power possessed by the interior furnished an opportunity for
+combinations. This was a fundamental feature of Calhoun's policy when he
+urged the seaboard South to complete a railroad system to tap the
+Northwest. As Washington had hoped to make western trade seek its outlet
+in Virginia and build up the industrial power of the Old Dominion by
+enriching intercourse with the Mississippi Valley, as Monroe wished to
+bind the West to Virginia's political interests; and as De Witt Clinton
+wished to attach it to New York, so Calhoun and Hayne would make
+"Georgia and Carolina the commercial center of the Union, and the two
+most powerful and influential members of the confederacy," by draining
+the Mississippi Valley to their ports. "I believe," said Calhoun, "that
+the success of a connection of the West is of the last importance to us
+politically and commercially.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. I do verily believe that Charleston has
+more advantages in her position for the Western trade, than any city on
+the Atlantic, but to develop them we ought to look to the Tennessee
+instead of the Ohio, and much farther to the West than Cincinnati or
+Lexington."</p>
+
+<p>This was the secret of Calhoun's advocacy in 1836 and 1837 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>[<a href="./images/197.png">197</a>]</span>both of the
+distribution of the surplus revenue and of the cession of the public
+lands to the States in which they lay, as an inducement to the West to
+ally itself with Southern policies; and it is the key to the readiness
+of Calhoun, even after he lost his nationalism, to promote internal
+improvements which would foster the southward current of trade on the
+Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>Without going into details, I may simply call your attention to the fact
+that Clay's whole system of internal improvements and tariff was based
+upon the place of the Mississippi Valley in American life. It was the
+upper part of the Valley, and especially the Ohio Valley, that furnished
+the votes which carried the tariffs of 1816, 1824, and 1828. Its
+interests profoundly influenced the details of those tariffs and its
+need of internal improvement constituted a basis for sectional
+bargaining in all the constructive legislation after the War of 1812.
+New England, the Middle Region, and the South each sought alliance with
+the growing section beyond the mountains. American legislation bears the
+enduring evidence of these alliances. Even the National Bank found in
+this Valley the main sphere of its business. The nation had turned its
+energies to internal exploitation, and sections contended for the
+economic and political power derived from connection with the interior.</p>
+
+<p>But already the Mississippi Valley was beginning to stratify, both
+socially and geographically. As the railroads pushed across the
+mountains, the tide of New England and New York colonists and German
+immigrants sought the basin of the Great Lakes and the Upper
+Mississippi. A distinct zone, industrially and socially connected with
+New England, was forming. The railroad reinforced the Erie Canal and, as
+De Bow put it, turned back the tide of the Father of Waters so that its
+outlet was in New York instead of New Orleans for a large part of the
+Valley. Below the Northern zone was the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>[<a href="./images/198.png">198</a>]</span>border zone of the Upland
+South, the region of compromise, including both banks of the Ohio and
+the Missouri and reaching down to the hills on the north of the Gulf
+Plains. The Cotton Kingdom based on slavery found its center in the
+fertile soils along the Lower Mississippi and the black prairies of
+Georgia and Alabama, and was settled largely by planters from the old
+cotton lands of the Atlantic States. The Mississippi Valley had
+rejuvenated slavery, had given it an aggressive tone characteristic of
+Western life.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Valley found itself in the midst of the slavery struggle at the
+very time when its own society had lost homogeneity. Let us allow two
+leaders, one of the South and one of the North, to describe the
+situation; and, first, let the South speak. Said Hammond, of South
+Carolina,<a name="FNanchor_198:1_265" id="FNanchor_198:1_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_198:1_265" class="fnanchor">[198:1]</a> in a speech in the Senate on March 4, 1858:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I think it not improper that I should attempt to bring the
+North and South face to face, and see what resources each of
+us might have in the contingency of separate organizations.</p>
+
+<p>Through the heart of our country runs the great Mississippi,
+the father of waters, into whose bosom are poured thirty-six
+thousand miles of tributary streams; and beyond we have the
+desert prairie wastes to protect us in our rear. Can you hem
+in such a territory as that? You talk of putting up a wall of
+fire around eight hundred and fifty thousand miles so
+situated! How absurd.</p>
+
+<p>But in this territory lies the great valley of the
+Mississippi, now the real and soon to be the acknowledged seat
+of the empire of the world. The sway of that valley will be as
+great as ever <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>[<a href="./images/199.png">199</a>]</span>the Nile knew in the earlier ages of mankind.
+We own the most of it. The most valuable part of it belongs to
+us now; and although those who have settled above us are now
+opposed to us, another generation will tell a different tale.
+They are ours by all the laws of nature; slave labor will go
+to every foot of this great valley where it will be found
+profitable to use it, and some of those who may not use it are
+soon to be united with us by such ties as will make us one and
+inseparable. The iron horse will soon be clattering over the
+sunny plains of the South to bear the products of its upper
+tributaries to our Atlantic ports, as it now does through the
+ice-bound North. There is the great Mississippi, bond of union
+made by nature herself. She will maintain it forever.</p></div>
+
+<p>As the Seaboard South had transferred the mantle of leadership to
+Tennessee and then to the Cotton Kingdom of the Lower Mississippi, so
+New England and New York resigned their command to the northern half of
+the Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes. Seward, the
+old-time leader of the Eastern Whigs who had just lost the Republican
+nomination for the presidency to Lincoln, may rightfully speak for the
+Northeast. In the fall of 1860, addressing an audience at Madison,
+Wisconsin, he declared:<a name="FNanchor_199:1_266" id="FNanchor_199:1_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_199:1_266" class="fnanchor">[199:1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The empire established at Washington is of less than a hundred
+years' formation. It was the empire of thirteen Atlantic
+states. Still, practically, the mission of that empire is
+fulfilled. The power that directs it is ready to pass away
+from those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>[<a href="./images/200.png">200</a>]</span>thirteen states, and although held and exercised
+under the same constitution and national form of government,
+yet it is now in the very act of being transferred from the
+thirteen states east of the Alleghany mountains and on the
+coast of the Atlantic ocean, to the twenty states that lie
+west of the Alleghanies, and stretch away from their base to
+the base of the Rocky mountains on the West, and you are the
+heirs to it. When the next census shall reveal your power, you
+will be found to be the masters of the United States of
+America, and through them the dominating political power of
+the world.</p></div>
+
+<p>Appealing to the Northwest on the slavery issue Seward declared:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The whole responsibility rests henceforth directly or
+indirectly on the people of the Northwest.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. There can be no
+virtue in commercial and manufacturing communities to maintain
+a democracy, when the democracy themselves do not want a
+democracy. There is no virtue in Pearl street, in Wall street,
+in Court street, in Chestnut street, in any other street of
+great commercial cities, that can save the great democratic
+government of ours, when you cease to uphold it with your
+intelligent votes, your strong and mighty hands. You must,
+therefore, lead us as we heretofore reserved and prepared the
+way for you. We resign to you the banner of human rights and
+human liberty, on this continent, and we bid you be firm, bold
+and onward and then you may hope that we will be able to
+follow you.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>[<a href="./images/201.png">201</a>]</span></p><p>When we survey the course of the slavery struggle in the United States
+it is clear that the form the question took was due to the Mississippi
+Valley. The Ordinance of 1787, the Missouri Compromise, the Texas
+question, the Free Soil agitation, the Compromise of 1850, the
+Kansas-Nebraska bill, the Dred Scott decision, "bleeding Kansas"&mdash;these
+are all Mississippi Valley questions, and the mere enumeration makes it
+plain that it was the Mississippi Valley as an area for expansion which
+gave the slavery issue its significance in American history. But for
+this field of expansion, slavery might have fulfilled the expectation of
+the fathers and gradually died away.</p>
+
+<p>Of the significance of the Mississippi Valley in the Civil War, it is
+unnecessary that I should speak. Illinois gave to the North its
+President; Mississippi gave to the South its President. Lincoln and
+Davis were both born in Kentucky. Grant and Sherman, the northern
+generals, came from the Mississippi Valley; and both of them believed
+that when Vicksburg fell the cause of the South was lost, and so it must
+have been if the Confederacy had been unable, after victories in the
+East, to regain the Father of Waters; for, as General Sherman said:
+"Whatever power holds that river can govern this continent."</p>
+
+<p>With the close of the war political power passed for many years to the
+northern half of the Mississippi Valley, as the names of Grant, Hayes,
+Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley indicate. The population of the Valley
+grew from about fifteen millions in 1860 to over forty millions in
+1900&mdash;over half the total population of the United States. The
+significance of its industrial growth is not likely to be overestimated
+or overlooked. On its northern border, from near Minnesota's boundary
+line, through the Great Lakes to Pittsburgh, on its eastern edge, runs a
+huge movement of iron from mine to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>[<a href="./images/202.png">202</a>]</span>factory. This industry is basal in
+American life, and it has revolutionized the industry of the world. The
+United States produces pig iron and steel in amount equal to her two
+greatest competitors combined, and the iron ores for this product are
+chiefly in the Mississippi Valley. It is the chief producer of coal,
+thereby enabling the United States almost to equal the combined
+production of Germany and Great Britain; and great oil fields of the
+nation are in its midst. Its huge crops of wheat and corn and its cattle
+are the main resources for the United States and are drawn upon by
+Europe. Its cotton furnishes two-thirds of the world's factory supply.
+Its railroad system constitutes the greatest transportation network in
+the world. Again it is seeking industrial consolidation by demanding
+improvement of its vast water system as a unit. If this design, favored
+by Roosevelt, shall at some time be accomplished, again the bulk of the
+commerce of the Valley may flow along the old routes to New Orleans; and
+to Galveston by the development of southern railroad outlets after the
+building of the Panama Canal. For the development and exploitation of
+these and of the transportation and trade interests of the Middle West,
+Eastern capital has been consolidated into huge corporations, trusts,
+and combinations. With the influx of capital, and the rise of cities and
+manufactures, portions of the Mississippi Valley have become assimilated
+with the East. With the end of the era of free lands the basis of its
+democratic society is passing away.</p>
+
+<p>The final topic on which I shall briefly comment in this discussion of
+the significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history is a
+corollary of this condition. Has the Mississippi Valley a permanent
+contribution to make to American society, or is it to be adjusted into a
+type characteristically Eastern and European? In other words, has the
+United States itself an original contribution to make to the history of
+society? <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>[<a href="./images/203.png">203</a>]</span>This is what it comes to. The most significant fact in the
+Mississippi Valley is its ideals. Here has been developed, not by
+revolutionary theory, but by growth among free opportunities, the
+conception of a vast democracy made up of mobile ascending individuals,
+conscious of their power and their responsibilities. Can these ideals of
+individualism and democracy be reconciled and applied to the twentieth
+century type of civilization?</p>
+
+<p>Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful, art-loving and
+empire-building. No other nation on a vast scale has been controlled by
+a self-conscious, self-restrained democracy in the interests of progress
+and freedom, industrial as well as political. It is in the vast and
+level spaces of the Mississippi Valley, if anywhere, that the forces of
+social transformation and the modification of its democratic ideals may
+be arrested.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with competitive individualism, as well as with belief in
+equality, the farmers of the Mississippi Valley gradually learned that
+unrestrained competition and combination meant the triumph of the
+strongest, the seizure in the interest of a dominant class of the
+strategic points of the nation's life. They learned that between the
+ideal of individualism, unrestrained by society, and the ideal of
+democracy, was an innate conflict; that their very ambitions and
+forcefulness had endangered their democracy. The significance of the
+Mississippi Valley in American history has lain partly in the fact that
+it was a region of revolt. Here have arisen varied, sometimes
+ill-considered, but always devoted, movements for ameliorating the lot
+of the common man in the interests of democracy. Out of the Mississippi
+Valley have come successive and related tidal waves of popular demand
+for real or imagined legislative safeguards to their rights and their
+social ideals. The Granger movement, the Greenback movement, the
+Populist <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>[<a href="./images/204.png">204</a>]</span>movement, Bryan Democracy, and Roosevelt Republicanism all
+found their greatest strength in the Mississippi Valley. They were
+Mississippi Valley ideals in action. Its people were learning by
+experiment and experience how to grapple with the fundamental problem of
+creating a just social order that shall sustain the free, progressive,
+individual in a real democracy. The Mississippi Valley is asking, "What
+shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?"</p>
+
+<p>The Mississippi Valley has furnished a new social order to America. Its
+universities have set new types of institutions for social service and
+for the elevation of the plain people. Its historians should recount its
+old ambitions, and inventory its ideals, as well as its resources, for
+the information of the present age, to the end that building on its
+past, the mighty Valley may have a significance in the life of the
+nation even more profound than any which I have recounted.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177:1_257" id="Footnote_177:1_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177:1_257"><span class="label">[177:1]</span></a> Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical
+Association for 1909-10. Reprinted with the permission of the
+Association.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177:2_258" id="Footnote_177:2_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177:2_258"><span class="label">[177:2]</span></a> <i>Harper's Magazine</i>, February, 1900, p. 413.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178:1_259" id="Footnote_178:1_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178:1_259"><span class="label">[178:1]</span></a> Roosevelt, "The Northwest in the Nation," in
+"Proceedings of the Wisconsin Historical Society," Fortieth Annual
+Meeting, p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182:1_260" id="Footnote_182:1_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182:1_260"><span class="label">[182:1]</span></a> "Franklin's Works," iv, p. 141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186:1_261" id="Footnote_186:1_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186:1_261"><span class="label">[186:1]</span></a> [See the author's paper in <i>American Historical
+Review</i>, x, p. 245.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187:1_262" id="Footnote_187:1_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187:1_262"><span class="label">[187:1]</span></a> Cutler's "Cutler," ii, p. 372.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188:1_263" id="Footnote_188:1_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188:1_263"><span class="label">[188:1]</span></a> "Jefferson's Works," iv, p. 431.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189:1_264" id="Footnote_189:1_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189:1_264"><span class="label">[189:1]</span></a> [See on the Cotton Kingdom, U. B. Phillips, "History of
+Slavery"; W. G. Brown, "Lower South"; W. E. Dodd, "Expansion and
+Conflict"; F. J. Turner, "New West."]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198:1_265" id="Footnote_198:1_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198:1_265"><span class="label">[198:1]</span></a> "Congressional Globe," 35th Congress, First Session,
+Appendix, p. 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199:1_266" id="Footnote_199:1_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199:1_266"><span class="label">[199:1]</span></a> "Seward's Works" (Boston, 1884), iv, p. 319.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>[<a href="./images/205.png">205</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>VII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Problem of the West</span><a name="FNanchor_205:1_267" id="FNanchor_205:1_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_205:1_267" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[205:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The problem of the West is nothing less than the problem of American
+development. A glance at the map of the United States reveals the truth.
+To write of a "Western sectionalism," bounded on the east by the
+Alleghanies, is, in itself, to proclaim the writer a provincial. What is
+the West? What has it been in American life? To have the answers to
+these questions, is to understand the most significant features of the
+United States of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The West, at bottom, is a form of society, rather than an area. It is
+the term applied to the region whose social conditions result from the
+application of older institutions and ideas to the transforming
+influences of free land. By this application, a new environment is
+suddenly entered, freedom of opportunity is opened, the cake of custom
+is broken, and new activities, new lines of growth, new institutions and
+new ideals, are brought into existence. The wilderness disappears, the
+"West" proper passes on to a new frontier, and in the former area, a new
+society has emerged from its contact with the backwoods. Gradually this
+society loses its primitive conditions, and assimilates itself to the
+type of the older social conditions of the East; but it bears within it
+enduring and distinguishing survivals of its frontier experience. Decade
+after decade, West after West, this rebirth of American society has gone
+on, has left its traces behind it, and has reacted on the East. The
+history of our political institutions, our democracy, is not a history
+of imitation, of simple borrowing; it is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>[<a href="./images/206.png">206</a>]</span>a history of the evolution and
+adaptation of organs in response to changed environment, a history of
+the origin of new political species. In this sense, therefore, the West
+has been a constructive force of the highest significance in our life.
+To use the words of that acute and widely informed observer, Mr. Bryce,
+"The West is the most American part of America.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. What Europe is to
+Asia, what America is to England, that the Western States and
+Territories are to the Atlantic States."</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The West, as a phase of social organization, began with the Atlantic
+coast, and passed across the continent. But the colonial tide-water area
+was in close touch with the Old World, and soon lost its Western
+aspects. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the newer social
+conditions appeared along the upper waters of the tributaries of the
+Atlantic. Here it was that the West took on its distinguishing features,
+and transmitted frontier traits and ideals to this area in later days.
+On the coast, were the fishermen and skippers, the merchants and
+planters, with eyes turned toward Europe. Beyond the falls of the rivers
+were the pioneer farmers, largely of non-English stock, Scotch-Irish and
+German. They constituted a distinct people, and may be regarded as an
+expansion of the social and economic life of the middle region into the
+back country of the South. These frontiersmen were the ancestors of
+Boone, Andrew Jackson, Calhoun, Clay, and Lincoln. Washington and
+Jefferson were profoundly affected by these frontier conditions. The
+forest clearings have been the seed plots of American character.</p>
+
+<p>In the Revolutionary days, the settlers crossed the Alleghanies and put
+a barrier between them and the coast. They became, to use their phrases,
+"the men of the Western waters," the heirs of the "Western world." In
+this era, the backwoodsmen, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>[<a href="./images/207.png">207</a>]</span>all along the western slopes of the
+mountains, with a keen sense of the difference between them and the
+dwellers on the coast, demanded organization into independent States of
+the Union. Self-government was their ideal. Said one of their rude, but
+energetic petitions for statehood: "Some of our fellow-citizens may
+think we are not able to conduct our affairs and consult our interests;
+but if our society is rude, much wisdom is not necessary to supply our
+wants, and a fool can sometimes put on his clothes better than a wise
+man can do it for him." This forest philosophy is the philosophy of
+American democracy. But the men of the coast were not ready to admit its
+implications. They apportioned the State legislatures so that the
+property-holding minority of the tide-water lands were able to outvote
+the more populous back countries. A similar system was proposed by
+Federalists in the constitutional convention of 1787. Gouverneur Morris,
+arguing in favor of basing representation on property as well as
+numbers, declared that "he looked forward, also, to that range of new
+States which would soon be formed in the West. He thought the rule of
+representation ought to be so fixed, as to secure to the Atlantic States
+a prevalence in the national councils." "The new States," said he, "will
+know less of the public interest than these; will have an interest in
+many respects different; in particular will be little scrupulous of
+involving the community in wars, the burdens and operations of which
+would fall chiefly on the maritime States. Provision ought, therefore,
+to be made to prevent the maritime States from being hereafter outvoted
+by them." He added that the Western country "would not be able to
+furnish men equally enlightened to share in the administration of our
+common interests. The busy haunts of men, not the remote wilderness, was
+the proper school of political talents. If the Western people get power
+into their hands, they will ruin the Atlantic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>[<a href="./images/208.png">208</a>]</span>interest. The back
+members are always most averse to the best measures." Add to these
+utterances of Gouverneur Morris the impassioned protest of Josiah
+Quincy, of Massachusetts, in the debates in the House of
+Representatives, on the admission of Louisiana. Referring to the
+discussion over the slave votes and the West in the constitutional
+convention, he declared, "Suppose, then, that it had been distinctly
+foreseen that, in addition to the effect of this weight, the whole
+population of a world beyond the Mississippi was to be brought into this
+and the other branch of the legislature, to form our laws, control our
+rights, and decide our destiny. Sir, can it be pretended that the
+patriots of that day would for one moment have listened to it?&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. They
+had not taken degrees at the hospital of idiocy.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Why, sir, I have
+already heard of six States, and some say there will be, at no great
+distant time, more. I have also heard that the mouth of the Ohio will be
+far to the east of the center of the contemplated empire.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. You have no
+authority to throw the rights and property of this people into
+'hotch-pot' with the wild men on the Missouri, nor with the mixed,
+though more respectable, race of Anglo-Hispano-Gallo-Americans who bask
+on the sands in the mouth of the Mississippi.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Do you suppose the
+people of the Northern and Atlantic States will, or ought to, look on
+with patience and see Representatives and Senators from the Red River
+and Missouri, pouring themselves upon this and the other floor, managing
+the concerns of a seaboard fifteen hundred miles, at least, from their
+residence; and having a preponderancy in councils into which,
+constitutionally, they could never have been admitted?"</p>
+
+<p>Like an echo from the fears expressed by the East at the close of the
+eighteenth century come the words of an eminent Eastern man of
+letters<a name="FNanchor_208:1_268" id="FNanchor_208:1_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_208:1_268" class="fnanchor">[208:1]</a> at the end of the nineteenth century, in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>[<a href="./images/209.png">209</a>]</span>warning against
+the West: "Materialized in their temper; with few ideals of an ennobling
+sort; little instructed in the lessons of history; safe from exposure to
+the direct calamities and physical horrors of war; with undeveloped
+imaginations and sympathies&mdash;they form a community unfortunate and
+dangerous from the possession of power without a due sense of its
+corresponding responsibilities; a community in which the passion for war
+may easily be excited as the fancied means by which its greatness may be
+convincingly exhibited, and its ambitions gratified.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Some chance
+spark may fire the prairie."</p>
+
+<p>Here, then, is the problem of the West, as it looked to New England
+leaders of thought in the beginning and at the end of this century. From
+the first, it was recognized that a new type was growing up beyond the
+seaboard, and that the time would come when the destiny of the nation
+would be in Western hands. The divergence of these societies became
+clear in the struggle over the ratification of the federal constitution.
+The up-country agricultural regions, the communities that were in debt
+and desired paper money, with some Western exceptions, opposed the
+instrument; but the areas of intercourse and property carried the day.</p>
+
+<p>It is important to understand, therefore, what were some of the ideals
+of this early Western democracy. How did the frontiersman differ from
+the man of the coast?</p>
+
+<p>The most obvious fact regarding the man of the Western Waters is that he
+had placed himself under influences destructive to many of the gains of
+civilization. Remote from the opportunity for systematic education,
+substituting a log hut in the forest-clearing for the social comforts of
+the town, he suffered hardships and privations, and reverted in many
+ways to primitive conditions of life. Engaged in a struggle to subdue
+the forest, working as an individual, and with little specie <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>[<a href="./images/210.png">210</a>]</span>or
+capital, his interests were with the debtor class. At each stage of its
+advance, the West has favored an expansion of the currency. The pioneer
+had boundless confidence in the future of his own community, and when
+seasons of financial contraction and depression occurred, he, who had
+staked his all on confidence in Western development, and had fought the
+savage for his home, was inclined to reproach the conservative sections
+and classes. To explain this antagonism requires more than denunciation
+of dishonesty, ignorance, and boorishness as fundamental Western traits.
+Legislation in the United States has had to deal with two distinct
+social conditions. In some portions of the country there was, and is, an
+aggregation of property, and vested rights are in the foreground: in
+others, capital is lacking, more primitive conditions prevail, with
+different economic and social ideals, and the contentment of the average
+individual is placed in the foreground. That in the conflict between
+these two ideals an even hand has always been held by the government
+would be difficult to show.</p>
+
+<p>The separation of the Western man from the seaboard, and his
+environment, made him in a large degree free from European precedents
+and forces. He looked at things independently and with small regard or
+appreciation for the best Old World experience. He had no ideal of a
+philosophical, eclectic nation, that should advance civilization by
+"intercourse with foreigners and familiarity with their point of view,
+and readiness to adopt whatever is best and most suitable in their
+ideas, manners, and customs." His was rather the ideal of conserving and
+developing what was original and valuable in this new country. The
+entrance of old society upon free lands meant to him opportunity for a
+new type of democracy and new popular ideals. The West was not
+conservative: buoyant self-confidence and self-assertion were
+distinguishing traits in its composition. It saw in its growth nothing
+less <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>[<a href="./images/211.png">211</a>]</span>than a new order of society and state. In this conception were
+elements of evil and elements of good.</p>
+
+<p>But the fundamental fact in regard to this new society was its relation
+to land. Professor Boutmy has said of the United States, "Their one
+primary and predominant object is to cultivate and settle these
+prairies, forests, and vast waste lands. The striking and peculiar
+characteristic of American society is that it is not so much a democracy
+as a huge commercial company for the discovery, cultivation, and
+capitalization of its enormous territory. The United States are
+primarily a commercial society, and only secondarily a nation." Of
+course, this involves a serious misapprehension. By the very fact of the
+task here set forth, far-reaching ideals of the state and of society
+have been evolved in the West, accompanied by loyalty to the nation
+representative of these ideals. But M. Boutmy's description hits the
+substantial fact, that the fundamental traits of the man of the interior
+were due to the free lands of the West. These turned his attention to
+the great task of subduing them to the purposes of civilization, and to
+the task of advancing his economic and social status in the new
+democracy which he was helping to create. Art, literature, refinement,
+scientific administration, all had to give way to this Titanic labor.
+Energy, incessant activity, became the lot of this new American. Says a
+traveler of the time of Andrew Jackson, "America is like a vast
+workshop, over the door of which is printed in blazing characters, 'No
+admittance here, except on business.'" The West of our own day reminds
+Mr. Bryce "of the crowd which Vathek found in the hall of Eblis, each
+darting hither and thither with swift steps and unquiet mien, driven to
+and fro by a fire in the heart. Time seems too short for what they have
+to do, and the result always to come short of their desire."</p>
+
+<p>But free lands and the consciousness of working out their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>[<a href="./images/212.png">212</a>]</span>social
+destiny did more than turn the Westerner to material interests and
+devote him to a restless existence. They promoted equality among the
+Western settlers, and reacted as a check on the aristocratic influences
+of the East. Where everybody could have a farm, almost for taking it,
+economic equality easily resulted, and this involved political equality.
+Not without a struggle would the Western man abandon this ideal, and it
+goes far to explain the unrest in the remote West to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Western democracy included individual liberty, as well as equality. The
+frontiersman was impatient of restraints. He knew how to preserve order,
+even in the absence of legal authority. If there were cattle thieves,
+lynch law was sudden and effective: the regulators of the Carolinas were
+the predecessors of the claims associations of Iowa and the vigilance
+committees of California. But the individual was not ready to submit to
+complex regulations. Population was sparse, there was no multitude of
+jostling interests, as in older settlements, demanding an elaborate
+system of personal restraints. Society became atomic. There was a
+reproduction of the primitive idea of the personality of the law, a
+crime was more an offense against the victim than a violation of the law
+of the land. Substantial justice, secured in the most direct way, was
+the ideal of the backwoodsman. He had little patience with finely drawn
+distinctions or scruples of method. If the thing was one proper to be
+done, then the most immediate, rough and ready, effective way was the
+best way.</p>
+
+<p>It followed from the lack of organized political life, from the atomic
+conditions of the backwoods society, that the individual was exalted and
+given free play. The West was another name for opportunity. Here were
+mines to be seized, fertile valleys to be pre&euml;mpted, all the natural
+resources open to the shrewdest and the boldest. The United States is
+unique in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>[<a href="./images/213.png">213</a>]</span>extent to which the individual has been given an open
+field, unchecked by restraints of an old social order, or of scientific
+administration of government. The self-made man was the Western man's
+ideal, was the kind of man that all men might become. Out of his
+wilderness experience, out of the freedom of his opportunities, he
+fashioned a formula for social regeneration,&mdash;the freedom of the
+individual to seek his own. He did not consider that his conditions were
+exceptional and temporary.</p>
+
+<p>Under such conditions, leadership easily develops,&mdash;a leadership based
+on the possession of the qualities most serviceable to the young
+society. In the history of Western settlement, we see each forted
+village following its local hero. Clay, Jackson, Harrison, Lincoln, were
+illustrations of this tendency in periods when the Western hero rose to
+the dignity of national hero.</p>
+
+<p>The Western man believed in the manifest destiny of his country. On his
+border, and checking his advance, were the Indian, the Spaniard, and the
+Englishman. He was indignant at Eastern indifference and lack of
+sympathy with his view of his relations to these peoples; at the
+short-sightedness of Eastern policy. The closure of the Mississippi by
+Spain, and the proposal to exchange our claim of freedom of navigating
+the river, in return for commercial advantages to New England, nearly
+led to the withdrawal of the West from the Union. It was the Western
+demands that brought about the purchase of Louisiana, and turned the
+scale in favor of declaring the War of 1812. Militant qualities were
+favored by the annual expansion of the settled area in the face of
+hostile Indians and the stubborn wilderness. The West caught the vision
+of the nation's continental destiny. Henry Adams, in his History of the
+United States, makes the American of 1800 exclaim to the foreign
+visitor, "Look at my wealth! See these solid <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>[<a href="./images/214.png">214</a>]</span>mountains of salt and
+iron, of lead, copper, silver, and gold. See these magnificent cities
+scattered broadcast to the Pacific! See my cornfields rustling and
+waving in the summer breeze from ocean to ocean, so far that the sun
+itself is not high enough to mark where the distant mountains bound my
+golden seas. Look at this continent of mine, fairest of created worlds,
+as she lies turning up to the sun's never failing caress her broad and
+exuberant breasts, overflowing with milk for her hundred million
+children." And the foreigner saw only dreary deserts, tenanted by
+sparse, ague-stricken pioneers and savages. The cities were log huts and
+gambling dens. But the frontiersman's dream was prophetic. In spite of
+his rude, gross nature, this early Western man was an idealist withal.
+He dreamed dreams and beheld visions. He had faith in man, hope for
+democracy, belief in America's destiny, unbounded confidence in his
+ability to make his dreams come true. Said Harriet Martineau in 1834, "I
+regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now moody, now wild,
+but bringing out results of absolute good sense: restless and wayward in
+action, but with deep peace at his heart; exulting that he has caught
+the true aspect of things past, and the depth of futurity which lies
+before him, wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
+scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a nation that
+is capable of being possessed with an idea."</p>
+
+<p>It is important to bear this idealism of the West in mind. The very
+materialism that has been urged against the West was accompanied by
+ideals of equality, of the exaltation of the common man, of national
+expansion, that makes it a profound mistake to write of the West as
+though it were engrossed in mere material ends. It has been, and is,
+pre&euml;minently a region of ideals, mistaken or not.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that these economic and social conditions were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>[<a href="./images/215.png">215</a>]</span>so
+fundamental in Western life that they might well dominate whatever
+accessions came to the West by immigration from the coast sections or
+from Europe. Nevertheless, the West cannot be understood without bearing
+in mind the fact that it has received the great streams from the North
+and from the South, and that the Mississippi compelled these currents to
+intermingle. Here it was that sectionalism first gave way under the
+pressure of unification. Ultimately the conflicting ideas and
+institutions of the old sections struggled for dominance in this area
+under the influence of the forces that made for uniformity, but this is
+merely another phase of the truth that the West must become unified,
+that it could not rest in sectional groupings. For precisely this reason
+the struggle occurred. In the period from the Revolution to the close of
+the War of 1812, the democracy of the Southern and Middle States
+contributed the main streams of settlement and social influence to the
+West. Even in Ohio political power was soon lost by the New England
+leaders. The democratic spirit of the Middle region left an indelible
+impress on the West in this its formative period. After the War of 1812,
+New England, its supremacy in the carrying trade of the world having
+vanished, became a hive from which swarms of settlers went out to
+western New York and the remoter regions.</p>
+
+<p>These settlers spread New England ideals of education and character and
+political institutions, and acted as a leaven of great significance in
+the Northwest. But it would be a mistake to believe that an unmixed New
+England influence took possession of the Northwest. These pioneers did
+not come from the class that conserved the type of New England
+civilization pure and undefiled. They represented a less contented, less
+conservative influence. Moreover, by their sojourn in the Middle Region,
+on their westward march, they underwent <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>[<a href="./images/216.png">216</a>]</span>modification, and when the
+farther West received them, they suffered a forest-change, indeed. The
+Westernized New England man was no longer the representative of the
+section that he left. He was less conservative, less provincial, more
+adaptable and approachable, less rigorous in his Puritan ideals, less a
+man of culture, more a man of action.</p>
+
+<p>As might have been expected, therefore, the Western men, in the "era of
+good feeling," had much homogeneity throughout the Mississippi Valley,
+and began to stand as a new national type. Under the lead of Henry Clay
+they invoked the national government to break down the mountain barrier
+by internal improvements, and thus to give their crops an outlet to the
+coast. Under him they appealed to the national government for a
+protective tariff to create a home market. A group of frontier States
+entered the Union with democratic provisions respecting the suffrage,
+and with devotion to the nation that had given them their lands, built
+their roads and canals, regulated their territorial life, and made them
+equals in the sisterhood of States. At last these Western forces of
+aggressive nationalism and democracy took possession of the government
+in the person of the man who best embodied them, Andrew Jackson. This
+new democracy that captured the country and destroyed the ideals of
+statesmanship came from no theorist's dreams of the German forest. It
+came, stark and strong and full of life, from the American forest. But
+the triumph of this Western democracy revealed also the fact that it
+could rally to its aid the laboring classes of the coast, then just
+beginning to acquire self-consciousness and organization.</p>
+
+<p>The next phase of Western development revealed forces of division
+between the northern and southern portions of the West. With the spread
+of the cotton culture went the slave system and the great plantation.
+The small farmer in his log <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>[<a href="./images/217.png">217</a>]</span>cabin, raising varied crops, was displaced
+by the planter raising cotton. In all except the mountainous areas the
+industrial organization of the tidewater took possession of the
+Southwest, the unity of the back country was broken, and the solid South
+was formed. In the Northwest this was the era of railroads and canals,
+opening the region to the increasing stream of Middle State and New
+England settlement, and strengthening the opposition to slavery. A map
+showing the location of the men of New England ancestry in the Northwest
+would represent also the counties in which the Free Soil party cast its
+heaviest votes. The commercial connections of the Northwest likewise
+were reversed by the railroad. The result is stated by a writer in <i>De
+Bow's Review</i> in 1852 in these words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"What is New Orleans now? Where are her dreams of greatness
+and glory?&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Whilst she slept, an enemy has sowed tares in
+her most prolific fields. Armed with energy, enterprise, and
+an indomitable spirit, that enemy, by a system of bold,
+vigorous, and sustained efforts, has succeeded in reversing
+the very laws of nature and of nature's God,&mdash;rolled back the
+mighty tide of the Mississippi and its thousand tributary
+streams, until their mouth, practically and commercially, is
+more at New York or Boston than at New Orleans."</p></div>
+
+<p>The West broke asunder, and the great struggle over the social system to
+be given to the lands beyond the Mississippi followed. In the Civil War
+the Northwest furnished the national hero,&mdash;Lincoln was the very flower
+of frontier training and ideals,&mdash;and it also took into its hands the
+whole power of the government. Before the war closed, the West could
+claim the President, Vice-President, Chief Justice, Speaker of the
+House, Secretary of the Treasury, Postmaster-General, Attorney-General,
+General of the army, and Admiral of the navy. The leading generals of
+the war had been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>[<a href="./images/218.png">218</a>]</span>furnished by the West. It was the region of action,
+and in the crisis it took the reins.</p>
+
+<p>The triumph of the nation was followed by a new era of Western
+development. The national forces projected themselves across the
+prairies and plains. Railroads, fostered by government loans and land
+grants, opened the way for settlement and poured a flood of European
+immigrants and restless pioneers from all sections of the Union into the
+government lands. The army of the United States pushed back the Indian,
+rectangular Territories were carved into checkerboard States, creations
+of the federal government, without a history, without physiographical
+unity, without particularistic ideas. The later frontiersman leaned on
+the strong arm of national power.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time the South underwent a revolution. The plantation, based
+on slavery, gave place to the farm, the gentry to the democratic
+elements. As in the West, new industries, of mining and of manufacture,
+sprang up as by magic. The New South, like the New West, was an area of
+construction, a debtor area, an area of unrest; and it, too, had learned
+the uses to which federal legislation might be put.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the Old Northwest<a name="FNanchor_218:1_269" id="FNanchor_218:1_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_218:1_269" class="fnanchor">[218:1]</a> passed through an economic and
+social transformation. The whole West furnished an area over which
+successive waves of economic development have passed. The State of
+Wisconsin, now much like parts of the State of New York, was at an
+earlier period like the State of Nebraska of to-day; the Granger
+movement and Greenback party had for a time the ascendancy; and in the
+northern counties of the State, where there is a sparser population, and
+the country is being settled, its sympathies are still with the debtor
+class. Thus the Old Northwest is a region where the older frontier
+conditions survive in parts, and where <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>[<a href="./images/219.png">219</a>]</span>the inherited ways of looking at
+things are largely to be traced to its frontier days. At the same time
+it is a region in many ways assimilated to the East. It understands both
+sections. It is not entirely content with the existing structure of
+economic society in the sections where wealth has accumulated and
+corporate organizations are powerful; but neither has it seemed to feel
+that its interests lie in supporting the program of the prairies and the
+South. In the Fifty-third Congress it voted for the income tax, but it
+rejected free coinage. It is still affected by the ideal of the
+self-made man, rather than by the ideal of industrial nationalism. It is
+more American, but less cosmopolitan than the seaboard.</p>
+
+<p>We are now in a position to see clearly some of the factors involved in
+the Western problem. For nearly three centuries the dominant fact in
+American life has been expansion. With the settlement of the Pacific
+coast and the occupation of the free lands, this movement has come to a
+check. That these energies of expansion will no longer operate would be
+a rash prediction; and the demands for a vigorous foreign policy, for an
+interoceanic canal, for a revival of our power upon the seas, and for
+the extension of American influence to outlying islands and adjoining
+countries, are indications that the movement will continue. The
+stronghold of these demands lies west of the Alleghanies.</p>
+
+<p>In the remoter West, the restless, rushing wave of settlement has broken
+with a shock against the arid plains. The free lands are gone, the
+continent is crossed, and all this push and energy is turning into
+channels of agitation. Failures in one area can no longer be made good
+by taking up land on a new frontier; the conditions of a settled society
+are being reached with suddenness and with confusion. The West has been
+built up with borrowed capital, and the question of the stability of
+gold, as a standard of deferred payments, is eagerly agitated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>[<a href="./images/220.png">220</a>]</span>by the
+debtor West, profoundly dissatisfied with the industrial conditions that
+confront it, and actuated by frontier directness and rigor in its
+remedies. For the most part, the men who built up the West beyond the
+Mississippi, and who are now leading the agitation,<a name="FNanchor_220:1_270" id="FNanchor_220:1_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_220:1_270" class="fnanchor">[220:1]</a> came as
+pioneers from the old Northwest, in the days when it was just passing
+from the stage of a frontier section. For example, Senator Allen of
+Nebraska, president of the recent national Populist Convention, and a
+type of the political leaders of his section, was born in Ohio in the
+middle of the century, went in his youth to Iowa, and not long after the
+Civil War made his home in Nebraska. As a boy, he saw the buffalo driven
+out by the settlers; he saw the Indian retreat as the pioneer advanced.
+His training is that of the old West, in its frontier days. And now the
+frontier opportunities are gone. Discontent is demanding an extension of
+governmental activity in its behalf. In these demands, it finds itself
+in touch with the depressed agricultural classes and the workingmen of
+the South and East. The Western problem is no longer a sectional
+problem: it is a social problem on a national scale. The greater West,
+extending from the Alleghanies to the Pacific, cannot be regarded as a
+unit; it requires analysis into regions and classes. But its area, its
+population, and its material resources would give force to its assertion
+that if there is a sectionalism in the country, the sectionalism is
+Eastern. The old West, united to the new South, would produce, not a new
+sectionalism, but a new Americanism. It would not mean sectional
+disunion, as some have speculated, but it might mean a drastic assertion
+of national government and imperial expansion under a popular hero.</p>
+
+<p>This, then, is the real situation: a people composed of heterogeneous
+materials, with diverse and conflicting ideals <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>[<a href="./images/221.png">221</a>]</span>and social interests,
+having passed from the task of filling up the vacant spaces of the
+continent, is now thrown back upon itself, and is seeking an
+equilibrium. The diverse elements are being fused into national unity.
+The forces of reorganization are turbulent and the nation seems like a
+witches' kettle.</p>
+
+<p>But the West has its own centers of industrial life and culture not
+unlike those of the East. It has State universities, rivaling in
+conservative and scientific economic instruction those of any other part
+of the Union, and its citizens more often visit the East, than do
+Eastern men the West. As time goes on, its industrial development will
+bring it more into harmony with the East.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the Old Northwest holds the balance of power, and is the
+battlefield on which these issues of American development are to be
+settled. It has more in common with all parts of the nation than has any
+other region. It understands the East, as the East does not understand
+the West. The White City which recently rose on the shores of Lake
+Michigan fitly typified its growing culture as well as its capacity for
+great achievement. Its complex and representative industrial
+organization and business ties, its determination to hold fast to what
+is original and good in its Western experience, and its readiness to
+learn and receive the results of the experience of other sections and
+nations, make it an open-minded and safe arbiter of the American
+destiny.</p>
+
+<p>In the long run the "Center of the Republic" may be trusted to strike a
+wise balance between the contending ideals. But she does not deceive
+herself; she knows that the problem of the West means nothing less than
+the problem of working out original social ideals and social adjustments
+for the American nation.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205:1_267" id="Footnote_205:1_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205:1_267"><span class="label">[205:1]</span></a> <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, September, 1896. Reprinted by
+permission.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208:1_268" id="Footnote_208:1_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208:1_268"><span class="label">[208:1]</span></a> Charles Eliot Norton.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218:1_269" id="Footnote_218:1_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218:1_269"><span class="label">[218:1]</span></a> The present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
+Michigan, and Wisconsin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220:1_270" id="Footnote_220:1_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220:1_270"><span class="label">[220:1]</span></a> [Written in the year of Mr. Bryan's first presidential
+campaign.]</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>[<a href="./images/222.png">222</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>VIII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Dominant Forces in Western Life</span><a name="FNanchor_222:1_271" id="FNanchor_222:1_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_222:1_271" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[222:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The Old Northwest is a name which tells of the vestiges which the march
+of settlement across the American continent has left behind it. The New
+Northwest fronts the watery labyrinth of Puget Sound and awaits its
+destiny upon the Pacific. The Old Northwest, the historic Northwest
+Territory, is now the new Middle Region of the United States. A century
+ago it was a wilderness, broken only by a few French settlements and the
+straggling American hamlets along the Ohio and its tributaries, while,
+on the shore of Lake Erie, Moses Cleaveland had just led a handful of
+men to the Connecticut Reserve. To-day it is the keystone of the
+American Commonwealth. Since 1860 the center of population of the United
+States has rested within its limits, and the center of manufacturing in
+the nation lies eight miles from President McKinley's Ohio home. Of the
+seven men who have been elected to the presidency of the United States
+since 1860, six have come from the Old Northwest, and the seventh came
+from the kindred region of western New York. The congressional
+Representatives from these five States of the Old Northwest already
+outnumber those from the old Middle States, and are three times as
+numerous as those from New England.</p>
+
+<p>The elements that have contributed to the civilization of this region
+are therefore well worth consideration. To know the States that make up
+the Old Northwest&mdash;Ohio, Indiana, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>[<a href="./images/223.png">223</a>]</span>Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin&mdash;one
+must understand their social origins.</p>
+
+<p>Eldest in this sisterhood was Ohio. New England gave the formative
+impulses to this State by the part which the Ohio Company played in
+securing the Ordinance of 1787, and at Marietta and Cleveland
+Massachusetts and Connecticut planted enduring centers of Puritan
+influence. During the same period New Jersey and Pennsylvania sent their
+colonists to the Symmes Purchase, in which Cincinnati was the
+rallying-point, while Virginians sought the Military Bounty Lands in the
+region of Chillicothe. The Middle States and the South, with their
+democratic ideas, constituted the dominant element in Ohio politics in
+the early part of her history. This dominance is shown by the nativity
+of the members of the Ohio legislature elected in 1820: New England
+furnished nine Senators and sixteen Representatives, chiefly from
+Connecticut; New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, seventeen Senators
+and twenty-one Representatives, mostly from Pennsylvania; while the
+South furnished nine Senators and twenty-seven Representatives, of whom
+the majority came from Virginia. Five of the Representatives were native
+of Ireland, presumably Scotch-Irishmen. In the Ohio Senate, therefore,
+the Middle States had as many representatives as had New England and the
+South together, while the Southern men slightly outnumbered the Middle
+States men in the Assembly. Together, the emigrants from the Democratic
+South and Middle Region outnumbered the Federalist New Englanders three
+to one. Although Ohio is popularly considered a child of New England, it
+is clear that in these formative years of her statehood the commonwealth
+was dominated by other forces.</p>
+
+<p>By the close of this early period, in 1820, the settlement in Ohio had
+covered more or less fully all except the northwest corner of the State,
+and Indiana's formative period was well <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>[<a href="./images/224.png">224</a>]</span>started. Here, as in Ohio,
+there was a large Southern element. But while the Southern stream that
+flowed into Ohio had its sources in Virginia, the main current that
+sought Indiana came from North Carolina; and these settlers were for the
+most part from the humbler classes. In the settlement of Indiana from
+the South two separate elements are distinguishable: the Quaker
+migration from North Carolina, moving chiefly because of anti-slavery
+convictions; the "poor white" stream, made up in part of restless
+hunters and thriftless pioneers moving without definite ambitions, and
+in part of other classes, such as former overseers, migrating to the new
+country with definite purpose of improving their fortunes.</p>
+
+<p>These elements constituted well-marked features in the Southern
+contribution to Indiana, and they explain why she has been named the
+Hoosier State; but it should by no means be thought that all of the
+Southern immigrants came under these classes, nor that these have been
+the normal elements in the development of the Indiana of to-day. In the
+Northwest, where interstate migration has been so continuous and
+widespread, the lack of typical State peculiarities is obvious, and the
+student of society, like the traveler, is tempted, in his effort to
+distinguish the community from its neighbors, to exaggerate the odd and
+exceptional elements which give a particular flavor to the State.
+Indiana has suffered somewhat from this tendency; but it is undoubted
+that these peculiarities of origin left deep and abiding influences upon
+the State. In 1820 her settlement was chiefly in the southern counties,
+where Southern and Middle States influence was dominant. Her two United
+States Senators were Virginians by birth, while her Representative was
+from Pennsylvania. The Southern element continued so powerful that one
+student of Indiana origins has estimated that in 1850 one-third of the
+population of the State were native Carolinians and their children <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>[<a href="./images/225.png">225</a>]</span>in
+the first generation. Not until a few years before the Civil War did the
+Northern current exert a decisive influence upon Indiana. She had no
+such lake ports as had her sister States, and extension of settlement
+into the State from ports like Chicago was interrupted by the less
+attractive area of the northwestern part of Indiana. Add to this the
+geological fact that the limestone ridges and the best soils ran in
+nearly perpendicular belts northward from the Ohio, and it will be seen
+how circumstances combined to diminish Northern and to facilitate
+Southern influences in the State prior to the railroad development.</p>
+
+<p>In Illinois, also, the current of migration was at first preponderantly
+Southern, but the settlers were less often from the Atlantic coast.
+Kentucky and Tennessee were generous contributors, but many of the
+distinguished leaders came from Virginia, and it is worthy of note that
+in 1820 the two United States Senators of Illinois were of Maryland
+ancestry, while her Representative was of Kentucky origin. The swarms of
+land-seekers between 1820 and 1830 ascended the Illinois river, and
+spread out between that river and the Mississippi. It was in this period
+that Abraham Lincoln's father, who had come from Kentucky to Indiana,
+again left his log cabin and traveled by ox-team with his family to the
+popular Illinois county of Sangamon. Here Lincoln split his famous rails
+to fence their land, and grew up under the influences of this migration
+of the Southern pioneers to the prairies. They were not predominantly of
+the planter class; but the fierce contest in 1824 over the proposition
+to open Illinois to slavery was won for freedom by a narrow majority.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at the three States, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, prior to 1850,
+we perceive how important was the voice of the South here, and we can
+the more easily understand the early affiliation of the Northwest with
+her sister States to the south <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>[<a href="./images/226.png">226</a>]</span>on the Western waters. It was not
+without reason that the proposal of the Missouri Compromise came from
+Illinois, and it was a natural enthusiasm with which these States
+followed Henry Clay in the war policy of 1812. The combination of the
+South, the western portion of the Middle States, and the Mississippi
+Valley gave the ascendancy to the democratic ideals of the followers of
+Jefferson, and left New England a weakened and isolated section for
+nearly half a century. Many of the most characteristic elements in
+American life in the first part of the century were due to this
+relationship between the South and the trans-Alleghany region. But even
+thus early the Northwest had revealed strong predilections for the
+Northern economic ideals as against the peculiar institution of the
+South, and this tendency grew with the increase of New England
+immigration.</p>
+
+<p>The northern two in this sisterhood of Northwestern States were the
+first to be entered by the French, but latest by the English settlers.
+Why Michigan was not occupied by New York men at an earlier period is at
+first sight not easy to understand. Perhaps the adverse reports of
+surveyors who visited the interior of the State, the partial
+geographical isolation, and the unprogressive character of the French
+settlers account for the tardy occupation of the area. Certain it is
+that while the southern tier of States was sought by swarms of settlers,
+Wisconsin and Michigan still echoed to Canadian boating-songs, and
+voyageurs paddled their birch canoes along the streams of the wilderness
+to traffic with the savages. Great Britain maintained the dominant
+position until after the War of 1812, and the real center of authority
+was in Canada.</p>
+
+<p>But after the digging of the Erie Canal, settlement began to turn into
+Michigan. Between 1830 and 1840 the population of the State leaped from
+31,000 to 212,000, in the face of the fact that the heavy debt of the
+State and the crisis of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a>[<a href="./images/227.png">227</a>]</span>1837 turned from her borders many of the
+thrifty, debt-hating Germans. The vast majority of the settlers were New
+Yorkers. Michigan is distinctly a child of the Empire State. Canadians,
+both French and English, continued to come as the lumber interests of
+the region increased. By 1850 Michigan contained nearly 400,000
+inhabitants, who occupied the southern half of the State.</p>
+
+<p>But she now found an active competitor for settlement in Wisconsin. In
+this region two forces had attracted the earlier inhabitants. The
+fur-trading posts of Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, and Milwaukee
+constituted one element, in which the French influence was continued.
+The lead region of the southwest corner of the State formed the center
+of attraction for Illinois and Southern pioneers. The soldiers who
+followed Black Hawk's trail in 1832 reported the richness of the soil,
+and an era of immigration followed. To the port of Milwaukee came a
+combined migration from western New York and New England, and spread
+along the southern tier of prairie counties until it met the Southern
+settlers in the lead region. Many of the early political contests in the
+State were connected, as in Ohio and Illinois, with the antagonisms
+between the sections thus brought together in a limited area.</p>
+
+<p>The other element in the formation of Wisconsin was that of the Germans,
+then just entering upon their vast immigration to the United States.
+Wisconsin was free from debt; she made a constitution of exceptional
+liberality to foreigners, and instead of treasuring her school lands or
+using them for internal improvements, she sold them for almost nothing
+to attract immigration. The result was that the prudent Germans, who
+loved light taxes and cheap hard wood lands, turned toward
+Wisconsin,&mdash;another <i>V&ouml;lkerwanderung</i>. From Milwaukee as a center they
+spread north along the shore of Lake Michigan, and later into northern
+central Wisconsin, following the belt <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a>[<a href="./images/228.png">228</a>]</span>of the hardwood forests. So
+considerable were their numbers that such an economist as Roscher wrote
+of the feasibility of making Wisconsin a German State. "They can plant
+the vine on the hills," cried Franz L&ouml;her in 1847, "and drink with happy
+song and dance; they can have German schools and universities, German
+literature and art, German science and philosophy, German courts and
+assemblies; in short, they can form a German State, in which the German
+language shall be as much the popular and official language as the
+English is now, and in which the German spirit shall rule." By 1860 the
+German-born were sixteen per cent of the population of the State. But
+the New York and New England stream proved even more broad and steady in
+its flow in these years before the war. Wisconsin's population rose from
+30,000 in 1840 to 300,000 in 1850.</p>
+
+<p>The New England element that entered this State is probably typical of
+the same element in Wisconsin's neighboring States, and demands notice.
+It came for the most part, not from the seaboard of Massachusetts, which
+has so frequently represented New England to the popular apprehension. A
+large element in this stock was the product of the migration that
+ascended the valleys of Connecticut and central Massachusetts through
+the hills into Vermont and New York,&mdash;a pioneer folk almost from the
+time of their origin. The Vermont colonists decidedly outnumbered those
+of Massachusetts in both Michigan and Wisconsin, and were far more
+numerous in other Northwestern States than the population of Vermont
+warranted. Together with this current came the settlers from western New
+York. These were generally descendants of this same pioneer New England
+stock, continuing into a remoter West the movement that had brought
+their parents to New York. The combined current from New England and New
+York thus constituted a distinctly modified New England stock, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a>[<a href="./images/229.png">229</a>]</span>and was
+clearly the dominant native element in Michigan and Wisconsin.</p>
+
+<p>The decade of the forties was also the period of Iowa's rapid increase.
+Although not politically a part of the Old Northwest, in history she is
+closely related to that region. Her growth was by no means so rapid as
+was Wisconsin's, for the proportion of foreign immigration was less.
+Whereas in 1850 more than one-third of Wisconsin's population was
+foreign-born, the proportion for Iowa was not much over one-tenth. The
+main body of her people finally came from the Middle States, and
+Illinois and Ohio; but Southern elements were well represented,
+particularly among her political leaders.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of the century was the turning-point in the transfer of
+control in the Northwest. Below the line of the old national turnpike,
+marked by the cities of Columbus, Indianapolis, Vandalia, and St. Louis,
+the counties had acquired a stability of settlement; and partly because
+of the Southern element, partly because of a natural tendency of new
+communities toward Jacksonian ideals, these counties were preponderantly
+Democratic. But the Southern migration had turned to the cotton areas of
+the Southwest, and the development of railroads and canals had broken
+the historic commercial ascendancy of the Mississippi River; New Orleans
+was yielding the scepter to New York. The tide of migration from the
+North poured along these newly opened channels, and occupied the less
+settled counties above the national turnpike. In cities like Columbus
+and Indianapolis, where the two currents had run side by side, the
+combined elements were most clearly marked, but in the Northwest as a
+whole a varied population had been formed. This region seemed to
+represent and understand the various parts of the Union. It was this
+aspect which Mr. Vinton, of Ohio, urged in Congress when he made his
+notable speech in favor of the admission of Iowa. He <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>[<a href="./images/230.png">230</a>]</span>pleaded the
+mission of the Northwest as the mediator between the sections and the
+unifying agency in the nation, with such power and pathos as to thrill
+even John Quincy Adams.</p>
+
+<p>But there are some issues which cannot be settled by compromise,
+tendencies one of which must conquer the other. Such an issue the slave
+power raised, and raised too late for support in the upper half of the
+Mississippi Basin. The Northern and the Southern elements found
+themselves in opposition to each other. "A house divided against itself
+cannot stand," said Abraham Lincoln, a Northern leader of Southern
+origin. Douglas, a leader of the Southern forces, though coming from New
+England, declared his indifference whether slavery were voted up or down
+in the Western Territories. The historic debates between these two
+champions reveal the complex conditions in the Northwest, and take on a
+new meaning when considered in the light of this contest between the
+Northern and the Southern elements. The State that had been so potent
+for compromise was at last the battle-ground itself, and the places
+selected for the various debates of Lincoln and Douglas marked the
+strongholds and the outposts of the antagonistic forces.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the kinship of western New York and the dominant element in
+the Northwest was clearly revealed. Speaking for the anti-slavery forces
+at Madison, Wisconsin, in 1860, Seward said: "The Northwest is by no
+means so small as you may think it. I speak to you because I feel that I
+am, and during all my mature life have been, one of you. Although of New
+York, I am still a citizen of the Northwest. The Northwest extends
+eastward to the base of the Alleghany Mountains, and does not all of
+western New York lie westward of the Alleghany Mountains? Whence comes
+all the inspiration of free soil which spreads itself with such cheerful
+voices over all these plains? Why, from New York westward of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>[<a href="./images/231.png">231</a>]</span>the
+Alleghany Mountains. The people before me,&mdash;who are you but New York
+men, while you are men of the Northwest?" In the Civil War, western New
+York and the Northwest were powerful in the forum and in the field. A
+million soldiers came from the States that the Ordinance, passed by
+Southern votes, had devoted to freedom.</p>
+
+<p>This was the first grave time of trial for the Northwest, and it did
+much eventually to give to the region a homogeneity and
+self-consciousness. But at the close of the war the region was still
+agricultural, only half-developed; still breaking ground in northern
+forests; still receiving contributions of peoples which radically
+modified the social organism, and undergoing economic changes almost
+revolutionary in their rapidity and extent. The changes since the war
+are of more social importance, in many respects, than those in the years
+commonly referred to as the formative period. As a result, the Northwest
+finds herself again between contending forces, sharing the interests of
+East and West, as once before those of North and South, and forced to
+give her voice on issues of equal significance for the destiny of the
+republic.</p>
+
+<p>In these transforming years since 1860, Ohio, finding the magician's
+talisman that revealed the treasury of mineral wealth, gas, and
+petroleum beneath her fields, has leaped to a front rank among the
+manufacturing States of the Union. Potential on the Great Lakes by
+reason of her ports of Toledo and Cleveland, tapping the Ohio river
+artery of trade at Cincinnati, and closely connected with all the vast
+material development of the upper waters of this river in western
+Pennsylvania and West Virginia, Ohio has become distinctly a part of the
+eastern social organism, much like the State of Pennsylvania. The
+complexity of her origin still persists. Ohio has no preponderant social
+center; her multiplicity of colleges and universities bears tribute to
+the diversity of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>[<a href="./images/232.png">232</a>]</span>elements that have made the State. One-third of
+her people are of foreign parentage (one or both parents foreign-born),
+and the city of Cincinnati has been deeply affected by the German stock,
+while Cleveland strongly reflects the influence of the New England
+element. That influence is still very palpable, but it is New England in
+the presence of natural gas, iron, and coal, New England shaped by blast
+and forge. The Middle State ideals will dominate Ohio's future.</p>
+
+<p>Bucolic Indiana, too, within the last decade has come into the
+possession of gas-fields and has increased the exploitation of her coals
+until she seems destined to share in the industrial type represented by
+Ohio. Cities have arisen, like a dream, on the sites of country
+villages. But Indiana has a much smaller proportion of foreign elements
+than any other State of the Old Northwest, and it is the Southern
+element that still differentiates her from her sisters. While Ohio's
+political leaders still attest the Puritan migration, Indiana's clasp
+hands with the leaders from the South.</p>
+
+<p>The Southern elements continue also to reveal themselves in the
+Democratic southwestern counties of Illinois, grouped like a broad delta
+of the Illinois River, while northern Illinois holds a larger proportion
+of descendants of the Middle States and New England. About one-half her
+population is of foreign parentage, in which the German, Irish, and
+Scandinavians furnish the largest elements. She is a great agricultural
+State and a great manufacturing State, the connecting link between the
+Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Her metropolis, Chicago, is the very
+type of Northwestern development for good and for evil. It is an epitome
+of her composite nationality. A recent writer, analyzing the school
+census of Chicago, points out that "only two cities in the German
+Empire, Berlin and Hamburg, have a greater German population than
+Chicago; only two in Sweden, Stockholm and G&ouml;teborg, have more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>[<a href="./images/233.png">233</a>]</span>Swedes;
+and only two in Norway, Christiana and Bergen, have more Norwegians";
+while the Irish, Polish, Bohemians, and Dutch elements are also largely
+represented. But in spite of her rapidity of growth and her complex
+elements, Chicago stands as the representative of the will-power and
+genius for action of the Middle West, and the State of Illinois will be
+the battle-ground for social and economic ideals for the next
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>Michigan is two States. The northern peninsula is cut off from the
+southern physically, industrially, and in the history of settlement. It
+would seem that her natural destiny was with Wisconsin, or some possible
+new State embracing the iron and copper, forest and shipping areas of
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota on Lake Superior. The lower peninsula
+of Michigan is the daughter of New York and over twelve per cent of
+Michigan's present population were born in that State, and her traits
+are those of the parent State. Over half her population is of foreign
+parentage, of which Canada and England together have furnished one-half,
+while the Germans outnumber any other single foreign element. The State
+has undergone a steady industrial development, exploiting her northern
+mines and forests, developing her lumber interests with Saginaw as the
+center, raising fruits along the lake shore counties, and producing
+grain in the middle trough of counties running from Saginaw Bay to the
+south of Lake Michigan. Her state university has been her peculiar
+glory, furnishing the first model for the state university, and it is
+the educational contribution of the Northwest to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Wisconsin's future is dependent upon the influence of the large
+proportion of her population of foreign parentage, for nearly
+three-fourths of her inhabitants are of that class. She thus has a
+smaller percentage of native population than any other of the States
+formed from the Old Northwest. Of this foreign element the Germans
+constitute by far the largest part, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>[<a href="./images/234.png">234</a>]</span>with the Scandinavians second. Her
+American population born outside of Wisconsin comes chiefly from New
+York. In contrast with the Ohio River States, she lacks the Southern
+element. Her greater foreign population and her dairy interests contrast
+with Michigan's Canadian and English elements and fruit culture. Her
+relations are more Western than Michigan's by reason of her connection
+with the Mississippi and the prairie States. Her foreign element is
+slightly less than Minnesota's, and in the latter State the
+Scandinavians take the place held by the Germans in Wisconsin. The
+facility with which the Scandinavians catch the spirit of Western
+America and assimilate with their neighbors is much greater than is the
+case with the Germans, so that Wisconsin seems to offer opportunity for
+non-English influence in a greater degree than her sister on the west.
+While Minnesota's economic development has heretofore been closely
+dependent on the wheat-producing prairies, the opening of the iron
+fields of the Mesabi and Vermilion ranges, together with the development
+of St. Paul and Minneapolis, Duluth and West Superior, and the
+prospective achievement of a deep-water communication with the Atlantic,
+seem to offer to that State a new and imperial industrial destiny.
+Between this stupendous economic future to the northwest and the
+colossal growth of Chicago on the southeast Wisconsin seems likely to
+become a middle agricultural area, developing particularly into a dairy
+State. She is powerfully affected by the conservative tendencies of her
+German element in times of political agitation and of proposals of
+social change.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the social modifications in this State are more or less typical
+of important processes at work among the neighboring States of the Old
+Northwest. In the north, the men who built up the lumber interests of
+the State, who founded a mill town surrounded by the stumps of the pine
+forests <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>[<a href="./images/235.png">235</a>]</span>which they exploited for the prairie markets, have acquired
+wealth and political power. The spacious and well-appointed home of the
+town-builder may now be seen in many a northern community, in a group of
+less pretentious homes of operatives and tradesmen, the social
+distinctions between them emphasized by the difference in nationality. A
+few years before, this captain of industry was perhaps actively engaged
+in the task of seeking the best "forties" or directing the operations of
+his log-drivers. His wife and daughters make extensive visits to Europe,
+his sons go to some university, and he himself is likely to acquire
+political position, or to devote his energies to saving the town from
+industrial decline, as the timber is cut away, by transforming it into a
+manufacturing center for more finished products. Still others continue
+their activity among the forests of the South. This social history of
+the timber areas of Wisconsin has left clear indications in the
+development of the peculiar political leadership in the northern portion
+of the State.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern and middle counties of the State, the original
+settlement of the native American pioneer farmer, a tendency is showing
+itself to divide the farms and to sell to thrifty Germans, or to
+cultivate the soil by tenants, while the farmer retires to live in the
+neighboring village, and perhaps to organize creameries and develop a
+dairy business. The result is that a replacement of nationalities is in
+progress. Townships and even counties once dominated by the native
+American farmers of New York extraction are now possessed by Germans or
+other European nationalities. Large portions of the retail trades of the
+towns are also passing into German hands, while the native element seeks
+the cities, the professions, or mercantile enterprises of larger
+character. The non-native element shows distinct tendencies to dwell in
+groups. One of the most striking illustrations of this fact is the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>[<a href="./images/236.png">236</a>]</span>community of New Glarus, in Wisconsin, formed by a carefully organized
+migration from Glarus in Switzerland, aided by the canton itself. For
+some years this community was a miniature Swiss canton in social
+organization and customs, but of late it has become increasingly
+assimilated to the American type, and has left an impress by
+transforming the county in which it is from a grain-raising to a dairy
+region.</p>
+
+<p>From Milwaukee as a center, the influence of the Germans upon the social
+customs and ideals of Wisconsin has been marked. Milwaukee has many of
+the aspects of a German city, and has furnished a stronghold of
+<ins class="corr" title="original has resistence">resistance</ins> to native American efforts to enact rigid temperance
+legislation, laws regulative of parochial schools, and similar attempts
+to bend the German type to the social ideas of the pioneer American
+stock. In the last presidential election, the German area of the State
+deserted the Democratic party, and its opposition to free silver was a
+decisive factor in the overwhelming victory of the Republicans in
+Wisconsin. With all the evidence of the persistence of the influence of
+this nationality, it is nevertheless clear that each decade marks an
+increased assimilation and homogeneity in the State; but the result is a
+compromise, and not a conquest by either element.</p>
+
+<p>The States of the Old Northwest gave to McKinley a plurality of over
+367,000 out of a total vote of about 3,734,000. New England and the
+Middle States together gave him a plurality of 979,000 in about the same
+vote, while the farther West gave to Bryan a decisive net plurality. It
+thus appears that the Old Northwest occupied the position of a political
+middle region between East and West. The significance of this position
+is manifest when it is recalled that this section is the child of the
+East and the mother of the Populistic West.</p>
+
+<p>The occupation of the Western prairies was determined by forces similar
+to those which settled the Old Northwest. In <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>[<a href="./images/237.png">237</a>]</span>the decade before the war,
+Minnesota succeeded to the place held by Wisconsin as the Mecca of
+settlers in the prior decade. To Wisconsin and New York she owes the
+largest proportion of her native settlers born outside of the State.
+Kansas and Nebraska were settled most rapidly in the decade following
+the war, and had a large proportion of soldiers in their American
+immigrants. Illinois and Ohio together furnished about one-third of the
+native settlers of these States, but the element coming from Southern
+States was stronger in Kansas than in Nebraska. Both these States have
+an exceptionally large proportion of native whites as compared with
+their neighbors among the prairie States. Kansas, for example, has about
+twenty-six per cent of persons of foreign parentage, while Nebraska has
+about forty-two, Iowa forty-three, South Dakota sixty, Wisconsin
+seventy-three, Minnesota seventy-five, and North Dakota seventy-nine.
+North Dakota's development was greatest in the decade prior to 1890. Her
+native stock came in largest numbers from Wisconsin, with New York,
+Minnesota, and Iowa next in order. The growth of South Dakota occupied
+the two decades prior to the census of 1890, and she has recruited her
+native element from Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the large migration from the States of the Old
+Northwest to the virgin soils of these prairie States many counties in
+the parent States show a considerable decline in growth in the decade
+before 1890. There is significance in the fact that, with the exception
+of Iowa, these prairie States, the colonies of the Old Northwest, gave
+Bryan votes in the election of 1896 in the ratio of their proportion of
+persons of native parentage. North Dakota, with the heaviest foreign
+element, was carried for McKinley, while South Dakota, with a much
+smaller foreign vote, went for Bryan. Kansas and Nebraska rank with Ohio
+in their native percentage, and they <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>[<a href="./images/238.png">238</a>]</span>were the center of prairie
+Populism. Of course, there were other important local economic and
+political explanations for this ratio, but it seems to have a basis of
+real meaning. Certain it is that the leaders of the silver movement came
+from the native element furnished by the Old Northwest. The original
+Populists in the Kansas legislature of 1891 were born in different
+States as follows: in Ohio, twelve; Indiana, six; Illinois, five; New
+York, four; Pennsylvania, two; Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine, one
+each,&mdash;making a total, for the Northern current, of thirty-two. Of the
+remaining eighteen, thirteen were from the South, and one each from
+Kansas, Missouri, California, England and Ireland. Nearly all were
+Methodists and former Republicans.<a name="FNanchor_238:1_272" id="FNanchor_238:1_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_238:1_272" class="fnanchor">[238:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Looking at the silver movement more largely, we find that of the Kansas
+delegation in the Fifty-fourth Congress, one was born in Kansas, and the
+rest in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Maine.
+All of the Nebraska delegation in the House came from the Old Northwest
+or from Iowa. The biographies of the two Representatives from the State
+of Washington tell an interesting story. These men came as children to
+the pine woods of Wisconsin, took up public lands, and worked on the
+farm and in the pineries. One passed on to a homestead in Nebraska
+before settling in Washington. Thus they kept one stage ahead of the
+social transformations of the West. This is the usual training of the
+Western politicians. If the reader would see a picture of the
+representative Kansas Populist, let him examine the family portraits of
+the Ohio farmer in the middle of this century.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, the Populist is the American farmer who has kept in advance
+of the economic and social transformations <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>[<a href="./images/239.png">239</a>]</span>that have overtaken those
+who remained behind. While, doubtless, investigation into the ancestry
+of the Populists and "silver men" who came to the prairies from the Old
+Northwest would show a large proportion of Southern origin, yet the
+center of discontent seems to have been among the men of the New England
+and New York current. If New England looks with care at these men, she
+may recognize in them the familiar lineaments of the embattled farmers
+who fired the shot heard round the world. The continuous advance of this
+pioneer stock from New England has preserved for us the older type of
+the pioneer of frontier New England.</p>
+
+<p>I do not overlook the transforming influences of the wilderness on this
+stock ever since it left the earlier frontier to follow up the valleys
+of western Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont, into western New
+York, into Ohio, into Iowa, and out to the arid plains of western Kansas
+and Nebraska; nor do I overlook the peculiar industrial conditions of
+the prairie States. But I desire to insist upon the other truth, also,
+that these westward immigrants, keeping for generations in advance of
+the transforming industrial and social forces that have wrought so vast
+a revolution in the older regions of the East which they left, could not
+but preserve important aspects of the older farmer type. In the arid
+West these pioneers have halted and have turned to perceive an altered
+nation and changed social ideals. They see the sharp contrast between
+their traditional idea of America, as the land of opportunity, the land
+of the self-made man, free from class distinctions and from the power of
+wealth, and the existing America, so unlike the earlier ideal. If we
+follow back the line of march of the Puritan farmer, we shall see how
+responsive he has always been to <i>isms</i>, and how persistently he has
+resisted encroachments on his ideals of individual opportunity and
+democracy. He is the prophet of the "higher law" in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a>[<a href="./images/240.png">240</a>]</span>Kansas before the
+Civil War. He is the Prohibitionist of Iowa and Wisconsin, crying out
+against German customs as an invasion of his traditional ideals. He is
+the Granger of Wisconsin, passing restrictive railroad legislation. He
+is the Abolitionist, the Anti-mason, the Millerite, the Woman
+Suffragist, the Spiritualist, the Mormon, of Western New York. Follow
+him to his New England home in the turbulent days of Shays' rebellion,
+paper money, stay and tender laws, and land banks. The radicals among
+these New England farmers hated lawyers and capitalists. "I would not
+trust them," said Abraham White, in the ratification convention of
+Massachusetts, in 1788, "though every one of them should be a Moses."
+"These lawyers," cried Amos Singletary, "and men of learning and moneyed
+men that talk so finely and gloss over matters so smoothly to make us
+poor illiterate people swallow the pill, expect to get into Congress
+themselves! They mean to get all the money into their hands, and then
+they will swallow up all us little folk, like the Leviathan, Mr.
+President; yea, just as the whale swallowed up Jonah."</p>
+
+<p>If the voice of Mary Ellen Lease sounds raucous to the New England man
+to-day, while it is sweet music in the ears of the Kansas farmer, let
+him ponder the utterances of these frontier farmers in the days of the
+Revolution; and if he is still doubtful of this spiritual kinship, let
+him read the words of the levelers and sectaries of Cromwell's army.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the political leaders who remained in the place of their
+birth and shared its economic changes differs from the story of those
+who by moving to the West continued on a new area the old social type.
+In the throng of Scotch-Irish pioneers that entered the uplands of the
+Carolinas in the second quarter of the eighteenth century were the
+ancestors of Calhoun and of Andrew Jackson. Remaining in this region,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>[<a href="./images/241.png">241</a>]</span>Calhoun shared the transformations of the South Carolina interior. He
+saw it change from the area of the pioneer farmers to an area of great
+planters raising cotton by slave labor. This explains the transformation
+of the nationalist and protectionist Calhoun of 1816 into the
+state-sovereignty and free-trade Calhoun. Jackson, on the other hand,
+left the region while it was still a frontier, shared the frontier life
+of Tennessee, and reflected the democracy and nationalism of his people.
+Henry Clay lived long enough in the kindred State of Kentucky to see it
+pass from a frontier to a settled community, and his views on slavery
+reflected the transitional history of that State. Lincoln, on the other
+hand, born in Kentucky in 1809, while the State was still under frontier
+conditions, migrated in 1816 to Indiana, and in 1830 to Illinois. The
+pioneer influences of his community did much to shape his life, and the
+development of the raw frontiersman into the statesman was not unlike
+the development of his own State. Political leaders who experienced the
+later growth of the Northwest, like Garfield, Hayes, Harrison, and
+McKinley, show clearly the continued transformations of the section. But
+in the days when the Northwest was still in the gristle, she sent her
+sons into the newer West to continue the views of life and the policies
+of the half-frontier region they had left.</p>
+
+<p>To-day, the Northwest, standing between her ancestral connections in the
+East and her children in the West, partly like the East, partly like the
+West, finds herself in a position strangely like that in the days of the
+slavery struggle, when her origins presented to her a "divided duty."
+But these issues are not with the same imperious "Which?" as was the
+issue of freedom or slavery.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at the Northwest as a whole, one sees, in the character of its
+industries and in the elements of its population, it is identified on
+the east with the zone of States including <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>[<a href="./images/242.png">242</a>]</span>the middle region and New
+England. Cotton culture and the negro make a clear line of division
+between the Old Northwest and the South. And yet in important historical
+ideals&mdash;in the process of expansion, in the persistence of agricultural
+interests, in impulsiveness, in imperialistic ways of looking at the
+American destiny, in hero-worship, in the newness of its present social
+structure&mdash;the Old Northwest has much in common with the South and the
+Far West.</p>
+
+<p>Behind her is the old pioneer past of simple democratic conditions, and
+freedom of opportunity for all men. Before her is a superb industrial
+development, the brilliancy of success as evinced in a vast population,
+aggregate wealth, and sectional power.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222:1_271" id="Footnote_222:1_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222:1_271"><span class="label">[222:1]</span></a> <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, April, 1897. Published by
+permission.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238:1_272" id="Footnote_238:1_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238:1_272"><span class="label">[238:1]</span></a> For this information I am indebted to Professor F. W.
+Blackmar, of the University of Kansas.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>[<a href="./images/243.png">243</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>IX</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Contributions of the West to American Democracy</span><a name="FNanchor_243:1_273" id="FNanchor_243:1_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_243:1_273" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[243:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>Political thought in the period of the French Revolution tended to treat
+democracy as an absolute system applicable to all times and to all
+peoples, a system that was to be created by the act of the people
+themselves on philosophical principles. Ever since that era there has
+been an inclination on the part of writers on democracy to emphasize the
+analytical and theoretical treatment to the neglect of the underlying
+factors of historical development.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, we consider the underlying conditions and forces that
+create the democratic type of government, and at times contradict the
+external forms to which the name democracy is applied, we shall find
+that under this name there have appeared a multitude of political types
+radically unlike in fact.</p>
+
+<p>The careful student of history must, therefore, seek the explanation of
+the forms and changes of political institutions in the social and
+economic forces that determine them. To know that at any one time a
+nation may be called a democracy, an aristocracy, or a monarchy, is not
+so important as to know what are the social and economic tendencies of
+the state. These are the vital forces that work beneath the surface and
+dominate the external form. It is to changes in the economic and social
+life of a people that we must look for the forces, that ultimately
+create and modify organs of political action.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>[<a href="./images/244.png">244</a>]</span></p><p>For the time, adaptation of political structure may be incomplete or
+concealed. Old organs will be utilized to express new forces, and so
+gradual and subtle will be the change that it may hardly be recognized.
+The pseudo-democracies under the Medici at Florence and under Augustus
+at Rome are familiar examples of this type. Or again, if the political
+structure be rigid, incapable of responding to the changes demanded by
+growth, the expansive forces of social and economic transformation may
+rend it in some catastrophe like that of the French Revolution. In all
+these changes both conscious ideals and unconscious social
+reorganization are at work.</p>
+
+<p>These facts are familiar to the student, and yet it is doubtful if they
+have been fully considered in connection with American democracy. For a
+century at least, in conventional expression, Americans have referred to
+a "glorious Constitution" in explaining the stability and prosperity of
+their democracy. We have believed as a nation that other peoples had
+only to will our democratic institutions in order to repeat our own
+career.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with Western contributions to democracy, it is essential that
+the considerations which have just been mentioned shall be kept in mind.
+Whatever these contributions may have been, we find ourselves at the
+present time in an era of such profound economic and social
+transformation as to raise the question of the effect of these changes
+upon the democratic institutions of the United States. Within a decade
+four marked changes have occurred in our national development; taken
+together they constitute a revolution.</p>
+
+<p>First, there is the exhaustion of the supply of free land and the
+closing of the movement of Western advance as an effective factor in
+American development. The first rough conquest of the wilderness is
+accomplished, and that great supply of free lands which year after year
+has served to reinforce <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>[<a href="./images/245.png">245</a>]</span>the democratic influences in the United States
+is exhausted. It is true that vast tracts of government land are still
+untaken, but they constitute the mountain and arid regions, only a small
+fraction of them capable of conquest, and then only by the application
+of capital and combined effort. The free lands that made the American
+pioneer have gone.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, contemporaneously with this there has been such a
+concentration of capital in the control of fundamental industries as to
+make a new epoch in the economic development of the United States. The
+iron, the coal, and the cattle of the country have all fallen under the
+domination of a few great corporations with allied interests, and by the
+rapid combination of the important railroad systems and steamship lines,
+in concert with these same forces, even the breadstuffs and the
+manufactures of the nation are to some degree controlled in a similar
+way. This is largely the work of the last decade. The development of the
+greatest iron mines of Lake Superior occurred in the early nineties, and
+in the same decade came the combination by which the coal and the coke
+of the country, and the transportation systems that connect them with
+the iron mines, have been brought under a few concentrated managements.
+Side by side with this concentration of capital has gone the combination
+of labor in the same vast industries. The one is in a certain sense the
+concomitant of the other, but the movement acquires an additional
+significance because of the fact that during the past fifteen years the
+labor class has been so recruited by a tide of foreign immigration that
+this class is now largely made up of persons of foreign parentage, and
+the lines of cleavage which begin to appear in this country between
+capital and labor have been accentuated by distinctions of nationality.</p>
+
+<p>A third phenomenon connected with the two just mentioned is the
+expansion of the United States politically and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>[<a href="./images/246.png">246</a>]</span>commercially into lands
+beyond the seas. A cycle of American development has been completed. Up
+to the close of the War of 1812, this country was involved in the
+fortunes of the European state system. The first quarter of a century of
+our national existence was almost a continual struggle to prevent
+ourselves being drawn into the European wars. At the close of that era
+of conflict, the United States set its face toward the West. It began
+the settlement and improvement of the vast interior of the country. Here
+was the field of our colonization, here the field of our political
+activity. This process being completed, it is not strange that we find
+the United States again involved in world-politics. The revolution that
+occurred four years ago, when the United States struck down that ancient
+nation under whose auspices the New World was discovered, is hardly yet
+more than dimly understood. The insular wreckage of the Spanish War,
+Porto Rico and the Philippines, with the problems presented by the
+Hawaiian Islands, Cuba, the Isthmian Canal, and China, all are
+indications of the new direction of the ship of state, and while we thus
+turn our attention overseas, our concentrated industrial strength has
+given us a striking power against the commerce of Europe that is already
+producing consternation in the Old World. Having completed the conquest
+of the wilderness, and having consolidated our interests, we are
+beginning to consider the relations of democracy and empire.</p>
+
+<p>And fourth, the political parties of the United States, now tend to
+divide on issues that involve the question of Socialism. The rise of the
+Populist party in the last decade, and the acceptance of so many of its
+principles by the Democratic party under the leadership of Mr. Bryan,
+show in striking manner the birth of new political ideas, the
+reformation of the lines of political conflict.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtful if in any ten years of American history more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>[<a href="./images/247.png">247</a>]</span>significant
+factors in our growth have revealed themselves. The struggle of the
+pioneer farmers to subdue the arid lands of the Great Plains in the
+eighties was followed by the official announcement of the extinction of
+the frontier line in 1890. The dramatic outcome of the Chicago
+Convention of 1896 marked the rise into power of the representatives of
+Populistic change. Two years later came the battle of Manila, which
+broke down the old isolation of the nation, and started it on a path the
+goal of which no man can foretell; and finally, but two years ago came
+that concentration of which the billion and a half dollar steel trust
+and the union of the Northern continental railways are stupendous
+examples. Is it not obvious, then, that the student who seeks for the
+explanation of democracy in the social and economic forces that underlie
+political forms must make inquiry into the conditions that have produced
+our democratic institutions, if he would estimate the effect of these
+vast changes? As a contribution to this inquiry, let us now turn to an
+examination of the part that the West has played in shaping our
+democracy.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the settlement of America, the frontier regions
+have exercised a steady influence toward democracy. In Virginia, to take
+an example, it can be traced as early as the period of Bacon's
+Rebellion, a hundred years before our Declaration of Independence. The
+small landholders, seeing that their powers were steadily passing into
+the hands of the wealthy planters who controlled Church and State and
+lands, rose in revolt. A generation later, in the governorship of
+Alexander Spotswood, we find a contest between the frontier settlers and
+the property-holding classes of the coast. The democracy with which
+Spotswood had to struggle, and of which he so bitterly complained, was a
+democracy made up of small landholders, of the newer immigrants, and of
+indented servants, who at the expiration of their time <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a>[<a href="./images/248.png">248</a>]</span>of servitude
+passed into the interior to take up lands and engage in pioneer farming.
+The "War of the Regulation," just on the eve of the American Revolution,
+shows the steady persistence of this struggle between the classes of the
+interior and those of the coast. The Declaration of Grievances which the
+back counties of the Carolinas then drew up against the aristocracy that
+dominated the politics of those colonies exhibits the contest between
+the democracy of the frontier and the established classes who
+apportioned the legislature in such fashion as to secure effective
+control of government. Indeed, in a period before the outbreak of the
+American Revolution, one can trace a distinct belt of democratic
+territory extending from the back country of New England down through
+western New York, Pennsylvania, and the South.<a name="FNanchor_248:1_274" id="FNanchor_248:1_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_248:1_274" class="fnanchor">[248:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>In each colony this region was in conflict with the dominant classes of
+the coast. It constituted a quasi-revolutionary area before the days of
+the Revolution, and it formed the basis on which the Democratic party
+was afterwards established. It was, therefore, in the West, as it was in
+the period before the Declaration of Independence, that the struggle for
+democratic development first revealed itself, and in that area the
+essential ideas of American democracy had already appeared. Through the
+period of the Revolution and of the Confederation a similar contest can
+be noted. On the frontier of New England, along the western border of
+Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, and in the communities beyond
+the Alleghany Mountains, there arose a demand of the frontier settlers
+for independent statehood based on democratic provisions. There is a
+strain of fierceness in their energetic petitions demanding
+self-government under the theory that every people have the right to
+establish their own political institutions in an area which they have
+won from the wilderness. Those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>[<a href="./images/249.png">249</a>]</span>revolutionary principles based on
+natural rights, for which the seaboard colonies were contending, were
+taken up with frontier energy in an attempt to apply them to the lands
+of the West. No one can read their petitions denouncing the control
+exercised by the wealthy landholders of the coast, appealing to the
+record of their conquest of the wilderness, and demanding the possession
+of the lands for which they have fought the Indians, and which they had
+reduced by their ax to civilization, without recognizing in these
+frontier communities the cradle of a belligerent Western democracy. "A
+fool can sometimes put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for
+him,"&mdash;such is the philosophy of its petitioners. In this period also
+came the contests of the interior agricultural portion of New England
+against the coast-wise merchants and property-holders, of which Shays'
+Rebellion is the best known, although by no means an isolated instance.</p>
+
+<p>By the time of the constitutional convention, this struggle for
+democracy had affected a fairly well-defined division into parties.
+Although these parties did not at first recognize their interstate
+connections, there were similar issues on which they split in almost all
+the States. The demands for an issue of paper money, the stay of
+execution against debtors, and the relief against excessive taxation
+were found in every colony in the interior agricultural regions. The
+rise of this significant movement wakened the apprehensions of the men
+of means, and in the debates over the basis of suffrage for the House of
+Representatives in the constitutional convention of 1787 leaders of the
+conservative party did not hesitate to demand that safeguards to the
+property should be furnished the coast against the interior. The outcome
+of the debate left the question of suffrage for the House of
+Representatives dependent upon the policy of the separate States. This
+was in effect imposing a property qualification throughout the nation as
+a whole, and it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>[<a href="./images/250.png">250</a>]</span>was only as the interior of the country developed that
+these restrictions gradually gave way in the direction of manhood
+suffrage.</p>
+
+<p>All of these scattered democratic tendencies Jefferson combined, in the
+period of Washington's presidency, into the Democratic-Republican party.
+Jefferson was the first prophet of American democracy, and when we
+analyse the essential features of his gospel, it is clear that the
+Western influence was the dominant element. Jefferson himself was born
+in the frontier region of Virginia, on the edge of the Blue Ridge, in
+the middle of the eighteenth century. His father was a pioneer.
+Jefferson's "Notes on Virginia" reveal clearly his conception that
+democracy should have an agricultural basis, and that manufacturing
+development and city life were dangerous to the purity of the body
+politic. Simplicity and economy in government, the right of revolution,
+the freedom of the individual, the belief that those who win the vacant
+lands are entitled to shape their own government in their own
+way,&mdash;these are all parts of the platform of political principles to
+which he gave his adhesion, and they are all elements eminently
+characteristic of the Western democracy into which he was born.</p>
+
+<p>In the period of the Revolution he had brought in a series of measures
+which tended to throw the power of Virginia into the hands of the
+settlers in the interior rather than of the coastwise aristocracy. The
+repeal of the laws of entail and primogeniture would have destroyed the
+great estates on which the planting aristocracy based its power. The
+abolition of the Established Church would still further have diminished
+the influence of the coastwise party in favor of the dissenting sects of
+the interior. His scheme of general public education reflected the same
+tendency, and his demand for the abolition of slavery was characteristic
+of a representative <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>[<a href="./images/251.png">251</a>]</span>of the West rather than of the old-time aristocracy
+of the coast. His sympathy with the Western expansion culminated in the
+Louisiana Purchase. In short, the tendencies of Jefferson's legislation
+were to replace the dominance of the planting aristocracy by the
+dominance of the interior class, which had sought in vain to achieve its
+liberties in the period of Bacon's Rebellion.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, Thomas Jefferson was the John the Baptist of democracy,
+not its Moses. Only with the slow setting of the tide of settlement
+farther and farther toward the interior did the democratic influence
+grow strong enough to take actual possession of the government. The
+period from 1800 to 1820 saw a steady increase in these tendencies. The
+established classes in New England and the South began to take alarm.
+Perhaps no better illustration of the apprehensions of the old-time
+Federal conservative can be given than these utterances of President
+Dwight, of Yale College, in the book of travels which he published in
+that period:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The class of pioneers cannot live in regular society. They are
+too idle, too talkative, too passionate, too prodigal, and too
+shiftless to acquire either property or character. They are
+impatient of the restraints of law, religion, and morality,
+and grumble about the taxes by which the Rulers, Ministers,
+and Schoolmasters are supported.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. After exposing the
+injustice of the community in neglecting to invest persons of
+such superior merit in public offices, in many an eloquent
+harangue uttered by many a kitchen fire, in every blacksmith
+shop, in every corner of the streets, and finding all their
+efforts vain, they become at length discouraged, and under the
+pressure of poverty, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>[<a href="./images/252.png">252</a>]</span>the fear of the gaol, and consciousness
+of public contempt, leave their native places and betake
+themselves to the wilderness.</p></div>
+
+<p>Such was a conservative's impression of that pioneer movement of New
+England colonists who had spread up the valley of the Connecticut into
+New Hampshire, Vermont, and western New York in the period of which he
+wrote, and who afterwards went on to possess the Northwest. New England
+Federalism looked with a shudder at the democratic ideas of those who
+refused to recognize the established order. But in that period there
+came into the Union a sisterhood of frontier States&mdash;Ohio, Indiana,
+Illinois, Missouri&mdash;with provisions for the franchise that brought in
+complete democracy.</p>
+
+<p>Even the newly created States of the Southwest showed the tendency. The
+wind of democracy blew so strongly from the West, that even in the older
+States of New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia,
+conventions were called, which liberalized their constitutions by
+strengthening the democratic basis of the State. In the same time the
+labor population of the cities began to assert its power and its
+determination to share in government. Of this frontier democracy which
+now took possession of the nation, Andrew Jackson was the very
+personification. He was born in the backwoods of the Carolinas in the
+midst of the turbulent democracy that preceded the Revolution, and he
+grew up in the frontier State of Tennessee. In the midst of this region
+of personal feuds and frontier ideals of law, he quickly rose to
+leadership. The appearance of this frontiersman on the floor of Congress
+was an omen full of significance. He reached Philadelphia at the close
+of Washington's administration, having ridden on horseback nearly eight
+hundred miles to his destination. Gallatin, himself a Western man,
+describes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>[<a href="./images/253.png">253</a>]</span>Jackson as he entered the halls of Congress: "A tall, lank,
+uncouth-looking personage, with long locks of hair hanging over his face
+and a cue down his back tied in an eel-skin; his dress singular; his
+manners those of a rough backwoodsman." And Jefferson testified: "When I
+was President of the Senate he was a Senator, and he could never speak
+on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it
+repeatedly and as often choke with rage." At last the frontier in the
+person of its typical man had found a place in the Government. This
+six-foot backwoodsman, with blue eyes that could blaze on occasion, this
+choleric, impetuous, self-willed Scotch-Irish leader of men, this expert
+duelist, and ready fighter, this embodiment of the tenacious, vehement,
+personal West, was in politics to stay. The frontier democracy of that
+time had the instincts of the clansman in the days of Scotch border
+warfare. Vehement and tenacious as the democracy was, strenuously as
+each man contended with his neighbor for the spoils of the new country
+that opened before them, they all had respect for the man who best
+expressed their aspirations and their ideas. Every community had its
+hero. In the War of 1812 and the subsequent Indian fighting Jackson made
+good his claim, not only to the loyalty of the people of Tennessee, but
+of the whole West, and even of the nation. He had the essential traits
+of the Kentucky and Tennessee frontier. It was a frontier free from the
+influence of European ideas and institutions. The men of the "Western
+World" turned their backs upon the Atlantic Ocean, and with a grim
+energy and self-reliance began to build up a society free from the
+dominance of ancient forms.</p>
+
+<p>The Westerner defended himself and resented governmental restrictions.
+The duel and the blood-feud found congenial soil in Kentucky and
+Tennessee. The idea of the personality of law was often dominant over
+the organized machinery of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>[<a href="./images/254.png">254</a>]</span>justice. That method was best which was most
+direct and effective. The backwoodsman was intolerant of men who split
+hairs, or scrupled over the method of reaching the right. In a word, the
+unchecked development of the individual was the significant product of
+this frontier democracy. It sought rather to express itself by choosing
+a man of the people, than by the formation of elaborate governmental
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p>It was because Andrew Jackson personified these essential Western traits
+that in his presidency he became the idol and the mouthpiece of the
+popular will. In his assault upon the Bank as an engine of aristocracy,
+and in his denunciation of nullification, he went directly to his object
+with the ruthless energy of a frontiersman. For formal law and the
+<ins class="corr" title="original has subleties">subtleties</ins> of State sovereignty he had the contempt of a backwoodsman.
+Nor is it without significance that this typical man of the new
+democracy will always be associated with the triumph of the spoils
+system in national politics. To the new democracy of the West, office
+was an opportunity to exercise natural rights as an equal citizen of the
+community. Rotation in office served not simply to allow the successful
+man to punish his enemies and reward his friends, but it also furnished
+the training in the actual conduct of political affairs which every
+American claimed as his birthright. Only in a primitive democracy of the
+type of the United States in 1830 could such a system have existed
+without the ruin of the State. National government in that period was no
+complex and nicely adjusted machine, and the evils of the system were
+long in making themselves fully apparent.</p>
+
+<p>The triumph of Andrew Jackson marked the end of the old era of trained
+statesmen for the Presidency. With him began the era of the popular
+hero. Even Martin Van Buren, whom we think of in connection with the
+East, was born in a log <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a>[<a href="./images/255.png">255</a>]</span>house under conditions that were not unlike
+parts of the older West. Harrison was the hero of the Northwest, as
+Jackson had been of the Southwest. Polk was a typical Tennesseean, eager
+to expand the nation, and Zachary Taylor was what Webster called a
+"frontier colonel." During the period that followed Jackson, power
+passed from the region of Kentucky and Tennessee to the border of the
+Mississippi. The natural democratic tendencies that had earlier shown
+themselves in the Gulf States were destroyed, however, by the spread of
+cotton culture, and the development of great plantations in that region.
+What had been typical of the democracy of the Revolutionary frontier and
+of the frontier of Andrew Jackson was now to be seen in the States
+between the Ohio and the Mississippi. As Andrew Jackson is the typical
+democrat of the former region, so Abraham Lincoln is the very embodiment
+of the pioneer period of the Old Northwest. Indeed, he is the embodiment
+of the democracy of the West. How can one speak of him except in the
+words of Lowell's great "Commemoration Ode":&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"For him her Old-World moulds aside she threw,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And, choosing sweet clay from the breast</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Of the unexhausted West,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">With stuff untainted shaped a hero new,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Wise, steadfast in the strength of God, and true.</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<hr class="poetrytb" />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">His was no lonely mountain-peak of mind,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Thrusting to thin air o'er our cloudy bars,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">A sea-mark now, now lost in vapors blind;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Broad prairie rather, genial, level-lined,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Fruitful and friendly for all human kind,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Yet also nigh to heaven and loved of loftiest stars.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Nothing of Europe here,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Or, then, of Europe fronting mornward still,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Ere any names of Serf and Peer,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Could Nature's equal scheme deface;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">New birth of our new soil, the first American."</span><br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a>[<a href="./images/256.png">256</a>]</span></p><p>The pioneer life from which Lincoln came differed in important respects
+from the frontier democracy typified by Andrew Jackson. Jackson's
+democracy was contentious, individualistic, and it sought the ideal of
+local self-government and expansion. Lincoln represents rather the
+pioneer folk who entered the forest of the great Northwest to chop out a
+home, to build up their fortunes in the midst of a continually ascending
+industrial movement. In the democracy of the Southwest, industrial
+development and city life were only minor factors, but to the democracy
+of the Northwest they were its very life. To widen the area of the
+clearing, to contend with one another for the mastery of the industrial
+resources of the rich provinces, to struggle for a place in the
+ascending movement of society, to transmit to one's offspring the chance
+for education, for industrial betterment, for the rise in life which the
+hardships of the pioneer existence denied to the pioneer himself, these
+were some of the ideals of the region to which Lincoln came. The men
+were commonwealth builders, industry builders. Whereas the type of hero
+in the Southwest was militant, in the Northwest he was industrial. It
+was in the midst of these "plain people," as he loved to call them, that
+Lincoln grew to manhood. As Emerson says: "He is the true history of the
+American people in his time." The years of his early life were the years
+when the democracy of the Northwest came into struggle with the
+institution of slavery which threatened to forbid the expansion of the
+democratic pioneer life in the West. In President Eliot's essay on "Five
+American Contributions to Civilization," he instances as one of the
+supreme tests of American democracy its attitude upon the question of
+slavery. But if democracy chose wisely and worked effectively toward the
+solution of this problem, it must be remembered that Western democracy
+took the lead. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a>[<a href="./images/257.png">257</a>]</span>The rail-splitter himself became the nation's President
+in that fierce time of struggle, and armies of the woodsmen and pioneer
+farmers recruited in the Old Northwest made free the Father of Waters,
+marched through Georgia, and helped to force the struggle to a
+conclusion at Appomattox. The free pioneer democracy struck down the
+slave-holding aristocracy on its march to the West.</p>
+
+<p>The last chapter in the development of Western democracy is the one that
+deals with its conquest over the vast spaces of the new West. At each
+new stage of Western development, the people have had to grapple with
+larger areas, with bigger combinations. The little colony of
+Massachusetts veterans that settled at Marietta received a land grant as
+large as the State of Rhode Island. The band of Connecticut pioneers
+that followed Moses Cleaveland to the Connecticut Reserve occupied a
+region as large as the parent State. The area which settlers of New
+England stock occupied on the prairies of northern Illinois surpassed
+the combined area of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Men
+who had become accustomed to the narrow valleys and the little towns of
+the East found themselves out on the boundless spaces of the West
+dealing with units of such magnitude as dwarfed their former experience.
+The Great Lakes, the Prairies, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains,
+the Mississippi and the Missouri, furnished new standards of measurement
+for the achievement of this industrial democracy. Individualism began to
+give way to co&ouml;peration and to governmental activity. Even in the
+earlier days of the democratic conquest of the wilderness, demands had
+been made upon the government for support in internal improvements, but
+this new West showed a growing tendency to call to its assistance the
+powerful arm of national authority. In the period since the Civil War,
+the vast public <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>[<a href="./images/258.png">258</a>]</span>domain has been donated to the individual farmer, to
+States for education, to railroads for the construction of
+transportation lines.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, with the advent of democracy in the last fifteen years upon
+the Great Plains, new physical conditions have presented themselves
+which have accelerated the social tendency of Western democracy. The
+pioneer farmer of the days of Lincoln could place his family on a
+flatboat, strike into the wilderness, cut out his clearing, and with
+little or no capital go on to the achievement of industrial
+independence. Even the homesteader on the Western prairies found it
+possible to work out a similar independent destiny, although the factor
+of transportation made a serious and increasing impediment to the free
+working-out of his individual career. But when the arid lands and the
+mineral resources of the Far West were reached, no conquest was possible
+by the old individual pioneer methods. Here expensive irrigation works
+must be constructed, co&ouml;perative activity was demanded in utilization of
+the water supply, capital beyond the reach of the small farmer was
+required. In a word, the physiographic province itself decreed that the
+destiny of this new frontier should be social rather than individual.</p>
+
+<p>Magnitude of social achievement is the watchword of the democracy since
+the Civil War. From petty towns built in the marshes, cities arose whose
+greatness and industrial power are the wonder of our time. The
+conditions were ideal for the production of captains of industry. The
+old democratic admiration for the self-made man, its old deference to
+the rights of competitive individual development, together with the
+stupendous natural resources that opened to the conquest of the keenest
+and the strongest, gave such conditions of mobility as enabled the
+development of the large corporate industries which in our own decade
+have marked the West.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>[<a href="./images/259.png">259</a>]</span></p><p>Thus, in brief, have been outlined the chief phases of the development
+of Western democracy in the different areas which it has conquered.
+There has been a steady development of the industrial ideal, and a
+steady increase of the social tendency, in this later movement of
+Western democracy. While the individualism of the frontier, so prominent
+in the earliest days of the Western advance, has been preserved as an
+ideal, more and more these individuals struggling each with the other,
+dealing with vaster and vaster areas, with larger and larger problems,
+have found it necessary to combine under the leadership of the
+strongest. This is the explanation of the rise of those pre&euml;minent
+captains of industry whose genius has concentrated capital to control
+the fundamental resources of the nation. If now in the way of
+recapitulation, we try to pick out from the influences that have gone to
+the making of Western democracy the factors which constitute the net
+result of this movement, we shall have to mention at least the
+following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Most important of all has been the fact that an area of free land has
+continually lain on the western border of the settled area of the United
+States. Whenever social conditions tended to crystallize in the East,
+whenever capital tended to press upon labor or political restraints to
+impede the freedom of the mass, there was this gate of escape to the
+free conditions of the frontier. These free lands promoted
+individualism, economic equality, freedom to rise, democracy. Men would
+not accept inferior wages and a permanent position of social
+subordination when this promised land of freedom and equality was theirs
+for the taking. Who would rest content under oppressive legislative
+conditions when with a slight effort he might reach a land wherein to
+become a co-worker in the building of free cities and free States on the
+lines of his own ideal? In a word, then, free lands meant free
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>[<a href="./images/260.png">260</a>]</span>opportunities. Their existence has differentiated the American
+democracy from the democracies which have preceded it, because ever, as
+democracy in the East took the form of highly specialized and
+complicated industrial society, in the West it kept in touch with
+primitive conditions, and by action and reaction these two forces have
+shaped our history.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place, these free lands and this treasury of industrial
+resources have existed over such vast spaces that they have demanded of
+democracy increasing spaciousness of design and power of execution.
+Western democracy is contrasted with the democracy of all other times in
+the largeness of the tasks to which it has set its hand, and in the vast
+achievements which it has wrought out in the control of nature and of
+politics. It would be difficult to over-emphasize the importance of this
+training upon democracy. Never before in the history of the world has a
+democracy existed on so vast an area and handled things in the gross
+with such success, with such largeness of design, and such grasp upon
+the means of execution. In short, democracy has learned in the West of
+the United States how to deal with the problem of magnitude. The old
+historic democracies were but little states with primitive economic
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>But the very task of dealing with vast resources, over vast areas, under
+the conditions of free competition furnished by the West, has produced
+the rise of those captains of industry whose success in consolidating
+economic power now raises the question as to whether democracy under
+such conditions can survive. For the old military type of Western
+leaders like George Rogers Clark, Andrew Jackson, and William Henry
+Harrison have been substituted such industrial leaders as James J. Hill,
+John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie.</p>
+
+<p>The question is imperative, then, What ideals persist from this
+democratic experience of the West; and have they acquired <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>[<a href="./images/261.png">261</a>]</span>sufficient
+momentum to sustain themselves under conditions so radically unlike
+those in the days of their origin? In other words, the question put at
+the beginning of this discussion becomes pertinent. Under the forms of
+the American democracy is there in reality evolving such a concentration
+of economic and social power in the hands of a comparatively few men as
+may make political democracy an appearance rather than a reality? The
+free lands are gone. The material forces that gave vitality to Western
+democracy are passing away. It is to the realm of the spirit, to the
+domain of ideals and legislation, that we must look for Western
+influence upon democracy in our own days.</p>
+
+<p>Western democracy has been from the time of its birth idealistic. The
+very fact of the wilderness appealed to men as a fair, blank page on
+which to write a new chapter in the story of man's struggle for a higher
+type of society. The Western wilds, from the Alleghanies to the Pacific,
+constituted the richest free gift that was ever spread out before
+civilized man. To the peasant and artisan of the Old World, bound by the
+chains of social class, as old as custom and as inevitable as fate, the
+West offered an exit into a free life and greater well-being among the
+bounties of nature, into the midst of resources that demanded manly
+exertion, and that gave in return the chance for indefinite ascent in
+the scale of social advance. "To each she offered gifts after his will."
+Never again can such an opportunity come to the sons of men. It was
+unique, and the thing is so near us, so much a part of our lives, that
+we do not even yet comprehend its full significance. The existence of
+this land of opportunity has made America the goal of idealists from the
+days of the Pilgrim Fathers. With all the materialism of the pioneer
+movements, this idealistic conception of the vacant lands as an
+opportunity for a new order of things is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a>[<a href="./images/262.png">262</a>]</span>unmistakably present.
+Kipling's "Song of the English" has given it expression:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"We were dreamers, dreaming greatly, in the man-stifled town;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">We yearned beyond the sky-line where the strange roads go down.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Came the Whisper, came the Vision, came the Power with the Need,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Till the Soul that is not man's soul was lent us to lead.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">As the deer breaks&mdash;as the steer breaks&mdash;from the herd where they graze,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">In the faith of little children we went on our ways.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Then the wood failed&mdash;then the food failed&mdash;then the last water dried&mdash;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">In the faith of little children we lay down and died.</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"On the sand-drift&mdash;on the veldt-side&mdash;in the fern-scrub we lay,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">That our sons might follow after by the bones on the way.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Follow after&mdash;follow after! We have watered the root</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And the bud has come to blossom that ripens for fruit!</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Follow after&mdash;we are waiting by the trails that we lost</span><br />
+<span class="i0">For the sound of many footsteps, for the tread of a host.</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Follow after&mdash;follow after&mdash;for the harvest is sown:</span><br />
+<span class="i0">By the bones about the wayside ye shall come to your own!"</span><br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This was the vision that called to Roger Williams,&mdash;that "prophetic soul
+ravished of truth disembodied," "unable to enter into treaty with its
+environment," and forced to seek the wilderness. "Oh, how sweet," wrote
+William Penn, from his forest refuge, "is the quiet of these parts,
+freed from the troubles and perplexities of woeful Europe." And here he
+projected what he called his "Holy Experiment in Government."</p>
+
+<p>If the later West offers few such striking illustrations of the relation
+of the wilderness to idealistic schemes, and if some of the designs were
+fantastic and abortive, none the less the influence is a fact. Hardly a
+Western State but has been the Mecca of some sect or band of social
+reformers, anxious to put into practice their ideals, in vacant land,
+far removed from the checks of a settled form of social organization.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>[<a href="./images/263.png">263</a>]</span>Consider the Dunkards, the Icarians, the Fourierists, the Mormons, and
+similar idealists who sought our Western wilds. But the idealistic
+influence is not limited to the dreamers' conception of a new State. It
+gave to the pioneer farmer and city builder a restless energy, a quick
+capacity for judgment and action, a belief in liberty, freedom of
+opportunity, and a resistance to the domination of class which infused a
+vitality and power into the individual atoms of this democratic mass.
+Even as he dwelt among the stumps of his newly-cut clearing, the pioneer
+had the creative vision of a new order of society. In imagination he
+pushed back the forest boundary to the confines of a mighty
+Commonwealth; he willed that log cabins should become the lofty
+buildings of great cities. He decreed that his children should enter
+into a heritage of education, comfort, and social welfare, and for this
+ideal he bore the scars of the wilderness. Possessed with this idea he
+ennobled his task and laid deep foundations for a democratic State. Nor
+was this idealism by any means limited to the American pioneer.</p>
+
+<p>To the old native democratic stock has been added a vast army of
+recruits from the Old World. There are in the Middle West alone four
+million persons of German parentage out of a total of seven millions in
+the country. Over a million persons of Scandinavian parentage live in
+the same region. The democracy of the newer West is deeply affected by
+the ideals brought by these immigrants from the Old World. To them
+America was not simply a new home; it was a land of opportunity, of
+freedom, of democracy. It meant to them, as to the American pioneer that
+preceded them, the opportunity to destroy the bonds of social caste that
+bound them in their older home, to hew out for themselves in a new
+country a destiny proportioned to the powers that God had given them, a
+chance to place their families under better conditions and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>[<a href="./images/264.png">264</a>]</span>to win a
+larger life than the life that they had left behind. He who believes
+that even the hordes of recent immigrants from southern Italy are drawn
+to these shores by nothing more than a dull and blind materialism has
+not penetrated into the heart of the problem. The idealism and
+expectation of these children of the Old World, the hopes which they
+have formed for a newer and freer life across the seas, are almost
+pathetic when one considers how far they are from the possibility of
+fruition. He who would take stock of American democracy must not forget
+the accumulation of human purposes and ideals which immigration has
+added to the American populace.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it must also be remembered that these democratic
+ideals have existed at each stage of the advance of the frontier, and
+have left behind them deep and enduring effects on the thinking of the
+whole country. Long after the frontier period of a particular region of
+the United States has passed away, the conception of society, the ideals
+and aspirations which it produced, persist in the minds of the people.
+So recent has been the transition of the greater portion of the United
+States from frontier conditions to conditions of settled life, that we
+are, over the large portion of the United States, hardly a generation
+removed from the primitive conditions of the West. If, indeed, we
+ourselves were not pioneers, our fathers were, and the inherited ways of
+looking at things, the fundamental assumptions of the American people,
+have all been shaped by this experience of democracy on its westward
+march. This experience has been wrought into the very warp and woof of
+American thought.</p>
+
+<p>Even those masters of industry and capital who have risen to power by
+the conquest of Western resources came from the midst of this society
+and still profess its principles. John D. Rockefeller was born on a New
+York farm, and began <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a>[<a href="./images/265.png">265</a>]</span>his career as a young business man in St. Louis.
+Marcus Hanna was a Cleveland grocer's clerk at the age of twenty. Claus
+Spreckles, the sugar king, came from Germany as a steerage passenger to
+the United States in 1848. Marshall Field was a farmer boy in Conway,
+Massachusetts, until he left to grow up with the young Chicago. Andrew
+Carnegie came as a ten-year-old boy from Scotland to Pittsburgh, then a
+distinctively Western town. He built up his fortunes through successive
+grades until he became the dominating factor in the great iron
+industries, and paved the way for that colossal achievement, the Steel
+Trust. Whatever may be the tendencies of this corporation, there can be
+little doubt of the democratic ideals of Mr. Carnegie himself. With
+lavish hand he has strewn millions through the United States for the
+promotion of libraries. The effect of this library movement in
+perpetuating the democracy that comes from an intelligent and
+self-respecting people can hardly be measured. In his "Triumphant
+Democracy," published in 1886, Mr. Carnegie, the ironmaster, said, in
+reference to the mineral wealth of the United States: "Thank God, these
+treasures are in the hands of an intelligent people, the Democracy, to
+be used for the general good of the masses, and not made the spoils of
+monarchs, courts, and aristocracy, to be turned to the base and selfish
+ends of a privileged hereditary class." It would be hard to find a more
+rigorous assertion of democratic doctrine than the celebrated utterance,
+attributed to the same man, that he should feel it a disgrace to die
+rich.</p>
+
+<p>In enumerating the services of American democracy, President Eliot
+included the corporation as one of its achievements, declaring that
+"freedom of incorporation, though no longer exclusively a democratic
+agency, has given a strong support to democratic institutions." In one
+sense this is doubtless true, since the corporation has been one of the
+means by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a>[<a href="./images/266.png">266</a>]</span>which small properties can be aggregated into an effective
+working body. Socialistic writers have long been fond of pointing out
+also that these various concentrations pave the way for and make
+possible social control. From this point of view it is possible that the
+masters of industry may prove to be not so much an incipient aristocracy
+as the pathfinders for democracy in reducing the industrial world to
+systematic consolidation suited to democratic control. The great
+geniuses that have built up the modern industrial concentration were
+trained in the midst of democratic society. They were the product of
+these democratic conditions. Freedom to rise was the very condition of
+their existence. Whether they will be followed by successors who will
+adopt the exploitation of the masses, and who will be capable of
+retaining under efficient control these vast resources, is one of the
+questions which we shall have to face.</p>
+
+<p>This, at least, is clear: American democracy is fundamentally the
+outcome of the experiences of the American people in dealing with the
+West. Western democracy through the whole of its earlier period tended
+to the production of a society of which the most distinctive fact was
+the freedom of the individual to rise under conditions of social
+mobility, and whose ambition was the liberty and well-being of the
+masses. This conception has vitalized all American democracy, and has
+brought it into sharp contrasts with the democracies of history, and
+with those modern efforts of Europe to create an artificial democratic
+order by legislation. The problem of the United States is not to create
+democracy, but to conserve democratic institutions and ideals. In the
+later period of its development, Western democracy has been gaining
+experience in the problem of social control. It has steadily enlarged
+the sphere of its action and the instruments for its perpetuation. By
+its system of public schools, from the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>[<a href="./images/267.png">267</a>]</span>grades to the graduate work of
+the great universities, the West has created a larger single body of
+intelligent plain people than can be found elsewhere in the world. Its
+political tendencies, whether we consider Democracy, Populism, or
+Republicanism, are distinctly in the direction of greater social control
+and the conservation of the old democratic ideals.</p>
+
+<p>To these ideals the West adheres with even a passionate determination.
+If, in working out its mastery of the resources of the interior, it has
+produced a type of industrial leader so powerful as to be the wonder of
+the world, nevertheless, it is still to be determined whether these men
+constitute a menace to democratic institutions, or the most efficient
+factor for adjusting democratic control to the new conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever shall be the outcome of the rush of this huge industrial modern
+United States to its place among the nations of the earth, the formation
+of its Western democracy will always remain one of the wonderful
+chapters in the history of the human race. Into this vast shaggy
+continent of ours poured the first feeble tide of European settlement.
+European men, institutions, and ideas were lodged in the American
+wilderness, and this great American West took them to her bosom, taught
+them a new way of looking upon the destiny of the common man, trained
+them in adaptation to the conditions of the New World, to the creation
+of new institutions to meet new needs; and ever as society on her
+eastern border grew to resemble the Old World in its social forms and
+its industry, ever, as it began to lose faith in the ideals of
+democracy, she opened new provinces, and dowered new democracies in her
+most distant domains with her material treasures and with the ennobling
+influence that the fierce love of freedom, the strength that came from
+hewing out a home, making a school and a church, and creating a higher
+future for his family, furnished to the pioneer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>[<a href="./images/268.png">268</a>]</span></p><p>She gave to the world such types as the farmer Thomas Jefferson, with
+his Declaration of Independence, his statute for religious toleration,
+and his purchase of Louisiana. She gave us Andrew Jackson, that fierce
+Tennessee spirit who broke down the traditions of conservative rule,
+swept away the privacies and privileges of officialdom, and, like a
+Gothic leader, opened the temple of the nation to the populace. She gave
+us Abraham Lincoln, whose gaunt frontier form and gnarled, massive hand
+told of the conflict with the forest, whose grasp of the ax-handle of
+the pioneer was no firmer than his grasp of the helm of the ship of
+state as it breasted the seas of civil war. She has furnished to this
+new democracy her stores of mineral wealth, that <ins class="corr" title="original has dwarf of those">dwarf those</ins> of the Old
+World, and her provinces that in themselves are vaster and more
+productive than most of the nations of Europe. Out of her bounty has
+come a nation whose industrial competition alarms the Old World, and the
+masters of whose resources wield wealth and power vaster than the wealth
+and power of kings. Best of all, the West gave, not only to the
+American, but to the unhappy and oppressed of all lands, a vision of
+hope, and assurance that the world held a place where were to be found
+high faith in man and the will and power to furnish him the opportunity
+to grow to the full measure of his own capacity. Great and powerful as
+are the new sons of her loins, the Republic is greater than they. The
+paths of the pioneer have widened into broad highways. The forest
+clearing has expanded into affluent commonwealths. Let us see to it that
+the ideals of the pioneer in his log cabin shall enlarge into the
+spiritual life of a democracy where civic power shall dominate and
+utilize individual achievement for the common good.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243:1_273" id="Footnote_243:1_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243:1_273"><span class="label">[243:1]</span></a> <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, January, 1903. Reprinted by
+permission.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248:1_274" id="Footnote_248:1_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248:1_274"><span class="label">[248:1]</span></a> See <a href="#chapter_iii">chapter iii</a>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>[<a href="./images/269.png">269</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>X</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Pioneer Ideals and the State University</span><a name="FNanchor_269:1_275" id="FNanchor_269:1_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_269:1_275" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[269:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The ideals of a people, their aspirations and convictions, their hopes
+and ambitions, their dreams and determinations, are assets in their
+civilization as real and important as per capita wealth or industrial
+skill.</p>
+
+<p>This nation was formed under pioneer ideals. During three centuries
+after Captain John Smith struck the first blow at the American forest on
+the eastern edge of the continent, the pioneers were abandoning settled
+society for the wilderness, seeking, for generation after generation,
+new frontiers. Their experiences left abiding influences upon the ideas
+and purposes of the nation. Indeed the older settled regions themselves
+were shaped profoundly by the very fact that the whole nation was
+pioneering and that in the development of the West the East had its own
+part.</p>
+
+<p>The first ideal of the pioneer was that of conquest. It was his task to
+fight with nature for the chance to exist. Not as in older countries did
+this contest take place in a mythical past, told in folk lore and epic.
+It has been continuous to our own day. Facing each generation of
+pioneers was the unmastered continent. Vast forests blocked the way;
+mountainous ramparts interposed; desolate, grass-clad prairies, barren
+oceans of rolling plains, arid deserts, and a fierce race of savages,
+all had to be met and defeated. The rifle and the ax are the symbols of
+the backwoods pioneer. They meant <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a>[<a href="./images/270.png">270</a>]</span>a training in aggressive courage, in
+domination, in directness of action, in destructiveness.</p>
+
+<p>To the pioneer the forest was no friendly resource for posterity, no
+object of careful economy. He must wage a hand-to-hand war upon it,
+cutting and burning a little space to let in the light upon a dozen
+acres of hard-won soil, and year after year expanding the clearing into
+new woodlands against the stubborn resistance of primeval trunks and
+matted roots. He made war against the rank fertility of the soil. While
+new worlds of virgin land lay ever just beyond, it was idle to expect
+the pioneer to stay his hand and turn to scientific farming. Indeed, as
+Secretary Wilson has said, the pioneer would, in that case, have raised
+wheat that no one wanted to eat, corn to store on the farm, and cotton
+not worth the picking.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, fired with the ideal of subduing the wilderness, the destroying
+pioneer fought his way across the continent, masterful and wasteful,
+preparing the way by seeking the immediate thing, rejoicing in rude
+strength and wilful achievement.</p>
+
+<p>But even this backwoodsman was more than a mere destroyer. He had
+visions. He was finder as well as fighter&mdash;the trail-maker for
+civilization, the inventor of new ways. Although Rudyard Kipling's
+"Foreloper"<a name="FNanchor_270:1_276" id="FNanchor_270:1_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_270:1_276" class="fnanchor">[270:1]</a> deals with the English pioneer in lands beneath the
+Southern Cross, yet the poem portrays American traits as well:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The gull shall whistle in his wake, the blind wave break in fire,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">He shall fulfill God's utmost will, unknowing his desire;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And he shall see old planets pass and alien stars arise,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And give the gale his reckless sail in shadow of new skies.</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>[<a href="./images/271.png">271</a>]</span><span class="i0">"Strong lust of gear shall drive him out and hunger arm his hand</span><br />
+<span class="i0">To wring food from desert nude, his foothold from the sand.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">His neighbors' smoke shall vex his eyes, their voices break his rest;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">He shall go forth till south is north, sullen and dispossessed;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">He shall desire loneliness and his desire shall bring</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Hard on his heels, a thousand wheels, a people and a king.</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"He shall come back on his own track, and by his scarce cool camp,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">There shall he meet the roaring street, the derrick and the stamp;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">For he must blaze a nation's way with hatchet and with brand,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Till on his last won wilderness an empire's bulwarks stand."</span><br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This quest after the unknown, this yearning "beyond the sky line, where
+the strange roads go down," is of the very essence of the backwoods
+pioneer, even though he was unconscious of its spiritual significance.</p>
+
+<p>The pioneer was taught in the school of experience that the crops of one
+area would not do for a new frontier; that the scythe of the clearing
+must be replaced by the reaper of the prairies. He was forced to make
+old tools serve new uses; to shape former habits, institutions and ideas
+to changed conditions; and to find new means when the old proved
+inapplicable. He was building a new society as well as breaking new
+soil; he had the ideal of nonconformity and of change. He rebelled
+against the conventional.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the ideals of conquest and of discovery, the pioneer had the
+ideal of personal development, free from social and governmental
+constraint. He came from a civilization based on individual competition,
+and he brought the conception with him to the wilderness where a wealth
+of resources, and innumerable opportunities gave it a new scope. The
+prizes were for the keenest and the strongest; for them were the best
+bottom lands, the finest timber tracts, the best salt-springs, the
+richest ore beds; and not only these natural gifts, but also the
+opportunities afforded in the midst of a forming society. Here were mill
+sites, town sites, transportation lines, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>[<a href="./images/272.png">272</a>]</span>banking centers, openings in
+the law, in politics&mdash;all the varied chances for advancement afforded in
+a rapidly developing society where everything was open to him who knew
+how to seize the opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>The squatter enforced his claim to lands even against the government's
+title by the use of extra-legal combinations and force. He appealed to
+lynch law with little hesitation. He was impatient of any governmental
+restriction upon his individual right to deal with the wilderness.</p>
+
+<p>In our own day we sometimes hear of congressmen sent to jail for
+violating land laws; but the different spirit in the pioneer days may be
+illustrated by a speech of Delegate Sibley of Minnesota in Congress in
+1852. In view of the fact that he became the State's first governor, a
+regent of its university, president of its historical society, and a
+doctor of laws of Princeton, we may assume that he was a pillar of
+society. He said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The government has watched its public domain with jealous eye,
+and there are now enactments upon your statute books, aimed at
+the trespassers upon it, which should be expunged as a
+disgrace to the country and to the nineteenth century.
+Especially is he pursued with unrelenting severity, who has
+dared to break the silence of the primeval forest by the blows
+of the American ax. The hardy lumberman who has penetrated to
+the remotest wilds of the Northwest, to drag from their
+recesses the materials for building up towns and cities in the
+great valley of the Mississippi, has been particularly marked
+out as a victim. After enduring all the privations and
+subjecting himself to all the perils incident to his
+vocation&mdash;when <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a>[<a href="./images/273.png">273</a>]</span>he has toiled for months to add by his honest
+labor to the comfort of his fellow men, and to the aggregate
+wealth of the nation, he finds himself suddenly in the
+clutches of the law for trespassing on the public domain. The
+proceeds of his long winter's work are reft from him, and
+exposed to public sale for the benefit of his paternal
+government .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. and the object of this oppression and wrong is
+further harassed by vexatious law proceedings against him.</p></div>
+
+<p>Sibley's protest in congress against these "outrages" by which the
+northern lumbermen were "harassed" in their work of what would now be
+called stealing government timber, aroused no protest from his
+colleagues. No president called this congressman an undesirable citizen
+or gave him over to the courts.</p>
+
+<p>Thus many of the pioneers, following the ideal of the right of the
+individual to rise, subordinated the rights of the nation and posterity
+to the desire that the country should be "developed" and that the
+individual should advance with as little interference as possible.
+Squatter doctrines and individualism have left deep traces upon American
+conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>But quite as deeply fixed in the pioneer's mind as the ideal of
+individualism was the ideal of democracy. He had a passionate hatred for
+aristocracy, monopoly and special privilege; he believed in simplicity,
+economy and in the rule of the people. It is true that he honored the
+successful man, and that he strove in all ways to advance himself. But
+the West was so free and so vast, the barriers to individual achievement
+were so remote, that the pioneer was hardly conscious that any danger to
+equality could come from his competition for natural resources. He
+thought of democracy as in some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a>[<a href="./images/274.png">274</a>]</span>way the result of our political
+institutions, and he failed to see that it was primarily the result of
+the free lands and immense opportunities which surrounded him.
+Occasional statesmen voiced the idea that American democracy was based
+on the abundance of unoccupied land, even in the first debates on the
+public domain.</p>
+
+<p>This early recognition of the influence of abundance of land in shaping
+the economic conditions of American democracy is peculiarly significant
+to-day in view of the practical exhaustion of the supply of cheap arable
+public lands open to the poor man, and the coincident development of
+labor unions to keep up wages.</p>
+
+<p>Certain it is that the strength of democratic movements has chiefly lain
+in the regions of the pioneer. "Our governments tend too much to
+democracy," wrote Izard, of South Carolina, to Jefferson, in 1785. "A
+handicraftsman thinks an apprenticeship necessary to make him acquainted
+with his business. But our backcountrymen are of the opinion that a
+politician may be born just as well as a poet."</p>
+
+<p>The Revolutionary ideas, of course, gave a great impetus to democracy,
+and in substantially every colony there was a double revolution, one for
+independence and the other for the overthrow of aristocratic control.
+But in the long run the effective force behind American democracy was
+the presence of the practically free land into which men might escape
+from oppression or inequalities which burdened them in the older
+settlements. This possibility compelled the coastwise States to
+liberalize the franchise; and it prevented the formation of a dominant
+class, whether based on property or on custom. Among the pioneers one
+man was as good as his neighbor. He had the same chance; conditions were
+simple and free. Economic equality fostered political equality. An
+optimistic and buoyant belief in the worth of the plain people, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a>[<a href="./images/275.png">275</a>]</span>a
+devout faith in man prevailed in the West. Democracy became almost the
+religion of the pioneer. He held with passionate devotion the idea that
+he was building under freedom a new society, based on self government,
+and for the welfare of the average man.</p>
+
+<p>And yet even as he proclaimed the gospel of democracy the pioneer showed
+a vague apprehension lest the time be short&mdash;lest equality should not
+endure&mdash;lest he might fall behind in the ascending movement of Western
+society. This led him on in feverish haste to acquire advantages as
+though he only half believed his dream. "Before him lies a boundless
+continent," wrote De Tocqueville, in the days when pioneer democracy was
+triumphant under Jackson, "and he urges forward as if time pressed and
+he was afraid of finding no room for his exertions."</p>
+
+<p>Even while Jackson lived, labor leaders and speculative thinkers were
+demanding legislation to place a limit on the amount of land which one
+person might acquire and to provide free farms. De Tocqueville saw the
+signs of change. "Between the workman and the master," he said, "there
+are frequent relations but no real association.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. I am of the opinion,
+upon the whole, that the manufacturing aristocracy which is growing up
+under our eyes is one of the harshest which ever existed in the world;
+.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. if ever a permanent inequality, of conditions and aristocracy again
+penetrate into the world, it may be predicted that this is the gate by
+which they will enter." But the sanative influences of the free spaces
+of the West were destined to ameliorate labor's condition, to afford new
+hopes and new faith to pioneer democracy, and to postpone the problem.</p>
+
+<p>As the settlers advanced into provinces whose area dwarfed that of the
+older sections, pioneer democracy itself began to undergo changes, both
+in its composition and in its processes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a>[<a href="./images/276.png">276</a>]</span>of expansion. At the close of
+the Civil War, when settlement was spreading with greatest vigor across
+the Mississippi, the railways began their work as colonists. Their land
+grants from the government, amounting altogether by 1871 to an area five
+times that of the State of Pennsylvania, demanded purchasers, and so the
+railroads pioneered the way for the pioneer.</p>
+
+<p>The homestead law increased the tide of settlers. The improved farm
+machinery made it possible for him to go boldly out on to the prairie
+and to deal effectively with virgin soil in farms whose cultivated area
+made the old clearings of the backwoodsman seem mere garden plots. Two
+things resulted from these conditions, which profoundly modified pioneer
+ideals. In the first place the new form of colonization demanded an
+increasing use of capital; and the rapidity of the formation of towns,
+the speed with which society developed, made men the more eager to
+secure bank credit to deal with the new West. This made the pioneer more
+dependent on the eastern economic forces. In the second place the farmer
+became dependent as never before on transportation companies. In this
+speculative movement the railroads, finding that they had pressed too
+far in advance and had issued stock to freely for their earnings to
+justify the face of the investment, came into collision with the pioneer
+on the question of rates and of discriminations. The Greenback movement
+and the Granger movements were appeals to government to prevent what the
+pioneer thought to be invasions of pioneer democracy.</p>
+
+<p>As the western settler began to face the problem of magnitude in the
+areas he was occupying; as he began to adjust his life to the modern
+forces of capital and to complex productive processes; as he began to
+see that, go where he would, the question of credit and currency, of
+transportation and distribution in general conditioned his success, he
+sought <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a>[<a href="./images/277.png">277</a>]</span>relief by legislation. He began to lose his primitive attitude
+of individualism, government began to look less like a necessary evil
+and more like an instrument for the perpetuation of his democratic
+ideals. In brief, the defenses of the pioneer democrat began to shift,
+from free land to legislation, from the ideal of individualism to the
+ideal of social control through regulation by law. He had no sympathy
+with a radical reconstruction of society by the revolution of socialism;
+even his alliances with the movement of organized labor, which
+paralleled that of organized capital in the East, were only
+half-hearted. But he was becoming alarmed over the future of the free
+democratic ideal. The wisdom of his legislation it is not necessary to
+discuss here. The essential point is that his conception of the right of
+government to control social process had undergone a change. He was
+coming to regard legislation as an instrument of social construction.
+The individualism of the Kentucky pioneer of 1796 was giving way to the
+Populism of the Kansas pioneer of 1896.</p>
+
+<p>The later days of pioneer democracy are too familiar to require much
+exposition. But they are profoundly significant. As the pioneer doctrine
+of free competition for the resources of the nation revealed its
+tendencies; as individual, corporation and trust, like the pioneer,
+turned increasingly to legal devices to promote their contrasting
+ideals, the natural resources were falling into private possession.
+Tides of alien immigrants were surging into the country to replace the
+old American stock in the labor market, to lower the standard of living
+and to increase the pressure of population upon the land. These recent
+foreigners have lodged almost exclusively in the dozen great centers of
+industrial life, and there they have accented the antagonisms between
+capital and labor by the fact that the labor supply has become
+increasingly foreign born, and recruited from nationalities who arouse
+no <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>[<a href="./images/278.png">278</a>]</span>sympathy on the part of capital and little on the part of the
+general public. Class distinctions are accented by national prejudices,
+and democracy is thereby invaded. But even in the dull brains of great
+masses of these unfortunates from southern and eastern Europe the idea
+of America as the land of freedom and of opportunity to rise, the land
+of pioneer democratic ideals, has found lodgment, and if it is given
+time and is not turned into revolutionary lines it will fructify.</p>
+
+<p>As the American pioneer passed on in advance of this new tide of
+European immigration, he found lands increasingly limited. In place of
+the old lavish opportunity for the settler to set his stakes where he
+would, there were frantic rushes of thousands of eager pioneers across
+the line of newly opened Indian reservations. Even in 1889, when
+Oklahoma was opened to settlement, twenty thousand settlers crowded at
+the boundaries, like straining athletes, waiting the bugle note that
+should start the race across the line. To-day great crowds gather at the
+land lotteries of the government as the remaining fragments of the
+public domain are flung to hungry settlers.</p>
+
+<p>Hundreds of thousands of pioneers from the Middle West have crossed the
+national boundary into Canadian wheat fields eager to find farms for
+their children, although under an alien flag. And finally the government
+has taken to itself great areas of arid land for reclamation by costly
+irrigation projects whereby to furnish twenty-acre tracts in the desert
+to settlers under careful regulation of water rights. The government
+supplies the capital for huge irrigation dams and reservoirs and builds
+them itself. It owns and operates quarries, coal mines and timber to
+facilitate this work. It seeks the remotest regions of the earth for
+crops suitable for these areas. It analyzes the soils and tells the
+farmer what and when and how to plant. It has even considered the rental
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a>[<a href="./images/279.png">279</a>]</span>to manufacturers of the surplus water, electrical and steam power
+generated in its irrigation works and the utilization of this power to
+extract nitrates from the air to replenish worn-out soils. The pioneer
+of the arid regions must be both a capitalist and the prot&eacute;g&eacute; of the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>Consider the contrast between the conditions of the pioneers at the
+beginning and at the end of this period of development. Three hundred
+years ago adventurous Englishmen on the coast of Virginia began the
+attack on the wilderness. Three years ago the President of the United
+States summoned the governors of forty-six states to deliberate upon the
+danger of the exhaustion of the natural resources of the nation.<a name="FNanchor_279:1_277" id="FNanchor_279:1_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_279:1_277" class="fnanchor">[279:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The pressure of population upon the food supply is already felt and we
+are at the beginning only of this transformation. It is profoundly
+significant that at the very time when American democracy is becoming
+conscious that its pioneer basis of free land and sparse population is
+giving way, it is also brought face to face with the startling outcome
+of its old ideals of individualism and exploitation under competition
+uncontrolled by government. Pioneer society itself was not sufficiently
+sophisticated to work out to its logical result the conception of the
+self-made man. But the captains of industry by applying squatter
+doctrines to the evolution of American industrial society, have made the
+process so clear that he who runs may read. Contests imply alliances as
+well as rivalries. The increasing magnitude of the areas to be dealt
+with and the occurrences of times of industrial stress furnished
+occasion for such unions. The panic of 1873 was followed by an
+unprecedented combination of individual businesses and partnerships into
+corporations. The panic of 1893 marked the beginning of an extraordinary
+development of corporate combinations into pools and trusts, agreements
+and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a>[<a href="./images/280.png">280</a>]</span>absorptions, until, by the time of the panic of 1907, it seemed not
+impossible that the outcome of free competition under individualism was
+to be monopoly of the most important natural resources and processes by
+a limited group of men whose vast fortunes were so invested in allied
+and dependent industries that they constituted the dominating force in
+the industrial life of the nation. The development of large scale
+factory production, the benefit of combination in the competitive
+struggle, and the tremendous advantage of concentration in securing
+possession of the unoccupied opportunities, were so great that vast
+accumulations of capital became the normal agency of the industrial
+world. In almost exact ratio to the diminution of the supply of
+unpossessed resources, combinations of capital have increased in
+magnitude and in efficiency of conquest. The solitary backwoodsman
+wielding his ax at the edge of a measureless forest is replaced by
+companies capitalized at millions, operating railroads, sawmills, and
+all the enginery of modern machinery to harvest the remaining
+trees.<a name="FNanchor_280:1_278" id="FNanchor_280:1_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_280:1_278" class="fnanchor">[280:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>A new national development is before us without the former safety valve
+of abundant resources open to him who would take. Classes are becoming
+alarmingly distinct: There is the demand on the one side voiced by Mr.
+Harriman so well and by others since, that nothing must be done to
+interfere with the early pioneer ideals of the exploitation and the
+development of the country's wealth; that restrictive and reforming
+legislation must on no account threaten prosperity even for a moment. In
+fact, we sometimes hear in these days, from men of influence, serious
+doubts of democracy, and intimations that the country would be better
+off if it freely resigned itself to guidance by the geniuses who are
+mastering the economic forces of the nation, and who, it is alleged,
+would work <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>[<a href="./images/281.png">281</a>]</span>out the prosperity of the United States more effectively, if
+unvexed by politicians and people.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, an inharmonious group of reformers are sounding the
+warning that American democratic ideals and society are menaced and
+already invaded by the very conditions that make this apparent
+prosperity; that the economic resources are no longer limitless and
+free; that the aggregate national wealth is increasing at the cost of
+present social justice and moral health, and the future well-being of
+the American people. The Granger and the Populist were prophets of this
+reform movement. Mr. Bryan's Democracy, Mr. Debs' Socialism, and Mr.
+Roosevelt's Republicanism all had in common the emphasis upon the need
+of governmental regulation of industrial tendencies in the interest of
+the common man; the checking of the power of those business Titans who
+emerged successful out of the competitive individualism of pioneer
+America. As land values rise, as meat and bread grow dearer, as the
+process of industrial consolidation goes on, and as Eastern industrial
+conditions spread across the West, the problems of traditional American
+democracy will become increasingly grave.</p>
+
+<p>The time has come when University men may well consider pioneer ideals,
+for American society has reached the end of the first great period in
+its formation. It must survey itself, reflect upon its origins, consider
+what freightage of purposes it carried in its long march across the
+continent, what ambitions it had for the man, what r&ocirc;le it would play in
+the world. How shall we conserve what was best in pioneer ideals? How
+adjust the old conceptions to the changed conditions of modern life?</p>
+
+<p>Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful. But the United
+States has believed that it had an original contribution to make to the
+history of society by the production <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>[<a href="./images/282.png">282</a>]</span>of a self-determining,
+self-restrained, intelligent democracy. It is in the Middle West that
+society has formed on lines least like those of Europe. It is here, if
+anywhere, that American democracy will make its stand against the
+tendency to adjust to a European type.</p>
+
+<p>This consideration gives importance to my final topic, the relation of
+the University to pioneer ideals and to the changing conditions of
+American democracy. President Pritchett of the Carnegie Foundation has
+recently declared that in no other form of popular activity does a
+nation or State so clearly reveal its ideals or the quality of its
+civilization as in its system of education; and he finds, especially in
+the State University, "a conception of education from the standpoint of
+the whole people." "If our American democracy were to-day called to give
+proof of its constructive ability," he says, "the State University and
+the public school system which it crowns would be the strongest evidence
+of its fitness which it could offer."</p>
+
+<p>It may at least be conceded that an essential characteristic of the
+State University is its democracy in the largest sense. The provision in
+the Constitution of Indiana of 1816, so familiar to you all, for a
+"general system of education ascending in regular gradations from
+township schools to a State University, wherein tuition shall be gratis
+and equally open to all," expresses the Middle Western conception born
+in the days of pioneer society and doubtless deeply influenced by
+Jeffersonian democracy.</p>
+
+<p>The most obvious fact about these universities, perhaps, lies in their
+integral relation with the public schools, whereby the pupil has pressed
+upon him the question whether he shall go to college, and whereby the
+road is made open and direct to the highest training. By this means the
+State offers to every class the means of education, and even engages in
+propaganda <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>[<a href="./images/283.png">283</a>]</span>to induce students to continue. It sinks deep shafts through
+the social strata to find the gold of real ability in the underlying
+rock of the masses. It fosters that due degree of individualism which is
+implied in the right of every human being to have opportunity to rise in
+whatever directions his peculiar abilities entitle him to go,
+subordinate to the welfare of the state. It keeps the avenues of
+promotion to the highest offices, the highest honors, open to the
+humblest and most obscure lad who has the natural gifts, at the same
+time that it aids in the improvement of the masses.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing in our educational history is more striking than the steady
+pressure of democracy upon its universities to adapt them to the
+requirements of all the people. From the State Universities of the
+Middle West, shaped under pioneer ideals, have come the fuller
+recognition of scientific studies, and especially those of applied
+science devoted to the conquest of nature; the breaking down of the
+traditional required curriculum; the union of vocational and college
+work in the same institution; the development of agricultural and
+engineering colleges and business courses; the training of lawyers,
+administrators, public men, and journalists&mdash;all under the ideal of
+service to democracy rather than of individual advancement alone. Other
+universities do the same thing; but the head springs and the main
+current of this great stream of tendency come from the land of the
+pioneers, the democratic states of the Middle West. And the people
+themselves, through their boards of trustees and the legislature, are in
+the last resort the court of appeal as to the directions and conditions
+of growth, as well as have the fountain of income from which these
+universities derive their existence.</p>
+
+<p>The State University has thus both a peculiar power in the directness of
+its influence upon the whole people and a peculiar limitation in its
+dependence upon the people. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a>[<a href="./images/284.png">284</a>]</span>ideals of the people constitute the
+atmosphere in which it moves, though it can itself affect this
+atmosphere. Herein is the source of its strength and the direction of
+its difficulties. For to fulfil its mission of uplifting the state to
+continuously higher levels the University must, in the words of Mr.
+Bryce, "serve the time without yielding to it;" it must recognize new
+needs without becoming subordinate to the immediately practical, to the
+short-sightedly expedient. It must not sacrifice the higher efficiency
+for the more obvious but lower efficiency. It must have the wisdom to
+make expenditures for results which pay manifold in the enrichment of
+civilization, but which are not immediate and palpable.</p>
+
+<p>In the transitional condition of American democracy which I have tried
+to indicate, the mission of the university is most important. The times
+call for educated leaders. General experience and rule-of-thumb
+information are inadequate for the solution of the problems of a
+democracy which no longer owns the safety fund of an unlimited quantity
+of untouched resources. Scientific farming must increase the yield of
+the field, scientific forestry must economize the woodlands, scientific
+experiment and construction by chemist, physicist, biologist and
+engineer must be applied to all of nature's forces in our complex modern
+society. The test tube and the microscope are needed rather than ax and
+rifle in this new ideal of conquest. The very discoveries of science in
+such fields as public health and manufacturing processes have made it
+necessary to depend upon the expert, and if the ranks of experts are to
+be recruited broadly from the democratic masses as well as from those of
+larger means, the State Universities must furnish at least as liberal
+opportunities for research and training as the universities based on
+private endowments furnish. It needs no argument to show that it is not
+to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a>[<a href="./images/285.png">285</a>]</span>advantage of democracy to give over the training of the expert
+exclusively to privately endowed institutions.</p>
+
+<p>But quite as much in the field of legislation and of public life in
+general as in the industrial world is the expert needed. The industrial
+conditions which shape society are too complex, problems of labor,
+finance, social reform too difficult to be dealt with intelligently and
+wisely without the leadership of highly educated men familiar with the
+legislation and literature on social questions in other States and
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>By training in science, in law, politics, economics and history the
+universities may supply from the ranks of democracy administrators,
+legislators, judges and experts for commissions who shall
+disinterestedly and intelligently mediate between contending interests.
+When the words "capitalistic classes" and "the proletariate" can be used
+and understood in America it is surely time to develop such men, with
+the ideal of service to the State, who may help to break the force of
+these collisions, to find common grounds between the contestants and to
+possess the respect and confidence of all parties which are genuinely
+loyal to the best American ideals.</p>
+
+<p>The signs of such a development are already plain in the expert
+commissions of some States; in the increasing proportion of university
+men in legislatures; in the university men's influence in federal
+departments and commissions. It is hardly too much to say that the best
+hope of intelligent and principled progress in economic and social
+legislation and administration lies in the increasing influence of
+American universities. By sending out these open-minded experts, by
+furnishing well-fitted legislators, public leaders and teachers, by
+graduating successive armies of enlightened citizens accustomed to deal
+dispassionately with the problems of modern life, able to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a>[<a href="./images/286.png">286</a>]</span>think for
+themselves, governed not by ignorance, by prejudice or by impulse, but
+by knowledge and reason and high-mindedness, the State Universities will
+safeguard democracy. Without such leaders and followers democratic
+reactions may create revolutions, but they will not be able to produce
+industrial and social progress. America's problem is not violently to
+introduce democratic ideals, but to preserve and entrench them by
+courageous adaptation to new conditions. Educated leadership sets
+bulwarks against both the passionate impulses of the mob and the
+sinister designs of those who would subordinate public welfare to
+private greed. Lord Bacon's splendid utterance still rings true: "The
+learning of the few is despotism; the learning of the many is liberty.
+And intelligent and principled liberty is fame, wisdom and power."</p>
+
+<p>There is a danger to the universities in this very opportunity. At first
+pioneer democracy had scant respect for the expert. He believed that "a
+fool can put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for him."
+There is much truth in the belief; and the educated leader, even he who
+has been trained under present university conditions, in direct contact
+with the world about him, will still have to contend with this inherited
+suspicion of the expert. But if he be well trained and worthy of his
+training, if he be endowed with creative imagination and personality, he
+will make good his leadership.</p>
+
+<p>A more serious danger will come when the universities are fully
+recognized as powerful factors in shaping the life of the State&mdash;not
+mere cloisters, remote from its life, but an influential element in its
+life. Then it may easily happen that the smoke of the battle-field of
+political and social controversy will obscure their pure air, that
+efforts will be made to stamp out the exceptional doctrine and the
+exceptional man. Those who investigate and teach within the university
+walls must respond to the injunction of the church, "<i>Sursum
+corda</i>"&mdash;lift <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>[<a href="./images/287.png">287</a>]</span>up the heart to high thinking and impartial search for
+the unsullied truth in the interests of all the people; this is the holy
+grail of the universities.</p>
+
+<p>That they may perform their work they must be left free, as the pioneer
+was free, to explore new regions and to report what they find; for like
+the pioneers they have the ideal of investigation, they seek new
+horizons. They are not tied to past knowledge; they recognize the fact
+that the universe still abounds in mystery, that science and society
+have not crystallized, but are still growing and need their pioneer
+trail-makers. New and beneficent discoveries in nature, new and
+beneficial discoveries in the processes and directions of the growth of
+society, substitutes for the vanishing material basis of pioneer
+democracy may be expected if the university pioneers are left free to
+seek the trail.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the university has a duty in adjusting pioneer ideals to
+the new requirements of American democracy, even more important than
+those which I have named. The early pioneer was an individualist and a
+seeker after the undiscovered; but he did not understand the richness
+and complexity of life as a whole; he did not fully realize his
+opportunities of individualism and discovery. He stood in his somber
+forest as the traveler sometimes stands in a village on the Alps when
+the mist has shrouded everything, and only the squalid hut, the stony
+field, the muddy pathway are in view. But suddenly a wind sweeps the fog
+away. Vast fields of radiant snow and sparkling ice lie before him;
+profound abysses open at his feet; and as he lifts his eyes the
+unimaginable peak of the Matterhorn cleaves the thin air, far, far
+above. A new and unsuspected world is revealed all about him. Thus it is
+the function of the university to reveal to the individual the mystery
+and the glory of life as a whole&mdash;to open all the realms of rational
+human enjoyment and achievement; to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a>[<a href="./images/288.png">288</a>]</span>preserve the consciousness of the
+past; to spread before the eye the beauty of the universe; and to throw
+wide its portals of duty and of power to the human soul. It must honor
+the poet and painter, the writer and the teacher, the scientist and the
+inventor, the musician and the prophet of righteousness&mdash;the men of
+genius in all fields who make life nobler. It must call forth anew, and
+for finer uses, the pioneer's love of creative individualism and provide
+for it a spiritual atmosphere friendly to the development of personality
+in all uplifting ways. It must check the tendency to act in mediocre
+social masses with undue emphasis upon the ideals of prosperity and
+politics. In short, it must summon ability of all kinds to joyous and
+earnest effort for the welfare and the spiritual enrichment of society.
+It must awaken new tastes and ambitions among the people.</p>
+
+<p>The light of these university watch towers should flash from State to
+State until American democracy itself is illuminated with higher and
+broader ideals of what constitutes service to the State and to mankind;
+of what are prizes; of what is worthy of praise and reward. So long as
+success in amassing great wealth for the aggrandizement of the
+individual is the exclusive or the dominant standard of success, so long
+as material prosperity, regardless of the conditions of its cost, or the
+civilization which results, is the shibboleth, American democracy, that
+faith in the common man which the pioneer cherishes, is in danger. For
+the strongest will make their way unerringly to whatever goal society
+sets up as the mark of conceded pre&euml;minence. What more effective agency
+is there for the cultivation of the seed wheat of ideals than the
+university? Where can we find a more promising body of sowers of the
+grain?</p>
+
+<p>The pioneer's clearing must be broadened into a domain where all that is
+worthy of human endeavor may find fertile <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>[<a href="./images/289.png">289</a>]</span>soil on which to grow; and
+America must exact of the constructive business geniuses who owe their
+rise to the freedom of pioneer democracy supreme allegiance and devotion
+to the commonweal. In fostering such an outcome and in tempering the
+asperities of the conflicts that must precede its fulfilment, the nation
+has no more promising agency than the State Universities, no more
+hopeful product than their graduates.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269:1_275" id="Footnote_269:1_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269:1_275"><span class="label">[269:1]</span></a> Commencement Address at the University of Indiana,
+1910.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270:1_276" id="Footnote_270:1_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270:1_276"><span class="label">[270:1]</span></a> [Printed from an earlier version; since published in
+his "Songs from Books," p. 93, under the title, "The Voortrekker." Even
+fuller of insight into the idealistic side of the frontier, is his
+"Explorer," in "Collected Verse," p. 19.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279:1_277" id="Footnote_279:1_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279:1_277"><span class="label">[279:1]</span></a> Written in 1910.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280:1_278" id="Footnote_280:1_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280:1_278"><span class="label">[280:1]</span></a> Omissions from the original are incorporated in later
+chapters.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>[<a href="./images/290.png">290</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>XI</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The West and American Ideals</span><a name="FNanchor_290:1_279" id="FNanchor_290:1_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_290:1_279" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[290:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>True to American traditions that each succeeding generation ought to
+find in the Republic a better home, once in every year the colleges and
+universities summon the nation to lift its eyes from the routine of
+work, in order to take stock of the country's purposes and achievements,
+to examine its past and consider its future.</p>
+
+<p>This attitude of self-examination is hardly characteristic of the people
+as a whole. Particularly it is not characteristic of the historic
+American. He has been an opportunist rather than a dealer in general
+ideas. Destiny set him in a current which bore him swiftly along through
+such a wealth of opportunity that reflection and well-considered
+planning seemed wasted time. He knew not where he was going, but he was
+on his way, cheerful, optimistic, busy and buoyant.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we are reaching a changed condition, less apparent perhaps, in
+the newer regions than in the old, but sufficiently obvious to extend
+the commencement frame of mind from the college to the country as a
+whole. The swift and inevitable current of the upper reaches of the
+nation's history has borne it to the broader expanse and slower
+stretches which mark the nearness of the level sea. The vessel, no
+longer carried along by the rushing waters, finds it necessary to
+determine its own <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a>[<a href="./images/291.png">291</a>]</span>directions on this new ocean of its future, to give
+conscious consideration to its motive power and to its steering gear.</p>
+
+<p>It matters not so much that those who address these college men and
+women upon life, give conflicting answers to the questions of whence and
+whither: the pause for remembrance, for reflection and for aspiration is
+wholesome in itself.</p>
+
+<p>Although the American people are becoming more self-conscious, more
+responsive to the appeal to act by deliberate choices, we should be
+over-sanguine if we believed that even in this new day these
+commencement surveys were taken to heart by the general public, or that
+they were directly and immediately influential upon national thought and
+action.</p>
+
+<p>But even while we check our enthusiasm by this realization of the common
+thought, we must take heart. The University's peculiar privilege and
+distinction lie in the fact that it is not the passive instrument of the
+State to voice its current ideas. Its problem is not that of expressing
+tendencies. Its mission is to create tendencies and to direct them. Its
+problem is that of leadership and of ideals. It is called, of course, to
+justify the support which the public gives it, by working in close and
+sympathetic touch with those it serves. More than that, it would lose
+important element of strength if it failed to recognize the fact that
+improvement and creative movement often come from the masses themselves,
+instinctively moving toward a better order. The University's graduates
+must be fitted to take their places naturally and effectually in the
+common life of the time.</p>
+
+<p>But the University is called especially to justify its existence by
+giving to its sons and daughters something which they could not well
+have gotten through the ordinary experiences of the life outside its
+walls. It is called to serve the time by independent research and by
+original thought. If it were a mere recording instrument of conventional
+opinion and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a>[<a href="./images/292.png">292</a>]</span>average information, it is hard to see why the University
+should exist at all. To clasp hands with the common life in order that
+it may lift that life, to be a radiant center enkindling the society in
+which it has its being, these are primary duties of the University.
+Fortunate the State which gives free play to this spirit of inquiry. Let
+it "grubstake" its intellectual prospectors and send them forth where
+"the trails run out and stop." A famous scientist holds that the
+universal ether bears vital germs which impinging upon a dead world
+would bring life to it. So, at least it is, in the world of thought,
+where energized ideals put in the air and carried here and there by the
+waves and currents of the intellectual atmosphere, fertilize vast inert
+areas.</p>
+
+<p>The University, therefore, has a double duty. On the one hand it must
+aid in the improvement of the general economic and social environment.
+It must help on in the work of scientific discovery and of making such
+conditions of existence, economic, political and social, as will produce
+more fertile and responsive soil for a higher and better life. It must
+stimulate a wider demand on the part of the public for right leadership.
+It must extend its operations more widely among the people and sink
+deeper shafts through social strata to find new supplies of intellectual
+gold in popular levels yet untouched. And on the other hand, it must
+find and fit men and women for leadership. It must both awaken new
+demands and it must satisfy those demands by trained leaders with new
+motives, with new incentives to ambition, with higher and broader
+conception of what constitute the prize in life, of what constitutes
+success. The University has to deal with both the soil and sifted seed
+in the agriculture of the human spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Its efficiency is not the efficiency which the business engineer is
+fitted to appraise. If it is a training ship, it is a training <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a>[<a href="./images/293.png">293</a>]</span>ship
+bound on a voyage of discovery, seeking new horizons. The economy of the
+University's consumption can only be rightly measured by the later times
+which shall possess those new realms of the spirit which its voyage
+shall reveal. If the ships of Columbus had engaged in a profitable
+coastwise traffic between Palos and Cadiz they might have saved sail
+cloth, but their keels would never have grated on the shores of a New
+World.</p>
+
+<p>The appeal of the undiscovered is strong in America. For three centuries
+the fundamental process in its history was the westward movement, the
+discovery and occupation of the vast free spaces of the continent. We
+are the first generation of Americans who can look back upon that era as
+a historic movement now coming to its end. Other generations have been
+so much a part of it that they could hardly comprehend its significance.
+To them it seemed inevitable. The free land and the natural resources
+seemed practically inexhaustible. Nor were they aware of the fact that
+their most fundamental traits, their institutions, even their ideals
+were shaped by this interaction between the wilderness and themselves.</p>
+
+<p>American democracy was born of no theorist's dream; it was not carried
+in the <i>Susan Constant</i> to Virginia, nor in the <i>Mayflower</i> to Plymouth.
+It came out of the American forest, and it gained new strength each time
+it touched a new frontier. Not the constitution, but free land and an
+abundance of natural resources open to a fit people, made the democratic
+type of society in America for three centuries while it occupied its
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>To-day we are looking with a shock upon a changed world. The national
+problem is no longer how to cut and burn away the vast screen of the
+dense and daunting forest; it is how to save and wisely use the
+remaining timber. It is no longer <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a>[<a href="./images/294.png">294</a>]</span>how to get the great spaces of
+fertile prairie land in humid zones out of the hands of the government
+into the hands of the pioneer; these lands have already passed into
+private possession. No longer is it a question of how to avoid or cross
+the Great Plains and the arid desert. It is a question of how to conquer
+those rejected lands by new method of farming and by cultivating new
+crops from seed collected by the government and by scientists from the
+cold, dry steppes of Siberia, the burning sands of Egypt, and the remote
+interior of China. It is a problem of how to bring the precious rills of
+water on to the alkali and sage brush. Population is increasing faster
+than the food supply.</p>
+
+<p>New farm lands no longer increase decade after decade in areas equal to
+those of European states. While the ratio of increase of improved land
+declines, the value of farm lands rise and the price of food leaps
+upward, reversing the old ratio between the two. The cry of scientific
+farming and the conservation of natural resources replaces the cry of
+rapid conquest of the wilderness. We have so far won our national home,
+wrested from it its first rich treasures, and drawn to it the
+unfortunate of other lands, that we are already obliged to compare
+ourselves with settled states of the Old World. In place of our attitude
+of contemptuous indifference to the legislation of such countries as
+Germany and England, even Western States like Wisconsin send commissions
+to study their systems of taxation, workingmen's insurance, old age
+pensions and a great variety of other remedies for social ills.</p>
+
+<p>If we look about the periphery of the nation, everywhere we see the
+indications that our world is changing. On the streets of Northeastern
+cities like New York and Boston, the faces which we meet are to a
+surprising extent those of Southeastern Europe. Puritan New England,
+which turned its capital into factories and mills and drew to its shores
+an army of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a>[<a href="./images/295.png">295</a>]</span>cheap labor, governed these people for a time by a ruling
+class like an upper stratum between which and the lower strata there was
+no assimilation. There was no such evolution into an assimilated
+commonwealth as is seen in Middle Western agricultural States, where
+immigrant and old native stock came in together and built up a
+homogeneous society on the principle of give and take. But now the
+Northeastern coast finds its destiny, politically and economically,
+passing away from the descendants of the Puritans. It is the little
+Jewish boy, the Greek or the Sicilian, who takes the traveler through
+historic streets, now the home of these newer people to the Old North
+Church or to Paul Revere's house, or to Tea Wharf, and tells you in his
+strange patois the story of revolution against oppression.</p>
+
+<p>Along the Southern Atlantic and the Gulf coast, in spite of the
+preservative influence of the negro, whose presence has always called
+out resistance to change on the part of the whites, the forces of social
+and industrial transformation are at work. The old tidewater aristocracy
+has surrendered to the up-country democrats. Along the line of the
+Alleghanies like an advancing column, the forces of Northern capital,
+textile and steel mills, year after year extend their invasion into the
+lower South. New Orleans, once the mistress of the commerce of the
+Mississippi Valley, is awakening to new dreams of world commerce. On the
+southern border, similar invasions of American capital have been
+entering Mexico. At the same time, the opening of the Panama Canal has
+completed the dream of the ages of the Straits of Anian between Atlantic
+and Pacific. Four hundred years ago, Balboa raised the flag of Spain at
+the edge of the Sea of the West and we are now preparing to celebrate
+both that anniversary, and the piercing of the continent. New relations
+have been created between Spanish America and the United States and the
+world <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>[<a href="./images/296.png">296</a>]</span>is watching the mediation of Argentina, Brazil and Chile between
+the contending forces of Mexico and the Union. Once more alien national
+interests lie threatening at our borders, but we no longer appeal to the
+Monroe Doctrine and send our armies of frontiersmen to settle our
+concerns off-hand. We take council with European nations and with the
+sisterhood of South America, and propose a remedy of social
+reorganization in place of imperious will and force. Whether the effort
+will succeed or not, it is a significant indication that an old order is
+passing away, when such a solution is undertaken by a President of
+Scotch Presbyterian stock, born in the State of Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>If we turn to the Northern border, where we are about to celebrate a
+century of peace with England, we see in progress, like a belated
+procession of our own history the spread of pioneers, the opening of new
+wildernesses, the building of new cities, the growth of a new and mighty
+nation. That old American advance of the wheat farmer from the
+Connecticut to the Mohawk, and the Genesee, from the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania to the Ohio Valley and the prairies of the Middle West, is
+now by its own momentum and under the stimulus of Canadian homesteads
+and the high price of wheat, carried across the national border to the
+once lone plains where the Hudson Bay dog trains crossed the desolate
+snows of the wild North Land. In the Pacific Northwest the era of
+construction has not ended, but it is so rapidly in progress that we can
+already see the closing of the age of the pioneer. Already Alaska
+beckons on the north, and pointing to her wealth of natural resources
+asks the nation on what new terms the new age will deal with her. Across
+the Pacific looms Asia, no longer a remote vision and a symbol of the
+unchanging, but borne as by mirage close to our shores and raising grave
+questions of the common destiny of the people <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>[<a href="./images/297.png">297</a>]</span>of the ocean. The dreams
+of Benton and of Seward of a regenerated Orient, when the long march of
+westward civilization should complete its circle, seem almost to be in
+process of realization. The age of the Pacific Ocean begins, mysterious
+and unfathomable in its meaning for our own future.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to view the interior, we see the same picture of change. When
+the Superintendent of the Census in 1890 declared the frontier line no
+longer traceable, the beginning of the rush into Oklahoma had just
+occurred. Here where the broken fragments of Indian nations from the
+East had been gathered and where the wilder tribes of the Southwest were
+being settled, came the rush of the land-hungry pioneer. Almost at a
+blow the old Indian territory passed away, populous cities came into
+being and it was not long before gushing oil wells made a new era of
+sudden wealth. The farm lands of the Middle West taken as free
+homesteads or bought for a mere pittance, have risen so in value that
+the original owners have in an increasing degree either sold them in
+order to reinvest in the newer cheap lands of the West, or have moved
+into the town and have left the tillage to tenant farmers. The growth of
+absentee ownership of the soil is producing a serious problem in the
+former centers of the Granger and the Populist. Along the Old Northwest
+the Great Lakes are becoming a new Mediterranean Sea joining the realms
+of wheat and iron ore, at one end with the coal and furnaces of the
+forks of the Ohio, where the most intense and wide-reaching center of
+industrial energy exists. City life like that of the East, manufactures
+and accumulated capital, seem to be reproducing in the center of the
+Republic the tendencies already so plain on the Atlantic Coast.</p>
+
+<p>Across the Great Plains where buffalo and Indian held sway successive
+industrial waves are passing. The old free range gave place to the
+ranch, the ranch to the homestead and now <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>[<a href="./images/298.png">298</a>]</span>in places in the arid lands
+the homestead is replaced by the ten or twenty acre irrigated fruit
+farm. The age of cheap land, cheap corn and wheat, and cheap cattle has
+gone forever. The federal government has undertaken vast paternal
+enterprises of reclamation of the desert.</p>
+
+<p>In the Rocky Mountains where at the time of Civil War, the first
+important rushes to gold and silver mines carried the frontier backward
+on a march toward the east, the most amazing transformations have
+occurred. Here, where prospectors made new trails, and lived the wild
+free life of mountain men, here where the human spirit seemed likely to
+attain the largest measure of individual freedom, and where fortune
+beckoned to the common man, have come revolutions wrought by the demand
+for organized industry and capital. In the regions where the popular
+tribunal and the free competitive life flourished, we have seen law and
+order break down in the unmitigated collision of great aggregations of
+capital, with each other and with organized socialistic labor. The
+Cripple Creek strikes, the contests at Butte, the Goldfield mobs, the
+recent Colorado fighting, all tell a similar story,&mdash;the solid impact of
+contending forces in regions where civic power and loyalty to the State
+have never fully developed. Like the Grand Ca&ntilde;on, where in dazzling
+light the huge geologic history is written so large that none may fail
+to read it, so in the Rocky Mountains the dangers of modern American
+industrial tendencies have been exposed.</p>
+
+<p>As we crossed the Cascades on our way to Seattle, one of the passengers
+was moved to explain his feeling on the excellence of Puget Sound in
+contrast with the remaining visible Universe. He did it well in spite of
+irreverent interruptions from those fellow travelers who were
+unconverted children of the East, and at last he broke forth in
+passionate challenge, "Why should I not love Seattle! It took me from
+the slums <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a>[<a href="./images/299.png">299</a>]</span>of the Atlantic Coast, a poor Swedish boy with hardly fifteen
+dollars in my pocket. It gave me a home by the beautiful sea; it spread
+before my eyes a vision of snow-capped peaks and smiling fields; it
+brought abundance and a new life to me and my children and I love it, I
+love it! If I were a multi-millionaire I would charter freight cars and
+carry away from the crowded tenements and noisome alleys of the eastern
+cities and the Old World the toiling masses, and let them loose in our
+vast forests and ore-laden mountains to learn what life really is!" And
+my heart was stirred by his words and by the whirling spaces of woods
+and peaks through which we passed.</p>
+
+<p>But as I looked and listened to this passionate outcry, I remembered the
+words of Talleyrand, the exiled Bishop of Autun, in Washington's
+administration. Looking down from an eminence not far from Philadelphia
+upon a wilderness which is now in the heart of that huge industrial
+society where population presses on the means of life, even the
+cold-blooded and cynical Talleyrand, gazing on those unpeopled hills and
+forests, kindled with the vision of coming clearings, the smiling farms
+and grazing herds that were to be, the populous towns that should be
+built, the newer and finer social organization that should there arise.
+And then I remembered the hall in Harvard's museum of social ethics
+through which I pass to my lecture room when I speak on the history of
+the Westward movement. That hall is covered with an exhibit of the work
+in Pittsburgh steel mills, and of the congested tenements. Its charts
+and diagrams tell of the long hours of work, the death rate, the
+relation of typhoid to the slums, the gathering of the poor of all
+Southeastern Europe to make a civilization at that center of American
+industrial energy and vast capital that is a social tragedy. As I enter
+my lecture room through that hall, I speak of the young Washington
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a>[<a href="./images/300.png">300</a>]</span>leading his Virginia frontiersmen to the magnificent forest at the
+forks of the Ohio. Where Braddock and his men, "carving a cross on the
+wilderness rim," were struck by the painted savages in the primeval
+woods, huge furnaces belch forth perpetual fires and Huns and Bulgars,
+Poles and Sicilians struggle for a chance to earn their daily bread, and
+live a brutal and degraded life. Irresistibly there rushed across my
+mind the memorable words of Huxley:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Even the best of modern civilization appears to me to exhibit
+a condition of mankind which neither embodies any worthy ideal
+nor even possesses the merit of stability. I do not hesitate
+to express the opinion that, if there is no hope of a large
+improvement of the condition of the greater part of the human
+family; if it is true that the increase of knowledge, the
+winning of a greater dominion over Nature, which is its
+consequence, and the wealth which follows upon that dominion,
+are to make no difference in the extent and the intensity of
+Want, with its concomitant physical and moral degradation,
+among the masses of the people, I should hail the advent of
+some kindly comet, which would sweep the whole affair away, as
+a desirable consummation."</p></div>
+
+<p>But if there is disillusion and shock and apprehension as we come to
+realize these changes, to strong men and women there is challenge and
+inspiration in them too. In place of old frontiers of wilderness, there
+are new frontiers of unwon fields of science, fruitful for the needs of
+the race; there are frontiers of better social domains yet unexplored.
+Let us hold to our attitude of faith and courage, and creative zeal.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>[<a href="./images/301.png">301</a>]</span>Let us dream as our fathers dreamt and let us make our dreams come
+true.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Daughters of Time, the hypocritic days,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Muffled and dumb like barefoot dervishes,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And marching single in an endless file,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Bear diadems and fagots in their hands.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">To each they offer gifts after his will</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Bread, kingdoms, stars, and sky that hold them all.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">I, in my pleach&eacute;d garden watched the pomp,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Forgot my morning wishes, hastily</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Took a few herbs and apples and the day</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Turned and departed silent. I, too late,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Under her solemn fillet, saw the scorn!"</span><br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>What were America's "morning wishes"? From the beginning of that long
+westward march of the American people America has never been the home of
+mere contented materialism. It has continuously sought new ways and
+dreamed of a perfected social type.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century when men dealt with the New World which
+Columbus found, the ideal of discovery was dominant. Here was placed
+within the reach of men whose ideas had been bounded by the Atlantic,
+new realms to be explored. America became the land of European dreams,
+its Fortunate Islands were made real, where, in the imagination of old
+Europe, peace and happiness, as well as riches and eternal youth, were
+to be found. To Sir Edwin Sandys and his friends of the London Company,
+Virginia offered an opportunity to erect the Republic for which they had
+longed in vain in England. To the Puritans, New England was the new land
+of freedom, wherein they might establish the institutions of God,
+according to their own faith. As the vision died away in Virginia toward
+the close of the seventeenth century, it was taken up anew by the fiery
+Bacon with his revolution to establish a real democracy in place of the
+rule of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>[<a href="./images/302.png">302</a>]</span>planter aristocracy, that formed along the coast. Hardly
+had he been overthrown when in the eighteenth century, the democratic
+ideal was rejuvenated by the strong frontiersmen, who pressed beyond the
+New England Coast into the Berkshires and up the valleys of the Green
+Mountains of Vermont, and by the Scotch-Irish and German pioneers who
+followed the Great Valley from Pennsylvania into the Upland South. In
+both the Yankee frontiersmen and the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of the
+South, the Calvinistic conception of the importance of the individual,
+bound by free covenant to his fellow men and to God, was a compelling
+influence, and all their wilderness experience combined to emphasize the
+ideals of opening new ways, of giving freer play to the individual, and
+of constructing democratic society.</p>
+
+<p>When the backwoodsmen crossed the Alleghanies they put between
+themselves and the Atlantic Coast a barrier which seemed to separate
+them from a region already too much like the Europe they had left, and
+as they followed the courses of the rivers that flowed to the
+Mississippi, they called themselves "Men of the Western Waters," and
+their new home in the Mississippi Valley was the "Western World." Here,
+by the thirties, Jacksonian democracy flourished, strong in the faith of
+the intrinsic excellence of the common man, in his right to make his own
+place in the world, and in his capacity to share in government. But
+while Jacksonian democracy demanded these rights, it was also loyal to
+leadership as the very name implies. It was ready to follow to the
+uttermost the man in whom it placed its trust, whether the hero were
+frontier fighter or president, and it even rebuked and limited its own
+legislative representatives and recalled its senators when they ran
+counter to their chosen executive. Jacksonian democracy was essentially
+rural. It was based on the good fellowship and genuine social feeling of
+the frontier, in which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a>[<a href="./images/303.png">303</a>]</span>classes and inequalities of fortune played
+little part. But it did not demand equality of condition, for there was
+abundance of natural resources and the belief that the self-made man had
+a right to his success in the free competition which western life
+afforded, was as prominent in their thought as was the love of
+democracy. On the other hand, they viewed governmental restraints with
+suspicion as a limitation on their right to work out their own
+individuality.</p>
+
+<p>For the banking institutions and capitalists of the East they had an
+instinctive antipathy. Already they feared that the "money power" as
+Jackson called it, was planning to make hewers of wood and drawers of
+water of the common people.</p>
+
+<p>In this view they found allies among the labor leaders of the East, who
+in the same period began their fight for better conditions of the wage
+earner. These Locofocos were the first Americans to demand fundamental
+social changes for the benefit of the workers in the cities. Like the
+Western pioneers, they protested against monopolies and special
+privilege. But they also had a constructive policy, whereby society was
+to be kept democratic by free gifts of the public land, so that surplus
+labor might not bid against itself, but might find an outlet in the
+West. Thus to both the labor theorist and the practical pioneer, the
+existence of what seemed inexhaustible cheap land and unpossessed
+resources was the condition of democracy. In these years of the thirties
+and forties, Western democracy took on its distinctive form. Travelers
+like De Tocqueville and Harriet Martineau, came to study and to report
+it enthusiastically to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Side by side with this westward marching army of individualistic
+liberty-loving democratic backwoodsmen, went a more northern stream of
+pioneers, who cherished similar ideas, but added to them the desire to
+create new industrial centers, to build up factories, to build
+railroads, and to develop the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>[<a href="./images/304.png">304</a>]</span>country by founding cities and extending
+prosperity. They were ready to call upon legislatures to aid in this, by
+subscriptions to stock, grants of franchises, promotion of banking and
+internal improvements. These were the Whig followers of that other
+Western leader, Henry Clay, and their early strength lay in the Ohio
+Valley, and particularly among the well-to-do. In the South their
+strength was found among the aristocracy of the Cotton Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Both of these Western groups, Whigs and Democrats alike, had one common
+ideal: the desire to leave their children a better heritage than they
+themselves had received, and both were fired with devotion to the ideal
+of creating in this New World a home more worthy of mankind. Both were
+ready to break with the past, to boldly strike out new lines of social
+endeavor, and both believed in American expansion.</p>
+
+<p>Before these tendencies had worked themselves out, three new forces
+entered. In the sudden extension of our boundaries to the Pacific Coast,
+which took place in the forties, the nation won so vast a domain that
+its resources seemed illimitable and its society seemed able to throw
+off all its maladies by the very presence of these vast new spaces. At
+the same period the great activity of railroad building to the
+Mississippi Valley occurred, making these lands available and diverting
+attention to the task of economic construction. The third influence was
+the slavery question which, becoming acute, shaped the American ideals
+and public discussion for nearly a generation. Viewed from one angle,
+this struggle involved the great question of national unity. From
+another it involved the question of the relations of labor and capital,
+democracy and aristocracy. It was not without significance that Abraham
+Lincoln became the very type of American pioneer democracy, the first
+adequate and elemental demonstration to the world <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a>[<a href="./images/305.png">305</a>]</span>that that democracy
+could produce a man who belonged to the ages.</p>
+
+<p>After the war, new national energies were set loose, and new
+construction and development engaged the attention of the Westerners as
+they occupied prairies and Great Plains and mountains. Democracy and
+capitalistic development did not seem antagonistic.</p>
+
+<p>With the passing of the frontier, Western social and political ideals
+took new form. Capital began to consolidate in even greater masses, and
+increasingly attempted to reduce to system and control the processes of
+industrial development. Labor with equal step organized its forces to
+destroy the old competitive system. It is not strange that the Western
+pioneers took alarm for their ideals of democracy as the outcome of the
+free struggle for the national resources became apparent. They espoused
+the cause of governmental activity.</p>
+
+<p>It was a new gospel, for the Western radical became convinced that he
+must sacrifice his ideal of individualism and free competition in order
+to maintain his ideal of democracy. Under this conviction the Populist
+revised the pioneer conception of government. He saw in government no
+longer something outside of him, but the people themselves shaping their
+own affairs. He demanded therefore an extension of the powers of
+governments in the interest of his historic ideal of democratic society.
+He demanded not only free silver, but the ownership of the agencies of
+communication and transportation, the income tax, the postal savings
+bank, the provision of means of credit for agriculture, the construction
+of more effective devices to express the will of the people, primary
+nominations, direct elections, initiative, referendum and recall. In a
+word, capital, labor, and the Western pioneer, all deserted the ideal of
+competitive individualism in order to organize <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>[<a href="./images/306.png">306</a>]</span>their interests in more
+effective combinations. The disappearance of the frontier, the closing
+of the era which was marked by the influence of the West as a form of
+society, brings with it new problems of social adjustment, new demands
+for considering our past ideals and our present needs.</p>
+
+<p>Let us recall the conditions of the foreign relations along our borders,
+the dangers that wait us if we fail to unite in the solution of our
+domestic problems. Let us recall those internal evidences of the
+destruction of our old social order. If we take to heart this warning,
+we shall do well also to recount our historic ideals, to take stock of
+those purposes, and fundamental assumptions that have gone to make the
+American spirit and the meaning of America in world history.</p>
+
+<p>First of all, there was the ideal of discovery, the courageous
+determination to break new paths, indifference to the dogma that because
+an institution or a condition exists, it must remain. All American
+experience has gone to the making of the spirit of innovation; it is in
+the blood and will not be repressed.</p>
+
+<p>Then, there was the ideal of democracy, the ideal of a free
+self-directing people, responsive to leadership in the forming of
+programs and their execution, but insistent that the procedure should be
+that of free choice, not of compulsion.</p>
+
+<p>But there was also the ideal of individualism. This democratic society
+was not a disciplined army, where all must keep step and where the
+collective interests destroyed individual will and work. Rather it was a
+mobile mass of freely circulating atoms, each seeking its own place and
+finding play for its own powers and for its own original initiative. We
+cannot lay too much stress upon this point, for it was at the very heart
+of the whole American movement. The world was to be made a better world
+by the example of a democracy in which there <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a>[<a href="./images/307.png">307</a>]</span>was freedom of the
+individual, in which there was the vitality and mobility productive of
+originality and variety.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing in mind the far-reaching influence of the disappearance of
+unlimited resources open to all men for the taking, and considering the
+recoil of the common man when he saw the outcome of the competitive
+struggle for these resources as the supply came to its end over most of
+the nation, we can understand the reaction against individualism and in
+favor of drastic assertion of the powers of government. Legislation is
+taking the place of the free lands as the means of preserving the ideal
+of democracy. But at the same time it is endangering the other pioneer
+ideal of creative and competitive individualism. Both were essential and
+constituted what was best in America's contribution to history and to
+progress. Both must be preserved if the nation would be true to its
+past, and would fulfil its highest destiny. It would be a grave
+misfortune if these people so rich in experience, in self-confidence and
+aspiration, in creative genius, should turn to some Old World discipline
+of socialism or plutocracy, or despotic rule, whether by class or by
+dictator. Nor shall we be driven to these alternatives. Our ancient
+hopes, our courageous faith, our underlying good humor and love of fair
+play will triumph in the end. There will be give and take in all
+directions. There will be disinterested leadership, under loyalty to the
+best American ideals. Nowhere is this leadership more likely to arise
+than among the men trained in the Universities, aware of the promise of
+the past and the possibilities of the future. The times call for new
+ambitions and new motives.</p>
+
+<p>In a most suggestive essay on the Problems of Modern Democracy, Mr.
+Godkin has said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>M. de Tocqueville and all his followers take it for granted
+that the great incentive to excellence, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>[<a href="./images/308.png">308</a>]</span>in all countries in
+which excellence is found, is the patronage and encouragement
+of an aristocracy; that democracy is generally content with
+mediocrity. But where is the proof of this? The incentive to
+exertion which is widest, most constant, and most powerful in
+its operations in all civilized countries, is the desire of
+distinction; and this may be composed either of love of fame
+or love of wealth or of both. In literary and artistic and
+scientific pursuits, sometimes the strongest influence is
+exerted by a love of the subject. But it may safely be said
+that no man has ever labored in any of the higher colleges to
+whom the applause and appreciation of his fellows was not one
+of the sweetest rewards of his exertions.</p>
+
+<p>What is there we would ask, in the nature of democratic
+institutions, that should render this great spring of action
+powerless, that should deprive glory of all radiance, and put
+ambition to sleep? Is it not notorious, on the contrary, that
+one of the most marked peculiarities of democratic society, or
+of a society drifting toward democracy, is the fire of
+competition which rages in it, the fevered anxiety which
+possesses all its members to rise above the dead level to
+which the law is ever seeking to confine them, and by some
+brilliant stroke become something higher and more remarkable
+than their fellows? The secret of that great restlessness
+which is one of the most disagreeable accompaniments of life
+in democratic countries, is in fact due to the eagerness of
+everybody to grasp the prizes of which in aristocratic
+countries, only the few have much chance. And in no other
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a>[<a href="./images/309.png">309</a>]</span>society is success more worshiped, is distinction of any kind
+more widely flattered and caressed.</p>
+
+<p>In democratic societies, in fact, excellence is the first
+title to distinction; in aristocratic ones there are two or
+three others which are far stronger and which must be stronger
+or aristocracy could not exist. The moment you acknowledge
+that the highest social position ought to be the reward of the
+man who has the most talent, you make aristocratic
+institutions impossible.</p></div>
+
+<p>All that was buoyant and creative in American life would be lost if we
+gave up the respect for distinct personality, and variety in genius, and
+came to the dead level of common standards. To be "socialized into an
+average" and placed "under the tutelage of the mass of us," as a recent
+writer has put it, would be an irreparable loss. Nor is it necessary in
+a democracy, as these words of Godkin well disclose. What is needed is
+the multiplication of motives for ambition and the opening of new lines
+of achievement for the strongest. As we turn from the task of the first
+rough conquest of the continent there lies before us a whole wealth of
+unexploited resources in the realm of the spirit. Arts and letters,
+science and better social creation, loyalty and political service to the
+commonweal,&mdash;these and a thousand other directions of activity are open
+to the men, who formerly under the incentive of attaining distinction by
+amassing extraordinary wealth, saw success only in material display.
+Newer and finer careers will open to the ambitious when once public
+opinion shall award the laurels to those who rise above their fellows in
+these new fields of labor. It has not been the gold, but the getting of
+the gold, that has caught the imaginations of our captains of industry.
+Their real enjoyment lay not in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a>[<a href="./images/310.png">310</a>]</span>luxuries which wealth brought, but
+in the work of construction and in the place which society awarded them.
+A new era will come if schools and universities can only widen the
+intellectual horizon of the people, help to lay the foundations of a
+better industrial life, show them new goals for endeavor, inspire them
+with more varied and higher ideals.</p>
+
+<p>The Western spirit must be invoked for new and nobler achievements. Of
+that matured Western spirit, Tennyson's Ulysses is a symbol.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">".&nbsp;.&nbsp;. I am become a name</span><br />
+<span class="i0">For always roaming with an hungry heart,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Much have I seen and known .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">I am a part of all that I have met;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Yet all experience is an arch, where thro'</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Gleams that untravelled world, whose margin fades</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Forever and forever when I move.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">How dull it is to pause, to make an end<ins class="corr" title="original has period">,</ins></span><br />
+<span class="i0">To rust unburnished, not to shine in use!</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<hr class="poetrytb" />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And this gray spirit yearning in desire</span><br />
+<span class="i0">To follow knowledge like a shining star</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Beyond the utmost hound of human thought.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Come my friends,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">'Tis not too late to seek a newer world.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Push off, and sitting well in order smite</span><br />
+<span class="i0">The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds</span><br />
+<span class="i0">To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Of all the Western stars until I die</span><br />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<hr class="poetrytb" />
+</div></div>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To strive, to seek, to find and not to yield."</span><br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290:1_279" id="Footnote_290:1_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290:1_279"><span class="label">[290:1]</span></a> Commencement Address, University of Washington, June
+17, 1914. Reprinted by permission from <i>The Washington Historical
+Quarterly</i>, October, 1914.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a>[<a href="./images/311.png">311</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>XII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Social Forces in American History</span><a name="FNanchor_311:1_280" id="FNanchor_311:1_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_311:1_280" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[311:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The transformations through which the United States is passing in our
+own day are so profound, so far-reaching, that it is hardly an
+exaggeration to say that we are witnessing the birth of a new nation in
+America. The revolution in the social and economic structure of this
+country during the past two decades is comparable to what occurred when
+independence was declared and the constitution was formed, or to the
+changes wrought by the era which began half a century ago, the era of
+Civil War and Reconstruction.</p>
+
+<p>These changes have been long in preparation and are, in part, the result
+of world-wide forces of reorganization incident to the age of steam
+production and large-scale industry, and, in part, the result of the
+closing of the period of the colonization of the West. They have been
+prophesied, and the course of the movement partly described by students
+of American development; but after all, it is with a shock that the
+people of the United States are coming to realize that the fundamental
+forces which have shaped their society up to the present are
+disappearing. Twenty years ago, as I have before had occasion to point
+out, the Superintendent of the Census declared that the frontier line,
+which its maps had depicted for decade after decade of the westward
+march of the nation, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a>[<a href="./images/312.png">312</a>]</span>could no longer be described. To-day we must add
+that the age of free competition of individuals for the unpossessed
+resources of the nation is nearing its end. It is taking less than a
+generation to write the chapter which began with the disappearance of
+the line of the frontier&mdash;the last chapter in the history of the
+colonization of the United States, the conclusion to the annals of its
+pioneer democracy.</p>
+
+<p>It is a wonderful chapter, this final rush of American energy upon the
+remaining wilderness. Even the bare statistics become eloquent of a new
+era. They no longer derive their significance from the exhibit of vast
+proportions of the public domain transferred to agriculture, of
+wildernesses equal to European nations changed decade after decade into
+the farm area of the United States. It is true there was added to the
+farms of the nation between 1870 and 1880 a territory equal to that of
+France, and between 1880 and 1900 a territory equal to the European area
+of France, Germany, England, and Wales combined. The records of 1910 are
+not yet available, but whatever they reveal they will not be so full of
+meaning as the figures which tell of upleaping wealth and organization
+and concentration of industrial power in the East in the last decade. As
+the final provinces of the Western empire have been subdued to the
+purposes of civilization and have yielded their spoils, as the spheres
+of operation of the great industrial corporations have extended, with
+the extension of American settlement, production and wealth have
+increased beyond all precedent.</p>
+
+<p>The total deposits in all national banks have more than trebled in the
+present decade; the money in circulation has doubled since 1890. The
+flood of gold makes it difficult to gage the full meaning of the
+incredible increase in values, for in the decade ending with 1909 over
+41,600,000 ounces of gold were mined in the United States alone. Over
+four <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a>[<a href="./images/313.png">313</a>]</span>million ounces have been produced every year since 1905, whereas
+between 1880 and 1894 no year showed a production of two million ounces.
+As a result of this swelling stream of gold and instruments of credit,
+aided by a variety of other causes, prices have risen until their height
+has become one of the most marked features and influential factors in
+American life, producing social readjustments and contributing
+effectively to party revolutions.</p>
+
+<p>But if we avoid those statistics which require analysis because of the
+changing standard of value, we still find that the decade occupies an
+exceptional place in American history. More coal was mined in the United
+States in the ten years after 1897 than in all the life of the nation
+before that time.<a name="FNanchor_313:1_281" id="FNanchor_313:1_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_313:1_281" class="fnanchor">[313:1]</a> Fifty years ago we mined less than fifteen
+million long tons of coal. In 1907 we mined nearly 429,000,000. At the
+present rate it is estimated that the supply of coal would be exhausted
+at a date no farther in the future than the formation of the
+constitution is in the past. Iron and coal are the measures of
+industrial power. The nation has produced three times as much iron ore
+in the past two decades as in all its previous history; the production
+of the past ten years was more than double that of the prior decade.
+Pig-iron production is admitted to be an excellent barometer of
+manufacture and of transportation. Never until 1898 had this reached an
+annual total of ten million long tons. But in the five years beginning
+with 1904 it averaged over twice that. By 1907 the United States had
+surpassed Great Britain, Germany, and France combined in the production
+of pig-iron and steel together, and in the same decade a single great
+corporation has established its domination over the iron mines and steel
+manufacture of the United States. It is more than a mere accident that
+the United States Steel Corporation with its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a>[<a href="./images/314.png">314</a>]</span>stocks and bonds
+aggregating $1,400,000,000 was organized at the beginning of the present
+decade. The former wilderness about Lake Superior has, principally in
+the past two decades, established its position as overwhelmingly the
+preponderant source of iron ore, present and prospective, in the United
+States&mdash;a treasury from which Pittsburgh has drawn wealth and extended
+its unparalleled industrial empire in these years. The tremendous
+energies thus liberated at this center of industrial power in the United
+States revolutionized methods of manufacture in general, and in many
+indirect ways profoundly influenced the life of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Railroad statistics also exhibit unprecedented development, the
+formation of a new industrial society. The number of passengers carried
+one mile more than doubled between 1890 and 1908; freight carried one
+mile has nearly trebled in the same period and has doubled in the past
+decade. Agricultural products tell a different story. The corn crop has
+only risen from about two billion bushels in 1891 to two and
+seven-tenths billions in 1909; wheat from six hundred and eleven million
+bushels in 1891 to only seven hundred and thirty-seven million in 1909;
+and cotton from about nine million bales in 1891 to ten and three-tenths
+million bales in 1909. Population has increased in the United States
+proper from about sixty-two and one-half millions in 1890 to
+seventy-five and one-half millions in 1900 and to over ninety millions
+in 1910.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear from these statistics that the ratio of the nation's
+increased production of immediate wealth by the enormously increased
+exploitation of its remaining natural resources vastly exceeds the ratio
+of increase of population and still more strikingly exceeds the ratio of
+increase of agricultural products. Already population is pressing upon
+the food supply while capital consolidates in billion-dollar
+organizations. The "Triumphant Democracy" whose achievements the
+iron-master <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a>[<a href="./images/315.png">315</a>]</span>celebrated has reached a stature even more imposing than he
+could have foreseen; but still less did he perceive the changes in
+democracy itself and the conditions of its life which have accompanied
+this material growth.</p>
+
+<p>Having colonized the Far West, having mastered its internal resources,
+the nation turned at the conclusion of the nineteenth and the beginning
+of the twentieth century to deal with the Far East to engage in the
+world-politics of the Pacific Ocean. Having continued its historic
+expansion into the lands of the old Spanish empire by the successful
+outcome of the recent war, the United States became the mistress of the
+Philippines at the same time that it came into possession of the
+Hawaiian Islands, and the controlling influence in the Gulf of Mexico.
+It provided early in the present decade for connecting its Atlantic and
+Pacific coasts by the Isthmian Canal, and became an imperial republic
+with dependencies and protectorates&mdash;admittedly a new world-power, with
+a potential voice in the problems of Europe, Asia, and Africa.</p>
+
+<p>This extension of power, this undertaking of grave responsibilities in
+new fields, this entry into the sisterhood of world-states, was no
+isolated event. It was, indeed, in some respects the logical outcome of
+the nation's march to the Pacific, the sequence to the era in which it
+was engaged in occupying the free lands and exploiting the resources of
+the West. When it had achieved this position among the nations of the
+earth, the United States found itself confronted, also, with the need of
+constitutional readjustment, arising from the relations of federal
+government and territorial acquisitions. It was obliged to reconsider
+questions of the rights of man and traditional American ideals of
+liberty and democracy, in view of the task of government of other races
+politically inexperienced and undeveloped.</p>
+
+<p>If we turn to consider the effect upon American society and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>[<a href="./images/316.png">316</a>]</span>domestic
+policy in these two decades of transition we are met with palpable
+evidences of the invasion of the old pioneer democratic order. Obvious
+among them is the effect of unprecedented immigration to supply the
+mobile army of cheap labor for the centers of industrial life. In the
+past ten years, beginning with 1900, over eight million immigrants have
+arrived. The newcomers of the eight years since 1900 would, according to
+a writer in 1908, "repopulate all the five older New England States as
+they stand to-day; or, if properly disseminated over the newer parts of
+the country they would serve to populate no less than nineteen states of
+the Union as they stand." In 1907 "there were one and one-quarter
+million arrivals. This number would entirely populate both New Hampshire
+and Maine, two of our oldest States." "The arrivals of this one year
+would found a State with more inhabitants than any one of twenty-one of
+our other existing commonwealths which could be named." Not only has the
+addition to the population from Europe been thus extraordinary, it has
+come in increasing measure from southern and eastern Europe. For the
+year 1907, Professor Ripley,<a name="FNanchor_316:1_282" id="FNanchor_316:1_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_316:1_282" class="fnanchor">[316:1]</a> whom I am quoting, has redistributed
+the incomers on the basis of physical type and finds that one-quarter of
+them were of the Mediterranean race, one-quarter of the Slavic race,
+one-eighth Jewish, and only one-sixth of the Alpine, and one-sixth of
+the Teutonic. In 1882 Germans had come to the amount of 250,000; in 1907
+they were replaced by 330,000 South Italians. Thus it is evident that
+the ethnic elements of the United States have undergone startling
+changes; and instead of spreading over the nation these immigrants have
+concentrated especially in the cities and great industrial centers in
+the past decade. The composition of the labor class and its relation to
+wages and to the native American employer have been deeply influenced
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>[<a href="./images/317.png">317</a>]</span>thereby; the sympathy of the employers with labor has been unfavorably
+affected by the pressure of great numbers of immigrants of alien
+nationality and of lower standards of life.</p>
+
+<p>The familiar facts of the massing of population in the cities and the
+contemporaneous increase of urban power, and of the massing of capital
+and production in fewer and vastly greater industrial units, especially
+attest the revolution. "It is a proposition too plain to require
+elucidation," wrote Richard Rush, Secretary of the Treasury, in his
+report of 1827, "that the creation of capital is retarded rather than
+accelerated by the diffusion of a thin population over a great surface
+of soil."<a name="FNanchor_317:1_283" id="FNanchor_317:1_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_317:1_283" class="fnanchor">[317:1]</a> Thirty years before Rush wrote these words Albert
+Gallatin declared in Congress that "if the cause of the happiness of
+this country were examined into, it would be found to arise as much from
+the great plenty of land in proportion to the inhabitants which their
+citizens enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions."
+Possibly both of these Pennsylvania financiers were right under the
+conditions of the time; but it is at least significant that capital and
+labor entered upon a new era as the end of the free lands approached. A
+contemporary of Gallatin in Congress had replied to the argument that
+cheap lands would depopulate the Atlantic coast by saying that if a law
+were framed to prevent ready access to western lands it would be
+tantamount to saying that there is some class which must remain "and by
+law be obliged to serve the others for such wages as they pleased to
+give." The passage of the arable public domain into private possession
+has raised this question in a new form and has brought forth new
+answers. This is peculiarly the era when competitive individualism in
+the midst of vast unappropriated opportunities <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a>[<a href="./images/318.png">318</a>]</span>changed into the
+monopoly of the fundamental industrial processes by huge aggregations of
+capital as the free lands disappeared. All the tendencies of the
+large-scale production of the twentieth century, all the trend to the
+massing of capital in large combinations, all of the energies of the age
+of steam, found in America exceptional freedom of action and were
+offered regions of activity equal to the states of all Western Europe.
+Here they reached their highest development.</p>
+
+<p>The decade following 1897 is marked by the work of Mr. Harriman and his
+rivals in building up the various railroads into a few great groups, a
+process that had gone so far that before his death Mr. Harriman was
+ambitious to concentrate them all under his single control. High finance
+under the leadership of Mr. Morgan steadily achieved the consolidation
+of the greater industries into trusts or combinations and effected a
+community of interests between them and a few dominant banking
+organizations, with allied insurance companies and trust companies. In
+New York City have been centered, as never before, the banking reserves
+of the nation, and here, by the financial management of capital and
+speculative promotion, there has grown up a unified control over the
+nation's industrial life. Colossal private fortunes have arisen. No
+longer is the per capita wealth of the nation a real index to the
+prosperity of the average man. Labor on the other hand has shown an
+increasing self-consciousness, is combining and increasing its demands.
+In a word, the old pioneer individualism is disappearing, while the
+forces of social combination are manifesting themselves as never before.
+The self-made man has become, in popular speech, the coal baron, the
+steel king, the oil king, the cattle king, the railroad magnate, the
+master of high finance, the monarch of trusts. The world has never
+before seen such huge fortunes exercising combined control over the
+economic life of a people, and such <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>[<a href="./images/319.png">319</a>]</span>luxury as has come out of the
+individualistic pioneer democracy of America in the course of
+competitive evolution.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time the masters of industry, who control interests which
+represent billions of dollars, do not admit that they have broken with
+pioneer ideals. They regard themselves as pioneers under changed
+conditions, carrying on the old work of developing the natural resources
+of the nation, compelled by the constructive fever in their veins, even
+in ill-health and old age and after the accumulation of wealth beyond
+their power to enjoy, to seek new avenues of action and of power, to
+chop new clearings, to find new trails, to expand the horizon of the
+nation's activity, and to extend the scope of their dominion. "This
+country," said the late Mr. Harriman in an interview a few years ago,
+"has been developed by a wonderful people, flush with enthusiasm,
+imagination and speculative bent.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. They have been magnificent
+pioneers. They saw into the future and adapted their work to the
+possibilities.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Stifle that enthusiasm, deaden that imagination and
+prohibit that speculation by restrictive and cramping conservative law,
+and you tend to produce a moribund and conservative people and country."
+This is an appeal to the historic ideals of Americans who viewed the
+republic as the guardian of individual freedom to compete for the
+control of the natural resources of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, we have the voice of the insurgent West, recently
+given utterance in the New Nationalism of ex-President Roosevelt,
+demanding increase of federal authority to curb the special interests,
+the powerful industrial organizations, and the monopolies, for the sake
+of the conservation of our natural resources and the preservation of
+American democracy.</p>
+
+<p>The past decade has witnessed an extraordinary federal activity in
+limiting individual and corporate freedom for the benefit of society. To
+that decade belong the conservation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a>[<a href="./images/320.png">320</a>]</span>congresses and the effective
+organization of the Forest Service, and the Reclamation Service. Taken
+together these developments alone would mark a new era, for over three
+hundred million acres are, as a result of this policy, reserved from
+entry and sale, an area more than equal to that of all the states which
+established the constitution, if we exclude their western claims; and
+these reserved lands are held for a more beneficial use of their
+forests, minerals, arid tracts, and water rights, by the nation as a
+whole. Another example is the extension of the activity of the
+Department of Agriculture, which seeks the remotest regions of the earth
+for crops suitable to the areas reclaimed by the government, maps and
+analyzes the soils, fosters the improvement of seeds and animals, tells
+the farmer when and how and what to plant, and makes war upon diseases
+of plants and animals and insect pests. The recent legislation for pure
+food and meat inspection, and the whole mass of regulative law under the
+Interstate Commerce clause of the constitution, further illustrates the
+same tendency.</p>
+
+<p>Two ideals were fundamental in traditional American thought, ideals that
+developed in the pioneer era. One was that of individual freedom to
+compete unrestrictedly for the resources of a continent&mdash;the squatter
+ideal. To the pioneer government was an evil. The other was the ideal of
+a democracy&mdash;"government of the people, by the people and for the
+people." The operation of these ideals took place contemporaneously with
+the passing into private possession of the free public domain and the
+natural resources of the United States. But American democracy was based
+on an abundance of free lands; these were the very conditions that
+shaped its growth and its fundamental traits. Thus time has revealed
+that these two ideals of pioneer democracy had elements of mutual
+hostility and contained the seeds of its dissolution. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a>[<a href="./images/321.png">321</a>]</span>The present finds
+itself engaged in the task of readjusting its old ideals to new
+conditions and is turning increasingly to government to preserve its
+traditional democracy. It is not surprising that socialism shows
+noteworthy gains as elections continue; that parties are forming on new
+lines; that the demand for primary elections, for popular choice of
+senators, initiative, referendum, and recall, is spreading, and that the
+regions once the center of pioneer democracy exhibit these tendencies in
+the most marked degree. They are efforts to find substitutes for that
+former safeguard of democracy, the disappearing free lands. They are the
+sequence to the extinction of the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary next to notice that in the midst of all this national
+energy, and contemporaneous with the tendency to turn to the national
+government for protection to democracy, there is clear evidence of the
+persistence and the development of sectionalism.<a name="FNanchor_321:1_284" id="FNanchor_321:1_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_321:1_284" class="fnanchor">[321:1]</a> Whether we
+observe the grouping of votes in Congress and in general elections, or
+the organization and utterances of business leaders, or the association
+of scholars, churches, or other representatives of the things of the
+spirit, we find that American life is not only increasing in its
+national intensity but that it is integrating by sections. In part this
+is due to the factor of great spaces which make sectional rather than
+national organization the line of least resistance; but, in part, it is
+also the expression of the separate economic, political, and social
+interests and the separate spiritual life of the various geographic
+provinces or sections. The votes on the tariff, and in general the
+location of the strongholds of the Progressive Republican movement,
+illustrate this fact. The difficulty of a national adjustment of railway
+rates to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>[<a href="./images/322.png">322</a>]</span>diverse interests of different sections is another
+example. Without attempting to enter upon a more extensive discussion of
+sectionalism, I desire simply to point out that there are evidences that
+now, as formerly, the separate geographical interests have their leaders
+and spokesmen, that much Congressional legislation is determined by the
+contests, triumphs, or compromises between the rival sections, and that
+the real federal relations of the United States are shaped by the
+interplay of sectional with national forces rather than by the relation
+of State and Nation. As time goes on and the nation adjusts itself more
+durably to the conditions of the differing geographic sections which
+make it up, they are coming to a new self-consciousness and a revived
+self-assertion. Our national character is a composite of these
+sections.<a name="FNanchor_322:1_285" id="FNanchor_322:1_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_322:1_285" class="fnanchor">[322:1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Obviously in attempting to indicate even a portion of the significant
+features of our recent history we have been obliged to take note of a
+complex of forces. The times are so close at hand that the relations
+between events and tendencies force themselves upon our attention. We
+have had to deal with the connections of geography, industrial growth,
+politics, and government. With these we must take into consideration the
+changing social composition, the inherited beliefs and habitual attitude
+of the masses of the people, the psychology of the nation and of the
+separate sections, as well as of the leaders. We must see how these
+leaders are shaped partly by their time and section, and how they are in
+part original, creative, by virtue of their own genius and initiative.
+We cannot neglect the moral tendencies and the ideals. All are related
+parts of the same subject and can no more be properly understood <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>[<a href="./images/323.png">323</a>]</span>in
+isolation than the movement as a whole can be understood by neglecting
+some of these important factors, or by the use of a single method of
+investigation. Whatever be the truth regarding European history,
+American history is chiefly concerned with social forces, shaping and
+reshaping under the conditions of a nation changing as it adjusts to its
+environment. And this environment progressively reveals new aspects of
+itself, exerts new influences, and calls out new social organs and
+functions.</p>
+
+<p>I have undertaken this rapid survey of recent history for two purposes.
+First, because it has seemed fitting to emphasize the significance of
+American development since the passing of the frontier, and, second,
+because in the observation of present conditions we may find assistance
+in our study of the past.</p>
+
+<p>It is a familiar doctrine that each age studies its history anew and
+with interests determined by the spirit of the time. Each age finds it
+necessary to reconsider at least some portion of the past, from points
+of view furnished by new conditions which reveal the influence and
+significance of forces not adequately known by the historians of the
+previous generation. Unquestionably each investigator and writer is
+influenced by the times in which he lives and while this fact exposes
+the historian to a bias, at the same time it affords him new instruments
+and new insight for dealing with his subject.</p>
+
+<p>If recent history, then, gives new meaning to past events, if it has to
+deal with the rise into a commanding position of forces, the origin and
+growth of which may have been inadequately described or even overlooked
+by historians of the previous generation, it is important to study the
+present and the recent past, not only for themselves but also as the
+source of new hypotheses, new lines of inquiry, new criteria of the
+perspective of the remoter past. And, moreover, a just public <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>[<a href="./images/324.png">324</a>]</span>opinion
+and a statesmanlike treatment of present problems demand that they be
+seen in their historical relations in order that history may hold the
+lamp for conservative reform.</p>
+
+<p>Seen from the vantage-ground of present developments what new light
+falls upon past events! When we consider what the Mississippi Valley has
+come to be in American life, and when we consider what it is yet to be,
+the young Washington, crossing the snows of the wilderness to summon the
+French to evacuate the portals of the great valley, becomes the herald
+of an empire. When we recall the huge industrial power that has centered
+at Pittsburgh, Braddock's advance to the forks of the Ohio takes on new
+meaning. Even in defeat, he opened a road to what is now the center of
+the world's industrial energy. The modifications which England proposed
+in 1794 to John Jay in the northwestern boundary of the United States
+from the Lake of the Woods to the Mississippi, seemed to him, doubtless,
+significant chiefly as a matter of principle and as a question of the
+retention or loss of beaver grounds. The historians hardly notice the
+proposals. But they involved, in fact, the ownership of the richest and
+most extensive deposits of iron ore in America, the all-important source
+of a fundamental industry of the United States, the occasion for the
+rise of some of the most influential forces of our time.</p>
+
+<p>What continuity and meaning are furnished by the outcome in present
+times of the movements of minor political parties and reform agitations!
+To the historian they have often seemed to be mere curious side eddies,
+vexatious distractions to the course of his literary craft as it
+navigated the stream of historical tendency. And yet, by the revelation
+of the present, what seemed to be side eddies have not seldom proven to
+be the concealed entrances to the main current, and the course which
+seemed the central one has led to blind channels and stagnant waters,
+important in their day, but cut off like <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a>[<a href="./images/325.png">325</a>]</span>oxbow lakes from the mighty
+river of historical progress by the mere permanent and compelling forces
+of the neglected currents.</p>
+
+<p>We may trace the contest between the capitalist and the democratic
+pioneer from the earliest colonial days. It is influential in colonial
+parties. It is seen in the vehement protests of Kentucky frontiersmen in
+petition after petition to the Congress of the Confederation against the
+"nabobs" and men of wealth who took out titles to the pioneers' farms
+while they themselves were too busy defending those farms from the
+Indians to perfect their claims. It is seen in the attitude of the Ohio
+Valley in its backwoods days before the rise of the Whig party, as when
+in 1811 Henry Clay denounced the Bank of the United States as a
+corporation which throve on special privileges&mdash;"a special association
+of favored individuals taken from the mass of society, and invested with
+exemptions and surrounded by immunities and privileges." Benton voiced
+the same contest twenty years later when he denounced the bank as</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>a company of private individuals, many of them foreigners, and
+the mass of them residing in a remote and narrow corner of the
+Union, unconnected by any sympathy with the fertile regions of
+the Great Valley in which the natural power of this Union, the
+power of numbers, will be found to reside long before the
+renewed term of the second charter would expire.</p></div>
+
+<p>"And where," he asked, "would all this power and money center? In the
+great cities of the Northeast, which have been for forty years and that
+by force of federal legislation, the lion's den of Southern and Western
+money&mdash;that den into <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>[<a href="./images/326.png">326</a>]</span>which all the tracks point inward; from which the
+returning track of a solitary dollar has never yet been seen."
+Declaring, in words that have a very modern sound, that the bank tended
+to multiply nabobs and paupers, and that "a great moneyed power is
+favorable to great capitalists, for it is the principle of capital to
+favor capital," he appealed to the fact of the country's extent and its
+sectional divergences against the nationalizing of capital.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>What a condition for a confederacy of states! What grounds for
+alarm and terrible apprehension when in a confederacy of such
+vast extent, so many rival commercial cities, so much
+sectional jealousy, such violent political parties, such
+fierce contests for power, there should be but one moneyed
+tribunal before which all the rival and contending elements
+must appear.</p></div>
+
+<p>Even more vehement were the words of Jackson in 1837. "It is now plain,"
+he wrote, "that the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of
+the few against the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the
+honest laborers hewers of wood and drawers of water through the credit
+and paper system."</p>
+
+<p>Van Buren's administration is usually passed hastily over with hardly
+more than mention of his Independent Treasury plan, and with particular
+consideration of the slavery discussion. But some of the most important
+movements in American social and political history began in these years
+of Jackson and Van Buren. Read the demands of the obscure labor papers
+and the reports of labor's open-air meetings anew, and you will find in
+the utterances of so-called labor visionaries and the Locofoco champions
+of "equal rights for all and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a>[<a href="./images/327.png">327</a>]</span>special privileges for none," like Evans
+and Jacques, Byrdsall and Leggett, the finger points to the currents
+that now make the main channel of our history; you will find in them
+some of the important planks of the platforms of the triumphant parties
+of our own day. As Professor Commons has shown by his papers and the
+documents which he has published on labor history, an idealistic but
+widespread and influential humanitarian movement, strikingly similar to
+that of the present, arose in the years between 1830 and 1850, dealing
+with social forces in American life, animated by a desire to apply the
+public lands to social amelioration, eager to find new forms of
+democratic development. But the flood of the slavery struggle swept all
+of these movements into its mighty inundation for the time. After the
+war, other influences delayed the revival of the movement. The railroads
+opened the wide prairies after 1850 and made it easy to reach them; and
+decade after decade new sections were reduced to the purposes of
+civilization and to the advantages of the common man as well as the
+promotion of great individual fortunes. The nation centered its
+interests in the development of the West. It is only in our own day that
+this humanitarian democratic wave has reached the level of those earlier
+years. But in the meantime there are clear evidences of the persistence
+of the forces, even though under strange guise. Read the platforms of
+the Greenback-Labor, the Granger, and the Populist parties, and you will
+find in those platforms, discredited and reprobated by the major parties
+of the time, the basic proposals of the Democratic party after its
+revolution under the leadership of Mr. Bryan, and of the Republican
+party after its revolution by Mr. Roosevelt. The Insurgent movement is
+so clearly related to the areas and elements that gave strength to this
+progressive assertion of old democratic ideals with new weapons, that it
+must be regarded as the organized refusal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a>[<a href="./images/328.png">328</a>]</span>of these persistent
+tendencies to be checked by the advocates of more moderate measures.</p>
+
+<p>I have dealt with these fragments of party history, not, of course, with
+the purpose of expressing any present judgment upon them, but to
+emphasize and give concreteness to the fact that there is disclosed by
+present events a new significance to these contests of radical democracy
+and conservative interests; that they are rather a continuing expression
+of deep-seated forces than fragmentary and sporadic curios for the
+historical museum.</p>
+
+<p>If we should survey the history of our lands from a similar point of
+view, considering the relations of legislation and administration of the
+public domain to the structure of American democracy, it would yield a
+return far beyond that offered by the formal treatment of the subject in
+most of our histories. We should find in the squatter doctrines and
+practices, the seizure of the best soils, the taking of public timber on
+the theory of a right to it by the labor expended on it, fruitful
+material for understanding the atmosphere and ideals under which the
+great corporations developed the West. Men like Senator Benton and
+Delegate Sibley in successive generations defended the trespasses of the
+pioneer and the lumberman upon the public forest lands, and denounced
+the paternal government that "harassed" these men, who were engaged in
+what we should call stealing government timber. It is evident that at
+some time between the middle of the nineteenth century and the present
+time, when we impose jail sentences upon Congressmen caught in such
+violations of the land laws, a change came over the American conscience
+and the civic ideals were modified. That our great industrial
+enterprises developed in the midst of these changing ideals is important
+to recall when we write the history of their activity.</p>
+
+<p>We should find also that we cannot understand the land <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>[<a href="./images/329.png">329</a>]</span>question without
+seeing its relations to the struggle of sections and classes bidding
+against each other and finding in the public domain a most important
+topic of political bargaining. We should find, too, that the settlement
+of unlike geographic areas in the course of the nation's progress
+resulted in changes in the effect of the land laws; that a system
+intended for the humid prairies was ill-adjusted to the grazing lands
+and coal fields and to the forests in the days of large-scale
+exploitation by corporations commanding great capital. Thus changing
+geographic factors as well as the changing character of the forces which
+occupied the public domain must be considered, if we would understand
+the bearing of legislation and policy in this field.<a name="FNanchor_329:1_286" id="FNanchor_329:1_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_329:1_286" class="fnanchor">[329:1]</a> It is
+fortunate that suggestive studies of democracy and the land policy have
+already begun to appear.</p>
+
+<p>The whole subject of American agriculture viewed in relation to the
+economic, political, and social life of the nation has important
+contributions to make. If, for example, we study the maps showing the
+transition of the wheat belt from the East to the West, as the virgin
+soils were conquered and made new bases for destructive competition with
+the older wheat States, we shall see how deeply they affected not only
+land values, railroad building, the movement of population, and the
+supply of cheap food, but also how the regions once devoted to single
+cropping of wheat were forced to turn to varied and intensive
+agriculture and to diversified industry, and we shall see also how these
+transformations affected party politics and even the ideals of the
+Americans of the regions thus changed. We shall find in the
+over-production of wheat in the provinces thus rapidly colonized, and in
+the over-production of silver in the mountain provinces which were
+contemporaneously exploited, important explanations of the peculiar
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>[<a href="./images/330.png">330</a>]</span>form which American politics took in the period when Mr. Bryan mastered
+the Democratic party, just as we shall find in the opening of the new
+gold fields in the years immediately following, and in the passing of
+the era of almost free virgin wheat soils, explanations of the more
+recent period when high prices are giving new energy and aggressiveness
+to the demands of the new American industrial democracy.</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said, it may be assumed, to make clear the point which I
+am trying to elucidate, namely that a comprehension of the United States
+of to-day, an understanding of the rise and progress of the forces which
+have made it what it is, demands that we should rework our history from
+the new points of view afforded by the present. If this is done, it will
+be seen, for example, that the progress of the struggle between North
+and South over slavery and the freed negro, which held the principal
+place in American interest in the two decades after 1850, was, after
+all, only one of the interests in the time. The pages of the
+Congressional debates, the contemporary newspapers, the public documents
+of those twenty years, remain a rich mine for those who will seek
+therein the sources of movements dominant in the present day.</p>
+
+<p>The final consideration to which I ask your attention in this discussion
+of social forces in American life, is with reference to the mode of
+investigating them and the bearing of these investigations upon the
+relations and the goal of history. It has become a precedent, fairly
+well established by the distinguished scholars who have held the office
+which I am about to lay down, to state a position with reference to the
+relations of history and its sister-studies, and even to raise the
+question of the attitude of the historian toward the laws of
+thermodynamics and to seek to find the key of historical development or
+of historical degradation. It is not given to all to bend the bow of
+Ulysses. I shall attempt a lesser task.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a>[<a href="./images/331.png">331</a>]</span></p><p>We may take some lessons from the scientist. He has enriched knowledge
+especially in recent years by attacking the no-man's lands left
+unexplored by the too sharp delimitation of spheres of activity. These
+new conquests have been especially achieved by the combination of old
+sciences. Physical chemistry, electro-chemistry, geo-physics,
+astro-physics, and a variety of other scientic unions have led to
+audacious hypotheses, veritable flashes of vision, which open new
+regions of activity for a generation of investigators. Moreover they
+have promoted such investigations by furnishing new instruments of
+research. Now in some respects there is an analogy between geology and
+history. The new geologist aims to describe the inorganic earth
+dynamically in terms of natural law, using chemistry, physics,
+mathematics, and even botany and zo&ouml;logy so far as they relate to
+paleontology. But he does not insist that the relative importance of
+physical or chemical factors shall be determined before he applies the
+methods and data of these sciences to his problem. Indeed, he has
+learned that a geological area is too complex a thing to be reduced to a
+single explanation. He has abandoned the single hypothesis for the
+multiple hypothesis. He creates a whole family of possible explanations
+of a given problem and thus avoids the warping influence of partiality
+for a simple theory.</p>
+
+<p>Have we not here an illustration of what is possible and necessary for
+the historian? Is it not well, before attempting to decide whether
+history requires an economic interpretation, or a psychological, or any
+other ultimate interpretation, to recognize that the factors in human
+society are varied and complex; that the political historian handling
+his subject in isolation is certain to miss fundamental facts and
+relations in his treatment of a given age or nation; that the economic
+historian is exposed to the same danger; and so of all of the other
+special historians?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a>[<a href="./images/332.png">332</a>]</span></p><p>Those who insist that history is simply the effort to tell the thing
+exactly as it was, to state the facts, are confronted with the
+difficulty that the fact which they would represent is not planted on
+the solid ground of fixed conditions; it is in the midst and is itself a
+part of the changing currents, the complex and interacting influences of
+the time, deriving its significance as a fact from its relations to the
+deeper-seated movements of the age, movements so gradual that often only
+the passing years can reveal the truth about the fact and its right to a
+place on the historian's page.</p>
+
+<p>The economic historian is in danger of making his analysis and his
+statement of a law on the basis of present conditions and then passing
+to history for justificatory appendixes to his conclusions. An American
+economist of high rank has recently expressed his conception of "the
+full relation of economic theory, statistics, and history" in these
+words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A principle is formulated by <i>a priori</i> reasoning concerning
+facts of common experience; it is then tested by statistics
+and promoted to the rank of a known and acknowledged truth;
+illustrations of its action are then found in narrative
+history and, on the other hand, the economic law becomes the
+interpreter of records that would otherwise be confusing and
+comparatively valueless; the law itself derives its final
+confirmation from the illustrations of its working which the
+records afford; but what is at least of equal importance is
+the parallel fact that the law affords the decisive test of
+the correctness of those assertions concerning the causes and
+the effects of past events which it is second nature to make
+and which historians <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>[<a href="./images/333.png">333</a>]</span>almost invariably do make in connection
+with their narrations.<a name="FNanchor_333:1_287" id="FNanchor_333:1_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_333:1_287" class="fnanchor">[333:1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>There is much in this statement by which the historian may profit, but
+he may doubt also whether the past should serve merely as the
+"illustration" by which to confirm the law deduced from common
+experience by <i>a priori</i> reasoning tested by statistics. In fact the
+pathway of history is strewn with the wrecks of the "known and
+acknowledged truths" of economic law, due not only to defective analysis
+and imperfect statistics, but also to the lack of critical historical
+methods, of insufficient historical-mindedness on the part of the
+economist, to failure to give due attention to the relativity and
+transiency of the conditions from which his laws were deduced.</p>
+
+<p>But the point on which I would lay stress is this. The economist, the
+political scientist, the psychologist, the sociologist, the geographer,
+the student of literature, of art, of religion&mdash;all the allied laborers
+in the study of society&mdash;have contributions to make to the equipment of
+the historian. These contributions are partly of material, partly of
+tools, partly of new points of view, new hypotheses, new suggestions of
+relations, causes, and emphasis. Each of these special students is in
+some danger of bias by his particular point of view, by his exposure to
+see simply the thing in which he is primarily interested, and also by
+his effort to deduce the universal laws of his separate science. The
+historian, on the other hand, is exposed to the danger of dealing with
+the complex and interacting social forces of a period or of a country,
+from some single point of view to which his special training or interest
+inclines him. If the truth is to be made known, the historian <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a>[<a href="./images/334.png">334</a>]</span>must so
+far familiarize himself with the work, and equip himself with the
+training of his sister-subjects that he can at least avail himself of
+their results and in some reasonable degree master the essential tools
+of their trade. And the followers of the sister-studies must likewise
+familiarize themselves and their students with the work and the methods
+of the historians, and co&ouml;perate in the difficult task.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary that the American historian shall aim at this equipment,
+not so much that he may possess the key to history or satisfy himself in
+regard to its ultimate laws. At present a different duty is before him.
+He must see in American society with its vast spaces, its sections equal
+to European nations, its geographic influences, its brief period of
+development, its variety of nationalities and races, its extraordinary
+industrial growth under the conditions of freedom, its institutions,
+culture, ideals, social psychology, and even its religions forming and
+changing almost under his eyes, one of the richest fields ever offered
+for the preliminary recognition and study of the forces that operate and
+interplay in the making of society.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311:1_280" id="Footnote_311:1_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311:1_280"><span class="label">[311:1]</span></a> Annual address as the president of the American
+Historical Association, delivered at Indianapolis, December 28, 1910.
+Reprinted by permission from <i>The American Historical Review</i>, January,
+1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313:1_281" id="Footnote_313:1_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313:1_281"><span class="label">[313:1]</span></a> Van Hise, "Conservation of Natural Resources," pp. 23,
+24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316:1_282" id="Footnote_316:1_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316:1_282"><span class="label">[316:1]</span></a> <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, December, 1908, vii, p. 745.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317:1_283" id="Footnote_317:1_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317:1_283"><span class="label">[317:1]</span></a> [Although the words of these early land debates are
+quoted above in Chapter VI, they are repeated because of the light they
+cast upon the present problem.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321:1_284" id="Footnote_321:1_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321:1_284"><span class="label">[321:1]</span></a> [I have outlined this subject in various essays,
+including the article on "Sectionalism" in McLaughlin and Hart,
+"Cyclopedia of Government."]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322:1_285" id="Footnote_322:1_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322:1_285"><span class="label">[322:1]</span></a> [It is not impossible that they may ultimately replace
+the State as the significant administrative and legislative units. There
+are strong evidences of this tendency, such as the organization of the
+Federal Reserve districts, and proposals for railroad administration by
+regions.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329:1_286" id="Footnote_329:1_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329:1_286"><span class="label">[329:1]</span></a> [See R. G. Wellington, "Public Lands, 1820-1840"; G. M.
+Stephenson, "Public Lands, 1841-1862"; J. Ise, "Forest Policy."]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333:1_287" id="Footnote_333:1_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333:1_287"><span class="label">[333:1]</span></a> Professor J. B. Clark, in Commons, ed., "Documentary
+History of American Industrial Society," I. 43-44.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335"></a>[<a href="./images/335.png">335</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>XIII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Middle Western Pioneer Democracy</span><a name="FNanchor_335:1_288" id="FNanchor_335:1_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_335:1_288" class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 70%">[335:1]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>In time of war, when all that this nation has stood for, all the things
+in which it passionately believes, are at stake, we have met to dedicate
+this beautiful home for history.</p>
+
+<p>There is a fitness in the occasion. It is for historic ideals that we
+are fighting. If this nation is one for which we should pour out our
+savings, postpone our differences, go hungry, and even give up life
+itself, it is not because it is a rich, extensive, well-fed and populous
+nation; it is because from its early days America has pressed onward
+toward a goal of its own; that it has followed an ideal, the ideal of a
+democracy developing under conditions unlike those of any other age or
+country.</p>
+
+<p>We are fighting not for an Old World ideal, not for an abstraction, not
+for a philosophical revolution. Broad and generous as are our
+sympathies, widely scattered in origin as are our people, keenly as we
+feel the call of kinship, the thrill of sympathy with the stricken
+nations across the Atlantic, we are fighting for the historic ideals of
+the United States, for the continued existence of the type of society in
+which we believe, because we have proved it good, for the things which
+drew European exiles to our shores, and which inspired the hopes of the
+pioneers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a>[<a href="./images/336.png">336</a>]</span></p><p>We are at war that the history of the United States, rich with the
+record of high human purposes, and of faith in the destiny of the common
+man under freedom, filled with the promises of a better world, may not
+become the lost and tragic story of a futile dream.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, it is an American ideal and an American example for which we fight;
+but in that ideal and example lies medicine for the healing of the
+nations. It is the best we have to give to Europe, and it is a matter of
+vital import that we shall safeguard and preserve our power to serve the
+world, and not be overwhelmed in the flood of imperialistic force that
+wills the death of democracy and would send the freeman under the yoke.
+Essential as are our contributions of wealth, the work of our
+scientists, the toil of our farmers and our workmen in factory and
+shipyard, priceless as is the stream of young American manhood which we
+pour forth to stop the flood which flows like moulten lava across the
+green fields and peaceful hamlets of Europe toward the sea and turns to
+ashes and death all that it covers, these contributions have their
+deeper meaning in the American spirit. They are born of the love of
+Democracy.</p>
+
+<p>Long ago in prophetic words Walt Whitman voiced the meaning of our
+present sacrifices:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Sail, sail thy best, ship of Democracy,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Of value is thy freight, 'tis not the Present only,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">The Past is also stored in thee,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Thou holdest not the venture of thyself alone, not of the Western Continent alone,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Earth's r&eacute;sum&eacute; entire floats on thy keel, O ship, is steadied by thy spars,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">With thee Time voyages in trust, the antecedent nations sink or swim with thee,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">With all their ancient struggles, martyrs, heroes, epics, wars, thou bear'st the other continents,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Theirs, theirs as much as thine, the destination-port triumphant."</span><br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a>[<a href="./images/337.png">337</a>]</span></p><p>Shortly before the Civil War, a great German, exiled from his native
+land for his love of freedom, came from his new home among the pioneers
+of the Middle West to set forth in Faneuil Hall, the "cradle of
+liberty," in Boston, his vision of the young America that was forming in
+the West, "the last depository of the hopes of all true friends of
+humanity." Speaking of the contrast between the migrations to the
+Mississippi Valley and those of the Old World in other centuries, he
+said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is now not a barbarous multitude pouncing upon old and
+decrepit empires, not a violent concussion of tribes
+accompanied by all the horrors of general destruction, but we
+see the vigorous elements&mdash;peaceably congregating and mingling
+together on virgin soil&mdash;; led together by the irresistible
+attraction of free and broad principles; undertaking to
+commence a new era in the history of the world, without first
+destroying the results of the progress of past periods;
+undertaking to found a cosmopolitan nation without marching
+over the dead bodies of slain millions.</p></div>
+
+<p>If Carl Schurz had lived to see the outcome of that Germany from which
+he was sent as an exile, in the days when Prussian bayonets dispersed
+the legislatures and stamped out the beginnings of democratic rule in
+his former country, could he have better pictured the contrasts between
+the Prussian and the American spirit? He went on to say:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Thus was founded the <i>great colony of free humanity</i>, which
+has not old England alone, but the <i>world</i> for its mother
+country. And in the colony <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338"></a>[<a href="./images/338.png">338</a>]</span>of free humanity, whose mother
+country is the world, they established the Republic of equal
+rights where the title of manhood is the title to citizenship.
+My friends, if I had a thousand tongues, and a voice as strong
+as the thunder of heaven, they would not be sufficient to
+impress upon your minds forcibly enough the greatness of this
+idea, the overshadowing glory of this result. This was the
+dream of the truest friends of man from the beginning; for
+this the noblest blood of martyrs has been shed; for this has
+mankind waded through seas of blood and tears. There it is
+now; there it stands, the noble fabric in all the splendor of
+reality.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is in a solemn and inspiring time, therefore, that we meet to
+dedicate this building, and the occasion is fitting to the time. We may
+now see, as never before, the deeper significance, the larger meaning of
+these pioneers, whose plain lives and homely annals are glorified as a
+part of the story of the building of a better system of social justice
+under freedom, a broader, and as we fervently hope, a more enduring
+foundation for the welfare and progress under individual liberty of the
+common man, an example of federation, of peaceful adjustments by
+compromise and concession under a self-governing Republic, where
+sections replace nations over a Union as large as Europe, where party
+discussions take the place of warring countries, where the <i>Pax
+Americana</i> furnishes an example for a better world.</p>
+
+<p>As our forefathers, the pioneers, gathered in their neighborhood to
+raise the log cabin, and sanctified it by the name of home, the dwelling
+place of pioneer ideals, so we meet to celebrate the raising of this
+home, this shrine of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a>[<a href="./images/339.png">339</a>]</span>Minnesota's historic life. It symbolizes the
+conviction that the past and the future of this people are tied
+together; that this Historical Society is the keeper of the records of a
+noteworthy movement in the progress of mankind; that these records are
+not unmeaning and antiquarian, but even in their details are worthy of
+preservation for their revelation of the beginnings of society in the
+midst of a nation caught by the vision of a better future for the world.</p>
+
+<p>Let me repeat the words of Harriet Martineau, who portrayed the American
+of the thirties:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now
+moody, now wild, but bringing out results of absolute good
+sense; restless and wayward in action, but with deep peace at
+his heart; exulting that he has caught the true aspect of
+things past and the depth of futurity which lies before him,
+wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
+scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a
+nation that is capable of being possessed with an idea.</p></div>
+
+<p>And recall her appeal to the American people to "cherish their high
+democratic hope, their faith in man. The older they grow the more they
+must reverence the dreams of their youth."</p>
+
+<p>The dreams of their youth! Here they shall be preserved, and the
+achievements as well as the aspirations of the men who made the State,
+the men who built on their foundations, the men with large vision and
+power of action, the lesser men in the mass, the leaders who served the
+State and nation with devotion to the cause. Here shall be preserved the
+record of the men who failed to see the larger vision and worked
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a>[<a href="./images/340.png">340</a>]</span>impatiently with narrow or selfish or class ends, as well as of those
+who labored with patience and sympathy and mutual concession, with
+readiness to make adjustments and to subordinate their immediate
+interests to the larger good and the immediate safety of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>In the archives of such an old institution as that of the Historical
+Society of Massachusetts, whose treasures run to the beginnings of the
+Puritan colonization, the students cannot fail to find the evidence that
+a State Historical Society is a Book of Judgment wherein is made up the
+record of a people and its leaders. So, as time unfolds, shall be the
+collections of this Society, the depository of the material that shall
+preserve the memory of this people. Each section of this widely extended
+and varied nation has its own peculiar past, its special form of
+society, its traits and its leaders. It were a pity if any section left
+its annals solely to the collectors of a remote region, and it were a
+pity if its collections were not transformed into printed documents and
+monographic studies which can go to the libraries of all the parts of
+the Union and thus enable the student to see the nation as a whole in
+its past as well as in its present.</p>
+
+<p>This Society finds its special field of activity in a great State of the
+Middle West, so new, as history reckons time, that its annals are still
+predominantly those of the pioneers, but so rapidly growing that already
+the era of the pioneers is a part of the history of the past, capable of
+being handled objectively, seen in a perspective that is not possible to
+the observer of the present conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Because of these facts I have taken as the special theme of this address
+the Middle Western Pioneer Democracy, which I would sketch in some of
+its outstanding aspects, and chiefly in the generation before the Civil
+War, for it was from those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a>[<a href="./images/341.png">341</a>]</span>pioneers that the later colonization to the
+newer parts of the Mississippi Valley derived much of their traits, and
+from whom large numbers of them came.</p>
+
+<p>The North Central States as a whole is a region comparable to all of
+Central Europe. Of these States, a large part of the old
+Northwest,&mdash;Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin; and their
+sisters beyond the Mississippi&mdash;Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota&mdash;were
+still, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the home of an
+essentially pioneer society. Within the lifetime of many living men,
+Wisconsin was called the "Far West," and Minnesota was a land of the
+Indian and the fur traders, a wilderness of forest and prairie beyond
+the "edge of cultivation." That portion of this great region which was
+still in the pioneering period of settlement by 1850 was alone about as
+extensive as the old thirteen States, or Germany and Austria-Hungary
+combined. The region was a huge geographic mold for a new society,
+modeled by nature on the scale of the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, the
+upper Mississippi and the Missouri. Simple and majestic in its vast
+outlines it was graven into a variety that in its detail also had a
+largeness of design. From the Great Lakes extended the massive glacial
+sheet which covered that mighty basin and laid down treasures of soil.
+Vast forests of pine shrouded its upper zone, breaking into hardwood and
+the oak openings as they neared the ocean-like expanses of the prairies.
+Forests again along the Ohio Valley, and beyond, to the west, lay the
+levels of the Great Plains. Within the earth were unexploited treasures
+of coal and lead, copper and iron in such form and quantity as were to
+revolutionize the industrial processes of the world. But nature's
+revelations are progressive, and it was rather the marvelous adaptation
+of the soil to the raising of corn and wheat that drew the pioneers to
+this land <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a>[<a href="./images/342.png">342</a>]</span>of promise, and made a new era of colonization. In the unity
+with variety of this pioneer empire and in its broad levels we have a
+promise of its society.</p>
+
+<p>First had come the children of the interior of the South, and with ax
+and rifle in hand had cut their clearings in the forest, raised their
+log cabins, fought the Indians and by 1830 had pushed their way to the
+very edge of the prairies along the Ohio and Missouri Valleys, leaving
+unoccupied most of the Basin of the Great Lakes.</p>
+
+<p>These slashers of the forest, these self-sufficing pioneers, raising the
+corn and live stock for their own need, living scattered and apart, had
+at first small interest in town life or a share in markets. They were
+passionately devoted to the ideal of equality, but it was an ideal which
+assumed that under free conditions in the midst of unlimited resources,
+the homogeneous society of the pioneers <i>must</i> result in equality. What
+they objected to was arbitrary obstacles, artificial limitations upon
+the freedom of each member of this frontier folk to work out his own
+career without fear or favor. What they instinctively opposed was the
+crystallization of differences, the monopolization of opportunity and
+the fixing of that monopoly by government or by social customs. The road
+must be open. The game must be played according to the rules. There must
+be no artificial stifling of equality of opportunity, no closed doors to
+the able, no stopping the free game before it was played to the end.
+More than that, there was an unformulated, perhaps, but very real
+feeling, that mere success in the game, by which the abler men were able
+to achieve pre&euml;minence gave to the successful ones no right to look down
+upon their neighbors, no vested title to assert superiority as a matter
+of pride and to the diminution of the equal right and dignity of the
+less successful.</p>
+
+<p>If this democracy of Southern pioneers, this Jacksonian <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a>[<a href="./images/343.png">343</a>]</span>democracy, was,
+as its socialist critics have called it, in reality a democracy of
+"expectant capitalists," it was not one which expected or acknowledged
+on the part of the successful ones the right to harden their triumphs
+into the rule of a privileged class. In short, if it is indeed true that
+the backwoods democracy was based upon equality of opportunity, it is
+also true that it resented the conception that opportunity under
+competition should result in the hopeless inequality, or rule of class.
+Ever a new clearing must be possible. And because the wilderness seemed
+so unending, the menace to the enjoyment of this ideal seemed rather to
+be feared from government, within or without, than from the operations
+of internal evolution.</p>
+
+<p>From the first, it became evident that these men had means of
+supplementing their individual activity by informal combinations. One of
+the things that impressed all early travelers in the United States was
+the capacity for extra-legal, voluntary association.<a name="FNanchor_343:1_289" id="FNanchor_343:1_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_343:1_289" class="fnanchor">[343:1]</a> This was
+natural enough; in all America we can study the process by which in a
+new land social customs form and crystallize into law. We can even see
+how the personal leader becomes the governmental official. This power of
+the newly arrived pioneers to join together for a common end without the
+intervention of governmental institutions was one of their marked
+characteristics. The log rolling, the house-raising, the husking bee,
+the apple paring, and the squatters' associations whereby they protected
+themselves against the speculators in securing title to their clearings
+on the public domain, the camp meeting, the mining camp, the vigilantes,
+the cattle-raisers' associations, the "gentlemen's agreements," are a
+few of the indications of this attitude. It is well to emphasize this
+American trait, because in a modified <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a>[<a href="./images/344.png">344</a>]</span>way it has come to be one of the
+most characteristic and important features of the United States of
+to-day. America does through informal association and understandings on
+the part of the people many of the things which in the Old World are and
+can be done only by governmental intervention and compulsion. These
+associations were in America not due to immemorial custom of tribe or
+village community. They were extemporized by voluntary action.</p>
+
+<p>The actions of these associations had an authority akin to that of law.
+They were usually not so much evidences of a disrespect for law and
+order as the only means by which real law and order were possible in a
+region where settlement and society had gone in advance of the
+institutions and instrumentalities of organized society.</p>
+
+<p>Because of these elements of individualistic competition and the power
+of spontaneous association, pioneers were responsive to leadership. The
+backwoodsmen knew that under the free opportunities of his life the
+abler man would reveal himself, and show them the way. By free choice
+and not by compulsion, by spontaneous impulse, and not by the domination
+of a caste, they rallied around a cause, they supported an issue. They
+yielded to the principle of government by agreement, and they hated the
+doctrine of autocracy even before it gained a name.</p>
+
+<p>They looked forward to the extension of their American principles to the
+Old World and their keenest apprehensions came from the possibility of
+the extension of the Old World's system of arbitrary rule, its class
+wars and rivalries and interventions to the destruction of the free
+States and democratic institutions which they were building in the
+forests of America.</p>
+
+<p>If we add to these aspects of early backwoods democracy, its spiritual
+qualities, we shall more easily understand them. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a>[<a href="./images/345.png">345</a>]</span>These men were
+emotional. As they wrested their clearing from the woods and from the
+savages who surrounded them, as they expanded that clearing and saw the
+beginnings of commonwealths, where only little communities had been, and
+as they saw these commonwealths touch hands with each other along the
+great course of the Mississippi River, they became enthusiastically
+optimistic and confident of the continued expansion of this democracy.
+They had faith in themselves and their destiny. And that optimistic
+faith was responsible both for their confidence in their own ability to
+rule and for the passion for expansion. They looked to the future.
+"Others appeal to history: an American appeals to prophecy; and with
+Malthus in one hand and a map of the back country in the other, he
+boldly defies us to a comparison with America as she is to be," said a
+London periodical in 1821. Just because, perhaps, of the usual isolation
+of their lives, when they came together in associations whether of the
+camp meeting or of the political gathering, they felt the influence of a
+common emotion and enthusiasm. Whether Scotch-Irish Presbyterian,
+Baptist, or Methodist, these people saturated their religion and their
+politics with feeling. Both the stump and the pulpit were centers of
+energy, electric cells capable of starting widespreading fires. They
+<i>felt</i> both their religion and their democracy, and were ready to fight
+for it.</p>
+
+<p>This democracy was one that involved a real feeling of social
+comradeship among its widespread members. Justice Catron, who came from
+Arkansas to the Supreme Court in the presidency of Jackson, said: "The
+people of New Orleans and St. Louis are next neighbors&mdash;if we desire to
+know a man in any quarter of the union we inquire of our next neighbor,
+who but the other day lived by him." Exaggerated as this is, it
+nevertheless had a surprising measure of truth for the Middle West as
+well. For the Mississippi River was the great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a>[<a href="./images/346.png">346</a>]</span>highway down which groups
+of pioneers like Abraham Lincoln, on their rafts and flat boats, brought
+the little neighborhood surplus. After the steamboat came to the western
+waters the voyages up and down by merchants and by farmers shifting
+their homes, brought people into contact with each other over wide
+areas.</p>
+
+<p>This enlarged neighborhood democracy was determined not by a reluctant
+admission that under the law one man is as good as another; it was based
+upon "good fellowship," sympathy and understanding. They were of a
+stock, moreover, which sought new trails and were ready to follow where
+the trail led, innovators in society as well as finders of new lands.</p>
+
+<p>By 1830 the Southern inundation ebbed and a different tide flowed in
+from the northeast by way of the Erie Canal and steam navigation on the
+Great Lakes to occupy the zone unreached by Southern settlement. This
+new tide spread along the margins of the Great Lakes, found the oak
+openings and small prairie islands of Southern Michigan and Wisconsin;
+followed the fertile forested ribbons along the river courses far into
+the prairie lands; and by the end of the forties began to venture into
+the margin of the open prairie.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 the Middle West contained a little over a million and a half
+people; in 1840, over three and a third millions; in 1850, nearly five
+and a half millions. Although in 1830 the North Atlantic States numbered
+between three and four times as many people as the Middle West, yet in
+those two decades the Middle West made an actual gain of several hundred
+thousand more than did the old section. Counties in the newer states
+rose from a few hundred to ten or fifteen thousand people in the space
+of less than five years. Suddenly, with astonishing rapidity and volume,
+a new people was forming with varied elements, ideals and institutions
+drawn <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a>[<a href="./images/347.png">347</a>]</span>from all over this nation and from Europe. They were confronted
+with the problem of adjusting different stocks, varied customs and
+habits, to their new home.</p>
+
+<p>In comparison with the Ohio Valley, the peculiarity of the occupation of
+the northern zone of the Middle West, lay in the fact that the native
+element was predominantly from the older settlements of the Middle West
+itself and from New York and New England. But it was from the central
+and western counties of New York and from the western and northern parts
+of New England, the rural regions of declining agricultural prosperity,
+that the bulk of this element came.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the influence of the Middle West stretched into the Northeast, and
+attracted a farming population already suffering from western
+competition. The advantage of abundant, fertile, and cheap land, the
+richer agricultural returns, and especially the opportunities for youth
+to rise in all the trades and professions, gave strength to this
+competition. By it New England was profoundly and permanently modified.</p>
+
+<p>This Yankee stock carried with it a habit of community life, in contrast
+with the individualistic democracy of the Southern element. The
+colonizing land companies, the town, the school, the church, the feeling
+of local unity, furnished the evidences of this instinct for
+communities. This instinct was accompanied by the creation of cities,
+the production of a surplus for market, the reaching out to connections
+with the trading centers of the East, the evolution of a more complex
+and at the same time a more integrated industrial society than that of
+the Southern pioneer.</p>
+
+<p>But they did not carry with them the unmodified New England institutions
+and traits. They came at a time and from a people less satisfied with
+the old order than were their neighbors in the East. They were the young
+men with initiative, with discontent; the New York element especially
+was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a>[<a href="./images/348.png">348</a>]</span>affected by the radicalism of Locofoco democracy which was in
+itself a protest against the established order.</p>
+
+<p>The winds of the prairies swept away almost at once a mass of old habits
+and prepossessions. Said one of these pioneers in a letter to friends in
+the East:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If you value ease more than money or prosperity, don't
+come&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Hands are too few for the work, houses for the
+inhabitants, and days for the day's work to be done.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Next
+if you can't stand seeing your old New England ideas, ways of
+doing, and living and in fact, all of the good old Yankee
+fashions knocked out of shape and altered, or thrown by as
+unsuited to the climate, don't be caught out here. But if you
+can bear grief with a smile, can put up with a scale of
+accommodations ranging from the soft side of a plank before
+the fire (and perhaps three in a bed at that) down through the
+middling and inferior grades; if you are never at a loss for
+ways to do the most unpracticable things without tools; if you
+can do all this and some more come on.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. It is a universal
+rule here to help one another, each one keeping an eye single
+to his own business<ins class="corr" title="original has extraneous quotation mark">.</ins></p></div>
+
+<p>They knew that they were leaving many dear associations of the old home,
+giving up many of the comforts of life, sacrificing things which those
+who remained thought too vital to civilization to be left. But they were
+not mere materialists ready to surrender all that life is worth for
+immediate gain. They were idealists themselves, sacrificing the ease of
+the immediate future for the welfare of their children, and convinced of
+the possibility of helping to bring about a better <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349"></a>[<a href="./images/349.png">349</a>]</span>social order and a
+freer life. They were social idealists. But they based their ideals on
+trust in the common man and the readiness to make adjustments, not on
+the rule of a benevolent despot or a controlling class.</p>
+
+<p>The attraction of this new home reached also into the Old World and gave
+a new hope and new impulses to the people of Germany, of England, of
+Ireland, and of Scandinavia. Both economic influences and revolutionary
+discontent promoted German migration at this time; economic causes
+brought the larger volume, but the quest for liberty brought the
+leaders, many of whom were German political exiles. While the latter
+urged, with varying degrees of emphasis, that their own contribution
+should be preserved in their new surroundings, and a few visionaries
+even talked of a German State in the federal system, what was noteworthy
+was the adjustment of the emigrants of the thirties and forties to
+Middle Western conditions; the response to the opportunity to create a
+new type of society in which all gave and all received and no element
+remained isolated. Society was plastic. In the midst of more or less
+antagonism between "bowie knife Southerners," "cow-milking Yankee
+Puritans," "beer-drinking Germans," "wild Irishmen," a process of mutual
+education, a giving and taking, was at work. In the outcome, in spite of
+slowness of assimilation where different groups were compact and
+isolated from the others, and a certain persistence of inherited
+<i>morale</i>, there was the creation of a new type, which was neither the
+sum of all its elements, nor a complete fusion in a melting pot. They
+were American pioneers, not outlying fragments of New England, of
+Germany, or of Norway.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans were most strongly represented in the Missouri Valley, in
+St. Louis, in Illinois opposite that city, and in the Lake Shore
+counties of eastern Wisconsin north from Milwaukee. In Cincinnati and
+Cleveland there were many <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350"></a>[<a href="./images/350.png">350</a>]</span>Germans, while in nearly half the counties of
+Ohio, the German immigrants and the Pennsylvania Germans held nearly or
+quite the balance of political power. The Irish came primarily as
+workers on turnpikes, canals and railroads, and tended to remain along
+such lines, or to gather in the growing cities. The Scandinavians, of
+whom the largest proportion were Norwegians, founded their colonies in
+Northern Illinois, and in Southern Wisconsin about the Fox and the head
+waters of Rock River, whence in later years they spread into Iowa,
+Minnesota and North Dakota.</p>
+
+<p>By 1850 about one-sixth of the people of the Middle West were of North
+Atlantic birth, about one-eighth of Southern birth, and a like fraction
+of foreign birth, of whom the Germans were twice as numerous as the
+Irish, and the Scandinavians only slightly more numerous than the Welsh,
+and fewer than the Scotch. There were only a dozen Scandinavians in
+Minnesota. The natives of the British Islands, together with the natives
+of British North America in the Middle West, numbered nearly as many as
+the natives of German lands. But in 1850 almost three-fifths of the
+population were natives of the Middle West itself, and over a third of
+the population lived in Ohio. The cities were especially a mixture of
+peoples. In the five larger cities of the section natives and foreigners
+were nearly balanced. In Chicago the Irish, Germans and natives of the
+North Atlantic States about equaled each other. But in all the other
+cities, the Germans exceeded the Irish in varying proportions. There
+were nearly three to one in Milwaukee.</p>
+
+<p>It is not merely that the section was growing rapidly and was made up of
+various stocks with many different cultures, sectional and European;
+what is more significant is that these elements did not remain as
+separate strata underneath an established ruling order, as was the case
+particularly in New <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351"></a>[<a href="./images/351.png">351</a>]</span>England. All were accepted and intermingling
+components of a forming society, plastic and absorptive. This
+characteristic of the section as "a good mixer" became fixed before the
+large immigrations of the eighties. The foundations of the section were
+laid firmly in a period when the foreign elements were particularly free
+and eager to contribute to a new society and to receive an impress from
+the country which offered them a liberty denied abroad. Significant as
+is this fact, and influential in the solution of America's present
+problems, it is no more important than the fact that in the decade
+before the Civil War, the Southern element in the Middle West had also
+had nearly two generations of direct association with the Northern, and
+had finally been engulfed in a tide of Northeastern and Old World
+settlers.</p>
+
+<p>In this society of pioneers men learned to drop their old national
+animosities. One of the Immigrant Guides of the fifties urged the
+newcomers to abandon their racial animosities. "The American laughs at
+these steerage quarrels," said the author.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Middle West was teaching the lesson of national
+cross-fertilization instead of national enmities, the possibility of a
+newer and richer civilization, not by preserving unmodified or isolated
+the old component elements, but by breaking down the line-fences, by
+merging the individual life in the common product&mdash;a new product, which
+held the promise of world brotherhood. If the pioneers divided their
+allegiance between various parties, Whig, Democrat, Free Soil or
+Republican, it does not follow that the western Whig was like the
+eastern Whig. There was an infiltration of a western quality into all of
+these. The western Whig supported Harrison more because he was a pioneer
+than because he was a Whig. It saw in him a legitimate successor of
+Andrew Jackson. The campaign of 1840 was a Middle Western camp meeting
+on a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352"></a>[<a href="./images/352.png">352</a>]</span>huge scale. The log cabins, the cider and the coonskins were the
+symbols of the triumph of Middle Western ideas, and were carried with
+misgivings by the merchants, the bankers and the manufacturers of the
+East. In like fashion, the Middle Western wing of the Democratic party
+was as different from the Southern wing wherein lay its strength, as
+Douglas was from Calhoun. It had little in common with the slaveholding
+classes of the South, even while it felt the kinship of the pioneer with
+the people of the Southern upland stock from which so many Westerners
+were descended.</p>
+
+<p>In the later forties and early fifties most of the Middle Western States
+made constitutions. The debates in their conventions and the results
+embodied in the constitutions themselves tell the story of their
+political ideals. Of course, they based the franchise on the principle
+of manhood suffrage. But they also provided for an elective judiciary,
+for restrictions on the borrowing power of the State, lest it fall under
+the control of what they feared as the money power, and several of them
+either provided for the extinguishment of banks of issue, or rigidly
+restrained them. Some of them exempted the homestead from forced sale
+for debt; married women's legal rights were prominent topics in the
+debates of the conventions, and Wisconsin led off by permitting the
+alien to vote after a year's residence. It welcomed the newcomer to the
+freedom and to the obligations of American citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>Although this pioneer society was preponderantly an agricultural society
+it was rapidly learning that agriculture alone was not sufficient for
+its life. It was developing manufactures, trade, mining, the
+professions, and becoming conscious that in a progressive modern state
+it was possible to pass from one industry to another and that all were
+bound by common ties. But it is significant that in the census of 1850,
+Ohio, out of a population of two millions, reported only a thousand
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353"></a>[<a href="./images/353.png">353</a>]</span>servants, Iowa only ten in two hundred thousand and Minnesota fifteen
+in its six thousand.</p>
+
+<p>In the intellectual life of this new democracy there was already the
+promise of original contributions even in the midst of the engrossing
+toil and hard life of the pioneer.</p>
+
+<p>The country editor was a leader of his people, not a patent-insides
+recorder of social functions, but a vigorous and independent thinker and
+writer. The subscribers to the newspaper published in the section were
+higher in proportion to population than in the State of New York and not
+greatly inferior to those of New England, although such eastern papers
+as the <i>New York Tribune</i> had an extensive circulation throughout the
+Middle West. The agricultural press presupposed in its articles and
+contributions a level of general intelligence and interest above that of
+the later farmers of the section, at least <ins class="corr" title="original has before at the">before the</ins> present day.</p>
+
+<p>Farmer boys walked behind the plow with their book in hand and sometimes
+forgot to turn at the end of the furrow; even rare boys, who, like the
+young Howells, "limped barefoot by his father's side with his eyes on
+the cow and his mind on Cervantes and Shakespeare."</p>
+
+<p>Periodicals flourished and faded like the prairie flowers. Some of
+Emerson's best poems first appeared in one of these Ohio Valley
+magazines. But for the most part the literature of the region and the
+period was imitative or reflective of the common things in a not
+uncommon way. It is to its children that the Middle West had to look for
+the expression of its life and its ideals rather than to the busy
+pioneer who was breaking a prairie farm or building up a new community.
+Illiteracy was least among the Yankee pioneers and highest among the
+Southern element. When illiteracy is mapped for 1850 by percentages
+there appears two distinct zones, the one extending from New England,
+the other from the South.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354"></a>[<a href="./images/354.png">354</a>]</span></p><p>The influence of New England men was strong in the Yankee regions of
+the Middle West. Home missionaries, and representatives of societies for
+the promotion of education in the West, both in the common school and
+denominational colleges, scattered themselves throughout the region and
+left a deep impress in all these States. The conception was firmly fixed
+in the thirties and forties that the West was the coming power in the
+Union, that the fate of civilization was in its hands, and therefore
+rival sects and rival sections strove to influence it to their own
+types. But the Middle West shaped all these educational contributions
+according to her own needs and ideals.</p>
+
+<p>The State Universities were for the most part the result of agitation
+and proposals of men of New England origin; but they became
+characteristic products of Middle Western society, where the community
+as a whole, rather than wealthy benefactors, supported these
+institutions. In the end the community determined their directions in
+accord with popular ideals. They reached down more deeply into the ranks
+of the common people than did the New England or Middle State Colleges;
+they laid more emphasis upon the obviously useful, and became
+co&euml;ducational at an early date. This dominance of the community ideals
+had dangers for the Universities, which were called to raise ideals and
+to point new ways, rather than to conform.</p>
+
+<p>Challenging the spaces of the West, struck by the rapidity with which a
+new society was unfolding under their gaze, it is not strange that the
+pioneers dealt in the superlative and saw their destiny with optimistic
+eyes. The meadow lot of the small intervale had become the prairie,
+stretching farther than their gaze could reach.</p>
+
+<p>All was motion and change. A restlessness was universal. Men moved, in
+their single life, from Vermont to New York, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355"></a>[<a href="./images/355.png">355</a>]</span>from New York to Ohio,
+from Ohio to Wisconsin, from Wisconsin to California, and longed for the
+Hawaiian Islands. When the bark started from their fence rails, they
+felt the call to change. They were conscious of the mobility of their
+society and gloried in it. They broke with the Past and thought to
+create something finer, more fitting for humanity, more beneficial for
+the average man than the world had ever seen.</p>
+
+<p>"With the Past we have literally nothing to do," said B. Gratz Brown in
+a Missouri Fourth of July oration in 1850, "save to dream of it. Its
+lessons are lost and its tongue is silent. We are ourselves at the head
+and front of all political experience. Precedents have lost their virtue
+and all their authority is gone.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Experience can profit us only to
+guard from antequated delusions."</p>
+
+<p>"The yoke of opinion," wrote Channing to a Western friend, speaking of
+New England, "is a heavy one, often crushing individuality of judgment
+and action," and he added that the habits, rules, and criticisms under
+which he had grown up had not left him the freedom and courage which are
+needed in the style of address best suited to the Western people.
+Channing no doubt unduly stressed the freedom of the West in this
+respect. The frontier had its own conventions and prejudices, and New
+England was breaking its own cake of custom and proclaiming a new
+liberty at the very time he wrote. But there was truth in the Eastern
+thought of the West, as a land of intellectual toleration, one which
+questioned the old order of things and made innovation its very creed.</p>
+
+<p>The West laid emphasis upon the practical and demanded that ideals
+should be put to work for useful ends; ideals were tested by their
+direct contributions to the betterment of the average man, rather than
+by the production of the man of exceptional genius and distinction.</p>
+
+<p>For, in fine this was the goal of the Middle West, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356"></a>[<a href="./images/356.png">356</a>]</span>welfare of the
+average man; not only the man of the South, or of the East, the Yankee,
+or the Irishman, or the German, but all men in one common fellowship.
+This was the hope of their youth, of that youth when Abraham Lincoln
+rose from rail-splitter to country lawyer, from Illinois legislator to
+congressman and from congressman to President.</p>
+
+<p>It is not strange that in all this flux and freedom and novelty and vast
+spaces, the pioneer did not sufficiently consider the need of
+disciplined devotion to the government which he himself created and
+operated. But the name of Lincoln and the response of the pioneer to the
+duties of the Civil War,&mdash;to the sacrifices and the restraints on
+freedom which it entailed under his presidency, reminds us that they
+knew how to take part in a common cause, even while they knew that war's
+conditions were destructive of many of the things for which they worked.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of governmental discipline: that which proceeds from
+free choice, in the conviction that restraint of individual or class
+interests is necessary for the common good; and that which is imposed by
+a dominant class, upon a subjected and helpless people. The latter is
+Prussian discipline, the discipline of a harsh machine-like, logical
+organization, based on the rule of a military autocracy. It assumes that
+if you do not crush your opponent first, he will crush you. It is the
+discipline of a nation ruled by its General Staff, assuming war as the
+normal condition of peoples, and attempting with remorseless logic to
+extend its operations to the destruction of freedom everywhere. It can
+only be met by the discipline of a people who use their own government
+for worthy ends, who preserve individuality and mobility in society and
+respect the rights of others, who follow the dictates of humanity and
+fair play, the principles of give and take. The Prussian <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357"></a>[<a href="./images/357.png">357</a>]</span>discipline is
+the discipline of Thor, the War God, against the discipline of the White
+Christ.</p>
+
+<p>Pioneer democracy has had to learn lessons by experience: the lesson
+that government on principles of free democracy can accomplish many
+things which the men of the middle of the nineteenth century did not
+realize were even possible. They have had to sacrifice something of
+their passion for individual unrestraint; they have had to learn that
+the specially trained man, the man fitted for his calling by education
+and experience, whether in the field of science or of industry, has a
+place in government; that the rule of the people is effective and
+enduring only as it incorporates the trained specialist into the
+organization of that government, whether as umpire between contending
+interests or as the efficient instrument in the hands of democracy.</p>
+
+<p>Organized democracy after the era of free land has learned that popular
+government to be successful must not only be legitimately the choice of
+the whole people; that the offices of that government must not only be
+open to all, but that in the fierce struggle of nations in the field of
+economic competition and in the field of war, the salvation and
+perpetuity of the republic depend upon recognition of the fact that
+specialization of the organs of the government, the choice of the fit
+and the capable for office, is quite as important as the extension of
+popular control. When we lost our free lands and our isolation from the
+Old World, we lost our immunity from the results of mistakes, of waste,
+of inefficiency, and of inexperience in our government.</p>
+
+<p>But in the present day we are also learning another lesson which was
+better known to the pioneers than to their immediate successors. We are
+learning that the distinction arising from devotion to the interests of
+the commonwealth is a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358"></a>[<a href="./images/358.png">358</a>]</span>higher distinction than mere success in economic
+competition. America is now awarding laurels to the men who sacrifice
+their triumphs in the rivalry of business in order to give their service
+to the cause of a liberty-loving nation, their wealth and their genius
+to the success of her ideals. That craving for distinction which once
+drew men to pile up wealth and exhibit power over the industrial
+processes of the nation, is now finding a new outlet in the craving for
+distinction that comes from service to the Union, in satisfaction in the
+use of great talent for the good of the republic.</p>
+
+<p>And all over the nation, in voluntary organizations for aid to the
+government, is being shown the pioneer principle of association that was
+expressed in the "house raising." It is shown in the Red Cross, the Y.
+M. C. A., the Knights of Columbus, the councils and boards of science,
+commerce, labor, agriculture; and in all the countless other types, from
+the association of women in their kitchen who carry out the
+recommendations of the Food Director and revive the plain living of the
+pioneer, to the Boy Scouts who are laying the foundations for a
+self-disciplined and virile generation worthy to follow the trail of the
+backwoodsmen. It is an inspiring prophecy of the revival of the old
+pioneer conception of the obligations and opportunities of
+neighborliness, broadening to a national and even to an international
+scope. The promise of what that wise and lamented philosopher, Josiah
+Royce called, "the beloved community." In the spirit of the pioneer's
+"house raising" lies the salvation of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>This then is the heritage of pioneer experience,&mdash;a passionate belief
+that a democracy was possible which should leave the individual a part
+to play in free society and not make him a cog in a machine operated
+from above; which trusted in the common man, in his tolerance, his
+ability to adjust differences with good humor, and to work out an
+American <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359"></a>[<a href="./images/359.png">359</a>]</span>type from the contributions of all nations&mdash;a type for which
+he would fight against those who challenged it in arms, and for which in
+time of war he would make sacrifices, even the temporary sacrifice of
+individual freedom and his life, lest that freedom be lost forever.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335:1_288" id="Footnote_335:1_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335:1_288"><span class="label">[335:1]</span></a> An address delivered at the dedication of the building
+of the State Historical Society of Minnesota, May 11, 1918. Printed by
+permission of the Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343:1_289" id="Footnote_343:1_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343:1_289"><span class="label">[343:1]</span></a> See De Tocqueville's interesting appreciation of this
+American phenomenon.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360"></a>[<a href="./images/360.png">360</a>]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361"></a>[<a href="./images/361.png">361</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="index">
+  <li>Absentee proprietors, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Achievement, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>Adams, Henry, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li>Adams, J. Q., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li>Agriculture, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
+      <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>Agriculture, Department of, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>Alamance, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+  <li>Alaska, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>Albany, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>Albany congress of 1754, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li>Algonquin Indians, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>Aliens, land tenure by, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>Alleghany Mountains, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">as barrier to be overcome, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>Allen, Ethan, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>Allen, W. V., <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  <li>American Historical Assoc., <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>American history, social forces, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">survey of recent, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>American life, distinguishing feature, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li>American people, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>American spirit, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>"American System," <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li>Americanization, effective, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>Arid lands, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+  <li>Aristocracy, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  <li>Army posts, frontier, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">prototypes, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>Asia, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>Association, voluntary, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>Astor's American Fur Co., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li>Atlantic coast, as early frontier, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Northern, History, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>Atlantic frontier, composition, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>Atlantic states, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>Augusta, Ga., <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+  <li>Autocracy, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Back country, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">democracy of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+  <li>Backwoods society, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>Backwoodsmen, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>Bacon's Rebellion, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+  <li>Baltimore, trade, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>Bancroft, George, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>Bank, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+  <li>Bedford, Pa., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>Beecher, Lyman, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>Bell, John, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Benton, T. H., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>Berkshires, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>Beverley, Robert, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">manor, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>"Birch seal," <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>Black Hills, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+  <li>Blackmar, F. W., <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+  <li>Blank patents, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>Blood-feud, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+  <li>Blount, William, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>Blue Ridge, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>Boone, A. J., <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>Boone, Daniel, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+  <li>Boston, trade, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>Boutmy, E. G., <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+  <li>Braddock, Edward, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>Brattle, Thomas, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>British and Middle West, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362"></a>[<a href="./images/362.png">362</a>]</span>Brown, B. Gratz, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>Brunswick County, Va., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+  <li>Bryan, W. J., <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_330"><ins class="corr" title="original has 329">330</ins></a></li>
+  <li>Bryce, James, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>Buffalo, N. Y., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>Buffalo herds, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Buffer state, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>Burke, Edmund, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on the Germans, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>Byrd, Col. William, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Calhoun, J. C., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on representation, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">policy of obtaining western trade for the South, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>California, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">gold, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Canada, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">barrier between, and the United States, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">border warfare, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">homesteads, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">wheat fields, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+  <li>Canadians, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li>Canals, deep water, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>Capital, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">concentration and combinations, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305-306</a></li>
+  <li>"Capitalistic classes," <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>Capitalists, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">"expectant," <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>Capitals, state, transfers, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>Captains of industry, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li>Carnegie, Andrew, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>Caroline cow-pens, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>Catron, John, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>Cattle raising in Virginia, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>Census, first, frontier at, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>Census of 1820, frontier, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li>Census of 1890, extinction of frontier, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Center of nation, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>Channing, W. E., <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>Charleston, S. C., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>Chase, S. P., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>Cherry Valley, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">character, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+  <li>Chillicothe, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+  <li>Cincinnati and Charleston R. R., <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>Cities, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316-317</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">northeastern, <a href="#Page_294">294-295</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">seaboard, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">three periods of development, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>Civil War, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Northwest and, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+  <li>Clark, G. R., <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+  <li>Clark, J. B., <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>Class distinctions, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>Clay, Henry, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+  <li>Cleaveland, Gen. Moses, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+  <li>Cleveland, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+  <li>Clinton, De Witt, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>Coal supply, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>Coast, Atlantic, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">destiny, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">interior and, antagonisms, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>Coeducation, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+  <li>Colden, Cadwallader, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>Colonial life, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>Colonial system, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>Colonization, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">English and French contrasted, <a href="#Page_13">13-14</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">peaceful, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>Colony of free humanity, <a href="#Page_337">337-338</a></li>
+  <li>Columbus, Ohio, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>Combinations of capital and of labor, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+  <li>Commencement seasons, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+  <li>Commons, J. R., <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>Community, "beloved community," <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">life, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">type of settlement, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>Competition, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363"></a>[<a href="./images/363.png">363</a>]</span>Compromise, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">slavery, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>Concentration of power and wealth, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+  <li>Concord, Mass., <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Concurrent majority, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>Congregational church, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+  <li>Congress and frontiersmen, <a href="#Page_252">252-253</a></li>
+  <li>Connecticut, frontier towns, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land policy, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>Connecticut River, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>Connecticut Valley, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+  <li>Conquest, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+  <li>Conscience, American, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>Constitution, U. S., <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+  <li>Constitutional convention of 1787, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  <li>Constitutions, state, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">reconstruction, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Co&ouml;peration, voluntary, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+  <li>Corn, areas, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">belt, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>Corporations, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>Cotton culture, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">early extension, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">transfer from the East to Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+  <li>"Cotton Kingdom," <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>Coureurs de bois, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>Cow pens, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>Crockett, Davy, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>Crops, migration, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>Currency, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">evil, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">expansion, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+  <li>Cutler, Manasseh, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Dairy interests in Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+  <li>Dakotas, settlement, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+  <li>Darien, Ga., <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+  <li>Davis, Jefferson, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>De Bow, J. D. B., <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+  <li>De Bow's <i>Review</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+  <li>Debs, E. V., <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>Dedham, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>Deerfield, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>Democracy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">doubts of, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">established in Old West, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">free land and, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier, early, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier and, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><ins class="corr" title="original has Gookin">Godkin</ins> on, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in early 18th century, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Jacksonian, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342-343</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Jeffersonian, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">magnitude of achievement in the West, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">neighborhood, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">new type in West, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley, influence, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley and, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">organized, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">origin, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">outcome of American experiences, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">pressure on the universities, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">significance of Mississippi Valley in promoting, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Upland South, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western contributions, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western ideals, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><i>see also</i> <a href="#pioneer_democracy">Pioneer democracy</a></li>
+  <li>Democratic party, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_330"><ins class="corr" title="original has 329">330</ins></a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">basis, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle Western wing, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+  <li>Democratic-Republican party, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+  <li>Denver, Colo., <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>De Tocqueville. <i>See</i> <a href="#Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li>
+  <li>Detroit, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>Development, American, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">four changes, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">personal, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">significant decade, <a href="#Page_246">246-247</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">study of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">true point of view, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+  <li>D'Iberville. <i>See</i> <a href="#Iberville">Iberville</a></li>
+  <li>Discovery, <a href="#Page_271"><ins class="corr" title="original has 270">271</ins></a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+  <li>Doddridge, Joseph, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>Dogs for hunting Indians, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Douglas, S. A., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Lincoln debates, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li><ins class="corr" title="original has Douglass">Douglas</ins>, William, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>Down east, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364"></a>[<a href="./images/364.png">364</a>]</span>Dracut, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+  <li>Dreams, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>Duel, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+  <li>Duluth, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>Dunkards, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+  <li>Dunstable, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>Duquesne, Abraham, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">fears of pioneer class, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>East, efforts to restrict advance of frontier, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">fears of the West, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">out of touch with West, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>Economic forces and political institutions, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+  <li>Economic historian, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>Economic legislation and Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+  <li>Education, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>Edwards, Jonathan, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>Egleston, Melville, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>Eliot, C. W., on corporation, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on democracy and slavery, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+  <li>Emerson, R. W., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on Lincoln, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+  <li>England, decrease of dependence on, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old Northwest and, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>English pioneers, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+  <li>English settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>English stock and English speech, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>Equality, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western settlers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+  <li>Europe, American democracy and, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">how America reacted on, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Southeastern, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>Europeans, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>Evolution, American, as key to history, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>Expansion, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley and, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">world politics, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>Experts, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>"Fall line," <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">efforts to establish military frontier on, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>Fairfax, Lord, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+  <li>Far East, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>Far West, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>Farm lands, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Farm machinery, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>Farmers, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+  <li>Farmer's frontier, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>Federal colonial system, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>Federal Reserve districts, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+  <li>Fertility, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>Field, Marshall, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>Finance, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">pioneer ideas, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>Fire-arms and Indians, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>Firmin, Giles, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>Food supply, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+  <li>Foreign parentage, Indiana and Illinois, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Michigan, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western States, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_233">233-234</a></li>
+  <li>Foreign policy, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+  <li><ins class="corr" title="original has Foreign">Forest</ins> Service, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>Forest philosophy, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+  <li>"Foresters," <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>Forests, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>Fortified houses, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>Fourierists, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+  <li>France, efforts to revive empire in America, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">western exploration, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li>Franchise, <a href="#Page_249">249-250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+  <li>Franklin, Benjamin, Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+      <li class="listsubitem">on the Germans, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>Free Soil party, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365"></a>[<a href="./images/365.png">365</a>]</span>French explorers, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>French frontier, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>French settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>Frontier, conservative attitude toward advance, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">definition, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">demand for independent statehood, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">efforts to check and restrict it, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">evil effects, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">extinction, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">farmers, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">first official, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">French, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">importance as a military training school, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">influence toward democracy, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">kinds and modes of advance, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">military, of Old West, <a href="#Page_106">106-107</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">religious aspects, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Spanish, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">towns in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">various comparisons, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Frontiersmen, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in Congress, <a href="#Page_252">252-253</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia idea, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>Fulton, Robert, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+  <li>Fur trade, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">England after Revolution, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Hudson River, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Southern, Old West, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Gallatin, Albert, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+  <li>Galveston, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>Garfield, J. A., <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  <li>Geographic factors, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>Geographic provinces, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>Georgia, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">restriction of land tenure, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  <li>Germanic germs, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>Germans, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in New York in early times, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_137">137-138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Palatine, <ins class="corr" title="original also lists page 32"><a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></ins>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">political exiles, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">sectaries, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">zone of settlement in Great Valley, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>Glarus, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+  <li>Glenn, James, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>Godkin, E. L., <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>Goochland County, Va., <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>Government, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">paternal, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">popular, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>Government discipline, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>Government expeditions, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>Government intervention, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>Government ownership, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>Government powers, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>Government regulation, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>Granger movement, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>Grant, U. S., <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>Granville, Lord, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+  <li>Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Great Plains, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Indian trade and war, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Great Valley, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">colonization, <a href="#Page_100">100-101</a></li>
+  <li>Greater South, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>Greeley, Horace, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>Green Mountain Boys, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>Greenback movement, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>Greenway manor, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>Groseilliers, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Groton, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>Grund, F. J., <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>Grundy, Felix, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Gulf coast, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>Gulf States, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">occupation, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Hammond, J. H., on slavery problem in the Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>Hanna, Marcus, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>Harriman, E. H., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>Harrison, W. H., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  <li>Hart, A. B., <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+  <li>Hartford, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366"></a>[<a href="./images/366.png">366</a>]</span>Haverhill, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+  <li>Hayes, R. B., <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  <li>Henry, Patrick, <a href="#Page_94"><ins class="corr" title="original has 95">94</ins></a></li>
+  <li>Heroes, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li>High thinking, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  <li>Higher law, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+  <li>Hill, J. J., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li>Historian, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>Historic ideals, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  <li>Historical societies, <a href="#Page_159">159-160</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>History, character, <a href="#Page_331">331-332</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">new viewpoints, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+  <li>Holland, J. G., <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+  <li>Holst, H. E. von, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>Home markets, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>Home missions, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+  <li>Homestead law of 1862, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>Hoosier State, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+  <li>Housatonic River, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>Housatonic Valley, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>Houston, Sam, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>Howells, W. D., <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+  <li>Hudson River, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">fur trade, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>Humanitarian movement, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>Huxley, T. H., on modern civilization, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li><a name="Iberville" id="Iberville"></a>Iberville, P. le M. d', <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Icarians, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+  <li>Idealists, America the goal, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">social, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>Ideals, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">American, and the West, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">American, loyalty to, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">American historic, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">immigrants, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">pioneer, and the State university, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">readjustment, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western democracy and, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+  <li>Illinois, composite nationality, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">elements of settlement, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>Illiteracy in Middle West, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+  <li>Immigrants, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">idealism, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+  <li>Immigration, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>Indian guides, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>Indian policy, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Indian question, early, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>Indian reservations, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+  <li>Indian trade, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Indian wars, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England and, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley and, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>Indiana, character, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">constitution, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">elements in settlement, <a href="#Page_223">223-224</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>Indianapolis, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>Indians, buffer state for England, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">congresses to treat with, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">effects of trades on, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">hunting Indians with dogs, <a href="#Page_45"><ins class="corr" title="original has 95">45</ins></a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">influence on Puritans and New England, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">society, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>Individualism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in the Old West, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">reaction against, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Upland South, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>Industrial conditions, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley and, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+  <li>Industry, captains of, and large undertakings, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">control, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>Inland waterways, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>Insurgent movement, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>Intellectual life and the frontier, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  <li>Intercolonial congresses, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li>Interior and coast, antagonisms, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>Internal commerce, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+  <li>Internal improvements, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367"></a>[<a href="./images/367.png">367</a>]</span>after 1812 to break down barrier to West, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old West, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>Internal trade, Old West, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>Iowa, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">elements and growth, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>Ipswich, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>Irish, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>Iron mines in Middle West, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>Iron ore, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>Iroquois Indians, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>Irrigation, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  <li>Isms, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+  <li>Izard, Ralph, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Jackson, Andrew, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">personification of frontier traits, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>Jackson, Stonewall, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>Jacksonian democracy, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342-343</a></li>
+  <li>James River, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>Jefferson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">conception of democracy, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on England and the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on the pioneer in Congress, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on the importance of the Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+  <li>"Jim River" Valley, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+  <li>Johnson, R. M., <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Johnson, Sir William, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>Justice, direct forms in the West, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+   <li>&nbsp;</li>
+ <li>Kansas, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Populists, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlers, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+  <li>Kansas City, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>Kentucky, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">slavery, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>King Philip's War <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>Kipling, Rudyard, "<ins class="corr" title="original has Toreloper">Foreloper</ins>," <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">"Son of the English," <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Labor, combinations, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">composition of laboring class, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>Labor theorists, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>Lamar, L. Q. C. (1825-1893), <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>Lancaster, Mass., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+  <li>Land, <a href="#Page_328">328-329</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">abundance, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">abundance, as basis of democracy, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">alien tenure, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">free, exhausted, <a href="#Page_244">244-245</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">free Western, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">fundamental fact in Western society, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">"mongering," <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><i>see also</i> <a href="#public_lands">Public lands</a></li>
+  <li>Land companies, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>Land grants, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">for schools and colleges, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">to railroads, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>Land Ordinance of 1785, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>Land policies, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Land system, "equality" principle in New England, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Georgia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">later federal, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England conflicts, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New York State, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">North Carolina, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old West, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia grants to societies, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  <li>La Salle, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Laurentide glacier, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>Law and order, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>Leadership, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">educated, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>Lease, Mary Ellen, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+  <li>Legislation, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier and, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+  <li>Leicester, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>Leigh, B. W., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>Lewis and Clark, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>Liberty, Bacon on, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">for universities, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">individual, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>Life as a whole, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  <li>Lincoln, Abraham, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Douglas debates, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368"></a>[<a href="./images/368.png">368</a>]</span>embodiment of pioneer period, <a href="#Page_255">255-256</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley, influence of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+  <li>Lincoln, C. H., <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+  <li>Litchfield, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>Livingston manor, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>Locofocos, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+  <li>Log cabin, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>"Log cabin campaign," <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+  <li>London Company, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+  <li>Loria, Achille, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>Louisiana, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>Louisiana Purchase, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">effect on Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_189">189-190</a></li>
+  <li>Louisville, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>Lowell, J. R., on Lincoln, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  <li>Loyal Land Co., <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>Lumber industry, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_234">234-235</a></li>
+  <li>Lumbermen, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+  <li>Lynch law, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>McKinley, William, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  <li>Magnitude, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>Maine, <a href="#Page_52">52-53</a></li>
+  <li>Maine coast, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>Mallet brothers, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Manila, battle of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+  <li>Manorial practice in New York, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  <li>Marietta, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133"><ins class="corr" title="original has 132">133</ins></a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+  <li>"Mark colonies," <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>Marquette, Jacques, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Martineau, Harriet, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>Massachusetts, attempt to locate frontier line, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier towns, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">locating towns before settlement, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>Mather, Cotton, attitude as to advancing frontier, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>Mesabi mines, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>Mendon, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>Methodists, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+  <li>Mexico, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>Michigan, <a href="#Page_135">135-136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">development and resources, <a href="#Page_233"><ins class="corr" title="original has 232">233</ins></a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+  <li>Middle region, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in formation of the Old West, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">typical American, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>Middle West, agriculture, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Canada and, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Civil War and, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">early society, <a href="#Page_153">153-154</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">education, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">elements of settlement&mdash;Northern and Southern, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Europe and, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">flow of population into, <a href="#Page_132">132-133</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">forests, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Germans and, <a href="#Page_137">137-138</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Germans and Scandinavians, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">idealism, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">immigrants of varied nationalities, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">importance, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">increase of settlement in the fifties, <a href="#Page_142">142-143</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">industrial organism, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">meaning of term, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">nationalism, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">natural resources, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England element, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">peculiarity and influence, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">pioneer democracy, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">slavery question and, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">southern zone, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>Migration, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">communal vs. individual, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">crops, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">interstate, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">labor, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England, and land policy, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>Militant expansive movement, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>Military frontier, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">early form, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old West, significance, <a href="#Page_106">106-107</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia in later 17th century, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>Milwaukee, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>Miner's frontier, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>Mining camps, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>Mining laws, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Minneapolis, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>Minnesota, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369"></a>[<a href="./images/369.png">369</a>]</span>economic development, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Historical Society, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338-339</a></li>
+  <li>Missions to the Indians, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>Mississippi Company, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166-167</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">beginning of stratification, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Civil War and, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">democracy and, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">early population, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">economic progress after 1812, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">England's efforts to control, <a href="#Page_180">180-181</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">extent, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">French explorers in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontiersmen's allegiance, <a href="#Page_186">186-187</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">idealism, social order, <a href="#Page_203">203-204</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">industrial growth after the Civil War, <a href="#Page_201">201-202</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">political power and growth from 1810 to 1840, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">primitive history, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">question of severance from the Union, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">significance in American history, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">slavery struggle and, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">social forces, early, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+  <li>Missouri, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Missouri Compromise, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>Missouri Valley, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>Mohawk Valley, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>Monroe, James, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>Monroe Doctrine, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">germ, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>Monticello, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>Moravians, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>Morgan, J. P., <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>Mormons, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+  <li>Morris, Gouverneur, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Nashaway, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>National problem, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>Nationalism, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">evils of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>Nationalities, mixture, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">replacement in Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>Naturalization, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>Nebraska, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlers, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+  <li>Negro, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>New England, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">back lands, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">coast vs. interior, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">colonies from, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">culmination of frontier movement, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">early official frontier line, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">economic life, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">effect on the West, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">foreign element, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier protection, <a href="#Page_46">46-47</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier types, <a href="#Page_43">43-44</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Greater New England, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">ideas, and Middle West, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Indian wars, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land system, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio settlement and, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old West and, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old West and interior New England, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">pioneer type, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">streams of settlement from, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">two New Englands of the formative period of the Old West, <a href="#Page_78">78-79</a></li>
+  <li>New Englanders in the Middle West, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in Wisconsin and the lake region, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">three movements of advance from the coast, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Westernized, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>New Glarus, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+  <li>New Hampshire, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+  <li>New Hampshire grants, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>New Northwest, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>New Orleans, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>New South, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old West and, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+  <li>New West, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+  <li>New York City, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>New York State, early frontier, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">lack of expansive power, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land system, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement from New England, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">western, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li>Newspapers of the Middle West, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+  <li>Nitrates, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  <li>Norfolk, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370"></a>[<a href="./images/370.png">370</a>]</span>North Carolina, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">coast vs. upland, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in Indiana Settlement, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">public lands, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">slavery, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">taxation, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+  <li>North Central States, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">region as a whole, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>North Dakota, development, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+  <li>Northampton, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>Northfield, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>Northwest, democracy, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old and New, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><i>see also</i> <a href="#old_nw">Old Northwest</a></li>
+  <li>Northwest Territory, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>Northwestern boundary, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>Norton, C. E., <a href="#Page_208">208-209</a></li>
+  <li>Norwegians, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+  <li>Nullification, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Ohio, diversity of interests, <a href="#Page_231">231-232</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">elements of settlement, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">history, <a href="#Page_133">133-134</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England element, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Southern contribution to settlement, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>Ohio Company, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>Ohio River, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">as a highway, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">economic legislation and, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">effects on national expansion, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in American history, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">influence on Lincoln, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">part in making of the nation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">physiography, <a href="#Page_160">160-161</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">relation to the South, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">religious spirit, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">stock and settlement, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>Oil wells, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Oklahoma, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Old National road, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li><a name="old_nw" id="old_nw"></a>Old Northwest, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">as a whole, <a href="#Page_241">241-242</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">defined, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">elements of settlement, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">political position, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">social origin, <a href="#Page_222">222-223</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Southern element in settlement, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225-226</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">turning point of control, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>"Old South," <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+  <li><a name="old_west" id="old_west"></a>Old West, colonization of areas beyond the mountains, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">consequences of formation, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New South and, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">summary of frontier movement in 17th and early 18th centuries, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">term defined, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li>Old World, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">effect of American frontier, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">West and, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+  <li>Opportunity, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259-260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271-272</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>Orangeburg, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>Ordinance of 1787, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>Oregon country, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Orient, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Osgood, H. L., <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+  <li>Pacific Northwest, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>Pacific Ocean, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>Packing industries, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>Palatine Germans, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New York State and, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>Palisades, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>Panics, <a href="#Page_279">279-280</a></li>
+  <li>Paper money, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>Parkman, Francis, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>"Particular plantations," <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Past, lessons of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>Patroon estates, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>Paxton Boys, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+  <li>Pecks "New Guide to the West," <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>Penn, William, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+  <li>Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371"></a>[<a href="./images/371.png">371</a>]</span>coast and interior, antagonisms, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">German settlement, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Great Valley of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land grants, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">new Pennsylvania of the Great Valley, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Scotch-Irish, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement Of Old West part, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  <li>Pennsylvania Dutch, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>Perrot, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">trade, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>Physiographic provinces, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>Piedmont, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>Pig iron, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>Pine, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>Pine belt in Middle West, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li><a name="pioneer_democracy" id="pioneer_democracy"></a>Pioneer democracy, lessons learned, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  <li>Pioneer farmers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+  <li>Pioneers, conservative fears about, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">contest with capitalist, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">contrast of conditions, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">deeper significance, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">essence, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">ideals and the State university, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">old ideals, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">sketch, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154-155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>Plain people, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>Political institutions, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier and, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>Political parties, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>Polk, J. K., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  <li>Pontiac, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Poor whites, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+  <li>Population center, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>Populists, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Kansas, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+  <li>Prairie Plains, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>Prairie states, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+  <li>Prairies, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
+      <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>Presbyterians, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>Presidency, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley and, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Old Northwest and, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>Prices, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>Princeton college, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>Pritchett, H. S., <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  <li>Privilege, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+      <li class="listsubitem">conflict against, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>Proclamation of 1763, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  <li>Progressive Republican movement, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>Prohibitionists, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+  <li>"Proletariat," <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>Property, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">as basis of suffrage, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  <li>Prosperity, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>Protection. <i>See</i> <a href="#tariff">Tariff</a></li>
+  <li>Provinces, geographic, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>Provincialism, desirable, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>Prussianism, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li><a name="public_lands" id="public_lands"></a>Public lands, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">policy of America, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western lands, first debates on, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+  <li><a name="public_schools" id="public_schools"></a>Public schools, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  <li>Puget Sound, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>Puritan ideals, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">German conflict with, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>Puritanism, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>Puritans and Indians, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li>Purrysburg, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  <li><ins class="corr" title="original has Pyrichon">Pynchon</ins>, John, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Quakers, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in settlement of Indiana, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+  <li>Quebec, Province of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  <li>Quincy, Josiah, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Radisson, Sieur de, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Railroads, administration by regions, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Chicago and, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">continental, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in early fifties, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land grants to, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">northwestern, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">origin, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372"></a>[<a href="./images/372.png">372</a>]</span>speculative movement, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">statistics, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">western, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+  <li>Rancher's frontier, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>Ranches, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>Rappahannock River, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>Reclamation, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>Reclamation Service, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>Red Cloud (Indian), <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Red River valley, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+  <li>Redemptioners, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+  <li>Reformers, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">social, <a href="#Page_262">262-263</a></li>
+  <li>Regulation, War of the, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+  <li>Regulators, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>Religion of the Middle West, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>Religious freedom of the Old West, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>Religious spirit, Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Upland South, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>Rensselaerswyck, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>Representation, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+  <li>Republican party, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>Research, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+  <li>Revolution, American, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>Rhodes, J. F., <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>Richmond, Va., <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>Rights, equal, <a href="#Page_326">326-327</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">of man, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Ripley, W. Z., <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>Robertson, James, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>Rockefeller, J. D., <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264-265</a></li>
+  <li>Rocky Mountains, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>Roosevelt, Theodore, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on the Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">"Winning of the West," <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>Root, Elihu, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>Roxbury, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>Royce, Josiah, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>Rush, Richard, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>St. Louis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>St. Paul, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>Salisbury, Mass., <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>Salt, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">annual pilgrimage to coast for, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>Salt springs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>Salzburgers, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  <li>Sandys, Sir Edwin, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+  <li>Sault Ste. Marie Canal, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>Scalps, Massachusetts bounty for, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Scandinavians, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western life, <a href="#Page_232">232-233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>Schools, early difficulties, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><i>see also</i> <a href="#public_schools">Public schools</a></li>
+  <li>Schurz, Carl, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>Science, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330-331</a></li>
+  <li>Scientific farming, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  <li>Scotch Highlanders, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Georgia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+  <li>Scotch-Irish, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">migration in Great Valley and Piedmont, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">South Carolina, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-92</a></li>
+  <li>Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>Scovillites, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+  <li>Seaboard cities, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>Seattle, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>"Section" of land, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>Sectionalism, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>Sections, relation, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>Self-government, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  <li>Self-made man, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>Servants, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+  <li>Service to the Union, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>Settlement, community type, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+  <li>Settler, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li>Sevier, John, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>Seward, W. H., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on the Northwest, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373"></a>[<a href="./images/373.png">373</a>]</span>on the slavery issue in the Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+  <li>Shays' Rebellion, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  <li>Sheffield, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>Sheldon, George, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>Shenandoah Valley, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>Sherman, W. T., <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>Sibley, H. H. (1811-1891), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>Silver movement, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>Simsbury, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>Singletary, Amos, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+  <li>Sioux Indians, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>Six Nations, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  <li>Slavery question, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">compromise movement, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">democracy and, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">expansion, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West and, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Northwest and, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">slaves as property, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia and North Carolina, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>Smith, Major Lawrence, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>Social control, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  <li>Social forces, in American history, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">mode of investigating, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">on the Atlantic coast, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">political institutions and, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+  <li>Social mobility, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>Social order, Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_203">203-204</a>;</li>
+      <li class="listsubitem">new, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+  <li>Social reformers, <a href="#Page_262">262-263</a></li>
+  <li>Socialism, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>Society, backwoods, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">rebirth of in the West, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  <li>Soils, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">search for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>Solid South, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+  <li>South, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">contribution to settlement of Old Northwest (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225-226</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley and, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">solid, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">transforming forces, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">West and, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><i>see also</i> <a href="#upland_south">Upland South</a></li>
+  <li>South Carolina, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">condition of antagonism between coast and interior, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land system, townships, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">trade, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>South Dakota, development, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+  <li>Southeastern Europe, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>Southerners and the Middle West, <a href="#Page_133">133-134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>Southwest, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>Spain, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li><ins class="corr" title="original has Spangenberg">Spangenburg</ins>, A. G., <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>Spanish America <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>Spanish frontier, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>Spanish War, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>Speculation, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>Spoils system, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>Spotswood, Alexander, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Spotsylvania County, Va., <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  <li>Spreckles, Claus, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>Squatter-sovereignty, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>Squatters, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">doctrines, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">ideal, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Pennsylvania in 1726, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+  <li>Stark, John, <a href="#Page_103">103-104</a></li>
+  <li>State historical societies, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>State lines, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li><a name="state_univ" id="state_univ"></a>State universities, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">as safeguard of democracy, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Michigan, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">peculiar power, <a href="#Page_283">283-284</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">pioneer ideals and, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>States, checkerboard, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier pioneers' demand for statehood, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">groups, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">new states vs. Atlantic States, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">System of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>Staunton, Va., <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>Steam navigation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+  <li>Steel, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374"></a>[<a href="./images/374.png">374</a>]</span>Steel and iron industry, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>Stockbridge, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>Stoddard, Solomon, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Success, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>Sudbury, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Suffrage, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">basis, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">frontier and extension, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">manhood, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+  <li>Superior, Lake, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">iron mines, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>Swedes, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+  <li>Symmes Purchase, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Talleyrand, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>Taney, R. B., <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li><a name="tariff" id="tariff"></a>Tariff, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>Taylor, Zachary, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  <li>Tecumthe, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>Tennessee, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">democracy, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Tennyson's "Ulysses," <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>Territories, system of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>Texas, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>Thomas, J. B., <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li><a name="Tocqueville" id="Tocqueville"></a>Tocqueville, A. C. H. C. de, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>Toledo, Ohio, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>Toleration, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>Town meeting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+  <li>Towns, legislating into existence, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">locating, Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England and Virginia, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">new settlements in New England, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">South Carolina, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">typical form of establishing in New England, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Virginia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>Trader's frontier, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">effects following, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">rapidity of advance, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>Trading posts, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>Transportation, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>Tryon, William, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>Tuscarora War, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Ulstermen, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>Unification of the West, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>United States, collection of nations, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">development since 1890, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">federal aspect, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">fundamental forces, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">original contribution to society, <a href="#Page_281">281-282</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">wealth, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>U. S. Steel Corporation, <a href="#Page_152">152-153</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>Universities, duties, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">function, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">influence of university men, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">need of freedom, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">pressure of democracies on, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">State and, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem"><i>see also</i> <a href="#state_univ">State universities</a></li>
+  <li><a name="upland_south" id="upland_south"></a>Upland South, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">religious spirit, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Van Buren, Martin, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>Van Rensselaer manor, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>Vandalia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>Verendryes, the, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Vermont, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>Vermonters in Wisconsin and Michigan, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+  <li>Vicksburg, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+  <li>Vigilance committees, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>Vinton, S. F., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>Virginia, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">early attempt to establish frontier, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Indian wars, <a href="#Page_69">69-70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">inequalities, coast vs. interior, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">interest in Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land grants, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">land grants to societies, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Piedmont, society, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Piedmont portions, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement in latter part of 17th century, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">slavery, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">two Virginias in later 17th century, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Western democracy and, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+  <li>Virginia Convention of 1829-30, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375"></a>[<a href="./images/375.png">375</a>]</span>Visions, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339-340</a></li>
+  <li>Voyageurs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Wachovia, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>Walker, F. A., <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>War of 1812, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li>Washington, George, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Mississippi Valley and, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Ohio Valley and, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>Wealth, <a href="#Page_213">213-214</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">democracy versus, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">in politics, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">United States, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>Wells (town), <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>"Welsh tract," <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  <li>Wentworth, Benning, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>West, American ideals and, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">beginning of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">center of interest, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">constructive force, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">contributions to democracy, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">factor in American history, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">ideals, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">indefiniteness of term, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">insurgent voice, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">main streams of settlement, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">mark of New England, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">phase of division, <a href="#Page_216">216-217</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">population, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">problem of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">South and, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">warnings against, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">Middle West; <i>see also</i> <a href="#old_west">Old West</a>; <a href="#old_nw">Old Northwest</a></li>
+  <li>West Virginia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>Westchester County, N. Y., <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>Western colleges, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>Western life, dominant forces, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>Western Reserve, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>Western spirit, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>"Western Waters," <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">men of freedom and independence, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+  <li>"Western World," <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">basis of its civilization, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+  <li>Wheat, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">areas, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>Whig party, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  <li>White, Abraham, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+  <li>White, Hugh, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>Whitman, Walt, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>Wilderness, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  <li>Wilkinson, James, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>Williams, John (1664-1729), <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>Williams, Roger, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+  <li>Windsor, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>Winthrop, John, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+  <li>Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">development and elements, <a href="#Page_233">233-234</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">German element, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">New England element, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+    <li class="listsubitem">settlement, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li>Wood, Abraham, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+  <li>Woodstock, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>World's fairs, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>World-politics, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>Wyoming Valley, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>&nbsp;</li>
+  <li>Yemassee War, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>"Young America" doctrine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+</ul></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="notebox">
+<h2><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+
+<p>The following words appear in the text with and without hyphens. They
+have been left as in the original.</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 10%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="words with and without hyphens">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">battle-field</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">battlefield</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">coast-wise</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">coastwise</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">cow-pens</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">cowpens</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">head-rights</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">headrights</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">iron-master</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">ironmaster</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">new-comers</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">newcomers</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft" style="padding-right: 5em;">non-sectional</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">nonsectional</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">out-vote</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">outvote</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">rail-splitter</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">railsplitters</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">sea-board</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">seaboard</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">slave-holding</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">slaveholding</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">tide-water</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">tidewater</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">un-won</td>
+  <td class="tdleft">unwon</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The following corrections have been made to the text:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>page 25&mdash;as the nation marched westward.[period is missing in
+original]</p>
+
+<p>page 40, footnote 40:5&mdash;"American Colonies in the Seventeenth
+Century,"[quotation mark missing in original]</p>
+
+<p>page 48, footnote 48:4&mdash;Sheldon, "Deerfield,"[quotation mark
+missing in original]</p>
+
+<p>page 49&mdash;your honours [original has extraneous opening
+parenthesis]we haue but litel laft</p>
+
+<p>page 53&mdash;the frontier Towns.[original has extraneous quotation
+mark]</p>
+
+<p>page 68, footnote 68:1&mdash;Powell, "Physiographic
+Regions[original has extraneous single quote]"</p>
+
+<p>page 75, footnote 75:1&mdash;Egleston[original has Eggleston],
+"Land System of the New England Colonies,"</p>
+
+<p>page 86&mdash;at least three foot within the ground."[quotation
+mark missing in original]</p>
+
+<p>page 96, footnote 96:3&mdash;(N. Y., 1899)[closing parenthesis
+missing in original], pp. 149, 151;</p>
+
+<p>page 117, footnote 117:3&mdash;pp. 440-447[original has 440-437]</p>
+
+<p>page 118&mdash;it was being exploited,[original has period]</p>
+
+<p>page 118, footnote 118:2&mdash;N. C.[original has N .C.]</p>
+
+<p>page 123&mdash;Pre&euml;mption and pre&euml;mptions are hyphenated across
+line breaks in the original. The diaresis has been reinserted
+in the rejoined words.</p>
+
+<p>page 163&mdash;American backwoodsmen[original has backswoodsmen]</p>
+
+<p>page 167&mdash;to add the settlements[original has setlements]</p>
+
+<p>page 171&mdash;social conditions of the people whose[original has
+who] needs</p>
+
+<p>page 236&mdash;stronghold of resistance[original has resistence]</p>
+
+<p>page 254&mdash;formal law and the subtleties[original has
+subleties]</p>
+
+<p>page 268&mdash;that dwarf [original has extraneous word of] those
+of the Old World</p>
+
+<p>page 310&mdash;to pause, to make an end,[original has period]</p>
+
+<p>page 348&mdash;to his own business.[original has extraneous
+quotation mark]</p>
+
+<p>page 353&mdash;at least before [original has extraneous word at]
+the present day</p>
+
+<p>page 362&mdash;Bryan, W. J., 204, 236, 237, 246, 281, 327, 330[original
+has 329]</p>
+
+<p>page 363, under Democracy&mdash;Godkin[original has Gookin] on, 307</p>
+
+<p>page 363&mdash;Democratic party, 327, 330[original has 329]</p>
+
+<p>page 363&mdash;Discovery, 271[original has 270], 293, 301, 306</p>
+
+<p>page 363&mdash;Douglas[original has Douglass], William, 109</p>
+
+<p>page 364&mdash;Forest[original has Foreign] Service, 320</p>
+
+<p>page 364, under Germans&mdash;Palatine, 5, 82, 100, 109, 124[original
+also lists page 32 in error]</p>
+
+<p>page 366&mdash;Henry, Patrick, 94[original has 95]</p>
+
+<p>page 366, under Indians&mdash;hunting Indians with dogs, 45[original
+has 95]</p>
+
+<p>page 367&mdash;Kipling, Rudyard, "Foreloper[original has
+Toreloper]," 270</p>
+
+<p>page 368&mdash;Marietta, 124, 133[original has 132], 223, 257</p>
+
+<p>page 368, under Michigan&mdash;development and resources,
+233[original has 232]</p>
+
+<p>page 371&mdash;Pynchon[original has Pyrichon], John, 51, 52</p>
+
+<p>page 373&mdash;Spangenburg[original has Spangenberg], A. G.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Spelling and punctuation errors in quoted material have been left as in
+the original.</p>
+
+<p>The index entry for James Glenn was after the entry for E. L. Godkin.
+The two entries were reversed to maintain alphabetical order. Index
+entries for Leicester and Leigh, B. W., were combined with the
+Legislation entry. Entries were moved as appropriate.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Frontier in American History, by
+Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Frontier in American History
+
+
+Author: Frederick Jackson Turner
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 14, 2007  [eBook #22994]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Fritz Ohrenschall, Michael Zeug, Lisa Reigel, and the
+Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(https://www.pgdp.net)
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+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Some typographical and punctuation errors have been
+      corrected. A complete list follows the text.
+
+      Words italicized in the original are surrounded by
+      _underscores_.
+
+      Letters superscripted in the original have been placed
+      in {} brackets.
+
+      [=m] designates an m with a macron. It is a shortcut
+      indicating that the word should have two m's in succession.
+
+      Ellipses are represented as in the original.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY
+
+by
+
+FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+New York
+Henry Holt and Company
+1921
+
+Copyright, 1920
+by
+Frederick J. Turner
+
+
+TO
+CAROLINE M. TURNER
+MY WIFE
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In republishing these essays in collected form, it has seemed best to
+issue them as they were originally printed, with the exception of a few
+slight corrections of slips in the text and with the omission of
+occasional duplication of language in the different essays. A
+considerable part of whatever value they may possess arises from the
+fact that they are commentaries in different periods on the central
+theme of the influence of the frontier in American history. Consequently
+they may have some historical significance as contemporaneous attempts
+of a student of American history, at successive transitions in our
+development during the past quarter century to interpret the relations
+of the present to the past. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the
+various societies and periodicals which have given permission to reprint
+the essays.
+
+Various essays dealing with the connection of diplomatic history and the
+frontier and others stressing the significance of the section, or
+geographic province, in American history, are not included in the
+present collection. Neither the French nor the Spanish frontier is
+within the scope of the volume.
+
+The future alone can disclose how far these interpretations are correct
+for the age of colonization which came gradually to an end with the
+disappearance of the frontier and free land. It alone can reveal how
+much of the courageous, creative American spirit, and how large a part
+of the historic American ideals are to be carried over into that new age
+which is replacing the era of free lands and of measurable isolation by
+consolidated and complex industrial development and by increasing
+resemblances and connections between the New World and the Old.
+
+But the larger part of what has been distinctive and valuable in
+America's contribution to the history of the human spirit has been due
+to this nation's peculiar experience in extending its type of frontier
+into new regions; and in creating peaceful societies with new ideals in
+the successive vast and differing geographic provinces which together
+make up the United States. Directly or indirectly these experiences
+shaped the life of the Eastern as well as the Western States, and even
+reacted upon the Old World and influenced the direction of its thought
+and its progress. This experience has been fundamental in the economic,
+political and social characteristics of the American people and in their
+conceptions of their destiny.
+
+Writing at the close of 1796, the French minister to the United States,
+M. Adet, reported to his government that Jefferson could not be relied
+on to be devoted to French interests, and he added: "Jefferson, I say,
+is American, and by that name, he cannot be sincerely our friend. An
+American is the born enemy of all European peoples." Obviously erroneous
+as are these words, there was an element of truth in them. If we would
+understand this element of truth, we must study the transforming
+influence of the American wilderness, remote from Europe, and by its
+resources and its free opportunities affording the conditions under
+which a new people, with new social and political types and ideals,
+could arise to play its own part in the world, and to influence Europe.
+
+FREDERICK J. TURNER.
+
+HARVARD UNIVERSITY, March, 1920.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+
+   I THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY        1
+
+  II THE FIRST OFFICIAL FRONTIER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY       39
+
+ III THE OLD WEST                                               67
+
+  IV THE MIDDLE WEST                                           126
+
+   V THE OHIO VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY                       157
+
+  VI THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY IN AMERICAN
+     HISTORY                                                   177
+
+ VII THE PROBLEM OF THE WEST                                   205
+
+VIII DOMINANT FORCES IN WESTERN LIFE                           222
+
+  IX CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEST TO AMERICAN DEMOCRACY           243
+
+   X PIONEER IDEALS AND THE STATE UNIVERSITY                   269
+
+  XI THE WEST AND AMERICAN IDEALS                              290
+
+ XII SOCIAL FORCES IN AMERICAN HISTORY                         311
+
+XIII MIDDLE WESTERN PIONEER DEMOCRACY                          335
+
+     INDEX                                                     361
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY[1:1]
+
+
+In a recent bulletin of the Superintendent of the Census for 1890 appear
+these significant words: "Up to and including 1880 the country had a
+frontier of settlement, but at present the unsettled area has been so
+broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can hardly be
+said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its extent, its
+westward movement, etc., it can not, therefore, any longer have a place
+in the census reports." This brief official statement marks the closing
+of a great historic movement. Up to our own day American history has
+been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great
+West. The existence of an area of free land, its continuous recession,
+and the advance of American settlement westward, explain American
+development.
+
+Behind institutions, behind constitutional forms and modifications, lie
+the vital forces that call these organs into life and shape them to meet
+changing conditions. The peculiarity of American institutions is, the
+fact that they have been compelled to adapt themselves to the changes of
+an expanding people--to the changes involved in crossing a continent, in
+winning a wilderness, and in developing at each area of this progress
+out of the primitive economic and political conditions of the frontier
+into the complexity of city life. Said Calhoun in 1817, "We are great,
+and rapidly--I was about to say fearfully--growing!"[2:1] So saying, he
+touched the distinguishing feature of American life. All peoples show
+development; the germ theory of politics has been sufficiently
+emphasized. In the case of most nations, however, the development has
+occurred in a limited area; and if the nation has expanded, it has met
+other growing peoples whom it has conquered. But in the case of the
+United States we have a different phenomenon. Limiting our attention to
+the Atlantic coast, we have the familiar phenomenon of the evolution of
+institutions in a limited area, such as the rise of representative
+government; the differentiation of simple colonial governments into
+complex organs; the progress from primitive industrial society, without
+division of labor, up to manufacturing civilization. But we have in
+addition to this a recurrence of the process of evolution in each
+western area reached in the process of expansion. Thus American
+development has exhibited not merely advance along a single line, but a
+return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier line,
+and a new development for that area. American social development has
+been continually beginning over again on the frontier. This perennial
+rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with
+its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of
+primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character. The
+true point of view in the history of this nation is not the Atlantic
+coast, it is the Great West. Even the slavery struggle, which is made so
+exclusive an object of attention by writers like Professor von Holst,
+occupies its important place in American history because of its relation
+to westward expansion.
+
+In this advance, the frontier is the outer edge of the wave--the meeting
+point between savagery and civilization. Much has been written about the
+frontier from the point of view of border warfare and the chase, but as
+a field for the serious study of the economist and the historian it has
+been neglected.
+
+The American frontier is sharply distinguished from the European
+frontier--a fortified boundary line running through dense populations.
+The most significant thing about the American frontier is, that it lies
+at the hither edge of free land. In the census reports it is treated as
+the margin of that settlement which has a density of two or more to the
+square mile. The term is an elastic one, and for our purposes does not
+need sharp definition. We shall consider the whole frontier belt,
+including the Indian country and the outer margin of the "settled area"
+of the census reports. This paper will make no attempt to treat the
+subject exhaustively; its aim is simply to call attention to the
+frontier as a fertile field for investigation, and to suggest some of
+the problems which arise in connection with it.
+
+In the settlement of America we have to observe how European life
+entered the continent, and how America modified and developed that life
+and reacted on Europe. Our early history is the study of European germs
+developing in an American environment. Too exclusive attention has been
+paid by institutional students to the Germanic origins, too little to
+the American factors. The frontier is the line of most rapid and
+effective Americanization. The wilderness masters the colonist. It finds
+him a European in dress, industries, tools, modes of travel, and
+thought. It takes him from the railroad car and puts him in the birch
+canoe. It strips off the garments of civilization and arrays him in the
+hunting shirt and the moccasin. It puts him in the log cabin of the
+Cherokee and Iroquois and runs an Indian palisade around him. Before
+long he has gone to planting Indian corn and plowing with a sharp stick;
+he shouts the war cry and takes the scalp in orthodox Indian fashion. In
+short, at the frontier the environment is at first too strong for the
+man. He must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so
+he fits himself into the Indian clearings and follows the Indian trails.
+Little by little he transforms the wilderness, but the outcome is not
+the old Europe, not simply the development of Germanic germs, any more
+than the first phenomenon was a case of reversion to the Germanic mark.
+The fact is, that here is a new product that is American. At first, the
+frontier was the Atlantic coast. It was the frontier of Europe in a very
+real sense. Moving westward, the frontier became more and more American.
+As successive terminal moraines result from successive glaciations, so
+each frontier leaves its traces behind it, and when it becomes a settled
+area the region still partakes of the frontier characteristics. Thus the
+advance of the frontier has meant a steady movement away from the
+influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines.
+And to study this advance, the men who grew up under these conditions,
+and the political, economic, and social results of it, is to study the
+really American part of our history.
+
+In the course of the seventeenth century the frontier was advanced up
+the Atlantic river courses, just beyond the "fall line," and the
+tidewater region became the settled area. In the first half of the
+eighteenth century another advance occurred. Traders followed the
+Delaware and Shawnese Indians to the Ohio as early as the end of the
+first quarter of the century.[5:1] Gov. Spotswood, of Virginia, made an
+expedition in 1714 across the Blue Ridge. The end of the first quarter
+of the century saw the advance of the Scotch-Irish and the Palatine
+Germans up the Shenandoah Valley into the western part of Virginia, and
+along the Piedmont region of the Carolinas.[5:2] The Germans in New York
+pushed the frontier of settlement up the Mohawk to German Flats.[5:3] In
+Pennsylvania the town of Bedford indicates the line of settlement.
+Settlements soon began on the New River, or the Great Kanawha, and on
+the sources of the Yadkin and French Broad.[5:4] The King attempted to
+arrest the advance by his proclamation of 1763,[5:5] forbidding
+settlements beyond the sources of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic;
+but in vain. In the period of the Revolution the frontier crossed the
+Alleghanies into Kentucky and Tennessee, and the upper waters of the
+Ohio were settled.[5:6] When the first census was taken in 1790, the
+continuous settled area was bounded by a line which ran near the coast
+of Maine, and included New England except a portion of Vermont and New
+Hampshire, New York along the Hudson and up the Mohawk about
+Schenectady, eastern and southern Pennsylvania, Virginia well across the
+Shenandoah Valley, and the Carolinas and eastern Georgia.[6:1] Beyond
+this region of continuous settlement were the small settled areas of
+Kentucky and Tennessee, and the Ohio, with the mountains intervening
+between them and the Atlantic area, thus giving a new and important
+character to the frontier. The isolation of the region increased its
+peculiarly American tendencies, and the need of transportation
+facilities to connect it with the East called out important schemes of
+internal improvement, which will be noted farther on. The "West," as a
+self-conscious section, began to evolve.
+
+From decade to decade distinct advances of the frontier occurred. By the
+census of 1820[6:2] the settled area included Ohio, southern Indiana and
+Illinois, southeastern Missouri, and about one-half of Louisiana. This
+settled area had surrounded Indian areas, and the management of these
+tribes became an object of political concern. The frontier region of the
+time lay along the Great Lakes, where Astor's American Fur Company
+operated in the Indian trade,[6:3] and beyond the Mississippi, where
+Indian traders extended their activity even to the Rocky Mountains;
+Florida also furnished frontier conditions. The Mississippi River region
+was the scene of typical frontier settlements.[7:1]
+
+The rising steam navigation[7:2] on western waters, the opening of the
+Erie Canal, and the westward extension of cotton[7:3] culture added five
+frontier states to the Union in this period. Grund, writing in 1836,
+declares: "It appears then that the universal disposition of Americans
+to emigrate to the western wilderness, in order to enlarge their
+dominion over inanimate nature, is the actual result of an expansive
+power which is inherent in them, and which by continually agitating all
+classes of society is constantly throwing a large portion of the whole
+population on the extreme confines of the State, in order to gain space
+for its development. Hardly is a new State or Territory formed before
+the same principle manifests itself again and gives rise to a further
+emigration; and so is it destined to go on until a physical barrier must
+finally obstruct its progress."[7:4]
+
+In the middle of this century the line indicated by the present eastern
+boundary of Indian Territory, Nebraska, and Kansas marked the frontier
+of the Indian country.[8:1] Minnesota and Wisconsin still exhibited
+frontier conditions,[8:2] but the distinctive frontier of the period is
+found in California, where the gold discoveries had sent a sudden tide
+of adventurous miners, and in Oregon, and the settlements in Utah.[8:3]
+As the frontier had leaped over the Alleghanies, so now it skipped the
+Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains; and in the same way that the
+advance of the frontiersmen beyond the Alleghanies had caused the rise
+of important questions of transportation and internal improvement, so
+now the settlers beyond the Rocky Mountains needed means of
+communication with the East, and in the furnishing of these arose the
+settlement of the Great Plains and the development of still another kind
+of frontier life. Railroads, fostered by land grants, sent an
+increasing tide of immigrants into the Far West. The United States Army
+fought a series of Indian wars in Minnesota, Dakota, and the Indian
+Territory.
+
+By 1880 the settled area had been pushed into northern Michigan,
+Wisconsin, and Minnesota, along Dakota rivers, and in the Black Hills
+region, and was ascending the rivers of Kansas and Nebraska. The
+development of mines in Colorado had drawn isolated frontier settlements
+into that region, and Montana and Idaho were receiving settlers. The
+frontier was found in these mining camps and the ranches of the Great
+Plains. The superintendent of the census for 1890 reports, as previously
+stated, that the settlements of the West lie so scattered over the
+region that there can no longer be said to be a frontier line.
+
+In these successive frontiers we find natural boundary lines which have
+served to mark and to affect the characteristics of the frontiers,
+namely: the "fall line;" the Alleghany Mountains; the Mississippi; the
+Missouri where its direction approximates north and south; the line of
+the arid lands, approximately the ninety-ninth meridian; and the Rocky
+Mountains. The fall line marked the frontier of the seventeenth century;
+the Alleghanies that of the eighteenth; the Mississippi that of the
+first quarter of the nineteenth; the Missouri that of the middle of this
+century (omitting the California movement); and the belt of the Rocky
+Mountains and the arid tract, the present frontier. Each was won by a
+series of Indian wars.
+
+At the Atlantic frontier one can study the germs of processes repeated
+at each successive frontier. We have the complex European life sharply
+precipitated by the wilderness into the simplicity of primitive
+conditions. The first frontier had to meet its Indian question, its
+question of the disposition of the public domain, of the means of
+intercourse with older settlements, of the extension of political
+organization, of religious and educational activity. And the settlement
+of these and similar questions for one frontier served as a guide for
+the next. The American student needs not to go to the "prim little
+townships of Sleswick" for illustrations of the law of continuity and
+development. For example, he may study the origin of our land policies
+in the colonial land policy; he may see how the system grew by adapting
+the statutes to the customs of the successive frontiers.[10:1] He may
+see how the mining experience in the lead regions of Wisconsin,
+Illinois, and Iowa was applied to the mining laws of the Sierras,[10:2]
+and how our Indian policy has been a series of experimentations on
+successive frontiers. Each tier of new States has found in the older
+ones material for its constitutions.[10:3] Each frontier has made
+similar contributions to American character, as will be discussed
+farther on.
+
+But with all these similarities there are essential differences due to
+the place element and the time element. It is evident that the farming
+frontier of the Mississippi Valley presents different conditions from
+the mining frontier of the Rocky Mountains. The frontier reached by the
+Pacific Railroad, surveyed into rectangles, guarded by the United States
+Army, and recruited by the daily immigrant ship, moves forward at a
+swifter pace and in a different way than the frontier reached by the
+birch canoe or the pack horse. The geologist traces patiently the shores
+of ancient seas, maps their areas, and compares the older and the newer.
+It would be a work worth the historian's labors to mark these various
+frontiers and in detail compare one with another. Not only would there
+result a more adequate conception of American development and
+characteristics, but invaluable additions would be made to the history
+of society.
+
+Loria,[11:1] the Italian economist, has urged the study of colonial life
+as an aid in understanding the stages of European development, affirming
+that colonial settlement is for economic science what the mountain is
+for geology, bringing to light primitive stratifications. "America," he
+says, "has the key to the historical enigma which Europe has sought for
+centuries in vain, and the land which has no history reveals luminously
+the course of universal history." There is much truth in this. The
+United States lies like a huge page in the history of society. Line by
+line as we read this continental page from West to East we find the
+record of social evolution. It begins with the Indian and the hunter; it
+goes on to tell of the disintegration of savagery by the entrance of the
+trader, the pathfinder of civilization; we read the annals of the
+pastoral stage in ranch life; the exploitation of the soil by the
+raising of unrotated crops of corn and wheat in sparsely settled farming
+communities; the intensive culture of the denser farm settlement; and
+finally the manufacturing organization with city and factory
+system.[11:2] This page is familiar to the student of census statistics,
+but how little of it has been used by our historians. Particularly in
+eastern States this page is a palimpsest. What is now a manufacturing
+State was in an earlier decade an area of intensive farming. Earlier yet
+it had been a wheat area, and still earlier the "range" had attracted
+the cattle-herder. Thus Wisconsin, now developing manufacture, is a
+State with varied agricultural interests. But earlier it was given over
+to almost exclusive grain-raising, like North Dakota at the present
+time.
+
+Each of these areas has had an influence in our economic and political
+history; the evolution of each into a higher stage has worked political
+transformations. But what constitutional historian has made any adequate
+attempt to interpret political facts by the light of these social areas
+and changes?[12:1]
+
+The Atlantic frontier was compounded of fisherman, fur-trader, miner,
+cattle-raiser, and farmer. Excepting the fisherman, each type of
+industry was on the march toward the West, impelled by an irresistible
+attraction. Each passed in successive waves across the continent. Stand
+at Cumberland Gap and watch the procession of civilization, marching
+single file--the buffalo following the trail to the salt springs, the
+Indian, the fur-trader and hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pioneer
+farmer--and the frontier has passed by. Stand at South Pass in the
+Rockies a century later and see the same procession with wider intervals
+between. The unequal rate of advance compels us to distinguish the
+frontier into the trader's frontier, the rancher's frontier, or the
+miner's frontier, and the farmer's frontier. When the mines and the cow
+pens were still near the fall line the traders' pack trains were
+tinkling across the Alleghanies, and the French on the Great Lakes were
+fortifying their posts, alarmed by the British trader's birch canoe.
+When the trappers scaled the Rockies, the farmer was still near the
+mouth of the Missouri.
+
+Why was it that the Indian trader passed so rapidly across the
+continent? What effects followed from the trader's frontier? The trade
+was coeval with American discovery. The Norsemen, Vespuccius, Verrazani,
+Hudson, John Smith, all trafficked for furs. The Plymouth pilgrims
+settled in Indian cornfields, and their first return cargo was of beaver
+and lumber. The records of the various New England colonies show how
+steadily exploration was carried into the wilderness by this trade. What
+is true for New England is, as would be expected, even plainer for the
+rest of the colonies. All along the coast from Maine to Georgia the
+Indian trade opened up the river courses. Steadily the trader passed
+westward, utilizing the older lines of French trade. The Ohio, the Great
+Lakes, the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Platte, the lines of
+western advance, were ascended by traders. They found the passes in the
+Rocky Mountains and guided Lewis and Clark,[13:1] Fremont, and Bidwell.
+The explanation of the rapidity of this advance is connected with the
+effects of the trader on the Indian. The trading post left the unarmed
+tribes at the mercy of those that had purchased fire-arms--a truth which
+the Iroquois Indians wrote in blood, and so the remote and unvisited
+tribes gave eager welcome to the trader. "The savages," wrote La Salle,
+"take better care of us French than of their own children; from us only
+can they get guns and goods." This accounts for the trader's power and
+the rapidity of his advance. Thus the disintegrating forces of
+civilization entered the wilderness. Every river valley and Indian trail
+became a fissure in Indian society, and so that society became
+honeycombed. Long before the pioneer farmer appeared on the scene,
+primitive Indian life had passed away. The farmers met Indians armed
+with guns. The trading frontier, while steadily undermining Indian power
+by making the tribes ultimately dependent on the whites, yet, through
+its sale of guns, gave to the Indian increased power of resistance to
+the farming frontier. French colonization was dominated by its trading
+frontier; English colonization by its farming frontier. There was an
+antagonism between the two frontiers as between the two nations. Said
+Duquesne to the Iroquois, "Are you ignorant of the difference between
+the king of England and the king of France? Go see the forts that our
+king has established and you will see that you can still hunt under
+their very walls. They have been placed for your advantage in places
+which you frequent. The English, on the contrary, are no sooner in
+possession of a place than the game is driven away. The forest falls
+before them as they advance, and the soil is laid bare so that you can
+scarce find the wherewithal to erect a shelter for the night."
+
+And yet, in spite of this opposition of the interests of the trader and
+the farmer, the Indian trade pioneered the way for civilization. The
+buffalo trail became the Indian trail, and this became the trader's
+"trace;" the trails widened into roads, and the roads into turnpikes,
+and these in turn were transformed into railroads. The same origin can
+be shown for the railroads of the South, the Far West, and the Dominion
+of Canada.[14:1] The trading posts reached by these trails were on the
+sites of Indian villages which had been placed in positions suggested by
+nature; and these trading posts, situated so as to command the water
+systems of the country, have grown into such cities as Albany,
+Pittsburgh, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, Council Bluffs, and Kansas
+City. Thus civilization in America has followed the arteries made by
+geology, pouring an ever richer tide through them, until at last the
+slender paths of aboriginal intercourse have been broadened and
+interwoven into the complex mazes of modern commercial lines; the
+wilderness has been interpenetrated by lines of civilization growing
+ever more numerous. It is like the steady growth of a complex nervous
+system for the originally simple, inert continent. If one would
+understand why we are to-day one nation, rather than a collection of
+isolated states, he must study this economic and social consolidation of
+the country. In this progress from savage conditions lie topics for the
+evolutionist.[15:1]
+
+The effect of the Indian frontier as a consolidating agent in our
+history is important. From the close of the seventeenth century various
+intercolonial congresses have been called to treat with Indians and
+establish common measures of defense. Particularism was strongest in
+colonies with no Indian frontier. This frontier stretched along the
+western border like a cord of union. The Indian was a common danger,
+demanding united action. Most celebrated of these conferences was the
+Albany congress of 1754, called to treat with the Six Nations, and to
+consider plans of union. Even a cursory reading of the plan proposed by
+the congress reveals the importance of the frontier. The powers of the
+general council and the officers were, chiefly, the determination of
+peace and war with the Indians, the regulation of Indian trade, the
+purchase of Indian lands, and the creation and government of new
+settlements as a security against the Indians. It is evident that the
+unifying tendencies of the Revolutionary period were facilitated by the
+previous cooperation in the regulation of the frontier. In this
+connection may be mentioned the importance of the frontier, from that
+day to this, as a military training school, keeping alive the power of
+resistance to aggression, and developing the stalwart and rugged
+qualities of the frontiersman.
+
+It would not be possible in the limits of this paper to trace the other
+frontiers across the continent. Travelers of the eighteenth century
+found the "cowpens" among the canebrakes and peavine pastures of the
+South, and the "cow drivers" took their droves to Charleston,
+Philadelphia, and New York.[16:1] Travelers at the close of the War of
+1812 met droves of more than a thousand cattle and swine from the
+interior of Ohio going to Pennsylvania to fatten for the Philadelphia
+market.[16:2] The ranges of the Great Plains, with ranch and cowboy and
+nomadic life, are things of yesterday and of to-day. The experience of
+the Carolina cowpens guided the ranchers of Texas. One element favoring
+the rapid extension of the rancher's frontier is the fact that in a
+remote country lacking transportation facilities the product must be in
+small bulk, or must be able to transport itself, and the cattle raiser
+could easily drive his product to market. The effect of these great
+ranches on the subsequent agrarian history of the localities in which
+they existed should be studied.
+
+The maps of the census reports show an uneven advance of the farmer's
+frontier, with tongues of settlement pushed forward and with
+indentations of wilderness. In part this is due to Indian resistance, in
+part to the location of river valleys and passes, in part to the unequal
+force of the centers of frontier attraction. Among the important centers
+of attraction may be mentioned the following: fertile and favorably
+situated soils, salt springs, mines, and army posts.
+
+The frontier army post, serving to protect the settlers from the
+Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open the Indian country, and has
+been a nucleus for settlement.[16:3] In this connection mention should
+also be made of the government military and exploring expeditions in
+determining the lines of settlement. But all the more important
+expeditions were greatly indebted to the earliest pathmakers, the Indian
+guides, the traders and trappers, and the French voyageurs, who were
+inevitable parts of governmental expeditions from the days of Lewis and
+Clark.[17:1] Each expedition was an epitome of the previous factors in
+western advance.
+
+In an interesting monograph, Victor Hehn[17:2] has traced the effect of
+salt upon early European development, and has pointed out how it
+affected the lines of settlement and the form of administration. A
+similar study might be made for the salt springs of the United States.
+The early settlers were tied to the coast by the need of salt, without
+which they could not preserve their meats or live in comfort. Writing in
+1752, Bishop Spangenburg says of a colony for which he was seeking lands
+in North Carolina, "They will require salt & other necessaries which
+they can neither manufacture nor raise. Either they must go to
+Charleston, which is 300 miles distant . . . Or else they must go to
+Boling's Point in V{a} on a branch of the James & is also 300 miles from
+here. . . Or else they must go down the Roanoke--I know not how many
+miles--where salt is brought up from the Cape Fear."[17:3] This may
+serve as a typical illustration. An annual pilgrimage to the coast for
+salt thus became essential. Taking flocks or furs and ginseng root, the
+early settlers sent their pack trains after seeding time each year to
+the coast.[17:4] This proved to be an important educational influence,
+since it was almost the only way in which the pioneer learned what was
+going on in the East. But when discovery was made of the salt springs of
+the Kanawha, and the Holston, and Kentucky, and central New York, the
+West began to be freed from dependence on the coast. It was in part the
+effect of finding these salt springs that enabled settlement to cross
+the mountains.
+
+From the time the mountains rose between the pioneer and the seaboard, a
+new order of Americanism arose. The West and the East began to get out
+of touch of each other. The settlements from the sea to the mountains
+kept connection with the rear and had a certain solidarity. But the
+over-mountain men grew more and more independent. The East took a narrow
+view of American advance, and nearly lost these men. Kentucky and
+Tennessee history bears abundant witness to the truth of this statement.
+The East began to try to hedge and limit westward expansion. Though
+Webster could declare that there were no Alleghanies in his politics,
+yet in politics in general they were a very solid factor.
+
+The exploitation of the beasts took hunter and trader to the west, the
+exploitation of the grasses took the rancher west, and the exploitation
+of the virgin soil of the river valleys and prairies attracted the
+farmer. Good soils have been the most continuous attraction to the
+farmer's frontier. The land hunger of the Virginians drew them down the
+rivers into Carolina, in early colonial days; the search for soils took
+the Massachusetts men to Pennsylvania and to New York. As the eastern
+lands were taken up migration flowed across them to the west. Daniel
+Boone, the great backwoodsman, who combined the occupations of hunter,
+trader, cattle-raiser, farmer, and surveyor--learning, probably from the
+traders, of the fertility of the lands of the upper Yadkin, where the
+traders were wont to rest as they took their way to the Indians, left
+his Pennsylvania home with his father, and passed down the Great Valley
+road to that stream. Learning from a trader of the game and rich
+pastures of Kentucky, he pioneered the way for the farmers to that
+region. Thence he passed to the frontier of Missouri, where his
+settlement was long a landmark on the frontier. Here again he helped to
+open the way for civilization, finding salt licks, and trails, and land.
+His son was among the earliest trappers in the passes of the Rocky
+Mountains, and his party are said to have been the first to camp on the
+present site of Denver. His grandson, Col. A. J. Boone, of Colorado, was
+a power among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and was appointed an
+agent by the government. Kit Carson's mother was a Boone.[19:1] Thus
+this family epitomizes the backwoodsman's advance across the continent.
+
+The farmer's advance came in a distinct series of waves. In Peck's New
+Guide to the West, published in Boston in 1837, occurs this suggestive
+passage:
+
+     Generally, in all the western settlements, three classes, like
+     the waves of the ocean, have rolled one after the other. First
+     comes the pioneer, who depends for the subsistence of his
+     family chiefly upon the natural growth of vegetation, called
+     the "range," and the proceeds of hunting. His implements of
+     agriculture are rude, chiefly of his own make, and his efforts
+     directed mainly to a crop of corn and a "truck patch." The
+     last is a rude garden for growing cabbage, beans, corn for
+     roasting ears, cucumbers, and potatoes. A log cabin, and,
+     occasionally, a stable and corn-crib, and a field of a dozen
+     acres, the timber girdled or "deadened," and fenced, are
+     enough for his occupancy. It is quite immaterial whether he
+     ever becomes the owner of the soil. He is the occupant for
+     the time being, pays no rent, and feels as independent as the
+     "lord of the manor." With a horse, cow, and one or two
+     breeders of swine, he strikes into the woods with his family,
+     and becomes the founder of a new county, or perhaps state. He
+     builds his cabin, gathers around him a few other families of
+     similar tastes and habits, and occupies till the range is
+     somewhat subdued, and hunting a little precarious, or, which
+     is more frequently the case, till the neighbors crowd around,
+     roads, bridges, and fields annoy him, and he lacks elbow room.
+     The preemption law enables him to dispose of his cabin and
+     cornfield to the next class of emigrants; and, to employ his
+     own figures, he "breaks for the high timber," "clears out for
+     the New Purchase," or migrates to Arkansas or Texas, to work
+     the same process over.
+
+     The next class of emigrants purchase the lands, add field to
+     field, clear out the roads, throw rough bridges over the
+     streams, put up hewn log houses with glass windows and brick
+     or stone chimneys, occasionally plant orchards, build mills,
+     school-houses, court-houses, etc., and exhibit the picture and
+     forms of plain, frugal, civilized life.
+
+     Another wave rolls on. The men of capital and enterprise come.
+     The settler is ready to sell out and take the advantage of the
+     rise in property, push farther into the interior and become,
+     himself, a man of capital and enterprise in turn. The small
+     village rises to a spacious town or city; substantial edifices
+     of brick, extensive fields, orchards, gardens, colleges, and
+     churches are seen. Broadcloths, silks, leghorns, crapes, and
+     all the refinements, luxuries, elegancies, frivolities, and
+     fashions are in vogue. Thus wave after wave is rolling
+     westward; the real Eldorado is still farther on.
+
+     A portion of the two first classes remain stationary amidst
+     the general movement, improve their habits and condition, and
+     rise in the scale of society.
+
+     The writer has traveled much amongst the first class, the real
+     pioneers. He has lived many years in connection with the
+     second grade; and now the third wave is sweeping over large
+     districts of Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. Migration has
+     become almost a habit in the West. Hundreds of men can be
+     found, not over 50 years of age, who have settled for the
+     fourth, fifth, or sixth time on a new spot. To sell out and
+     remove only a few hundred miles makes up a portion of the
+     variety of backwoods life and manners.[21:1]
+
+Omitting those of the pioneer farmers who move from the love of
+adventure, the advance of the more steady farmer is easy to understand.
+Obviously the immigrant was attracted by the cheap lands of the
+frontier, and even the native farmer felt their influence strongly. Year
+by year the farmers who lived on soil whose returns were diminished by
+unrotated crops were offered the virgin soil of the frontier at nominal
+prices. Their growing families demanded more lands, and these were dear.
+The competition of the unexhausted, cheap, and easily tilled prairie
+lands compelled the farmer either to go west and continue the exhaustion
+of the soil on a new frontier, or to adopt intensive culture. Thus the
+census of 1890 shows, in the Northwest, many counties in which there is
+an absolute or a relative decrease of population. These States have been
+sending farmers to advance the frontier on the plains, and have
+themselves begun to turn to intensive farming and to manufacture. A
+decade before this, Ohio had shown the same transition stage. Thus the
+demand for land and the love of wilderness freedom drew the frontier
+ever onward.
+
+Having now roughly outlined the various kinds of frontiers, and their
+modes of advance, chiefly from the point of view of the frontier itself,
+we may next inquire what were the influences on the East and on the Old
+World. A rapid enumeration of some of the more noteworthy effects is all
+that I have time for.
+
+First, we note that the frontier promoted the formation of a composite
+nationality for the American people. The coast was preponderantly
+English, but the later tides of continental immigration flowed across to
+the free lands. This was the case from the early colonial days. The
+Scotch-Irish and the Palatine Germans, or "Pennsylvania Dutch,"
+furnished the dominant element in the stock of the colonial frontier.
+With these peoples were also the freed indented servants, or
+redemptioners, who at the expiration of their time of service passed to
+the frontier. Governor Spotswood of Virginia writes in 1717, "The
+inhabitants of our frontiers are composed generally of such as have been
+transported hither as servants, and, being out of their time, settle
+themselves where land is to be taken up and that will produce the
+necessarys of life with little labour."[22:1] Very generally these
+redemptioners were of non-English stock. In the crucible of the
+frontier the immigrants were Americanized, liberated, and fused into a
+mixed race, English in neither nationality nor characteristics. The
+process has gone on from the early days to our own. Burke and other
+writers in the middle of the eighteenth century believed that
+Pennsylvania[23:1] was "threatened with the danger of being wholly
+foreign in language, manners, and perhaps even inclinations." The German
+and Scotch-Irish elements in the frontier of the South were only less
+great. In the middle of the present century the German element in
+Wisconsin was already so considerable that leading publicists looked to
+the creation of a German state out of the commonwealth by concentrating
+their colonization.[23:2] Such examples teach us to beware of
+misinterpreting the fact that there is a common English speech in
+America into a belief that the stock is also English.
+
+In another way the advance of the frontier decreased our dependence on
+England. The coast, particularly of the South, lacked diversified
+industries, and was dependent on England for the bulk of its supplies.
+In the South there was even a dependence on the Northern colonies for
+articles of food. Governor Glenn, of South Carolina, writes in the
+middle of the eighteenth century: "Our trade with New York and
+Philadelphia was of this sort, draining us of all the little money and
+bills we could gather from other places for their bread, flour, beer,
+hams, bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except beer,
+our new townships begin to supply us with, which are settled with very
+industrious and thriving Germans. This no doubt diminishes the number of
+shipping and the appearance of our trade, but it is far from being a
+detriment to us."[23:3]
+
+Before long the frontier created a demand for merchants. As it
+retreated from the coast it became less and less possible for England to
+bring her supplies directly to the consumer's wharfs, and carry away
+staple crops, and staple crops began to give way to diversified
+agriculture for a time. The effect of this phase of the frontier action
+upon the northern section is perceived when we realize how the advance
+of the frontier aroused seaboard cities like Boston, New York, and
+Baltimore, to engage in rivalry for what Washington called "the
+extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire."
+
+The legislation which most developed the powers of the national
+government, and played the largest part in its activity, was conditioned
+on the frontier. Writers have discussed the subjects of tariff, land,
+and internal improvement, as subsidiary to the slavery question. But
+when American history comes to be rightly viewed it will be seen that
+the slavery question is an incident. In the period from the end of the
+first half of the present century to the close of the Civil War slavery
+rose to primary, but far from exclusive, importance. But this does not
+justify Dr. von Holst (to take an example) in treating our
+constitutional history in its formative period down to 1828 in a single
+volume, giving six volumes chiefly to the history of slavery from 1828
+to 1861, under the title "Constitutional History of the United States."
+The growth of nationalism and the evolution of American political
+institutions were dependent on the advance of the frontier. Even so
+recent a writer as Rhodes, in his "History of the United States since
+the Compromise of 1850," has treated the legislation called out by the
+western advance as incidental to the slavery struggle.
+
+This is a wrong perspective. The pioneer needed the goods of the coast,
+and so the grand series of internal improvement and railroad legislation
+began, with potent nationalizing effects. Over internal improvements
+occurred great debates, in which grave constitutional questions were
+discussed. Sectional groupings appear in the votes, profoundly
+significant for the historian. Loose construction increased as the
+nation marched westward.[25:1] But the West was not content with
+bringing the farm to the factory. Under the lead of Clay--"Harry of the
+West"--protective tariffs were passed, with the cry of bringing the
+factory to the farm. The disposition of the public lands was a third
+important subject of national legislation influenced by the frontier.
+
+The public domain has been a force of profound importance in the
+nationalization and development of the government. The effects of the
+struggle of the landed and the landless States, and of the Ordinance of
+1787, need no discussion.[25:2] Administratively the frontier called out
+some of the highest and most vitalizing activities of the general
+government. The purchase of Louisiana was perhaps the constitutional
+turning point in the history of the Republic, inasmuch as it afforded
+both a new area for national legislation and the occasion of the
+downfall of the policy of strict construction. But the purchase of
+Louisiana was called out by frontier needs and demands. As frontier
+States accrued to the Union the national power grew. In a speech on the
+dedication of the Calhoun monument Mr. Lamar explained: "In 1789 the
+States were the creators of the Federal Government; in 1861 the Federal
+Government was the creator of a large majority of the States."
+
+When we consider the public domain from the point of view of the sale
+and disposal of the public lands we are again brought face to face with
+the frontier. The policy of the United States in dealing with its lands
+is in sharp contrast with the European system of scientific
+administration. Efforts to make this domain a source of revenue, and to
+withhold it from emigrants in order that settlement might be compact,
+were in vain. The jealousy and the fears of the East were powerless in
+the face of the demands of the frontiersmen. John Quincy Adams was
+obliged to confess: "My own system of administration, which was to make
+the national domain the inexhaustible fund for progressive and unceasing
+internal improvement, has failed." The reason is obvious; a system of
+administration was not what the West demanded; it wanted land. Adams
+states the situation as follows: "The slaveholders of the South have
+bought the cooperation of the western country by the bribe of the
+western lands, abandoning to the new Western States their own proportion
+of the public property and aiding them in the design of grasping all the
+lands into their own hands." Thomas H. Benton was the author of this
+system, which he brought forward as a substitute for the American system
+of Mr. Clay, and to supplant him as the leading statesman of the West.
+Mr. Clay, by his tariff compromise with Mr. Calhoun, abandoned his own
+American system. At the same time he brought forward a plan for
+distributing among all the States of the Union the proceeds of the sales
+of the public lands. His bill for that purpose passed both Houses of
+Congress, but was vetoed by President Jackson, who, in his annual
+message of December, 1832, formally recommended that all public lands
+should be gratuitously given away to individual adventurers and to the
+States in which the lands are situated.[26:1]
+
+"No subject," said Henry Clay, "which has presented itself to the
+present, or perhaps any preceding, Congress, is of greater magnitude
+than that of the public lands." When we consider the far-reaching
+effects of the government's land policy upon political, economic, and
+social aspects of American life, we are disposed to agree with him. But
+this legislation was framed under frontier influences, and under the
+lead of Western statesmen like Benton and Jackson. Said Senator Scott of
+Indiana in 1841: "I consider the preemption law merely declaratory of
+the custom or common law of the settlers."
+
+It is safe to say that the legislation with regard to land, tariff, and
+internal improvements--the American system of the nationalizing Whig
+party--was conditioned on frontier ideas and needs. But it was not
+merely in legislative action that the frontier worked against the
+sectionalism of the coast. The economic and social characteristics of
+the frontier worked against sectionalism. The men of the frontier had
+closer resemblances to the Middle region than to either of the other
+sections. Pennsylvania had been the seed-plot of frontier emigration,
+and, although she passed on her settlers along the Great Valley into the
+west of Virginia and the Carolinas, yet the industrial society of these
+Southern frontiersmen was always more like that of the Middle region
+than like that of the tide-water portion of the South, which later came
+to spread its industrial type throughout the South.
+
+The Middle region, entered by New York harbor, was an open door to all
+Europe. The tide-water part of the South represented typical Englishmen,
+modified by a warm climate and servile labor, and living in baronial
+fashion on great plantations; New England stood for a special English
+movement--Puritanism. The Middle region was less English than the other
+sections. It had a wide mixture of nationalities, a varied society, the
+mixed town and county system of local government, a varied economic
+life, many religious sects. In short, it was a region mediating between
+New England and the South, and the East and the West. It represented
+that composite nationality which the contemporary United States
+exhibits, that juxtaposition of non-English groups, occupying a valley
+or a little settlement, and presenting reflections of the map of Europe
+in their variety. It was democratic and nonsectional, if not national;
+"easy, tolerant, and contented;" rooted strongly in material prosperity.
+It was typical of the modern United States. It was least sectional, not
+only because it lay between North and South, but also because with no
+barriers to shut out its frontiers from its settled region, and with a
+system of connecting waterways, the Middle region mediated between East
+and West as well as between North and South. Thus it became the
+typically American region. Even the New Englander, who was shut out from
+the frontier by the Middle region, tarrying in New York or Pennsylvania
+on his westward march, lost the acuteness of his sectionalism on the
+way.[28:1]
+
+The spread of cotton culture into the interior of the South finally
+broke down the contrast between the "tide-water" region and the rest of
+the State, and based Southern interests on slavery. Before this process
+revealed its results the western portion of the South, which was akin to
+Pennsylvania in stock, society, and industry, showed tendencies to fall
+away from the faith of the fathers into internal improvement legislation
+and nationalism. In the Virginia convention of 1829-30, called to revise
+the constitution, Mr. Leigh, of Chesterfield, one of the tide-water
+counties, declared:
+
+     One of the main causes of discontent which led to this
+     convention, that which had the strongest influence in
+     overcoming our veneration for the work of our fathers, which
+     taught us to contemn the sentiments of Henry and Mason and
+     Pendleton, which weaned us from our reverence for the
+     constituted authorities of the State, was an overweening
+     passion for internal improvement. I say this with perfect
+     knowledge, for it has been avowed to me by gentlemen from the
+     West over and over again. And let me tell the gentleman from
+     Albemarle (Mr. Gordon) that it has been another principal
+     object of those who set this ball of revolution in motion, to
+     overturn the doctrine of State rights, of which Virginia has
+     been the very pillar, and to remove the barrier she has
+     interposed to the interference of the Federal Government in
+     that same work of internal improvement, by so reorganizing the
+     legislature that Virginia, too, may be hitched to the Federal
+     car.
+
+It was this nationalizing tendency of the West that transformed the
+democracy of Jefferson into the national republicanism of Monroe and the
+democracy of Andrew Jackson. The West of the War of 1812, the West of
+Clay, and Benton and Harrison, and Andrew Jackson, shut off by the
+Middle States and the mountains from the coast sections, had a
+solidarity of its own with national tendencies.[29:1] On the tide of the
+Father of Waters, North and South met and mingled into a nation.
+Interstate migration went steadily on--a process of cross-fertilization
+of ideas and institutions. The fierce struggle of the sections over
+slavery on the western frontier does not diminish the truth of this
+statement; it proves the truth of it. Slavery was a sectional trait that
+would not down, but in the West it could not remain sectional. It was
+the greatest of frontiersmen who declared: "I believe this Government
+can not endure permanently half slave and half free. It will become all
+of one thing or all of the other." Nothing works for nationalism like
+intercourse within the nation. Mobility of population is death to
+localism, and the western frontier worked irresistibly in unsettling
+population. The effect reached back from the frontier and affected
+profoundly the Atlantic coast and even the Old World.
+
+But the most important effect of the frontier has been in the promotion
+of democracy here and in Europe. As has been indicated, the frontier is
+productive of individualism. Complex society is precipitated by the
+wilderness into a kind of primitive organization based on the family.
+The tendency is anti-social. It produces antipathy to control, and
+particularly to any direct control. The tax-gatherer is viewed as a
+representative of oppression. Prof. Osgood, in an able article,[30:1]
+has pointed out that the frontier conditions prevalent in the colonies
+are important factors in the explanation of the American Revolution,
+where individual liberty was sometimes confused with absence of all
+effective government. The same conditions aid in explaining the
+difficulty of instituting a strong government in the period of the
+confederacy. The frontier individualism has from the beginning promoted
+democracy.
+
+The frontier States that came into the Union in the first quarter of a
+century of its existence came in with democratic suffrage provisions,
+and had reactive effects of the highest importance upon the older States
+whose peoples were being attracted there. An extension of the franchise
+became essential. It was _western_ New York that forced an extension of
+suffrage in the constitutional convention of that State in 1821; and it
+was _western_ Virginia that compelled the tide-water region to put a
+more liberal suffrage provision in the constitution framed in 1830, and
+to give to the frontier region a more nearly proportionate
+representation with the tide-water aristocracy. The rise of democracy as
+an effective force in the nation came in with western preponderance
+under Jackson and William Henry Harrison, and it meant the triumph of
+the frontier--with all of its good and with all of its evil
+elements.[31:1] An interesting illustration of the tone of frontier
+democracy in 1830 comes from the same debates in the Virginia convention
+already referred to. A representative from western Virginia declared:
+
+     But, sir, it is not the increase of population in the West
+     which this gentleman ought to fear. It is the energy which the
+     mountain breeze and western habits impart to those emigrants.
+     They are regenerated, politically I mean, sir. They soon
+     become _working politicians_; and the difference, sir, between
+     a _talking_ and a _working_ politician is immense. The Old
+     Dominion has long been celebrated for producing great orators;
+     the ablest metaphysicians in policy; men that can split hairs
+     in all abstruse questions of political economy. But at home,
+     or when they return from Congress, they have negroes to fan
+     them asleep. But a Pennsylvania, a New York, an Ohio, or a
+     western Virginia statesman, though far inferior in logic,
+     metaphysics, and rhetoric to an old Virginia statesman, has
+     this advantage, that when he returns home he takes off his
+     coat and takes hold of the plow. This gives him bone and
+     muscle, sir, and preserves his republican principles pure and
+     uncontaminated.
+
+So long as free land exists, the opportunity for a competency exists,
+and economic power secures political power. But the democracy born of
+free land, strong in selfishness and individualism, intolerant of
+administrative experience and education, and pressing individual liberty
+beyond its proper bounds, has its dangers as well as its benefits.
+Individualism in America has allowed a laxity in regard to governmental
+affairs which has rendered possible the spoils system and all the
+manifest evils that follow from the lack of a highly developed civic
+spirit. In this connection may be noted also the influence of frontier
+conditions in permitting lax business honor, inflated paper currency and
+wild-cat banking. The colonial and revolutionary frontier was the region
+whence emanated many of the worst forms of an evil currency.[32:1] The
+West in the War of 1812 repeated the phenomenon on the frontier of that
+day, while the speculation and wild-cat banking of the period of the
+crisis of 1837 occurred on the new frontier belt of the next tier of
+States. Thus each one of the periods of lax financial integrity
+coincides with periods when a new set of frontier communities had
+arisen, and coincides in area with these successive frontiers, for the
+most part. The recent Populist agitation is a case in point. Many a
+State that now declines any connection with the tenets of the Populists,
+itself adhered to such ideas in an earlier stage of the development of
+the State. A primitive society can hardly be expected to show the
+intelligent appreciation of the complexity of business interests in a
+developed society. The continual recurrence of these areas of
+paper-money agitation is another evidence that the frontier can be
+isolated and studied as a factor in American history of the highest
+importance.[32:2]
+
+The East has always feared the result of an unregulated advance of the
+frontier, and has tried to check and guide it. The English authorities
+would have checked settlement at the headwaters of the Atlantic
+tributaries and allowed the "savages to enjoy their deserts in quiet
+lest the peltry trade should decrease." This called out Burke's splendid
+protest:
+
+     If you stopped your grants, what would be the consequence? The
+     people would occupy without grants. They have already so
+     occupied in many places. You can not station garrisons in
+     every part of these deserts. If you drive the people from one
+     place, they will carry on their annual tillage and remove with
+     their flocks and herds to another. Many of the people in the
+     back settlements are already little attached to particular
+     situations. Already they have topped the Appalachian
+     Mountains. From thence they behold before them an immense
+     plain, one vast, rich, level meadow; a square of five hundred
+     miles. Over this they would wander without a possibility of
+     restraint; they would change their manners with their habits
+     of life; would soon forget a government by which they were
+     disowned; would become hordes of English Tartars; and, pouring
+     down upon your unfortified frontiers a fierce and irresistible
+     cavalry, become masters of your governors and your
+     counselers, your collectors and comptrollers, and of all the
+     slaves that adhered to them. Such would, and in no long time
+     must, be the effect of attempting to forbid as a crime and to
+     suppress as an evil the command and blessing of Providence,
+     "Increase and multiply." Such would be the happy result of an
+     endeavor to keep as a lair of wild beasts that earth which
+     God, by an express charter, has given to the children of men.
+
+But the English Government was not alone in its desire to limit the
+advance of the frontier and guide its destinies. Tidewater
+Virginia[34:1] and South Carolina[34:2] gerrymandered those colonies to
+insure the dominance of the coast in their legislatures. Washington
+desired to settle a State at a time in the Northwest; Jefferson would
+reserve from settlement the territory of his Louisiana Purchase north of
+the thirty-second parallel, in order to offer it to the Indians in
+exchange for their settlements east of the Mississippi. "When we shall
+be full on this side," he writes, "we may lay off a range of States on
+the western bank from the head to the mouth, and so range after range,
+advancing compactly as we multiply." Madison went so far as to argue to
+the French minister that the United States had no interest in seeing
+population extend itself on the right bank of the Mississippi, but
+should rather fear it. When the Oregon question was under debate, in
+1824, Smyth, of Virginia, would draw an unchangeable line for the limits
+of the United States at the outer limit of two tiers of States beyond
+the Mississippi, complaining that the seaboard States were being drained
+of the flower of their population by the bringing of too much land into
+market. Even Thomas Benton, the man of widest views of the destiny of
+the West, at this stage of his career declared that along the ridge of
+the Rocky mountains "the western limits of the Republic should be drawn,
+and the statue of the fabled god Terminus should be raised upon its
+highest peak, never to be thrown down."[35:1] But the attempts to limit
+the boundaries, to restrict land sales and settlement, and to deprive
+the West of its share of political power were all in vain. Steadily the
+frontier of settlement advanced and carried with it individualism,
+democracy, and nationalism, and powerfully affected the East and the Old
+World.
+
+The most effective efforts of the East to regulate the frontier came
+through its educational and religious activity, exerted by interstate
+migration and by organized societies. Speaking in 1835, Dr. Lyman
+Beecher declared: "It is equally plain that the religious and political
+destiny of our nation is to be decided in the West," and he pointed out
+that the population of the West "is assembled from all the States of the
+Union and from all the nations of Europe, and is rushing in like the
+waters of the flood, demanding for its moral preservation the immediate
+and universal action of those institutions which discipline the mind and
+arm the conscience and the heart. And so various are the opinions and
+habits, and so recent and imperfect is the acquaintance, and so sparse
+are the settlements of the West, that no homogeneous public sentiment
+can be formed to legislate immediately into being the requisite
+institutions. And yet they are all needed immediately in their utmost
+perfection and power. A nation is being 'born in a day.' . . . But what
+will become of the West if her prosperity rushes up to such a majesty of
+power, while those great institutions linger which are necessary to form
+the mind and the conscience and the heart of that vast world. It must
+not be permitted. . . . Let no man at the East quiet himself and dream
+of liberty, whatever may become of the West. . . . Her destiny is our
+destiny."[36:1]
+
+With the appeal to the conscience of New England, he adds appeals to her
+fears lest other religious sects anticipate her own. The New England
+preacher and school-teacher left their mark on the West. The dread of
+Western emancipation from New England's political and economic control
+was paralleled by her fears lest the West cut loose from her religion.
+Commenting in 1850 on reports that settlement was rapidly extending
+northward in Wisconsin, the editor of the _Home Missionary_ writes: "We
+scarcely know whether to rejoice or mourn over this extension of our
+settlements. While we sympathize in whatever tends to increase the
+physical resources and prosperity of our country, we can not forget that
+with all these dispersions into remote and still remoter corners of the
+land the supply of the means of grace is becoming relatively less and
+less." Acting in accordance with such ideas, home missions were
+established and Western colleges were erected. As seaboard cities like
+Philadelphia, New York, and Baltimore strove for the mastery of Western
+trade, so the various denominations strove for the possession of the
+West. Thus an intellectual stream from New England sources fertilized
+the West. Other sections sent their missionaries; but the real struggle
+was between sects. The contest for power and the expansive tendency
+furnished to the various sects by the existence of a moving frontier
+must have had important results on the character of religious
+organization in the United States. The multiplication of rival churches
+in the little frontier towns had deep and lasting social effects. The
+religious aspects of the frontier make a chapter in our history which
+needs study.
+
+From the conditions of frontier life came intellectual traits of
+profound importance. The works of travelers along each frontier from
+colonial days onward describe certain common traits, and these traits
+have, while softening down, still persisted as survivals in the place of
+their origin, even when a higher social organization succeeded. The
+result is that to the frontier the American intellect owes its striking
+characteristics. That coarseness and strength combined with acuteness
+and inquisitiveness; that practical, inventive turn of mind, quick to
+find expedients; that masterful grasp of material things, lacking in the
+artistic but powerful to effect great ends; that restless, nervous
+energy;[37:1] that dominant individualism, working for good and for
+evil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with
+freedom--these are traits of the frontier, or traits called out
+elsewhere because of the existence of the frontier. Since the days when
+the fleet of Columbus sailed into the waters of the New World, America
+has been another name for opportunity, and the people of the United
+States have taken their tone from the incessant expansion which has not
+only been open but has even been forced upon them. He would be a rash
+prophet who should assert that the expansive character of American life
+has now entirely ceased. Movement has been its dominant fact, and,
+unless this training has no effect upon a people, the American energy
+will continually demand a wider field for its exercise. But never again
+will such gifts of free land offer themselves. For a moment, at the
+frontier, the bonds of custom are broken and unrestraint is triumphant.
+There is not _tabula rasa_. The stubborn American environment is there
+with its imperious summons to accept its conditions; the inherited ways
+of doing things are also there; and yet, in spite of environment, and in
+spite of custom, each frontier did indeed furnish a new field of
+opportunity, a gate of escape from the bondage of the past; and
+freshness, and confidence, and scorn of older society, impatience of its
+restraints and its ideas, and indifference to its lessons, have
+accompanied the frontier. What the Mediterranean Sea was to the Greeks,
+breaking the bond of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new
+institutions and activities, that, and more, the ever retreating
+frontier has been to the United States directly, and to the nations of
+Europe more remotely. And now, four centuries from the discovery of
+America, at the end of a hundred years of life under the Constitution,
+the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the first period of
+American history.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1:1] A paper read at the meeting of the American Historical Association
+in Chicago, July 12, 1893. It first appeared in the Proceedings of the
+State Historical Society of Wisconsin, December 14, 1893, with the
+following note: "The foundation of this paper is my article entitled
+'Problems in American History,' which appeared in _The Aegis_, a
+publication of the students of the University of Wisconsin, November 4,
+1892. . . . It is gratifying to find that Professor Woodrow
+Wilson--whose volume on 'Division and Reunion' in the Epochs of American
+History Series, has an appreciative estimate of the importance of the
+West as a factor in American history--accepts some of the views set
+forth in the papers above mentioned, and enhances their value by his
+lucid and suggestive treatment of them in his article in _The Forum_,
+December, 1893, reviewing Goldwin Smith's 'History of the United
+States.'" The present text is that of the _Report of the American
+Historical Association_ for 1893, 199-227. It was printed with additions
+in the _Fifth Year Book of the National Herbart Society_, and in various
+other publications.
+
+[2:1] "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," v, p. 706.
+
+[5:1] Bancroft (1860 ed.), iii, pp. 344, 345, citing Logan MSS.;
+[Mitchell] "Contest in America," etc. (1752), p. 237.
+
+[5:2] Kercheval, "History of the Valley"; Bernheim, "German Settlements
+in the Carolinas"; Winsor, "Narrative and Critical History of America,"
+v, p. 304; Colonial Records of North Carolina, iv, p. xx; Weston,
+"Documents Connected with the History of South Carolina," p. 82; Ellis
+and Evans, "History of Lancaster County, Pa.," chs. iii, xxvi.
+
+[5:3] Parkman, "Pontiac," ii; Griffis, "Sir William Johnson," p. 6;
+Simms's "Frontiersmen of New York."
+
+[5:4] Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 311.
+
+[5:5] Wis. Hist. Cols., xi, p. 50; Hinsdale, "Old Northwest," p. 121;
+Burke, "Oration on Conciliation," Works (1872 ed.), i, p. 473.
+
+[5:6] Roosevelt, "Winning of the West," and citations there given;
+Cutler's "Life of Cutler."
+
+[6:1] Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxviii, pl. 13; McMaster, "Hist. of
+People of U. S.," i, pp. 4, 60, 61; Imlay and Filson, "Western Territory
+of America" (London, 1793); Rochefoucault-Liancourt, "Travels Through
+the United States of North America" (London, 1799); Michaux's "Journal,"
+in _Proceedings American Philosophical Society_, xxvi, No. 129; Forman,
+"Narrative of a Journey Down the Ohio and Mississippi in 1780-'90"
+(Cincinnati, 1888); Bartram, "Travels Through North Carolina," etc.
+(London, 1792); Pope, "Tour Through the Southern and Western
+Territories," etc. (Richmond, 1792); Weld, "Travels Through the States
+of North America" (London, 1799); Baily, "Journal of a Tour in the
+Unsettled States of North America, 1796-'97" (London, 1856);
+Pennsylvania Magazine of History, July, 1886; Winsor, "Narrative and
+Critical History of America," vii, pp. 491, 492, citations.
+
+[6:2] Scribner's Statistical Atlas, xxxix.
+
+[6:3] Turner, "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin"
+(Johns Hopkins University Studies, Series ix), pp. 61 ff.
+
+[7:1] Monette, "History of the Mississippi Valley," ii; Flint, "Travels
+and Residence in Mississippi," Flint, "Geography and History of the
+Western States," "Abridgment of Debates of Congress," vii, pp. 397, 398,
+404; Holmes, "Account of the U. S."; Kingdom, "America and the British
+Colonies" (London, 1820); Grund, "Americans," ii, chs. i, iii, vi
+(although writing in 1836, he treats of conditions that grew out of
+western advance from the era of 1820 to that time); Peck, "Guide for
+Emigrants" (Boston, 1831); Darby, "Emigrants' Guide to Western and
+Southwestern States and Territories"; Dana, "Geographical Sketches in
+the Western Country"; Kinzie, "Waubun"; Keating, "Narrative of Long's
+Expedition"; Schoolcraft, "Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
+River," "Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley," and
+"Lead Mines of the Missouri"; Andreas, "History of Illinois," i, 86-99;
+Hurlbut, "Chicago Antiquities"; McKenney, "Tour to the Lakes"; Thomas,
+"Travels Through the Western Country," etc. (Auburn, N. Y., 1819).
+
+[7:2] Darby, "Emigrants' Guide," pp. 272 ff; Benton, "Abridgment of
+Debates," vii, p. 397.
+
+[7:3] De Bow's _Review_, iv, p. 254; xvii, p. 428.
+
+[7:4] Grund, "Americans," ii, p. 8.
+
+[8:1] Peck, "New Guide to the West" (Cincinnati, 1848), ch. iv; Parkman,
+"Oregon Trail"; Hall, "The West" (Cincinnati, 1848); Pierce, "Incidents
+of Western Travel"; Murray, "Travels in North America"; Lloyd,
+"Steamboat Directory" (Cincinnati, 1856); "Forty Days in a Western
+Hotel" (Chicago), in _Putnam's Magazine_, December, 1894; Mackay, "The
+Western World," ii, ch. ii, iii; Meeker, "Life in the West"; Bogen,
+"German in America" (Boston, 1851); Olmstead, "Texas Journey"; Greeley,
+"Recollections of a Busy Life"; Schouler, "History of the United
+States," v, 261-267; Peyton, "Over the Alleghanies and Across the
+Prairies" (London, 1870); Loughborough, "The Pacific Telegraph and
+Railway" (St. Louis, 1849); Whitney, "Project for a Railroad to the
+Pacific" (New York, 1849); Peyton, "Suggestions on Railroad
+Communication with the Pacific, and the Trade of China and the Indian
+Islands"; Benton, "Highway to the Pacific" (a speech delivered in the U.
+S. Senate, December 16, 1850).
+
+[8:2] A writer in _The Home Missionary_ (1850), p. 239, reporting
+Wisconsin conditions, exclaims: "Think of this, people of the
+enlightened East. What an example, to come from the very frontier of
+civilization!" But one of the missionaries writes: "In a few years
+Wisconsin will no longer be considered as the West, or as an outpost of
+civilization, any more than Western New York, or the Western Reserve."
+
+[8:3] Bancroft (H. H.), "History of California," "History of Oregon,"
+and "Popular Tribunals"; Shinn, "Mining Camps."
+
+[10:1] See the suggestive paper by Prof. Jesse Macy, "The Institutional
+Beginnings of a Western State."
+
+[10:2] Shinn, "Mining Camps."
+
+[10:3] Compare Thorpe, in _Annals American Academy of Political and
+Social Science_, September, 1891; Bryce, "American Commonwealth" (1888),
+ii, p. 689.
+
+[11:1] Loria, Analisi della Proprieta Capitalista, ii, p. 15.
+
+[11:2] Compare "Observations on the North American Land Company,"
+London, 1796, pp. xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South Carolina," i,
+pp. 149-151; Turner, "Character and Influence of Indian Trade in
+Wisconsin," p. 18; Peck, "New Guide for Emigrants" (Boston, 1837), ch.
+iv; "Compendium Eleventh Census," i, p. xl.
+
+[12:1] See _post_, for illustrations of the political accompaniments of
+changed industrial conditions.
+
+[13:1] But Lewis and Clark were the first to explore the route from the
+Missouri to the Columbia.
+
+[14:1] "Narrative and Critical History of America," viii, p. 10; Sparks'
+"Washington Works," ix, pp. 303, 327; Logan, "History of Upper South
+Carolina," i; McDonald, "Life of Kenton," p. 72; Cong. Record, xxiii, p.
+57.
+
+[15:1] On the effect of the fur trade in opening the routes of
+migration, see the author's "Character and Influence of the Indian Trade
+in Wisconsin."
+
+[16:1] Lodge, "English Colonies," p. 152 and citations; Logan, "Hist. of
+Upper South Carolina," i, p. 151.
+
+[16:2] Flint, "Recollections," p. 9.
+
+[16:3] See Monette, "Mississippi Valley," i, p. 344.
+
+[17:1] Coues', "Lewis and Clark's Expedition," i, pp. 2, 253-259;
+Benton, in Cong. Record, xxiii, p. 57.
+
+[17:2] Hehn, _Das Salz_ (Berlin, 1873).
+
+[17:3] Col. Records of N. C., v, p. 3.
+
+[17:4] Findley, "History of the Insurrection in the Four Western
+Counties of Pennsylvania in the Year 1794" (Philadelphia, 1796), p. 35.
+
+[19:1] Hale, "Daniel Boone" (pamphlet).
+
+[21:1] Compare Baily, "Tour in the Unsettled Parts of North America"
+(London, 1856), pp. 217-219, where a similar analysis is made for 1796.
+See also Collot, "Journey in North America" (Paris, 1826), p. 109;
+"Observations on the North American Land Company" (London, 1796), pp.
+xv, 144; Logan, "History of Upper South Carolina."
+
+[22:1] "Spotswood Papers," in Collections of Virginia Historical
+Society, i, ii.
+
+[23:1] [Burke], "European Settlements" (1765 ed.), ii, p. 200.
+
+[23:2] Everest, in "Wisconsin Historical Collections," xii, pp. 7 ff.
+
+[23:3] Weston, "Documents connected with History of South Carolina," p.
+61.
+
+[25:1] See, for example, the speech of Clay, in the House of
+Representatives, January 30, 1824.
+
+[25:2] See the admirable monograph by Prof. H. B. Adams, "Maryland's
+Influence on the Land Cessions"; and also President Welling, in Papers
+American Historical Association, iii, p. 411.
+
+[26:1] Adams' Memoirs, ix, pp. 247, 248.
+
+[28:1] Author's article in _The Aegis_ (Madison, Wis.), November 4, 1892.
+
+[29:1] Compare Roosevelt, "Thomas Benton," ch. i.
+
+[30:1] _Political Science Quarterly_, ii, p. 457. Compare Sumner,
+"Alexander Hamilton," chs. ii-vii.
+
+[31:1] Compare Wilson, "Division and Reunion," pp. 15, 24.
+
+[32:1] On the relation of frontier conditions to Revolutionary taxation,
+see Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, ch. iii.
+
+[32:2] I have refrained from dwelling on the lawless characteristics of
+the frontier, because they are sufficiently well known. The gambler and
+desperado, the regulators of the Carolinas and the vigilantes of
+California, are types of that line of scum that the waves of advancing
+civilization bore before them, and of the growth of spontaneous organs
+of authority where legal authority was absent. Compare Barrows, "United
+States of Yesterday and To-morrow"; Shinn, "Mining Camps"; and Bancroft,
+"Popular Tribunals." The humor, bravery, and rude strength, as well as
+the vices of the frontier in its worst aspect, have left traces on
+American character, language, and literature, not soon to be effaced.
+
+[34:1] Debates in the Constitutional Convention, 1829-1830.
+
+[34:2] [McCrady] Eminent and Representative Men of the Carolinas, i, p.
+43; Calhoun's Works, i, pp. 401-406.
+
+[35:1] Speech in the Senate, March 1, 1825; Register of Debates, i, 721.
+
+[36:1] Plea for the West (Cincinnati, 1835), pp. 11 ff.
+
+[37:1] Colonial travelers agree in remarking on the phlegmatic
+characteristics of the colonists. It has frequently been asked how such
+a people could have developed that strained nervous energy now
+characteristic of them. Compare Sumner, "Alexander Hamilton," p. 98, and
+Adams, "History of the United States," i, p. 60; ix, pp. 240, 241. The
+transition appears to become marked at the close of the War of 1812, a
+period when interest centered upon the development of the West, and the
+West was noted for restless energy. Grund, "Americans," ii, ch. i.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE FIRST OFFICIAL FRONTIER OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY[39:1]
+
+
+In the Significance of the "Frontier in American History," I took for my
+text the following announcement of the Superintendent of the Census of
+1890:
+
+     Up to and including 1880 the country had a frontier of
+     settlement but at present the unsettled area has been so
+     broken into by isolated bodies of settlement that there can
+     hardly be said to be a frontier line. In the discussion of its
+     extent, the westward movement, etc., it cannot therefore any
+     longer have a place in the census reports.
+
+Two centuries prior to this announcement, in 1690, a committee of the
+General Court of Massachusetts recommended the Court to order what shall
+be the frontier and to maintain a committee to settle garrisons on the
+frontier with forty soldiers to each frontier town as a main
+guard.[39:2] In the two hundred years between this official attempt to
+locate the Massachusetts frontier line, and the official announcement of
+the ending of the national frontier line, westward expansion was the
+most important single process in American history.
+
+The designation "frontier town" was not, however, a new one. As early as
+1645 inhabitants of Concord, Sudbury, and Dedham, "being inland townes
+& but thinly peopled," were forbidden to remove without authority;[40:1]
+in 1669, certain towns had been the subject of legislation as "frontier
+towns;"[40:2] and in the period of King Philip's War there were various
+enactments regarding frontier towns.[40:3] In the session of 1675-6 it
+had been proposed to build a fence of stockades or stone eight feet high
+from the Charles "where it is navigable" to the Concord at Billerica and
+thence to the Merrimac and down the river to the Bay, "by which meanes
+that whole tract will [be] environed, for the security & safty (vnder
+God) of the people, their houses, goods & cattel; from the rage & fury
+of the enimy."[40:4] This project, however, of a kind of Roman Wall did
+not appeal to the frontiersmen of the time. It was a part of the
+antiquated ideas of defense which had been illustrated by the impossible
+equipment of the heavily armored soldier of the early Puritan regime
+whose corslets and head pieces, pikes, matchlocks, fourquettes and
+bandoleers, went out of use about the period of King Philip's War. The
+fifty-seven postures provided in the approved manual of arms for loading
+and firing the matchlock proved too great a handicap in the chase of the
+nimble savage. In this era the frontier fighter adapted himself to a
+more open order, and lighter equipment suggested by the Indian warrior's
+practice.[40:5]
+
+The settler on the outskirts of Puritan civilization took up the task of
+bearing the brunt of attack and pushing forward the line of advance
+which year after year carried American settlements into the wilderness.
+In American thought and speech the term "frontier" has come to mean the
+edge of settlement, rather than, as in Europe, the political boundary.
+By 1690 it was already evident that the frontier of settlement and the
+frontier of military defense were coinciding. As population advanced
+into the wilderness and thus successively brought new exposed areas
+between the settlements on the one side and the Indians with their
+European backers on the other, the military frontier ceased to be
+thought of as the Atlantic coast, but rather as a moving line bounding
+the un-won wilderness. It could not be a fortified boundary along the
+charter limits, for those limits extended to the South Sea, and
+conflicted with the bounds of sister colonies. The thing to be defended
+was the outer edge of this expanding society, a changing frontier, one
+that needed designation and re-statement with the changing location of
+the "West."
+
+It will help to illustrate the significance of this new frontier when we
+see that Virginia at about the same time as Massachusetts underwent a
+similar change and attempted to establish frontier towns, or
+"co-habitations," at the "heads," that is the first falls, the vicinity
+of Richmond, Petersburg, etc., of her rivers.[41:1]
+
+The Virginia system of "particular plantations" introduced along the
+James at the close of the London Company's activity had furnished a type
+for the New England town. In recompense, at this later day the New
+England town may have furnished a model for Virginia's efforts to create
+frontier settlements by legislation.
+
+An act of March 12, 1694-5, by the General Court of Massachusetts
+enumerated the "Frontier Towns" which the inhabitants were forbidden to
+desert on pain of loss of their lands (if landholders) or of
+imprisonment (if not landholders), unless permission to remove were
+first obtained.[42:1] These eleven frontier towns included Wells, York,
+and Kittery on the eastern frontier, and Amesbury, Haverhill, Dunstable,
+Chelmsford, Groton, Lancaster, Marlborough,[42:2] and Deerfield. In
+March, 1699-1700, the law was reenacted with the addition of Brookfield,
+Mendon, and Woodstock, together with seven others, Salisbury,
+Andover,[42:3] Billerica, Hatfield, Hadley, Westfield, and Northampton,
+which, "tho' they be not frontiers as those towns first named, yet lye
+more open than many others to an attack of an Enemy."[42:4]
+
+In the spring of 1704 the General Court of Connecticut, following
+closely the act of Massachusetts, named as her frontier towns, not to
+be deserted, Symsbury, Waterbury, Danbury, Colchester, Windham,
+Mansfield, and Plainfield.
+
+Thus about the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
+eighteenth century there was an officially designated frontier line for
+New England. The line passing through these enumerated towns represents:
+(1) the outskirts of settlement along the eastern coast and up the
+Merrimac and its tributaries,--a region threatened from the Indian
+country by way of the Winnepesaukee Lake; (2) the end of the ribbon of
+settlement up the Connecticut Valley, menaced by the Canadian Indians by
+way of the Lake Champlain and Winooski River route to the Connecticut;
+(3) boundary towns which marked the edges of that inferior agricultural
+region, where the hard crystalline rocks furnished a later foundation
+for Shays' Rebellion, opposition to the adoption of the Federal
+Constitution, and the abandoned farm; and (4) the isolated intervale of
+Brookfield which lay intermediate between these frontiers.
+
+Besides this New England frontier there was a belt of settlement in New
+York, ascending the Hudson to where Albany and Schenectady served as
+outposts against the Five Nations, who menaced the Mohawk, and against
+the French and the Canadian Indians, who threatened the Hudson by way of
+Lake Champlain and Lake George.[43:1] The sinister relations of leading
+citizens of Albany engaged in the fur trade with these Indians, even
+during time of war, tended to protect the Hudson River frontier at the
+expense of the frontier towns of New England.
+
+The common sequence of frontier types (fur trader, cattle-raising
+pioneer, small primitive farmer, and the farmer engaged in intensive
+varied agriculture to produce a surplus for export) had appeared, though
+confusedly, in New England. The traders and their posts had prepared the
+way for the frontier towns,[44:1] and the cattle industry was most
+important to the early farmers.[44:2] But the stages succeeded rapidly
+and intermingled. After King Philip's War, while Albany was still in the
+fur-trading stage, the New England frontier towns were rather like mark
+colonies, military-agricultural outposts against the Indian enemy.
+
+The story of the border warfare between Canada and the frontier towns
+furnishes ample material for studying frontier life and institutions;
+but I shall not attempt to deal with the narrative of the wars. The
+palisaded meeting-house square, the fortified isolated garrison houses,
+the massacres and captivities are familiar features of New England's
+history. The Indian was a very real influence upon the mind and morals
+as well as upon the institutions of frontier New England. The occasional
+instances of Puritans returning from captivity to visit the frontier
+towns, Catholic in religion, painted and garbed as Indians and speaking
+the Indian tongue,[44:3] and the half-breed children of captive Puritan
+mothers, tell a sensational part of the story; but in the normal, as
+well as in such exceptional relations of the frontier townsmen to the
+Indians, there are clear evidences of the transforming influence of the
+Indian frontier upon the Puritan type of English colonist.
+
+In 1703-4, for example, the General Court of Massachusetts ordered five
+hundred pairs of snowshoes and an equal number of moccasins for use in
+specified counties "lying Frontier next to the Wilderness."[45:1]
+Connecticut in 1704 after referring to her frontier towns and garrisons
+ordered that "said company of English and Indians shall, from time to
+time at the discretion of their chief co[=m]ander, range the woods to
+indevour the discovery of an approaching enemy, and in especiall manner
+from Westfield to Ousatunnuck.[45:2] . . . And for the incouragement of
+our forces gone or going against the enemy, this Court will allow out of
+the publick treasurie the su[=m]e of five pounds for every mans scalp of
+the enemy killed in this Colonie."[45:3] Massachusetts offered bounties
+for scalps, varying in amount according to whether the scalp was of men,
+or women and youths, and whether it was taken by regular forces under
+pay, volunteers in service, or volunteers without pay.[45:4] One of the
+most striking phases of frontier adjustment, was the proposal of the
+Rev. Solomon Stoddard of Northampton in the fall of 1703, urging the use
+of dogs "to hunt Indians as they do Bears." The argument was that the
+dogs would catch many an Indian who would be too light of foot for the
+townsmen, nor was it to be thought of as inhuman; for the Indians "act
+like wolves and are to be dealt with as wolves."[45:5] In fact
+Massachusetts passed an act in 1706 for the raising and increasing of
+dogs for the better security of the frontiers, and both Massachusetts
+and Connecticut in 1708 paid money from their treasury for the trailing
+of dogs.[46:1]
+
+Thus we come to familiar ground: the Massachusetts frontiersman like his
+western successor hated the Indians; the "tawney serpents," of Cotton
+Mather's phrase, were to be hunted down and scalped in accord with law
+and, in at least one instance by the chaplain himself, a Harvard
+graduate, the hero of the Ballad of Pigwacket, who
+
+                        many Indians slew,
+     And some of them he scalp'd when bullets round him flew.[46:2]
+
+Within the area bounded by the frontier line, were the broken fragments
+of Indians defeated in the era of King Philip's War, restrained within
+reservations, drunken and degenerate survivors, among whom the
+missionaries worked with small results, a vexation to the border
+towns,[46:3] as they were in the case of later frontiers. Although, as
+has been said, the frontier towns had scattered garrison houses, and
+palisaded enclosures similar to the neighborhood forts, or stations, of
+Kentucky in the Revolution, and of Indiana and Illinois in the War of
+1812, one difference is particularly noteworthy. In the case of
+frontiersmen who came down from Pennsylvania into the Upland South along
+the eastern edge of the Alleghanies, as well as in the more obvious case
+of the backwoodsmen of Kentucky and Tennessee, the frontier towns were
+too isolated from the main settled regions to allow much military
+protection by the older areas. On the New England frontier, because it
+was adjacent to the coast towns, this was not the case, and here, as in
+seventeenth century Virginia, great activity in protecting the frontier
+was evinced by the colonial authorities, and the frontier towns
+themselves called loudly for assistance. This phase of frontier defense
+needs a special study, but at present it is sufficient to recall that
+the colony sent garrisons to the frontier besides using the militia of
+the frontier towns; and that it employed rangers to patrol from garrison
+to garrison.[47:1]
+
+These were prototypes of the regular army post, and of rangers,
+dragoons, cavalry and mounted police who have carried the remoter
+military frontier forward. It is possible to trace this military cordon
+from New England to the Carolinas early in the eighteenth century, still
+neighboring the coast; by 1840 it ran from Fort Snelling on the upper
+Mississippi through various posts to the Sabine boundary of Texas, and
+so it passed forward until to-day it lies at the edge of Mexico and the
+Pacific Ocean.
+
+A few examples of frontier appeals for garrison aid will help to an
+understanding of the early form of the military frontier. Wells asks,
+June 30, 1689:
+
+     1 That yo{r} Hon{rs} will please to send us speedily twenty
+     Eight good brisk men that may be serviceable as a guard to us
+     whilest we get in our Harvest of Hay & Corn, (we being unable
+     to Defend ourselves & to Do our work), & also to Persue &
+     destroy the Enemy as occasion may require
+
+     2 That these men may be compleatly furnished with Arms,
+     Amunition & Provision, and that upon the Countrys account, it
+     being a Generall War.[48:1]
+
+Dunstable, "still weak and unable both to keep our Garrisons and to send
+out men to get hay for our Cattle; without doeing which wee cannot
+subsist," petitioned July 23, 1689, for twenty footmen for a month "to
+scout about the towne while wee get our hay." Otherwise, they say, they
+must be forced to leave.[48:2] Still more indicative of this temper is
+the petition of Lancaster, March 11, 1675-6, to the Governor and
+Council: "As God has made you father over us so you will have a father's
+pity to us." They asked a guard of men and aid, without which they must
+leave.[48:3] Deerfield pled in 1678 to the General Court, "unlest you
+will be pleased to take us (out of your fatherlike pitty) and Cherish us
+in yo{r} Bosomes we are like Suddainly to breathe out o{r} Last
+Breath."[48:4]
+
+The perils of the time, the hardships of the frontier towns and
+readiness of this particular frontier to ask appropriations for losses
+and wounds,[48:5] are abundantly illustrated in similar petitions from
+other towns. One is tempted at times to attribute the very frank
+self-pity and dependent attitude to a minister's phrasing, and to the
+desire to secure remission of taxes, the latter a frontier trait more
+often associated with riot than with religion in other regions.
+
+As an example of various petitions the following from Groton in 1704 is
+suggestive. Here the minister's hand is probably absent:
+
+     1 That wharas by the all dessposing hand of god who orders all
+     things in infinit wisdom it is our portion to liue In such a
+     part of the land which by reson of the enemy Is becom vary
+     dangras as by wofull experiants we haue falt both formarly and
+     of late to our grat damidg & discoridgment and espashaly this
+     last yere hauing lost so many parsons som killed som
+     captauated and som remoued and allso much corn & cattell and
+     horses & hay wharby wee ar gratly Impouerrished and brought
+     uary low & in a uary pore capasity to subsist any longer As
+     the barers her of can inform your honors
+
+     2 And more then all this our paster mr hobard is & hath been
+     for aboue a yere uncapable of desspansing the ordinances of
+     god amongst us & we haue advised with th Raurant Elders of our
+     nayboring churches and they aduise to hyare another minister
+     and to saport mr hobard and to make our adras to your honours
+     we haue but litel laft to pay our deus with being so pore and
+     few In numbr ather to town or cuntrey & we being a frantere
+     town & lyable to dangor there being no safty in going out nor
+     coming in but for a long time we haue got our brad with the
+     parel of our liues & allso broght uery low by so grat a charg
+     of bilding garisons & fortefycations by ordur of athorety &
+     thar is saural of our Inhabitants ramoued out of town & others
+     are prouiding to remoue, axcapt somthing be don for our
+     Incoridgment for we are so few & so por that we canot pay two
+     ministors nathar ar we wiling to liue without any we spand so
+     much time in waching and warding that we can doe but litel els
+     & truly we haue liued allmost 2 yers more like soulders then
+     other wise & accapt your honars can find out some bater way
+     for our safty and support we cannot uphold as a town ather by
+     remitting our tax or tow alow pay for building the sauarall
+     forts alowed and ordred by athority or alls to alow the one
+     half of our own Inhabitants to be under pay or to grant
+     liberty for our remufe Into our naiburing towns to tak cer for
+     oursalfs all which if your honors shall se meet to grant you
+     will hereby gratly incoridg your humble pateceners to conflect
+     with th many trubls we are ensadant unto.[50:1]
+
+Forced together into houses for protection, getting in their crops at
+the peril of their lives, the frontier townsmen felt it a hardship to
+contribute also to the taxes of the province while they helped to
+protect the exposed frontier. In addition there were grievances of
+absentee proprietors who paid no town taxes and yet profited by the
+exertions of the frontiersmen; of that I shall speak later.
+
+If we were to trust to these petitions asking favors from the government
+of the colony, we might impute to these early frontiersmen a degree of
+submission to authority unlike that of other frontiersmen,[51:1] and
+indeed not wholly warranted by the facts. Reading carefully, we find
+that, however prudently phrased, the petitions are in fact complaints
+against taxation; demands for expenditures by the colony in their
+behalf; criticisms of absentee proprietors; intimations that they may be
+forced to abandon the frontier position so essential to the defense of
+the settled eastern country.
+
+The spirit of military insubordination characteristic of the frontier is
+evident in the accounts of these towns, such as Pynchon's in 1694,
+complaining of the decay of the fortifications at Hatfield, Hadley, and
+Springfield: "the people a little wilful. Inclined to doe when and how
+they please or not at all."[51:2] Saltonstall writes from Haverhill
+about the same time regarding his ill success in recruiting: "I will
+never plead for an Haverhill man more," and he begs that some meet
+person be sent "to tell us what we should, may or must do. I have
+laboured in vain: some go this, and that, and the other way at pleasure,
+and do what they list."[51:3] This has a familiar ring to the student of
+the frontier.
+
+As in the case of the later frontier also, the existence of a common
+danger on the borders of settlement tended to consolidate not only the
+towns of Massachusetts into united action for defense, but also the
+various colonies. The frontier was an incentive to sectional combination
+then as it was to nationalism afterward. When in 1692 Connecticut sent
+soldiers from her own colony to aid the Massachusetts towns on the
+Connecticut River,[52:1] she showed a realization that the Deerfield
+people, who were "in a sense in the enemy's Mouth almost," as Pynchon
+wrote, constituted her own frontier[52:2] and that the facts of
+geography were more compelling than arbitrary colonial boundaries.
+Thereby she also took a step that helped to break down provincial
+antagonisms. When in 1689 Massachusetts and Connecticut sent agents to
+Albany to join with New York in making presents to the Indians of that
+colony in order to engage their aid against the French,[52:3] they
+recognized (as their leaders put it) that Albany was "the hinge" of the
+frontier in this exposed quarter. In thanking Connecticut for the
+assistance furnished in 1690 Livingston said: "I hope your honors do not
+look upon Albany as Albany, but as the frontier of your honor's Colony
+and of all their Majesties countries."[52:4]
+
+The very essence of the American frontier is that it is the graphic line
+which records the expansive energies of the people behind it, and which
+by the law of its own being continually draws that advance after it to
+new conquests. This is one of the most significant things about New
+England's frontier in these years. That long blood-stained line of the
+eastern frontier which skirted the Maine coast was of great importance,
+for it imparted a western tone to the life and characteristics of the
+Maine people which endures to this day, and it was one line of advance
+for New England toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence, leading again and
+again to diplomatic negotiations with the powers that held that river.
+The line of the towns that occupied the waters of the Merrimac, tempted
+the province continually into the wilderness of New Hampshire. The
+Connecticut river towns pressed steadily up that stream, along its
+tributaries into the Hoosatonic valleys, and into the valleys between
+the Green Mountains of Vermont. By the end of 1723, the General Court of
+Massachusetts enacted,--
+
+     That It will be of Great Service to all the Western Frontiers,
+     both in this and the Neighboring Government of Conn., to Build
+     a Block House above Northfield, in the most convenient Place
+     on the Lands called the Equivilant Lands, & to post in it
+     forty Able Men, English & Western Indians, to be employed in
+     Scouting at a Good Distance up Conn. River, West River, Otter
+     Creek, and sometimes Eastwardly above the Great Manadnuck, for
+     the Discovery of the Enemy Coming towards anny of the frontier
+     Towns.[53:1]
+
+The "frontier Towns" were preparing to swarm. It was not long before
+Fort Dummer replaced "the Block House," and the Berkshires and Vermont
+became new frontiers.
+
+The Hudson River likewise was recognized as another line of advance
+pointing the way to Lake Champlain and Montreal, calling out demands
+that protection should be secured by means of an aggressive advance of
+the frontier. _Canada delenda est_ became the rallying cry in New
+England as well as in New York, and combined diplomatic pressure and
+military expeditions followed in the French and Indian wars and in the
+Revolution, in which the children of the Connecticut and Massachusetts
+frontier towns, acclimated to Indian fighting, followed Ethan Allen and
+his fellows to the north.[54:1]
+
+Having touched upon some of the military and expansive tendencies of
+this first official frontier, let us next turn to its social, economic,
+and political aspects. How far was this first frontier a field for the
+investment of eastern capital and for political control by it? Were
+there evidences of antagonism between the frontier and the settled,
+property-holding classes of the coast? Restless democracy, resentfulness
+over taxation and control, and recriminations between the Western
+pioneer and the Eastern capitalist, have been characteristic features of
+other frontiers: were similar phenomena in evidence here? Did
+"Populistic" tendencies appear in this frontier, and were there
+grievances which explained these tendencies?[54:2]
+
+In such colonies as New York and Virginia the land grants were often
+made to members of the Council and their influential friends, even when
+there were actual settlers already on the grants. In the case of New
+England the land system is usually so described as to give the
+impression that it was based on a non-commercial policy, creating new
+Puritan towns by free grants of land made in advance to approved
+settlers. This description does not completely fit the case. That there
+was an economic interest on the part of absentee proprietors, and that
+men of political influence with the government were often among the
+grantees seems also to be true. Melville Egleston states the case thus:
+"The court was careful not to authorize new plantations unless they were
+to be in a measure under the influence of men in whom confidence could
+be placed, and commonly acted upon their application."[55:1] The
+frontier, as we shall observe later, was not always disposed to see the
+practice in so favorable a light.
+
+New towns seem to have been the result in some cases of the aggregation
+of settlers upon and about a large private grant; more often they
+resulted from settlers in older towns, where the town limits were
+extensive, spreading out to the good lands of the outskirts, beyond easy
+access to the meeting-house, and then asking recognition as a separate
+town. In some cases they may have been due to squatting on unassigned
+lands, or purchasing the Indian title and then asking confirmation. In
+others grants were made in advance of settlement.
+
+As early as 1636 the General Court had ordered that none go to new
+plantations without leave of a majority of the magistrates.[55:2] This
+made the legal situation clear, but it would be dangerous to conclude
+that it represented the actual situation. In any case there would be a
+necessity for the settlers finally to secure the assent of the Court.
+This could be facilitated by a grant to leading men having political
+influence with the magistrates. The complaints of absentee proprietors
+which find expression in the frontier petitions of the seventeenth and
+early eighteenth century seems to indicate that this happened. In the
+succeeding years of the eighteenth century the grants to leading men and
+the economic and political motives in the grants are increasingly
+evident. This whole topic should be made the subject of special study.
+What is here offered is merely suggestive of a problem.[56:1]
+
+The frontier settlers criticized the absentee proprietors, who profited
+by the pioneers' expenditure of labor and blood upon their farms, while
+they themselves enjoyed security in an eastern town. A few examples from
+town historians will illustrate this. Among the towns of the Merrimac
+Valley, Salisbury was planted on the basis of a grant to a dozen
+proprietors including such men as Mr. Bradstreet and the younger Dudley,
+only two of whom actually lived and died in Salisbury.[56:2] Amesbury
+was set off from Salisbury by division, one half of the signers of the
+agreement signing by mark. Haverhill was first seated in 1641, following
+petitions from Mr. Ward, the Ipswich minister, his son-in-law, Giles
+Firmin, and others. Firmin's letter to Governor Winthrop, in 1640,
+complains that Ipswich had given him his ground in that town on
+condition that he should stay in the town three years or else he could
+not sell it, "whenas others have no business but range from place to
+place on purpose to live upon the countrey."[56:3]
+
+Dunstable's large grant was brought about by a combination of leading
+men who had received grants after the survey of 1652; among such grants
+was one to the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company and another to
+Thomas Brattle of Boston. Apparently it was settled chiefly by others
+than the original grantees.[57:1] Groton voted in 1685 to sue the
+"non-Residenc" to assist in paying the rate, and in 1679 the General
+Court had ordered non-residents having land at Groton to pay rates for
+their lands as residents did.[57:2] Lancaster (Nashaway) was granted to
+proprietors including various craftsmen in iron, indicating, perhaps, an
+expectation of iron works, and few of the original proprietors actually
+settled in the town.[57:3] The grant of 1653-4 was made by the Court
+after reciting: (1) that it had ordered in 1647 that the "ordering and
+disposeing of the Plantation at Nashaway is wholly in the Courts power";
+(2) "Considering that there is allredy at Nashaway about nine Families
+and that severall both freemen and others intend to goe and setle there,
+some whereof are named in this Petition," etc.
+
+Mendon, begun in 1660 by Braintree people, is a particularly significant
+example. In 1681 the inhabitants petitioned that while they are not "of
+the number of those who dwell in their ceiled houses & yet say the time
+is not come that the Lord's house should be built," yet they have gone
+outside of their strength "unless others who are proprietors as well as
+ourselves, (the price of whose lands is much raysed by our carrying on
+public work & will be nothing worth if we are forced to quit the place)
+doo beare an equal share in Town charges with us. Those who are not yet
+come up to us are a great and far yet abler part of our
+Proprietors . . ."[57:4] In 1684 the selectmen inform the General Court
+that one half of the proprietors, two only excepted, are dwelling in
+other places, "Our proprietors, abroad," say they, "object that they see
+no reason why they should pay as much for thayer lands as we do for our
+Land and stock, which we answer that if their be not a noff of reason
+for it, we are sure there is more than enough of necessity to supply
+that is wanting in reason."[58:1] This is the authentic voice of the
+frontier.
+
+Deerfield furnishes another type, inasmuch as a considerable part of its
+land was first held by Dedham, to which the grant was made as a
+recompense for the location of the Natick Indian reservation. Dedham
+shares in the town often fell into the hands of speculators, and
+Sheldon, the careful historian of Deerfield, declares that not a single
+Dedham man became a permanent resident of the grant. In 1678 Deerfield
+petitioned the General Court as follows:
+
+     You may be pleased to know that the very principle & best of
+     the land; the best for soile; the best for situation; as lying
+     in y{e} centre & midle of the town: & as to quantity, nere
+     half, belongs unto eight or 9 proprietors each and every of
+     which, are never like to come to a settlement amongst us,
+     which we have formerly found grievous & doe Judge for the
+     future will be found intollerable if not altered. O{r}
+     minister, Mr. Mather . . . & we ourselves are much discouraged
+     as judging the Plantation will be spoiled if thes proprietors
+     may not be begged, or will not be bought up on very easy terms
+     outt of their Right . . . Butt as long as the maine of the
+     plantation Lies in men's hands that can't improve it
+     themselves, neither are ever like to putt such tenants on to
+     it as shall be likely to advance the good of y{e} place in
+     Civill or sacred Respects; he, ourselves, and all others that
+     think of going to it, are much discouraged.[59:1]
+
+Woodstock, later a Connecticut town, was settled under a grant in the
+Nipmuc country made to the town of Roxbury. The settlers, who located
+their farms near the trading post about which the Indians still
+collected, were called the "go-ers," while the "stayers" were those who
+remained in Roxbury, and retained half of the new grant; but it should
+be added that they paid the go-ers a sum of money to facilitate the
+settlement.
+
+This absentee proprietorship and the commercial attitude toward the
+lands of new towns became more evident in succeeding years of the
+eighteenth century. Leicester, for example, was confirmed by the General
+Court in 1713. The twenty shares were divided among twenty-two
+proprietors, including Jeremiah Dummer, Paul Dudley (Attorney-General),
+William Dudley (like Paul a son of the Governor, Joseph Dudley), Thomas
+Hutchinson (father of the later Governor), John Clark (the political
+leader), and Samuel Sewall (son of the Chief Justice). These were all
+men of influence, and none of the proprietors became inhabitants of
+Leicester. The proprietors tried to induce the fifty families, whose
+settlement was one of the conditions on which the grant was made, to
+occupy the eastern half of the township reserving the rest as their
+absolute property.[59:2]
+
+The author of a currency tract, in 1716, entitled "Some Considerations
+upon the Several Sorts of Banks," remarks that formerly, when land was
+easy to be obtained, good men came over as indentured servants; but now,
+he says, they are runaways, thieves, and disorderly persons. The remedy
+for this, in his opinion, would be to induce servants to come over by
+offering them homes when the terms of indenture should expire.[60:1] He
+therefore advocates that townships should be laid out four or five miles
+square in which grants of fifty or sixty acres could be made to
+servants.[60:2] Concern over the increase of negro slaves in
+Massachusetts seems to have been the reason for this proposal. It
+indicates that the current practice in disposing of the lands did not
+provide for the poorer people.
+
+But Massachusetts did not follow this suggestion of a homestead policy.
+On the contrary, the desire to locate towns to create continuous lines
+of settlement along the roads between the disconnected frontiers and to
+protect boundary claims by granting tiers of towns in the disputed
+tract, as well, no doubt, as pressure from financial interests, led the
+General Court between 1715 and 1762 to dispose of the remaining public
+domain of Massachusetts under conditions that made speculation and
+colonization by capitalists important factors.[60:3] When in 1762
+Massachusetts sold a group of townships in the Berkshires to the highest
+bidders (by whole townships),[60:4] the transfer from the
+social-religious to the economic conception was complete, and the
+frontier was deeply influenced by the change to "land mongering."
+
+In one respect, however, there was an increasing recognition of the
+religious and social element in settling the frontier, due in part, no
+doubt, to a desire to provide for the preservation of eastern ideals and
+influences in the West. Provisions for reserving lands within the
+granted townships for the support of an approved minister, and for
+schools, appear in the seventeenth century and become a common feature
+of the grants for frontier towns in the eighteenth.[61:1] This practice
+with respect to the New England frontier became the foundation for the
+system of grants of land from the public domain for the support of
+common schools and state universities by the federal government from its
+beginning, and has been profoundly influential in later Western States.
+
+Another ground for discontent over land questions was furnished by the
+system of granting lands within the town by the commoners. The principle
+which in many, if not all, cases guided the proprietors in distributing
+the town lots is familiar and is well stated in the Lancaster town
+records (1653):
+
+     And, whereas Lotts are Now Laid out for the most part Equally
+     to Rich and poore, Partly to keepe the Towne from Scatering to
+     farr, and partly out of Charitie and Respect to men of meaner
+     estate, yet that Equallitie (which is the rule of God) may be
+     observed, we Covenant and Agree, That in a second Devition and
+     so through all other Devitions of Land the mater shall be
+     drawne as neere to _equallitie according to mens estates_ as
+     wee are able to doe, That he which hath now more then his
+     estate Deserveth in home Lotts and entervale Lotts shall haue
+     so much Less: and he that hath Less then his estate Deserveth
+     shall haue so much more.[62:1]
+
+This peculiar doctrine of "equality" had early in the history of the
+colony created discontents. Winthrop explained the principle which
+governed himself and his colleagues in the case of the Boston committee
+of 1634 by saying that their divisions were arranged "partly to prevent
+the neglect of trades." This is a pregnant idea; it underlay much of the
+later opposition of New England as a manufacturing section to the free
+homestead or cheap land policy, demanded by the West and by the labor
+party, in the national public domain. The migration of labor to free
+lands meant that higher wages must be paid to those who remained. The
+use of the town lands by the established classes to promote an approved
+form of society naturally must have had some effect on migration.
+
+But a more effective source of disputes was with respect to the relation
+of the town proprietors to the public domain of the town in contrast
+with the non-proprietors as a class. The need of keeping the town
+meeting and the proprietors' meeting separate in the old towns in
+earlier years was not so great as it was when the new-comers became
+numerous. In an increasing degree these new-comers were either not
+granted lands at all, or were not admitted to the body of proprietors
+with rights in the possession of the undivided town lands. Contentions
+on the part of the town meeting that it had the right of dealing with
+the town lands occasionally appear, significantly, in the frontier towns
+of Haverhill, Massachusetts, Simsbury, Connecticut, and in the towns of
+the Connecticut Valley.[63:1] Jonathan Edwards, in 1751, declared that
+there had been in Northampton for forty or fifty years "two parties
+somewhat like the court and country parties of England. . . . The first
+party embraced the great proprietors of land, and the parties concerned
+about land and other matters."[63:2] The tendency to divide up the
+common lands among the proprietors in individual possession did not
+become marked until the eighteenth century; but the exclusion of some
+from possession of the town lands and the "equality" in allotment
+favoring men with already large estates must have attracted ambitious
+men who were not of the favored class to join in the movement to new
+towns. Religious dissensions would combine to make frontier society as
+it formed early in the eighteenth century more and more democratic,
+dissatisfied with the existing order, and less respectful of authority.
+We shall not understand the relative radicalism of parts of the
+Berkshires, Vermont and interior New Hampshire without enquiry into the
+degree in which the control over the lands by a proprietary monopoly
+affected the men who settled on the frontier.
+
+The final aspect of this frontier to be examined, is the attitude of the
+conservatives of the older sections towards this movement of westward
+advance. President Dwight in the era of the War of 1812 was very
+critical of the "foresters," but saw in such a movement a safety valve
+to the institutions of New England by allowing the escape of the
+explosive advocates of "Innovation."[63:3]
+
+Cotton Mather is perhaps not a typical representative of the
+conservative sentiment at the close of the seventeenth century, but his
+writings may partly reflect the attitude of Boston Bay toward New
+England's first Western frontier. Writing in 1694 of "Wonderful Passages
+which have Occurred, First in the Protections and then in the
+Afflictions of New England," he says:
+
+     One while the Enclosing of _Commons_ hath made Neighbours,
+     that should have been like Sheep, to _Bite and devour one
+     another_. . . . Again, Do our _Old_ People, any of them _Go
+     Out_ from the Institutions of God, Swarming into New
+     Settlements, where they and their Untaught Families are like
+     to _Perish for Lack of Vision_? They that have done so,
+     heretofore, have to their Cost found, that they were got unto
+     the _Wrong side of the Hedge_, in their doing so. Think, here
+     _Should this be done any more?_ We read of Balaam, in Num. 22,
+     23. He was to his Damage, _driven to the_ Wall, when he would
+     needs make an unlawful Salley forth after the _Gain_ of this
+     World. . . . Why, when men, for the Sake of Earthly Gain,
+     would be _going out_ into the _Warm_ Sun, they drive _Through
+     the Wall_, and the _Angel of the Lord_ becomes their Enemy.
+
+In his essay on "Frontiers Well-Defended" (1707) Mather assures the
+pioneers that they "dwell in a Hatsarmaneth," a place of "tawney
+serpents," are "inhabitants of the Valley of Achor," and are "the Poor
+of this World." There may be significance in his assertion: "It is
+remarkable to see that when the Unchurched Villages, have been so many
+of them, _utterly broken up_, in the _War_, that has been upon us, those
+that have had _Churches_ regularly formed in them, have generally been
+under a more _sensible Protection_ of Heaven." "Sirs," he says, "a
+_Church-State_ well form'd may fortify you wonderfully!" He recommends
+abstention from profane swearing, furious cursing, Sabbath breaking,
+unchastity, dishonesty, robbing of God by defrauding the ministers of
+their dues, drunkenness, and revels and he reminds them that even the
+Indians have family prayers! Like his successors who solicited
+missionary contributions for the salvation of the frontier in the
+Mississippi Valley during the forties of the nineteenth century, this
+early spokesman for New England laid stress upon teaching anti-popery,
+particularly in view of the captivity that might await them.
+
+In summing up, we find many of the traits of later frontiers in this
+early prototype, the Massachusetts frontier. It lies at the edge of the
+Indian country and tends to advance. It calls out militant qualities and
+reveals the imprint of wilderness conditions upon the psychology and
+morals as well as upon the institutions of the people. It demands common
+defense and thus becomes a factor for consolidation. It is built on the
+basis of a preliminary fur trade, and is settled by the combined and
+sometimes antagonistic forces of eastern men of property (the absentee
+proprietors) and the democratic pioneers. The East attempted to regulate
+and control it. Individualistic and democratic tendencies were
+emphasized both by the wilderness conditions and, probably, by the prior
+contentions between the proprietors and non-proprietors of the towns
+from which settlers moved to the frontier. Removal away from the control
+of the customary usages of the older communities and from the
+conservative influence of the body of the clergy, increased the
+innovating tendency. Finally the towns were regarded by at least one
+prominent representative of the established order in the East, as an
+undesirable place for the re-location of the pillars of society. The
+temptation to look upon the frontier as a field for investment was
+viewed by the clergy as a danger to the "institutions of God." The
+frontier was "the Wrong side of the Hedge."
+
+But to this "wrong side of the hedge" New England men continued to
+migrate. The frontier towns of 1695 were hardly more than suburbs of
+Boston. The frontier of a century later included New England's colonies
+in Vermont, Western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the Connecticut
+Reserve, and the Ohio Company's settlement in the Old Northwest
+Territory. By the time of the Civil War the frontier towns of New
+England had occupied the great prairie zone of the Middle West and were
+even planted in Mormon Utah and in parts of the Pacific Coast. New
+England's sons had become the organizers of a Greater New England in the
+West, captains of industry, political leaders, founders of educational
+systems, and prophets of religion, in a section that was to influence
+the ideals and shape the destiny of the nation in ways to which the eyes
+of men like Cotton Mather were sealed.[66:1]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39:1] Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, April,
+1914, xvii, 250-271. Reprinted with permission of the Society.
+
+[39:2] Massachusetts Archives, xxxvi, p. 150.
+
+[40:1] Massachusetts Colony Records, ii, p. 122.
+
+[40:2] _Ibid._, vol. iv, pt. ii, p. 439; Massachusetts Archives, cvii,
+pp. 160-161.
+
+[40:3] See, for example, Massachusetts Colony Records, v, 79; Green,
+"Groton During the Indian Wars," p. 39; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New
+England," p. 58.
+
+[40:4] Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, pp. 174-176.
+
+[40:5] Osgood, "American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century," i, p.
+501, and citations: cf. Publications of this Society, xii, pp. 38-39.
+
+[41:1] Hening, "Statutes at Large," iii, p. 204: cf. 1 Massachusetts
+Historical Collections, v, p. 129, for influence of the example of the
+New England town. On Virginia frontier conditions see Alvord and
+Bidgood, "First Explorations of the Trans-Allegheny Region," pp. 23-34,
+93-95. P. A. Bruce, "Institutional History of Virginia," ii, p. 97,
+discusses frontier defense in the seventeenth century. [See chapter iii,
+_post_.]
+
+[42:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxx, 240; Massachusetts Province Laws, i,
+pp. 194, 293.
+
+[42:2] In a petition (read March 3, 1692-3) of settlers "in Sundry Farms
+granted in those Remote Lands Scituate and Lyeing between Sudbury,
+Concord, Marlbury, Natick and Sherburne & Westerly is the Wilderness,"
+the petitioners ask easement of taxes and extension into the Natick
+region in order to have means to provide for the worship of God, and
+say:
+
+"Wee are not Ignorant that by reason of the present Distressed Condition
+of those that dwell in these Frontier Towns, divers are meditating to
+remove themselves into such places where they have not hitherto been
+conserned in the present Warr and desolation thereby made, as also that
+thereby they may be freed from that great burthen of public taxes
+necessarily accruing thereby, Some haveing already removed themselves.
+Butt knowing for our parts that wee cannot run from the hand of a
+Jealous God, doe account it our duty to take such Measures as may inable
+us to the performance of that duty wee owe to God, the King, & our
+Familyes" (Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 1).
+
+[42:3] In a petition of 1658 Andover speaks of itself as "a remote
+upland plantation" (Massachusetts Archives, cxii, p. 99).
+
+[42:4] Massachusetts Province Laws, i, p. 402.
+
+[43:1] Convenient maps of settlement, 1660-1700, are in E. Channing,
+"History of the United States," i, pp. 510-511, ii, end; Avery, "History
+of the United States and its People," ii, p. 398. A useful
+contemporaneous map for conditions at the close of King Philip's War is
+Hubbard's map of New England in his "Narrative" published in Boston,
+1677. See also L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New England," pp. 56-57, 70.
+
+[44:1] Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England," pp. 90, 95,
+129-132; F. J. Turner, "Indian Trade in Wisconsin," p. 13; McIlwain,
+"Wraxall's Abridgement," introduction; the town histories abound in
+evidence of the significance of the early Indian traders' posts,
+transition to Indian land cessions, and then to town grants.
+
+[44:2] Weeden, _loc. cit._, pp. 64-67; M. Egleston, "New England Land
+System," pp. 31-32; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 37, 206, 267-268;
+Connecticut Colonial Records, vii, p. 111, illustrations of cattle
+brands in 1727.
+
+[44:3] Hutchinson, "History" (1795), ii, p. 129, note, relates such a
+case of a Groton man; see also Parkman, "Half-Century," vol. i, ch. iv,
+citing Maurault, "Histoire des Abenakis," p. 377.
+
+[45:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, pp. 4, 84, 85, 87, 88.
+
+[45:2] Hoosatonic.
+
+[45:3] Connecticut Records, iv, pp. 463, 464.
+
+[45:4] Massachusetts Colony Records, v, p. 72; Massachusetts Province
+Laws, i, pp. 176, 211, 292, 558, 594, 600; Massachusetts Archives, lxxi,
+pp. 7, 89, 102. Cf. Publications of this Society, vii, 275-278.
+
+[45:5] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 290.
+
+[46:1] Judd, "Hadley," p. 272; 4 Massachusetts Historical Collections,
+ii, p. 235.
+
+[46:2] Farmer and Moore, "Collections," iii, p. 64. The frontier woman
+of the farther west found no more extreme representative than Hannah
+Dustan of Haverhill, with her trophy of ten scalps, for which she
+received a bounty of L50 (Parkman, "Frontenac," 1898, p. 407, note).
+
+[46:3] For illustrations of resentment against those who protected the
+Christian Indians, see F. W. Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp. 145-155.
+
+[47:1] For example, Massachusetts Archives, lxx, p. 261; Bailey,
+"Andover," p. 179; Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 63; Proceedings
+Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp. 504-519. Parkman,
+"Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390, and "Half-Century of Conflict"
+(Boston, 1898), i, p. 55, sketches the frontier defense.
+
+[48:1] Massachusetts Archives, cvii, p. 155.
+
+[48:2] _Ibid._, cvii, p. 230; cf. 230 a.
+
+[48:3] Massachusetts Archives, lxviii, p. 156.
+
+[48:4] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 189.
+
+[48:5] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, 46-48, 131, 134, 135 _et passim_.
+
+[50:1] Massachusetts Archives, lxxi, p. 107: cf. Metcalf, "Mendon," p.
+130; Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 288. The frontier of Virginia in 1755
+and 1774 showed similar conditions: see, for example, the citations to
+Washington's Writings in Thwaites, "France in America," pp. 193-195; and
+frontier letters in Thwaites and Kellogg, "Dunmore's War," pp. 227, 228
+_et passim_. The following petition to Governor Gooch of Virginia, dated
+July 30, 1742, affords a basis for comparison with a Scotch-Irish
+frontier:
+
+We your pettionours humbly sheweth that we your Honours Loly and
+Dutifull Subganckes hath ventred our Lives & all that we have In
+settling ye back parts of Virginia which was a veri Great Hassirt &
+Dengrous, for it is the Hathins [heathens] Road to ware, which has
+proved hortfull to severil of ous that were ye first settlers of these
+back woods & wee your Honibill pettionors some time a goo petitioned
+your Honnour for to have Commisioned men amungst ous which we your
+Honnours most Duttifull subjects thought properist men & men that had
+Hart and Curidg to hed us yn time of [war] & to defend your Contray &
+your poor Sogbacks Intrist from ye voilince of ye Haithen--But yet agine
+we Humbly persume to poot your Honnour yn mind of our Great want of them
+in hopes that your Honner will Grant a Captins' Commission to John
+McDowell, with follring ofishers, and your Honnours' Complyence in this
+will be Great settisfiction to your most Duttifull and Humbil
+pettioners--and we as in Duty bond shall Ever pray . . . (Calendar of
+Virginia State Papers, i, p. 235).
+
+[51:1] But there is a note of deference in Southern frontier petitions
+to the Continental Congress--to be discounted, however, by the
+remoteness of that body. See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the
+Revolutionary Era" (_American Historical Review_, i, pp. 70, 251). The
+demand for remission of taxes is a common feature of the petitions there
+quoted.
+
+[51:2] Proceedings Massachusetts Historical Society, xliii, pp. 506 ff.
+
+[51:3] _Ibid._, xliii, p. 518.
+
+[52:1] Connecticut Colonial Records, iv, p. 67.
+
+[52:2] In a petition of February 22, 1693-4, Deerfield calls itself the
+"most Utmost Frontere Town in the County of West Hampshire"
+(Massachusetts Archives, cxiii, p. 57 a).
+
+[52:3] Judd, "Hadley," p. 249.
+
+[52:4] W. D. Schuyler-Lighthall, "Glorious Enterprise," p. 16.
+
+[53:1] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, p. 405.
+
+[54:1] "I want to have your warriours come and see me," wrote Allen to
+the Indians of Canada in 1775, "and help me fight the King's Regular
+Troops. You know they stand all close together, rank and file, and my
+men fight so as Indians do, and I want your warriours to join with me
+and my warriours, like brothers, and ambush the Regulars: if you will, I
+will give you money, blankets, tomahawks, knives, paint, and any thing
+that there is in the army, just like brothers; and I will go with you
+into the woods to scout; and my men and your men will sleep together,
+and eat and drink together, and fight Regulars, because they first
+killed our brothers" (American Archives, 4th Series, ii, p. 714).
+
+[54:2] Compare A. McF. Davis, "The Shays Rebellion a Political
+Aftermath" (Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, xxi, pp. 58, 62,
+75-79).
+
+[55:1] "Land System of the New England Colonies," p. 30.
+
+[55:2] Massachusetts Colony Records, i, p. 167.
+
+[56:1] Compare Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England," i,
+pp. 270-271; Gookin, "Daniel Gookin," pp. 106-161; and the histories of
+Worcester for illustrations of how the various factors noted could be
+combined in a single town.
+
+[56:2] F. Merrill, "Amesbury," pp. 5, 50.
+
+[56:3] B. L. Mirick, "Haverhill," pp. 9, 10.
+
+[57:1] Green, "Early Records of Groton," pp. 49, 70, 90.
+
+[57:2] _Ibid._
+
+[57:3] Worcester County History, i, pp. 2, 3.
+
+[57:4] J. G. Metcalf, "Annals of Mendon," p. 85.
+
+[58:1] P. 96. Compare the Kentucky petition of 1780 given in Roosevelt,
+"Winning of the West," ii, p. 398, and the letter from that frontier
+cited in Turner, "Western State-Making" (_American Historical Review_,
+i, p. 262), attacking the Virginia "Nabobs," who hold absentee land
+titles. "Let the _great men_," say they, "whom the land belongs to come
+and defend it."
+
+[59:1] Sheldon, "Deerfield," i, pp. 188-189.
+
+[59:2] These facts are stated on the authority of E. Washburn,
+"Leicester," pp. 5-15: compare Major Stephen Sewall to Jeremiah Dummer,
+1717, quoted in Weeden, "Economic and Social History of New England,"
+ii, p. 505, note 4.
+
+[60:1] Compare the Virginia system, Bruce, "Economic History of Virginia
+in the Seventeenth Century," ii, pp. 42, 43.
+
+[60:2] For this item I am indebted to our associate, Mr. Andrew McF.
+Davis: see his "Colonial Currency Reprints," i, pp. 335-349.
+
+[60:3] Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts" (1768), ii, pp. 331, 332,
+has an instructive comment. A. C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents of Our
+National Land System," p. 84; L. K. Mathews, "Expansion of New England,"
+pp. 82 ff.
+
+[60:4] J. G. Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197.
+
+[61:1] Jos. Schafer, "Origin of the System of Land Grants for
+Education," pp. 25-33.
+
+[62:1] H. D. Hurd (ed.), "History of Worcester County," i, p. 6. The
+italics are mine.
+
+[63:1] Egleston, "Land System of the New England Colonies," pp. 39-41.
+
+[63:2] _Ibid._, p. 41.
+
+[63:3] T. Dwight, "Travels" (1821), ii, pp. 459-463.
+
+[66:1] [See F. J. Turner, "Greater New England in the Middle of the
+Nineteenth Century," in American Antiquarian Society "Proceedings,"
+1920.]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE OLD WEST[67:1]
+
+
+It is not the oldest West with which this chapter deals. The oldest West
+was the Atlantic coast. Roughly speaking, it took a century of Indian
+fighting and forest felling for the colonial settlements to expand into
+the interior to a distance of about a hundred miles from the coast.
+Indeed, some stretches were hardly touched in that period. This conquest
+of the nearest wilderness in the course of the seventeenth century and
+in the early years of the eighteenth, gave control of the maritime
+section of the nation and made way for the new movement of westward
+expansion which I propose to discuss.
+
+In his "Winning of the West," Roosevelt dealt chiefly with the region
+beyond the Alleghanies, and with the period of the later eighteenth
+century, although he prefaced his account with an excellent chapter
+describing the backwoodsmen of the Alleghanies and their social
+conditions from 1769 to 1774. It is important to notice, however, that
+he is concerned with a backwoods society already formed; that he ignores
+the New England frontier and its part in the winning of the West, and
+does not recognize that there was a West to be won between New England
+and the Great Lakes. In short, he is interested in the winning of the
+West beyond the Alleghanies by the southern half of the frontier folk.
+
+There is, then, a western area intermediate between the coastal
+colonial settlements of the seventeenth century and the trans-Alleghany
+settlements of the latter portion of the eighteenth century. This
+section I propose to isolate and discuss under the name of the Old West,
+and in the period from about 1676 to 1763. It includes the back country
+of New England, the Mohawk Valley, the Great Valley of Pennsylvania, the
+Shenandoah Valley, and the Piedmont--that is, the interior or upland
+portion of the South, lying between the Alleghanies and the head of
+navigation of the Atlantic rivers marked by the "fall line."[68:1]
+
+In this region, and in these years, are to be found the beginnings of
+much that is characteristic in Western society, for the Atlantic coast
+was in such close touch with Europe that its frontier experience was
+soon counteracted, and it developed along other lines. It is unfortunate
+that the colonial back country appealed so long to historians solely in
+connection with the colonial wars, for the development of its society,
+its institutions and mental attitude all need study. Its history has
+been dealt with in separate fragments, by states, or towns, or in
+discussions of special phases, such as German and Scotch-Irish
+immigration. The Old West as a whole can be appreciated only by
+obliterating the state boundaries which conceal its unity, by
+correlating the special and fragmentary studies, and by filling the gaps
+in the material for understanding the formation of its society. The
+present paper is rather a reconnaissance than a conquest of the field, a
+program for study of the Old West rather than an exposition of it.
+
+The end of the period proposed may be placed about 1763, and the
+beginning between 1676 and 1700. The termination of the period is marked
+by the Peace of Paris in 1763, and the royal proclamation of that year
+forbidding settlement beyond the Alleghanies. By this time the
+settlement of the Old West was fairly accomplished, and new advances
+were soon made into the "Western Waters" beyond the mountains and into
+the interior of Vermont and New Hampshire. The isolation of the
+transmontane settlements, and the special conditions and doctrines of
+the Revolutionary era during which they were formed, make a natural
+distinction between the period of which I am to speak and the later
+extension of the West.
+
+The beginning of the period is necessarily an indeterminate date, owing
+to the different times of colonizing the coastal areas which served as
+bases of operations in the westward advance. The most active movements
+into the Old West occurred after 1730. But in 1676 New England, having
+closed the exhausting struggle with the Indians, known as King Philip's
+War, could regard her established settlements as secure, and go on to
+complete her possession of the interior. This she did in the midst of
+conflicts with the exterior Indian tribes which invaded her frontiers
+from New York and Canada during the French and Indian wars from 1690 to
+1760, and under frontier conditions different from the conditions of the
+earlier Puritan colonization. In 1676, Virginia was passing through
+Indian fighting--keenest along the fall line, where the frontier
+lay--and also experiencing a social revolt which resulted in the defeat
+of the democratic forces that sought to stay the progress of
+aristocratic control in the colony.[70:1] The date marks the end of the
+period when the Virginia tidewater could itself be regarded as a
+frontier region, and consequently the beginning of a more special
+interest in the interior.
+
+Let us first examine the northern part of the movement into the back
+country. The expansion of New England into the vacant spaces of its own
+section, in the period we have chosen for discussion, resulted in the
+formation of an interior society which contrasted in many ways with that
+of the coast, and which has a special significance in Western history,
+in that it was this interior New England people who settled the Greater
+New England in central and western New York, the Wyoming Valley, the
+Connecticut Reserve of Ohio, and much of the prairie areas of the Old
+Northwest. It is important to realize that the Old West included
+interior New England.
+
+The situation in New England at the close of the seventeenth century is
+indicated by the Massachusetts act of 1694 enumerating eleven towns,
+then on the frontier and exposed to raids, none of which might be
+voluntarily deserted without leave of the governor and council, on
+penalty of loss of their freeholds by the landowners, or fine of other
+inhabitants.[70:2]
+
+Thus these frontier settlers were made substantially garrisons, or "mark
+colonies." Crowded into the palisades of the town, and obliged in spite
+of their poverty to bear the brunt of Indian attack, their hardships are
+illustrated in the manly but pathetic letters of Deerfield's minister,
+Mr. Williams,[70:3] in 1704. Parkman succinctly describes the general
+conditions in these words:[70:4]
+
+     The exposed frontier of New England was between two and three
+     hundred miles long, and consisted of farms and hamlets loosely
+     scattered through an almost impervious forest. . . . Even in
+     so-called villages the houses were far apart, because, except
+     on the seashore, the people lived by farming. Such as were
+     able to do so fenced their dwellings with palisades, or built
+     them of solid timber, with loopholes, a projecting upper story
+     like a block house, and sometimes a flanker at one or more of
+     the corners. In the more considerable settlements the largest
+     of these fortified houses was occupied in time of danger by
+     armed men and served as a place of refuge for the neighbors.
+
+Into these places, in days of alarm, were crowded the outlying settlers,
+just as was the case in later times in the Kentucky "stations."
+
+In spite of such frontier conditions, the outlying towns continued to
+multiply. Between 1720 and the middle of the century, settlement crept
+up the Housatonic and its lateral valley into the Berkshires. About 1720
+Litchfield was established; in 1725, Sheffield; in 1730, Great
+Barrington; and in 1735 a road was cut and towns soon established
+between Westfield and these Housatonic settlements, thus uniting them
+with the older extensions along the Connecticut and its tributaries.
+
+In this period, scattered and sometimes unwelcome Scotch-Irish
+settlements were established, such as that at Londonderry, New
+Hampshire, and in the Berkshires, as well as in the region won in King
+Philip's War from the Nipmucks, whither there came also Huguenots.[72:1]
+
+In King George's War, the Connecticut River settlers found their
+frontier protection in such rude stockades as those at the sites of
+Keene, of Charlestown, New Hampshire (Number Four), Fort Shirley at the
+head of Deerfield River (Heath), and Fort Pelham (Rowe); while Fort
+Massachusetts (Adams) guarded the Hoosac gateway to the Hoosatonic
+Valley. These frontier garrisons and the self-defense of the
+backwoodsmen of New England are well portrayed in the pages of
+Parkman.[72:2] At the close of the war, settlement again expanded into
+the Berkshires, where Lennox, West Hoosac (Williamstown), and Pittsfield
+were established in the middle of the century. Checked by the fighting
+in the last French and Indian War, the frontier went forward after the
+Peace of Paris (1763) at an exceptional rate, especially into Vermont
+and interior New Hampshire. An anonymous writer gives a contemporary
+view of the situation on the eve of the Revolution:[72:3]
+
+     The richest parts remaining to be granted are on the northern
+     branches of the Connecticut river, towards Crown Point where
+     are great districts of fertile soil still unsettled. The North
+     part of New Hampshire, the province of Maine, and the
+     territory of Sagadahock have but few settlements in them
+     compared with the tracts yet unsettled. . . .
+
+     I should further observe that these tracts have since the
+     peace [_i. e._, 1763], been settling pretty fast: farms on the
+     river Connecticut are every day extending beyond the old fort
+     Dummer, for near thirty miles; and will in a few years reach
+     to Kohasser which is nearly two hundred miles; not that such
+     an extent will be one-tenth settled, but the new-comers do not
+     fix near their neighbors, and go on regularly, but take spots
+     that please them best, though twenty or thirty miles beyond
+     any others. This to people of a sociable disposition in Europe
+     would appear very strange, but the Americans do not regard the
+     near neighborhood of other farmers; twenty or thirty miles by
+     water they esteem no distance in matters of this sort; besides
+     in a country that promises well the intermediate space is not
+     long in filling up. Between Connecticut river and Lake
+     Champlain upon Otter Creek, and all along Lake Sacrament
+     [George] and the rivers that fall into it, and the whole
+     length of Wood Creek, are numerous settlements made since the
+     peace.[73:1]
+
+For nearly a hundred years, therefore, New England communities had been
+pushed out to new frontiers in the intervals between the almost
+continuous wars with the French and Indians. Probably the most
+distinctive feature in this frontier was the importance of the community
+type of settlement; in other words, of the towns, with their Puritan
+ideals in education, morals, and religion. This has always been a matter
+of pride to the statesmen and annalists of New England, as is
+illustrated by these words of Holland in his "Western Massachusetts,"
+commenting on the settlement of the Connecticut Valley in villages,
+whereby in his judgment morality, education, and urbanity were
+preserved:
+
+     The influence of this policy can only be fully appreciated
+     when standing by the side of the solitary settler's hut in the
+     West, where even an Eastern man has degenerated to a boor in
+     manners, where his children have grown up uneducated, and
+     where the Sabbath has become an unknown day, and religion and
+     its obligations have ceased to exercise control upon the heart
+     and life.
+
+Whatever may be the real value of the community type of settlement, its
+establishment in New England was intimately connected both with the
+Congregational religious organization and with the land system of the
+colonies of that section, under which the colonial governments made
+grants--not in tracts to individuals, but in townships to groups of
+proprietors who in turn assigned lands to the inhabitants without cost.
+The typical form of establishing a town was as follows: On application
+of an approved body of men, desiring to establish a new settlement, the
+colonial General Court would appoint a committee to view the desired
+land and report on its fitness; an order for the grant would then issue,
+in varying areas, not far from the equivalent of six miles square. In
+the eighteenth century especially, it was common to reserve certain lots
+of the town for the support of schools and the ministry. This was the
+origin of that very important feature of Western society, federal land
+grants for schools and colleges.[74:1] The General Courts also made
+regulations regarding the common lands, the terms for admitting
+inhabitants, etc., and thus kept a firm hand upon the social structure
+of the new settlements as they formed on the frontier.
+
+This practice, seen in its purity in the seventeenth century
+especially, was markedly different from the practices of other colonies
+in the settlement of their back lands. For during most of the period New
+England did not use her wild lands, or public domain, as a source of
+revenue by sale to individuals or to companies, with the reservation of
+quit-rents; nor attract individual settlers by "head rights," or
+fifty-acre grants, after the Virginia type; nor did the colonies of the
+New England group often make extensive grants to individuals, on the
+ground of special services, or because of influence with the government,
+or on the theory that the grantee would introduce settlers on his grant.
+They donated their lands to groups of men who became town proprietors
+for the purpose of establishing communities. These proprietors were
+supposed to hold the lands in trust, to be assigned to inhabitants under
+restraints to ensure the persistence of Puritan ideals.
+
+During most of the seventeenth century the proprietors awarded lands to
+the new-comers in accordance with this theory. But as density of
+settlement increased, and lands grew scarce in the older towns, the
+proprietors began to assert their legal right to the unoccupied lands
+and to refuse to share them with inhabitants who were not of the body of
+proprietors. The distinction resulted in class conflicts in the towns,
+especially in the eighteenth century,[75:1] over the ownership and
+disposal of the common lands.
+
+The new settlements, by a process of natural selection, would afford
+opportunity to the least contented, whether because of grievances, or
+ambitions, to establish themselves. This tended to produce a Western
+flavor in the towns on the frontier. But it was not until the original
+ideals of the land system began to change, that the opportunity to make
+new settlements for such reasons became common. As the economic and
+political ideal replaced the religious and social ideal, in the
+conditions under which new towns could be established, this became more
+possible.
+
+Such a change was in progress in the latter part of the seventeenth
+century and during the eighteenth. In 1713, 1715, and 1727,
+Massachusetts determined upon a policy of locating towns in advance of
+settlement, to protect her boundary claims. In 1736 she laid out five
+towns near the New Hampshire border, and a year earlier opened four
+contiguous towns to connect her Housatonic and Connecticut Valley
+settlements.[76:1] Grants in non-adjacent regions were sometimes made to
+old towns, the proprietors of which sold them to those who wished to
+move.
+
+The history of the town of Litchfield illustrates the increasing
+importance of the economic factor. At a time when Connecticut feared
+that Andros might dispose of the public lands to the disadvantage of the
+colony, the legislature granted a large part of Western Connecticut to
+the towns of Hartford and Windsor, _pro forma_, as a means of
+withdrawing the lands from his hands. But these towns refused to give up
+the lands after the danger had passed, and proceeded to sell part of
+them.[76:2] Riots occurred when the colonial authorities attempted to
+assert possession, and the matter was at length compromised in 1719 by
+allowing Litchfield to be settled in accordance with the town grants,
+while the colony reserved the larger part of northwestern Connecticut.
+In 1737 the colony disposed of its last unlocated lands by sale in lots.
+In 1762 Massachusetts sold a group of entire townships in the Berkshires
+to the highest bidders.[77:1]
+
+But the most striking illustration of the tendency, is afforded by the
+"New Hampshire grants" of Governor Wentworth, who, chiefly in the years
+about 1760, made grants of a hundred and thirty towns west of the
+Connecticut, in what is now the State of Vermont, but which was then in
+dispute between New Hampshire and New York. These grants, while in form
+much like other town grants, were disposed of for cash, chiefly to
+speculators who hastened to sell their rights to the throngs of
+land-seekers who, after the peace, began to pour into the Green Mountain
+region.
+
+It is needless to point out how this would affect the movement of
+Western settlement in respect to individualistic speculation in public
+lands; how it would open a career to the land jobbers, as well as to the
+natural leaders in the competitive movement for acquiring the best
+lands, for laying out town sites and building up new communities under
+"boom" conditions. The migratory tendency of New Englanders was
+increased by this gradual change in its land policy; the attachment to a
+locality was diminished. The later years showed increasing emphasis by
+New England upon individual success, greater respect for the self-made
+man who, in the midst of opportunities under competitive conditions,
+achieved superiority. The old dominance of town settlement, village
+moral police, and traditional class control gave way slowly. Settlement
+in communities and rooted Puritan habits and ideals had enduring
+influences in the regions settled by New Englanders; but it was in this
+Old West, in the years just before the Revolution, that individualism
+began to play an important role, along with the traditional habit of
+expanding in organized communities.
+
+The opening of the Vermont towns revealed more fully than before, the
+capability of New Englanders to become democratic pioneers, under
+characteristic frontier conditions. Their economic life was simple and
+self-sufficing. They readily adopted lynch law (the use of the "birch
+seal" is familiar to readers of Vermont history) to protect their land
+titles in the troubled times when these "Green Mountain Boys" resisted
+New York's assertion of authority. They later became an independent
+Revolutionary state with frontier directness, and in very many respects
+their history in the Revolutionary epoch is similar to that of settlers
+in Kentucky and Tennessee, both in assertion of the right to independent
+self government and in a frontier separatism.[78:1] Vermont may be
+regarded as the culmination of the frontier movement which I have been
+describing in New England.
+
+By this time two distinct New Englands existed--the one coastal, and
+dominated by commercial interests and the established congregational
+churches; the other a primitive agricultural area, democratic in
+principle, and with various sects increasingly indifferent to the fear
+of "innovation" which the dominant classes of the old communities felt.
+Already speculative land companies had begun New England settlements in
+the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, as well as on the lower Mississippi;
+and New England missions among the Indians, such as that at Stockbridge,
+were beginning the noteworthy religious and educational expansion of the
+section to the west.
+
+That this movement of expansion had been chiefly from south to north,
+along the river valleys, should not conceal from us the fact that it was
+in essential characteristics a Western movement, especially in the
+social traits that were developing. Even the men who lived in the long
+line of settlements on the Maine coast, under frontier conditions, and
+remote from the older centers of New England, developed traits and a
+democratic spirit that relate them closely to the Westerners, in spite
+of the fact that Maine is "down east" by preeminence.[79:1]
+
+The frontier of the Middle region in this period of the formation of the
+Old West, was divided into two parts, which happen to coincide with the
+colonies of New York and Pennsylvania. In the latter colony the trend of
+settlement was into the Great Valley, and so on to the Southern uplands;
+while the advance of settlement in New York was like that of New
+England, chiefly northward, following the line of Hudson River.
+
+The Hudson and the Mohawk constituted the area of the Old West in this
+part of the eighteenth century. With them were associated the Wallkill,
+tributary to the Hudson, and Cherry Valley near the Mohawk, along the
+sources of the Susquehanna. The Berkshires walled the Hudson in to the
+east; the Adirondacks and the Catskills to the west. Where the Mohawk
+Valley penetrated between the mountainous areas, the Iroquois Indians
+were too formidable for advance on such a slender line. Nothing but
+dense settlement along the narrow strip of the Hudson, if even that,
+could have furnished the necessary momentum for overcoming the Indian
+barrier; and this pressure was lacking, for the population was
+comparatively sparse in contrast with the task to be performed. What
+most needs discussion in the case of New York, therefore, is not the
+history of expansion as in other sections, but the absence of expansive
+power.
+
+The fur-trade had led the way up the Hudson, and made beginnings of
+settlements at strategic points near the confluence of the Mohawk. But
+the fur-trader was not followed by a tide of pioneers. One of the most
+important factors in restraining density of population in New York, in
+retarding the settlement of its frontier, and in determining the
+conditions there, was the land system of that colony.
+
+From the time of the patroon grants along the lower Hudson, great
+estates had been the common form of land tenure. Rensselaerswyck reached
+at one time over seven hundred thousand acres. These great patroon
+estates were confirmed by the English governors, who in their turn
+followed a similar policy. By 1732 two and one-half million acres were
+engrossed in manorial grants.[80:1] In 1764, Governor Colden wrote[80:2]
+that three of the extravagant grants contain,
+
+     as the proprietors claim, above a million acres each, several
+     others above 200,000. * * * Although these grants contain a
+     great part of the province, they are made in trifling
+     acknowledgements. The far greater part of them still remain
+     uncultivated, without any benefit to the community, and are
+     likewise a discouragement to the settling and improving the
+     lands in the neighborhood of them, for from the uncertainty of
+     their boundaries, the patentees of these great tracts are
+     daily enlarging their pretensions, and by tedious and most
+     expensive law suits, distress and ruin poor families who have
+     taken out grants near them.
+
+He adds that "the proprietors of the great tracts are not only freed
+from the quit-rents, which the other landholders in the province pay,
+but by their influence in the assembly are freed from every other public
+tax on their lands."
+
+In 1769 it was estimated that at least five-sixths of the inhabitants of
+Westchester County lived within the bounds of the great manors
+there.[81:1] In Albany County the Livingston manor spread over seven
+modern townships, and the great Van Rensselaer manor stretched
+twenty-four by twenty-eight miles along the Hudson; while still farther,
+on the Mohawk, were the vast possessions of Sir William Johnson.[81:2]
+
+It was not simply that the grants were extensive, but that the policy
+of the proprietors favored the leasing rather than the sale of the
+lands--frequently also of the stock, and taking payment in shares. It
+followed that settlers preferred to go to frontiers where a more liberal
+land policy prevailed. At one time it seemed possible that the tide of
+German settlement, which finally sought Pennsylvania and the up-country
+of the South, might flow into New York. In 1710, Governor Hunter
+purchased a tract in Livingston's manor and located nearly fifteen
+hundred Palatines on it to produce naval stores.[82:1] But the attempt
+soon failed; the Germans applied to the Indians on Schoharie Creek, a
+branch of the Mohawk, for a grant of land and migrated there, only to
+find that the governor had already granted the land. Again were the
+villages broken up, some remaining and some moving farther up the
+Mohawk, where they and accessions to their number established the
+frontier settlements about Palatine Bridge, in the region where, in the
+Revolution, Herkimer led these German frontiersmen to stem the British
+attack in the battle of Oriskany. They constituted the most effective
+military defense of Mohawk Valley. Still another portion took their way
+across to the waters of the Susquehanna, and at Tulpehockon Creek began
+an important center of German settlement in the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania.[82:2]
+
+The most important aspect of the history of the movement into the
+frontier of New York at this period, therefore, was the evidence which
+it afforded that in the competition for settlement between colonies
+possessing a vast area of vacant land, those which imposed feudal
+tenures and undemocratic restraints, and which exploited settlers, were
+certain to lose.
+
+The manorial practice gave a bad name to New York as a region for
+settlement, which not even the actual opportunities in certain parts of
+the colony could counteract. The diplomacy of New York governors during
+this period of the Old West, in securing a protectorate over the Six
+Nations and a consequent claim to their territory, and in holding them
+aloof from France, constituted the most effective contribution of that
+colony to the movement of American expansion. When lands of these tribes
+were obtained after Sullivan's expedition in the Revolution (in which
+New England soldiers played a prominent part), it was by the New England
+inundation into this interior that they were colonized. And it was under
+conditions like those prevailing in the later years of the expansion of
+settlements in New England itself, that this settlement of interior and
+western New York was effected.
+
+The result was, that New York became divided into two distinct peoples:
+the dwellers along Hudson Valley, and the Yankee pioneers of the
+interior. But the settlement of central and western New York, like the
+settlement of Vermont, is a story that belongs to the era in which the
+trans-Alleghany West was occupied.
+
+We can best consider the settlement of the share of the Old West which
+is located in Pennsylvania as a part of the migration which occupied the
+Southern Uplands, and before entering upon this it will be advantageous
+to survey that part of the movement toward the interior which proceeded
+westward from the coast. First let us observe the conditions at the
+eastern edge of these uplands, along the fall line in Virginia, in the
+latter part of the seventeenth century, in order that the process and
+the significance of the movement may be better understood.
+
+About the time of Bacon's Rebellion, in Virginia, strenuous efforts
+were made to protect the frontier line which ran along the falls of the
+river, against the attacks of Indians. This "fall line," as the
+geographers call it, marking the head of navigation, and thus the
+boundary of the maritime or lowland South, runs from the site of
+Washington, through Richmond, and on to Raleigh, North Carolina, and
+Columbia, South Carolina. Virginia having earliest advanced thus far to
+the interior, found it necessary in the closing years of the seventeenth
+century to draw a military frontier along this line. As early as 1675 a
+statute was enacted,[84:1] providing that paid troops of five hundred
+men should be drawn from the midland and most secure parts of the
+country and placed on the "heads of the rivers" and other places
+fronting upon the Indians. What was meant by the "heads of the rivers,"
+is shown by the fact that several of these forts were located either at
+the falls of the rivers or just above tidewater, as follows: one on the
+lower Potomac in Stafford County; one near the falls of the
+Rappahannock; one on the Mattapony; one on the Pamunky; one at the falls
+of the James (near the site of Richmond); one near the falls of the
+Appomattox, and others on the Blackwater, the Nansemond, and the Accomac
+peninsula, all in the eastern part of Virginia.
+
+Again, in 1679, similar provision was made,[84:2] and an especially
+interesting act was passed, making _quasi_ manorial grants to Major
+Lawrence Smith and Captain William Byrd, "to seate certain lands at the
+head [falls] of Rappahannock and James river" respectively. This scheme
+failed for lack of approval by the authorities in England.[84:3] But
+Byrd at the falls of the James near the present site of Richmond,
+Robert Beverley on the Rappahannock, and other frontier commanders on
+the York and Potomac, continued to undertake colonial defense. The
+system of mounted rangers was established in 1691, by which a
+lieutenant, eleven soldiers, and two Indians at the "heads" or falls of
+each great river were to scout for enemy,[85:1] and the Indian boundary
+line was strictly defined.
+
+By the opening years of the eighteenth century (1701), the assembly of
+Virginia had reached the conclusion that settlement would be the best
+means of protecting the frontiers, and that the best way of "settling in
+co-habitations upon the said land frontiers within this government will
+be by encouragements to induce societies of men to undertake the
+same."[85:2] It was declared to be inexpedient to have less than twenty
+fighting men in each "society," and provision was made for a land grant
+to be given to these societies (or towns) not less than 10,000 nor more
+than 30,000 acres upon any of the frontiers, to be held in common by the
+society. The power of ordering and managing these lands, and the
+settling and planting of them, was to remain in the society. Virginia
+was to pay the cost of survey, also quit-rents for the first twenty
+years for the two-hundred-acre tract as the site of the "co-habitation."
+Within this two hundred acres each member was to have a half-acre lot
+for living upon, and a right to two hundred acres next adjacent, until
+the thirty thousand acres were taken up. The members of the society
+were exempt from taxes for twenty years, and from the requirements of
+military duty except such as they imposed upon themselves. The
+resemblance to the New England town is obvious.
+
+"Provided alwayes," ran the quaint statute, "and it is the true intent
+and meaning of this act that for every five hundred acres of land to be
+granted in pursuance of this act there shall be and shall be continually
+kept upon the said land one christian man between sixteen and sixty
+years of age perfect of limb, able and fitt for service who shall alsoe
+be continually provided with a well fixed musquett or fuzee, a good
+pistoll, sharp simeter, tomahawk and five pounds of good clean pistoll
+powder and twenty pounds of sizable leaden bulletts or swan or goose
+shott to be kept within the fort directed by this act besides the powder
+and shott for his necessary or useful shooting at game. Provided also
+that the said warlike christian man shall have his dwelling and
+continual abode within the space of two hundred acres of land to be laid
+out in a geometricall square or as near that figure as conveniency will
+admit," etc. Within two years the society was required to cause a half
+acre in the middle of the "co-habitation" to be palisaded "with good
+sound pallisadoes at least thirteen foot long and six inches diameter in
+the middle of the length thereof, and set double and at least three foot
+within the ground."
+
+Such in 1701 was the idea of the Virginia tidewater assembly of a
+frontiersman, and of the frontier towns by which the Old Dominion should
+spread her population into the upland South. But the "warlike Christian
+man" who actually came to furnish the firing line for Virginia, was
+destined to be the Scotch-Irishman and the German with long rifle in
+place of "fuzee" and "simeter," and altogether too restless to have his
+continual abode within the space of two hundred acres. Nevertheless
+there are points of resemblance between this idea of societies settled
+about a fortified town and the later "stations" of Kentucky.[87:1]
+
+By the beginning of the eighteenth century the engrossing of the lands
+of lowland Virginia had progressed so far, the practice of holding large
+tracts of wasteland for reserves in the great plantations had become so
+common, that the authorities of Virginia reported to the home government
+that the best lands were all taken up,[87:2] and settlers were passing
+into North Carolina seeking cheap lands near navigable rivers. Attention
+was directed also to the Piedmont portions of Virginia, for by this time
+the Indians were conquered in this region. It was now possible to
+acquire land by purchase[87:3] at five shillings sterling for fifty
+acres, as well as by head-rights for importation or settlement, and land
+speculation soon turned to the new area.
+
+Already the Piedmont had been somewhat explored.[87:4] Even by the
+middle of the seventeenth century, fur-traders had followed the trail
+southwest from the James more than four hundred miles to the Catawbas
+and later to the Cherokees. Col. William Byrd had, as we have seen, not
+only been absorbing good lands in the lowlands, and defending his post
+at the falls of the James, like a Count of the Border, but he also
+engaged in this fur-trade and sent his pack trains along this trail
+through the Piedmont of the Carolinas,[87:5] and took note of the rich
+savannas of that region. Charleston traders engaged in rivalry for this
+trade.
+
+It was not long before cattle raisers from the older settlements,
+learning from the traders of the fertile plains and peavine pastures of
+this land, followed the fur-traders and erected scattered "cow-pens" or
+ranches beyond the line of plantations in the Piedmont. Even at the
+close of the seventeenth century, herds of wild horses and cattle ranged
+at the outskirts of the Virginia settlements, and were hunted by the
+planters, driven into pens, and branded somewhat after the manner of the
+later ranching on the Great Plains.[88:1] Now the cow-drovers and the
+cow-pens[88:2] began to enter the uplands. The Indians had by this time
+been reduced to submission in most of the Virginia Piedmont--as Governor
+Spotswood[88:3] reported in 1712, living "quietly on our frontiers,
+trafficking with the Inhabitants."
+
+After the defeat of the Tuscaroras and Yemassees about this time in the
+Carolinas, similar opportunities for expansion existed there. The cattle
+drovers sometimes took their herds from range to range; sometimes they
+were gathered permanently near the pens, finding the range sufficient
+throughout the year. They were driven to Charleston, or later sometimes
+even to Philadelphia and Baltimore markets. By the middle of the
+century, disease worked havoc with them in South Carolina[89:1] and
+destroyed seven-eighths of those in North Carolina; Virginia made
+regulations governing the driving of cattle through her frontier
+counties to avoid the disease, just as in our own time the northern
+cattlemen attempted to protect their herds against the Texas fever.
+
+Thus cattle raisers from the coast followed the fur-traders toward the
+uplands, and already pioneer farmers were straggling into the same
+region, soon to be outnumbered by the tide of settlement that flowed
+into the region from Pennsylvania.
+
+The descriptions of the uplands by contemporaneous writers are in
+glowing terms. Makemie, in his "Plain and Friendly Persuasion" (1705),
+declared "The best, richest, and most healthy part of your Country is
+yet to be inhabited, above the falls of every River, to the Mountains."
+Jones, in his "Present State of Virginia" (1724), comments on the
+convenience of tidewater transportation, etc., but declares that section
+"not nearly so healthy as the uplands and Barrens which serve for Ranges
+for Stock," although he speaks less enthusiastically of the savannas and
+marshes which lay in the midst of the forest areas. In fact, the
+Piedmont was by no means the unbroken forest that might have been
+imagined, for in addition to natural meadows, the Indians had burned
+over large tracts.[89:2] It was a rare combination of woodland and
+pasture, with clear running streams and mild climate.[89:3]
+
+The occupation of the Virginia Piedmont received a special impetus from
+the interest which Governor Spotswood took in the frontier. In 1710 he
+proposed a plan for intercepting the French in their occupation of the
+interior, by inducing Virginia settlement to proceed along one side of
+James River only, until this column of advancing pioneers should strike
+the attenuated line of French posts in the center. In the same year he
+sent a body of horsemen to the top of the Blue Ridge, where they could
+overlook the Valley of Virginia.[90:1] By 1714 he became active as a
+colonizer himself. Thirty miles above the falls of the Rappahannock, on
+the Rapidan at Germanna,[90:2] he settled a little village of German
+redemptioners (who in return for having the passage paid agreed to serve
+without wages for a term of years), to engage in his iron works, also to
+act as rangers on the frontier. From here, in 1716, with two companies
+of rangers and four Indians, Governor Spotswood and a band of Virginia
+gentlemen made a summer picnic excursion of two weeks across the Blue
+Ridge into the Shenandoah Valley. _Sic juvat transcendere montes_ was
+the motto of these Knights of the Golden Horse Shoe, as the governor
+dubbed them. But they were not the "warlike christian men" destined to
+occupy the frontier.
+
+Spotswood's interest in the advance along the Rappahannock, probably
+accounts for the fact that in 1720 Spotsylvania and Brunswick were
+organized as frontier counties of Virginia.[91:1] Five hundred dollars
+were contributed by the colony to the church, and a thousand dollars for
+arms and ammunition for the settlers in these counties. The fears of the
+French and Indians beyond the high mountains, were alleged as reasons
+for this advance. To attract settlers to these new counties, they were
+(1723) exempt from purchasing the lands under the system of head rights,
+and from payment of quit-rents for seven years after 1721. The free
+grants so obtained were not to exceed a thousand acres. This was soon
+extended to six thousand acres, but with provision requiring the
+settlement of a certain number of families upon the grant within a
+certain time. In 1729 Spotswood was ordered by the Council to produce
+"rights" and pay the quit-rents for the 59,786 acres which he claimed in
+this county.
+
+Other similar actions by the Council show that large holdings were
+developing there, also that the difficulty of establishing a frontier
+democracy in contact with the area of expanding plantations, was very
+real.[91:2] By the time of the occupation of the Shenandoah Valley,
+therefore, the custom was established in this part of Virginia,[91:3] of
+making grants of a thousand acres for each family settled. Speculative
+planters, influential with the Governor and Council secured grants of
+many thousand acres, conditioned upon seating a certain number of
+families, and satisfying the requirements of planting. Thus what had
+originally been intended as direct grants to the actual settler,
+frequently became grants to great planters like Beverley, who promoted
+the coming of Scotch-Irish and German settlers, or took advantage of
+the natural drift into the Valley, to sell lands in their grants, as a
+rule, reserving quit-rents. The liberal grants per family enabled these
+speculative planters, while satisfying the terms of settlement, to hold
+large portions of the grant for themselves. Under the lax requirements,
+and probably still more lax enforcement, of the provisions for actual
+cultivation or cattle-raising,[92:1] it was not difficult to hold such
+wild land. These conditions rendered possible the extension of a measure
+of aristocratic planter life in the course of time to the Piedmont and
+Valley lands of Virginia. It must be added, however, that some of the
+newcomers, both Germans and Scotch-Irish, like the Van Meters, Stover,
+and Lewis, also showed an ability to act as promoters in locating
+settlers and securing grants to themselves.
+
+In the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley, lay part of the estate of
+Lord Fairfax, some six million acres in extent, which came to the family
+by dower from the old Culpeper and Arlington grant of Northern Neck. In
+1748, the youthful Washington was surveying this estate along the upper
+waters of the Potomac, finding a bed under the stars and learning the
+life of the frontier.
+
+Lord Fairfax established his own Greenway manor,[92:2] and divided his
+domain into other manors, giving ninety-nine-year leases to settlers
+already on the ground at twenty shillings annually per hundred acres;
+while of the new-comers he exacted two shillings annual quit-rent for
+this amount of land in fee simple. Litigation kept land titles uncertain
+here, for many years. Similarly, Beverley's manor, about Staunton,
+represented a grant of 118,000 acres to Beverley and his associates on
+condition of placing the proper number of families on the tract.[93:1]
+Thus speculative planters on this frontier shared in the movement of
+occupation and made an aristocratic element in the up-country; but the
+increasing proportion of Scotch-Irish immigrants, as well as German
+settlers, together with the contrast in natural conditions, made the
+interior a different Virginia from that of the tidewater.
+
+As settlement ascended the Rappahannock, and emigrants began to enter
+the Valley from the north, so, contemporaneously, settlement ascended
+the James above the falls, succeeding to the posts of the
+fur-traders.[93:2] Goochland County was set off in 1728, and the growth
+of population led, as early as 1729, to proposals for establishing a
+city (Richmond) at the falls. Along the upper James, as on the
+Rappahannock, speculative planters bought headrights and located
+settlers and tenants to hold their grants.[93:3] Into this region came
+natives of Virginia, emigrants from the British isles, and scattered
+representatives of other lands, some of them coming up the James, others
+up the York, and still others arriving with the southward-moving current
+along both sides of the Blue Ridge.
+
+Before 1730 few settlers lived above the mouth of the Rivanna. In 1732
+Peter Jefferson patented a thousand acres at the eastern opening of its
+mountain gap, and here, under frontier conditions, Thomas Jefferson was
+born in 1743 near his later estate of Monticello. About him were pioneer
+farmers, as well as foresighted engrossers of the land. In the main his
+country was that of a democratic frontier people--Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and other sects,[94:1] out of
+sympathy with the established church and the landed gentry of the
+lowlands. This society in which he was born, was to find in Jefferson a
+powerful exponent of its ideals.[94:2] Patrick Henry was born in 1736
+above the falls, not far from Richmond, and he also was a mouthpiece of
+interior Virginia in the Revolutionary era. In short, a society was
+already forming in the Virginia Piedmont which was composed of many
+sects, of independent yeomen as well as their great planter leaders--a
+society naturally expansive, seeing its opportunity to deal in
+unoccupied lands along the frontier which continually moved toward the
+West, and in this era of the eighteenth century dominated by the
+democratic ideals of pioneers rather than by the aristocratic tendencies
+of slaveholding planters. As there were two New Englands, so there were
+by this time two Virginias, and the uplands belonged with the Old West.
+
+The advance across the fall line from the coast was, in North Carolina,
+much slower than in Virginia. After the Tuscarora War (1712-13) an
+extensive region west from Pamlico Sound was opened (1724). The region
+to the north, about the Roanoke, had before this begun to receive
+frontier settlers, largely from Virginia. Their traits are interestingly
+portrayed in Byrd's "Dividing Line." By 1728 the farthest inhabitants
+along the Virginia boundary were frontiersmen about Great Creek, a
+branch of the Roanoke.[94:3] The North Carolina commissioners desired to
+stop running the line after going a hundred and seventy miles, on the
+plea that they were already fifty miles beyond the outermost inhabitant,
+and there would be no need for an age or two to carry the line farther;
+but the Virginia surveyors pointed out that already speculators were
+taking up the land. A line from Weldon to Fayetteville would roughly
+mark the western boundary of North Carolina's sparse population of forty
+thousand souls.[95:1]
+
+The slower advance is explained, partly because of the later settlement
+of the Carolinas, partly because the Indians continued to be troublesome
+on the flanks of the advancing population, as seen in the Tuscarora and
+Yemassee wars, and partly because the pine barrens running parallel with
+the fall line made a zone of infertile land not attractive to settlers.
+The North Carolina low country, indeed, had from the end of the
+seventeenth century been a kind of southern frontier for overflow from
+Virginia; and in many ways was assimilated to the type of the up-country
+in its turbulent democracy, its variety of sects and peoples, and its
+primitive conditions. But under the lax management of the public lands,
+the use of "blank patents" and other evasions made possible the
+development of large landholding, side by side with headrights to
+settlers. Here, as in Virginia, a great proprietary grant extended
+across the colony--Lord Granville's proprietary was a zone embracing the
+northern half of North Carolina. Within the area, sales and quit-rents
+were administered by the agents of the owner, with the result that
+uncertainty and disorder of an agrarian nature extended down to the
+Revolution. There were likewise great speculative holdings, conditioned
+on seating a certain proportion of settlers, into which the frontiersmen
+were drifting.[95:2] But this system also made it possible for agents of
+later migrating congregations to establish colonies like that of the
+Moravians at Wachovia.[95:3] Thus, by the time settlers came into the
+uplands from the north, a land system existed similar to that of
+Virginia. A common holding was a square mile (640 acres), but in
+practice this did not prevent the accumulation of great estates.[96:1]
+Whereas Virginia's Piedmont area was to a large extent entered by
+extensions from the coast, that of North Carolina remained almost
+untouched by 1730.[96:2]
+
+The same is true of South Carolina. By 1730, settlement had progressed
+hardly eighty miles from the coast, even in the settled area of the
+lowlands. The tendency to engross the lowlands for large plantations was
+clear, here as elsewhere.[96:3] The surveyor-general reports in 1732
+that not as many as a thousand acres within a hundred miles of
+Charleston, or within twenty miles of a river or navigable creek, were
+unpossessed. In 1729 the crown ordered eleven townships of twenty
+thousand acres each to be laid out in rectangles, divided into fifty
+acres for each actual settler under a quit-rent of four shillings a year
+for every hundred acres, or proportionally, to be paid after the first
+ten years.[96:4] By 1732 these townships, designed to attract foreign
+Protestants, were laid out on the great rivers of the colony. As they
+were located in the middle region, east of the fall line, among pine
+barrens, or in malarial lands in the southern corner of the colony, they
+all proved abortive as towns, except Orangeburg[96:5] on the North
+Edisto, where German redemptioners made a settlement. The Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterians who came to Williamsburg, on Black River, suffered
+hardships; as did the Swiss who, under the visionary leadership of
+Purry, settled in the deadly climate of Purrysburg, on the lower
+Savannah. To Welsh colonists from Pennsylvania there was made a
+grant--known as the "Welsh tract," embracing over 173,000 acres on the
+Great Pedee (Marion County)[97:1] under headrights of fifty acres, also
+a bounty in provisions, tools, and livestock.
+
+These attempts, east of the fall line, are interesting as showing
+the colonial policy of marking out towns (which were to be
+politically-organized parishes, with representation in the legislature),
+and attracting foreigners thereto, prior to the coming of settlers from
+the North.
+
+The settlement of Georgia, in 1732, completed the southern line of
+colonization toward the Piedmont. Among the objects of the colony, as
+specified in the charters, were the relief of the poor and the
+protection of the frontiers. To guard against the tendency to engross
+the lands in great estates, already so clearly revealed in the older
+colonies, the Georgia trustees provided that the grants of fifty acres
+should not be alienated or divided, but should pass to the male heirs
+and revert to the trustees in case heirs were lacking. No grant greater
+than five hundred acres was permitted, and even this was made
+conditionally upon the holder settling ten colonists. However, under
+local conditions and the competition and example of neighboring
+colonies, this attempt to restrict land tenure in the interest of
+democracy broke down by 1750, and Georgia's land system became not
+unlike that of the other Southern colonies.[97:2]
+
+In 1734, Salzburgers had been located above Savannah, and within seven
+years some twelve hundred German Protestants were dwelling on the
+Georgia frontier; while a settlement of Scotch Highlanders at Darien,
+near the mouth of the Altamaha, protected the southern frontier. At
+Augusta, an Indian trading fort (1735), whence the dealers in peltry
+visited the Cherokee, completed the familiar picture of frontier
+advance.[98:1]
+
+We have now hastily surveyed the movement of the frontier of settlement
+westward from the lowlands, in the later years of the seventeenth and
+early part of the eighteenth century. There is much that is common in
+the whole line of advance. The original settlers engross the desirable
+lands of the older area. Indented servants and new-comers pass to the
+frontier seeking a place to locate their headrights, or plant new towns.
+Adventurous and speculative wealthy planters acquire large holdings in
+the new areas, and bring over settlers to satisfy the requirements of
+seating and cultivating their extensive grants, thus building up a
+yeomanry of small landholders side by side with the holders of large
+estates. The most far-sighted of the new-comers follow the example of
+the planters, and petition for increasing extensive grants. Meanwhile,
+pioneers like Abraham Wood, himself once an indented servant, and
+gentlemen like Col. William Byrd--prosecuting the Indian trade from
+their posts at the "heads" of the rivers, and combining frontier
+protection, exploring, and surveying--make known the more distant
+fertile soils of the Piedmont. Already in the first part of the
+eighteenth century, the frontier population tended to be a rude
+democracy, with a large representation of Scotch-Irish, Germans, Welsh,
+and Huguenot French settlers, holding religious faiths unlike that of
+the followers of the established church in the lowlands. The movement of
+slaves into the region was unimportant, but not unknown.
+
+The Virginia Valley was practically unsettled in 1730, as was much of
+Virginia's Piedmont area and all the Piedmont area of the Carolinas. The
+significance of the movement of settlers from the North into this vacant
+Valley and Piedmont, behind the area occupied by expansion from the
+coast is, that it was geographically separated from the westward
+movement from the coast, and that it was sufficient in volume to recruit
+the democratic forces and postpone for a long time the process of social
+assimilation to the type of the lowlands.
+
+As has been pointed out, especially in the Carolinas a belt of pine
+barrens, roughly eighty miles in breadth, ran parallel with the fall
+line and thus discouraged western advance across this belt, even before
+the head of navigation was reached. In Virginia, the Blue Ridge made an
+almost equally effective barrier, walling off the Shenandoah Valley from
+the westward advance. At the same time this valley was but a
+continuation of the Great Valley, that ran along the eastern edge of the
+Alleghanies in southeastern Pennsylvania, and included in its mountain
+trough the Cumberland and Hagerstown valleys. In short, a broad
+limestone band of fertile soil was stretched within mountain walls,
+southerly from Pennsylvania to southwestern Virginia; and here the
+watergaps opened the way to descend to the Carolina Piedmont. This whole
+area, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania, was rendered
+comparatively inaccessible to the westward movement from the lowlands,
+and was equally accessible to the population which was entering
+Pennsylvania.[99:1]
+
+Thus it happened that from about 1730 to 1760 a generation of settlers
+poured along this mountain trough into the southern uplands, or
+Piedmont, creating a new continuous social and economic area, which cut
+across the artificial colonial boundary lines, disarranged the regular
+extension of local government from the coast westward, and built up a
+new Pennsylvania in contrast with the old Quaker colonies, and a new
+South in contrast with the tidewater South. This New South composed the
+southern half of the Old West.
+
+From its beginning, Pennsylvania was advertised as a home for dissenting
+sects seeking freedom in the wilderness. But it was not until the exodus
+of German redemptioners,[100:1] from about 1717, that the Palatinate and
+neighboring areas sent the great tide of Germans which by the time of
+the Revolution made them nearly a third of the total population of
+Pennsylvania. It has been carefully estimated that in 1775 over 200,000
+Germans lived in the thirteen colonies, chiefly along the frontier zone
+of the Old West. Of these, a hundred thousand had their home in
+Pennsylvania, mainly in the Great Valley, in the region which is still
+so notably the abode of the "Pennsylvania Dutch."[100:2]
+
+Space does not permit us to describe this movement of
+colonization.[100:3] The entrance to the fertile limestone soils of the
+Great Valley of Pennsylvania was easy, in view of the low elevation of
+the South Mountain ridge, and the watergaps thereto. The continuation
+along the similar valley to the south, in Maryland and Virginia, was a
+natural one, especially as the increasing tide of emigrants raised the
+price of lands.[100:4] In 1719 the proprietor's price for Pennsylvania
+lands was ten pounds per hundred acres, and two shillings quit-rents. In
+1732 this became fifteen and one-half pounds, with a quit-rent of a half
+penny per acre.[101:1] During the period 1718 to 1732, when the Germans
+were coming in great numbers, the management of the lands fell into
+confusion, and many seated themselves as squatters, without
+title.[101:2] This was a fortunate possibility for the poor
+redemptioners, who had sold their service for a term of years in order
+to secure their transportation to America.
+
+By 1726 it was estimated that there were 100,000 squatters;[101:3] and
+of the 670,000 acres occupied between 1732 and 1740, it is estimated
+that 400,000 acres were settled without grants.[101:4] Nevertheless
+these must ultimately be paid for, with interest, and the concession of
+the right of preemption to squatters made this easier. But it was not
+until 1755 that the governor offered land free from purchase, and this
+was to be taken only west of the Alleghanies.[101:5]
+
+Although the credit system relieved the difficulty in Pennsylvania, the
+lands of that colony were in competition with the Maryland lands,
+offered between 1717 and 1738 at forty shillings sterling per hundred
+acres, which in 1738 was raised to five pounds sterling.[101:6] At the
+same time, in the Virginia Valley, as will be recalled, free grants were
+being made of a thousand acres per family. Although large tracts of the
+Shenandoah Valley had been granted to speculators like Beverley,
+Borden, and the Carters, as well as to Lord Fairfax, the owners sold
+six or seven pounds cheaper per hundred acres than did the Pennsylvania
+land office.[102:1] Between 1726 and 1734, therefore, the Germans began
+to enter this valley,[102:2] and before long they extended their
+settlements into the Piedmont of the Carolinas,[102:3] being recruited
+in South Carolina by emigrants coming by way of Charleston--especially
+after Governor Glenn's purchase from the Cherokee in 1755, of the
+extreme western portion of the colony. Between 1750 and the Revolution,
+these settlers in the Carolinas greatly increased in numbers.
+
+Thus a zone of almost continuous German settlements had been
+established, running from the head of the Mohawk in New York to the
+Savannah in Georgia. They had found the best soils, and they knew how to
+till them intensively and thriftily, as attested by their large,
+well-filled barns, good stock, and big canvas-covered Conestoga wagons.
+They preferred to dwell in groups, often of the same religious
+denomination--Lutherans, Reformed, Moravians, Mennonites, and many
+lesser sects. The diaries of Moravian missionaries from Pennsylvania,
+who visited them, show how the parent congregations kept in touch with
+their colonies[102:4] and how intimate, in general, was the bond of
+connection between this whole German frontier zone and that of
+Pennsylvania.
+
+Side by side with this German occupation of Valley and Piedmont, went
+the migration of the Scotch-Irish.[103:1] These lowland Scots had been
+planted in Ulster early in the seventeenth century. Followers of John
+Knox, they had the contentious individualism and revolutionary temper
+that seem natural to Scotch Presbyterianism. They were brought up on the
+Old Testament, and in the doctrine of government by covenant or compact.
+In Ireland their fighting qualities had been revealed in the siege of
+Londonderry, where their stubborn resistance balked the hopes of James
+II. However, religious and political disabilities were imposed upon
+these Ulstermen, which made them discontented, and hard times
+contributed to detach them from their homes. Their movement to America
+was contemporaneous with the heavy German migration. By the Revolution,
+it is believed that a third of the population of Pennsylvania was
+Scotch-Irish; and it has been estimated, probably too liberally, that a
+half million came to the United States between 1730 and 1770.[103:2]
+Especially after the Rebellion of 1745, large numbers of Highlanders
+came to increase the Scotch blood in the nation.[103:3] Some of the
+Scotch-Irish went to New England.[103:4] Given the cold shoulder by
+congregational Puritans, they passed to unsettled lands about Worcester,
+to the frontier in the Berkshires, and in southern New Hampshire at
+Londonderry--whence came John Stark, a frontier leader in the French
+and Indian War, and the hero of Bennington in the Revolution, as well as
+the ancestors of Horace Greeley and S. P. Chase. In New York, a
+Scotch-Irish settlement was planted on the frontier at Cherry
+Valley.[104:1] Scotch Highlanders came to the Mohawk,[104:2] where they
+followed Sir William Johnson and became Tory raiders in the Revolution.
+
+But it was in Pennsylvania that the center of Scotch-Irish power lay.
+"These bold and indigent strangers, saying as their excuse when
+challenged for titles that we had solicited for colonists and they had
+come accordingly,"[104:3] and asserting that "it was against the laws of
+God and nature that so much land should be idle while so many christians
+wanted it to work on and to raise their bread," squatted on the vacant
+lands, especially in the region disputed between Pennsylvania and
+Maryland, and remained in spite of efforts to drive them off. Finding
+the Great Valley in the hands of the Germans, they planted their own
+outposts along the line of the Indian trading path from Lancaster to
+Bedford; they occupied Cumberland Valley, and before 1760 pressed up the
+Juniata somewhat beyond the narrows, spreading out along its
+tributaries, and by 1768 had to be warned off from the Redstone country
+to avoid Indian trouble. By the time of the Revolution, their
+settlements made Pittsburgh a center from which was to come a new era in
+Pennsylvania history. It was the Scotch-Irish and German
+fur-traders[104:4] whose pack trains pioneered into the Ohio Valley in
+the days before the French and Indian wars. The messengers between
+civilization and savagery were such men,[105:1] as the Irish Croghan,
+and the Germans Conrad Weiser and Christian Post.
+
+Like the Germans, the Scotch-Irish passed into the Shenandoah
+Valley,[105:2] and on to the uplands of the South. In 1738 a delegation
+of the Philadelphia Presbyterian synod was sent to the Virginia governor
+and received assurances of security of religious freedom; the same
+policy was followed by the Carolinas. By 1760 a zone of Scotch-Irish
+Presbyterian churches extended from the frontiers of New England to the
+frontiers of South Carolina. This zone combined in part with the German
+zone, but in general Scotch-Irishmen tended to follow the valleys
+farther toward the mountains, to be the outer edge of this frontier.
+Along with this combined frontier stream were English, Welsh and Irish
+Quakers, and French Huguenots.[105:3]
+
+Among this moving mass, as it passed along the Valley into the Piedmont,
+in the middle of the eighteenth century, were Daniel Boone, John Sevier,
+James Robertson, and the ancestors of John C. Calhoun, Abraham Lincoln,
+Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson, James K. Polk, Sam Houston, and Davy
+Crockett, while the father of Andrew Jackson came to the Carolina
+Piedmont at the same time from the coast. Recalling that Thomas
+Jefferson's home was on the frontier, at the edge of the Blue Ridge, we
+perceive that these names represent the militant expansive movement in
+American life. They foretell the settlement across the Alleghanies in
+Kentucky and Tennessee; the Louisiana Purchase, and Lewis and Clark's
+transcontinental exploration; the conquest of the Gulf Plains in the
+War of 1812-15; the annexation of Texas; the acquisition of California
+and the Spanish Southwest. They represent, too, frontier democracy in
+its two aspects personified in Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln. It
+was a democracy responsive to leadership, susceptible to waves of
+emotion, of a "high religeous voltage"--quick and direct in action.
+
+The volume of this Northern movement into the Southern uplands is
+illustrated by the statement of Governor Tryon, of North Carolina, that
+in the summer and winter of 1765 more than a thousand immigrant wagons
+passed through Salisbury, in that colony.[106:1] Coming by families, or
+groups of families or congregations, they often drove their herds with
+them. Whereas in 1746 scarce a hundred fighting men were found in Orange
+and the western counties of North Carolina, there were in 1753 fully
+three thousand, in addition to over a thousand Scotch in the Cumberland;
+and they covered the province more or less thickly, from Hillsboro and
+Fayetteville to the mountains.[106:2] Bassett remarks that the
+Presbyterians received their first ministers from the synod of New York
+and Pennsylvania, and later on sent their ministerial students to
+Princeton College. "Indeed it is likely that the inhabitants of this
+region knew more about Philadelphia at that time than about Newbern or
+Edenton."[106:3]
+
+We are now in a position to note briefly, in conclusion, some of the
+results of the occupation of this new frontier during the first half of
+the eighteenth century--some of the consequences of this formation of
+the Old West.
+
+I. A fighting frontier had been created all along the line from New
+England to Georgia, which bore the brunt of French and Indian attacks
+and gave indispensable service during the Revolution. The significance
+of this fact could only be developed by an extended survey of the
+scattered border warfare of this era. We should have to see Rogers
+leading his New England Rangers, and Washington defending interior
+Virginia with his frontiersmen in their hunting shirts, in the French
+and Indian War. When all of the campaigns about the region of Canada,
+Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, central New York (Oriskany, Cherry
+Valley, Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois), Wyoming Valley,
+western Pennsylvania, the Virginia Valley, and the back country of the
+South are considered as a whole from this point of view, the meaning of
+the Old West will become more apparent.
+
+II. A new society had been established, differing in essentials from the
+colonial society of the coast. It was a democratic self-sufficing,
+primitive agricultural society, in which individualism was more
+pronounced than the community life of the lowlands. The indented servant
+and the slave were not a normal part of its labor system. It was engaged
+in grain and cattle raising, not in producing staples, and it found a
+partial means of supplying its scarcity of specie by the peltries which
+it shipped to the coast. But the hunter folk were already pushing
+farther on; the cow-pens and the range were giving place to the small
+farm, as in our own day they have done in the cattle country. It was a
+region of hard work and poverty, not of wealth and leisure. Schools and
+churches were secured under serious difficulty,[107:1] if at all; but in
+spite of the natural tendencies of a frontier life, a large portion of
+the interior showed a distinctly religious atmosphere.
+
+III. The Old West began the movement of internal trade which developed
+home markets and diminished that colonial dependence on Europe in
+industrial matters shown by the maritime and staple-raising sections.
+Not only did Boston and other New England towns increase as trading
+centers when the back country settled up, but an even more significant
+interchange occurred along the Valley and Piedmont. The German farmers
+of the Great Valley brought their woven linen, knitted stockings,
+firkins of butter, dried apples, grain, etc., to Philadelphia and
+especially to Baltimore, which was laid out in 1730. To this city also
+came trade from the Shenandoah Valley, and even from the Piedmont came
+peltry trains and droves of cattle and hogs to the same market.[108:1]
+The increase of settlement on the upper James resulted in the
+establishment of the city of Richmond at the falls of the river in 1737.
+Already the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the lowlands were finding
+rivals in the grain-raising area of interior Virginia and Maryland.
+Charleston prospered as the up-country of the Carolinas grew. Writing in
+the middle of the eighteenth century, Governor Glenn, of South Carolina,
+explained the apparent diminution of the colony's shipping thus:[108:2]
+
+     Our trade with New York and Philadelphia was of this sort,
+     draining us of all the little money and bills that we could
+     gather from other places, for their bread, flour, beer, hams,
+     bacon, and other things of their produce, all which, except
+     beer, our new townships begin to supply us with which are
+     settled with very industrious and consequently thriving
+     Germans.
+
+It was not long before this interior trade produced those rivalries for
+commercial ascendancy, between the coastwise cities, which still
+continue. The problem of internal improvements became a pressing one,
+and the statutes show increasing provision for roads, ferries, bridges,
+river improvements, etc.[109:1] The basis was being laid for a national
+economy, and at the same time a new source for foreign export was
+created.
+
+IV. The Old West raised the issues of nativism and a lower standard of
+comfort. In New England, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians had been frowned
+upon and pushed away by the Puritan townsmen.[109:2] In Pennsylvania,
+the coming of the Germans and the Scotch-Irish in such numbers caused
+grave anxiety. Indeed, a bill was passed to limit the importation of the
+Palatines, but it was vetoed.[109:3] Such astute observers as Franklin
+feared in 1753 that Pennsylvania would be unable to preserve its
+language and that even its government would become precarious.[109:4] "I
+remember," he declares, "when they modestly declined intermeddling in
+our elections, but now they come in droves and carry all before them,
+except in one or two counties;" and he lamented that the English could
+not remove their prejudices by addressing them in German.[109:5] Dr.
+Douglas[109:6] apprehended that Pennsylvania would "degenerate into a
+foreign colony" and endanger the quiet of the adjacent provinces. Edmund
+Burke, regretting that the Germans adhered to their own schools,
+literature, and language, and that they possessed great tracts without
+admixture of English, feared that they would not blend and become one
+people with the British colonists, and that the colony was threatened
+with the danger of being wholly foreign. He also noted that "these
+foreigners by their industry, frugality, and a hard way of living, in
+which they greatly exceed our people, have in a manner thrust them out
+in several places."[110:1] This is a phenomenon with which a succession
+of later frontiers has familiarized us. In point of fact the
+"Pennsylvania Dutch" remained through our history a very stubborn area
+to assimilate, with corresponding effect upon Pennsylvania politics.
+
+It should be noted also that this coming of non-English stock to the
+frontier raised in all the colonies affected, questions of
+naturalization and land tenure by aliens.[110:2]
+
+V. The creation of this frontier society--of which so large a portion
+differed from that of the coast in language and religion as well as in
+economic life, social structure, and ideals--produced an antagonism
+between interior and coast, which worked itself out in interesting
+fashion. In general this took these forms: contests between the
+property-holding class of the coast and the debtor class of the
+interior, where specie was lacking, and where paper money and a
+readjustment of the basis of taxation were demanded; contests over
+defective or unjust local government in the administration of taxes,
+fees, lands, and the courts; contests over apportionment in the
+legislature, whereby the coast was able to dominate, even when its white
+population was in the minority; contests to secure the complete
+separation of church and state; and, later, contests over slavery,
+internal improvements, and party politics in general. These contests are
+also intimately connected with the political philosophy of the
+Revolution and with the development of American democracy. In nearly
+every colony prior to the Revolution, struggles had been in progress
+between the party of privilege, chiefly the Eastern men of property
+allied with the English authorities, and the democratic classes,
+strongest in the West and the cities.
+
+This theme deserves more space than can here be allotted to it; but a
+rapid survey of conditions in this respect, along the whole frontier,
+will at least serve to bring out the point.
+
+In New England as a whole, the contest is less in evidence. That part of
+the friction elsewhere seen as the result of defective local government
+in the back country, was met by the efficiency of the town system; but
+between the interior and the coast there were struggles over
+apportionment and religious freedom. The former is illustrated by the
+convention that met in Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1776, to petition the
+States of Massachusetts and New Hampshire to relieve the financial
+distress and unfair legislative representation. Sixteen of the border
+towns of New Hampshire sent delegates to this convention. Two years
+later, these New Hampshire towns attempted to join Vermont.[111:1] As a
+Revolutionary State, Vermont itself was an illustration of the same
+tendency of the interior to break away from the coast. Massachusetts in
+this period witnessed a campaign between the paper money party which was
+entrenched in the more recently and thinly-settled areas of the interior
+and west, and the property-holding classes of the coast.[111:2] The
+opposition to the constitutions of 1778 and 1780 is tinctured with the
+same antagonism between the ideas of the newer part of the interior and
+of the coast.[112:1] Shays' Rebellion and the anti-federal opposition of
+1787-88 found its stronghold in the same interior areas.[112:2]
+
+The religious struggles continued until the democratic interior, where
+dissenting sects were strong, and where there was antagonism to the
+privileges of the congregational church, finally secured complete
+disestablishment in New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. But
+this belongs to a later period.[112:3]
+
+Pennsylvania affords a clear illustration of these sectional
+antagonisms. The memorial of the frontier "Paxton Boys," in 1764,
+demanded a right to share in political privileges with the older part of
+the colony, and protested against the apportionment by which the
+counties of Chester, Bucks, and Philadelphia, together with the city of
+Philadelphia, elected twenty-six delegates, while the five frontier
+counties had but ten.[112:4] The frontier complained against the failure
+of the dominant Quaker party of the coast to protect the interior
+against the Indians.[112:5] The three old wealthy counties under Quaker
+rule feared the growth of the West, therefore made few new counties, and
+carefully restricted the representation in each to preserve the majority
+in the old section. At the same time, by a property qualification they
+met the danger of the democratic city population. Among the points of
+grievance in this colony, in addition to apportionment and
+representation, was the difficulty of access to the county seat, owing
+to the size of the back counties. Dr. Lincoln has well set forth the
+struggle of the back country, culminating in its triumph in the
+constitutional convention of 1776, which was chiefly the work of the
+Presbyterian counties.[113:1] Indeed, there were two revolutions in
+Pennsylvania, which went on side by side: one a revolt against the
+coastal property-holding classes, the old dominant Quaker party, and the
+other a revolt against Great Britain, which was in this colony made
+possible only by the triumph of the interior.
+
+In Virginia, as early as 1710, Governor Spotswood had complained that
+the old counties remained small while the new ones were sometimes ninety
+miles long, the inhabitants being obliged to travel thirty or forty
+miles to their own court-house. Some of the counties had 1,700
+tithables, while others only a dozen miles square had 500. Justices of
+the peace disliked to ride forty or fifty miles to their monthly courts.
+Likewise there was disparity in the size of parishes--for example, that
+of Varina, on the upper James, had nine hundred tithables, many of whom
+lived fifty miles from their church. But the vestry refused to allow the
+remote parishioners to separate, because it would increase the parish
+levy of those that remained. He feared lest this would afford
+"opportunity to Sectarys to establish their opinions among 'em, and
+thereby shake that happy establishment of the Church of England which
+this colony enjoys with less mixture of Dissenters than any other of her
+Maj'tie's plantations, and when once Schism has crept into the Church,
+it will soon create faction in the Civil Government."
+
+That Spotswood's fears were well founded, we have already seen. As the
+sectaries of the back country increased, dissatisfaction with the
+established church grew. After the Revolution came, Jefferson, with the
+back country behind him, was able finally to destroy the establishment,
+and to break down the system of entails and primogeniture behind which
+the tobacco-planting aristocracy of the coast was entrenched. The desire
+of Jefferson to see slavery gradually abolished and popular education
+provided, is a further illustration of the attitude of the interior. In
+short, Jeffersonian democracy, with its idea of separation of church and
+state, its wish to popularize education, and its dislike for special
+privilege, was deeply affected by the Western society of the Old
+Dominion.
+
+The Virginian reform movement, however, was unable to redress the
+grievance of unequal apportionment. In 1780 Jefferson pointed out that
+the practice of allowing each county an equal representation in the
+legislature gave control to the numerous small counties of the
+tidewater, while the large populous counties of the up-country suffered.
+"Thus," he wrote, "the 19,000 men below the falls give law to more than
+30,000 living in other parts of the state, and appoint all their chief
+officers, executive and judiciary."[114:1] This led to a long struggle
+between coast and interior, terminated only when the slave population
+passed across the fall line, and more nearly assimilated coast and
+up-country. In the mountain areas which did not undergo this change, the
+independent state of West Virginia remains as a monument of the contest.
+In the convention of 1829-30, the whole philosophy of representation was
+discussed, and the coast defended its control as necessary to protect
+property from the assaults of a numerical majority. They feared that
+the interior would tax their slaves in order to secure funds for
+internal improvements.
+
+As Doddridge put the case:[115:1]
+
+     The principle is that the owners of slave property must be
+     possessed of all the powers of government, however small their
+     own numbers may be, to secure that property from the rapacity
+     of an overgrown majority of white men. This principle admits
+     of no relaxation, because the weaker the minority becomes, the
+     greater will their need for power be according to their own
+     doctrines.
+
+Leigh of Chesterfield county declared:[115:2]
+
+     It is remarkable--I mention it for the curiosity of the
+     fact--that if any evil, physical or moral, arise in any of the
+     states south of us, it never takes a northerly direction, or
+     taints the Southern breeze; whereas, if any plague originate
+     in the North, it is sure to spread to the South and to invade
+     us sooner or later; the influenza--the smallpox--the
+     varioloid--the Hessian fly--the Circuit Court
+     system--Universal Suffrage--all come from the North, _and they
+     always cross above the falls of the great rivers_; below, it
+     seems, the broad expanse of waters interposing, effectually
+     arrests their progress.
+
+Nothing could more clearly bring out the sense of contrast between
+upland and lowland Virginia, and the continued intimacy of the bond of
+connection between the North and its Valley and Piedmont colonies, than
+this unconscious testimony.
+
+In North and South Carolina the upland South, beyond the pine barrens
+and the fall line, had similar grievances against the coast; but as the
+zone of separation was more strongly marked, the grievances were more
+acute. The tide of backwoods settlement flowing down the Piedmont from
+the north, had cut across the lines of local government and disarranged
+the regular course of development of the colonies from the
+seacoast.[116:1] Under the common practice, large counties in North
+Carolina and parishes in South Carolina had been projected into the
+unoccupied interior from the older settlements along their eastern edge.
+
+But the Piedmont settlers brought their own social order, and could not
+be well governed by the older planters living far away toward the
+seaboard. This may be illustrated by conditions in South Carolina. The
+general court in Charleston had absorbed county and precinct courts,
+except the minor jurisdiction of justices of the peace. This was well
+enough for the great planters who made their regular residence there for
+a part of each year; but it was a source of oppression to the up-country
+settlers, remote from the court. The difficulty of bringing witnesses,
+the delay of the law, and the costs all resulted in the escape of
+criminals as well as in the immunity of reckless debtors. The extortions
+of officials, and their occasional collusion with horse and cattle
+thieves, and the lack of regular administration of the law, led the
+South Carolina up-country men to take affairs in their own hands, and in
+1764 to establish associations to administer lynch law under the name of
+"Regulators." The "Scovillites," or government party, and the
+Regulators met in arms on the Saluda in 1769, but hostilities were
+averted and remedial measures passed, which alleviated the difficulty
+until the Revolution.[117:1] There still remained, however, the
+grievance of unjust legislative representation.[117:2] Calhoun stated
+the condition in these words:
+
+     The upper country had no representation in the government and
+     no political existence as a constituent portion of the state
+     until a period near the commencement of the revolution.
+     Indeed, during the revolution, and until the formation of the
+     present constitution, in 1790, its political weight was
+     scarcely felt in the government. Even then although it had
+     become the most populous section, power was so distributed
+     under the constitution as to leave it in a minority in every
+     department of government.
+
+Even in 1794 it was claimed by the up-country leaders that four-fifths
+of the people were governed by one-fifth. Nor was the difficulty met
+until the constitutional amendment of 1808, the effect of which was to
+give the control of the senate to the lower section and of the house of
+representatives to the upper section, thus providing a mutual
+veto.[117:3] This South Carolina experience furnished the historical
+basis for Calhoun's argument for nullification, and for the political
+philosophy underlying his theory of the "concurrent majority."[118:1]
+This adjustment was effected, however, only after the advance of the
+black belt toward the interior had assimilated portions of the Piedmont
+to lowland ideals.
+
+When we turn to North Carolina's upper country we find the familiar
+story, but with a more tragic ending. The local officials owed their
+selection to the governor and the council whom he appointed. Thus power
+was all concentrated in the official "ring" of the lowland area. The men
+of the interior resented the extortionate fees and the poll tax, which
+bore with unequal weight upon the poor settlers of the back country.
+This tax had been continued after sufficient funds had been collected to
+extinguish the debt for which it was originally levied, but venal
+sheriffs had failed to pay it into the treasury. A report of 1770 showed
+at least one defaulting sheriff in every county of the province.[118:2]
+This tax, which was almost the sole tax of the colony, was to be
+collected in specie, for the warehouse system, by which staples might be
+accepted, while familiar on the coast, did not apply to the interior.
+The specie was exceedingly difficult to obtain; in lack of it, the
+farmer saw the sheriff, who owed his appointment to the dominant lowland
+planters, sell the lands of the delinquent to his speculative friends.
+Lawyers and court fees followed.
+
+In short, the interior felt that it was being exploited,[118:3] and it
+had no redress, for the legislature was so apportioned that all power
+rested in the old lowland region. Efforts to secure paper money failed
+by reason of the governor's opposition under instructions from the
+crown, and the currency was contracting at the very time when population
+was rapidly increasing in the interior.[119:1] As in New England, in the
+days of Shays' Rebellion, violent prejudice existed against the
+judiciary and the lawyers, and it must, of course, be understood that
+the movement was not free from frontier dislike of taxation and the
+restraints of law and order in general. In 1766 and 1768, meetings were
+held in the upper counties to organize the opposition, and an
+"association"[119:2] was formed, the members of which pledged themselves
+to pay no more taxes or fees until they satisfied themselves that these
+were agreeable to law.
+
+The Regulators, as they called themselves, assembled in the autumn of
+1768 to the number of nearly four thousand, and tried to secure terms of
+adjustment. In 1770 the court-house at Hillsboro was broken into by a
+mob. The assembly passed some measures designed to conciliate the back
+country; but before they became operative, Governor Tryon's militia,
+about twelve hundred men, largely from the lowlands, and led by the
+gentry whose privileges were involved, met the motley army of the
+Regulators, who numbered about two thousand, in the battle of the
+Alamance (May, 1771). Many were killed and wounded, the Regulators
+dispersed, and over six thousand men came into camp and took the oath of
+submission to the colonial authorities. The battle was not the first
+battle of the Revolution, as it has been sometimes called, for it had
+little or no relation to the stamp act; and many of the frontiersmen
+involved, later refused to fight against England because of the very
+hatred which had been inspired for the lowland Revolutionary leaders in
+this battle of the Alamance. The interior of the Carolinas was a region
+where neighbors, during the Revolution, engaged in internecine conflicts
+of Tories against Whigs.
+
+But in the sense that the battle of Alamance was a conflict against
+privilege, and for equality of political rights and power, it was indeed
+a preliminary battle of the Revolution, although fought against many of
+the very men who later professed Revolutionary doctrines in North
+Carolina. The need of recognizing the importance of the interior led to
+concessions in the convention of 1776 in that state. "Of the forty-four
+sections of the constitution, thirteen are embodiments of reforms sought
+by the Regulators."[120:1] But it was in this period that hundreds of
+North Carolina backwoodsmen crossed the mountains to Tennessee and
+Kentucky, many of them coming from the heart of the Regulator region.
+They used the device of "associations" to provide for government in
+their communities.[120:2]
+
+In the matter of apportionment, North Carolina showed the same lodgment
+of power in the hands of the coast, even after population preponderated
+in the Piedmont.[120:3]
+
+It is needless to comment on the uniformity of the evidence which has
+been adduced, to show that the Old West, the interior region from New
+England to Georgia, had a common grievance against the coast; that it
+was deprived throughout most of the region of its due share of
+representation, and neglected and oppressed in local government in large
+portions of the section. The familiar struggle of West against East, of
+democracy against privileged classes, was exhibited along the entire
+line. The phenomenon must be considered as a unit, not in the fragments
+of state histories. It was a struggle of interior against coast.
+
+VI. Perhaps the most noteworthy Western activity in the Revolutionary
+era, aside from the aspects already mentioned, was in the part which the
+multitude of sects in the Old West played in securing the great
+contribution which the United States made to civilization by providing
+for complete religious liberty, a secular state with free churches.
+Particularly the Revolutionary constitutions of Pennsylvania and
+Virginia, under the influence of the back country, insured religious
+freedom. The effects of the North Carolina upland area to secure a
+similar result were noteworthy, though for the time ineffective.[121:1]
+
+VII. As population increased in these years, the coast gradually yielded
+to the up-country's demands. This may be illustrated by the transfer of
+the capitals from the lowlands to the fall line and Valley. In 1779,
+Virginia changed her seat of government from Williamsburg to Richmond;
+in 1790, South Carolina, from Charleston to Columbia; in 1791, North
+Carolina, from Edenton to Raleigh; in 1797, New York, from New York City
+to Albany; in 1799, Pennsylvania, from Philadelphia to Lancaster.
+
+VIII. The democratic aspect of the new constitutions was also influenced
+by the frontier as well as by the prevalent Revolutionary philosophy;
+and the demands for paper money, stay and tender laws, etc., of this
+period were strongest in the interior. It was this region that supported
+Shays' Rebellion; it was (with some important exceptions) the same area
+that resisted the ratification of the federal constitution, fearful of a
+stronger government and of the loss of paper money.
+
+IX. The interior later showed its opposition to the coast by the
+persistent contest against slavery, carried on in the up-country of
+Virginia, and North and South Carolina. Until the decade 1830-40, it was
+not certain that both Virginia and North Carolina would not find some
+means of gradual abolition. The same influence accounts for much of the
+exodus of the Piedmont pioneers into Indiana and Illinois, in the first
+half of the nineteenth century.[122:1]
+
+X. These were the regions, also, in which were developed the desire of
+the pioneers who crossed the mountains, and settled on the "Western
+waters," to establish new States free from control by the lowlands,
+owning their own lands, able to determine their own currency, and in
+general to govern themselves in accordance with the ideals of the Old
+West. They were ready also, if need be, to become independent of the Old
+Thirteen. Vermont must be considered in this aspect, as well as Kentucky
+and Tennessee.[122:2]
+
+XI. The land system of the Old West furnished precedents which developed
+into the land system of the trans-Alleghany West.[122:3] The squatters
+of Pennsylvania and the Carolinas found it easy to repeat the operation
+on another frontier. Preemption laws became established features. The
+Revolution gave opportunity to confiscate the claims of Lord Fairfax,
+Lord Granville, and McCulloh to their vast estates, as well as the
+remaining lands of the Pennsylvania proprietors. The 640 acre (or one
+square mile) unit of North Carolina for preemptions, and frontier land
+bounties, became the area awarded to frontier stations by Virginia in
+1779, and the "section" of the later federal land system. The Virginia
+preemption right of four hundred acres on the Western waters, or a
+thousand for those who came prior to 1778, was, in substance, the
+continuation of a system familiar in the Old West.
+
+The grants to Beverley, of over a hundred thousand acres in the Valley,
+conditioned on seating a family for every thousand acres, and the
+similar grants to Borden, Carter, and Lewis, were followed by the great
+grant to the Ohio Company. This company, including leading Virginia
+planters and some frontiersmen, asked in 1749 for two hundred thousand
+acres on the upper Ohio, conditioned on seating a hundred families in
+seven years, and for an additional grant of three hundred thousand acres
+after this should be accomplished. It was proposed to settle Germans on
+these lands.
+
+The Loyal Land Company, by order of the Virginia council (1749), was
+authorized to take up eight hundred thousand acres west and north of the
+southern boundary of Virginia, on condition of purchasing "rights" for
+the amount within four years. The company sold many tracts for L3 per
+hundred acres to settlers, but finally lost its claim. The Mississippi
+Company, including in its membership the Lees, Washingtons, and other
+great Virginia planters, applied for two and one-half million acres in
+the West in 1769. Similar land companies of New England origin, like
+the Susquehanna Company and Lyman's Mississippi Company, exhibit the
+same tendency of the Old West on the northern side. New England's Ohio
+Company of Associates, which settled Marietta, had striking resemblances
+to town proprietors.
+
+These were only the most noteworthy of many companies of this period,
+and it is evident that they were a natural outgrowth of speculations in
+the Old West. Washington, securing military bounty land claims of
+soldiers of the French and Indian War, and selecting lands in West
+Virginia until he controlled over seventy thousand acres for
+speculation, is an excellent illustration of the tendency. He also
+thought of colonizing German Palatines upon his lands. The formation of
+the Transylvania and Vandalia companies were natural developments on a
+still vaster scale.[124:1]
+
+XII. The final phase of the Old West, which I wish merely to mention, in
+conclusion, is its colonization of areas beyond the mountains. The
+essential unity of the movement is brought out by a study of how New
+England's Old West settled northern Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont,
+the Adirondacks, central and Western New York, the Wyoming Valley (once
+organized as a part of Litchfield, Connecticut), the Ohio Company's
+region about Marietta, and Connecticut's Western Reserve on the shores
+of Lake Erie; and how the pioneers of the Great Valley and the Piedmont
+region of the South crossed the Alleghanies and settled on the Western
+Waters. Daniel Boone, going from his Pennsylvania home to the Yadkin,
+and from the Yadkin to Tennessee and Kentucky, took part in the whole
+process, and later in its continuation into Missouri.[124:2] The social
+conditions and ideals of the Old West powerfully shaped those of the
+trans-Alleghany West.
+
+The important contrast between the spirit of individual colonization,
+resentful of control, which the Southern frontiersmen showed, and the
+spirit of community colonization and control to which the New England
+pioneers inclined, left deep traces on the later history of the
+West.[125:1] The Old West diminished the importance of the town as a
+colonizing unit, even in New England. In the Southern area, efforts to
+legislate towns into existence, as in Virginia, South Carolina, and
+Georgia, failed. They faded away before wilderness conditions. But in
+general, the Northern stream of migration was communal, and the Southern
+individual. The difference which existed between that portion of the Old
+West which was formed by the northward colonization, chiefly of the New
+England Plateau (including New York), and that portion formed by the
+southward colonization of the Virginia Valley and the Southern Piedmont
+was reflected in the history of the Middle West and the Mississippi
+Valley.[125:2]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[67:1] _Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin for
+1908._ Reprinted with the permission of the Society.
+
+[68:1] For the settled area in 1660, see the map by Lois Mathews in
+Channing, "United Stales" (N. Y., 1905), i, p. 510; and by Albert Cook
+Myers in Avery, "United States" (Cleveland, 1905), ii, following p. 398.
+In Channing, ii, following p. 603, is Marion F. Lansing's map of
+settlement in 1760, which is on a rather conservative basis, especially
+the part showing the interior of the Carolinas.
+
+Contemporaneous maps of the middle of the eighteenth century, useful in
+studying the progress of settlement, are: Mitchell, "Map of the British
+Colonies" (1755); Evans, "Middle British Colonies" (1758); Jefferson and
+Frye, "Map of Virginia" (1751 and 1755).
+
+On the geographical conditions, see maps and text in Powell,
+"Physiographic Regions" (N. Y., 1896), and Willis, "Northern
+Appalachians," in "Physiography of the United States" (N. Y., 1896), pp.
+73-82, 169-176, 196-201.
+
+[70:1] See Osgood, "American Colonies" (N. Y., 1907), iii, chap. iii.
+
+[70:2] See chapter ii, _ante_.
+
+[70:3] Sheldon, "Deerfield" (Deerfield, Mass., 1895), i, p. 288.
+
+[70:4] Parkman, "Frontenac" (Boston, 1898), p. 390; compare his
+description of Deerfield in 1704, in "Half Century of Conflict" (Boston,
+1898), i, p. 55.
+
+[72:1] Hanna, "Scotch Irish" (N. Y. and London, 1902), ii, pp. 17-24.
+
+[72:2] "Half Century of Conflict," ii, pp. 214-234.
+
+[72:3] "American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, p. 47.
+
+[73:1] For the extent of New England settlements in 1760, compared with
+1700, see the map in Channing, "United States," ii, at end of volume.
+
+[74:1] Schafer, "Land Grants for Education," Univ. of Wis. _Bulletin_
+(Madison, 1902), chap. iv.
+
+[75:1] On New England's land system see Osgood, "American Colonies" (N.
+Y., 1904), i, chap. xi; and Egleston, "Land System of the New England
+Colonies," Johns Hopkins Univ. _Studies_ (Baltimore, 1886), iv. Compare
+the account of Virginia, about 1696, in "Mass. Hist. Colls." (Boston,
+1835), 1st series, v, p. 129, for a favorable view of the New England
+town system; and note the probable influence of New England's system
+upon Virginia's legislation about 1700. See chapter ii, _ante_.
+
+[76:1] Amelia C. Ford, "Colonial Precedents of our National Land
+System," citing Massachusetts Bay, House of Rep. "Journal," 1715, pp. 5,
+22, 46; Hutchinson, "History of Massachusetts Bay" (London, 1768), ii,
+p. 331; Holland, "Western Massachusetts" (Springfield, 1855), pp. 66,
+169.
+
+[76:2] "Conn. Colon. Records" (Hartford, 1874), viii, p. 134.
+
+[77:1] Holland, "Western Massachusetts," p. 197. See the comments of
+Hutchinson in his "History of Massachusetts Bay," ii, pp. 331, 332.
+Compare the steps of Connecticut men in 1753 and 1755 to secure a land
+grant in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, for the Susquehanna Company, and
+the Connecticut governor's remark that there was no unappropriated land
+in the latter colony--"Pa. Colon. Records" (Harrisburg, 1851), v, p.
+771; "Pa. Archives," 2d series, xviii, contains the important documents,
+with much valuable information on the land system of the Wyoming Valley
+region. See also General Lyman's projects for a Mississippi colony in
+the Yazoo delta area--all indicative of the pressure for land and the
+speculative spirit.
+
+[78:1] Compare Vermont's dealings with the British, and the negotiations
+of Kentucky and Tennessee leaders with Spaniards and British. See _Amer.
+Hist. Review_, i, p. 252, note 2, for references on Vermont's
+Revolutionary philosophy and influence.
+
+[79:1] See H. C. Emery, "Artemas Jean Haynes" (New Haven, 1908), pp.
+8-10.
+
+[80:1] Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, p. 110.
+
+[80:2] "N. Y. Colon. Docs," vii, pp. 654, 795.
+
+[81:1] Becker, in _Amer. Hist. Review_, vi, p. 261.
+
+[81:2] Becker, _loc. cit._ For maps of grants in New York, see
+O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y." (Albany, 1850), i, pp. 421, 774;
+especially Southier, "Chorographical Map of New York"; Winsor,
+"America," v, p. 236. In general on these grants, consult also "Doc.
+Hist. of N. Y.," i, pp. 249-257; "N. Y. Colon. Docs.," iv, pp. 397, 791,
+874; v, pp. 459, 651, 805; vi, pp. 486, 549, 743, 876, 950; Kip, "Olden
+Time" (N. Y., 1872), p. 12; Scharf, "History of Westchester County"
+(Phila., 1886), i, p. 91; Libby, "Distribution of Vote on Ratification
+of Constitution" (Madison, 1894), pp. 21-25.
+
+For the region of the Wallkill, including New Paltz, etc., see Eager,
+"Outline History of Orange County, New York" (Newburgh, 1846-47); and
+Ruttenber and Clark, "History of Orange County" (Phila., 1881), pp.
+11-20. On Cherry Valley and upper Susquehanna settlements, in general,
+in New York, see Halsey, "Old New York Frontier," pp. 5, 119, and the
+maps by De Witt and Southier in O'Callaghan, "Doc. Hist. of N. Y.," i,
+pp. 421, 774.
+
+Note the French Huguenots and Scotch-Irish in Orange County, and the
+Scotch-Irish settlers of Cherry Valley and their relation to
+Londonderry, N. H., as well as the missionary visits from Stockbridge,
+Mass., to the upper Susquehanna.
+
+[82:1] Lord, "Industrial Experiments" (Baltimore, 1898), p. 45;
+Diffenderfer, "German Exodus" (Lancaster, Pa., 1897).
+
+[82:2] See _post_.
+
+[84:1] Hening, "Va. Statutes at Large" (N. Y., 1823), ii, p. 326.
+
+[84:2] _Ibid._, p. 433.
+
+[84:3] Bassett, "Writings of William Byrd" (N. Y., 1901), p. xxi.
+
+[85:1] Hening, iii, p. 82. Similar acts were passed almost annually in
+successive years of the seventeenth century; cf. _loc. cit._, _pp._ 98,
+115, 119, 126, 164; the system was discontinued in 1722--see Beverley,
+"Virginia and its Government" (London, 1722), p. 234.
+
+It is interesting to compare the recommendation of Governor Dodge for
+Wisconsin Territory in 1836--see Wis. Terr. House of Reps. "Journal,"
+1836, pp. 11 _et seq._
+
+[85:2] Hening, iii, pp. 204-209.
+
+[87:1] Compare the law of 1779 in "Va. Revised Code" (1819), ii, p. 357;
+Ranck's "Boonesborough" (Louisville, 1901).
+
+[87:2] Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p. xii; "Calendar of British State
+Papers, Am. and W. I.," 1677-80 (London, 1896), p. 168.
+
+[87:3] Bassett, _loc. cit._, p. x, and Hening, iii, p. 304 (1705).
+
+[87:4] [See Alvord and Bidgood, "First Explorations of the
+Trans-Allegheny Region."]
+
+[87:5] Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," pp. xvii, xviii, quotes Byrd's
+description of the trail; Logan, "Upper South Carolina" (Columbia,
+1859), i, p. 167; Adair describes the trade somewhat later; cf. Bartram,
+"Travels" (London, 1792), _passim_, and Monette, "Mississippi Valley"
+(N. Y., 1846), ii, p. 13.
+
+[88:1] Bruce, "Economic Hist. of Va." (N. Y., 1896), i, pp. 473, 475,
+477.
+
+[88:2] See descriptions of cow-pens in Logan, "History of Upper S. C.,"
+i, p. 151; Bartram, "Travels," p. 308. On cattle raising generally in
+the Piedmont, see: Gregg, "Old Cheraws" (N. Y., 1867), pp. 68, 108-110;
+Salley, "Orangeburg" (Orangeburg, 1898), pp. 219-221; Lawson, "New
+Voyage to Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), p. 135; Ramsay, "South Carolina"
+(Charleston, 1809), i, p. 207; J. F. D. Smyth, "Tour" (London, 1784), i,
+p. 143, ii, pp. 78, 97; Foote, "Sketches of N. C." (N. Y., 1846), p. 77;
+"N. C. Colon. Records" (Raleigh, 1887), v, pp. xli, 1193, 1223;
+"American Husbandry" (London, 1775), i, pp. 336, 350, 384; Hening, v.
+pp. 176, 245.
+
+[88:3] Spotswood, "Letters" (Richmond, 1882), i, p. 167; compare _Va.
+Magazine_, iii, pp. 120, 189.
+
+[89:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," v, p. xli.
+
+[89:2] Lawson, "Carolina" (Raleigh, 1860), gives a description early in
+the eighteenth century; his map is reproduced in Avery, "United States"
+(Cleveland, 1907), iii, p. 224.
+
+[89:3] The advantages and disadvantages of the Piedmont region of the
+Carolinas in the middle of the eighteenth century are illustrated in
+Spangenburg's diary, in "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 6, 7, 13, 14.
+Compare "American Husbandry," i, pp. 220, 332, 357, 388.
+
+[90:1] Spotswood, "Letters," i, p. 40.
+
+[90:2] On Germanna see Spotswood, "Letters" (index); Fontaine's journal
+in A. Maury, "Huguenot Family" (1853), p. 268; Jones, "Present State of
+Virginia" (N. Y., 1865), p. 59; Bassett, "Writings of Byrd," p. 356;
+_Va. Magazine_, xiii, pp. 362, 365; vi, p. 385; xii, pp. 342, 350; xiv,
+p. 136.
+
+Spotswood's interest in the Indian trade on the southern frontier of
+Virginia is illustrated in his fort Christanna, on which the above
+references afford information.
+
+The contemporaneous account of Spotswood's expedition into Shenandoah
+Valley is Fontaine's journey, cited above.
+
+[91:1] See the excellent paper by C. E. Kemper, in _Va. Magazine_, xii,
+on "Early Westward Movement in Virginia."
+
+[91:2] Compare Phillips, "Origin and Growth of the Southern Black
+Belts," in _Amer. Hist. Review_, xi, p. 799.
+
+[91:3] _Va. Magazine_, xiii, p. 113.
+
+[92:1] "Revised Code of Virginia" (Richmond, 1819), ii, p. 339.
+
+[92:2] _Mag. Amer. Hist._, xiii, pp. 217, 230; Winsor, "Narr. and Crit.
+Hist. of America," v, p. 268; Kercheval, "The Valley" (Winchester, Va.,
+1833), pp. 67, 209; _Va. Magazine_, xiii, p. 115.
+
+[93:1] "William and Mary College Quarterly" (Williamsburg, 1895), iii,
+p. 226. See Jefferson and Frye, "Map of Virginia, 1751," for location of
+this and Borden's manor.
+
+[93:2] Brown, "The Cabells" (Boston, 1895), p. 53.
+
+[93:3] _Loc. cit._, pp. 57, 66.
+
+[94:1] Meade, "Old Churches" (Phila., 1861), 2 vols.; Foote, "Sketches"
+(Phila., 1855); Brown, "The Cabells," p. 68.
+
+[94:2] _Atlantic Monthly_, vol. xci, pp. 83 _et seq._; Ford, "Writing of
+Thomas Jefferson" (N. Y., 1892), i, pp. xix _et seq._
+
+[94:3] Byrd, "Dividing Line" (Richmond, 1866), pp. 85, 271.
+
+[95:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," iii, p. xiii. Compare Hawks, "Hist. of
+North Carolina" (Fayetteville, 1859), map of precincts, 1663-1729.
+
+[95:2] Raper, "North Carolina" (N. Y., 1904), chap. v; W. R. Smith,
+"South Carolina" (N. Y., 1903), pp. 48, 57.
+
+[95:3] Clewell, "Wachovia" (N. Y., 1902).
+
+[96:1] Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 120, 121,
+citing Bassett, in "Law Quarterly Review," April, 1895, pp. 159-161.
+
+[96:2] See map in Hawks, "North Carolina."
+
+[96:3] McCrady, "South Carolina," 1719-1776 (N. Y., 1899), pp. 149, 151;
+Smith, "South Carolina," p. 40; Ballagh, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report,"
+1897, pp. 117-119; Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws" (Charleston, 1857),
+i, p. xi.
+
+[96:4] McCrady, "South Carolina," pp. 121 _et seq._; Phillips,
+"Transportation in the Eastern Cotton Belt" (N. Y., 1908), p. 51.
+
+[96:5] This was not originally provided for among the eleven towns. For
+its history see Salley, "Orangeburg"--frontier conditions about 1769 are
+described on pp. 219 _et seq._; see map opposite p. 9.
+
+[97:1] Gregg, "Old Cheraws," p. 44.
+
+[97:2] Ballagh, _loc. cit._, pp. 119, 120.
+
+[98:1] Compare the description of Georgia frontier traders, cattle
+raisers, and land speculators, about 1773, in Bartram, "Travels," pp.
+18, 36, 308.
+
+[99:1] See Willis, "Northern Appalachians," in "Physiography of the U.
+S." in National Geog. Soc. "Monographs" (N. Y., 1895), no. 6.
+
+[100:1] Diffenderfer, "German Immigration into Pennsylvania," in Pa.
+German Soc. "Proc.," v, p. 10; "Redemptioners" (Lancaster, Pa., 1900).
+
+[100:2] A. B. Faust, "German Element in the United States."
+
+[100:3] See the bibliographies in Kuhns, "German and Swiss Settlements
+of Pennsylvania" (N. Y., 1901); Wayland, "German Element of the
+Shenandoah Valley" (N. Y., 1908); Channing, "United States," ii, p. 421;
+Griffin, "List of Works Relating to the Germans in the U. S." (Library
+of Congress, Wash., 1904).
+
+[100:4] See in illustration, the letter in Myers, "Irish Quakers"
+(Swarthmore, Pa., 1902), p. 70.
+
+[101:1] Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania" (N. Y.,
+1896), p. 34.
+
+[101:2] Gordon, "Pennsylvania" (Phila., 1829), p. 225.
+
+[101:3] Shepherd, _loc. cit._, pp. 49-51.
+
+[101:4] Ballagh, Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1897, pp. 112, 113.
+Compare Smith, "St. Clair Papers" (Cincinnati, 1882), ii, p. 101.
+
+[101:5] Shepherd, _loc. cit._, p. 50.
+
+[101:6] Mereness, "Maryland" (N. Y., 1901), p. 77.
+
+[102:1] "Calendar Va. State Papers" (Richmond, 1875), i, p. 217; on
+these grants see Kemper, "Early Westward Movement in Virginia" in _Va.
+Mag._, xii and xiii; Wayland, "German Element of the Shenandoah Valley,"
+_William and Mary College Quarterly_, iii. The speculators, both
+planters and new-comers, soon made application for lands beyond the
+Alleghanies.
+
+[102:2] In 1794 the Virginia House of Delegates resolved to publish the
+most important laws of the state in German.
+
+[102:3] See Bernheim, "German Settlements in the Carolinas" (Phila.,
+1872); Clewell, "Wachovia"; Allen, "German Palatines in N. C." (Raleigh,
+1905).
+
+[102:4] See Wayland, _loc. cit._, bibliography, for references; and
+especially _Va. Mag._, xi, pp. 113, 225, 370; xii, pp. 55, 134, 271;
+"German American Annals," N. S. iii, pp. 342, 369; iv, p. 16; Clewell,
+"Wachovia; N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. 1-14.
+
+[103:1] On the Scotch-Irish, see the bibliography in Green,
+"Scotch-Irish in America," Amer. Antiquarian Soc. "Proceedings," April,
+1895; Hanna, "Scotch-Irish" (N. Y., 1902), is a comprehensive
+presentation of the subject; see also Myers, "Irish Quakers."
+
+[103:2] Fiske, "Old Virginia" (Boston, 1897), ii, p. 394. Compare
+Linehan, "The Irish Scots and the Scotch-Irish" (Concord, N. H., 1902).
+
+[103:3] See MacLean, "Scotch Highlanders in America" (Cleveland, 1900).
+
+[103:4] Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 17-24.
+
+[104:1] Halsey, "Old New York Frontier" (N. Y., 1901).
+
+[104:2] MacLean, pp. 196-230.
+
+[104:3] The words of Logan, Penn's agent, in 1724, in Hanna, ii, pp. 60,
+63.
+
+[104:4] Winsor, "Mississippi Basin" (Boston, 1895), pp. 238-243.
+
+[105:1] See Thwaites, "Early Western Travels" (Cleveland, 1904-06), i;
+Walton, "Conrad Weiser" (Phila., 1900); Heckewelder, "Narrative"
+(Phila., 1820).
+
+[105:2] Christian, "Scotch-Irish Settlers in the Valley of Virginia"
+(Richmond, 1860).
+
+[105:3] Roosevelt gives an interesting picture of this society in his
+"Winning of the West" (N. Y., 1889-96), i, chap. v; see also his
+citations, especially Doddridge, "Settlements and Indian Wars"
+(Wellsburgh, W. Va., 1824).
+
+[106:1] Bassett, in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1894, p. 145.
+
+[106:2] "N. C. Colon. Records," v, pp. xxxix, xl; _cf._ p. xxi.
+
+[106:3] _Loc. cit._, pp. 146, 147.
+
+[107:1] See the interesting account of Rev. Moses Waddell's school in
+South Carolina, on the upper Savannah, where the students, including
+John C. Calhoun, McDuffe, Legare, and Petigru, were educated in the
+wilderness. They lived in log huts in the woods, furnished their own
+supplies, or boarded near by, were called to the log school-house by
+horn for morning prayers, and then scattered in groups to the woods for
+study. Hunt, "Calhoun" (Phila., 1907), p. 13.
+
+[108:1] Scharf, "Maryland" (Baltimore, 1879), ii, p. 61, and chaps. i
+and xviii; Kercheval, "The Valley."
+
+[108:2] Weston, "Documents," p. 82.
+
+[109:1] See, for example, Phillips, "Transportation in the Eastern
+Cotton Belt," pp. 21-53.
+
+[109:2] Hanna, "Scotch-Irish," ii, pp. 19, 22-24.
+
+[109:3] Cobb, "Story of the Palatines" (Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 1897), p.
+300, citing "Penn. Colon. Records," iv, pp. 225, 345.
+
+[109:4] "Works" (Bigelow ed.), ii, pp. 296-299.
+
+[109:5] _Ibid._, iii, p. 297; _cf._ p. 221.
+
+[109:6] "Summary" (1755), ii, p. 326.
+
+[110:1] "European Settlements" (London, 1793), ii, p. 200 (1765); _cf._
+Franklin, "Works" (N. Y., 1905-07), ii, p. 221, to the same effect.
+
+[110:2] Proper, "Colonial Immigration Laws," in Columbia Univ.,
+"Studies," xii.
+
+[111:1] Libby, "Distribution of the Vote on the Federal Constitution,"
+Univ. of Wis. _Bulletin_, pp. 8, 9, and citations. Note especially "New
+Hampshire State Papers," x, pp. 228 _et seq._
+
+[111:2] Libby, _loc. cit._, pp. 12-14, 46, 54-57.
+
+[112:1] Farrand, in _Yale Review_, May, 1908, p. 52 and citation.
+
+[112:2] Libby, _loc. cit._
+
+[112:3] See Turner, "Rise of the New West" (Amer. Nation series, N. Y.,
+1906), pp. 16-18.
+
+[112:4] Parkman, "Pontiac" (Boston, 1851), ii, p. 352.
+
+[112:5] Shepherd, "Proprietary Government in Pennsylvania," in Columbia
+Univ. _Studies_, vi, pp. 546 _et seq._ Compare Watson, "Annals," ii, p.
+259; Green, "Provincial America" (Amer. Nation series, N. Y., 1905), p.
+234.
+
+[113:1] Lincoln, "Revolutionary Movement in Pennsylvania" (Boston,
+1901); McMaster and Stone, "Pennsylvania and the Federal Constitution"
+(Lancaster, 1888).
+
+[114:1] "Notes on Virginia." See his table of apportionment in Ford,
+"Writings of Thomas Jefferson," iii, p. 222.
+
+[115:1] "Debates of the Virginia State Convention, 1829-1830" (Richmond,
+1854), p. 87. These debates constitute a mine of material on the
+difficulty of reconciling the political philosophy of the Revolution
+with the protection of the property, including slaves, of the lowland
+planters.
+
+[115:2] _Loc. cit._, p. 407. The italics are mine.
+
+[116:1] McCrady, "South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 623.
+
+[117:1] Brevard, "Digest of S. C. Laws," i, pp. xxiv, 253; McCrady,
+"South Carolina, 1719-1776," p. 637; Schaper, "Sectionalism in South
+Carolina," in Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report," 1900, i, pp. 334-338.
+
+[117:2] Schaper, _loc. cit._, pp. 338, 339; Calhoun, "Works" (N. Y.,
+1851-59), i, p. 402; _Columbia_ (S. C.) _Gazette_, Aug. 1, 1794; Ramsay,
+"South Carolina," pp. 64-66, 195, 217; Elliot, "Debates," iv, pp. 288,
+289, 296-299, 305, 309, 312.
+
+[117:3] Schaper, _loc. cit._, pp. 440-447 _et seq._
+
+[118:1] Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 50-52, 331; Calhoun,
+"Works," i, pp. 400-405.
+
+[118:2] "N. C. Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xvii.
+
+[118:3] See Bassett, "Regulators of N. C." in Amer. Hist. Assoc.
+"Report," 1894, pp. 141 (bibliog.) _et seq._; "N. C. Colon. Records,"
+pp. vii-x (Saunder's introductions are valuable); Caruthers, "David
+Caldwell" (Greensborough, N. C., 1842); Waddell, "Colonial Officer"
+(Raleigh, 1890); M. De L. Haywood, "Governor William Tryon" (Raleigh, N.
+C., 1903); Clewell, "Wachovia," chap. x; W. E. Fitch, "Some Neglected
+History of N. C." (N. Y., 1905); L. A. McCorkle and F. Nash, in "N. C.
+Booklet" (Raleigh, 1901-07), iii; Wheeler, "North Carolina," ii, pp. 301
+_et seq._; Cutter, "Lynch Law," chap. ii. and iii.
+
+[119:1] Bassett, _loc. cit._, p. 152.
+
+[119:2] Wheeler, "North Carolina," ii, pp. 301-306; "N. C. Colon.
+Records," vii, pp. 251, 699.
+
+[120:1] "N. C. Colon. Records," viii, p. xix.
+
+[120:2] Turner, in _Amer. Hist. Review_, i, p. 76.
+
+[120:3] "N. C. Colon. Records," vii, pp. xiv-xxiv.
+
+[121:1] Weeks, "Church and State in North Carolina" (Baltimore, 1893);
+"N. C. Colon. Records," x, p. 870; Curry, "Establishment and
+Disestablishment" (Phila., 1889); C. F. James, "Documentary History of
+the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Virginia" (Lynchburg, Va., 1900);
+Semple, "The Virginia Baptists" (Richmond, 1810); Amer. Hist. Assoc.
+"Papers," ii, p. 21; iii, pp. 205, 213.
+
+[122:1] See Ballagh, "Slavery in Virginia," Johns Hopkins Univ.
+"Studies," extra, xxiv; Bassett, "Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of
+North Carolina," _Id._, xiv, pp. 169-254; Bassett, "Slavery in the State
+of North Carolina," _Id._, xvii; Bassett, "Antislavery Leaders in North
+Carolina," _Id._, xvi; Weeks, "Southern Quakers," _Id._, xv, extra;
+Schaper, "Sectionalism in South Carolina," Amer. Hist. Assoc. "Report,"
+1900; Turner, "Rise of the New West," pp. 54-56, 76-78, 80, 90, 150-152.
+
+[122:2] See F. J. Turner, "State-Making in the West During the
+Revolutionary Era," in _American Historical Review_, i, p. 70.
+
+[122:3] Hening, x, p. 35; "Public Acts of N. C.," i, pp. 204, 306;
+"Revised Code of Va., 1819," ii, p. 357; Roosevelt, "Winning of the
+West," i, p. 261; ii, pp. 92, 220.
+
+[124:1] Alden, "New Governments West of the Alleghanies" (Madison,
+1897), gives an account of these colonies. [See the more recent work by
+C. W. Alvord, "The Mississippi Valley in British Politics, 1763-1774"
+(1917).]
+
+[124:2] Thwaites, "Daniel Boone" (N. Y., 1902); [A. Henderson, "Conquest
+of the Old Southwest" (N. Y., 1920), brings out the important share of
+up-country men of means in promoting colonization].
+
+[125:1] Turner, in "Alumni Quarterly of the University of Illinois," ii,
+133-136.
+
+[125:2] [It has seemed best in this volume not to attempt to deal with
+the French frontier or the Spanish-American frontier. Besides the works
+of Parkman, a multitude of monographs have appeared in recent years
+which set the French frontier in new light; and for the Spanish frontier
+in both the Southwest and California much new information has been
+secured, and illuminating interpretations made by Professors H. E.
+Bolton, I. J. Cox, Chapman, Father Engelhart, and other California and
+Texas investigators, although the works of Hubert Howe Bancroft remain a
+useful mine of material. There was, of course, a contemporaneous Old
+West on both the French and the Spanish frontiers. The formation,
+approach and ultimate collision and intermingling of these contrasting
+types of frontiers are worthy of a special study.]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE MIDDLE WEST[126:1]
+
+
+American sectional nomenclature is still confused. Once "the West"
+described the whole region beyond the Alleghanies; but the term has
+hopelessly lost its definiteness. The rapidity of the spread of
+settlement has broken down old usage, and as yet no substitute has been
+generally accepted. The "Middle West" is a term variously used by the
+public, but for the purpose of the present paper, it will be applied to
+that region of the United States included in the census reports under
+the name of the North Central division, comprising the States of Ohio,
+Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin (the old "Territory Northwest
+of the River Ohio"), and their trans-Mississippi sisters of the
+Louisiana Purchase,--Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, North
+Dakota, and South Dakota. It is an imperial domain. If the greater
+countries of Central Europe,--France, Germany, Italy, and
+Austro-Hungary,--were laid down upon this area, the Middle West would
+still show a margin of spare territory. Pittsburgh, Cleveland, and
+Buffalo constitute its gateways to the Eastern States; Kansas City,
+Omaha, St. Paul-Minneapolis, and Duluth-Superior dominate its western
+areas; Cincinnati and St. Louis stand on its southern borders; and
+Chicago reigns at the center. What Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and
+Baltimore are to the Atlantic seaboard these cities are to the Middle
+West. The Great Lakes and the Mississippi, with the Ohio and the
+Missouri as laterals, constitute the vast water system that binds the
+Middle West together. It is the economic and political center of the
+Republic. At one edge is the Populism of the prairies; at the other, the
+capitalism that is typified in Pittsburgh. Great as are the local
+differences within the Middle West, it possesses, in its physiography,
+in the history of its settlement, and in its economic and social life, a
+unity and interdependence which warrant a study of the area as an
+entity. Within the limits of this article, treatment of so vast a
+region, however, can at best afford no more than an outline sketch, in
+which old and well-known facts must, if possible, be so grouped as to
+explain the position of the section in American history.
+
+In spite of the difficulties of the task, there is a definite advantage
+in so large a view. By fixing our attention too exclusively upon the
+artificial boundary lines of the States, we have failed to perceive much
+that is significant in the westward development of the United States.
+For instance, our colonial system did not begin with the Spanish War;
+the United States has had a colonial history and policy from the
+beginning of the Republic; but they have been hidden under the
+phraseology of "interstate migration" and "territorial organization."
+
+The American people have occupied a spacious wilderness; vast
+physiographic provinces, each with its own peculiarities, have lain
+across the path of this migration, and each has furnished a special
+environment for economic and social transformation. It is possible to
+underestimate the importance of State lines, but if we direct our gaze
+rather to the physiographic province than to the State area, we shall be
+able to see some facts in a new light. Then it becomes clear that these
+physiographic provinces of America are in some respects comparable to
+the countries of Europe, and that each has its own history of occupation
+and development. General Francis A. Walker once remarked that "the
+course of settlement has called upon our people to occupy territory as
+extensive as Switzerland, as England, as Italy, and latterly, as France
+or Germany, every ten years." It is this element of vastness in the
+achievements of American democracy that gives a peculiar interest to the
+conquest and development of the Middle West. The effects of this
+conquest and development upon the present United States have been of
+fundamental importance.
+
+Geographically the Middle West is almost conterminous with the Provinces
+of the Lake and Prairie Plains; but the larger share of Kansas and
+Nebraska, and the western part of the two Dakotas belong to the Great
+Plains; the Ozark Mountains occupy a portion of Missouri, and the
+southern parts of Ohio and Indiana merge into the Alleghany Plateau. The
+relation of the Provinces of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the rest of
+the United States is an important element in the significance of the
+Middle West. On the north lies the similar region of Canada: the Great
+Lakes are in the center of the whole eastern and more thickly settled
+half of North America, and they bind the Canadian and Middle Western
+people together. On the south, the provinces meet the apex of that of
+the Gulf Plains, and the Mississippi unites them. To the west, they
+merge gradually into the Great Plains; the Missouri and its tributaries
+and the Pacific railroads make for them a bond of union; another rather
+effective bond is the interdependence of the cattle of the plains and
+the corn of the prairies. To the east, the province meets the Alleghany
+and New England Plateaus, and is connected with them by the upper Ohio
+and by the line of the Erie Canal. Here the interaction of industrial
+life and the historical facts of settlement have produced a close
+relationship. The intimate connection between the larger part of the
+North Central and the North Atlantic divisions of the United States will
+impress any one who examines the industrial and social maps of the
+census atlas. By reason of these interprovincial relationships, the
+Middle West is the mediator between Canada and the United States, and
+between the concentrated wealth and manufactures of the North Atlantic
+States and the sparsely settled Western mining, cattle-raising, and
+agricultural States. It has a connection with the South that was once
+still closer, and is likely before long to reassert itself with new
+power. Within the limits of the United States, therefore, we have
+problems of interprovincial trade and commerce similar to those that
+exist between the nations of the Old World.
+
+Over most of the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains the Laurentide
+glacier spread its drift, rich in limestone and other rock powder, which
+farmers in less favored sections must purchase to replenish the soil.
+The alluvial deposit from primeval lakes contributed to fatten the soil
+of other parts of the prairies. Taken as a whole, the Prairie Plains
+surpass in fertility any other region of America or Europe, unless we
+except some territory about the Black Sea. It is a land marked out as
+the granary of the nation; but it is more than a granary. On the rocky
+shores of Lake Superior were concealed copper mines rivaled only by
+those of Montana, and iron fields which now[129:1] furnish the ore for
+the production of eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States.
+The Great Lakes afford a highway between these iron fields and the coal
+areas of the Ohio Valley. The gas and oil deposits of the Ohio Valley,
+the coal of Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, and eastern Kansas, the lead and
+zinc of the Ozark region and of the upper Mississippi Valley, and the
+gold of the black Hills,--all contribute underground wealth to the
+Middle West.
+
+The primeval American forest once spread its shade over vast portions
+of the same province. Ohio, Indiana, southern Michigan, and central
+Wisconsin were almost covered with a growth of noble deciduous trees. In
+southern Illinois, along the broad bottom lands of the Mississippi and
+the Illinois, and in southern and southwestern Missouri, similar forests
+prevailed. To the north, in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, appeared
+the somber white pine wilderness, interlaced with hard woods, which
+swept in ample zone along the Great Lakes, till the deciduous forests
+triumphed again, and, in their turn, faded into the treeless expanse of
+the prairies. In the remaining portions were openings in the midst of
+the forested area, and then the grassy ocean of prairie that rolled to
+west and northwest, until it passed beyond the line of sufficient
+rainfall for agriculture without irrigation, into the semi-arid
+stretches of the Great Plains.
+
+In the middle of the eighteenth century, the forested region of this
+province was occupied by the wigwams of many different tribes of the
+Algonquin tongue, sparsely scattered in villages along the water
+courses, warring and trading through the vast wilderness. The western
+edge of the prairie and the Great Plains were held by the Sioux, chasing
+herds of bison across these far-stretching expanses. These horsemen of
+the plains and the canoemen of the Great Lakes and the Ohio were factors
+with which civilization had to reckon, for they constituted important
+portions of perhaps the fiercest native race with which the white man
+has ever battled for new lands.
+
+The Frenchman had done but little fighting for this region. He swore
+brotherhood with its savages, traded with them, intermarried with them,
+and explored the Middle West; but he left the wilderness much as he
+found it. Some six or seven thousand French people in all, about Detroit
+and Vincennes, and in the Illinois country, and scattered among the
+Indian villages of the remote lakes and streams, held possession when
+George Washington reached the site of Pittsburgh, bearing Virginia's
+summons of eviction to France. In his person fate knocked at the portals
+of a "rising empire." France hurried her commanders and garrisons, with
+Indian allies, from the posts about the Great Lakes and the upper
+Mississippi; but it was in vain. In vain, too, the aftermath of
+Pontiac's widespread Indian uprising against the English occupation.
+When she came into possession of the lands between the Ohio, the
+Mississippi, and the Great Lakes, England organized them as a part of
+the Province of Quebec. The daring conquest of George Rogers Clark left
+Virginia in military possession of the Illinois country at the
+conclusion of the Revolutionary War; but over all the remainder of the
+Old Northwest, England was in control. Although she ceded the region by
+the treaty which closed the Revolution, she remained for many years the
+mistress of the Indians and the fur trade. When Lord Shelburne was
+upbraided in parliament for yielding the Northwest to the United States,
+the complaint was that he had clothed the Americans "in the warm
+covering of our fur trade," and his defense was that the peltry trade of
+the ceded tract was not sufficiently profitable to warrant further war.
+But the English government became convinced that the Indian trade
+demanded the retention of the Northwest, and she did in fact hold her
+posts there in spite of the treaty of peace. Dundas, the English
+secretary for the colonies, expressed the policy, when he declared, in
+1792, that the object was to interpose an Indian barrier between Canada
+and the United States; and in pursuance of this policy of preserving the
+Northwest as an Indian buffer State, the Canadian authorities supported
+the Indians in their resistance to American settlement beyond the Ohio.
+The conception of the Northwest as an Indian reserve strikingly exhibits
+England's inability to foresee the future of the region, and to measure
+the forces of American expansion.
+
+By the cessions of Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut,
+the Old Congress had come into nominal possession of an extensive public
+domain, and a field for the exercise of national authority. The
+significance of this fact in the development of national power is not
+likely to be overestimated. The first result was the completion of the
+Ordinance of 1787, which provided a territorial government for the Old
+Northwest, with provisions for the admission of States into the Union.
+This federal colonial system guaranteed that the new national
+possessions should not be governed as dependent provinces, but should
+enter as a group of sister States into the federation.[132:1] While the
+importance of the article excluding slavery has often been pointed out,
+it is probable that the provisions for a federal colonial organization
+have been at least equally potential in our actual development. The full
+significance of this feature of the Ordinance is only appreciated when
+we consider its continuous influence upon the American territorial and
+State policy in the westward expansion to the Pacific, and the political
+preconceptions with which Americans approach the problems of government
+in the new insular possessions. The Land Ordinance of 1785 is also
+worthy of attention in this connection, for under its provisions almost
+all of the Middle West has been divided by the government surveyor into
+rectangles of sections and townships, by whose lines the settler has
+been able easily and certainly to locate his farm, and the forester his
+"forty." In the local organization of the Middle West these lines have
+played an important part.
+
+It would be impossible within the limits of this paper to detail the
+history of the occupation of the Middle West; but the larger aspects of
+the flow of population into the region may be sketched. Massachusetts
+men had formed the Ohio Company, and had been influential in shaping the
+liberal provisions of the Ordinance. Their land purchase, paid for in
+soldiers' certificates, embraced an area larger than the State of Rhode
+Island. At Marietta in 1788, under the shelter of Fort Harmar, their
+bullet-proof barge landed the first New England colony. A New Jersey
+colony was planted soon after at Cincinnati in the Symmes Purchase. Thus
+American civilization crossed the Ohio. The French settlements at
+Detroit and in Indiana and Illinois belonged to other times and had
+their own ideals; but with the entrance of the American pioneer into the
+forest of the Middle West, a new era began. The Indians, with the moral
+support of England, resisted the invasion, and an Indian war followed.
+The conquest of Wayne, in 1795, pushed back the Indians to the
+Greenville line, extending irregularly across the State of Ohio from the
+site of Cleveland to Fort Recovery in the middle point of her present
+western boundary, and secured certain areas in Indiana. In the same
+period Jay's treaty provided for the withdrawal of the British posts.
+After this extension of the area open to the pioneer, new settlements
+were rapidly formed. Connecticut disposed of her reserved land about
+Lake Erie to companies, and in 1796 General Moses Cleaveland led the way
+to the site of the city that bears his name. This was the beginning of
+the occupation of the Western Reserve, a district about as large as the
+parent State of Connecticut, a New England colony in the Middle West,
+which has maintained, even to the present time, the impress of New
+England traits. Virginia and Kentucky settlers sought the Virginia
+Military Bounty Lands, and the foundation of Chillicothe here, in 1796,
+afforded a center for Southern settlement. The region is a modified
+extension of the limestone area of Kentucky, and naturally attracted the
+emigrants from the Blue Grass State. Ohio's history is deeply marked by
+the interaction of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies within
+her borders.
+
+By the opening of the nineteenth century, when Napoleon's cession
+brought to the United States the vast spaces of the Louisiana Purchase
+beyond the Mississippi, the pioneers had hardly more than entered the
+outskirts of the forest along the Ohio and Lake Erie. But by 1810 the
+government had extinguished the Indian title to the unsecured portions
+of the Western Reserve, and to great tracts of Indiana, along the Ohio
+and up the Wabash Valley; thus protecting the Ohio highway from the
+Indians, and opening new lands to settlement. The embargo had destroyed
+the trade of New England, and had weighted down her citizens with debt
+and taxation; caravans of Yankee emigrant wagons, precursors of the
+"prairie schooner," had already begun to cross Pennsylvania on their way
+to Ohio; and they now greatly increased in number. North Carolina back
+countrymen flocked to the Indiana settlements, giving the peculiar
+Hoosier flavor to the State, and other Southerners followed,
+outnumbering the Northern immigrants, who sought the eastern edge of
+Indiana.
+
+Tecumthe, rendered desperate by the advance into his hunting grounds,
+took up the hatchet, made wide-reaching alliances among the Indians, and
+turned to England for protection. The Indian war merged into the War of
+1812, and the settlers strove in vain to add Canadian lands to their
+empire. In the diplomatic negotiations that followed the war, England
+made another attempt to erect the Old Northwest beyond the Greenville
+line into a permanent Indian barrier between Canada and the United
+States; but the demand was refused, and by the treaties of 1818, the
+Indians were pressed still farther north. In the meantime, Indian
+treaties had released additional land in southern Illinois, and pioneers
+were widening the bounds of the old French settlements. Avoiding the
+rich savannas of the prairie regions, as devoid of wood, remote from
+transportation facilities, and suited only to grazing, they entered the
+hard woods--and in the early twenties they were advancing in a
+wedge-shaped column up the Illinois Valley.
+
+The Southern element constituted the main portion of this phalanx of
+ax-bearers. Abraham Lincoln's father joined the throng of Kentuckians
+that entered the Indiana woods in 1816, and the boy, when he had learned
+to hew out a forest home, betook himself, in 1830, to Sangamon county,
+Illinois. He represents the pioneer of the period; but his ax sank
+deeper than other men's, and the plaster cast of his great sinewy hand,
+at Washington, embodies the training of these frontier railsplitters, in
+the days when Fort Dearborn, on the site of Chicago, was but a military
+outpost in a desolate country. While the hard woods of Illinois were
+being entered, the pioneer movement passed also into the Missouri
+Valley. The French lead miners had already opened the southeastern
+section, and Southern mountaineers had pushed up the Missouri; but now
+the planters from the Ohio Valley and the upper Tennessee followed,
+seeking the alluvial soils for slave labor. Moving across the southern
+border of free Illinois, they had awakened regrets in that State at the
+loss of so large a body of settlers.
+
+Looking at the Middle West, as a whole, in the decade from 1810 to 1820,
+we perceive that settlement extended from the shores of Lake Erie in an
+arc, following the banks of the Ohio till it joined the Mississippi, and
+thence along that river and up the Missouri well into the center of the
+State. The next decade was marked by the increased use of the steamboat;
+pioneers pressed farther up the streams, etching out the hard wood
+forests well up to the prairie lands, and forming additional tracts of
+settlement in the region tributary to Detroit and in the southeastern
+part of Michigan. In the area of the Galena lead mines of northwestern
+Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, and northeastern Iowa, Southerners had
+already begun operations; and if we except Ohio and Michigan, the
+dominant element in all this overflow of settlement into the Middle West
+was Southern, particularly from Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina.
+The settlements were still dependent on the rivers for transportation,
+and the areas between the rivers were but lightly occupied. The
+Mississippi constituted the principal outlet for the products of the
+Middle West; Pittsburgh furnished most of the supplies for the region,
+but New Orleans received its crops. The Old National road was built
+piecemeal, and too late, as a whole, to make a great artery of trade
+throughout the Middle West, in this early period; but it marked the
+northern borders of the Southern stream of population, running, as this
+did, through Columbus, Indianapolis, and Vandalia.
+
+The twenty years from 1830 to 1850 saw great changes in the composition
+of the population of the Middle West. The opening of the Erie Canal in
+1825 was an epoch-making event. It furnished a new outlet and inlet for
+northwestern traffic; Buffalo began to grow, and New York City changed
+from a local market to a great commercial center. But even more
+important was the place which the canal occupied as the highway for a
+new migration.
+
+In the march of the New England people from the coast, three movements
+are of especial importance: the advance from the seaboard up the
+Connecticut and Housatonic Valleys through Massachusetts and into
+Vermont; the advance thence to central and western New York; and the
+advance to the interior of the Old Northwest. The second of these stages
+occupied the generation from about 1790 to 1820; after that the second
+generation was ready to seek new lands; and these the Erie Canal and
+lake navigation opened to them, and to the Vermonters and other
+adventurous spirits of New England. It was this combined New York-New
+England stream that in the thirties poured in large volume into the zone
+north of the settlements which have been described. The newcomers filled
+in the southern counties of Michigan and Wisconsin, the northern
+countries of Illinois, and parts of the northern and central areas of
+Indiana. Pennsylvania and Ohio sent a similar type of people to the area
+adjacent to those States. In Iowa a stream combined of the Southern
+element and of these settlers sought the wooded tributaries of the
+Mississippi in the southeastern part of the State. In default of legal
+authority, in this early period, they formed squatter governments and
+land associations, comparable to the action of the Massachusetts men who
+in the first quarter of the seventeenth century "squatted" in the
+Connecticut Valley.
+
+A great forward movement had occurred, which took possession of oak
+openings and prairies, gave birth to the cities of Chicago, Milwaukee,
+St. Paul, and Minneapolis, as well as to a multitude of lesser cities,
+and replaced the dominance of the Southern element by that of a modified
+Puritan stock. The railroad system of the early fifties bound the
+Mississippi to the North Atlantic seaboard; New Orleans gave way to New
+York as the outlet for the Middle West, and the day of river settlement
+was succeeded by the era of inter-river settlement and railway
+transportation. The change in the political and social ideals was at
+least equal to the change in economic connections, and together these
+forces made an intimate organic union between New England, New York, and
+the newly settled West. In estimating the New England influence in the
+Middle West, it must not be forgotten that the New York settlers were
+mainly New Englanders of a later generation.
+
+Combined with the streams from the East came the German migration into
+the Middle West. Over half a million, mainly from the Palatinate,
+Wuertemberg, and the adjacent regions, sought America between 1830 and
+1850, and nearly a million more Germans came in the next decade. The
+larger portion of these went into the Middle West; they became pioneers
+in the newer parts of Ohio, especially along the central ridge, and in
+Cincinnati; they took up the hardwood lands of the Wisconsin counties
+along Lake Michigan; and they came in important numbers to Missouri,
+Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, and to the river towns of Iowa. The
+migration in the thirties and forties contained an exceptionally large
+proportion of educated and forceful leaders, men who had struggled in
+vain for the ideal of a liberal German nation, and who contributed
+important intellectual forces to the communities in which they settled.
+The Germans, as a whole, furnished a conservative and thrifty
+agricultural element to the Middle West. In some of their social ideals
+they came into collision with the Puritan element from New England, and
+the outcome of the steady contest has been a compromise. Of all the
+States, Wisconsin has been most deeply influenced by the Germans.
+
+By the later fifties, therefore, the control of the Middle West had
+passed to its Northern zone of population, and this zone included
+representatives of the Middle States, New England, and Germany as its
+principal elements. The Southern people, north of the Ohio, differed in
+important respects from the Southerners across the river. They had
+sprung largely from the humbler classes of the South, although there
+were important exceptions. The early pioneer life, however, was
+ill-suited to the great plantations, and slavery was excluded under the
+Ordinance. Thus this Southern zone of the Middle West, particularly in
+Indiana and Illinois, constituted a mediating section between the South
+and the North. The Mississippi still acted as a bond of union, and up to
+the close of the War of 1812 the Valley, north and south, had been
+fundamentally of the same social organization. In order to understand
+what follows, we must bear in mind the outlines of the occupation of the
+Gulf Plains. While settlement had been crossing the Ohio to the
+Northwest, the spread of cotton culture and negro slavery into the
+Southwest had been equally significant. What the New England States and
+New York were in the occupation of the Middle West, Virginia, the
+Carolinas, and Georgia were in the occupation of the Gulf States. But,
+as in the case of the Northwest, a modification of the original stock
+occurred in the new environment. A greater energy and initiative
+appeared in the new Southern lands; the pioneer's devotion to exploiting
+the territory in which he was placed transferred slavery from the
+patriarchal to the commercial basis. The same expansive tendency seen in
+the Northwest revealed itself, with a belligerent seasoning, in the Gulf
+States. They had a program of action. Abraham Lincoln migrated from
+Kentucky to Indiana and to Illinois. Jefferson Davis moved from Kentucky
+to Louisiana, and thence to Mississippi, in the same period. Starting
+from the same locality, each represented the divergent flow of streams
+of settlement into contrasted environments. The result of these
+antagonistic streams of migration to the West was a struggle between the
+Lake and Prairie plainsmen, on the one side, and the Gulf plainsmen, on
+the other, for the possession of the Mississippi Valley. It was the
+crucial part of the struggle between the Northern and Southern sections
+of the nation. What gave slavery and State sovereignty their power as
+issues was the fact that they involved the question of dominance over
+common territory in an expanding nation. The place of the Middle West in
+the origin and settlement of the great slavery struggle is of the
+highest significance.
+
+In the early history of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, a modified form of
+slavery existed under a system of indenture of the colored servant; and
+the effort of Southern settlers in Indiana and in Illinois to
+reintroduce slavery are indicative of the importance of the pro-slavery
+element in the Northwest. But the most significant early manifestation
+of the rival currents of migration with respect to slavery is seen in
+the contest which culminated in the Missouri Compromise. The historical
+obstacle of the Ordinance, as well as natural conditions, gave an
+advantage to the anti-slavery settlers northwest of the Ohio; but when
+the Mississippi was crossed, and the rival streams of settlement mingled
+in the area of the Louisiana Purchase, the struggle followed. It was an
+Illinois man, with constituents in both currents of settlement, who
+introduced the Missouri Compromise, which made a _modus vivendi_ for the
+Middle West, until the Compromise of 1850 gave to Senator Douglas of
+Illinois, in 1854, the opportunity to reopen the issue by his
+Kansas-Nebraska bill. In his doctrine of "squatter-sovereignty," or the
+right of the territories to determine the question of slavery within
+their bounds, Douglas utilized a favorite Western political idea, one
+which Cass of Michigan had promulgated before. Douglas set the love of
+the Middle West for local self-government against its preponderant
+antipathy to the spread of slavery. At the same time he brought to the
+support of the doctrine the Democratic party, which ever since the days
+of Andrew Jackson had voiced the love of the frontier for individualism
+and for popular power. In his "Young America" doctrines Douglas had also
+made himself the spokesman of Western expansive tendencies. He thus
+found important sources of popular support when he invoked the localism
+of his section. Western appeals to Congress for aid in internal
+improvements, protective tariffs, and land grants had been indications
+of nationalism. The doctrine of squatter-sovereignty itself catered to
+the love of national union by presenting the appearance of a
+non-sectional compromise, which should allow the new areas of the Middle
+West to determine their own institutions. But the Free Soil party,
+strongest in the regions occupied by the New York-New England colonists,
+and having for its program national prohibition of the spread of slavery
+into the territories, had already found in the Middle West an important
+center of power. The strength of the movement far surpassed the actual
+voting power of the Free Soil party, for it compelled both Whigs and
+Democrats to propose fusion on the basis of concession to Free Soil
+doctrines. The New England settlers and the western New York
+settlers,--the children of New England,--were keenly alive to the
+importance of the issue. Indeed, Seward, in an address at Madison,
+Wisconsin, in 1860, declared that the Northwest, in reality, extended to
+the base of the Alleghanies, and that the new States had "matured just
+in the critical moment to rally the free States of the Atlantic coast,
+to call them back to their ancient principles."
+
+These Free Soil forces and the nationalistic tendencies of the Middle
+West proved too strong for the opposing doctrines when the real struggle
+came. Calhoun and Taney shaped the issue so logically that the Middle
+West saw that the contest was not only a war for the preservation of the
+Union, but also a war for the possession of the unoccupied West, a
+struggle between the Middle West and the States of the Gulf Plains. The
+economic life of the Middle West had been bound by the railroad to the
+North Atlantic, and its interests, as well as its love of national
+unity, made it in every way hostile to secession. When Dr. Cutler had
+urged the desires of the Ohio Company upon Congress, in 1787, he had
+promised to plant in the Ohio Valley a colony that would stand for the
+Union. Vinton of Ohio, in arguing for the admission of Iowa, urged the
+position of the Middle West as the great unifying section of the
+country: "Disunion," he said, "is ruin to them. They have no
+alternative but to resist it whenever or wherever attempted. . . .
+Massachusetts and South Carolina might, for aught I know, find a
+dividing line that would be mutually satisfactory to them; but, Sir,
+they can find no such line to which the western country can assent." But
+it was Abraham Lincoln who stated the issue with the greatest precision,
+and who voiced most clearly the nationalism of the Middle West, when he
+declared, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this
+government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free."
+
+So it was that when the civil war in Kansas grew into the Civil War in
+the Union, after Lincoln's election to the presidency, the Middle West,
+dominated by its combined Puritan and German population, ceased to
+compromise, and turned the scale in favor of the North. The Middle West
+furnished more than one-third of the Union troops. The names of Grant
+and Sherman are sufficient testimony to her leadership in the field. The
+names of Lincoln and Chase show that the presidential, the financial,
+and the war powers were in the hands of the Middle West. If we were to
+accept Seward's own classification, the conduct of foreign affairs as
+well belonged to the same section; it was, at least, in the hands of
+representatives of the dominant forces of the section. The Middle West,
+led by Grant and Sherman, hewed its way down the Mississippi and across
+the Gulf States, and Lincoln could exult in 1863, "The Father of Waters
+again goes unvexed to the sea. Thanks to the great Northwest for it, nor
+yet wholly to them."
+
+In thus outlining the relations of the Middle West to the slavery
+struggle, we have passed over important extensions of settlement in the
+decade before the war. In these years, not only did the density of
+settlement increase in the older portions of the region, but new waves
+of colonization passed into the remoter prairies. Iowa's pioneers,
+after Indian cessions had been secured, spread well toward her western
+limits. Minnesota, also, was recruited by a column of pioneers. The
+treaty of Traverse de Sioux, in 1851, opened over twenty million acres
+of arable land in that State, and Minnesota increased her population
+2730.7 per cent in the decade from 1850 to 1860.
+
+Up to this decade the pine belt of the Middle West, in northern
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota had been the field of operations of
+Indian traders. At first under English companies, and afterward under
+Astor's American Fur Company, the traders with their French and
+half-breed boatmen skirted the Great Lakes and followed the rivers into
+the forests, where they stationed their posts and spread goods and
+whiskey among the Indians. Their posts were centers of disintegration
+among the savages. The new wants and the demoralization which resulted
+from the Indian trade facilitated the purchases of their lands by the
+federal government. The trader was followed by the seeker for the best
+pine land "forties"; and by the time of the Civil War the exploitation
+of the pine belt had fairly begun. The Irish and Canadian choppers,
+followed by the Scandinavians, joined the forest men, and log drives
+succeeded the trading canoe. Men from the pine woods of Maine and
+Vermont directed the industry, and became magnates in the mill towns
+that grew up in the forests,--millionaires, and afterwards political
+leaders. In the prairie country of the Middle West, the Indian trade
+that centered at St. Louis had been important ever since 1820, with an
+influence upon the Indians of the plains similar to the influence of the
+northern fur trade upon the Indians of the forest. By 1840 the removal
+policy had effected the transfer of most of the eastern tribes to lands
+across the Mississippi. Tribal names that formerly belonged to Ohio and
+the rest of the Old Northwest were found on the map of the Kansas
+Valley. The Platte country belonged to the Pawnee and their neighbors,
+and to the north along the Upper Missouri were the Sioux, or Dakota,
+Crow, Cheyenne, and other horse Indians, following the vast herds of
+buffalo that grazed on the Great Plains. The discovery of California
+gold and the opening of the Oregon country, in the middle of the
+century, made it necessary to secure a road through the Indian lands for
+the procession of pioneers that crossed the prairies to the Pacific. The
+organization of Kansas and Nebraska, in 1854, was the first step in the
+withdrawal of these territories from the Indians. A period of almost
+constant Indian hostility followed, for the savage lords of the
+boundless prairies instinctively felt the significance of the entrance
+of the farmer into their empire. In Minnesota the Sioux took advantage
+of the Civil War to rise; but the outcome was the destruction of their
+reservations in that State, and the opening of great tracts to the
+pioneers. When the Pacific railways were begun, Red Cloud, the astute
+Sioux chief, who, in some ways, stands as the successor of Pontiac and
+of Tecumthe, rallied the principal tribes of the Great Plains to resist
+the march of civilization. Their hostility resulted in the peace measure
+of 1867 and 1868, which assigned to the Sioux and their allies
+reservations embracing the major portion of Dakota territory, west of
+the Missouri River. The systematic slaughter of millions of buffalo, in
+the years between 1866 and 1873, for the sake of their hides, put an end
+to the vast herds of the Great Plains, and destroyed the economic
+foundation of the Indians. Henceforth they were dependent on the whites
+for their food supply, and the Great Plains were open to the cattle
+ranchers.
+
+In a preface written in 1872 for a new edition of "The Oregon Trail,"
+which had appeared in 1847, Francis Parkman said, "The wild cavalcade
+that defiled with me down the gorges of the Black Hills, with its paint
+and war plumes, fluttering trophies and savage embroidery, bows, arrows,
+lances, and shields, will never be seen again." The prairies were ready
+for the final rush of occupation. The homestead law of 1862, passed in
+the midst of the war, did not reveal its full importance as an element
+in the settlement of the Middle West until after peace. It began to
+operate most actively, contemporaneously with the development of the
+several railways to the Pacific, in the two decades from 1870 to 1890,
+and in connection with the marketing of the railroad land grants. The
+outcome was an epoch-making extension of population.
+
+Before 1870 the vast and fertile valley of the Red River, once the level
+bed of an ancient lake, occupying the region where North Dakota and
+Minnesota meet, was almost virgin soil. But in 1875 the great Dalrymple
+farm showed its advantages for wheat raising, and a tide of farm seekers
+turned to the region. The "Jim River" Valley of South Dakota attracted
+still other settlers. The Northern Pacific and the Great Northern
+Railway thrust out laterals into these Minnesota and Dakota wheat areas
+from which to draw the nourishment for their daring passage to the
+Pacific. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Chicago and
+Northwestern Railway, Burlington, and other roads, gridironed the
+region; and the unoccupied lands of the Middle West were taken up by a
+migration that in its system and scale is unprecedented. The railroads
+sent their agents and their literature everywhere, "booming" the "Golden
+West"; the opportunity for economic and political fortunes in such
+rapidly growing communities attracted multitudes of Americans whom the
+cheap land alone would not have tempted. In 1870 the Dakotas had 14,000
+settlers; in 1890 they had over 510,000. Nebraska's population was
+28,000 in 1860; 123,000 in 1870; 452,000 in 1880; and 1,059,000 in
+1890. Kansas had 107,000 in 1860; 364,000 in 1870; 996,000 in 1880; and
+1,427,000 in 1890. Wisconsin and New York gave the largest fractions of
+the native element to Minnesota; Illinois and Ohio together sent perhaps
+one-third of the native element of Kansas and Nebraska, but the Missouri
+and Southern settlers were strongly represented in Kansas; Wisconsin,
+New York, Minnesota, and Iowa gave North Dakota the most of her native
+settlers; and Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York did the same for
+South Dakota.
+
+Railroads and steamships organized foreign immigration on scale and
+system never before equaled; a high-water mark of American immigration
+came in the early eighties. Germans and Scandinavians were rushed by
+emigrant trains out to the prairies, to fill the remaining spaces in the
+older States of the Middle West. The census of 1890 showed in Minnesota
+373,000 persons of Scandinavian parentage, and out of the total million
+and one-half persons of Scandinavian parentage in the United States, the
+Middle West received all but about three hundred thousand. The persons
+of German parentage in the Middle West numbered over four millions out
+of a total of less than seven millions in the whole country. The
+province had, in 1890, a smaller proportion of persons of foreign
+parentage than had the North Atlantic division, but the proportions
+varied greatly in the different States. Indiana had the lowest
+percentage, 20.38; and, rising in the scale, Missouri had 24.94; Kansas
+26.75; Ohio 33.93; Nebraska 42.45; Iowa 43.57; Illinois 49.01; Michigan
+54.58; Wisconsin 73.65; Minnesota 75.37; and North Dakota 78.87.
+
+What these statistics of settlement mean when translated into the
+pioneer life of the prairie, cannot be told here. There were sharp
+contrasts with the pioneer life of the Old Northwest; for the forest
+shade, there was substituted the boundless prairie; the sod house for
+the log hut; the continental railway for the old National Turnpike and
+the Erie Canal. Life moved faster, in larger masses, and with greater
+momentum in this pioneer movement. The horizon line was more remote.
+Things were done in the gross. The transcontinental railroad, the
+bonanza farm, the steam plow, harvester, and thresher, the "league-long
+furrow," and the vast cattle ranches, all suggested spacious combination
+and systematization of industry. The largest hopes were excited by these
+conquests of the prairie. The occupation of western Kansas may
+illustrate the movement which went on also in the west of Nebraska and
+the Dakotas. The pioneer farmer tried to push into the region with the
+old methods of settlement. Deceived by rainy seasons and the railroad
+advertisements, and recklessly optimistic, hosts of settlers poured out
+into the plains beyond the region of sufficient rainfall for successful
+agriculture without irrigation. Dry seasons starved them back; but a
+repetition of good rainfalls again aroused the determination to occupy
+the western plains. Boom towns flourished like prairie weeds; Eastern
+capital struggled for a chance to share in the venture, and the Kansas
+farmers eagerly mortgaged their possessions to secure the capital so
+freely offered for their attack on the arid lands. By 1887 the tide of
+the pioneer farmers had flowed across the semi-arid plains to the
+western boundary of the State. But it was a hopeless effort to conquer a
+new province by the forces that had won the prairies. The wave of
+settlement dashed itself in vain against the conditions of the Great
+Plains. The native American farmer had received his first defeat; farm
+products at the same period had depreciated, and he turned to the
+national government for reinforcements.
+
+The Populistic movement of the western half of the Middle West is a
+complex of many forces. In some respects it is the latest manifestation
+of the same forces that brought on the crisis of 1837 in the earlier
+region of pioneer exploitation. That era of over-confidence, reckless
+internal improvements, and land purchases by borrowed capital, brought a
+reaction when it became apparent that the future had been
+over-discounted. But, in that time, there were the farther free lands to
+which the ruined pioneer could turn. The demand for an expansion of the
+currency has marked each area of Western advance. The greenback movement
+of Ohio and the eastern part of the Middle West grew into the fiat
+money, free silver, and land bank propositions of the Populists across
+the Mississippi. Efforts for cheaper transportation also appear in each
+stage of Western advance. When the pioneer left the rivers and had to
+haul his crops by wagon to a market, the transportation factor
+determined both his profits and the extension of settlement. Demands for
+national aid to roads and canals had marked the pioneer advance of the
+first third of the century. The "Granger" attacks upon the railway
+rates, and in favor of governmental regulation, marked a second advance
+of Western settlement. The Farmers' Alliance and the Populist demand for
+government ownership of the railroad is a phase of the same effort of
+the pioneer farmer, on his latest frontier. The proposals have taken
+increasing proportions in each region of Western Advance. Taken as a
+whole, Populism is a manifestation of the old pioneer ideals of the
+native American, with the added element of increasing readiness to
+utilize the national government to effect its ends. This is not
+unnatural in a section whose lands were originally purchased by the
+government and given away to its settlers by the same authority, whose
+railroads were built largely by federal land grants, and whose
+settlements were protected by the United States army and governed by the
+national authority until they were carved into rectangular States and
+admitted into the Union. Its native settlers were drawn from many
+States, many of them former soldiers of the Civil War, who mingled in
+new lands with foreign immigrants accustomed to the vigorous authority
+of European national governments.
+
+But these old ideals of the American pioneer, phrased in the new
+language of national power, did not meet with the assent of the East.
+Even in the Middle West a change of deepest import had been in progress
+during these years of prairie settlement. The agricultural preponderance
+of the country has passed to the prairies, and manufacturing has
+developed in the areas once devoted to pioneer farming. In the decade
+prior to the Civil War, the area of greatest wheat production passed
+from Ohio and the States to the east, into Illinois, Indiana, and
+Wisconsin; after 1880, the center of wheat growing moved across the
+Mississippi; and in 1890 the new settlements produced half the crop of
+the United States. The corn area shows a similar migration. In 1840 the
+Southern States produced half the crop, and the Middle West one-fifth;
+by 1860 the situation was reversed and in 1890 nearly one-half the corn
+of the Union came from beyond the Mississippi. Thus the settlers of the
+Old Northwest and their crops have moved together across the
+Mississippi, and in the regions whence they migrated varied agriculture
+and manufacture have sprung up.
+
+As these movements in population and products have passed across the
+Middle West, and as the economic life of the eastern border has been
+intensified, a huge industrial organism has been created in the
+province,--an organism of tremendous power, activity, and unity.
+Fundamentally the Middle West is an agricultural area unequaled for its
+combination of space, variety, productiveness, and freedom from
+interruption by deserts or mountains. The huge water system of the Great
+Lakes has become the highway of a mighty commerce. The Sault Ste. Marie
+Canal, although open but two-thirds of the year, is the channel of a
+traffic of greater tonnage than that which passes through the Suez
+Canal, and nearly all this commerce moves almost the whole length of the
+Great Lakes system; the chief ports being Duluth, Chicago, Detroit,
+Cleveland, and Buffalo. The transportation facilities of the Great Lakes
+were revolutionized after 1886, to supply the needs of commerce between
+the East and the newly developed lands of the Middle West; the tonnage
+doubled; wooden ships gave way to steel; sailing vessels yielded to
+steam; and huge docks, derricks, and elevators, triumphs of mechanical
+skill, were constructed. A competent investigator has lately declared
+that "there is probably in the world to-day no place at tide water where
+ship plates can be laid down for a less price than they can be
+manufactured or purchased at the lake ports."
+
+This rapid rise of the merchant marine of our inland seas has led to the
+demand for deep water canals to connect them with the ocean road to
+Europe. When the fleets of the Great Lakes plow the Atlantic, and when
+Duluth and Chicago become seaports, the water transportation of the
+Middle West will have completed its evolution. The significance of the
+development of the railway systems is not inferior to that of the great
+water way. Chicago has become the greatest railroad center of the world,
+nor is there another area of like size which equals this in its railroad
+facilities; all the forces of the nation intersect here. Improved
+terminals, steel rails, better rolling stock, and consolidation of
+railway systems have accompanied the advance of the people of the Middle
+West.
+
+This unparalleled development of transportation facilities measures the
+magnitude of the material development of the province. Its wheat and
+corn surplus supplies the deficit of the rest of the United States and
+much of that of Europe. Such is the agricultural condition of the
+province of which Monroe wrote to Jefferson, in 1786, in these words: "A
+great part of the territory is miserably poor, especially that near
+Lakes Michigan and Erie, and that upon the Mississippi and the Illinois
+consists of extensive plains which have not had, from appearances, and
+will not have, a single bush on them for ages. The districts, therefore,
+within which these fall will never contain a sufficient number of
+inhabitants to entitle them to membership in the confederacy."
+
+Minneapolis and Duluth receive the spring wheat of the northern
+prairies, and after manufacturing great portions of it into flour,
+transmit it to Buffalo, the eastern cities, and to Europe. Chicago is
+still the great city of the corn belt, but its power as a milling and
+wheat center has been passing to the cities that receive tribute from
+the northern prairies. It lies in the region of winter wheat, corn,
+oats, and live stock. Kansas City, St. Louis, and Cincinnati are the
+sister cities of this zone, which reaches into the grazing country of
+the Great Plains. The meeting point of corn and cattle has led to the
+development of the packing industries,--large business systems that send
+the beef and pork of the region to supply the East and parts of Europe.
+The "feeding system" adopted in Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa, whereby the
+stock is fattened from the surplus corn of the region, constitutes a
+species of varied farming that has saved these States from the disasters
+of the failure of a single industry, and has been one solution of the
+economic life of the transition belt between the prairies and the Great
+Plains. Under a more complex agriculture, better adapted to the various
+sections of the State, and with better crops, Kansas has become more
+prosperous and less a center of political discontent.
+
+While this development of the agricultural interests of the Middle West
+has been in progress, the exploitation of the pine woods of the north
+has furnished another contribution to the commerce of the province. The
+center of activity has migrated from Michigan to Minnesota, and the
+lumber traffic furnishes one of the principal contributions to the
+vessels that ply the Great Lakes and supply the tributary mills. As the
+white pine vanishes before the organized forces of exploitation, the
+remaining hard woods serve to establish factories in the former mill
+towns. The more fertile denuded lands of the north are now receiving
+settlers who repeat the old pioneer life among the stumps.
+
+But the most striking development in the industrial history of the
+Middle West in recent years has been due to the opening up of the iron
+mines of Lake Superior. Even in 1873 the Lake Superior ores furnished a
+quarter of the total production of American blast furnaces. The opening
+of the Gogebic mines in 1884, and the development of the Vermillion and
+Mesabi mines adjacent to the head of the lake, in the early nineties,
+completed the transfer of iron ore production to the Lake Superior
+region. Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin together now produce the ore
+for eighty per cent of the pig iron of the United States. Four-fifths of
+this great product moves to the ports on Lake Erie and the rest to the
+manufactories at Chicago and Milwaukee. The vast steel and iron industry
+that centers at Pittsburgh and Cleveland, with important outposts like
+Chicago and Milwaukee, is the outcome of the meeting of the coal of the
+eastern and southern borders of the province and of Pennsylvania, with
+the iron ores of the north. The industry has been systematized and
+consolidated by a few captains of industry. Steam shovels dig the ore
+from many of the Mesabi mines; gravity roads carry it to the docks and
+to the ships, and huge hoisting and carrying devices, built especially
+for the traffic, unload it for the railroad and the furnace. Iron and
+coal mines, transportation fleets, railroad systems, and iron
+manufactories are concentrated in a few corporations, principally the
+United States Steel Corporation. The world has never seen such a
+consolidation of capital and so complete a systematization of economic
+processes.
+
+Such is the economic appearance of the Middle West a century after the
+pioneers left the frontier village of Pittsburgh and crossed the Ohio
+into the forests. De Tocqueville exclaimed, with reason, in 1833: "This
+gradual and continuous progress of the European race toward the Rocky
+Mountains has the solemnity of a providential event. It is like a deluge
+of men, rising unabatedly, and driven daily onward by the hand of God."
+
+The ideals of the Middle West began in the log huts set in the midst of
+the forest a century ago. While his horizon was still bounded by the
+clearing that his ax had made, the pioneer dreamed of continental
+conquests. The vastness of the wilderness kindled his imagination. His
+vision saw beyond the dank swamp at the edge of the great lake to the
+lofty buildings and the jostling multitudes of a mighty city; beyond the
+rank, grass-clad prairie to the seas of golden grain; beyond the harsh
+life of the log hut and the sod house to the home of his children, where
+should dwell comfort and the higher things of life, though they might
+not be for him. The men and women who made the Middle West were
+idealists, and they had the power of will to make their dreams come
+true. Here, also, were the pioneer's traits,--individual activity,
+inventiveness, and competition for the prizes of the rich province that
+awaited exploitation under freedom and equality of opportunity. He
+honored the man whose eye was the quickest and whose grasp was the
+strongest in this contest: it was "every one for himself."
+
+The early society of the Middle West was not a complex, highly
+differentiated and organized society. Almost every family was a
+self-sufficing unit, and liberty and equality flourished in the
+frontier periods of the Middle West as perhaps never before in history.
+American democracy came from the forest, and its destiny drove it to
+material conquests; but the materialism of the pioneer was not the dull
+contented materialism of an old and fixed society. Both native settler
+and European immigrant saw in this free and competitive movement of the
+frontier the chance to break the bondage of social rank, and to rise to
+a higher plane of existence. The pioneer was passionately desirous to
+secure for himself and for his family a favorable place in the midst of
+these large and free but vanishing opportunities. It took a century for
+this society to fit itself into the conditions of the whole province.
+Little by little, nature pressed into her mold the plastic pioneer life.
+The Middle West, yesterday a pioneer province, is to-day the field of
+industrial resources and systematization so vast that Europe, alarmed
+for her industries in competition with this new power, is discussing the
+policy of forming protective alliances among the nations of the
+continent. Into this region flowed the great forces of modern
+capitalism. Indeed, the region itself furnished favorable conditions for
+the creation of these forces, and trained many of the famous American
+industrial leaders. The Prairies, the Great Plains, and the Great Lakes
+furnished new standards of industrial measurement. From this society,
+seated amidst a wealth of material advantages, and breeding
+individualism, energetic competition, inventiveness, and spaciousness of
+design, came the triumph of the strongest. The captains of industry
+arose and seized on nature's gifts. Struggling with one another,
+increasing the scope of their ambitions as the largeness of the
+resources and the extent of the fields of activity revealed themselves,
+they were forced to accept the natural conditions of a province vast in
+area but simple in structure. Competition grew into consolidation. On
+the Pittsburgh border of the Middle West the completion of the process
+is most clearly seen. On the prairies of Kansas stands the Populist, a
+survival of the pioneer, striving to adjust present conditions to his
+old ideals.
+
+The ideals of equality, freedom of opportunity, faith in the common man
+are deep rooted in all the Middle West. The frontier stage, through
+which each portion passed, left abiding traces on the older, as well as
+on the newer, areas of the province. Nor were these ideals limited to
+the native American settlers: Germans and Scandinavians who poured into
+the Middle West sought the country with like hopes and like faith. These
+facts must be remembered in estimating the effects of the economic
+transformation of the province upon its democracy. The peculiar
+democracy of the frontier has passed away with the conditions that
+produced it; but the democratic aspirations remain. They are held with
+passionate determination.
+
+The task of the Middle West is that of adapting democracy to the vast
+economic organization of the present. This region which has so often
+needed the reminder that bigness is not greatness, may yet show that its
+training has produced the power to reconcile popular government and
+culture with the huge industrial society of the modern world. The
+democracies of the past have been small communities, under simple and
+primitive economic conditions. At bottom the problem is how to reconcile
+real greatness with bigness.
+
+It is important that the Middle West should accomplish this; the future
+of the Republic is with her. Politically she is dominant, as is
+illustrated by the fact that six out of seven of the Presidents elected
+since 1860 have come from her borders. Twenty-six million people live in
+the Middle West as against twenty-one million in New England and the
+Middle States together, and the Middle West has indefinite capacity for
+growth. The educational forces are more democratic than in the East,
+and the Middle West has twice as many students (if we count together the
+common school, secondary, and collegiate attendance), as have New
+England and the Middle States combined. Nor is this educational system,
+as a whole, inferior to that of the Eastern States. State universities
+crown the public school system in every one of these States of the
+Middle West, and rank with the universities of the seaboard, while
+private munificence has furnished others on an unexampled scale. The
+public and private art collections of Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Paul, and
+other cities rival those of the seaboard. "World's fairs," with their
+important popular educational influences, have been held at Chicago,
+Omaha, and Buffalo; and the next of these national gatherings is to be
+at St. Louis. There is throughout the Middle West a vigor and a mental
+activity among the common people that bode well for its future. If the
+task of reducing the Province of the Lake and Prairie Plains to the uses
+of civilization should for a time overweigh art and literature, and even
+high political and social ideals, it would not be surprising. But if the
+ideals of the pioneers shall survive the inundation of material success,
+we may expect to see in the Middle West the rise of a highly intelligent
+society where culture shall be reconciled with democracy in the large.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[126:1] With acknowledgments to the _International Monthly_, December,
+1901.
+
+[129:1] 1901.
+
+[132:1] See F. J. Turner, "Western State-Making in the Revolutionary
+Era," in _Am. Historical Review_, i, pp. 70 _et seq._
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE OHIO VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY[157:1]
+
+
+In a notable essay Professor Josiah Royce has asserted the salutary
+influence of a highly organized provincial life in order to counteract
+certain evils arising from the tremendous development of nationalism in
+our own day. Among these evils he enumerates: first, the frequent
+changes of dwelling place, whereby the community is in danger of losing
+the well-knit organization of a common life; second, the tendency to
+reduce variety in national civilization, to assimilate all to a common
+type and thus to discourage individuality, and produce a "remorseless
+mechanism--vast, irrational;" third, the evils arising from the fact
+that waves of emotion, the passion of the mob, tend in our day to sweep
+across the nation.
+
+Against these surges of national feeling Professor Royce would erect
+dikes in the form of provincialism, the resistance of separate sections
+each with its own traditions, beliefs and aspirations. "Our national
+unities have grown so vast, our forces of social consolidation so
+paramount, the resulting problems, conflicts, evils, have become so
+intensified," he says, that we must seek in the province renewed
+strength, usefulness and beauty of American life.
+
+Whatever may be thought of this philosopher's appeal for a revival of
+sectionalism, on a higher level, in order to check the tendencies to a
+deadening uniformity of national consolidation (and to me this appeal,
+under the limitations which he gives it, seems warranted by the
+conditions)--it is certainly true that in the history of the United
+States sectionalism holds a place too little recognized by the
+historians.
+
+By sectionalism I do not mean the struggle between North and South which
+culminated in the Civil War. That extreme and tragic form of
+sectionalism indeed has almost engrossed the attention of historians,
+and it is, no doubt, the most striking and painful example of the
+phenomenon in our history. But there are older, and perhaps in the long
+run more enduring examples of the play of sectional forces than the
+slavery struggle, and there are various sections besides North and
+South.
+
+Indeed, the United States is, in size and natural resources, an empire,
+a collection of potential nations, rather than a single nation. It is
+comparable in area to Europe. If the coast of California be placed along
+the coast of Spain, Charleston, South Carolina, would fall near
+Constantinople; the northern shores of Lake Superior would touch the
+Baltic, and New Orleans would lie in southern Italy. Within this vast
+empire there are geographic provinces, separate in physical conditions,
+into which American colonization has flowed, and in each of which a
+special society has developed, with an economic, political and social
+life of its own. Each of these provinces, or sections, has developed its
+own leaders, who in the public life of the nation have voiced the needs
+of their section, contended with the representatives of other sections,
+and arranged compromises between sections in national legislation and
+policy, almost as ambassadors from separate countries in a European
+congress might make treaties.
+
+Between these sections commercial relations have sprung up, and economic
+combinations and contests may be traced by the student who looks beneath
+the surface of our national life to the actual grouping of States in
+congressional votes on tariff, internal improvement, currency and
+banking, and all the varied legislation in the field of commerce.
+American industrial life is the outcome of the combinations and contests
+of groups of States in sections. And the intellectual, the spiritual
+life of the nation is the result of the interplay of the sectional
+ideals, fundamental assumptions and emotions.
+
+In short, the real federal aspect of the nation, if we penetrate beneath
+constitutional forms to the deeper currents of social, economic and
+political life, will be found to lie in the relation of sections and
+nation, rather than in the relation of States and nation. Recently
+ex-secretary Root emphasized the danger that the States, by neglecting
+to fulfil their duties, might fall into decay, while the national
+government engrossed their former power. But even if the States
+disappeared altogether as effective factors in our national life, the
+sections might, in my opinion, gain from that very disappearance a
+strength and activity that would prove effective limitations upon the
+nationalizing process.
+
+Without pursuing the interesting speculation, I may note as evidence of
+the development of sectionalism, the various gatherings of business men,
+religious denominations and educational organizations in groups of
+States. Among the signs of growth of a healthy provincialism is the
+formation of sectional historical societies. While the American
+Historical Association has been growing vigorously and becoming a
+genuine gathering of historical students from all parts of the nation,
+there have also arisen societies in various sections to deal with the
+particular history of the groups of States. In part this is due to the
+great distances which render attendance difficult upon the meetings of
+the national body to-day, but we would be short-sighted, indeed, who
+failed to perceive in the formation of the Pacific Coast Historical
+Association, the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, and the
+Ohio Valley Historical Association, for example, genuine and spontaneous
+manifestations of a sectional consciousness.
+
+These associations spring in large part from the recognition in each of
+a common past, a common body of experiences, traditions, institutions
+and ideals. It is not necessary now to raise the question whether all of
+these associations are based on a real community of historical interest,
+whether there are overlapping areas, whether new combinations may not be
+made? They are at least substantial attempts to find a common sectional
+unity, and out of their interest in the past of the section, increasing
+tendencies to common sectional ideas and policies are certain to follow.
+I do not mean to prophesy any disruptive tendency in American life by
+the rejuvenation of sectional self-consciousness; but I do mean to
+assert that American life will be enriched and safe-guarded by the
+development of the greater variety of interest, purposes and ideals
+which seem to be arising. A measure of local concentration seems
+necessary to produce healthy, intellectual and moral life. The spread of
+social forces over too vast an area makes for monotony and stagnation.
+
+Let us, then, raise the question of how far the Ohio Valley has had a
+part of its own in the making of the nation. I have not the temerity to
+attempt a history of the Valley in the brief compass of this address.
+Nor am I confident of my ability even to pick out the more important
+features of its history in our common national life. But I venture to
+put the problem, to state some familiar facts from the special point of
+view, with the hope of arousing interest in the theme among the many
+students who are advancing the science of history in this section.
+
+To the physiographer the section is made up of the province of the
+Alleghany Plateaus and the southern portion of the Prairie Plains. In
+it are found rich mineral deposits which are changing the life of the
+section and of the nation. Although you reckon in your membership only
+the states that touch the Ohio River, parts of those states are, from
+the point of view of their social origins, more closely connected with
+the Northwest on the Lake Plains, than with the Ohio Valley; and, on the
+other hand, the Tennessee Valley, though it sweeps far toward the Lower
+South, and only joins the Ohio at the end of its course, has been
+through much of the history of the region an essential part of this
+society. Together these rivers made up the "Western World" of the
+pioneers of the Revolutionary era; the "Western Waters" of the
+backwoodsmen.
+
+But, after all, the unity of the section and its place in history were
+determined by the "beautiful river," as the French explorers called
+it--the Ohio, which pours its flood for over a thousand miles, a great
+highway to the West; a historic artery of commerce, a wedge of advance
+between powerful Indian confederacies, and rival European nations, to
+the Mississippi Valley; a home for six mighty States, now in the heart
+of the nation, rich in material wealth, richer in the history of
+American democracy, a society that holds a place midway between the
+industrial sections of the seaboard and the plains and prairies of the
+agricultural West; between the society that formed later along the
+levels about the Great Lakes, and the society that arose in the Lower
+South on the plains of the Gulf of Mexico. The Alleghanies bound it on
+the east, the Mississippi on the west. At the forks of the great river
+lies Pittsburgh, the historic gateway to the West, the present symbol
+and embodiment of the age of steel, the type of modern industrialism.
+Near its western border is St. Louis, looking toward the Prairies, the
+Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, the land into which the tide of
+modern colonization turns.
+
+Between these old cities, for whose sites European nations contended,
+stand the cities whose growth preeminently represents the Ohio valley;
+Cincinnati, the historic queen of the river; Louisville, the warder of
+the falls; the cities of the "Old National Road," Columbus,
+Indianapolis; the cities of the Blue Grass lands, which made Kentucky
+the goal of the pioneers; and the cities of that young commonwealth,
+whom the Ohio river by force of its attraction tore away from an
+uncongenial control by the Old Dominion, and joined to the social
+section where it belonged.
+
+The Ohio Valley is, therefore, not only a commercial highway, it is a
+middle kingdom between the East and the West, between the northern area,
+which was occupied by a greater New England and emigrants from northern
+Europe, and the southern area of the "Cotton Kingdom." As Pennsylvania
+and New York constituted the Middle Region in our earlier history,
+between New England and the seaboard South, so the Ohio Valley became
+the Middle Region of a later time. In its position as a highway and a
+Middle Region are found the keys to its place in American history.
+
+From the beginning the Ohio Valley seems to have been a highway for
+migration, and the home of a culture of its own. The sciences of
+American archeology and ethnology are too new to enable us to speak with
+confidence upon the origins and earlier distribution of the aborigines,
+but it is at least clear that the Ohio river played an important part in
+the movements of the earlier men in America, and that the mounds of the
+valley indicate a special type of development intermediate between that
+of the northern hunter folk, and the pueblo building races of the south.
+This dim and yet fascinating introduction to the history of the Ohio
+will afford ample opportunity for later students of the relations
+between geography and population to make contributions to our history.
+
+The French explorers saw the river, but failed to grasp its significance
+as a strategic line in the conquest of the West. Entangled in the water
+labyrinth of the vast interior, and kindled with aspirations to reach
+the "Sea of the West," their fur traders and explorers pushed their way
+through the forests of the North and across the plains of the South,
+from river to lake, from lake to river, until they met the mountains of
+the West. But while they were reaching the upper course of the Missouri
+and the Spanish outposts of Santa Fe, they missed the opportunity to
+hold the Ohio Valley, and before France could settle the Valley, the
+long and attenuated line of French posts in the west, reaching from
+Canada to Louisiana, was struck by the advancing column of the American
+backwoodsmen in the center by the way of the Ohio. Parkman, in whose
+golden pages is written the epic of the American wilderness, found his
+hero in the wandering Frenchman. Perhaps because he was a New Englander
+he missed a great opportunity and neglected to portray the formation and
+advance of the backwood society which was finally to erase the traces of
+French control in the interior of North America.
+
+It is not without significance in a consideration of the national
+aspects of the history of the Ohio Valley, that the messenger of English
+civilization, who summoned the French to evacuate the Valley and its
+approaches, and whose men near the forks of the Ohio fired the opening
+gun of the world-historic conflict that wrought the doom of New France
+in America, was George Washington, the first American to win a national
+position in the United States. The father of his country was the prophet
+of the Ohio Valley.
+
+Into this dominion, in the next scene of this drama, came the
+backwoodsmen, the men who began the formation of the society of the
+Valley. I wish to consider the effects of the formation of this society
+upon the nation. And first let us consider the stock itself.
+
+The Ohio Valley was settled, for the most part (though with important
+exceptions, especially in Ohio), by men of the Upland South, and this
+determined a large part of its influence in the nation through a long
+period. As the Ohio Valley, as a whole, was an extension of the Upland
+South, so the Upland South was, broadly speaking, an extension from the
+old Middle Region, chiefly from Pennsylvania. The society of pioneers,
+English, Scotch-Irish, Germans, and other nationalities which formed in
+the beginning of the eighteenth century in the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania and its lateral extensions was the nursery of the American
+backwoodsmen. Between about 1730 and the Revolution, successive tides of
+pioneers ascended the Shenandoah, occupied the Piedmont, or up-country
+of Virginia and the Carolinas, and received recruits from similar
+peoples who came by eastward advances from the coast toward this Old
+West.
+
+Thus by the middle of the eighteenth century a new section had been
+created in America, a kind of peninsula thrust down from Pennsylvania
+between the falls of the rivers of the South Atlantic colonies on the
+one side and the Alleghany mountains on the other. Its population showed
+a mixture of nationalities and religions. Less English than the colonial
+coast, it was built on a basis of religious feeling different from that
+of Puritan New England, and still different from the conservative
+Anglicans of the southern seaboard. The Scotch-Irish Presbyterians with
+the glow of the covenanters; German sectaries with serious-minded
+devotion to one or another of a multiplicity of sects, but withal deeply
+responsive to the call of the religious spirit, and the English Quakers
+all furnish a foundation of emotional responsiveness to religion and a
+readiness to find a new heaven and a new earth in politics as well as in
+religion. In spite of the influence of the backwoods in hampering
+religious organization, this upland society was a fertile field for
+tillage by such democratic and emotional sects as the Baptists,
+Methodists and the later Campbellites, as well as by Presbyterians. Mr.
+Bryce has well characterized the South as a region of "high religious
+voltage," but this characterization is especially applicable to the
+Upland South, and its colonies in the Ohio Valley. It is not necessary
+to assert that this religious spirit resulted in the kind of conduct
+associated with the religious life of the Puritans. What I wish to point
+out is the responsiveness of the Upland South to emotional religious and
+political appeal.
+
+Besides its variety of stocks and its religious sects responsive to
+emotion, the Upland South was intensely democratic and individualistic.
+It believed that government was based on a limited contract for the
+benefit of the individual, and it acted independently of governmental
+organs and restraints with such ease that in many regions this was the
+habitual mode of social procedure: voluntary cooperation was more
+natural to the Southern Uplanders than action through the machinery of
+government, especially when government checked rather than aided their
+industrial and social tendencies and desires. It was a naturally radical
+society. It was moreover a rural section not of the planter or merchant
+type, but characterized by the small farmer, building his log cabin in
+the wilderness, raising a small crop and a few animals for family use.
+It was this stock which began to pass into the Ohio Valley when Daniel
+Boone, and the pioneers associated with his name, followed the
+"Wilderness Trace" from the Upland South to the Blue Grass lands in the
+midst of the Kentucky hills, on the Ohio river. In the opening years of
+the Revolution these pioneers were recruited by westward extensions
+from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. With this colonization of the Ohio
+Valley begins a chapter in American history.
+
+This settlement contributed a new element to our national development
+and raised new national problems. It took a long time for the seaboard
+South to assimilate the upland section. We cannot think of the South as
+a unit through much of its ante-bellum history without doing violence to
+the facts. The struggle between the men of the up-country and the men of
+the tide-water, made a large part of the domestic history of the "Old
+South." Nevertheless, the Upland South, as slavery and cotton
+cultivation extended westward from the coast, gradually merged in the
+East. On the other hand, its children, who placed the wall of the
+Alleghanies between them and the East, gave thereby a new life to the
+conditions and ideals which were lost in their former home. Nor was this
+all. Beyond the mountains new conditions, new problems, aroused new
+ambitions and new social ideals. Its entrance into the "Western World"
+was a tonic to this stock. Its crossing put new fire into its
+veins--fires of militant expansion, creative social energy, triumphant
+democracy. A new section was added to the American nation, a new element
+was infused into the combination which we call the United States, a new
+flavor was given to the American spirit.
+
+We may next rapidly note some of the results. First, let us consider the
+national effects of the settlement of this new social type in the Ohio
+Valley upon the expansion and diplomacy of the nation. Almost from the
+first the Ohio valley had constituted the problem of westward expansion.
+It was the entering wedge to the possession of the Mississippi Valley,
+and, although reluctantly, the Eastern colonies and then the Eastern
+States were compelled to join in the struggle first to possess the Ohio,
+then to retain it, and finally to enforce its demand for the possession
+of the whole Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes as a
+means of outlet for its crops and of defense for its settlements. The
+part played by the pioneers of the Ohio Valley as a flying column of the
+nation, sent across the mountains and making a line of advance between
+hostile Indians and English on the north, and hostile Indians and
+Spaniards on the south, is itself too extensive a theme to be more than
+mentioned.
+
+Here in historic Kentucky, in the State which was the home of George
+Rogers Clark it is not necessary to dwell upon his clear insight and
+courage in carrying American arms into the Northwest. From the first,
+Washington also grasped the significance of the Ohio Valley as a "rising
+empire," whose population and trade were essential to the nation, but
+which found its natural outlet down the Mississippi, where Spain blocked
+the river, and which was in danger of withdrawing from the weak
+confederacy. The intrigues of England to attract the Valley to herself
+and those of Spain to add the settlements to the Spanish Empire, the use
+of the Indians by these rivals, and the efforts of France to use the
+pioneers of Kentucky to win New Orleans and the whole Valley between the
+Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains for a revived French Empire in
+America, are among the fascinating chapters of American, as well as of
+Ohio Valley, history. This position of the Valley explains much of the
+Indian wars, the foreign relations, and, indirectly, the domestic
+politics of the period from the Revolution to the purchase of Louisiana.
+Indeed, the purchase was in large measure due to the pressure of the
+settlers of the Ohio Valley to secure this necessary outlet. It was the
+Ohio Valley which forced the nation away from a narrow colonial attitude
+into its career as a nation among other nations with an adequate
+physical basis for future growth.
+
+In this development of a foreign policy in connection with the Ohio
+Valley, we find the germ of the Monroe doctrine, and the beginnings of
+the definite independence of the United States from the state system of
+the Old World, the beginning, in fact, of its career as a world power.
+This expansive impulse went on into the War of 1812, a war which was in
+no inconsiderable degree, the result of the aggressive leadership of a
+group of men from Kentucky and Tennessee, and especially of the daring
+and lofty demands of Henry Clay, who even thus early voiced the spirit
+of the Ohio Valley. That in this war William Henry Harrison and the
+Kentucky troops achieved the real conquest of the northwest province and
+Andrew Jackson with his Tennesseeans achieved the real conquest of the
+Gulf Plains, is in itself abundant evidence of the part played in the
+expansion of the nation by the section which formed on the Ohio and its
+tributaries. Nor was this the end of the process, for the annexation of
+Texas and the Pacific Coast was in a very real sense only an aftermath
+of the same movement of expansion.
+
+While the Ohio Valley was leading the way to the building of a greater
+nation, it was also the field wherein was formed an important
+contribution of the United States to political institutions. By this I
+mean what George Bancroft has well called "federal colonial system,"
+that is, our system of territories and new States. It is a mistake to
+attribute this system to the Ordinance of 1787 and to the leadership of
+New England. It was in large measure the work of the communities of the
+Ohio Valley who wrought out the essentials of the system for themselves,
+and by their attitude imposed it, of necessity, upon the nation. The
+great Ordinance only perfected the system.[168:1]
+
+Under the belief that all men going into vacant lands have the right to
+shape their own political institutions, the riflemen of western
+Virginia, western Pennsylvania, Kentucky and Tennessee, during the
+Revolution, protested against the rule of governments east of the
+mountains, and asserted with manly independence their right to
+self-government. But it is significant that in making this assertion,
+they at the same time petitioned congress to admit them to the
+sisterhood of States. Even when leaders like Wilkinson were attempting
+to induce Kentucky to act as an independent nation, the national spirit
+of the people as a whole led them to delay until at last they found
+themselves a State of the new Union. This recognition of the paramount
+authority of congress and this demand for self-government under that
+authority, constitute the foundations of the federal territorial system,
+as expressed in congressional resolutions, worked out tentatively in
+Jefferson's Ordinance of 1784, and finally shaped in the Ordinance of
+1787.
+
+Thus the Ohio Valley was not only the area to which this system was
+applied, but it was itself instrumental in shaping the system by its own
+demands and by the danger that too rigorous an assertion of either State
+or national power over these remote communities might result in their
+loss to the nation. The importance of the result can hardly be
+overestimated. It insured the peaceful and free development of the great
+West and gave it political organization not as the outcome of wars of
+hostile States, nor by arbitrary government by distant powers, but by
+territorial government combined with large local autonomy. These
+governments in turn were admitted as equal States of the Union. By this
+peaceful process of colonization a whole continent has been filled with
+free and orderly commonwealths so quietly, so naturally, that we can
+only appreciate the profound significance of the process by contrasting
+it with the spread of European nations through conquest and oppression.
+
+Next let me invite your attention to the part played by the Ohio Valley
+in the economic legislation which shaped our history in the years of the
+making of the nation between the War of 1812 and the rise of the slavery
+struggle. It needs but slight reflection to discover that in the area in
+question, the men and measures of the Ohio Valley held the balance of
+power and set the course of our national progress. The problems before
+the country at that time were problems of internal development: the mode
+of dealing with the public domain; the building of roads and digging of
+canals for the internal improvement of a nation which was separated into
+East and West by the Alleghany Mountains; the formation of a tariff
+system for the protection of home industries and to supply a market for
+the surplus of the West which no longer found an outlet in warring
+Europe; the framing of a banking and currency system which should meet
+the needs of the new interstate commerce produced by the rise of the
+western surplus.
+
+In the Ohio Valley, by the initiative of Ohio Valley men, and often
+against the protest of Eastern sections, the public land policy was
+developed by laws which subordinated the revenue idea to the idea of the
+upbuilding of a democracy of small landholders. The squatters of the
+Ohio Valley forced the passage of preemption laws and these laws in
+their turn led to the homestead agitation. There has been no single
+element more influential in shaping American democracy and its ideals
+than this land policy. And whether the system be regarded as harmful or
+helpful, there can be, I think, no doubt that it was the outcome of
+conditions imposed by the settlers of the Ohio Valley.
+
+When one names the tariff, internal improvements and the bank, he is
+bound to add the title "The American System," and to think of Henry Clay
+of Kentucky, the captivating young statesman, who fashioned a national
+policy, raised issues and disciplined a party to support them and who
+finally imposed the system upon the nation. But, however clearly we
+recognize the genius and originality of Henry Clay as a political
+leader; however we recognize that he has a national standing as a
+constructive statesman, we must perceive, if we probe the matter deeply
+enough, that his policy and his power grew out of the economic and
+social conditions of the people whose needs he voiced--the people of the
+Ohio Valley. It was the fact that in this period they had begun to
+create an agricultural surplus, which made the necessity for this
+legislation.
+
+The nation has recently celebrated the one hundredth anniversary of
+Fulton's invention of the steamboat, and the Hudson river has been
+ablaze in his honor; but in truth it is on the Ohio and the Mississippi
+that the fires of celebration should really burn in honor of Fulton, for
+the historic significance to the United States of the invention of the
+steamboat does not lie in its use on Eastern rivers; not even in its use
+on the ocean; for our own internal commerce carried in our own ships has
+had a vaster influence upon our national life than has our foreign
+commerce. And this internal commerce was at first, and for many years,
+the commerce of the Ohio Valley carried by way of the Mississippi. When
+Fulton's steamboat was applied in 1811 to the Western Waters, it became
+possible to develop agriculture and to get the Western crops rapidly and
+cheaply to a market. The result was a tremendous growth in the entire
+Ohio Valley, but this invention did not solve the problem of cheap
+supplies of Eastern manufactures, nor satisfy the desire of the West to
+build up its own factories in order to consume its own products. The
+Ohio Valley had seen the advantage of home markets, as her towns grew
+up with their commerce and manufacturers close to the rural regions.
+Lands had increased in value in proportion to their nearness to these
+cities, and crops were in higher demand near them. Thus Henry Clay found
+a whole section standing behind him when he demanded a protective tariff
+to create home markets on a national scale, and when he urged the
+breaking of the Alleghany barrier by a national system of roads and
+canals. If we analyse the congressional votes by which the tariff and
+internal improvement acts were passed, we shall find that there was an
+almost unbroken South against them, a Middle Region largely for them, a
+New England divided, and the Ohio Valley almost a unit, holding the
+balance of power and casting it in favor of the American system.
+
+The next topic to which I ask your attention is the influence of the
+Ohio Valley in the promotion of democracy. On this I shall, by reason of
+lack of time, be obliged merely to point out that the powerful group of
+Ohio Valley States, which sprang out of the democracy of the backwoods,
+and which entered the Union one after the other with manhood suffrage,
+greatly recruited the effective forces of democracy in the Union. Not
+only did they add new recruits, but by their competitive pressure for
+population they forced the older States to break down their historic
+restraints upon the right of voting, unless they were to lose their
+people to the freer life of the West.
+
+But in the era of Jacksonian democracy, Henry Clay and his followers
+engaged the great Tennesseean in a fierce political struggle out of
+which was born the rival Whig and Democratic parties. This struggle was
+in fact reflective of the conditions which had arisen in the Ohio
+Valley. As the section had grown in population and wealth, as the trails
+changed into roads, the cabins into well-built houses, the clearings
+into broad farms, the hamlets into towns; as barter became commerce and
+all the modern processes of industrial development began to operate in
+this rising region, the Ohio Valley broke apart into the rival interests
+of the industrial forces (the town-makers and the business builders), on
+the one side and the old rural democracy of the uplands on the other.
+This division was symbolical of national processes. In the contest
+between these forces, Andrew Jackson was the champion of the cause of
+the upland democracy. He denounced the money power, banks and the whole
+credit system and sounded a fierce tocsin of danger against the
+increasing influence of wealth in politics. Henry Clay, on the other
+hand, represented the new industrial forces along the Ohio. It is
+certainly significant that in the rivalry between the great Whig of the
+Ohio Valley and the great Democrat of its Tennessee tributary lay the
+issues of American politics almost until the slavery struggle. The
+responsiveness of the Ohio Valley to leadership and its enthusiasm in
+action are illustrated by the Harrison campaign of 1840; in that "log
+cabin campaign" when the Whigs "stole the thunder" of pioneer Jacksonian
+democracy for another backwoods hero, the Ohio Valley carried its spirit
+as well as its political favorite throughout the nation.
+
+Meanwhile, on each side of the Ohio Valley, other sections were forming.
+New England and the children of New England in western New York and an
+increasing flood of German immigrants were pouring into the Great Lake
+basin and the prairies, north of the upland peoples who had chopped out
+homes in the forests along the Ohio. This section was tied to the East
+by the Great Lake navigation and the Erie canal, it became in fact an
+extension of New England and New York. Here the Free Soil party found
+its strength and New York newspapers expressed the political ideas.
+Although this section tried to attach the Ohio River interests to itself
+by canals and later by railroads, it was in reality for a long time
+separate in its ideals and its interests and never succeeded in
+dominating the Ohio Valley.
+
+On the south along the Gulf Plains there developed the "Cotton Kingdom,"
+a Greater South with a radical program of slavery expansion mapped out
+by bold and aggressive leaders. Already this Southern section had
+attempted to establish increasing commercial relations with the Ohio
+Valley. The staple-producing region was a principal consumer of its live
+stock and food products. South Carolina leaders like Calhoun tried to
+bind the Ohio to the chariot of the South by the Cincinnati and
+Charleston Railroad, designed to make an outlet for the Ohio Valley
+products to the southeast. Georgia in her turn was a rival of South
+Carolina in plans to drain this commerce itself. In all of these plans
+to connect the Ohio Valley commercially with the South, the political
+object was quite as prominent as the commercial.
+
+In short, various areas were bidding for the support of the zone of
+population along the Ohio River. The Ohio Valley recognized its old
+relationship to the South, but its people were by no means champions of
+slavery. In the southern portion of the States north of the Ohio where
+indented servitude for many years opened a way to a system of
+semi-slavery, there were divided counsels. Kentucky also spoke with no
+certain voice. As a result, it is in these regions that we find the
+stronghold of the compromising movement in the slavery struggle.
+Kentucky furnished Abraham Lincoln to Illinois, and Jefferson Davis to
+Mississippi, and was in reality the very center of the region of
+adjustment between these rival interests. Senator Thomas, of southern
+Illinois, moved the Missouri Compromise, and Henry Clay was the most
+effective champion of that compromise, as he was the architect of the
+Compromise of 1850. The Crittenden compromise proposals on the eve of
+the Civil War came also from Kentucky and represent the persistence of
+the spirit of Henry Clay.
+
+In a word, as I pointed out in the beginning, the Ohio Valley was a
+Middle Region with a strong national allegiance, striving to hold apart
+with either hand the sectional combatants in this struggle. In the
+cautious development of his policy of emancipation, we may see the
+profound influence of the Ohio Valley upon Abraham Lincoln--Kentucky's
+greatest son. No one can understand his presidency without proper
+appreciation of the deep influence of the Ohio Valley, its ideals and
+its prejudices upon America's original contribution to the great men of
+the world.
+
+Enough has been said to make it clear, I trust, that the Ohio Valley has
+not only a local history worthy of study, a rich heritage to its people,
+but also that it has been an independent and powerful force in shaping
+the development of a nation. Of the late history of this Valley, the
+rise of its vast industrial power, its far-reaching commercial
+influence, it is not necessary that I should speak. You know its
+statesmen and their influence upon our own time; you know the relation
+of Ohio to the office of President of the United States! Nor is it
+necessary that I should attempt to prophesy concerning the future which
+the Ohio Valley will hold in the nation.
+
+In that new age of inland water transportation, which is certain to
+supplement the age of the railroad, there can be no more important
+region than the Ohio Valley. Let us hope that its old love of democracy
+may endure, and that in this section, where the first trans-Alleghany
+pioneers struck blows at the forests, there may be brought to blossom
+and to fruit the ripe civilization of a people who know that whatever
+the glories of prosperity may be, there are greater glories of the
+spirit of man; who know that in the ultimate record of history, the
+place of the Ohio Valley will depend upon the contribution which her
+people and her leaders make to the cause of an enlightened, a
+cultivated, a God-fearing and a free, as well as a comfortable,
+democracy.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[157:1] An address before the Ohio Valley Historical Association,
+October 16, 1909.
+
+[168:1] See F. J. Turner, "New States West of the Alleghanies,"
+_American Historical Review_, i, pp. 70 ff.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY IN AMERICAN HISTORY[177:1]
+
+
+The rise of a company of sympathetic and critical students of history in
+the South and in the West is bound to revolutionize the perspective of
+American history. Already our Eastern colleagues are aware in general,
+if not in detail, of the importance of the work of this nation in
+dealing with the vast interior, and with the influence of the West upon
+the nation. Indeed, I might take as the text for this address the words
+of one of our Eastern historians, Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, who, a
+decade ago, wrote:
+
+     The Mississippi Valley yields to no region in the world in
+     interest, in romance, and in promise for the future. Here, if
+     anywhere, is the real America--the field, the theater, and the
+     basis of the civilization of the Western World. The history of
+     the Mississippi Valley is the history of the United States;
+     its future is the future of one of the most powerful of modern
+     nations.[177:2]
+
+If those of us who have been insisting on the importance of our own
+region are led at times by the enthusiasm of the pioneer for the
+inviting historical domain that opens before us to overstate the
+importance of our subject, we may at least plead that we have gone no
+farther than some of our brethren of the East; and we may take comfort
+in this declaration of Theodore Roosevelt:
+
+     The states that have grown up around the Great Lakes and in
+     the Valley of the Upper Mississippi, [are] the states which
+     are destined to be the greatest, the richest, the most
+     prosperous of all the great, rich, and prosperous
+     commonwealths which go to make up the mightiest republic the
+     world has ever seen. These states . . . form the heart of the
+     country geographically, and they will soon become the heart in
+     population and in political and social importance. . . . I
+     should be sorry to think that before these states there loomed
+     a future of material prosperity merely. I regard this section
+     of the country as the heart of true American sentiment.[178:1]
+
+In studying the history of the whole Mississippi Valley, therefore, the
+members of this Association are studying the origins of that portion of
+the nation which is admitted by competent Eastern authorities to be the
+section potentially most influential in the future of America. They are
+also studying the region which has engaged the most vital activities of
+the whole nation; for the problems arising from the existence of the
+Mississippi Valley, whether of movement of population, diplomacy,
+politics, economic development, or social structure, have been
+fundamental problems in shaping the nation. It is not a narrow, not even
+a local, interest which determines the mission of this Association. It
+is nothing less than the study of the American people in the presence
+and under the influence of the vast spaces, the imperial resources of
+the great interior. The social destiny of this Valley will be the social
+destiny, and will mark the place in history, of the United States.
+
+In a large sense, and in the one usually given to it by geographers and
+historians, the Mississippi Valley includes the whole interior basin, a
+province which drains into nearly two thousand miles of navigable waters
+of the Mississippi itself, two thousand miles of the tawny flood of the
+Missouri, and a thousand miles of the Ohio--five thousand miles of main
+water highways open to the steamboat, nearly two and a half million
+square miles of drainage basin, a land greater than all Europe except
+Russia, Norway, and Sweden, a land of levels, marked by essential
+geographic unity, a land estimated to be able to support a population of
+two or three hundred millions, three times the present population of the
+whole nation, an empire of natural resources in which to build a noble
+social structure worthy to hold its place as the heart of American
+industrial, political and spiritual life.
+
+The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history was first
+shown in the fact that it opened to various nations visions of power in
+the New World--visions that sweep across the horizon of historical
+possibility like the luminous but unsubstantial aurora of a comet's
+train, portentous and fleeting.
+
+Out of the darkness of the primitive history of the continent are being
+drawn the evidences of the rise and fall of Indian cultures, the
+migrations through and into the great Valley by men of the Stone Age,
+hinted at in legends and languages, dimly told in the records of mounds
+and artifacts, but waiting still for complete interpretation.
+
+Into these spaces and among the savage peoples, came France and wrote a
+romantic page in our early history, a page that tells of unfulfilled
+empire. What is striking in the effect of the Mississippi Valley upon
+France is the pronounced influence of the unity of its great spaces. It
+is not without meaning that Radisson and Groseilliers not only reached
+the extreme of Lake Superior but also, in all probability, entered upon
+the waters of the Mississippi and learned of its western affluent; that
+Marquette not only received the Indians of the Illinois region in his
+post on the shores of Lake Superior, but traversed the length of the
+Mississippi almost to its mouth, and returning revealed the site of
+Chicago; that La Salle was inspired with the vision of a huge interior
+empire reaching from the Gulf to the Great Lakes. Before the close of
+the seventeenth century, Perrot's influence was supreme in the Upper
+Mississippi, while D'Iberville was laying the foundations of Louisiana
+toward the mouth of the river. Nor is it without significance that while
+the Verendryes were advancing toward the northwest (where they
+discovered the Big Horn Mountains and revealed the natural boundaries of
+the Valley) the Mallet brothers were ascending the Platte, crossing the
+Colorado plains to Santa Fe and so revealing the natural boundaries
+toward the southwest.
+
+To the English the great Valley was a land beyond the Alleghanies.
+Spotswood, the far-sighted Governor of Virginia, predecessor of frontier
+builders, grasped the situation when he proposed western settlements to
+prevent the French from becoming a great people at the back of the
+colonies. He realized the importance of the Mississippi Valley as the
+field for expansion, and the necessity to the English empire of
+dominating it, if England would remain the great power of the New World.
+
+In the war that followed between France and England, we now see what
+the men of the time could not have realized: that the main issue was
+neither the possession of the fisheries nor the approaches to the St.
+Lawrence on the one hemisphere, nor the possession of India on the
+other, but the mastery of the interior basin of North America.
+
+How little the nations realized the true meaning of the final victory of
+England is shown in the fact that Spain reluctantly received from France
+the cession of the lands beyond the Mississippi, accepting it as a means
+of preventing the infringement of her colonial monopoly in Spanish
+America rather than as a field for imperial expansion.
+
+But we know now that when George Washington came as a stripling to the
+camp of the French at the edge of the great Valley and demanded the
+relinquishment of the French posts in the name of Virginia, he was
+demanding in the name of the English speaking people the right to occupy
+and rule the real center of American resources and power. When
+Braddock's axmen cut their road from the Potomac toward the forks of the
+Ohio they were opening a channel through which the forces of
+civilization should flow with ever increasing momentum and "carving a
+cross on the wilderness rim" at the spot which is now the center of
+industrial power of the American nation.
+
+England trembled on the brink of her great conquest, fearful of the
+effect of these far-stretching rivers upon her colonial system, timorous
+in the presence of the fierce peoples who held the vast domain beyond
+the Alleghanies. It seems clear, however, that the Proclamation of 1763,
+forbidding settlement and the patenting of lands beyond the Alleghanies,
+was not intended as a permanent creation of an Indian reservation out of
+this Valley, but was rather a temporary arrangement in order that
+British plans might mature and a system of gradual colonization be
+devised. Already our greatest leaders, men like Washington and
+Franklin, had been quick to see the importance of this new area for
+enlarged activities of the American people. A sudden revelation that it
+was the West, rather than the ocean, which was the real theater for the
+creative energy of America came with the triumph over France. The Ohio
+Company and the Loyal Land Company indicate the interest at the outbreak
+of the war, while the Mississippi Company, headed by the Washingtons and
+Lees, organized to occupy southern Illinois, Indiana, and western
+Kentucky, mark the Virginia interest in the Mississippi Valley, and
+Franklin's activity in promoting a colony in the Illinois country
+illustrates the interest of the Philadelphians. Indeed, Franklin saw
+clearly the possibilities of a settlement there as a means of breaking
+up Spanish America. Writing to his son in 1767 he declared that a
+"settlement should be made in the Illinois country . . . raising a
+strength there which on occasions of a future war might easily be poured
+down the Mississippi upon the lower country and into the Bay of Mexico
+to be used against Cuba, the French Islands, or Mexico itself."[182:1]
+
+The Mississippi Valley had been the despair of France in the matter of
+governmental control. The coureurs de bois escaping from restraints of
+law and order took their way through its extensive wilderness, exploring
+and trading as they listed. Similarly, when the English colonists
+crossed the Alleghanies they escaped from the control of mother colonies
+as well as of the mother country. If the Mississippi Valley revealed to
+the statesmen of the East, in the exultation of the war with France, an
+opportunity for new empire building, it revealed to the frontiersmen,
+who penetrated the passes of the Alleghanies, and entered into their new
+inheritance, the sharp distinctions between them and the Eastern lands
+which they left behind. From the beginning it was clear that the lands
+beyond the Alleghanies furnished an opportunity and an incentive to
+develop American society on independent and unconventional lines. The
+"men of the Western Waters" broke with the old order of things,
+subordinated social restraint to the freedom of the individual, won
+their title to the rich lands which they entered by hard fighting
+against the Indians, hotly challenged the right of the East to rule
+them, demanded their own States, and would not be refused, spoke with
+contempt of the old social order of ranks and classes in the lands
+between the Alleghanies and the Atlantic, and proclaimed the ideal of
+democracy for the vast country which they had entered. Not with the
+mercurial facility of the French did they follow the river systems of
+the Great Valley. Like the advance of the glacier they changed the face
+of the country in their steady and inevitable progress, and they sought
+the sea. It was not long before the Spaniards at the mouth of the river
+realized the meaning of the new forces that had entered the Valley.
+
+In 1794 the Governor of Louisiana wrote:
+
+     This vast and restless population progressively driving the
+     Indian tribes before them and upon us, seek to possess
+     themselves of all the extensive regions which the Indians
+     occupy between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the Gulf of
+     Mexico, and the Appalachian Mountains, thus becoming our
+     neighbors, at the same time that they menacingly ask for the
+     free navigation of the Mississippi. If they achieve their
+     object, their ambitions would not be confined to this side of
+     the Mississippi. Their writings, public papers, and speeches,
+     all turn on this point, the free navigation of the Gulf by the
+     rivers . . . which empty into it, the rich fur trade of the
+     Missouri, and in time the possession of the rich mines of the
+     interior provinces of the very Kingdom of Mexico. Their mode
+     of growth and their policy are as formidable for Spain as
+     their armies. . . . Their roving spirit and the readiness with
+     which they procure sustenance and shelter facilitate rapid
+     settlement. A rifle and a little corn meal in a bag are
+     enough for an American wandering alone in the woods for a
+     month. . . . With logs crossed upon one another he makes a
+     house, and even an impregnable fort against the Indians. . . .
+     Cold does not terrify him, and when a family wearies of one
+     place, it moves to another and settles there with the same
+     ease.
+
+     If such men come to occupy the banks of the Mississippi and
+     Missouri, or secure their navigation, doubtless nothing will
+     prevent them from crossing and penetrating into our provinces
+     on the other side, which, being to a great extent unoccupied,
+     can oppose no resistance. . . . In my opinion, a general
+     revolution in America threatens Spain unless the remedy be
+     applied promptly.
+
+In fact, the pioneers who had occupied the uplands of the South, the
+backwoods stock with its Scotch-Irish leaders which had formed on the
+eastern edge of the Alleghanies, separate and distinct from the type of
+tidewater and New England, had found in the Mississippi Valley a new
+field for expansion under conditions of free land and unrestraint. These
+conditions gave it promise of ample time to work out its own social
+type. But, first of all, these men who were occupying the Western Waters
+must find an outlet for their surplus products, if they were to become
+a powerful people. While the Alleghanies placed a veto toward the east,
+the Mississippi opened a broad highway to the south. Its swift current
+took their flat boats in its strong arms to bear them to the sea, but
+across the outlet of the great river Spain drew the barrier of her
+colonial monopoly and denied them exit.
+
+The significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history at the
+opening of the new republic, therefore, lay in the fact that, beyond the
+area of the social and political control of the thirteen colonies, there
+had arisen a new and aggressive society which imperiously put the
+questions of the public lands, internal communication, local
+self-government, defense, and aggressive expansion, before the
+legislators of the old colonial regime. The men of the Mississippi
+Valley compelled the men of the East to think in American terms instead
+of European. They dragged a reluctant nation on in a new course.
+
+From the Revolution to the end of the War of 1812 Europe regarded the
+destiny of the Mississippi Valley as undetermined. Spain desired to
+maintain her hold by means of the control given through the possession
+of the mouth of the river and the Gulf, by her influence upon the Indian
+tribes, and by intrigues with the settlers. Her object was primarily to
+safeguard the Spanish American monopoly which had made her a great
+nation in the world. Instinctively she seemed to surmise that out of
+this Valley were the issues of her future; here was the lever which
+might break successively, from her empire fragments about the
+Gulf--Louisiana, Florida and Texas, Cuba and Porto Rico--the Southwest
+and Pacific coast, and even the Philippines and the Isthmian Canal,
+while the American republic, building itself on the resources of the
+Valley, should become paramount over the independent republics into
+which her empire was to disintegrate.
+
+France, seeking to regain her former colonial power, would use the
+Mississippi Valley as a means of provisioning her West Indian islands;
+of dominating Spanish America, and of subordinating to her purposes the
+feeble United States, which her policy assigned to the lands between the
+Atlantic and the Alleghanies. The ancient Bourbon monarchy, the
+revolutionary republic, and the Napoleonic empire--all contemplated the
+acquisition of the whole Valley of the Mississippi from the Alleghanies
+to the Rocky Mountains.[186:1]
+
+England holding the Great Lakes, dominating the northern Indian
+populations and threatening the Gulf and the mouth of the Mississippi by
+her fleet, watched during the Revolution, the Confederation, and the
+early republic for the breaking of the fragile bonds of the thirteen
+States, ready to extend her protection over the settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley.
+
+Alarmed by the prospect of England's taking Louisiana and Florida from
+Spain, Jefferson wrote in 1790: "Embraced from St. Croix to St. Mary's
+on one side by their possessions, on the other by their fleet, we need
+not hesitate to say that they would soon find means to unite to them all
+the territory covered by the ramifications of the Mississippi." And
+that, he thought, must result in "bloody and eternal war or indissoluble
+confederacy" with England.
+
+None of these nations deemed it impossible that American settlers in the
+Mississippi Valley might be won to accept another flag than that of the
+United States. Gardoqui had the effrontery in 1787 to suggest to Madison
+that the Kentuckians would make good Spanish subjects. France enlisted
+the support of frontiersmen led by George Rogers Clark for her attempted
+conquest of Louisiana in 1793. England tried to win support among the
+western settlers. Indeed, when we recall that George Rogers Clark
+accepted a commission as Major General from France in 1793 and again in
+1798; that Wilkinson, afterwards commander-in-chief of the American
+army, secretly asked Spanish citizenship and promised renunciation of
+his American allegiance; that Governor Sevier of Franklin, afterwards
+Senator from Tennessee and its first Governor as a State, Robertson the
+founder of Cumberland, and Blount, Governor of the Southwest Territory
+and afterwards Senator from Tennessee, were all willing to accept the
+rule of another nation sooner than see the navigation of the Mississippi
+yielded by the American government we can easily believe that it lay
+within the realm of possibility that another allegiance might have been
+accepted by the frontiersmen themselves. We may well trust Rufus Putnam,
+whose federalism and devotion to his country had been proved and whose
+work in founding New England's settlement at Marietta is well known,
+when he wrote in 1790 in answer to Fisher Ames's question whether the
+Mississippi Valley could be retained in the Union: "Should Congress give
+up her claim to the navigation of the Mississippi or cede it to the
+Spaniards, I believe the people in the Western quarter would separate
+themselves from the United States very soon. Such a measure, I have no
+doubt, would excite so much rage and dissatisfaction that the people
+would sooner put themselves under the despotic government of Spain than
+remain the indented servants of Congress." He added that if Congress did
+not afford due protection also to these western settlers they might turn
+to England or Spain.[187:1]
+
+Prior to the railroad the Mississippi Valley was potentially the basis
+for an independent empire, in spite of the fact that its population
+would inevitably be drawn from the Eastern States. Its natural outlet
+was down the current to the Gulf. New Orleans controlled the Valley, in
+the words of Wilkinson, "as the key the lock, or the citadel the
+outworks." So long as the Mississippi Valley was menaced, or in part
+controlled, by rival European states, just so long must the United
+States be a part of the state system of Europe, involved in its
+fortunes. And particularly was this the case in view of the fact that
+until the Union made internal commerce, based upon the Mississippi
+Valley, its dominant economic interest, the merchants and sailors of the
+northeastern States and the staple producers of the southern sea-board
+were a commercial appanage of Europe. The significance of the
+Mississippi Valley was clearly seen by Jefferson. Writing to Livingston
+in 1802 he declared:
+
+     There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which
+     is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through
+     which the produce of three-eights of our territory must pass
+     to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more
+     than half of our whole produce and contain more than half of
+     our inhabitants. . . . The day that France takes possession of
+     New Orleans fixes the sentence which is to restrain her within
+     her low-water mark. It seals the union of two nations who in
+     conjunction can maintain exclusive possession of the ocean.
+     From that moment we must marry ourselves to the British fleet
+     and nation . . . holding the two continents of America in
+     sequestration for the common purposes of the united British
+     and American nations.[188:1]
+
+The acquisition of Louisiana was a recognition of the essential unity of
+the Mississippi Valley. The French engineer Collot reported to his
+government after an investigation in 1796:
+
+     All the positions on the left [east] bank of the Mississippi
+     . . . without the alliance of the Western states are far from
+     covering Louisiana. . . . When two nations possess, one the
+     coasts and the other the plains, the former must inevitably
+     embark or submit. From thence I conclude that the Western
+     States of the North American republic must unite themselves
+     with Louisiana and form in the future one single compact
+     nation; or else that colony to whatever power it shall belong
+     will be conquered or devoured.
+
+The effect of bringing political unity to the Mississippi Valley by the
+Louisiana Purchase was profound. It was the decisive step of the United
+States on an independent career as a world power, free from entangling
+foreign alliances. The victories of Harrison in the Northwest, in the
+War of 1812 that followed, ensured our expansion in the northern half of
+the Valley. Jackson's triumphal march to the Gulf and his defense of New
+Orleans in the same war won the basis for that Cotton Kingdom, so
+important in the economic life of the nation and so pregnant with the
+issue of slavery.[189:1] The acquisition of Florida, Texas, and the Far
+West followed naturally. Not only was the nation set on an independent
+path in foreign relations; its political system was revolutionized, for
+the Mississippi Valley now opened the way for adding State after State,
+swamping the New England section and its Federalism. The doctrine of
+strict construction had received a fatal blow at the hands of its own
+prophet. The old conception of historic sovereign States, makers of a
+federation, was shattered by this vast addition of raw material for an
+indefinite number of parallelograms called States, nursed through a
+Territorial period by the Federal government, admitted under conditions,
+and animated by national rather than by State patriotism.
+
+The area of the nation had been so enlarged and the development of the
+internal resources so promoted, by the acquisition of the whole course
+of the mighty river, its tributaries and its outlet, that the Atlantic
+coast soon turned its economic energies from the sea to the interior.
+Cities and sections began to struggle for ascendancy over its industrial
+life. A real national activity, a genuine American culture began. The
+vast spaces, the huge natural resources, of the Valley demanded
+exploitation and population. Later there came the tide of foreign
+immigration which has risen so steadily that it has made a composite
+American people whose amalgamation is destined to produce a new national
+stock.
+
+But without attempting to exhaust, or even to indicate, all the effects
+of the Louisiana Purchase, I wish next to ask your attention to the
+significance of the Mississippi Valley in the promotion of democracy and
+the transfer of the political center of gravity in the nation. The
+Mississippi Valley has been the especial home of democracy. Born of free
+land and the pioneer spirit, nurtured in the ideas of the Revolution and
+finding free play for these ideas in the freedom of the wilderness,
+democracy showed itself in the earliest utterances of the men of the
+Western Waters and it has persisted there. The demand for local
+self-government, which was insistent on the frontier, and the
+endorsement given by the Alleghanies to these demands led to the
+creation of a system of independent Western governments and to the
+Ordinance of 1787, an original contribution to colonial policy. This was
+framed in the period when any rigorous subjection of the West to Eastern
+rule would have endangered the ties that bound them to the Union
+itself. In the Constitutional Convention prominent Eastern statesmen
+expressed their fears of the Western democracy and would have checked
+its ability to out-vote the regions of property by limiting its
+political power, so that it should never equal that of the Atlantic
+coast. But more liberal counsels prevailed. In the first debates upon
+the public lands, also, it was clearly stated that the social system of
+the nation was involved quite as much as the question of revenue.
+Eastern fears that cheap lands in abundance would depopulate the
+Atlantic States and check their industrial growth by a scarcity of labor
+supply were met by the answer of one of the representatives in 1796:
+
+     I question if any man would be hardy enough to point out a
+     class of citizens by name that ought to be the servants of the
+     community; yet unless that is done to what class of the People
+     could you direct such a law? But if you passed such an act
+     [limiting the area offered for sale in the Mississippi
+     Valley], it would be tantamount to saying that there is some
+     class which must remain here, and by law be obliged to serve
+     the others for such wages as they please to give.
+
+Gallatin showed his comprehension of the basis of the prosperous
+American democracy in the same debate when he said:
+
+     If the cause of the happiness of this country was examined
+     into, it would be found to arise as much from the great plenty
+     of land in proportion to the inhabitants, which their citizens
+     enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions.
+
+Out of this frontier democratic society where the freedom and abundance
+of land in the great Valley opened a refuge to the oppressed in all
+regions, came the Jacksonian democracy which governed the nation after
+the downfall of the party of John Quincy Adams. Its center rested in
+Tennessee, the region from which so large a portion of the Mississippi
+Valley was settled by descendants of the men of the Upland South. The
+rule of the Mississippi Valley is seen when we recall the place that
+Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri held in both parties. Besides Jackson,
+Clay, Harrison and Polk, we count such presidential candidates as Hugh
+White and John Bell, Vice President R. M. Johnson, Grundy, the chairman
+of the finance committee, and Benton, the champion of western
+radicalism.
+
+It was in this same period, and largely by reason of the drainage of
+population to the West, and the stir in the air raised by the Western
+winds of Jacksonian democracy, that most of the older States
+reconstructed their constitutions on a more democratic basis. From the
+Mississippi Valley where there were liberal suffrage provisions (based
+on population alone instead of property and population), disregard of
+vested interests, and insistence on the rights of man, came the
+inspiration for this era of change in the franchise and apportionment,
+of reform of laws for imprisonment for debt, of general attacks upon
+monopoly and privilege. "It is now plain," wrote Jackson in 1837, "that
+the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of the few against
+the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the honest laborers
+hewers of wood and drawers of water . . . through the credit and paper
+system."
+
+By this time the Mississippi Valley had grown in population and
+political power so that it ranked with the older sections. The next
+indication of its significance in American history which I shall
+mention is its position in shaping the economic and political course of
+the nation between the close of the War of 1812 and the slavery
+struggle. In 1790 the Mississippi Valley had a population of about a
+hundred thousand, or one-fortieth of that of the United States as a
+whole; by 1810 it had over a million, or one-seventh; by 1830 it had
+three and two-thirds millions, or over one-fourth; by 1840 over six
+millions, more than one-third. While the Atlantic coast increased only a
+million and a half souls between 1830 and 1840, the Mississippi Valley
+gained nearly three millions. Ohio (virgin wilderness in 1790) was, half
+a century later, nearly as populous as Pennsylvania and twice as
+populous as Massachusetts. While Virginia, North Carolina, and South
+Carolina were gaining 60,000 souls between 1830 and 1840, Illinois
+gained 318,000. Indeed, the growth of this State alone excelled that of
+the entire South Atlantic States.
+
+These figures show the significance of the Mississippi Valley in its
+pressure upon the older section by the competition of its cheap lands,
+its abundant harvests, and its drainage of the labor supply. All of
+these things meant an upward lift to the Eastern wage earner. But they
+meant also an increase of political power in the Valley. Before the War
+of 1812 the Mississippi Valley had six senators, New England ten, the
+Middle States ten, and the South eight. By 1840 the Mississippi Valley
+had twenty-two senators, double those of the Middle States and New
+England combined, and nearly three times as many as the Old South; while
+in the House of Representatives the Mississippi Valley outweighed any
+one of the old sections. In 1810 it had less than one-third the power of
+New England and the South together in the House. In 1840 it outweighed
+them both combined and because of its special circumstances it held the
+balance of power.
+
+While the Mississippi Valley thus rose to superior political power as
+compared with any of the old sections, its economic development made it
+the inciting factor in the industrial life of the nation. After the War
+of 1812 the steamboat revolutionized the transportation facilities of
+the Mississippi Valley. In each economic area a surplus formed,
+demanding an outlet and demanding returns in manufactures. The spread of
+cotton into the lower Mississippi Valley and the Gulf Plains had a
+double significance. This transfer of the center of cotton production
+away from the Atlantic South not only brought increasing hardship and
+increasing unrest to the East as the competition of the virgin soils
+depressed Atlantic land values and made Eastern labor increasingly dear,
+but the price of cotton fell also in due proportion to the increase in
+production by the Mississippi Valley. While the transfer of economic
+power from the Seaboard South to the Cotton Kingdom of the lower
+Mississippi Valley was in progress, the upper Mississippi Valley was
+leaping forward, partly under the stimulus of a market for its surplus
+in the plantations of the South, where almost exclusive cultivation of
+the great staples resulted in a lack of foodstuffs and livestock.
+
+At the same time the great river and its affluents became the highway of
+a commerce that reached to the West Indies, the Atlantic Coast, Europe,
+and South America. The Mississippi Valley was an industrial entity, from
+Pittsburgh and Santa Fe to New Orleans. It became the most important
+influence in American politics and industry. Washington had declared in
+1784 that it was the part of wisdom for Virginia to bind the West to the
+East by ties of interest through internal improvement thereby taking
+advantage of the extensive and valuable trade of a rising empire.
+
+This realization of the fact that an economic empire was growing up
+beyond the mountains stimulated rival cities, New York, Philadelphia,
+and Baltimore, to engage in a struggle to supply the West with goods
+and receive its products. This resulted in an attempt to break down the
+barrier of the Alleghanies by internal improvements. The movement became
+especially active after the War of 1812, when New York carried out De
+Witt Clinton's vast conception of making by the Erie Canal a greater
+Hudson which should drain to the port of New York all the basin of the
+Great Lakes, and by means of other canals even divert the traffic from
+the tributaries of the Mississippi. New York City's commercial
+ascendancy dates from this connection with interior New York and the
+Mississippi Valley. A writer in Hunt's _Merchants' Magazine_ in 1869
+makes the significance of this clearer by these words:
+
+     There was a period in the history of the seaboard cities when
+     there was no West; and when the Alleghany Mountains formed the
+     frontier of settlement and agricultural production. During
+     that epoch the seaboard cities, North and South, grew in
+     proportion to the extent and fertility of the country in their
+     rear; and as Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia
+     were more productive in staples valuable to commerce than the
+     colonies north of them, the cities of Baltimore, Norfolk,
+     Charleston, and Savannah enjoyed a greater trade and
+     experienced a larger growth than those on the northern
+     seaboard.
+
+He, then, classifies the periods of city development into three: (1) the
+provincial, limited to the Atlantic seaboard; (2) that of canal and
+turnpike connected with the Mississippi Valley; and (3) that of railroad
+connection. Thus he was able to show how Norfolk, for example, was shut
+off from the enriching currents of interior trade and was outstripped
+by New York. The efforts of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and
+Savannah to divert the trade of the Mississippi system to their own
+ports on the Atlantic, and the rise or fall of these cities in
+proportion as they succeeded are a sufficient indication of the meaning
+of the Mississippi Valley in American industrial life. What colonial
+empire has been for London that the Mississippi Valley is to the
+seaboard cities of the United States, awakening visions of industrial
+empire, systematic control of vast spaces, producing the American type
+of the captain of industry.
+
+It was not alone city rivalry that converged upon the Mississippi Valley
+and sought its alliance. Sectional rivalry likewise saw that the balance
+of power possessed by the interior furnished an opportunity for
+combinations. This was a fundamental feature of Calhoun's policy when he
+urged the seaboard South to complete a railroad system to tap the
+Northwest. As Washington had hoped to make western trade seek its outlet
+in Virginia and build up the industrial power of the Old Dominion by
+enriching intercourse with the Mississippi Valley, as Monroe wished to
+bind the West to Virginia's political interests; and as De Witt Clinton
+wished to attach it to New York, so Calhoun and Hayne would make
+"Georgia and Carolina the commercial center of the Union, and the two
+most powerful and influential members of the confederacy," by draining
+the Mississippi Valley to their ports. "I believe," said Calhoun, "that
+the success of a connection of the West is of the last importance to us
+politically and commercially. . . . I do verily believe that Charleston
+has more advantages in her position for the Western trade, than any city
+on the Atlantic, but to develop them we ought to look to the Tennessee
+instead of the Ohio, and much farther to the West than Cincinnati or
+Lexington."
+
+This was the secret of Calhoun's advocacy in 1836 and 1837 both of the
+distribution of the surplus revenue and of the cession of the public
+lands to the States in which they lay, as an inducement to the West to
+ally itself with Southern policies; and it is the key to the readiness
+of Calhoun, even after he lost his nationalism, to promote internal
+improvements which would foster the southward current of trade on the
+Mississippi.
+
+Without going into details, I may simply call your attention to the fact
+that Clay's whole system of internal improvements and tariff was based
+upon the place of the Mississippi Valley in American life. It was the
+upper part of the Valley, and especially the Ohio Valley, that furnished
+the votes which carried the tariffs of 1816, 1824, and 1828. Its
+interests profoundly influenced the details of those tariffs and its
+need of internal improvement constituted a basis for sectional
+bargaining in all the constructive legislation after the War of 1812.
+New England, the Middle Region, and the South each sought alliance with
+the growing section beyond the mountains. American legislation bears the
+enduring evidence of these alliances. Even the National Bank found in
+this Valley the main sphere of its business. The nation had turned its
+energies to internal exploitation, and sections contended for the
+economic and political power derived from connection with the interior.
+
+But already the Mississippi Valley was beginning to stratify, both
+socially and geographically. As the railroads pushed across the
+mountains, the tide of New England and New York colonists and German
+immigrants sought the basin of the Great Lakes and the Upper
+Mississippi. A distinct zone, industrially and socially connected with
+New England, was forming. The railroad reinforced the Erie Canal and, as
+De Bow put it, turned back the tide of the Father of Waters so that its
+outlet was in New York instead of New Orleans for a large part of the
+Valley. Below the Northern zone was the border zone of the Upland
+South, the region of compromise, including both banks of the Ohio and
+the Missouri and reaching down to the hills on the north of the Gulf
+Plains. The Cotton Kingdom based on slavery found its center in the
+fertile soils along the Lower Mississippi and the black prairies of
+Georgia and Alabama, and was settled largely by planters from the old
+cotton lands of the Atlantic States. The Mississippi Valley had
+rejuvenated slavery, had given it an aggressive tone characteristic of
+Western life.
+
+Thus the Valley found itself in the midst of the slavery struggle at the
+very time when its own society had lost homogeneity. Let us allow two
+leaders, one of the South and one of the North, to describe the
+situation; and, first, let the South speak. Said Hammond, of South
+Carolina,[198:1] in a speech in the Senate on March 4, 1858:
+
+     I think it not improper that I should attempt to bring the
+     North and South face to face, and see what resources each of
+     us might have in the contingency of separate organizations.
+
+     Through the heart of our country runs the great Mississippi,
+     the father of waters, into whose bosom are poured thirty-six
+     thousand miles of tributary streams; and beyond we have the
+     desert prairie wastes to protect us in our rear. Can you hem
+     in such a territory as that? You talk of putting up a wall of
+     fire around eight hundred and fifty thousand miles so
+     situated! How absurd.
+
+     But in this territory lies the great valley of the
+     Mississippi, now the real and soon to be the acknowledged seat
+     of the empire of the world. The sway of that valley will be as
+     great as ever the Nile knew in the earlier ages of mankind.
+     We own the most of it. The most valuable part of it belongs to
+     us now; and although those who have settled above us are now
+     opposed to us, another generation will tell a different tale.
+     They are ours by all the laws of nature; slave labor will go
+     to every foot of this great valley where it will be found
+     profitable to use it, and some of those who may not use it are
+     soon to be united with us by such ties as will make us one and
+     inseparable. The iron horse will soon be clattering over the
+     sunny plains of the South to bear the products of its upper
+     tributaries to our Atlantic ports, as it now does through the
+     ice-bound North. There is the great Mississippi, bond of union
+     made by nature herself. She will maintain it forever.
+
+As the Seaboard South had transferred the mantle of leadership to
+Tennessee and then to the Cotton Kingdom of the Lower Mississippi, so
+New England and New York resigned their command to the northern half of
+the Mississippi Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes. Seward, the
+old-time leader of the Eastern Whigs who had just lost the Republican
+nomination for the presidency to Lincoln, may rightfully speak for the
+Northeast. In the fall of 1860, addressing an audience at Madison,
+Wisconsin, he declared:[199:1]
+
+     The empire established at Washington is of less than a hundred
+     years' formation. It was the empire of thirteen Atlantic
+     states. Still, practically, the mission of that empire is
+     fulfilled. The power that directs it is ready to pass away
+     from those thirteen states, and although held and exercised
+     under the same constitution and national form of government,
+     yet it is now in the very act of being transferred from the
+     thirteen states east of the Alleghany mountains and on the
+     coast of the Atlantic ocean, to the twenty states that lie
+     west of the Alleghanies, and stretch away from their base to
+     the base of the Rocky mountains on the West, and you are the
+     heirs to it. When the next census shall reveal your power, you
+     will be found to be the masters of the United States of
+     America, and through them the dominating political power of
+     the world.
+
+Appealing to the Northwest on the slavery issue Seward declared:
+
+     The whole responsibility rests henceforth directly or
+     indirectly on the people of the Northwest. . . . There can be
+     no virtue in commercial and manufacturing communities to
+     maintain a democracy, when the democracy themselves do not
+     want a democracy. There is no virtue in Pearl street, in Wall
+     street, in Court street, in Chestnut street, in any other
+     street of great commercial cities, that can save the great
+     democratic government of ours, when you cease to uphold it
+     with your intelligent votes, your strong and mighty hands. You
+     must, therefore, lead us as we heretofore reserved and
+     prepared the way for you. We resign to you the banner of human
+     rights and human liberty, on this continent, and we bid you be
+     firm, bold and onward and then you may hope that we will be
+     able to follow you.
+
+When we survey the course of the slavery struggle in the United States
+it is clear that the form the question took was due to the Mississippi
+Valley. The Ordinance of 1787, the Missouri Compromise, the Texas
+question, the Free Soil agitation, the Compromise of 1850, the
+Kansas-Nebraska bill, the Dred Scott decision, "bleeding Kansas"--these
+are all Mississippi Valley questions, and the mere enumeration makes it
+plain that it was the Mississippi Valley as an area for expansion which
+gave the slavery issue its significance in American history. But for
+this field of expansion, slavery might have fulfilled the expectation of
+the fathers and gradually died away.
+
+Of the significance of the Mississippi Valley in the Civil War, it is
+unnecessary that I should speak. Illinois gave to the North its
+President; Mississippi gave to the South its President. Lincoln and
+Davis were both born in Kentucky. Grant and Sherman, the northern
+generals, came from the Mississippi Valley; and both of them believed
+that when Vicksburg fell the cause of the South was lost, and so it must
+have been if the Confederacy had been unable, after victories in the
+East, to regain the Father of Waters; for, as General Sherman said:
+"Whatever power holds that river can govern this continent."
+
+With the close of the war political power passed for many years to the
+northern half of the Mississippi Valley, as the names of Grant, Hayes,
+Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley indicate. The population of the Valley
+grew from about fifteen millions in 1860 to over forty millions in
+1900--over half the total population of the United States. The
+significance of its industrial growth is not likely to be overestimated
+or overlooked. On its northern border, from near Minnesota's boundary
+line, through the Great Lakes to Pittsburgh, on its eastern edge, runs a
+huge movement of iron from mine to factory. This industry is basal in
+American life, and it has revolutionized the industry of the world. The
+United States produces pig iron and steel in amount equal to her two
+greatest competitors combined, and the iron ores for this product are
+chiefly in the Mississippi Valley. It is the chief producer of coal,
+thereby enabling the United States almost to equal the combined
+production of Germany and Great Britain; and great oil fields of the
+nation are in its midst. Its huge crops of wheat and corn and its cattle
+are the main resources for the United States and are drawn upon by
+Europe. Its cotton furnishes two-thirds of the world's factory supply.
+Its railroad system constitutes the greatest transportation network in
+the world. Again it is seeking industrial consolidation by demanding
+improvement of its vast water system as a unit. If this design, favored
+by Roosevelt, shall at some time be accomplished, again the bulk of the
+commerce of the Valley may flow along the old routes to New Orleans; and
+to Galveston by the development of southern railroad outlets after the
+building of the Panama Canal. For the development and exploitation of
+these and of the transportation and trade interests of the Middle West,
+Eastern capital has been consolidated into huge corporations, trusts,
+and combinations. With the influx of capital, and the rise of cities and
+manufactures, portions of the Mississippi Valley have become assimilated
+with the East. With the end of the era of free lands the basis of its
+democratic society is passing away.
+
+The final topic on which I shall briefly comment in this discussion of
+the significance of the Mississippi Valley in American history is a
+corollary of this condition. Has the Mississippi Valley a permanent
+contribution to make to American society, or is it to be adjusted into a
+type characteristically Eastern and European? In other words, has the
+United States itself an original contribution to make to the history of
+society? This is what it comes to. The most significant fact in the
+Mississippi Valley is its ideals. Here has been developed, not by
+revolutionary theory, but by growth among free opportunities, the
+conception of a vast democracy made up of mobile ascending individuals,
+conscious of their power and their responsibilities. Can these ideals of
+individualism and democracy be reconciled and applied to the twentieth
+century type of civilization?
+
+Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful, art-loving and
+empire-building. No other nation on a vast scale has been controlled by
+a self-conscious, self-restrained democracy in the interests of progress
+and freedom, industrial as well as political. It is in the vast and
+level spaces of the Mississippi Valley, if anywhere, that the forces of
+social transformation and the modification of its democratic ideals may
+be arrested.
+
+Beginning with competitive individualism, as well as with belief in
+equality, the farmers of the Mississippi Valley gradually learned that
+unrestrained competition and combination meant the triumph of the
+strongest, the seizure in the interest of a dominant class of the
+strategic points of the nation's life. They learned that between the
+ideal of individualism, unrestrained by society, and the ideal of
+democracy, was an innate conflict; that their very ambitions and
+forcefulness had endangered their democracy. The significance of the
+Mississippi Valley in American history has lain partly in the fact that
+it was a region of revolt. Here have arisen varied, sometimes
+ill-considered, but always devoted, movements for ameliorating the lot
+of the common man in the interests of democracy. Out of the Mississippi
+Valley have come successive and related tidal waves of popular demand
+for real or imagined legislative safeguards to their rights and their
+social ideals. The Granger movement, the Greenback movement, the
+Populist movement, Bryan Democracy, and Roosevelt Republicanism all
+found their greatest strength in the Mississippi Valley. They were
+Mississippi Valley ideals in action. Its people were learning by
+experiment and experience how to grapple with the fundamental problem of
+creating a just social order that shall sustain the free, progressive,
+individual in a real democracy. The Mississippi Valley is asking, "What
+shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?"
+
+The Mississippi Valley has furnished a new social order to America. Its
+universities have set new types of institutions for social service and
+for the elevation of the plain people. Its historians should recount its
+old ambitions, and inventory its ideals, as well as its resources, for
+the information of the present age, to the end that building on its
+past, the mighty Valley may have a significance in the life of the
+nation even more profound than any which I have recounted.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[177:1] Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association for
+1909-10. Reprinted with the permission of the Association.
+
+[177:2] _Harper's Magazine_, February, 1900, p. 413.
+
+[178:1] Roosevelt, "The Northwest in the Nation," in "Proceedings of the
+Wisconsin Historical Society," Fortieth Annual Meeting, p. 92.
+
+[182:1] "Franklin's Works," iv, p. 141.
+
+[186:1] [See the author's paper in _American Historical Review_, x, p.
+245.]
+
+[187:1] Cutler's "Cutler," ii, p. 372.
+
+[188:1] "Jefferson's Works," iv, p. 431.
+
+[189:1] [See on the Cotton Kingdom, U. B. Phillips, "History of
+Slavery"; W. G. Brown, "Lower South"; W. E. Dodd, "Expansion and
+Conflict"; F. J. Turner, "New West."]
+
+[198:1] "Congressional Globe," 35th Congress, First Session, Appendix,
+p. 70.
+
+[199:1] "Seward's Works" (Boston, 1884), iv, p. 319.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+THE PROBLEM OF THE WEST[205:1]
+
+
+The problem of the West is nothing less than the problem of American
+development. A glance at the map of the United States reveals the truth.
+To write of a "Western sectionalism," bounded on the east by the
+Alleghanies, is, in itself, to proclaim the writer a provincial. What is
+the West? What has it been in American life? To have the answers to
+these questions, is to understand the most significant features of the
+United States of to-day.
+
+The West, at bottom, is a form of society, rather than an area. It is
+the term applied to the region whose social conditions result from the
+application of older institutions and ideas to the transforming
+influences of free land. By this application, a new environment is
+suddenly entered, freedom of opportunity is opened, the cake of custom
+is broken, and new activities, new lines of growth, new institutions and
+new ideals, are brought into existence. The wilderness disappears, the
+"West" proper passes on to a new frontier, and in the former area, a new
+society has emerged from its contact with the backwoods. Gradually this
+society loses its primitive conditions, and assimilates itself to the
+type of the older social conditions of the East; but it bears within it
+enduring and distinguishing survivals of its frontier experience. Decade
+after decade, West after West, this rebirth of American society has gone
+on, has left its traces behind it, and has reacted on the East. The
+history of our political institutions, our democracy, is not a history
+of imitation, of simple borrowing; it is a history of the evolution and
+adaptation of organs in response to changed environment, a history of
+the origin of new political species. In this sense, therefore, the West
+has been a constructive force of the highest significance in our life.
+To use the words of that acute and widely informed observer, Mr. Bryce,
+"The West is the most American part of America. . . . What Europe is to
+Asia, what America is to England, that the Western States and
+Territories are to the Atlantic States."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The West, as a phase of social organization, began with the Atlantic
+coast, and passed across the continent. But the colonial tide-water area
+was in close touch with the Old World, and soon lost its Western
+aspects. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the newer social
+conditions appeared along the upper waters of the tributaries of the
+Atlantic. Here it was that the West took on its distinguishing features,
+and transmitted frontier traits and ideals to this area in later days.
+On the coast, were the fishermen and skippers, the merchants and
+planters, with eyes turned toward Europe. Beyond the falls of the rivers
+were the pioneer farmers, largely of non-English stock, Scotch-Irish and
+German. They constituted a distinct people, and may be regarded as an
+expansion of the social and economic life of the middle region into the
+back country of the South. These frontiersmen were the ancestors of
+Boone, Andrew Jackson, Calhoun, Clay, and Lincoln. Washington and
+Jefferson were profoundly affected by these frontier conditions. The
+forest clearings have been the seed plots of American character.
+
+In the Revolutionary days, the settlers crossed the Alleghanies and put
+a barrier between them and the coast. They became, to use their phrases,
+"the men of the Western waters," the heirs of the "Western world." In
+this era, the backwoodsmen, all along the western slopes of the
+mountains, with a keen sense of the difference between them and the
+dwellers on the coast, demanded organization into independent States of
+the Union. Self-government was their ideal. Said one of their rude, but
+energetic petitions for statehood: "Some of our fellow-citizens may
+think we are not able to conduct our affairs and consult our interests;
+but if our society is rude, much wisdom is not necessary to supply our
+wants, and a fool can sometimes put on his clothes better than a wise
+man can do it for him." This forest philosophy is the philosophy of
+American democracy. But the men of the coast were not ready to admit its
+implications. They apportioned the State legislatures so that the
+property-holding minority of the tide-water lands were able to outvote
+the more populous back countries. A similar system was proposed by
+Federalists in the constitutional convention of 1787. Gouverneur Morris,
+arguing in favor of basing representation on property as well as
+numbers, declared that "he looked forward, also, to that range of new
+States which would soon be formed in the West. He thought the rule of
+representation ought to be so fixed, as to secure to the Atlantic States
+a prevalence in the national councils." "The new States," said he, "will
+know less of the public interest than these; will have an interest in
+many respects different; in particular will be little scrupulous of
+involving the community in wars, the burdens and operations of which
+would fall chiefly on the maritime States. Provision ought, therefore,
+to be made to prevent the maritime States from being hereafter outvoted
+by them." He added that the Western country "would not be able to
+furnish men equally enlightened to share in the administration of our
+common interests. The busy haunts of men, not the remote wilderness, was
+the proper school of political talents. If the Western people get power
+into their hands, they will ruin the Atlantic interest. The back
+members are always most averse to the best measures." Add to these
+utterances of Gouverneur Morris the impassioned protest of Josiah
+Quincy, of Massachusetts, in the debates in the House of
+Representatives, on the admission of Louisiana. Referring to the
+discussion over the slave votes and the West in the constitutional
+convention, he declared, "Suppose, then, that it had been distinctly
+foreseen that, in addition to the effect of this weight, the whole
+population of a world beyond the Mississippi was to be brought into this
+and the other branch of the legislature, to form our laws, control our
+rights, and decide our destiny. Sir, can it be pretended that the
+patriots of that day would for one moment have listened to it? . . .
+They had not taken degrees at the hospital of idiocy. . . . Why, sir, I
+have already heard of six States, and some say there will be, at no
+great distant time, more. I have also heard that the mouth of the Ohio
+will be far to the east of the center of the contemplated empire. . . .
+You have no authority to throw the rights and property of this people
+into 'hotch-pot' with the wild men on the Missouri, nor with the mixed,
+though more respectable, race of Anglo-Hispano-Gallo-Americans who bask
+on the sands in the mouth of the Mississippi. . . . Do you suppose the
+people of the Northern and Atlantic States will, or ought to, look on
+with patience and see Representatives and Senators from the Red River
+and Missouri, pouring themselves upon this and the other floor, managing
+the concerns of a seaboard fifteen hundred miles, at least, from their
+residence; and having a preponderancy in councils into which,
+constitutionally, they could never have been admitted?"
+
+Like an echo from the fears expressed by the East at the close of the
+eighteenth century come the words of an eminent Eastern man of
+letters[208:1] at the end of the nineteenth century, in warning against
+the West: "Materialized in their temper; with few ideals of an ennobling
+sort; little instructed in the lessons of history; safe from exposure to
+the direct calamities and physical horrors of war; with undeveloped
+imaginations and sympathies--they form a community unfortunate and
+dangerous from the possession of power without a due sense of its
+corresponding responsibilities; a community in which the passion for war
+may easily be excited as the fancied means by which its greatness may be
+convincingly exhibited, and its ambitions gratified. . . . Some chance
+spark may fire the prairie."
+
+Here, then, is the problem of the West, as it looked to New England
+leaders of thought in the beginning and at the end of this century. From
+the first, it was recognized that a new type was growing up beyond the
+seaboard, and that the time would come when the destiny of the nation
+would be in Western hands. The divergence of these societies became
+clear in the struggle over the ratification of the federal constitution.
+The up-country agricultural regions, the communities that were in debt
+and desired paper money, with some Western exceptions, opposed the
+instrument; but the areas of intercourse and property carried the day.
+
+It is important to understand, therefore, what were some of the ideals
+of this early Western democracy. How did the frontiersman differ from
+the man of the coast?
+
+The most obvious fact regarding the man of the Western Waters is that he
+had placed himself under influences destructive to many of the gains of
+civilization. Remote from the opportunity for systematic education,
+substituting a log hut in the forest-clearing for the social comforts of
+the town, he suffered hardships and privations, and reverted in many
+ways to primitive conditions of life. Engaged in a struggle to subdue
+the forest, working as an individual, and with little specie or
+capital, his interests were with the debtor class. At each stage of its
+advance, the West has favored an expansion of the currency. The pioneer
+had boundless confidence in the future of his own community, and when
+seasons of financial contraction and depression occurred, he, who had
+staked his all on confidence in Western development, and had fought the
+savage for his home, was inclined to reproach the conservative sections
+and classes. To explain this antagonism requires more than denunciation
+of dishonesty, ignorance, and boorishness as fundamental Western traits.
+Legislation in the United States has had to deal with two distinct
+social conditions. In some portions of the country there was, and is, an
+aggregation of property, and vested rights are in the foreground: in
+others, capital is lacking, more primitive conditions prevail, with
+different economic and social ideals, and the contentment of the average
+individual is placed in the foreground. That in the conflict between
+these two ideals an even hand has always been held by the government
+would be difficult to show.
+
+The separation of the Western man from the seaboard, and his
+environment, made him in a large degree free from European precedents
+and forces. He looked at things independently and with small regard or
+appreciation for the best Old World experience. He had no ideal of a
+philosophical, eclectic nation, that should advance civilization by
+"intercourse with foreigners and familiarity with their point of view,
+and readiness to adopt whatever is best and most suitable in their
+ideas, manners, and customs." His was rather the ideal of conserving and
+developing what was original and valuable in this new country. The
+entrance of old society upon free lands meant to him opportunity for a
+new type of democracy and new popular ideals. The West was not
+conservative: buoyant self-confidence and self-assertion were
+distinguishing traits in its composition. It saw in its growth nothing
+less than a new order of society and state. In this conception were
+elements of evil and elements of good.
+
+But the fundamental fact in regard to this new society was its relation
+to land. Professor Boutmy has said of the United States, "Their one
+primary and predominant object is to cultivate and settle these
+prairies, forests, and vast waste lands. The striking and peculiar
+characteristic of American society is that it is not so much a democracy
+as a huge commercial company for the discovery, cultivation, and
+capitalization of its enormous territory. The United States are
+primarily a commercial society, and only secondarily a nation." Of
+course, this involves a serious misapprehension. By the very fact of the
+task here set forth, far-reaching ideals of the state and of society
+have been evolved in the West, accompanied by loyalty to the nation
+representative of these ideals. But M. Boutmy's description hits the
+substantial fact, that the fundamental traits of the man of the interior
+were due to the free lands of the West. These turned his attention to
+the great task of subduing them to the purposes of civilization, and to
+the task of advancing his economic and social status in the new
+democracy which he was helping to create. Art, literature, refinement,
+scientific administration, all had to give way to this Titanic labor.
+Energy, incessant activity, became the lot of this new American. Says a
+traveler of the time of Andrew Jackson, "America is like a vast
+workshop, over the door of which is printed in blazing characters, 'No
+admittance here, except on business.'" The West of our own day reminds
+Mr. Bryce "of the crowd which Vathek found in the hall of Eblis, each
+darting hither and thither with swift steps and unquiet mien, driven to
+and fro by a fire in the heart. Time seems too short for what they have
+to do, and the result always to come short of their desire."
+
+But free lands and the consciousness of working out their social
+destiny did more than turn the Westerner to material interests and
+devote him to a restless existence. They promoted equality among the
+Western settlers, and reacted as a check on the aristocratic influences
+of the East. Where everybody could have a farm, almost for taking it,
+economic equality easily resulted, and this involved political equality.
+Not without a struggle would the Western man abandon this ideal, and it
+goes far to explain the unrest in the remote West to-day.
+
+Western democracy included individual liberty, as well as equality. The
+frontiersman was impatient of restraints. He knew how to preserve order,
+even in the absence of legal authority. If there were cattle thieves,
+lynch law was sudden and effective: the regulators of the Carolinas were
+the predecessors of the claims associations of Iowa and the vigilance
+committees of California. But the individual was not ready to submit to
+complex regulations. Population was sparse, there was no multitude of
+jostling interests, as in older settlements, demanding an elaborate
+system of personal restraints. Society became atomic. There was a
+reproduction of the primitive idea of the personality of the law, a
+crime was more an offense against the victim than a violation of the law
+of the land. Substantial justice, secured in the most direct way, was
+the ideal of the backwoodsman. He had little patience with finely drawn
+distinctions or scruples of method. If the thing was one proper to be
+done, then the most immediate, rough and ready, effective way was the
+best way.
+
+It followed from the lack of organized political life, from the atomic
+conditions of the backwoods society, that the individual was exalted and
+given free play. The West was another name for opportunity. Here were
+mines to be seized, fertile valleys to be preempted, all the natural
+resources open to the shrewdest and the boldest. The United States is
+unique in the extent to which the individual has been given an open
+field, unchecked by restraints of an old social order, or of scientific
+administration of government. The self-made man was the Western man's
+ideal, was the kind of man that all men might become. Out of his
+wilderness experience, out of the freedom of his opportunities, he
+fashioned a formula for social regeneration,--the freedom of the
+individual to seek his own. He did not consider that his conditions were
+exceptional and temporary.
+
+Under such conditions, leadership easily develops,--a leadership based
+on the possession of the qualities most serviceable to the young
+society. In the history of Western settlement, we see each forted
+village following its local hero. Clay, Jackson, Harrison, Lincoln, were
+illustrations of this tendency in periods when the Western hero rose to
+the dignity of national hero.
+
+The Western man believed in the manifest destiny of his country. On his
+border, and checking his advance, were the Indian, the Spaniard, and the
+Englishman. He was indignant at Eastern indifference and lack of
+sympathy with his view of his relations to these peoples; at the
+short-sightedness of Eastern policy. The closure of the Mississippi by
+Spain, and the proposal to exchange our claim of freedom of navigating
+the river, in return for commercial advantages to New England, nearly
+led to the withdrawal of the West from the Union. It was the Western
+demands that brought about the purchase of Louisiana, and turned the
+scale in favor of declaring the War of 1812. Militant qualities were
+favored by the annual expansion of the settled area in the face of
+hostile Indians and the stubborn wilderness. The West caught the vision
+of the nation's continental destiny. Henry Adams, in his History of the
+United States, makes the American of 1800 exclaim to the foreign
+visitor, "Look at my wealth! See these solid mountains of salt and
+iron, of lead, copper, silver, and gold. See these magnificent cities
+scattered broadcast to the Pacific! See my cornfields rustling and
+waving in the summer breeze from ocean to ocean, so far that the sun
+itself is not high enough to mark where the distant mountains bound my
+golden seas. Look at this continent of mine, fairest of created worlds,
+as she lies turning up to the sun's never failing caress her broad and
+exuberant breasts, overflowing with milk for her hundred million
+children." And the foreigner saw only dreary deserts, tenanted by
+sparse, ague-stricken pioneers and savages. The cities were log huts and
+gambling dens. But the frontiersman's dream was prophetic. In spite of
+his rude, gross nature, this early Western man was an idealist withal.
+He dreamed dreams and beheld visions. He had faith in man, hope for
+democracy, belief in America's destiny, unbounded confidence in his
+ability to make his dreams come true. Said Harriet Martineau in 1834, "I
+regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now moody, now wild,
+but bringing out results of absolute good sense: restless and wayward in
+action, but with deep peace at his heart; exulting that he has caught
+the true aspect of things past, and the depth of futurity which lies
+before him, wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
+scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a nation that
+is capable of being possessed with an idea."
+
+It is important to bear this idealism of the West in mind. The very
+materialism that has been urged against the West was accompanied by
+ideals of equality, of the exaltation of the common man, of national
+expansion, that makes it a profound mistake to write of the West as
+though it were engrossed in mere material ends. It has been, and is,
+preeminently a region of ideals, mistaken or not.
+
+It is obvious that these economic and social conditions were so
+fundamental in Western life that they might well dominate whatever
+accessions came to the West by immigration from the coast sections or
+from Europe. Nevertheless, the West cannot be understood without bearing
+in mind the fact that it has received the great streams from the North
+and from the South, and that the Mississippi compelled these currents to
+intermingle. Here it was that sectionalism first gave way under the
+pressure of unification. Ultimately the conflicting ideas and
+institutions of the old sections struggled for dominance in this area
+under the influence of the forces that made for uniformity, but this is
+merely another phase of the truth that the West must become unified,
+that it could not rest in sectional groupings. For precisely this reason
+the struggle occurred. In the period from the Revolution to the close of
+the War of 1812, the democracy of the Southern and Middle States
+contributed the main streams of settlement and social influence to the
+West. Even in Ohio political power was soon lost by the New England
+leaders. The democratic spirit of the Middle region left an indelible
+impress on the West in this its formative period. After the War of 1812,
+New England, its supremacy in the carrying trade of the world having
+vanished, became a hive from which swarms of settlers went out to
+western New York and the remoter regions.
+
+These settlers spread New England ideals of education and character and
+political institutions, and acted as a leaven of great significance in
+the Northwest. But it would be a mistake to believe that an unmixed New
+England influence took possession of the Northwest. These pioneers did
+not come from the class that conserved the type of New England
+civilization pure and undefiled. They represented a less contented, less
+conservative influence. Moreover, by their sojourn in the Middle Region,
+on their westward march, they underwent modification, and when the
+farther West received them, they suffered a forest-change, indeed. The
+Westernized New England man was no longer the representative of the
+section that he left. He was less conservative, less provincial, more
+adaptable and approachable, less rigorous in his Puritan ideals, less a
+man of culture, more a man of action.
+
+As might have been expected, therefore, the Western men, in the "era of
+good feeling," had much homogeneity throughout the Mississippi Valley,
+and began to stand as a new national type. Under the lead of Henry Clay
+they invoked the national government to break down the mountain barrier
+by internal improvements, and thus to give their crops an outlet to the
+coast. Under him they appealed to the national government for a
+protective tariff to create a home market. A group of frontier States
+entered the Union with democratic provisions respecting the suffrage,
+and with devotion to the nation that had given them their lands, built
+their roads and canals, regulated their territorial life, and made them
+equals in the sisterhood of States. At last these Western forces of
+aggressive nationalism and democracy took possession of the government
+in the person of the man who best embodied them, Andrew Jackson. This
+new democracy that captured the country and destroyed the ideals of
+statesmanship came from no theorist's dreams of the German forest. It
+came, stark and strong and full of life, from the American forest. But
+the triumph of this Western democracy revealed also the fact that it
+could rally to its aid the laboring classes of the coast, then just
+beginning to acquire self-consciousness and organization.
+
+The next phase of Western development revealed forces of division
+between the northern and southern portions of the West. With the spread
+of the cotton culture went the slave system and the great plantation.
+The small farmer in his log cabin, raising varied crops, was displaced
+by the planter raising cotton. In all except the mountainous areas the
+industrial organization of the tidewater took possession of the
+Southwest, the unity of the back country was broken, and the solid South
+was formed. In the Northwest this was the era of railroads and canals,
+opening the region to the increasing stream of Middle State and New
+England settlement, and strengthening the opposition to slavery. A map
+showing the location of the men of New England ancestry in the Northwest
+would represent also the counties in which the Free Soil party cast its
+heaviest votes. The commercial connections of the Northwest likewise
+were reversed by the railroad. The result is stated by a writer in _De
+Bow's Review_ in 1852 in these words:--
+
+     "What is New Orleans now? Where are her dreams of greatness
+     and glory? . . . Whilst she slept, an enemy has sowed tares in
+     her most prolific fields. Armed with energy, enterprise, and
+     an indomitable spirit, that enemy, by a system of bold,
+     vigorous, and sustained efforts, has succeeded in reversing
+     the very laws of nature and of nature's God,--rolled back the
+     mighty tide of the Mississippi and its thousand tributary
+     streams, until their mouth, practically and commercially, is
+     more at New York or Boston than at New Orleans."
+
+The West broke asunder, and the great struggle over the social system to
+be given to the lands beyond the Mississippi followed. In the Civil War
+the Northwest furnished the national hero,--Lincoln was the very flower
+of frontier training and ideals,--and it also took into its hands the
+whole power of the government. Before the war closed, the West could
+claim the President, Vice-President, Chief Justice, Speaker of the
+House, Secretary of the Treasury, Postmaster-General, Attorney-General,
+General of the army, and Admiral of the navy. The leading generals of
+the war had been furnished by the West. It was the region of action,
+and in the crisis it took the reins.
+
+The triumph of the nation was followed by a new era of Western
+development. The national forces projected themselves across the
+prairies and plains. Railroads, fostered by government loans and land
+grants, opened the way for settlement and poured a flood of European
+immigrants and restless pioneers from all sections of the Union into the
+government lands. The army of the United States pushed back the Indian,
+rectangular Territories were carved into checkerboard States, creations
+of the federal government, without a history, without physiographical
+unity, without particularistic ideas. The later frontiersman leaned on
+the strong arm of national power.
+
+At the same time the South underwent a revolution. The plantation, based
+on slavery, gave place to the farm, the gentry to the democratic
+elements. As in the West, new industries, of mining and of manufacture,
+sprang up as by magic. The New South, like the New West, was an area of
+construction, a debtor area, an area of unrest; and it, too, had learned
+the uses to which federal legislation might be put.
+
+In the meantime the Old Northwest[218:1] passed through an economic and
+social transformation. The whole West furnished an area over which
+successive waves of economic development have passed. The State of
+Wisconsin, now much like parts of the State of New York, was at an
+earlier period like the State of Nebraska of to-day; the Granger
+movement and Greenback party had for a time the ascendancy; and in the
+northern counties of the State, where there is a sparser population, and
+the country is being settled, its sympathies are still with the debtor
+class. Thus the Old Northwest is a region where the older frontier
+conditions survive in parts, and where the inherited ways of looking at
+things are largely to be traced to its frontier days. At the same time
+it is a region in many ways assimilated to the East. It understands both
+sections. It is not entirely content with the existing structure of
+economic society in the sections where wealth has accumulated and
+corporate organizations are powerful; but neither has it seemed to feel
+that its interests lie in supporting the program of the prairies and the
+South. In the Fifty-third Congress it voted for the income tax, but it
+rejected free coinage. It is still affected by the ideal of the
+self-made man, rather than by the ideal of industrial nationalism. It is
+more American, but less cosmopolitan than the seaboard.
+
+We are now in a position to see clearly some of the factors involved in
+the Western problem. For nearly three centuries the dominant fact in
+American life has been expansion. With the settlement of the Pacific
+coast and the occupation of the free lands, this movement has come to a
+check. That these energies of expansion will no longer operate would be
+a rash prediction; and the demands for a vigorous foreign policy, for an
+interoceanic canal, for a revival of our power upon the seas, and for
+the extension of American influence to outlying islands and adjoining
+countries, are indications that the movement will continue. The
+stronghold of these demands lies west of the Alleghanies.
+
+In the remoter West, the restless, rushing wave of settlement has broken
+with a shock against the arid plains. The free lands are gone, the
+continent is crossed, and all this push and energy is turning into
+channels of agitation. Failures in one area can no longer be made good
+by taking up land on a new frontier; the conditions of a settled society
+are being reached with suddenness and with confusion. The West has been
+built up with borrowed capital, and the question of the stability of
+gold, as a standard of deferred payments, is eagerly agitated by the
+debtor West, profoundly dissatisfied with the industrial conditions that
+confront it, and actuated by frontier directness and rigor in its
+remedies. For the most part, the men who built up the West beyond the
+Mississippi, and who are now leading the agitation,[220:1] came as
+pioneers from the old Northwest, in the days when it was just passing
+from the stage of a frontier section. For example, Senator Allen of
+Nebraska, president of the recent national Populist Convention, and a
+type of the political leaders of his section, was born in Ohio in the
+middle of the century, went in his youth to Iowa, and not long after the
+Civil War made his home in Nebraska. As a boy, he saw the buffalo driven
+out by the settlers; he saw the Indian retreat as the pioneer advanced.
+His training is that of the old West, in its frontier days. And now the
+frontier opportunities are gone. Discontent is demanding an extension of
+governmental activity in its behalf. In these demands, it finds itself
+in touch with the depressed agricultural classes and the workingmen of
+the South and East. The Western problem is no longer a sectional
+problem: it is a social problem on a national scale. The greater West,
+extending from the Alleghanies to the Pacific, cannot be regarded as a
+unit; it requires analysis into regions and classes. But its area, its
+population, and its material resources would give force to its assertion
+that if there is a sectionalism in the country, the sectionalism is
+Eastern. The old West, united to the new South, would produce, not a new
+sectionalism, but a new Americanism. It would not mean sectional
+disunion, as some have speculated, but it might mean a drastic assertion
+of national government and imperial expansion under a popular hero.
+
+This, then, is the real situation: a people composed of heterogeneous
+materials, with diverse and conflicting ideals and social interests,
+having passed from the task of filling up the vacant spaces of the
+continent, is now thrown back upon itself, and is seeking an
+equilibrium. The diverse elements are being fused into national unity.
+The forces of reorganization are turbulent and the nation seems like a
+witches' kettle.
+
+But the West has its own centers of industrial life and culture not
+unlike those of the East. It has State universities, rivaling in
+conservative and scientific economic instruction those of any other part
+of the Union, and its citizens more often visit the East, than do
+Eastern men the West. As time goes on, its industrial development will
+bring it more into harmony with the East.
+
+Moreover, the Old Northwest holds the balance of power, and is the
+battlefield on which these issues of American development are to be
+settled. It has more in common with all parts of the nation than has any
+other region. It understands the East, as the East does not understand
+the West. The White City which recently rose on the shores of Lake
+Michigan fitly typified its growing culture as well as its capacity for
+great achievement. Its complex and representative industrial
+organization and business ties, its determination to hold fast to what
+is original and good in its Western experience, and its readiness to
+learn and receive the results of the experience of other sections and
+nations, make it an open-minded and safe arbiter of the American
+destiny.
+
+In the long run the "Center of the Republic" may be trusted to strike a
+wise balance between the contending ideals. But she does not deceive
+herself; she knows that the problem of the West means nothing less than
+the problem of working out original social ideals and social adjustments
+for the American nation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[205:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, September, 1896. Reprinted by permission.
+
+[208:1] Charles Eliot Norton.
+
+[218:1] The present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and
+Wisconsin.
+
+[220:1] [Written in the year of Mr. Bryan's first presidential
+campaign.]
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+DOMINANT FORCES IN WESTERN LIFE[222:1]
+
+
+The Old Northwest is a name which tells of the vestiges which the march
+of settlement across the American continent has left behind it. The New
+Northwest fronts the watery labyrinth of Puget Sound and awaits its
+destiny upon the Pacific. The Old Northwest, the historic Northwest
+Territory, is now the new Middle Region of the United States. A century
+ago it was a wilderness, broken only by a few French settlements and the
+straggling American hamlets along the Ohio and its tributaries, while,
+on the shore of Lake Erie, Moses Cleaveland had just led a handful of
+men to the Connecticut Reserve. To-day it is the keystone of the
+American Commonwealth. Since 1860 the center of population of the United
+States has rested within its limits, and the center of manufacturing in
+the nation lies eight miles from President McKinley's Ohio home. Of the
+seven men who have been elected to the presidency of the United States
+since 1860, six have come from the Old Northwest, and the seventh came
+from the kindred region of western New York. The congressional
+Representatives from these five States of the Old Northwest already
+outnumber those from the old Middle States, and are three times as
+numerous as those from New England.
+
+The elements that have contributed to the civilization of this region
+are therefore well worth consideration. To know the States that make up
+the Old Northwest--Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin--one
+must understand their social origins.
+
+Eldest in this sisterhood was Ohio. New England gave the formative
+impulses to this State by the part which the Ohio Company played in
+securing the Ordinance of 1787, and at Marietta and Cleveland
+Massachusetts and Connecticut planted enduring centers of Puritan
+influence. During the same period New Jersey and Pennsylvania sent their
+colonists to the Symmes Purchase, in which Cincinnati was the
+rallying-point, while Virginians sought the Military Bounty Lands in the
+region of Chillicothe. The Middle States and the South, with their
+democratic ideas, constituted the dominant element in Ohio politics in
+the early part of her history. This dominance is shown by the nativity
+of the members of the Ohio legislature elected in 1820: New England
+furnished nine Senators and sixteen Representatives, chiefly from
+Connecticut; New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, seventeen Senators
+and twenty-one Representatives, mostly from Pennsylvania; while the
+South furnished nine Senators and twenty-seven Representatives, of whom
+the majority came from Virginia. Five of the Representatives were native
+of Ireland, presumably Scotch-Irishmen. In the Ohio Senate, therefore,
+the Middle States had as many representatives as had New England and the
+South together, while the Southern men slightly outnumbered the Middle
+States men in the Assembly. Together, the emigrants from the Democratic
+South and Middle Region outnumbered the Federalist New Englanders three
+to one. Although Ohio is popularly considered a child of New England, it
+is clear that in these formative years of her statehood the commonwealth
+was dominated by other forces.
+
+By the close of this early period, in 1820, the settlement in Ohio had
+covered more or less fully all except the northwest corner of the State,
+and Indiana's formative period was well started. Here, as in Ohio,
+there was a large Southern element. But while the Southern stream that
+flowed into Ohio had its sources in Virginia, the main current that
+sought Indiana came from North Carolina; and these settlers were for the
+most part from the humbler classes. In the settlement of Indiana from
+the South two separate elements are distinguishable: the Quaker
+migration from North Carolina, moving chiefly because of anti-slavery
+convictions; the "poor white" stream, made up in part of restless
+hunters and thriftless pioneers moving without definite ambitions, and
+in part of other classes, such as former overseers, migrating to the new
+country with definite purpose of improving their fortunes.
+
+These elements constituted well-marked features in the Southern
+contribution to Indiana, and they explain why she has been named the
+Hoosier State; but it should by no means be thought that all of the
+Southern immigrants came under these classes, nor that these have been
+the normal elements in the development of the Indiana of to-day. In the
+Northwest, where interstate migration has been so continuous and
+widespread, the lack of typical State peculiarities is obvious, and the
+student of society, like the traveler, is tempted, in his effort to
+distinguish the community from its neighbors, to exaggerate the odd and
+exceptional elements which give a particular flavor to the State.
+Indiana has suffered somewhat from this tendency; but it is undoubted
+that these peculiarities of origin left deep and abiding influences upon
+the State. In 1820 her settlement was chiefly in the southern counties,
+where Southern and Middle States influence was dominant. Her two United
+States Senators were Virginians by birth, while her Representative was
+from Pennsylvania. The Southern element continued so powerful that one
+student of Indiana origins has estimated that in 1850 one-third of the
+population of the State were native Carolinians and their children in
+the first generation. Not until a few years before the Civil War did the
+Northern current exert a decisive influence upon Indiana. She had no
+such lake ports as had her sister States, and extension of settlement
+into the State from ports like Chicago was interrupted by the less
+attractive area of the northwestern part of Indiana. Add to this the
+geological fact that the limestone ridges and the best soils ran in
+nearly perpendicular belts northward from the Ohio, and it will be seen
+how circumstances combined to diminish Northern and to facilitate
+Southern influences in the State prior to the railroad development.
+
+In Illinois, also, the current of migration was at first preponderantly
+Southern, but the settlers were less often from the Atlantic coast.
+Kentucky and Tennessee were generous contributors, but many of the
+distinguished leaders came from Virginia, and it is worthy of note that
+in 1820 the two United States Senators of Illinois were of Maryland
+ancestry, while her Representative was of Kentucky origin. The swarms of
+land-seekers between 1820 and 1830 ascended the Illinois river, and
+spread out between that river and the Mississippi. It was in this period
+that Abraham Lincoln's father, who had come from Kentucky to Indiana,
+again left his log cabin and traveled by ox-team with his family to the
+popular Illinois county of Sangamon. Here Lincoln split his famous rails
+to fence their land, and grew up under the influences of this migration
+of the Southern pioneers to the prairies. They were not predominantly of
+the planter class; but the fierce contest in 1824 over the proposition
+to open Illinois to slavery was won for freedom by a narrow majority.
+
+Looking at the three States, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, prior to 1850,
+we perceive how important was the voice of the South here, and we can
+the more easily understand the early affiliation of the Northwest with
+her sister States to the south on the Western waters. It was not
+without reason that the proposal of the Missouri Compromise came from
+Illinois, and it was a natural enthusiasm with which these States
+followed Henry Clay in the war policy of 1812. The combination of the
+South, the western portion of the Middle States, and the Mississippi
+Valley gave the ascendancy to the democratic ideals of the followers of
+Jefferson, and left New England a weakened and isolated section for
+nearly half a century. Many of the most characteristic elements in
+American life in the first part of the century were due to this
+relationship between the South and the trans-Alleghany region. But even
+thus early the Northwest had revealed strong predilections for the
+Northern economic ideals as against the peculiar institution of the
+South, and this tendency grew with the increase of New England
+immigration.
+
+The northern two in this sisterhood of Northwestern States were the
+first to be entered by the French, but latest by the English settlers.
+Why Michigan was not occupied by New York men at an earlier period is at
+first sight not easy to understand. Perhaps the adverse reports of
+surveyors who visited the interior of the State, the partial
+geographical isolation, and the unprogressive character of the French
+settlers account for the tardy occupation of the area. Certain it is
+that while the southern tier of States was sought by swarms of settlers,
+Wisconsin and Michigan still echoed to Canadian boating-songs, and
+voyageurs paddled their birch canoes along the streams of the wilderness
+to traffic with the savages. Great Britain maintained the dominant
+position until after the War of 1812, and the real center of authority
+was in Canada.
+
+But after the digging of the Erie Canal, settlement began to turn into
+Michigan. Between 1830 and 1840 the population of the State leaped from
+31,000 to 212,000, in the face of the fact that the heavy debt of the
+State and the crisis of 1837 turned from her borders many of the
+thrifty, debt-hating Germans. The vast majority of the settlers were New
+Yorkers. Michigan is distinctly a child of the Empire State. Canadians,
+both French and English, continued to come as the lumber interests of
+the region increased. By 1850 Michigan contained nearly 400,000
+inhabitants, who occupied the southern half of the State.
+
+But she now found an active competitor for settlement in Wisconsin. In
+this region two forces had attracted the earlier inhabitants. The
+fur-trading posts of Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, and Milwaukee
+constituted one element, in which the French influence was continued.
+The lead region of the southwest corner of the State formed the center
+of attraction for Illinois and Southern pioneers. The soldiers who
+followed Black Hawk's trail in 1832 reported the richness of the soil,
+and an era of immigration followed. To the port of Milwaukee came a
+combined migration from western New York and New England, and spread
+along the southern tier of prairie counties until it met the Southern
+settlers in the lead region. Many of the early political contests in the
+State were connected, as in Ohio and Illinois, with the antagonisms
+between the sections thus brought together in a limited area.
+
+The other element in the formation of Wisconsin was that of the Germans,
+then just entering upon their vast immigration to the United States.
+Wisconsin was free from debt; she made a constitution of exceptional
+liberality to foreigners, and instead of treasuring her school lands or
+using them for internal improvements, she sold them for almost nothing
+to attract immigration. The result was that the prudent Germans, who
+loved light taxes and cheap hard wood lands, turned toward
+Wisconsin,--another _Voelkerwanderung_. From Milwaukee as a center they
+spread north along the shore of Lake Michigan, and later into northern
+central Wisconsin, following the belt of the hardwood forests. So
+considerable were their numbers that such an economist as Roscher wrote
+of the feasibility of making Wisconsin a German State. "They can plant
+the vine on the hills," cried Franz Loeher in 1847, "and drink with happy
+song and dance; they can have German schools and universities, German
+literature and art, German science and philosophy, German courts and
+assemblies; in short, they can form a German State, in which the German
+language shall be as much the popular and official language as the
+English is now, and in which the German spirit shall rule." By 1860 the
+German-born were sixteen per cent of the population of the State. But
+the New York and New England stream proved even more broad and steady in
+its flow in these years before the war. Wisconsin's population rose from
+30,000 in 1840 to 300,000 in 1850.
+
+The New England element that entered this State is probably typical of
+the same element in Wisconsin's neighboring States, and demands notice.
+It came for the most part, not from the seaboard of Massachusetts, which
+has so frequently represented New England to the popular apprehension. A
+large element in this stock was the product of the migration that
+ascended the valleys of Connecticut and central Massachusetts through
+the hills into Vermont and New York,--a pioneer folk almost from the
+time of their origin. The Vermont colonists decidedly outnumbered those
+of Massachusetts in both Michigan and Wisconsin, and were far more
+numerous in other Northwestern States than the population of Vermont
+warranted. Together with this current came the settlers from western New
+York. These were generally descendants of this same pioneer New England
+stock, continuing into a remoter West the movement that had brought
+their parents to New York. The combined current from New England and New
+York thus constituted a distinctly modified New England stock, and was
+clearly the dominant native element in Michigan and Wisconsin.
+
+The decade of the forties was also the period of Iowa's rapid increase.
+Although not politically a part of the Old Northwest, in history she is
+closely related to that region. Her growth was by no means so rapid as
+was Wisconsin's, for the proportion of foreign immigration was less.
+Whereas in 1850 more than one-third of Wisconsin's population was
+foreign-born, the proportion for Iowa was not much over one-tenth. The
+main body of her people finally came from the Middle States, and
+Illinois and Ohio; but Southern elements were well represented,
+particularly among her political leaders.
+
+The middle of the century was the turning-point in the transfer of
+control in the Northwest. Below the line of the old national turnpike,
+marked by the cities of Columbus, Indianapolis, Vandalia, and St. Louis,
+the counties had acquired a stability of settlement; and partly because
+of the Southern element, partly because of a natural tendency of new
+communities toward Jacksonian ideals, these counties were preponderantly
+Democratic. But the Southern migration had turned to the cotton areas of
+the Southwest, and the development of railroads and canals had broken
+the historic commercial ascendancy of the Mississippi River; New Orleans
+was yielding the scepter to New York. The tide of migration from the
+North poured along these newly opened channels, and occupied the less
+settled counties above the national turnpike. In cities like Columbus
+and Indianapolis, where the two currents had run side by side, the
+combined elements were most clearly marked, but in the Northwest as a
+whole a varied population had been formed. This region seemed to
+represent and understand the various parts of the Union. It was this
+aspect which Mr. Vinton, of Ohio, urged in Congress when he made his
+notable speech in favor of the admission of Iowa. He pleaded the
+mission of the Northwest as the mediator between the sections and the
+unifying agency in the nation, with such power and pathos as to thrill
+even John Quincy Adams.
+
+But there are some issues which cannot be settled by compromise,
+tendencies one of which must conquer the other. Such an issue the slave
+power raised, and raised too late for support in the upper half of the
+Mississippi Basin. The Northern and the Southern elements found
+themselves in opposition to each other. "A house divided against itself
+cannot stand," said Abraham Lincoln, a Northern leader of Southern
+origin. Douglas, a leader of the Southern forces, though coming from New
+England, declared his indifference whether slavery were voted up or down
+in the Western Territories. The historic debates between these two
+champions reveal the complex conditions in the Northwest, and take on a
+new meaning when considered in the light of this contest between the
+Northern and the Southern elements. The State that had been so potent
+for compromise was at last the battle-ground itself, and the places
+selected for the various debates of Lincoln and Douglas marked the
+strongholds and the outposts of the antagonistic forces.
+
+At this time the kinship of western New York and the dominant element in
+the Northwest was clearly revealed. Speaking for the anti-slavery forces
+at Madison, Wisconsin, in 1860, Seward said: "The Northwest is by no
+means so small as you may think it. I speak to you because I feel that I
+am, and during all my mature life have been, one of you. Although of New
+York, I am still a citizen of the Northwest. The Northwest extends
+eastward to the base of the Alleghany Mountains, and does not all of
+western New York lie westward of the Alleghany Mountains? Whence comes
+all the inspiration of free soil which spreads itself with such cheerful
+voices over all these plains? Why, from New York westward of the
+Alleghany Mountains. The people before me,--who are you but New York
+men, while you are men of the Northwest?" In the Civil War, western New
+York and the Northwest were powerful in the forum and in the field. A
+million soldiers came from the States that the Ordinance, passed by
+Southern votes, had devoted to freedom.
+
+This was the first grave time of trial for the Northwest, and it did
+much eventually to give to the region a homogeneity and
+self-consciousness. But at the close of the war the region was still
+agricultural, only half-developed; still breaking ground in northern
+forests; still receiving contributions of peoples which radically
+modified the social organism, and undergoing economic changes almost
+revolutionary in their rapidity and extent. The changes since the war
+are of more social importance, in many respects, than those in the years
+commonly referred to as the formative period. As a result, the Northwest
+finds herself again between contending forces, sharing the interests of
+East and West, as once before those of North and South, and forced to
+give her voice on issues of equal significance for the destiny of the
+republic.
+
+In these transforming years since 1860, Ohio, finding the magician's
+talisman that revealed the treasury of mineral wealth, gas, and
+petroleum beneath her fields, has leaped to a front rank among the
+manufacturing States of the Union. Potential on the Great Lakes by
+reason of her ports of Toledo and Cleveland, tapping the Ohio river
+artery of trade at Cincinnati, and closely connected with all the vast
+material development of the upper waters of this river in western
+Pennsylvania and West Virginia, Ohio has become distinctly a part of the
+eastern social organism, much like the State of Pennsylvania. The
+complexity of her origin still persists. Ohio has no preponderant social
+center; her multiplicity of colleges and universities bears tribute to
+the diversity of the elements that have made the State. One-third of
+her people are of foreign parentage (one or both parents foreign-born),
+and the city of Cincinnati has been deeply affected by the German stock,
+while Cleveland strongly reflects the influence of the New England
+element. That influence is still very palpable, but it is New England in
+the presence of natural gas, iron, and coal, New England shaped by blast
+and forge. The Middle State ideals will dominate Ohio's future.
+
+Bucolic Indiana, too, within the last decade has come into the
+possession of gas-fields and has increased the exploitation of her coals
+until she seems destined to share in the industrial type represented by
+Ohio. Cities have arisen, like a dream, on the sites of country
+villages. But Indiana has a much smaller proportion of foreign elements
+than any other State of the Old Northwest, and it is the Southern
+element that still differentiates her from her sisters. While Ohio's
+political leaders still attest the Puritan migration, Indiana's clasp
+hands with the leaders from the South.
+
+The Southern elements continue also to reveal themselves in the
+Democratic southwestern counties of Illinois, grouped like a broad delta
+of the Illinois River, while northern Illinois holds a larger proportion
+of descendants of the Middle States and New England. About one-half her
+population is of foreign parentage, in which the German, Irish, and
+Scandinavians furnish the largest elements. She is a great agricultural
+State and a great manufacturing State, the connecting link between the
+Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Her metropolis, Chicago, is the very
+type of Northwestern development for good and for evil. It is an epitome
+of her composite nationality. A recent writer, analyzing the school
+census of Chicago, points out that "only two cities in the German
+Empire, Berlin and Hamburg, have a greater German population than
+Chicago; only two in Sweden, Stockholm and Goeteborg, have more Swedes;
+and only two in Norway, Christiana and Bergen, have more Norwegians";
+while the Irish, Polish, Bohemians, and Dutch elements are also largely
+represented. But in spite of her rapidity of growth and her complex
+elements, Chicago stands as the representative of the will-power and
+genius for action of the Middle West, and the State of Illinois will be
+the battle-ground for social and economic ideals for the next
+generation.
+
+Michigan is two States. The northern peninsula is cut off from the
+southern physically, industrially, and in the history of settlement. It
+would seem that her natural destiny was with Wisconsin, or some possible
+new State embracing the iron and copper, forest and shipping areas of
+Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota on Lake Superior. The lower peninsula
+of Michigan is the daughter of New York and over twelve per cent of
+Michigan's present population were born in that State, and her traits
+are those of the parent State. Over half her population is of foreign
+parentage, of which Canada and England together have furnished one-half,
+while the Germans outnumber any other single foreign element. The State
+has undergone a steady industrial development, exploiting her northern
+mines and forests, developing her lumber interests with Saginaw as the
+center, raising fruits along the lake shore counties, and producing
+grain in the middle trough of counties running from Saginaw Bay to the
+south of Lake Michigan. Her state university has been her peculiar
+glory, furnishing the first model for the state university, and it is
+the educational contribution of the Northwest to the nation.
+
+Wisconsin's future is dependent upon the influence of the large
+proportion of her population of foreign parentage, for nearly
+three-fourths of her inhabitants are of that class. She thus has a
+smaller percentage of native population than any other of the States
+formed from the Old Northwest. Of this foreign element the Germans
+constitute by far the largest part, with the Scandinavians second. Her
+American population born outside of Wisconsin comes chiefly from New
+York. In contrast with the Ohio River States, she lacks the Southern
+element. Her greater foreign population and her dairy interests contrast
+with Michigan's Canadian and English elements and fruit culture. Her
+relations are more Western than Michigan's by reason of her connection
+with the Mississippi and the prairie States. Her foreign element is
+slightly less than Minnesota's, and in the latter State the
+Scandinavians take the place held by the Germans in Wisconsin. The
+facility with which the Scandinavians catch the spirit of Western
+America and assimilate with their neighbors is much greater than is the
+case with the Germans, so that Wisconsin seems to offer opportunity for
+non-English influence in a greater degree than her sister on the west.
+While Minnesota's economic development has heretofore been closely
+dependent on the wheat-producing prairies, the opening of the iron
+fields of the Mesabi and Vermilion ranges, together with the development
+of St. Paul and Minneapolis, Duluth and West Superior, and the
+prospective achievement of a deep-water communication with the Atlantic,
+seem to offer to that State a new and imperial industrial destiny.
+Between this stupendous economic future to the northwest and the
+colossal growth of Chicago on the southeast Wisconsin seems likely to
+become a middle agricultural area, developing particularly into a dairy
+State. She is powerfully affected by the conservative tendencies of her
+German element in times of political agitation and of proposals of
+social change.
+
+Some of the social modifications in this State are more or less typical
+of important processes at work among the neighboring States of the Old
+Northwest. In the north, the men who built up the lumber interests of
+the State, who founded a mill town surrounded by the stumps of the pine
+forests which they exploited for the prairie markets, have acquired
+wealth and political power. The spacious and well-appointed home of the
+town-builder may now be seen in many a northern community, in a group of
+less pretentious homes of operatives and tradesmen, the social
+distinctions between them emphasized by the difference in nationality. A
+few years before, this captain of industry was perhaps actively engaged
+in the task of seeking the best "forties" or directing the operations of
+his log-drivers. His wife and daughters make extensive visits to Europe,
+his sons go to some university, and he himself is likely to acquire
+political position, or to devote his energies to saving the town from
+industrial decline, as the timber is cut away, by transforming it into a
+manufacturing center for more finished products. Still others continue
+their activity among the forests of the South. This social history of
+the timber areas of Wisconsin has left clear indications in the
+development of the peculiar political leadership in the northern portion
+of the State.
+
+In the southern and middle counties of the State, the original
+settlement of the native American pioneer farmer, a tendency is showing
+itself to divide the farms and to sell to thrifty Germans, or to
+cultivate the soil by tenants, while the farmer retires to live in the
+neighboring village, and perhaps to organize creameries and develop a
+dairy business. The result is that a replacement of nationalities is in
+progress. Townships and even counties once dominated by the native
+American farmers of New York extraction are now possessed by Germans or
+other European nationalities. Large portions of the retail trades of the
+towns are also passing into German hands, while the native element seeks
+the cities, the professions, or mercantile enterprises of larger
+character. The non-native element shows distinct tendencies to dwell in
+groups. One of the most striking illustrations of this fact is the
+community of New Glarus, in Wisconsin, formed by a carefully organized
+migration from Glarus in Switzerland, aided by the canton itself. For
+some years this community was a miniature Swiss canton in social
+organization and customs, but of late it has become increasingly
+assimilated to the American type, and has left an impress by
+transforming the county in which it is from a grain-raising to a dairy
+region.
+
+From Milwaukee as a center, the influence of the Germans upon the social
+customs and ideals of Wisconsin has been marked. Milwaukee has many of
+the aspects of a German city, and has furnished a stronghold of
+resistance to native American efforts to enact rigid temperance
+legislation, laws regulative of parochial schools, and similar attempts
+to bend the German type to the social ideas of the pioneer American
+stock. In the last presidential election, the German area of the State
+deserted the Democratic party, and its opposition to free silver was a
+decisive factor in the overwhelming victory of the Republicans in
+Wisconsin. With all the evidence of the persistence of the influence of
+this nationality, it is nevertheless clear that each decade marks an
+increased assimilation and homogeneity in the State; but the result is a
+compromise, and not a conquest by either element.
+
+The States of the Old Northwest gave to McKinley a plurality of over
+367,000 out of a total vote of about 3,734,000. New England and the
+Middle States together gave him a plurality of 979,000 in about the same
+vote, while the farther West gave to Bryan a decisive net plurality. It
+thus appears that the Old Northwest occupied the position of a political
+middle region between East and West. The significance of this position
+is manifest when it is recalled that this section is the child of the
+East and the mother of the Populistic West.
+
+The occupation of the Western prairies was determined by forces similar
+to those which settled the Old Northwest. In the decade before the war,
+Minnesota succeeded to the place held by Wisconsin as the Mecca of
+settlers in the prior decade. To Wisconsin and New York she owes the
+largest proportion of her native settlers born outside of the State.
+Kansas and Nebraska were settled most rapidly in the decade following
+the war, and had a large proportion of soldiers in their American
+immigrants. Illinois and Ohio together furnished about one-third of the
+native settlers of these States, but the element coming from Southern
+States was stronger in Kansas than in Nebraska. Both these States have
+an exceptionally large proportion of native whites as compared with
+their neighbors among the prairie States. Kansas, for example, has about
+twenty-six per cent of persons of foreign parentage, while Nebraska has
+about forty-two, Iowa forty-three, South Dakota sixty, Wisconsin
+seventy-three, Minnesota seventy-five, and North Dakota seventy-nine.
+North Dakota's development was greatest in the decade prior to 1890. Her
+native stock came in largest numbers from Wisconsin, with New York,
+Minnesota, and Iowa next in order. The growth of South Dakota occupied
+the two decades prior to the census of 1890, and she has recruited her
+native element from Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, and New York.
+
+In consequence of the large migration from the States of the Old
+Northwest to the virgin soils of these prairie States many counties in
+the parent States show a considerable decline in growth in the decade
+before 1890. There is significance in the fact that, with the exception
+of Iowa, these prairie States, the colonies of the Old Northwest, gave
+Bryan votes in the election of 1896 in the ratio of their proportion of
+persons of native parentage. North Dakota, with the heaviest foreign
+element, was carried for McKinley, while South Dakota, with a much
+smaller foreign vote, went for Bryan. Kansas and Nebraska rank with Ohio
+in their native percentage, and they were the center of prairie
+Populism. Of course, there were other important local economic and
+political explanations for this ratio, but it seems to have a basis of
+real meaning. Certain it is that the leaders of the silver movement came
+from the native element furnished by the Old Northwest. The original
+Populists in the Kansas legislature of 1891 were born in different
+States as follows: in Ohio, twelve; Indiana, six; Illinois, five; New
+York, four; Pennsylvania, two; Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine, one
+each,--making a total, for the Northern current, of thirty-two. Of the
+remaining eighteen, thirteen were from the South, and one each from
+Kansas, Missouri, California, England and Ireland. Nearly all were
+Methodists and former Republicans.[238:1]
+
+Looking at the silver movement more largely, we find that of the Kansas
+delegation in the Fifty-fourth Congress, one was born in Kansas, and the
+rest in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Maine.
+All of the Nebraska delegation in the House came from the Old Northwest
+or from Iowa. The biographies of the two Representatives from the State
+of Washington tell an interesting story. These men came as children to
+the pine woods of Wisconsin, took up public lands, and worked on the
+farm and in the pineries. One passed on to a homestead in Nebraska
+before settling in Washington. Thus they kept one stage ahead of the
+social transformations of the West. This is the usual training of the
+Western politicians. If the reader would see a picture of the
+representative Kansas Populist, let him examine the family portraits of
+the Ohio farmer in the middle of this century.
+
+In a word, the Populist is the American farmer who has kept in advance
+of the economic and social transformations that have overtaken those
+who remained behind. While, doubtless, investigation into the ancestry
+of the Populists and "silver men" who came to the prairies from the Old
+Northwest would show a large proportion of Southern origin, yet the
+center of discontent seems to have been among the men of the New England
+and New York current. If New England looks with care at these men, she
+may recognize in them the familiar lineaments of the embattled farmers
+who fired the shot heard round the world. The continuous advance of this
+pioneer stock from New England has preserved for us the older type of
+the pioneer of frontier New England.
+
+I do not overlook the transforming influences of the wilderness on this
+stock ever since it left the earlier frontier to follow up the valleys
+of western Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont, into western New
+York, into Ohio, into Iowa, and out to the arid plains of western Kansas
+and Nebraska; nor do I overlook the peculiar industrial conditions of
+the prairie States. But I desire to insist upon the other truth, also,
+that these westward immigrants, keeping for generations in advance of
+the transforming industrial and social forces that have wrought so vast
+a revolution in the older regions of the East which they left, could not
+but preserve important aspects of the older farmer type. In the arid
+West these pioneers have halted and have turned to perceive an altered
+nation and changed social ideals. They see the sharp contrast between
+their traditional idea of America, as the land of opportunity, the land
+of the self-made man, free from class distinctions and from the power of
+wealth, and the existing America, so unlike the earlier ideal. If we
+follow back the line of march of the Puritan farmer, we shall see how
+responsive he has always been to _isms_, and how persistently he has
+resisted encroachments on his ideals of individual opportunity and
+democracy. He is the prophet of the "higher law" in Kansas before the
+Civil War. He is the Prohibitionist of Iowa and Wisconsin, crying out
+against German customs as an invasion of his traditional ideals. He is
+the Granger of Wisconsin, passing restrictive railroad legislation. He
+is the Abolitionist, the Anti-mason, the Millerite, the Woman
+Suffragist, the Spiritualist, the Mormon, of Western New York. Follow
+him to his New England home in the turbulent days of Shays' rebellion,
+paper money, stay and tender laws, and land banks. The radicals among
+these New England farmers hated lawyers and capitalists. "I would not
+trust them," said Abraham White, in the ratification convention of
+Massachusetts, in 1788, "though every one of them should be a Moses."
+"These lawyers," cried Amos Singletary, "and men of learning and moneyed
+men that talk so finely and gloss over matters so smoothly to make us
+poor illiterate people swallow the pill, expect to get into Congress
+themselves! They mean to get all the money into their hands, and then
+they will swallow up all us little folk, like the Leviathan, Mr.
+President; yea, just as the whale swallowed up Jonah."
+
+If the voice of Mary Ellen Lease sounds raucous to the New England man
+to-day, while it is sweet music in the ears of the Kansas farmer, let
+him ponder the utterances of these frontier farmers in the days of the
+Revolution; and if he is still doubtful of this spiritual kinship, let
+him read the words of the levelers and sectaries of Cromwell's army.
+
+The story of the political leaders who remained in the place of their
+birth and shared its economic changes differs from the story of those
+who by moving to the West continued on a new area the old social type.
+In the throng of Scotch-Irish pioneers that entered the uplands of the
+Carolinas in the second quarter of the eighteenth century were the
+ancestors of Calhoun and of Andrew Jackson. Remaining in this region,
+Calhoun shared the transformations of the South Carolina interior. He
+saw it change from the area of the pioneer farmers to an area of great
+planters raising cotton by slave labor. This explains the transformation
+of the nationalist and protectionist Calhoun of 1816 into the
+state-sovereignty and free-trade Calhoun. Jackson, on the other hand,
+left the region while it was still a frontier, shared the frontier life
+of Tennessee, and reflected the democracy and nationalism of his people.
+Henry Clay lived long enough in the kindred State of Kentucky to see it
+pass from a frontier to a settled community, and his views on slavery
+reflected the transitional history of that State. Lincoln, on the other
+hand, born in Kentucky in 1809, while the State was still under frontier
+conditions, migrated in 1816 to Indiana, and in 1830 to Illinois. The
+pioneer influences of his community did much to shape his life, and the
+development of the raw frontiersman into the statesman was not unlike
+the development of his own State. Political leaders who experienced the
+later growth of the Northwest, like Garfield, Hayes, Harrison, and
+McKinley, show clearly the continued transformations of the section. But
+in the days when the Northwest was still in the gristle, she sent her
+sons into the newer West to continue the views of life and the policies
+of the half-frontier region they had left.
+
+To-day, the Northwest, standing between her ancestral connections in the
+East and her children in the West, partly like the East, partly like the
+West, finds herself in a position strangely like that in the days of the
+slavery struggle, when her origins presented to her a "divided duty."
+But these issues are not with the same imperious "Which?" as was the
+issue of freedom or slavery.
+
+Looking at the Northwest as a whole, one sees, in the character of its
+industries and in the elements of its population, it is identified on
+the east with the zone of States including the middle region and New
+England. Cotton culture and the negro make a clear line of division
+between the Old Northwest and the South. And yet in important historical
+ideals--in the process of expansion, in the persistence of agricultural
+interests, in impulsiveness, in imperialistic ways of looking at the
+American destiny, in hero-worship, in the newness of its present social
+structure--the Old Northwest has much in common with the South and the
+Far West.
+
+Behind her is the old pioneer past of simple democratic conditions, and
+freedom of opportunity for all men. Before her is a superb industrial
+development, the brilliancy of success as evinced in a vast population,
+aggregate wealth, and sectional power.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[222:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, April, 1897. Published by permission.
+
+[238:1] For this information I am indebted to Professor F. W. Blackmar,
+of the University of Kansas.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEST TO AMERICAN DEMOCRACY[243:1]
+
+
+Political thought in the period of the French Revolution tended to treat
+democracy as an absolute system applicable to all times and to all
+peoples, a system that was to be created by the act of the people
+themselves on philosophical principles. Ever since that era there has
+been an inclination on the part of writers on democracy to emphasize the
+analytical and theoretical treatment to the neglect of the underlying
+factors of historical development.
+
+If, however, we consider the underlying conditions and forces that
+create the democratic type of government, and at times contradict the
+external forms to which the name democracy is applied, we shall find
+that under this name there have appeared a multitude of political types
+radically unlike in fact.
+
+The careful student of history must, therefore, seek the explanation of
+the forms and changes of political institutions in the social and
+economic forces that determine them. To know that at any one time a
+nation may be called a democracy, an aristocracy, or a monarchy, is not
+so important as to know what are the social and economic tendencies of
+the state. These are the vital forces that work beneath the surface and
+dominate the external form. It is to changes in the economic and social
+life of a people that we must look for the forces, that ultimately
+create and modify organs of political action.
+
+For the time, adaptation of political structure may be incomplete or
+concealed. Old organs will be utilized to express new forces, and so
+gradual and subtle will be the change that it may hardly be recognized.
+The pseudo-democracies under the Medici at Florence and under Augustus
+at Rome are familiar examples of this type. Or again, if the political
+structure be rigid, incapable of responding to the changes demanded by
+growth, the expansive forces of social and economic transformation may
+rend it in some catastrophe like that of the French Revolution. In
+all these changes both conscious ideals and unconscious social
+reorganization are at work.
+
+These facts are familiar to the student, and yet it is doubtful if they
+have been fully considered in connection with American democracy. For a
+century at least, in conventional expression, Americans have referred to
+a "glorious Constitution" in explaining the stability and prosperity of
+their democracy. We have believed as a nation that other peoples had
+only to will our democratic institutions in order to repeat our own
+career.
+
+In dealing with Western contributions to democracy, it is essential that
+the considerations which have just been mentioned shall be kept in mind.
+Whatever these contributions may have been, we find ourselves at the
+present time in an era of such profound economic and social
+transformation as to raise the question of the effect of these changes
+upon the democratic institutions of the United States. Within a decade
+four marked changes have occurred in our national development; taken
+together they constitute a revolution.
+
+First, there is the exhaustion of the supply of free land and the
+closing of the movement of Western advance as an effective factor in
+American development. The first rough conquest of the wilderness is
+accomplished, and that great supply of free lands which year after year
+has served to reinforce the democratic influences in the United States
+is exhausted. It is true that vast tracts of government land are still
+untaken, but they constitute the mountain and arid regions, only a small
+fraction of them capable of conquest, and then only by the application
+of capital and combined effort. The free lands that made the American
+pioneer have gone.
+
+In the second place, contemporaneously with this there has been such a
+concentration of capital in the control of fundamental industries as to
+make a new epoch in the economic development of the United States. The
+iron, the coal, and the cattle of the country have all fallen under the
+domination of a few great corporations with allied interests, and by the
+rapid combination of the important railroad systems and steamship lines,
+in concert with these same forces, even the breadstuffs and the
+manufactures of the nation are to some degree controlled in a similar
+way. This is largely the work of the last decade. The development of the
+greatest iron mines of Lake Superior occurred in the early nineties, and
+in the same decade came the combination by which the coal and the coke
+of the country, and the transportation systems that connect them with
+the iron mines, have been brought under a few concentrated managements.
+Side by side with this concentration of capital has gone the combination
+of labor in the same vast industries. The one is in a certain sense the
+concomitant of the other, but the movement acquires an additional
+significance because of the fact that during the past fifteen years the
+labor class has been so recruited by a tide of foreign immigration that
+this class is now largely made up of persons of foreign parentage, and
+the lines of cleavage which begin to appear in this country between
+capital and labor have been accentuated by distinctions of nationality.
+
+A third phenomenon connected with the two just mentioned is the
+expansion of the United States politically and commercially into lands
+beyond the seas. A cycle of American development has been completed. Up
+to the close of the War of 1812, this country was involved in the
+fortunes of the European state system. The first quarter of a century of
+our national existence was almost a continual struggle to prevent
+ourselves being drawn into the European wars. At the close of that era
+of conflict, the United States set its face toward the West. It began
+the settlement and improvement of the vast interior of the country. Here
+was the field of our colonization, here the field of our political
+activity. This process being completed, it is not strange that we find
+the United States again involved in world-politics. The revolution that
+occurred four years ago, when the United States struck down that ancient
+nation under whose auspices the New World was discovered, is hardly yet
+more than dimly understood. The insular wreckage of the Spanish War,
+Porto Rico and the Philippines, with the problems presented by the
+Hawaiian Islands, Cuba, the Isthmian Canal, and China, all are
+indications of the new direction of the ship of state, and while we thus
+turn our attention overseas, our concentrated industrial strength has
+given us a striking power against the commerce of Europe that is already
+producing consternation in the Old World. Having completed the conquest
+of the wilderness, and having consolidated our interests, we are
+beginning to consider the relations of democracy and empire.
+
+And fourth, the political parties of the United States, now tend to
+divide on issues that involve the question of Socialism. The rise of the
+Populist party in the last decade, and the acceptance of so many of its
+principles by the Democratic party under the leadership of Mr. Bryan,
+show in striking manner the birth of new political ideas, the
+reformation of the lines of political conflict.
+
+It is doubtful if in any ten years of American history more significant
+factors in our growth have revealed themselves. The struggle of the
+pioneer farmers to subdue the arid lands of the Great Plains in the
+eighties was followed by the official announcement of the extinction of
+the frontier line in 1890. The dramatic outcome of the Chicago
+Convention of 1896 marked the rise into power of the representatives of
+Populistic change. Two years later came the battle of Manila, which
+broke down the old isolation of the nation, and started it on a path the
+goal of which no man can foretell; and finally, but two years ago came
+that concentration of which the billion and a half dollar steel trust
+and the union of the Northern continental railways are stupendous
+examples. Is it not obvious, then, that the student who seeks for the
+explanation of democracy in the social and economic forces that underlie
+political forms must make inquiry into the conditions that have produced
+our democratic institutions, if he would estimate the effect of these
+vast changes? As a contribution to this inquiry, let us now turn to an
+examination of the part that the West has played in shaping our
+democracy.
+
+From the beginning of the settlement of America, the frontier regions
+have exercised a steady influence toward democracy. In Virginia, to take
+an example, it can be traced as early as the period of Bacon's
+Rebellion, a hundred years before our Declaration of Independence. The
+small landholders, seeing that their powers were steadily passing into
+the hands of the wealthy planters who controlled Church and State and
+lands, rose in revolt. A generation later, in the governorship of
+Alexander Spotswood, we find a contest between the frontier settlers and
+the property-holding classes of the coast. The democracy with which
+Spotswood had to struggle, and of which he so bitterly complained, was a
+democracy made up of small landholders, of the newer immigrants, and of
+indented servants, who at the expiration of their time of servitude
+passed into the interior to take up lands and engage in pioneer farming.
+The "War of the Regulation," just on the eve of the American Revolution,
+shows the steady persistence of this struggle between the classes of the
+interior and those of the coast. The Declaration of Grievances which the
+back counties of the Carolinas then drew up against the aristocracy that
+dominated the politics of those colonies exhibits the contest between
+the democracy of the frontier and the established classes who
+apportioned the legislature in such fashion as to secure effective
+control of government. Indeed, in a period before the outbreak of the
+American Revolution, one can trace a distinct belt of democratic
+territory extending from the back country of New England down through
+western New York, Pennsylvania, and the South.[248:1]
+
+In each colony this region was in conflict with the dominant classes of
+the coast. It constituted a quasi-revolutionary area before the days of
+the Revolution, and it formed the basis on which the Democratic party
+was afterwards established. It was, therefore, in the West, as it was in
+the period before the Declaration of Independence, that the struggle for
+democratic development first revealed itself, and in that area the
+essential ideas of American democracy had already appeared. Through the
+period of the Revolution and of the Confederation a similar contest can
+be noted. On the frontier of New England, along the western border of
+Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, and in the communities beyond
+the Alleghany Mountains, there arose a demand of the frontier settlers
+for independent statehood based on democratic provisions. There is a
+strain of fierceness in their energetic petitions demanding
+self-government under the theory that every people have the right to
+establish their own political institutions in an area which they have
+won from the wilderness. Those revolutionary principles based on
+natural rights, for which the seaboard colonies were contending, were
+taken up with frontier energy in an attempt to apply them to the lands
+of the West. No one can read their petitions denouncing the control
+exercised by the wealthy landholders of the coast, appealing to the
+record of their conquest of the wilderness, and demanding the possession
+of the lands for which they have fought the Indians, and which they had
+reduced by their ax to civilization, without recognizing in these
+frontier communities the cradle of a belligerent Western democracy. "A
+fool can sometimes put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for
+him,"--such is the philosophy of its petitioners. In this period also
+came the contests of the interior agricultural portion of New England
+against the coast-wise merchants and property-holders, of which Shays'
+Rebellion is the best known, although by no means an isolated instance.
+
+By the time of the constitutional convention, this struggle for
+democracy had affected a fairly well-defined division into parties.
+Although these parties did not at first recognize their interstate
+connections, there were similar issues on which they split in almost all
+the States. The demands for an issue of paper money, the stay of
+execution against debtors, and the relief against excessive taxation
+were found in every colony in the interior agricultural regions. The
+rise of this significant movement wakened the apprehensions of the men
+of means, and in the debates over the basis of suffrage for the House of
+Representatives in the constitutional convention of 1787 leaders of the
+conservative party did not hesitate to demand that safeguards to the
+property should be furnished the coast against the interior. The outcome
+of the debate left the question of suffrage for the House of
+Representatives dependent upon the policy of the separate States. This
+was in effect imposing a property qualification throughout the nation as
+a whole, and it was only as the interior of the country developed that
+these restrictions gradually gave way in the direction of manhood
+suffrage.
+
+All of these scattered democratic tendencies Jefferson combined, in the
+period of Washington's presidency, into the Democratic-Republican party.
+Jefferson was the first prophet of American democracy, and when we
+analyse the essential features of his gospel, it is clear that the
+Western influence was the dominant element. Jefferson himself was born
+in the frontier region of Virginia, on the edge of the Blue Ridge, in
+the middle of the eighteenth century. His father was a pioneer.
+Jefferson's "Notes on Virginia" reveal clearly his conception that
+democracy should have an agricultural basis, and that manufacturing
+development and city life were dangerous to the purity of the body
+politic. Simplicity and economy in government, the right of revolution,
+the freedom of the individual, the belief that those who win the vacant
+lands are entitled to shape their own government in their own
+way,--these are all parts of the platform of political principles to
+which he gave his adhesion, and they are all elements eminently
+characteristic of the Western democracy into which he was born.
+
+In the period of the Revolution he had brought in a series of measures
+which tended to throw the power of Virginia into the hands of the
+settlers in the interior rather than of the coastwise aristocracy. The
+repeal of the laws of entail and primogeniture would have destroyed the
+great estates on which the planting aristocracy based its power. The
+abolition of the Established Church would still further have diminished
+the influence of the coastwise party in favor of the dissenting sects of
+the interior. His scheme of general public education reflected the same
+tendency, and his demand for the abolition of slavery was characteristic
+of a representative of the West rather than of the old-time aristocracy
+of the coast. His sympathy with the Western expansion culminated in the
+Louisiana Purchase. In short, the tendencies of Jefferson's legislation
+were to replace the dominance of the planting aristocracy by the
+dominance of the interior class, which had sought in vain to achieve its
+liberties in the period of Bacon's Rebellion.
+
+Nevertheless, Thomas Jefferson was the John the Baptist of democracy,
+not its Moses. Only with the slow setting of the tide of settlement
+farther and farther toward the interior did the democratic influence
+grow strong enough to take actual possession of the government. The
+period from 1800 to 1820 saw a steady increase in these tendencies. The
+established classes in New England and the South began to take alarm.
+Perhaps no better illustration of the apprehensions of the old-time
+Federal conservative can be given than these utterances of President
+Dwight, of Yale College, in the book of travels which he published in
+that period:--
+
+     The class of pioneers cannot live in regular society. They are
+     too idle, too talkative, too passionate, too prodigal, and too
+     shiftless to acquire either property or character. They are
+     impatient of the restraints of law, religion, and morality,
+     and grumble about the taxes by which the Rulers, Ministers,
+     and Schoolmasters are supported. . . . After exposing the
+     injustice of the community in neglecting to invest persons of
+     such superior merit in public offices, in many an eloquent
+     harangue uttered by many a kitchen fire, in every blacksmith
+     shop, in every corner of the streets, and finding all their
+     efforts vain, they become at length discouraged, and under the
+     pressure of poverty, the fear of the gaol, and consciousness
+     of public contempt, leave their native places and betake
+     themselves to the wilderness.
+
+Such was a conservative's impression of that pioneer movement of New
+England colonists who had spread up the valley of the Connecticut into
+New Hampshire, Vermont, and western New York in the period of which he
+wrote, and who afterwards went on to possess the Northwest. New England
+Federalism looked with a shudder at the democratic ideas of those who
+refused to recognize the established order. But in that period there
+came into the Union a sisterhood of frontier States--Ohio, Indiana,
+Illinois, Missouri--with provisions for the franchise that brought in
+complete democracy.
+
+Even the newly created States of the Southwest showed the tendency. The
+wind of democracy blew so strongly from the West, that even in the older
+States of New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia,
+conventions were called, which liberalized their constitutions by
+strengthening the democratic basis of the State. In the same time the
+labor population of the cities began to assert its power and its
+determination to share in government. Of this frontier democracy which
+now took possession of the nation, Andrew Jackson was the very
+personification. He was born in the backwoods of the Carolinas in the
+midst of the turbulent democracy that preceded the Revolution, and he
+grew up in the frontier State of Tennessee. In the midst of this region
+of personal feuds and frontier ideals of law, he quickly rose to
+leadership. The appearance of this frontiersman on the floor of Congress
+was an omen full of significance. He reached Philadelphia at the close
+of Washington's administration, having ridden on horseback nearly eight
+hundred miles to his destination. Gallatin, himself a Western man,
+describes Jackson as he entered the halls of Congress: "A tall, lank,
+uncouth-looking personage, with long locks of hair hanging over his face
+and a cue down his back tied in an eel-skin; his dress singular; his
+manners those of a rough backwoodsman." And Jefferson testified: "When I
+was President of the Senate he was a Senator, and he could never speak
+on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it
+repeatedly and as often choke with rage." At last the frontier in the
+person of its typical man had found a place in the Government. This
+six-foot backwoodsman, with blue eyes that could blaze on occasion, this
+choleric, impetuous, self-willed Scotch-Irish leader of men, this expert
+duelist, and ready fighter, this embodiment of the tenacious, vehement,
+personal West, was in politics to stay. The frontier democracy of that
+time had the instincts of the clansman in the days of Scotch border
+warfare. Vehement and tenacious as the democracy was, strenuously as
+each man contended with his neighbor for the spoils of the new country
+that opened before them, they all had respect for the man who best
+expressed their aspirations and their ideas. Every community had its
+hero. In the War of 1812 and the subsequent Indian fighting Jackson made
+good his claim, not only to the loyalty of the people of Tennessee, but
+of the whole West, and even of the nation. He had the essential traits
+of the Kentucky and Tennessee frontier. It was a frontier free from the
+influence of European ideas and institutions. The men of the "Western
+World" turned their backs upon the Atlantic Ocean, and with a grim
+energy and self-reliance began to build up a society free from the
+dominance of ancient forms.
+
+The Westerner defended himself and resented governmental restrictions.
+The duel and the blood-feud found congenial soil in Kentucky and
+Tennessee. The idea of the personality of law was often dominant over
+the organized machinery of justice. That method was best which was most
+direct and effective. The backwoodsman was intolerant of men who split
+hairs, or scrupled over the method of reaching the right. In a word, the
+unchecked development of the individual was the significant product of
+this frontier democracy. It sought rather to express itself by choosing
+a man of the people, than by the formation of elaborate governmental
+institutions.
+
+It was because Andrew Jackson personified these essential Western traits
+that in his presidency he became the idol and the mouthpiece of the
+popular will. In his assault upon the Bank as an engine of aristocracy,
+and in his denunciation of nullification, he went directly to his object
+with the ruthless energy of a frontiersman. For formal law and the
+subtleties of State sovereignty he had the contempt of a backwoodsman.
+Nor is it without significance that this typical man of the new
+democracy will always be associated with the triumph of the spoils
+system in national politics. To the new democracy of the West, office
+was an opportunity to exercise natural rights as an equal citizen of the
+community. Rotation in office served not simply to allow the successful
+man to punish his enemies and reward his friends, but it also furnished
+the training in the actual conduct of political affairs which every
+American claimed as his birthright. Only in a primitive democracy of the
+type of the United States in 1830 could such a system have existed
+without the ruin of the State. National government in that period was no
+complex and nicely adjusted machine, and the evils of the system were
+long in making themselves fully apparent.
+
+The triumph of Andrew Jackson marked the end of the old era of trained
+statesmen for the Presidency. With him began the era of the popular
+hero. Even Martin Van Buren, whom we think of in connection with the
+East, was born in a log house under conditions that were not unlike
+parts of the older West. Harrison was the hero of the Northwest, as
+Jackson had been of the Southwest. Polk was a typical Tennesseean, eager
+to expand the nation, and Zachary Taylor was what Webster called a
+"frontier colonel." During the period that followed Jackson, power
+passed from the region of Kentucky and Tennessee to the border of the
+Mississippi. The natural democratic tendencies that had earlier shown
+themselves in the Gulf States were destroyed, however, by the spread of
+cotton culture, and the development of great plantations in that region.
+What had been typical of the democracy of the Revolutionary frontier and
+of the frontier of Andrew Jackson was now to be seen in the States
+between the Ohio and the Mississippi. As Andrew Jackson is the typical
+democrat of the former region, so Abraham Lincoln is the very embodiment
+of the pioneer period of the Old Northwest. Indeed, he is the embodiment
+of the democracy of the West. How can one speak of him except in the
+words of Lowell's great "Commemoration Ode":--
+
+     "For him her Old-World moulds aside she threw,
+     And, choosing sweet clay from the breast
+         Of the unexhausted West,
+     With stuff untainted shaped a hero new,
+     Wise, steadfast in the strength of God, and true.
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     His was no lonely mountain-peak of mind,
+     Thrusting to thin air o'er our cloudy bars,
+     A sea-mark now, now lost in vapors blind;
+     Broad prairie rather, genial, level-lined,
+     Fruitful and friendly for all human kind,
+     Yet also nigh to heaven and loved of loftiest stars.
+         Nothing of Europe here,
+     Or, then, of Europe fronting mornward still,
+     Ere any names of Serf and Peer,
+     Could Nature's equal scheme deface;
+     New birth of our new soil, the first American."
+
+The pioneer life from which Lincoln came differed in important respects
+from the frontier democracy typified by Andrew Jackson. Jackson's
+democracy was contentious, individualistic, and it sought the ideal of
+local self-government and expansion. Lincoln represents rather the
+pioneer folk who entered the forest of the great Northwest to chop out a
+home, to build up their fortunes in the midst of a continually ascending
+industrial movement. In the democracy of the Southwest, industrial
+development and city life were only minor factors, but to the democracy
+of the Northwest they were its very life. To widen the area of the
+clearing, to contend with one another for the mastery of the industrial
+resources of the rich provinces, to struggle for a place in the
+ascending movement of society, to transmit to one's offspring the chance
+for education, for industrial betterment, for the rise in life which the
+hardships of the pioneer existence denied to the pioneer himself, these
+were some of the ideals of the region to which Lincoln came. The men
+were commonwealth builders, industry builders. Whereas the type of hero
+in the Southwest was militant, in the Northwest he was industrial. It
+was in the midst of these "plain people," as he loved to call them, that
+Lincoln grew to manhood. As Emerson says: "He is the true history of the
+American people in his time." The years of his early life were the years
+when the democracy of the Northwest came into struggle with the
+institution of slavery which threatened to forbid the expansion of the
+democratic pioneer life in the West. In President Eliot's essay on "Five
+American Contributions to Civilization," he instances as one of the
+supreme tests of American democracy its attitude upon the question of
+slavery. But if democracy chose wisely and worked effectively toward the
+solution of this problem, it must be remembered that Western democracy
+took the lead. The rail-splitter himself became the nation's President
+in that fierce time of struggle, and armies of the woodsmen and pioneer
+farmers recruited in the Old Northwest made free the Father of Waters,
+marched through Georgia, and helped to force the struggle to a
+conclusion at Appomattox. The free pioneer democracy struck down the
+slave-holding aristocracy on its march to the West.
+
+The last chapter in the development of Western democracy is the one that
+deals with its conquest over the vast spaces of the new West. At each
+new stage of Western development, the people have had to grapple with
+larger areas, with bigger combinations. The little colony of
+Massachusetts veterans that settled at Marietta received a land grant as
+large as the State of Rhode Island. The band of Connecticut pioneers
+that followed Moses Cleaveland to the Connecticut Reserve occupied a
+region as large as the parent State. The area which settlers of New
+England stock occupied on the prairies of northern Illinois surpassed
+the combined area of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Men
+who had become accustomed to the narrow valleys and the little towns of
+the East found themselves out on the boundless spaces of the West
+dealing with units of such magnitude as dwarfed their former experience.
+The Great Lakes, the Prairies, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains,
+the Mississippi and the Missouri, furnished new standards of measurement
+for the achievement of this industrial democracy. Individualism began to
+give way to cooperation and to governmental activity. Even in the
+earlier days of the democratic conquest of the wilderness, demands had
+been made upon the government for support in internal improvements, but
+this new West showed a growing tendency to call to its assistance the
+powerful arm of national authority. In the period since the Civil War,
+the vast public domain has been donated to the individual farmer, to
+States for education, to railroads for the construction of
+transportation lines.
+
+Moreover, with the advent of democracy in the last fifteen years upon
+the Great Plains, new physical conditions have presented themselves
+which have accelerated the social tendency of Western democracy. The
+pioneer farmer of the days of Lincoln could place his family on a
+flatboat, strike into the wilderness, cut out his clearing, and with
+little or no capital go on to the achievement of industrial
+independence. Even the homesteader on the Western prairies found it
+possible to work out a similar independent destiny, although the factor
+of transportation made a serious and increasing impediment to the free
+working-out of his individual career. But when the arid lands and the
+mineral resources of the Far West were reached, no conquest was possible
+by the old individual pioneer methods. Here expensive irrigation works
+must be constructed, cooperative activity was demanded in utilization of
+the water supply, capital beyond the reach of the small farmer was
+required. In a word, the physiographic province itself decreed that the
+destiny of this new frontier should be social rather than individual.
+
+Magnitude of social achievement is the watchword of the democracy since
+the Civil War. From petty towns built in the marshes, cities arose whose
+greatness and industrial power are the wonder of our time. The
+conditions were ideal for the production of captains of industry. The
+old democratic admiration for the self-made man, its old deference to
+the rights of competitive individual development, together with the
+stupendous natural resources that opened to the conquest of the keenest
+and the strongest, gave such conditions of mobility as enabled the
+development of the large corporate industries which in our own decade
+have marked the West.
+
+Thus, in brief, have been outlined the chief phases of the development
+of Western democracy in the different areas which it has conquered.
+There has been a steady development of the industrial ideal, and a
+steady increase of the social tendency, in this later movement of
+Western democracy. While the individualism of the frontier, so prominent
+in the earliest days of the Western advance, has been preserved as an
+ideal, more and more these individuals struggling each with the other,
+dealing with vaster and vaster areas, with larger and larger problems,
+have found it necessary to combine under the leadership of the
+strongest. This is the explanation of the rise of those preeminent
+captains of industry whose genius has concentrated capital to control
+the fundamental resources of the nation. If now in the way of
+recapitulation, we try to pick out from the influences that have gone to
+the making of Western democracy the factors which constitute the net
+result of this movement, we shall have to mention at least the
+following:--
+
+Most important of all has been the fact that an area of free land has
+continually lain on the western border of the settled area of the United
+States. Whenever social conditions tended to crystallize in the East,
+whenever capital tended to press upon labor or political restraints to
+impede the freedom of the mass, there was this gate of escape to the
+free conditions of the frontier. These free lands promoted
+individualism, economic equality, freedom to rise, democracy. Men would
+not accept inferior wages and a permanent position of social
+subordination when this promised land of freedom and equality was theirs
+for the taking. Who would rest content under oppressive legislative
+conditions when with a slight effort he might reach a land wherein to
+become a co-worker in the building of free cities and free States on the
+lines of his own ideal? In a word, then, free lands meant free
+opportunities. Their existence has differentiated the American
+democracy from the democracies which have preceded it, because ever, as
+democracy in the East took the form of highly specialized and
+complicated industrial society, in the West it kept in touch with
+primitive conditions, and by action and reaction these two forces have
+shaped our history.
+
+In the next place, these free lands and this treasury of industrial
+resources have existed over such vast spaces that they have demanded of
+democracy increasing spaciousness of design and power of execution.
+Western democracy is contrasted with the democracy of all other times in
+the largeness of the tasks to which it has set its hand, and in the vast
+achievements which it has wrought out in the control of nature and of
+politics. It would be difficult to over-emphasize the importance of this
+training upon democracy. Never before in the history of the world has a
+democracy existed on so vast an area and handled things in the gross
+with such success, with such largeness of design, and such grasp upon
+the means of execution. In short, democracy has learned in the West of
+the United States how to deal with the problem of magnitude. The old
+historic democracies were but little states with primitive economic
+conditions.
+
+But the very task of dealing with vast resources, over vast areas, under
+the conditions of free competition furnished by the West, has produced
+the rise of those captains of industry whose success in consolidating
+economic power now raises the question as to whether democracy under
+such conditions can survive. For the old military type of Western
+leaders like George Rogers Clark, Andrew Jackson, and William Henry
+Harrison have been substituted such industrial leaders as James J. Hill,
+John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie.
+
+The question is imperative, then, What ideals persist from this
+democratic experience of the West; and have they acquired sufficient
+momentum to sustain themselves under conditions so radically unlike
+those in the days of their origin? In other words, the question put at
+the beginning of this discussion becomes pertinent. Under the forms of
+the American democracy is there in reality evolving such a concentration
+of economic and social power in the hands of a comparatively few men as
+may make political democracy an appearance rather than a reality? The
+free lands are gone. The material forces that gave vitality to Western
+democracy are passing away. It is to the realm of the spirit, to the
+domain of ideals and legislation, that we must look for Western
+influence upon democracy in our own days.
+
+Western democracy has been from the time of its birth idealistic. The
+very fact of the wilderness appealed to men as a fair, blank page on
+which to write a new chapter in the story of man's struggle for a higher
+type of society. The Western wilds, from the Alleghanies to the Pacific,
+constituted the richest free gift that was ever spread out before
+civilized man. To the peasant and artisan of the Old World, bound by the
+chains of social class, as old as custom and as inevitable as fate, the
+West offered an exit into a free life and greater well-being among the
+bounties of nature, into the midst of resources that demanded manly
+exertion, and that gave in return the chance for indefinite ascent in
+the scale of social advance. "To each she offered gifts after his will."
+Never again can such an opportunity come to the sons of men. It was
+unique, and the thing is so near us, so much a part of our lives, that
+we do not even yet comprehend its full significance. The existence of
+this land of opportunity has made America the goal of idealists from the
+days of the Pilgrim Fathers. With all the materialism of the pioneer
+movements, this idealistic conception of the vacant lands as an
+opportunity for a new order of things is unmistakably present.
+Kipling's "Song of the English" has given it expression:--
+
+     "We were dreamers, dreaming greatly, in the man-stifled town;
+     We yearned beyond the sky-line where the strange roads go down.
+     Came the Whisper, came the Vision, came the Power with the Need,
+     Till the Soul that is not man's soul was lent us to lead.
+     As the deer breaks--as the steer breaks--from the herd where they
+         graze,
+     In the faith of little children we went on our ways.
+     Then the wood failed--then the food failed--then the last water
+         dried--
+     In the faith of little children we lay down and died.
+
+     "On the sand-drift--on the veldt-side--in the fern-scrub we lay,
+     That our sons might follow after by the bones on the way.
+     Follow after--follow after! We have watered the root
+     And the bud has come to blossom that ripens for fruit!
+     Follow after--we are waiting by the trails that we lost
+     For the sound of many footsteps, for the tread of a host.
+
+     "Follow after--follow after--for the harvest is sown:
+     By the bones about the wayside ye shall come to your own!"
+
+This was the vision that called to Roger Williams,--that "prophetic soul
+ravished of truth disembodied," "unable to enter into treaty with its
+environment," and forced to seek the wilderness. "Oh, how sweet," wrote
+William Penn, from his forest refuge, "is the quiet of these parts,
+freed from the troubles and perplexities of woeful Europe." And here he
+projected what he called his "Holy Experiment in Government."
+
+If the later West offers few such striking illustrations of the relation
+of the wilderness to idealistic schemes, and if some of the designs were
+fantastic and abortive, none the less the influence is a fact. Hardly a
+Western State but has been the Mecca of some sect or band of social
+reformers, anxious to put into practice their ideals, in vacant land,
+far removed from the checks of a settled form of social organization.
+Consider the Dunkards, the Icarians, the Fourierists, the Mormons, and
+similar idealists who sought our Western wilds. But the idealistic
+influence is not limited to the dreamers' conception of a new State. It
+gave to the pioneer farmer and city builder a restless energy, a quick
+capacity for judgment and action, a belief in liberty, freedom of
+opportunity, and a resistance to the domination of class which infused a
+vitality and power into the individual atoms of this democratic mass.
+Even as he dwelt among the stumps of his newly-cut clearing, the pioneer
+had the creative vision of a new order of society. In imagination he
+pushed back the forest boundary to the confines of a mighty
+Commonwealth; he willed that log cabins should become the lofty
+buildings of great cities. He decreed that his children should enter
+into a heritage of education, comfort, and social welfare, and for this
+ideal he bore the scars of the wilderness. Possessed with this idea he
+ennobled his task and laid deep foundations for a democratic State. Nor
+was this idealism by any means limited to the American pioneer.
+
+To the old native democratic stock has been added a vast army of
+recruits from the Old World. There are in the Middle West alone four
+million persons of German parentage out of a total of seven millions in
+the country. Over a million persons of Scandinavian parentage live in
+the same region. The democracy of the newer West is deeply affected by
+the ideals brought by these immigrants from the Old World. To them
+America was not simply a new home; it was a land of opportunity, of
+freedom, of democracy. It meant to them, as to the American pioneer that
+preceded them, the opportunity to destroy the bonds of social caste that
+bound them in their older home, to hew out for themselves in a new
+country a destiny proportioned to the powers that God had given them, a
+chance to place their families under better conditions and to win a
+larger life than the life that they had left behind. He who believes
+that even the hordes of recent immigrants from southern Italy are drawn
+to these shores by nothing more than a dull and blind materialism has
+not penetrated into the heart of the problem. The idealism and
+expectation of these children of the Old World, the hopes which they
+have formed for a newer and freer life across the seas, are almost
+pathetic when one considers how far they are from the possibility of
+fruition. He who would take stock of American democracy must not forget
+the accumulation of human purposes and ideals which immigration has
+added to the American populace.
+
+In this connection it must also be remembered that these democratic
+ideals have existed at each stage of the advance of the frontier, and
+have left behind them deep and enduring effects on the thinking of the
+whole country. Long after the frontier period of a particular region of
+the United States has passed away, the conception of society, the ideals
+and aspirations which it produced, persist in the minds of the people.
+So recent has been the transition of the greater portion of the United
+States from frontier conditions to conditions of settled life, that we
+are, over the large portion of the United States, hardly a generation
+removed from the primitive conditions of the West. If, indeed, we
+ourselves were not pioneers, our fathers were, and the inherited ways of
+looking at things, the fundamental assumptions of the American people,
+have all been shaped by this experience of democracy on its westward
+march. This experience has been wrought into the very warp and woof of
+American thought.
+
+Even those masters of industry and capital who have risen to power by
+the conquest of Western resources came from the midst of this society
+and still profess its principles. John D. Rockefeller was born on a New
+York farm, and began his career as a young business man in St. Louis.
+Marcus Hanna was a Cleveland grocer's clerk at the age of twenty. Claus
+Spreckles, the sugar king, came from Germany as a steerage passenger to
+the United States in 1848. Marshall Field was a farmer boy in Conway,
+Massachusetts, until he left to grow up with the young Chicago. Andrew
+Carnegie came as a ten-year-old boy from Scotland to Pittsburgh, then a
+distinctively Western town. He built up his fortunes through successive
+grades until he became the dominating factor in the great iron
+industries, and paved the way for that colossal achievement, the Steel
+Trust. Whatever may be the tendencies of this corporation, there can be
+little doubt of the democratic ideals of Mr. Carnegie himself. With
+lavish hand he has strewn millions through the United States for the
+promotion of libraries. The effect of this library movement in
+perpetuating the democracy that comes from an intelligent and
+self-respecting people can hardly be measured. In his "Triumphant
+Democracy," published in 1886, Mr. Carnegie, the ironmaster, said, in
+reference to the mineral wealth of the United States: "Thank God, these
+treasures are in the hands of an intelligent people, the Democracy, to
+be used for the general good of the masses, and not made the spoils of
+monarchs, courts, and aristocracy, to be turned to the base and selfish
+ends of a privileged hereditary class." It would be hard to find a more
+rigorous assertion of democratic doctrine than the celebrated utterance,
+attributed to the same man, that he should feel it a disgrace to die
+rich.
+
+In enumerating the services of American democracy, President Eliot
+included the corporation as one of its achievements, declaring that
+"freedom of incorporation, though no longer exclusively a democratic
+agency, has given a strong support to democratic institutions." In one
+sense this is doubtless true, since the corporation has been one of the
+means by which small properties can be aggregated into an effective
+working body. Socialistic writers have long been fond of pointing out
+also that these various concentrations pave the way for and make
+possible social control. From this point of view it is possible that the
+masters of industry may prove to be not so much an incipient aristocracy
+as the pathfinders for democracy in reducing the industrial world to
+systematic consolidation suited to democratic control. The great
+geniuses that have built up the modern industrial concentration were
+trained in the midst of democratic society. They were the product of
+these democratic conditions. Freedom to rise was the very condition of
+their existence. Whether they will be followed by successors who will
+adopt the exploitation of the masses, and who will be capable of
+retaining under efficient control these vast resources, is one of the
+questions which we shall have to face.
+
+This, at least, is clear: American democracy is fundamentally the
+outcome of the experiences of the American people in dealing with the
+West. Western democracy through the whole of its earlier period tended
+to the production of a society of which the most distinctive fact was
+the freedom of the individual to rise under conditions of social
+mobility, and whose ambition was the liberty and well-being of the
+masses. This conception has vitalized all American democracy, and has
+brought it into sharp contrasts with the democracies of history, and
+with those modern efforts of Europe to create an artificial democratic
+order by legislation. The problem of the United States is not to create
+democracy, but to conserve democratic institutions and ideals. In the
+later period of its development, Western democracy has been gaining
+experience in the problem of social control. It has steadily enlarged
+the sphere of its action and the instruments for its perpetuation. By
+its system of public schools, from the grades to the graduate work of
+the great universities, the West has created a larger single body of
+intelligent plain people than can be found elsewhere in the world. Its
+political tendencies, whether we consider Democracy, Populism, or
+Republicanism, are distinctly in the direction of greater social control
+and the conservation of the old democratic ideals.
+
+To these ideals the West adheres with even a passionate determination.
+If, in working out its mastery of the resources of the interior, it has
+produced a type of industrial leader so powerful as to be the wonder of
+the world, nevertheless, it is still to be determined whether these men
+constitute a menace to democratic institutions, or the most efficient
+factor for adjusting democratic control to the new conditions.
+
+Whatever shall be the outcome of the rush of this huge industrial modern
+United States to its place among the nations of the earth, the formation
+of its Western democracy will always remain one of the wonderful
+chapters in the history of the human race. Into this vast shaggy
+continent of ours poured the first feeble tide of European settlement.
+European men, institutions, and ideas were lodged in the American
+wilderness, and this great American West took them to her bosom, taught
+them a new way of looking upon the destiny of the common man, trained
+them in adaptation to the conditions of the New World, to the creation
+of new institutions to meet new needs; and ever as society on her
+eastern border grew to resemble the Old World in its social forms and
+its industry, ever, as it began to lose faith in the ideals of
+democracy, she opened new provinces, and dowered new democracies in her
+most distant domains with her material treasures and with the ennobling
+influence that the fierce love of freedom, the strength that came from
+hewing out a home, making a school and a church, and creating a higher
+future for his family, furnished to the pioneer.
+
+She gave to the world such types as the farmer Thomas Jefferson, with
+his Declaration of Independence, his statute for religious toleration,
+and his purchase of Louisiana. She gave us Andrew Jackson, that fierce
+Tennessee spirit who broke down the traditions of conservative rule,
+swept away the privacies and privileges of officialdom, and, like a
+Gothic leader, opened the temple of the nation to the populace. She gave
+us Abraham Lincoln, whose gaunt frontier form and gnarled, massive hand
+told of the conflict with the forest, whose grasp of the ax-handle of
+the pioneer was no firmer than his grasp of the helm of the ship of
+state as it breasted the seas of civil war. She has furnished to this
+new democracy her stores of mineral wealth, that dwarf those of the Old
+World, and her provinces that in themselves are vaster and more
+productive than most of the nations of Europe. Out of her bounty has
+come a nation whose industrial competition alarms the Old World, and the
+masters of whose resources wield wealth and power vaster than the wealth
+and power of kings. Best of all, the West gave, not only to the
+American, but to the unhappy and oppressed of all lands, a vision of
+hope, and assurance that the world held a place where were to be found
+high faith in man and the will and power to furnish him the opportunity
+to grow to the full measure of his own capacity. Great and powerful as
+are the new sons of her loins, the Republic is greater than they. The
+paths of the pioneer have widened into broad highways. The forest
+clearing has expanded into affluent commonwealths. Let us see to it that
+the ideals of the pioneer in his log cabin shall enlarge into the
+spiritual life of a democracy where civic power shall dominate and
+utilize individual achievement for the common good.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[243:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, January, 1903. Reprinted by permission.
+
+[248:1] See chapter iii.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+PIONEER IDEALS AND THE STATE UNIVERSITY[269:1]
+
+
+The ideals of a people, their aspirations and convictions, their hopes
+and ambitions, their dreams and determinations, are assets in their
+civilization as real and important as per capita wealth or industrial
+skill.
+
+This nation was formed under pioneer ideals. During three centuries
+after Captain John Smith struck the first blow at the American forest on
+the eastern edge of the continent, the pioneers were abandoning settled
+society for the wilderness, seeking, for generation after generation,
+new frontiers. Their experiences left abiding influences upon the ideas
+and purposes of the nation. Indeed the older settled regions themselves
+were shaped profoundly by the very fact that the whole nation was
+pioneering and that in the development of the West the East had its own
+part.
+
+The first ideal of the pioneer was that of conquest. It was his task to
+fight with nature for the chance to exist. Not as in older countries did
+this contest take place in a mythical past, told in folk lore and epic.
+It has been continuous to our own day. Facing each generation of
+pioneers was the unmastered continent. Vast forests blocked the way;
+mountainous ramparts interposed; desolate, grass-clad prairies, barren
+oceans of rolling plains, arid deserts, and a fierce race of savages,
+all had to be met and defeated. The rifle and the ax are the symbols of
+the backwoods pioneer. They meant a training in aggressive courage, in
+domination, in directness of action, in destructiveness.
+
+To the pioneer the forest was no friendly resource for posterity, no
+object of careful economy. He must wage a hand-to-hand war upon it,
+cutting and burning a little space to let in the light upon a dozen
+acres of hard-won soil, and year after year expanding the clearing into
+new woodlands against the stubborn resistance of primeval trunks and
+matted roots. He made war against the rank fertility of the soil. While
+new worlds of virgin land lay ever just beyond, it was idle to expect
+the pioneer to stay his hand and turn to scientific farming. Indeed, as
+Secretary Wilson has said, the pioneer would, in that case, have raised
+wheat that no one wanted to eat, corn to store on the farm, and cotton
+not worth the picking.
+
+Thus, fired with the ideal of subduing the wilderness, the destroying
+pioneer fought his way across the continent, masterful and wasteful,
+preparing the way by seeking the immediate thing, rejoicing in rude
+strength and wilful achievement.
+
+But even this backwoodsman was more than a mere destroyer. He had
+visions. He was finder as well as fighter--the trail-maker for
+civilization, the inventor of new ways. Although Rudyard Kipling's
+"Foreloper"[270:1] deals with the English pioneer in lands beneath the
+Southern Cross, yet the poem portrays American traits as well:
+
+     "The gull shall whistle in his wake, the blind wave break in fire,
+     He shall fulfill God's utmost will, unknowing his desire;
+     And he shall see old planets pass and alien stars arise,
+     And give the gale his reckless sail in shadow of new skies.
+
+     "Strong lust of gear shall drive him out and hunger arm his hand
+     To wring food from desert nude, his foothold from the sand.
+     His neighbors' smoke shall vex his eyes, their voices break his
+         rest;
+     He shall go forth till south is north, sullen and dispossessed;
+     He shall desire loneliness and his desire shall bring
+     Hard on his heels, a thousand wheels, a people and a king.
+
+     "He shall come back on his own track, and by his scarce cool camp,
+     There shall he meet the roaring street, the derrick and the stamp;
+     For he must blaze a nation's way with hatchet and with brand,
+     Till on his last won wilderness an empire's bulwarks stand."
+
+This quest after the unknown, this yearning "beyond the sky line, where
+the strange roads go down," is of the very essence of the backwoods
+pioneer, even though he was unconscious of its spiritual significance.
+
+The pioneer was taught in the school of experience that the crops of one
+area would not do for a new frontier; that the scythe of the clearing
+must be replaced by the reaper of the prairies. He was forced to make
+old tools serve new uses; to shape former habits, institutions and ideas
+to changed conditions; and to find new means when the old proved
+inapplicable. He was building a new society as well as breaking new
+soil; he had the ideal of nonconformity and of change. He rebelled
+against the conventional.
+
+Besides the ideals of conquest and of discovery, the pioneer had the
+ideal of personal development, free from social and governmental
+constraint. He came from a civilization based on individual competition,
+and he brought the conception with him to the wilderness where a wealth
+of resources, and innumerable opportunities gave it a new scope. The
+prizes were for the keenest and the strongest; for them were the best
+bottom lands, the finest timber tracts, the best salt-springs, the
+richest ore beds; and not only these natural gifts, but also the
+opportunities afforded in the midst of a forming society. Here were mill
+sites, town sites, transportation lines, banking centers, openings in
+the law, in politics--all the varied chances for advancement afforded in
+a rapidly developing society where everything was open to him who knew
+how to seize the opportunity.
+
+The squatter enforced his claim to lands even against the government's
+title by the use of extra-legal combinations and force. He appealed to
+lynch law with little hesitation. He was impatient of any governmental
+restriction upon his individual right to deal with the wilderness.
+
+In our own day we sometimes hear of congressmen sent to jail for
+violating land laws; but the different spirit in the pioneer days may be
+illustrated by a speech of Delegate Sibley of Minnesota in Congress in
+1852. In view of the fact that he became the State's first governor, a
+regent of its university, president of its historical society, and a
+doctor of laws of Princeton, we may assume that he was a pillar of
+society. He said:
+
+     The government has watched its public domain with jealous eye,
+     and there are now enactments upon your statute books, aimed at
+     the trespassers upon it, which should be expunged as a
+     disgrace to the country and to the nineteenth century.
+     Especially is he pursued with unrelenting severity, who has
+     dared to break the silence of the primeval forest by the blows
+     of the American ax. The hardy lumberman who has penetrated to
+     the remotest wilds of the Northwest, to drag from their
+     recesses the materials for building up towns and cities in the
+     great valley of the Mississippi, has been particularly marked
+     out as a victim. After enduring all the privations and
+     subjecting himself to all the perils incident to his
+     vocation--when he has toiled for months to add by his honest
+     labor to the comfort of his fellow men, and to the aggregate
+     wealth of the nation, he finds himself suddenly in the
+     clutches of the law for trespassing on the public domain. The
+     proceeds of his long winter's work are reft from him, and
+     exposed to public sale for the benefit of his paternal
+     government . . . and the object of this oppression and wrong
+     is further harassed by vexatious law proceedings against him.
+
+Sibley's protest in congress against these "outrages" by which the
+northern lumbermen were "harassed" in their work of what would now be
+called stealing government timber, aroused no protest from his
+colleagues. No president called this congressman an undesirable citizen
+or gave him over to the courts.
+
+Thus many of the pioneers, following the ideal of the right of the
+individual to rise, subordinated the rights of the nation and posterity
+to the desire that the country should be "developed" and that the
+individual should advance with as little interference as possible.
+Squatter doctrines and individualism have left deep traces upon American
+conceptions.
+
+But quite as deeply fixed in the pioneer's mind as the ideal of
+individualism was the ideal of democracy. He had a passionate hatred for
+aristocracy, monopoly and special privilege; he believed in simplicity,
+economy and in the rule of the people. It is true that he honored the
+successful man, and that he strove in all ways to advance himself. But
+the West was so free and so vast, the barriers to individual achievement
+were so remote, that the pioneer was hardly conscious that any danger to
+equality could come from his competition for natural resources. He
+thought of democracy as in some way the result of our political
+institutions, and he failed to see that it was primarily the result of
+the free lands and immense opportunities which surrounded him.
+Occasional statesmen voiced the idea that American democracy was based
+on the abundance of unoccupied land, even in the first debates on the
+public domain.
+
+This early recognition of the influence of abundance of land in shaping
+the economic conditions of American democracy is peculiarly significant
+to-day in view of the practical exhaustion of the supply of cheap arable
+public lands open to the poor man, and the coincident development of
+labor unions to keep up wages.
+
+Certain it is that the strength of democratic movements has chiefly lain
+in the regions of the pioneer. "Our governments tend too much to
+democracy," wrote Izard, of South Carolina, to Jefferson, in 1785. "A
+handicraftsman thinks an apprenticeship necessary to make him acquainted
+with his business. But our backcountrymen are of the opinion that a
+politician may be born just as well as a poet."
+
+The Revolutionary ideas, of course, gave a great impetus to democracy,
+and in substantially every colony there was a double revolution, one for
+independence and the other for the overthrow of aristocratic control.
+But in the long run the effective force behind American democracy was
+the presence of the practically free land into which men might escape
+from oppression or inequalities which burdened them in the older
+settlements. This possibility compelled the coastwise States to
+liberalize the franchise; and it prevented the formation of a dominant
+class, whether based on property or on custom. Among the pioneers one
+man was as good as his neighbor. He had the same chance; conditions were
+simple and free. Economic equality fostered political equality. An
+optimistic and buoyant belief in the worth of the plain people, a
+devout faith in man prevailed in the West. Democracy became almost the
+religion of the pioneer. He held with passionate devotion the idea that
+he was building under freedom a new society, based on self government,
+and for the welfare of the average man.
+
+And yet even as he proclaimed the gospel of democracy the pioneer showed
+a vague apprehension lest the time be short--lest equality should not
+endure--lest he might fall behind in the ascending movement of Western
+society. This led him on in feverish haste to acquire advantages as
+though he only half believed his dream. "Before him lies a boundless
+continent," wrote De Tocqueville, in the days when pioneer democracy was
+triumphant under Jackson, "and he urges forward as if time pressed and
+he was afraid of finding no room for his exertions."
+
+Even while Jackson lived, labor leaders and speculative thinkers were
+demanding legislation to place a limit on the amount of land which one
+person might acquire and to provide free farms. De Tocqueville saw the
+signs of change. "Between the workman and the master," he said, "there
+are frequent relations but no real association. . . . I am of the
+opinion, upon the whole, that the manufacturing aristocracy which is
+growing up under our eyes is one of the harshest which ever existed in
+the world; . . . if ever a permanent inequality, of conditions and
+aristocracy again penetrate into the world, it may be predicted that
+this is the gate by which they will enter." But the sanative influences
+of the free spaces of the West were destined to ameliorate labor's
+condition, to afford new hopes and new faith to pioneer democracy, and
+to postpone the problem.
+
+As the settlers advanced into provinces whose area dwarfed that of the
+older sections, pioneer democracy itself began to undergo changes, both
+in its composition and in its processes of expansion. At the close of
+the Civil War, when settlement was spreading with greatest vigor across
+the Mississippi, the railways began their work as colonists. Their land
+grants from the government, amounting altogether by 1871 to an area five
+times that of the State of Pennsylvania, demanded purchasers, and so the
+railroads pioneered the way for the pioneer.
+
+The homestead law increased the tide of settlers. The improved farm
+machinery made it possible for him to go boldly out on to the prairie
+and to deal effectively with virgin soil in farms whose cultivated area
+made the old clearings of the backwoodsman seem mere garden plots. Two
+things resulted from these conditions, which profoundly modified pioneer
+ideals. In the first place the new form of colonization demanded an
+increasing use of capital; and the rapidity of the formation of towns,
+the speed with which society developed, made men the more eager to
+secure bank credit to deal with the new West. This made the pioneer more
+dependent on the eastern economic forces. In the second place the farmer
+became dependent as never before on transportation companies. In this
+speculative movement the railroads, finding that they had pressed too
+far in advance and had issued stock to freely for their earnings to
+justify the face of the investment, came into collision with the pioneer
+on the question of rates and of discriminations. The Greenback movement
+and the Granger movements were appeals to government to prevent what the
+pioneer thought to be invasions of pioneer democracy.
+
+As the western settler began to face the problem of magnitude in the
+areas he was occupying; as he began to adjust his life to the modern
+forces of capital and to complex productive processes; as he began to
+see that, go where he would, the question of credit and currency, of
+transportation and distribution in general conditioned his success, he
+sought relief by legislation. He began to lose his primitive attitude
+of individualism, government began to look less like a necessary evil
+and more like an instrument for the perpetuation of his democratic
+ideals. In brief, the defenses of the pioneer democrat began to shift,
+from free land to legislation, from the ideal of individualism to the
+ideal of social control through regulation by law. He had no sympathy
+with a radical reconstruction of society by the revolution of socialism;
+even his alliances with the movement of organized labor, which
+paralleled that of organized capital in the East, were only
+half-hearted. But he was becoming alarmed over the future of the free
+democratic ideal. The wisdom of his legislation it is not necessary to
+discuss here. The essential point is that his conception of the right of
+government to control social process had undergone a change. He was
+coming to regard legislation as an instrument of social construction.
+The individualism of the Kentucky pioneer of 1796 was giving way to the
+Populism of the Kansas pioneer of 1896.
+
+The later days of pioneer democracy are too familiar to require much
+exposition. But they are profoundly significant. As the pioneer doctrine
+of free competition for the resources of the nation revealed its
+tendencies; as individual, corporation and trust, like the pioneer,
+turned increasingly to legal devices to promote their contrasting
+ideals, the natural resources were falling into private possession.
+Tides of alien immigrants were surging into the country to replace the
+old American stock in the labor market, to lower the standard of living
+and to increase the pressure of population upon the land. These recent
+foreigners have lodged almost exclusively in the dozen great centers of
+industrial life, and there they have accented the antagonisms between
+capital and labor by the fact that the labor supply has become
+increasingly foreign born, and recruited from nationalities who arouse
+no sympathy on the part of capital and little on the part of the
+general public. Class distinctions are accented by national prejudices,
+and democracy is thereby invaded. But even in the dull brains of great
+masses of these unfortunates from southern and eastern Europe the idea
+of America as the land of freedom and of opportunity to rise, the land
+of pioneer democratic ideals, has found lodgment, and if it is given
+time and is not turned into revolutionary lines it will fructify.
+
+As the American pioneer passed on in advance of this new tide of
+European immigration, he found lands increasingly limited. In place of
+the old lavish opportunity for the settler to set his stakes where he
+would, there were frantic rushes of thousands of eager pioneers across
+the line of newly opened Indian reservations. Even in 1889, when
+Oklahoma was opened to settlement, twenty thousand settlers crowded at
+the boundaries, like straining athletes, waiting the bugle note that
+should start the race across the line. To-day great crowds gather at the
+land lotteries of the government as the remaining fragments of the
+public domain are flung to hungry settlers.
+
+Hundreds of thousands of pioneers from the Middle West have crossed the
+national boundary into Canadian wheat fields eager to find farms for
+their children, although under an alien flag. And finally the government
+has taken to itself great areas of arid land for reclamation by costly
+irrigation projects whereby to furnish twenty-acre tracts in the desert
+to settlers under careful regulation of water rights. The government
+supplies the capital for huge irrigation dams and reservoirs and builds
+them itself. It owns and operates quarries, coal mines and timber to
+facilitate this work. It seeks the remotest regions of the earth for
+crops suitable for these areas. It analyzes the soils and tells the
+farmer what and when and how to plant. It has even considered the rental
+to manufacturers of the surplus water, electrical and steam power
+generated in its irrigation works and the utilization of this power to
+extract nitrates from the air to replenish worn-out soils. The pioneer
+of the arid regions must be both a capitalist and the protege of the
+government.
+
+Consider the contrast between the conditions of the pioneers at the
+beginning and at the end of this period of development. Three hundred
+years ago adventurous Englishmen on the coast of Virginia began the
+attack on the wilderness. Three years ago the President of the United
+States summoned the governors of forty-six states to deliberate upon the
+danger of the exhaustion of the natural resources of the nation.[279:1]
+
+The pressure of population upon the food supply is already felt and we
+are at the beginning only of this transformation. It is profoundly
+significant that at the very time when American democracy is becoming
+conscious that its pioneer basis of free land and sparse population is
+giving way, it is also brought face to face with the startling outcome
+of its old ideals of individualism and exploitation under competition
+uncontrolled by government. Pioneer society itself was not sufficiently
+sophisticated to work out to its logical result the conception of the
+self-made man. But the captains of industry by applying squatter
+doctrines to the evolution of American industrial society, have made the
+process so clear that he who runs may read. Contests imply alliances as
+well as rivalries. The increasing magnitude of the areas to be dealt
+with and the occurrences of times of industrial stress furnished
+occasion for such unions. The panic of 1873 was followed by an
+unprecedented combination of individual businesses and partnerships into
+corporations. The panic of 1893 marked the beginning of an extraordinary
+development of corporate combinations into pools and trusts, agreements
+and absorptions, until, by the time of the panic of 1907, it seemed not
+impossible that the outcome of free competition under individualism was
+to be monopoly of the most important natural resources and processes by
+a limited group of men whose vast fortunes were so invested in allied
+and dependent industries that they constituted the dominating force in
+the industrial life of the nation. The development of large scale
+factory production, the benefit of combination in the competitive
+struggle, and the tremendous advantage of concentration in securing
+possession of the unoccupied opportunities, were so great that vast
+accumulations of capital became the normal agency of the industrial
+world. In almost exact ratio to the diminution of the supply of
+unpossessed resources, combinations of capital have increased in
+magnitude and in efficiency of conquest. The solitary backwoodsman
+wielding his ax at the edge of a measureless forest is replaced by
+companies capitalized at millions, operating railroads, sawmills, and
+all the enginery of modern machinery to harvest the remaining
+trees.[280:1]
+
+A new national development is before us without the former safety valve
+of abundant resources open to him who would take. Classes are becoming
+alarmingly distinct: There is the demand on the one side voiced by Mr.
+Harriman so well and by others since, that nothing must be done to
+interfere with the early pioneer ideals of the exploitation and the
+development of the country's wealth; that restrictive and reforming
+legislation must on no account threaten prosperity even for a moment. In
+fact, we sometimes hear in these days, from men of influence, serious
+doubts of democracy, and intimations that the country would be better
+off if it freely resigned itself to guidance by the geniuses who are
+mastering the economic forces of the nation, and who, it is alleged,
+would work out the prosperity of the United States more effectively, if
+unvexed by politicians and people.
+
+On the other hand, an inharmonious group of reformers are sounding the
+warning that American democratic ideals and society are menaced and
+already invaded by the very conditions that make this apparent
+prosperity; that the economic resources are no longer limitless and
+free; that the aggregate national wealth is increasing at the cost of
+present social justice and moral health, and the future well-being of
+the American people. The Granger and the Populist were prophets of this
+reform movement. Mr. Bryan's Democracy, Mr. Debs' Socialism, and Mr.
+Roosevelt's Republicanism all had in common the emphasis upon the need
+of governmental regulation of industrial tendencies in the interest of
+the common man; the checking of the power of those business Titans who
+emerged successful out of the competitive individualism of pioneer
+America. As land values rise, as meat and bread grow dearer, as the
+process of industrial consolidation goes on, and as Eastern industrial
+conditions spread across the West, the problems of traditional American
+democracy will become increasingly grave.
+
+The time has come when University men may well consider pioneer ideals,
+for American society has reached the end of the first great period in
+its formation. It must survey itself, reflect upon its origins, consider
+what freightage of purposes it carried in its long march across the
+continent, what ambitions it had for the man, what role it would play in
+the world. How shall we conserve what was best in pioneer ideals? How
+adjust the old conceptions to the changed conditions of modern life?
+
+Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful. But the United
+States has believed that it had an original contribution to make to the
+history of society by the production of a self-determining,
+self-restrained, intelligent democracy. It is in the Middle West that
+society has formed on lines least like those of Europe. It is here, if
+anywhere, that American democracy will make its stand against the
+tendency to adjust to a European type.
+
+This consideration gives importance to my final topic, the relation of
+the University to pioneer ideals and to the changing conditions of
+American democracy. President Pritchett of the Carnegie Foundation has
+recently declared that in no other form of popular activity does a
+nation or State so clearly reveal its ideals or the quality of its
+civilization as in its system of education; and he finds, especially in
+the State University, "a conception of education from the standpoint of
+the whole people." "If our American democracy were to-day called to give
+proof of its constructive ability," he says, "the State University and
+the public school system which it crowns would be the strongest evidence
+of its fitness which it could offer."
+
+It may at least be conceded that an essential characteristic of the
+State University is its democracy in the largest sense. The provision in
+the Constitution of Indiana of 1816, so familiar to you all, for a
+"general system of education ascending in regular gradations from
+township schools to a State University, wherein tuition shall be gratis
+and equally open to all," expresses the Middle Western conception born
+in the days of pioneer society and doubtless deeply influenced by
+Jeffersonian democracy.
+
+The most obvious fact about these universities, perhaps, lies in their
+integral relation with the public schools, whereby the pupil has pressed
+upon him the question whether he shall go to college, and whereby the
+road is made open and direct to the highest training. By this means the
+State offers to every class the means of education, and even engages in
+propaganda to induce students to continue. It sinks deep shafts through
+the social strata to find the gold of real ability in the underlying
+rock of the masses. It fosters that due degree of individualism which is
+implied in the right of every human being to have opportunity to rise in
+whatever directions his peculiar abilities entitle him to go,
+subordinate to the welfare of the state. It keeps the avenues of
+promotion to the highest offices, the highest honors, open to the
+humblest and most obscure lad who has the natural gifts, at the same
+time that it aids in the improvement of the masses.
+
+Nothing in our educational history is more striking than the steady
+pressure of democracy upon its universities to adapt them to the
+requirements of all the people. From the State Universities of the
+Middle West, shaped under pioneer ideals, have come the fuller
+recognition of scientific studies, and especially those of applied
+science devoted to the conquest of nature; the breaking down of the
+traditional required curriculum; the union of vocational and college
+work in the same institution; the development of agricultural and
+engineering colleges and business courses; the training of lawyers,
+administrators, public men, and journalists--all under the ideal of
+service to democracy rather than of individual advancement alone. Other
+universities do the same thing; but the head springs and the main
+current of this great stream of tendency come from the land of the
+pioneers, the democratic states of the Middle West. And the people
+themselves, through their boards of trustees and the legislature, are in
+the last resort the court of appeal as to the directions and conditions
+of growth, as well as have the fountain of income from which these
+universities derive their existence.
+
+The State University has thus both a peculiar power in the directness of
+its influence upon the whole people and a peculiar limitation in its
+dependence upon the people. The ideals of the people constitute the
+atmosphere in which it moves, though it can itself affect this
+atmosphere. Herein is the source of its strength and the direction of
+its difficulties. For to fulfil its mission of uplifting the state to
+continuously higher levels the University must, in the words of Mr.
+Bryce, "serve the time without yielding to it;" it must recognize new
+needs without becoming subordinate to the immediately practical, to the
+short-sightedly expedient. It must not sacrifice the higher efficiency
+for the more obvious but lower efficiency. It must have the wisdom to
+make expenditures for results which pay manifold in the enrichment of
+civilization, but which are not immediate and palpable.
+
+In the transitional condition of American democracy which I have tried
+to indicate, the mission of the university is most important. The times
+call for educated leaders. General experience and rule-of-thumb
+information are inadequate for the solution of the problems of a
+democracy which no longer owns the safety fund of an unlimited quantity
+of untouched resources. Scientific farming must increase the yield of
+the field, scientific forestry must economize the woodlands, scientific
+experiment and construction by chemist, physicist, biologist and
+engineer must be applied to all of nature's forces in our complex modern
+society. The test tube and the microscope are needed rather than ax and
+rifle in this new ideal of conquest. The very discoveries of science in
+such fields as public health and manufacturing processes have made it
+necessary to depend upon the expert, and if the ranks of experts are to
+be recruited broadly from the democratic masses as well as from those of
+larger means, the State Universities must furnish at least as liberal
+opportunities for research and training as the universities based on
+private endowments furnish. It needs no argument to show that it is not
+to the advantage of democracy to give over the training of the expert
+exclusively to privately endowed institutions.
+
+But quite as much in the field of legislation and of public life in
+general as in the industrial world is the expert needed. The industrial
+conditions which shape society are too complex, problems of labor,
+finance, social reform too difficult to be dealt with intelligently and
+wisely without the leadership of highly educated men familiar with the
+legislation and literature on social questions in other States and
+nations.
+
+By training in science, in law, politics, economics and history the
+universities may supply from the ranks of democracy administrators,
+legislators, judges and experts for commissions who shall
+disinterestedly and intelligently mediate between contending interests.
+When the words "capitalistic classes" and "the proletariate" can be used
+and understood in America it is surely time to develop such men, with
+the ideal of service to the State, who may help to break the force of
+these collisions, to find common grounds between the contestants and to
+possess the respect and confidence of all parties which are genuinely
+loyal to the best American ideals.
+
+The signs of such a development are already plain in the expert
+commissions of some States; in the increasing proportion of university
+men in legislatures; in the university men's influence in federal
+departments and commissions. It is hardly too much to say that the best
+hope of intelligent and principled progress in economic and social
+legislation and administration lies in the increasing influence of
+American universities. By sending out these open-minded experts, by
+furnishing well-fitted legislators, public leaders and teachers, by
+graduating successive armies of enlightened citizens accustomed to deal
+dispassionately with the problems of modern life, able to think for
+themselves, governed not by ignorance, by prejudice or by impulse, but
+by knowledge and reason and high-mindedness, the State Universities will
+safeguard democracy. Without such leaders and followers democratic
+reactions may create revolutions, but they will not be able to produce
+industrial and social progress. America's problem is not violently to
+introduce democratic ideals, but to preserve and entrench them by
+courageous adaptation to new conditions. Educated leadership sets
+bulwarks against both the passionate impulses of the mob and the
+sinister designs of those who would subordinate public welfare to
+private greed. Lord Bacon's splendid utterance still rings true: "The
+learning of the few is despotism; the learning of the many is liberty.
+And intelligent and principled liberty is fame, wisdom and power."
+
+There is a danger to the universities in this very opportunity. At first
+pioneer democracy had scant respect for the expert. He believed that "a
+fool can put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for him."
+There is much truth in the belief; and the educated leader, even he who
+has been trained under present university conditions, in direct contact
+with the world about him, will still have to contend with this inherited
+suspicion of the expert. But if he be well trained and worthy of his
+training, if he be endowed with creative imagination and personality, he
+will make good his leadership.
+
+A more serious danger will come when the universities are fully
+recognized as powerful factors in shaping the life of the State--not
+mere cloisters, remote from its life, but an influential element in its
+life. Then it may easily happen that the smoke of the battle-field of
+political and social controversy will obscure their pure air, that
+efforts will be made to stamp out the exceptional doctrine and the
+exceptional man. Those who investigate and teach within the university
+walls must respond to the injunction of the church, "_Sursum
+corda_"--lift up the heart to high thinking and impartial search for
+the unsullied truth in the interests of all the people; this is the holy
+grail of the universities.
+
+That they may perform their work they must be left free, as the pioneer
+was free, to explore new regions and to report what they find; for like
+the pioneers they have the ideal of investigation, they seek new
+horizons. They are not tied to past knowledge; they recognize the fact
+that the universe still abounds in mystery, that science and society
+have not crystallized, but are still growing and need their pioneer
+trail-makers. New and beneficent discoveries in nature, new and
+beneficial discoveries in the processes and directions of the growth of
+society, substitutes for the vanishing material basis of pioneer
+democracy may be expected if the university pioneers are left free to
+seek the trail.
+
+In conclusion, the university has a duty in adjusting pioneer ideals to
+the new requirements of American democracy, even more important than
+those which I have named. The early pioneer was an individualist and a
+seeker after the undiscovered; but he did not understand the richness
+and complexity of life as a whole; he did not fully realize his
+opportunities of individualism and discovery. He stood in his somber
+forest as the traveler sometimes stands in a village on the Alps when
+the mist has shrouded everything, and only the squalid hut, the stony
+field, the muddy pathway are in view. But suddenly a wind sweeps the fog
+away. Vast fields of radiant snow and sparkling ice lie before him;
+profound abysses open at his feet; and as he lifts his eyes the
+unimaginable peak of the Matterhorn cleaves the thin air, far, far
+above. A new and unsuspected world is revealed all about him. Thus it is
+the function of the university to reveal to the individual the mystery
+and the glory of life as a whole--to open all the realms of rational
+human enjoyment and achievement; to preserve the consciousness of the
+past; to spread before the eye the beauty of the universe; and to throw
+wide its portals of duty and of power to the human soul. It must honor
+the poet and painter, the writer and the teacher, the scientist and the
+inventor, the musician and the prophet of righteousness--the men of
+genius in all fields who make life nobler. It must call forth anew, and
+for finer uses, the pioneer's love of creative individualism and provide
+for it a spiritual atmosphere friendly to the development of personality
+in all uplifting ways. It must check the tendency to act in mediocre
+social masses with undue emphasis upon the ideals of prosperity and
+politics. In short, it must summon ability of all kinds to joyous and
+earnest effort for the welfare and the spiritual enrichment of society.
+It must awaken new tastes and ambitions among the people.
+
+The light of these university watch towers should flash from State to
+State until American democracy itself is illuminated with higher and
+broader ideals of what constitutes service to the State and to mankind;
+of what are prizes; of what is worthy of praise and reward. So long as
+success in amassing great wealth for the aggrandizement of the
+individual is the exclusive or the dominant standard of success, so long
+as material prosperity, regardless of the conditions of its cost, or the
+civilization which results, is the shibboleth, American democracy, that
+faith in the common man which the pioneer cherishes, is in danger. For
+the strongest will make their way unerringly to whatever goal society
+sets up as the mark of conceded preeminence. What more effective agency
+is there for the cultivation of the seed wheat of ideals than the
+university? Where can we find a more promising body of sowers of the
+grain?
+
+The pioneer's clearing must be broadened into a domain where all that is
+worthy of human endeavor may find fertile soil on which to grow; and
+America must exact of the constructive business geniuses who owe their
+rise to the freedom of pioneer democracy supreme allegiance and devotion
+to the commonweal. In fostering such an outcome and in tempering the
+asperities of the conflicts that must precede its fulfilment, the nation
+has no more promising agency than the State Universities, no more
+hopeful product than their graduates.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[269:1] Commencement Address at the University of Indiana, 1910.
+
+[270:1] [Printed from an earlier version; since published in his "Songs
+from Books," p. 93, under the title, "The Voortrekker." Even fuller of
+insight into the idealistic side of the frontier, is his "Explorer," in
+"Collected Verse," p. 19.]
+
+[279:1] Written in 1910.
+
+[280:1] Omissions from the original are incorporated in later chapters.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE WEST AND AMERICAN IDEALS[290:1]
+
+
+True to American traditions that each succeeding generation ought to
+find in the Republic a better home, once in every year the colleges and
+universities summon the nation to lift its eyes from the routine of
+work, in order to take stock of the country's purposes and achievements,
+to examine its past and consider its future.
+
+This attitude of self-examination is hardly characteristic of the people
+as a whole. Particularly it is not characteristic of the historic
+American. He has been an opportunist rather than a dealer in general
+ideas. Destiny set him in a current which bore him swiftly along through
+such a wealth of opportunity that reflection and well-considered
+planning seemed wasted time. He knew not where he was going, but he was
+on his way, cheerful, optimistic, busy and buoyant.
+
+To-day we are reaching a changed condition, less apparent perhaps, in
+the newer regions than in the old, but sufficiently obvious to extend
+the commencement frame of mind from the college to the country as a
+whole. The swift and inevitable current of the upper reaches of the
+nation's history has borne it to the broader expanse and slower
+stretches which mark the nearness of the level sea. The vessel, no
+longer carried along by the rushing waters, finds it necessary to
+determine its own directions on this new ocean of its future, to give
+conscious consideration to its motive power and to its steering gear.
+
+It matters not so much that those who address these college men and
+women upon life, give conflicting answers to the questions of whence and
+whither: the pause for remembrance, for reflection and for aspiration is
+wholesome in itself.
+
+Although the American people are becoming more self-conscious, more
+responsive to the appeal to act by deliberate choices, we should be
+over-sanguine if we believed that even in this new day these
+commencement surveys were taken to heart by the general public, or that
+they were directly and immediately influential upon national thought and
+action.
+
+But even while we check our enthusiasm by this realization of the common
+thought, we must take heart. The University's peculiar privilege and
+distinction lie in the fact that it is not the passive instrument of the
+State to voice its current ideas. Its problem is not that of expressing
+tendencies. Its mission is to create tendencies and to direct them. Its
+problem is that of leadership and of ideals. It is called, of course, to
+justify the support which the public gives it, by working in close and
+sympathetic touch with those it serves. More than that, it would lose
+important element of strength if it failed to recognize the fact that
+improvement and creative movement often come from the masses themselves,
+instinctively moving toward a better order. The University's graduates
+must be fitted to take their places naturally and effectually in the
+common life of the time.
+
+But the University is called especially to justify its existence by
+giving to its sons and daughters something which they could not well
+have gotten through the ordinary experiences of the life outside its
+walls. It is called to serve the time by independent research and by
+original thought. If it were a mere recording instrument of conventional
+opinion and average information, it is hard to see why the University
+should exist at all. To clasp hands with the common life in order that
+it may lift that life, to be a radiant center enkindling the society in
+which it has its being, these are primary duties of the University.
+Fortunate the State which gives free play to this spirit of inquiry. Let
+it "grubstake" its intellectual prospectors and send them forth where
+"the trails run out and stop." A famous scientist holds that the
+universal ether bears vital germs which impinging upon a dead world
+would bring life to it. So, at least it is, in the world of thought,
+where energized ideals put in the air and carried here and there by the
+waves and currents of the intellectual atmosphere, fertilize vast inert
+areas.
+
+The University, therefore, has a double duty. On the one hand it must
+aid in the improvement of the general economic and social environment.
+It must help on in the work of scientific discovery and of making such
+conditions of existence, economic, political and social, as will produce
+more fertile and responsive soil for a higher and better life. It must
+stimulate a wider demand on the part of the public for right leadership.
+It must extend its operations more widely among the people and sink
+deeper shafts through social strata to find new supplies of intellectual
+gold in popular levels yet untouched. And on the other hand, it must
+find and fit men and women for leadership. It must both awaken new
+demands and it must satisfy those demands by trained leaders with new
+motives, with new incentives to ambition, with higher and broader
+conception of what constitute the prize in life, of what constitutes
+success. The University has to deal with both the soil and sifted seed
+in the agriculture of the human spirit.
+
+Its efficiency is not the efficiency which the business engineer is
+fitted to appraise. If it is a training ship, it is a training ship
+bound on a voyage of discovery, seeking new horizons. The economy of the
+University's consumption can only be rightly measured by the later times
+which shall possess those new realms of the spirit which its voyage
+shall reveal. If the ships of Columbus had engaged in a profitable
+coastwise traffic between Palos and Cadiz they might have saved sail
+cloth, but their keels would never have grated on the shores of a New
+World.
+
+The appeal of the undiscovered is strong in America. For three centuries
+the fundamental process in its history was the westward movement, the
+discovery and occupation of the vast free spaces of the continent. We
+are the first generation of Americans who can look back upon that era as
+a historic movement now coming to its end. Other generations have been
+so much a part of it that they could hardly comprehend its significance.
+To them it seemed inevitable. The free land and the natural resources
+seemed practically inexhaustible. Nor were they aware of the fact that
+their most fundamental traits, their institutions, even their ideals
+were shaped by this interaction between the wilderness and themselves.
+
+American democracy was born of no theorist's dream; it was not carried
+in the _Susan Constant_ to Virginia, nor in the _Mayflower_ to Plymouth.
+It came out of the American forest, and it gained new strength each time
+it touched a new frontier. Not the constitution, but free land and an
+abundance of natural resources open to a fit people, made the democratic
+type of society in America for three centuries while it occupied its
+empire.
+
+To-day we are looking with a shock upon a changed world. The national
+problem is no longer how to cut and burn away the vast screen of the
+dense and daunting forest; it is how to save and wisely use the
+remaining timber. It is no longer how to get the great spaces of
+fertile prairie land in humid zones out of the hands of the government
+into the hands of the pioneer; these lands have already passed into
+private possession. No longer is it a question of how to avoid or cross
+the Great Plains and the arid desert. It is a question of how to conquer
+those rejected lands by new method of farming and by cultivating new
+crops from seed collected by the government and by scientists from the
+cold, dry steppes of Siberia, the burning sands of Egypt, and the remote
+interior of China. It is a problem of how to bring the precious rills of
+water on to the alkali and sage brush. Population is increasing faster
+than the food supply.
+
+New farm lands no longer increase decade after decade in areas equal to
+those of European states. While the ratio of increase of improved land
+declines, the value of farm lands rise and the price of food leaps
+upward, reversing the old ratio between the two. The cry of scientific
+farming and the conservation of natural resources replaces the cry of
+rapid conquest of the wilderness. We have so far won our national home,
+wrested from it its first rich treasures, and drawn to it the
+unfortunate of other lands, that we are already obliged to compare
+ourselves with settled states of the Old World. In place of our attitude
+of contemptuous indifference to the legislation of such countries as
+Germany and England, even Western States like Wisconsin send commissions
+to study their systems of taxation, workingmen's insurance, old age
+pensions and a great variety of other remedies for social ills.
+
+If we look about the periphery of the nation, everywhere we see the
+indications that our world is changing. On the streets of Northeastern
+cities like New York and Boston, the faces which we meet are to a
+surprising extent those of Southeastern Europe. Puritan New England,
+which turned its capital into factories and mills and drew to its shores
+an army of cheap labor, governed these people for a time by a ruling
+class like an upper stratum between which and the lower strata there was
+no assimilation. There was no such evolution into an assimilated
+commonwealth as is seen in Middle Western agricultural States, where
+immigrant and old native stock came in together and built up a
+homogeneous society on the principle of give and take. But now the
+Northeastern coast finds its destiny, politically and economically,
+passing away from the descendants of the Puritans. It is the little
+Jewish boy, the Greek or the Sicilian, who takes the traveler through
+historic streets, now the home of these newer people to the Old North
+Church or to Paul Revere's house, or to Tea Wharf, and tells you in his
+strange patois the story of revolution against oppression.
+
+Along the Southern Atlantic and the Gulf coast, in spite of the
+preservative influence of the negro, whose presence has always called
+out resistance to change on the part of the whites, the forces of social
+and industrial transformation are at work. The old tidewater aristocracy
+has surrendered to the up-country democrats. Along the line of the
+Alleghanies like an advancing column, the forces of Northern capital,
+textile and steel mills, year after year extend their invasion into the
+lower South. New Orleans, once the mistress of the commerce of the
+Mississippi Valley, is awakening to new dreams of world commerce. On the
+southern border, similar invasions of American capital have been
+entering Mexico. At the same time, the opening of the Panama Canal has
+completed the dream of the ages of the Straits of Anian between Atlantic
+and Pacific. Four hundred years ago, Balboa raised the flag of Spain at
+the edge of the Sea of the West and we are now preparing to celebrate
+both that anniversary, and the piercing of the continent. New relations
+have been created between Spanish America and the United States and the
+world is watching the mediation of Argentina, Brazil and Chile between
+the contending forces of Mexico and the Union. Once more alien national
+interests lie threatening at our borders, but we no longer appeal to the
+Monroe Doctrine and send our armies of frontiersmen to settle our
+concerns off-hand. We take council with European nations and with the
+sisterhood of South America, and propose a remedy of social
+reorganization in place of imperious will and force. Whether the effort
+will succeed or not, it is a significant indication that an old order is
+passing away, when such a solution is undertaken by a President of
+Scotch Presbyterian stock, born in the State of Virginia.
+
+If we turn to the Northern border, where we are about to celebrate a
+century of peace with England, we see in progress, like a belated
+procession of our own history the spread of pioneers, the opening of new
+wildernesses, the building of new cities, the growth of a new and mighty
+nation. That old American advance of the wheat farmer from the
+Connecticut to the Mohawk, and the Genesee, from the Great Valley of
+Pennsylvania to the Ohio Valley and the prairies of the Middle West, is
+now by its own momentum and under the stimulus of Canadian homesteads
+and the high price of wheat, carried across the national border to the
+once lone plains where the Hudson Bay dog trains crossed the desolate
+snows of the wild North Land. In the Pacific Northwest the era of
+construction has not ended, but it is so rapidly in progress that we can
+already see the closing of the age of the pioneer. Already Alaska
+beckons on the north, and pointing to her wealth of natural resources
+asks the nation on what new terms the new age will deal with her. Across
+the Pacific looms Asia, no longer a remote vision and a symbol of the
+unchanging, but borne as by mirage close to our shores and raising grave
+questions of the common destiny of the people of the ocean. The dreams
+of Benton and of Seward of a regenerated Orient, when the long march of
+westward civilization should complete its circle, seem almost to be in
+process of realization. The age of the Pacific Ocean begins, mysterious
+and unfathomable in its meaning for our own future.
+
+Turning to view the interior, we see the same picture of change. When
+the Superintendent of the Census in 1890 declared the frontier line no
+longer traceable, the beginning of the rush into Oklahoma had just
+occurred. Here where the broken fragments of Indian nations from the
+East had been gathered and where the wilder tribes of the Southwest were
+being settled, came the rush of the land-hungry pioneer. Almost at a
+blow the old Indian territory passed away, populous cities came into
+being and it was not long before gushing oil wells made a new era of
+sudden wealth. The farm lands of the Middle West taken as free
+homesteads or bought for a mere pittance, have risen so in value that
+the original owners have in an increasing degree either sold them in
+order to reinvest in the newer cheap lands of the West, or have moved
+into the town and have left the tillage to tenant farmers. The growth of
+absentee ownership of the soil is producing a serious problem in the
+former centers of the Granger and the Populist. Along the Old Northwest
+the Great Lakes are becoming a new Mediterranean Sea joining the realms
+of wheat and iron ore, at one end with the coal and furnaces of the
+forks of the Ohio, where the most intense and wide-reaching center of
+industrial energy exists. City life like that of the East, manufactures
+and accumulated capital, seem to be reproducing in the center of the
+Republic the tendencies already so plain on the Atlantic Coast.
+
+Across the Great Plains where buffalo and Indian held sway successive
+industrial waves are passing. The old free range gave place to the
+ranch, the ranch to the homestead and now in places in the arid lands
+the homestead is replaced by the ten or twenty acre irrigated fruit
+farm. The age of cheap land, cheap corn and wheat, and cheap cattle has
+gone forever. The federal government has undertaken vast paternal
+enterprises of reclamation of the desert.
+
+In the Rocky Mountains where at the time of Civil War, the first
+important rushes to gold and silver mines carried the frontier backward
+on a march toward the east, the most amazing transformations have
+occurred. Here, where prospectors made new trails, and lived the wild
+free life of mountain men, here where the human spirit seemed likely to
+attain the largest measure of individual freedom, and where fortune
+beckoned to the common man, have come revolutions wrought by the demand
+for organized industry and capital. In the regions where the popular
+tribunal and the free competitive life flourished, we have seen law and
+order break down in the unmitigated collision of great aggregations of
+capital, with each other and with organized socialistic labor. The
+Cripple Creek strikes, the contests at Butte, the Goldfield mobs, the
+recent Colorado fighting, all tell a similar story,--the solid impact of
+contending forces in regions where civic power and loyalty to the State
+have never fully developed. Like the Grand Canyon, where in dazzling
+light the huge geologic history is written so large that none may fail
+to read it, so in the Rocky Mountains the dangers of modern American
+industrial tendencies have been exposed.
+
+As we crossed the Cascades on our way to Seattle, one of the passengers
+was moved to explain his feeling on the excellence of Puget Sound in
+contrast with the remaining visible Universe. He did it well in spite of
+irreverent interruptions from those fellow travelers who were
+unconverted children of the East, and at last he broke forth in
+passionate challenge, "Why should I not love Seattle! It took me from
+the slums of the Atlantic Coast, a poor Swedish boy with hardly fifteen
+dollars in my pocket. It gave me a home by the beautiful sea; it spread
+before my eyes a vision of snow-capped peaks and smiling fields; it
+brought abundance and a new life to me and my children and I love it, I
+love it! If I were a multi-millionaire I would charter freight cars and
+carry away from the crowded tenements and noisome alleys of the eastern
+cities and the Old World the toiling masses, and let them loose in our
+vast forests and ore-laden mountains to learn what life really is!" And
+my heart was stirred by his words and by the whirling spaces of woods
+and peaks through which we passed.
+
+But as I looked and listened to this passionate outcry, I remembered the
+words of Talleyrand, the exiled Bishop of Autun, in Washington's
+administration. Looking down from an eminence not far from Philadelphia
+upon a wilderness which is now in the heart of that huge industrial
+society where population presses on the means of life, even the
+cold-blooded and cynical Talleyrand, gazing on those unpeopled hills and
+forests, kindled with the vision of coming clearings, the smiling farms
+and grazing herds that were to be, the populous towns that should be
+built, the newer and finer social organization that should there arise.
+And then I remembered the hall in Harvard's museum of social ethics
+through which I pass to my lecture room when I speak on the history of
+the Westward movement. That hall is covered with an exhibit of the work
+in Pittsburgh steel mills, and of the congested tenements. Its charts
+and diagrams tell of the long hours of work, the death rate, the
+relation of typhoid to the slums, the gathering of the poor of all
+Southeastern Europe to make a civilization at that center of American
+industrial energy and vast capital that is a social tragedy. As I enter
+my lecture room through that hall, I speak of the young Washington
+leading his Virginia frontiersmen to the magnificent forest at the
+forks of the Ohio. Where Braddock and his men, "carving a cross on the
+wilderness rim," were struck by the painted savages in the primeval
+woods, huge furnaces belch forth perpetual fires and Huns and Bulgars,
+Poles and Sicilians struggle for a chance to earn their daily bread, and
+live a brutal and degraded life. Irresistibly there rushed across my
+mind the memorable words of Huxley:
+
+     "Even the best of modern civilization appears to me to exhibit
+     a condition of mankind which neither embodies any worthy ideal
+     nor even possesses the merit of stability. I do not hesitate
+     to express the opinion that, if there is no hope of a large
+     improvement of the condition of the greater part of the human
+     family; if it is true that the increase of knowledge, the
+     winning of a greater dominion over Nature, which is its
+     consequence, and the wealth which follows upon that dominion,
+     are to make no difference in the extent and the intensity of
+     Want, with its concomitant physical and moral degradation,
+     among the masses of the people, I should hail the advent of
+     some kindly comet, which would sweep the whole affair away, as
+     a desirable consummation."
+
+But if there is disillusion and shock and apprehension as we come to
+realize these changes, to strong men and women there is challenge and
+inspiration in them too. In place of old frontiers of wilderness, there
+are new frontiers of unwon fields of science, fruitful for the needs of
+the race; there are frontiers of better social domains yet unexplored.
+Let us hold to our attitude of faith and courage, and creative zeal.
+Let us dream as our fathers dreamt and let us make our dreams come
+true.
+
+     "Daughters of Time, the hypocritic days,
+     Muffled and dumb like barefoot dervishes,
+     And marching single in an endless file,
+     Bear diadems and fagots in their hands.
+     To each they offer gifts after his will
+     Bread, kingdoms, stars, and sky that hold them all.
+     I, in my pleached garden watched the pomp,
+     Forgot my morning wishes, hastily
+     Took a few herbs and apples and the day
+     Turned and departed silent. I, too late,
+     Under her solemn fillet, saw the scorn!"
+
+What were America's "morning wishes"? From the beginning of that long
+westward march of the American people America has never been the home of
+mere contented materialism. It has continuously sought new ways and
+dreamed of a perfected social type.
+
+In the fifteenth century when men dealt with the New World which
+Columbus found, the ideal of discovery was dominant. Here was placed
+within the reach of men whose ideas had been bounded by the Atlantic,
+new realms to be explored. America became the land of European dreams,
+its Fortunate Islands were made real, where, in the imagination of old
+Europe, peace and happiness, as well as riches and eternal youth, were
+to be found. To Sir Edwin Sandys and his friends of the London Company,
+Virginia offered an opportunity to erect the Republic for which they had
+longed in vain in England. To the Puritans, New England was the new land
+of freedom, wherein they might establish the institutions of God,
+according to their own faith. As the vision died away in Virginia toward
+the close of the seventeenth century, it was taken up anew by the fiery
+Bacon with his revolution to establish a real democracy in place of the
+rule of the planter aristocracy, that formed along the coast. Hardly
+had he been overthrown when in the eighteenth century, the democratic
+ideal was rejuvenated by the strong frontiersmen, who pressed beyond the
+New England Coast into the Berkshires and up the valleys of the Green
+Mountains of Vermont, and by the Scotch-Irish and German pioneers who
+followed the Great Valley from Pennsylvania into the Upland South. In
+both the Yankee frontiersmen and the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of the
+South, the Calvinistic conception of the importance of the individual,
+bound by free covenant to his fellow men and to God, was a compelling
+influence, and all their wilderness experience combined to emphasize the
+ideals of opening new ways, of giving freer play to the individual, and
+of constructing democratic society.
+
+When the backwoodsmen crossed the Alleghanies they put between
+themselves and the Atlantic Coast a barrier which seemed to separate
+them from a region already too much like the Europe they had left, and
+as they followed the courses of the rivers that flowed to the
+Mississippi, they called themselves "Men of the Western Waters," and
+their new home in the Mississippi Valley was the "Western World." Here,
+by the thirties, Jacksonian democracy flourished, strong in the faith of
+the intrinsic excellence of the common man, in his right to make his own
+place in the world, and in his capacity to share in government. But
+while Jacksonian democracy demanded these rights, it was also loyal to
+leadership as the very name implies. It was ready to follow to the
+uttermost the man in whom it placed its trust, whether the hero were
+frontier fighter or president, and it even rebuked and limited its own
+legislative representatives and recalled its senators when they ran
+counter to their chosen executive. Jacksonian democracy was essentially
+rural. It was based on the good fellowship and genuine social feeling of
+the frontier, in which classes and inequalities of fortune played
+little part. But it did not demand equality of condition, for there was
+abundance of natural resources and the belief that the self-made man had
+a right to his success in the free competition which western life
+afforded, was as prominent in their thought as was the love of
+democracy. On the other hand, they viewed governmental restraints with
+suspicion as a limitation on their right to work out their own
+individuality.
+
+For the banking institutions and capitalists of the East they had an
+instinctive antipathy. Already they feared that the "money power" as
+Jackson called it, was planning to make hewers of wood and drawers of
+water of the common people.
+
+In this view they found allies among the labor leaders of the East, who
+in the same period began their fight for better conditions of the wage
+earner. These Locofocos were the first Americans to demand fundamental
+social changes for the benefit of the workers in the cities. Like the
+Western pioneers, they protested against monopolies and special
+privilege. But they also had a constructive policy, whereby society was
+to be kept democratic by free gifts of the public land, so that surplus
+labor might not bid against itself, but might find an outlet in the
+West. Thus to both the labor theorist and the practical pioneer, the
+existence of what seemed inexhaustible cheap land and unpossessed
+resources was the condition of democracy. In these years of the thirties
+and forties, Western democracy took on its distinctive form. Travelers
+like De Tocqueville and Harriet Martineau, came to study and to report
+it enthusiastically to Europe.
+
+Side by side with this westward marching army of individualistic
+liberty-loving democratic backwoodsmen, went a more northern stream of
+pioneers, who cherished similar ideas, but added to them the desire to
+create new industrial centers, to build up factories, to build
+railroads, and to develop the country by founding cities and extending
+prosperity. They were ready to call upon legislatures to aid in this, by
+subscriptions to stock, grants of franchises, promotion of banking and
+internal improvements. These were the Whig followers of that other
+Western leader, Henry Clay, and their early strength lay in the Ohio
+Valley, and particularly among the well-to-do. In the South their
+strength was found among the aristocracy of the Cotton Kingdom.
+
+Both of these Western groups, Whigs and Democrats alike, had one common
+ideal: the desire to leave their children a better heritage than they
+themselves had received, and both were fired with devotion to the ideal
+of creating in this New World a home more worthy of mankind. Both were
+ready to break with the past, to boldly strike out new lines of social
+endeavor, and both believed in American expansion.
+
+Before these tendencies had worked themselves out, three new forces
+entered. In the sudden extension of our boundaries to the Pacific Coast,
+which took place in the forties, the nation won so vast a domain that
+its resources seemed illimitable and its society seemed able to throw
+off all its maladies by the very presence of these vast new spaces. At
+the same period the great activity of railroad building to the
+Mississippi Valley occurred, making these lands available and diverting
+attention to the task of economic construction. The third influence was
+the slavery question which, becoming acute, shaped the American ideals
+and public discussion for nearly a generation. Viewed from one angle,
+this struggle involved the great question of national unity. From
+another it involved the question of the relations of labor and capital,
+democracy and aristocracy. It was not without significance that Abraham
+Lincoln became the very type of American pioneer democracy, the first
+adequate and elemental demonstration to the world that that democracy
+could produce a man who belonged to the ages.
+
+After the war, new national energies were set loose, and new
+construction and development engaged the attention of the Westerners as
+they occupied prairies and Great Plains and mountains. Democracy and
+capitalistic development did not seem antagonistic.
+
+With the passing of the frontier, Western social and political ideals
+took new form. Capital began to consolidate in even greater masses, and
+increasingly attempted to reduce to system and control the processes of
+industrial development. Labor with equal step organized its forces to
+destroy the old competitive system. It is not strange that the Western
+pioneers took alarm for their ideals of democracy as the outcome of the
+free struggle for the national resources became apparent. They espoused
+the cause of governmental activity.
+
+It was a new gospel, for the Western radical became convinced that he
+must sacrifice his ideal of individualism and free competition in order
+to maintain his ideal of democracy. Under this conviction the Populist
+revised the pioneer conception of government. He saw in government no
+longer something outside of him, but the people themselves shaping their
+own affairs. He demanded therefore an extension of the powers of
+governments in the interest of his historic ideal of democratic society.
+He demanded not only free silver, but the ownership of the agencies of
+communication and transportation, the income tax, the postal savings
+bank, the provision of means of credit for agriculture, the construction
+of more effective devices to express the will of the people, primary
+nominations, direct elections, initiative, referendum and recall. In a
+word, capital, labor, and the Western pioneer, all deserted the ideal of
+competitive individualism in order to organize their interests in more
+effective combinations. The disappearance of the frontier, the closing
+of the era which was marked by the influence of the West as a form of
+society, brings with it new problems of social adjustment, new demands
+for considering our past ideals and our present needs.
+
+Let us recall the conditions of the foreign relations along our borders,
+the dangers that wait us if we fail to unite in the solution of our
+domestic problems. Let us recall those internal evidences of the
+destruction of our old social order. If we take to heart this warning,
+we shall do well also to recount our historic ideals, to take stock of
+those purposes, and fundamental assumptions that have gone to make the
+American spirit and the meaning of America in world history.
+
+First of all, there was the ideal of discovery, the courageous
+determination to break new paths, indifference to the dogma that because
+an institution or a condition exists, it must remain. All American
+experience has gone to the making of the spirit of innovation; it is in
+the blood and will not be repressed.
+
+Then, there was the ideal of democracy, the ideal of a free
+self-directing people, responsive to leadership in the forming of
+programs and their execution, but insistent that the procedure should be
+that of free choice, not of compulsion.
+
+But there was also the ideal of individualism. This democratic society
+was not a disciplined army, where all must keep step and where the
+collective interests destroyed individual will and work. Rather it was a
+mobile mass of freely circulating atoms, each seeking its own place and
+finding play for its own powers and for its own original initiative. We
+cannot lay too much stress upon this point, for it was at the very heart
+of the whole American movement. The world was to be made a better world
+by the example of a democracy in which there was freedom of the
+individual, in which there was the vitality and mobility productive of
+originality and variety.
+
+Bearing in mind the far-reaching influence of the disappearance of
+unlimited resources open to all men for the taking, and considering the
+recoil of the common man when he saw the outcome of the competitive
+struggle for these resources as the supply came to its end over most of
+the nation, we can understand the reaction against individualism and in
+favor of drastic assertion of the powers of government. Legislation is
+taking the place of the free lands as the means of preserving the ideal
+of democracy. But at the same time it is endangering the other pioneer
+ideal of creative and competitive individualism. Both were essential and
+constituted what was best in America's contribution to history and to
+progress. Both must be preserved if the nation would be true to its
+past, and would fulfil its highest destiny. It would be a grave
+misfortune if these people so rich in experience, in self-confidence and
+aspiration, in creative genius, should turn to some Old World discipline
+of socialism or plutocracy, or despotic rule, whether by class or by
+dictator. Nor shall we be driven to these alternatives. Our ancient
+hopes, our courageous faith, our underlying good humor and love of fair
+play will triumph in the end. There will be give and take in all
+directions. There will be disinterested leadership, under loyalty to the
+best American ideals. Nowhere is this leadership more likely to arise
+than among the men trained in the Universities, aware of the promise of
+the past and the possibilities of the future. The times call for new
+ambitions and new motives.
+
+In a most suggestive essay on the Problems of Modern Democracy, Mr.
+Godkin has said:
+
+     M. de Tocqueville and all his followers take it for granted
+     that the great incentive to excellence, in all countries in
+     which excellence is found, is the patronage and encouragement
+     of an aristocracy; that democracy is generally content with
+     mediocrity. But where is the proof of this? The incentive to
+     exertion which is widest, most constant, and most powerful in
+     its operations in all civilized countries, is the desire of
+     distinction; and this may be composed either of love of fame
+     or love of wealth or of both. In literary and artistic and
+     scientific pursuits, sometimes the strongest influence is
+     exerted by a love of the subject. But it may safely be said
+     that no man has ever labored in any of the higher colleges to
+     whom the applause and appreciation of his fellows was not one
+     of the sweetest rewards of his exertions.
+
+     What is there we would ask, in the nature of democratic
+     institutions, that should render this great spring of action
+     powerless, that should deprive glory of all radiance, and put
+     ambition to sleep? Is it not notorious, on the contrary, that
+     one of the most marked peculiarities of democratic society, or
+     of a society drifting toward democracy, is the fire of
+     competition which rages in it, the fevered anxiety which
+     possesses all its members to rise above the dead level to
+     which the law is ever seeking to confine them, and by some
+     brilliant stroke become something higher and more remarkable
+     than their fellows? The secret of that great restlessness
+     which is one of the most disagreeable accompaniments of life
+     in democratic countries, is in fact due to the eagerness of
+     everybody to grasp the prizes of which in aristocratic
+     countries, only the few have much chance. And in no other
+     society is success more worshiped, is distinction of any kind
+     more widely flattered and caressed.
+
+     In democratic societies, in fact, excellence is the first
+     title to distinction; in aristocratic ones there are two or
+     three others which are far stronger and which must be stronger
+     or aristocracy could not exist. The moment you acknowledge
+     that the highest social position ought to be the reward of the
+     man who has the most talent, you make aristocratic
+     institutions impossible.
+
+All that was buoyant and creative in American life would be lost if we
+gave up the respect for distinct personality, and variety in genius, and
+came to the dead level of common standards. To be "socialized into an
+average" and placed "under the tutelage of the mass of us," as a recent
+writer has put it, would be an irreparable loss. Nor is it necessary in
+a democracy, as these words of Godkin well disclose. What is needed is
+the multiplication of motives for ambition and the opening of new lines
+of achievement for the strongest. As we turn from the task of the first
+rough conquest of the continent there lies before us a whole wealth of
+unexploited resources in the realm of the spirit. Arts and letters,
+science and better social creation, loyalty and political service to the
+commonweal,--these and a thousand other directions of activity are open
+to the men, who formerly under the incentive of attaining distinction by
+amassing extraordinary wealth, saw success only in material display.
+Newer and finer careers will open to the ambitious when once public
+opinion shall award the laurels to those who rise above their fellows in
+these new fields of labor. It has not been the gold, but the getting of
+the gold, that has caught the imaginations of our captains of industry.
+Their real enjoyment lay not in the luxuries which wealth brought, but
+in the work of construction and in the place which society awarded them.
+A new era will come if schools and universities can only widen the
+intellectual horizon of the people, help to lay the foundations of a
+better industrial life, show them new goals for endeavor, inspire them
+with more varied and higher ideals.
+
+The Western spirit must be invoked for new and nobler achievements. Of
+that matured Western spirit, Tennyson's Ulysses is a symbol.
+
+     ". . . I am become a name
+     For always roaming with an hungry heart,
+     Much have I seen and known . . .
+     I am a part of all that I have met;
+     Yet all experience is an arch, where thro'
+     Gleams that untravelled world, whose margin fades
+     Forever and forever when I move.
+     How dull it is to pause, to make an end,
+     To rust unburnished, not to shine in use!
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     And this gray spirit yearning in desire
+     To follow knowledge like a shining star
+     Beyond the utmost hound of human thought.
+     . . . Come my friends,
+     'Tis not too late to seek a newer world.
+     Push off, and sitting well in order smite
+     The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds
+     To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
+     Of all the Western stars until I die
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     To strive, to seek, to find and not to yield."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[290:1] Commencement Address, University of Washington, June 17, 1914.
+Reprinted by permission from _The Washington Historical Quarterly_,
+October, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+SOCIAL FORCES IN AMERICAN HISTORY[311:1]
+
+
+The transformations through which the United States is passing in our
+own day are so profound, so far-reaching, that it is hardly an
+exaggeration to say that we are witnessing the birth of a new nation in
+America. The revolution in the social and economic structure of this
+country during the past two decades is comparable to what occurred when
+independence was declared and the constitution was formed, or to the
+changes wrought by the era which began half a century ago, the era of
+Civil War and Reconstruction.
+
+These changes have been long in preparation and are, in part, the result
+of world-wide forces of reorganization incident to the age of steam
+production and large-scale industry, and, in part, the result of the
+closing of the period of the colonization of the West. They have been
+prophesied, and the course of the movement partly described by students
+of American development; but after all, it is with a shock that the
+people of the United States are coming to realize that the fundamental
+forces which have shaped their society up to the present are
+disappearing. Twenty years ago, as I have before had occasion to point
+out, the Superintendent of the Census declared that the frontier line,
+which its maps had depicted for decade after decade of the westward
+march of the nation, could no longer be described. To-day we must add
+that the age of free competition of individuals for the unpossessed
+resources of the nation is nearing its end. It is taking less than a
+generation to write the chapter which began with the disappearance of
+the line of the frontier--the last chapter in the history of the
+colonization of the United States, the conclusion to the annals of its
+pioneer democracy.
+
+It is a wonderful chapter, this final rush of American energy upon the
+remaining wilderness. Even the bare statistics become eloquent of a new
+era. They no longer derive their significance from the exhibit of vast
+proportions of the public domain transferred to agriculture, of
+wildernesses equal to European nations changed decade after decade into
+the farm area of the United States. It is true there was added to the
+farms of the nation between 1870 and 1880 a territory equal to that of
+France, and between 1880 and 1900 a territory equal to the European area
+of France, Germany, England, and Wales combined. The records of 1910 are
+not yet available, but whatever they reveal they will not be so full of
+meaning as the figures which tell of upleaping wealth and organization
+and concentration of industrial power in the East in the last decade. As
+the final provinces of the Western empire have been subdued to the
+purposes of civilization and have yielded their spoils, as the spheres
+of operation of the great industrial corporations have extended, with
+the extension of American settlement, production and wealth have
+increased beyond all precedent.
+
+The total deposits in all national banks have more than trebled in the
+present decade; the money in circulation has doubled since 1890. The
+flood of gold makes it difficult to gage the full meaning of the
+incredible increase in values, for in the decade ending with 1909 over
+41,600,000 ounces of gold were mined in the United States alone. Over
+four million ounces have been produced every year since 1905, whereas
+between 1880 and 1894 no year showed a production of two million ounces.
+As a result of this swelling stream of gold and instruments of credit,
+aided by a variety of other causes, prices have risen until their height
+has become one of the most marked features and influential factors in
+American life, producing social readjustments and contributing
+effectively to party revolutions.
+
+But if we avoid those statistics which require analysis because of the
+changing standard of value, we still find that the decade occupies an
+exceptional place in American history. More coal was mined in the United
+States in the ten years after 1897 than in all the life of the nation
+before that time.[313:1] Fifty years ago we mined less than fifteen
+million long tons of coal. In 1907 we mined nearly 429,000,000. At the
+present rate it is estimated that the supply of coal would be exhausted
+at a date no farther in the future than the formation of the
+constitution is in the past. Iron and coal are the measures of
+industrial power. The nation has produced three times as much iron ore
+in the past two decades as in all its previous history; the production
+of the past ten years was more than double that of the prior decade.
+Pig-iron production is admitted to be an excellent barometer of
+manufacture and of transportation. Never until 1898 had this reached an
+annual total of ten million long tons. But in the five years beginning
+with 1904 it averaged over twice that. By 1907 the United States had
+surpassed Great Britain, Germany, and France combined in the production
+of pig-iron and steel together, and in the same decade a single great
+corporation has established its domination over the iron mines and steel
+manufacture of the United States. It is more than a mere accident that
+the United States Steel Corporation with its stocks and bonds
+aggregating $1,400,000,000 was organized at the beginning of the present
+decade. The former wilderness about Lake Superior has, principally in
+the past two decades, established its position as overwhelmingly the
+preponderant source of iron ore, present and prospective, in the United
+States--a treasury from which Pittsburgh has drawn wealth and extended
+its unparalleled industrial empire in these years. The tremendous
+energies thus liberated at this center of industrial power in the United
+States revolutionized methods of manufacture in general, and in many
+indirect ways profoundly influenced the life of the nation.
+
+Railroad statistics also exhibit unprecedented development, the
+formation of a new industrial society. The number of passengers carried
+one mile more than doubled between 1890 and 1908; freight carried one
+mile has nearly trebled in the same period and has doubled in the past
+decade. Agricultural products tell a different story. The corn crop has
+only risen from about two billion bushels in 1891 to two and
+seven-tenths billions in 1909; wheat from six hundred and eleven million
+bushels in 1891 to only seven hundred and thirty-seven million in 1909;
+and cotton from about nine million bales in 1891 to ten and three-tenths
+million bales in 1909. Population has increased in the United States
+proper from about sixty-two and one-half millions in 1890 to
+seventy-five and one-half millions in 1900 and to over ninety millions
+in 1910.
+
+It is clear from these statistics that the ratio of the nation's
+increased production of immediate wealth by the enormously increased
+exploitation of its remaining natural resources vastly exceeds the ratio
+of increase of population and still more strikingly exceeds the ratio of
+increase of agricultural products. Already population is pressing upon
+the food supply while capital consolidates in billion-dollar
+organizations. The "Triumphant Democracy" whose achievements the
+iron-master celebrated has reached a stature even more imposing than he
+could have foreseen; but still less did he perceive the changes in
+democracy itself and the conditions of its life which have accompanied
+this material growth.
+
+Having colonized the Far West, having mastered its internal resources,
+the nation turned at the conclusion of the nineteenth and the beginning
+of the twentieth century to deal with the Far East to engage in the
+world-politics of the Pacific Ocean. Having continued its historic
+expansion into the lands of the old Spanish empire by the successful
+outcome of the recent war, the United States became the mistress of the
+Philippines at the same time that it came into possession of the
+Hawaiian Islands, and the controlling influence in the Gulf of Mexico.
+It provided early in the present decade for connecting its Atlantic and
+Pacific coasts by the Isthmian Canal, and became an imperial republic
+with dependencies and protectorates--admittedly a new world-power, with
+a potential voice in the problems of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
+
+This extension of power, this undertaking of grave responsibilities in
+new fields, this entry into the sisterhood of world-states, was no
+isolated event. It was, indeed, in some respects the logical outcome of
+the nation's march to the Pacific, the sequence to the era in which it
+was engaged in occupying the free lands and exploiting the resources of
+the West. When it had achieved this position among the nations of the
+earth, the United States found itself confronted, also, with the need of
+constitutional readjustment, arising from the relations of federal
+government and territorial acquisitions. It was obliged to reconsider
+questions of the rights of man and traditional American ideals of
+liberty and democracy, in view of the task of government of other races
+politically inexperienced and undeveloped.
+
+If we turn to consider the effect upon American society and domestic
+policy in these two decades of transition we are met with palpable
+evidences of the invasion of the old pioneer democratic order. Obvious
+among them is the effect of unprecedented immigration to supply the
+mobile army of cheap labor for the centers of industrial life. In the
+past ten years, beginning with 1900, over eight million immigrants have
+arrived. The newcomers of the eight years since 1900 would, according to
+a writer in 1908, "repopulate all the five older New England States as
+they stand to-day; or, if properly disseminated over the newer parts of
+the country they would serve to populate no less than nineteen states of
+the Union as they stand." In 1907 "there were one and one-quarter
+million arrivals. This number would entirely populate both New Hampshire
+and Maine, two of our oldest States." "The arrivals of this one year
+would found a State with more inhabitants than any one of twenty-one of
+our other existing commonwealths which could be named." Not only has the
+addition to the population from Europe been thus extraordinary, it has
+come in increasing measure from southern and eastern Europe. For the
+year 1907, Professor Ripley,[316:1] whom I am quoting, has redistributed
+the incomers on the basis of physical type and finds that one-quarter of
+them were of the Mediterranean race, one-quarter of the Slavic race,
+one-eighth Jewish, and only one-sixth of the Alpine, and one-sixth of
+the Teutonic. In 1882 Germans had come to the amount of 250,000; in 1907
+they were replaced by 330,000 South Italians. Thus it is evident that
+the ethnic elements of the United States have undergone startling
+changes; and instead of spreading over the nation these immigrants have
+concentrated especially in the cities and great industrial centers in
+the past decade. The composition of the labor class and its relation to
+wages and to the native American employer have been deeply influenced
+thereby; the sympathy of the employers with labor has been unfavorably
+affected by the pressure of great numbers of immigrants of alien
+nationality and of lower standards of life.
+
+The familiar facts of the massing of population in the cities and the
+contemporaneous increase of urban power, and of the massing of capital
+and production in fewer and vastly greater industrial units, especially
+attest the revolution. "It is a proposition too plain to require
+elucidation," wrote Richard Rush, Secretary of the Treasury, in his
+report of 1827, "that the creation of capital is retarded rather than
+accelerated by the diffusion of a thin population over a great surface
+of soil."[317:1] Thirty years before Rush wrote these words Albert
+Gallatin declared in Congress that "if the cause of the happiness of
+this country were examined into, it would be found to arise as much from
+the great plenty of land in proportion to the inhabitants which their
+citizens enjoyed as from the wisdom of their political institutions."
+Possibly both of these Pennsylvania financiers were right under the
+conditions of the time; but it is at least significant that capital and
+labor entered upon a new era as the end of the free lands approached. A
+contemporary of Gallatin in Congress had replied to the argument that
+cheap lands would depopulate the Atlantic coast by saying that if a law
+were framed to prevent ready access to western lands it would be
+tantamount to saying that there is some class which must remain "and by
+law be obliged to serve the others for such wages as they pleased to
+give." The passage of the arable public domain into private possession
+has raised this question in a new form and has brought forth new
+answers. This is peculiarly the era when competitive individualism in
+the midst of vast unappropriated opportunities changed into the
+monopoly of the fundamental industrial processes by huge aggregations of
+capital as the free lands disappeared. All the tendencies of the
+large-scale production of the twentieth century, all the trend to the
+massing of capital in large combinations, all of the energies of the age
+of steam, found in America exceptional freedom of action and were
+offered regions of activity equal to the states of all Western Europe.
+Here they reached their highest development.
+
+The decade following 1897 is marked by the work of Mr. Harriman and his
+rivals in building up the various railroads into a few great groups, a
+process that had gone so far that before his death Mr. Harriman was
+ambitious to concentrate them all under his single control. High finance
+under the leadership of Mr. Morgan steadily achieved the consolidation
+of the greater industries into trusts or combinations and effected a
+community of interests between them and a few dominant banking
+organizations, with allied insurance companies and trust companies. In
+New York City have been centered, as never before, the banking reserves
+of the nation, and here, by the financial management of capital and
+speculative promotion, there has grown up a unified control over the
+nation's industrial life. Colossal private fortunes have arisen. No
+longer is the per capita wealth of the nation a real index to the
+prosperity of the average man. Labor on the other hand has shown an
+increasing self-consciousness, is combining and increasing its demands.
+In a word, the old pioneer individualism is disappearing, while the
+forces of social combination are manifesting themselves as never before.
+The self-made man has become, in popular speech, the coal baron, the
+steel king, the oil king, the cattle king, the railroad magnate, the
+master of high finance, the monarch of trusts. The world has never
+before seen such huge fortunes exercising combined control over the
+economic life of a people, and such luxury as has come out of the
+individualistic pioneer democracy of America in the course of
+competitive evolution.
+
+At the same time the masters of industry, who control interests which
+represent billions of dollars, do not admit that they have broken with
+pioneer ideals. They regard themselves as pioneers under changed
+conditions, carrying on the old work of developing the natural resources
+of the nation, compelled by the constructive fever in their veins, even
+in ill-health and old age and after the accumulation of wealth beyond
+their power to enjoy, to seek new avenues of action and of power, to
+chop new clearings, to find new trails, to expand the horizon of the
+nation's activity, and to extend the scope of their dominion. "This
+country," said the late Mr. Harriman in an interview a few years ago,
+"has been developed by a wonderful people, flush with enthusiasm,
+imagination and speculative bent. . . . They have been magnificent
+pioneers. They saw into the future and adapted their work to the
+possibilities. . . . Stifle that enthusiasm, deaden that imagination and
+prohibit that speculation by restrictive and cramping conservative law,
+and you tend to produce a moribund and conservative people and country."
+This is an appeal to the historic ideals of Americans who viewed the
+republic as the guardian of individual freedom to compete for the
+control of the natural resources of the nation.
+
+On the other hand, we have the voice of the insurgent West, recently
+given utterance in the New Nationalism of ex-President Roosevelt,
+demanding increase of federal authority to curb the special interests,
+the powerful industrial organizations, and the monopolies, for the sake
+of the conservation of our natural resources and the preservation of
+American democracy.
+
+The past decade has witnessed an extraordinary federal activity in
+limiting individual and corporate freedom for the benefit of society. To
+that decade belong the conservation congresses and the effective
+organization of the Forest Service, and the Reclamation Service. Taken
+together these developments alone would mark a new era, for over three
+hundred million acres are, as a result of this policy, reserved from
+entry and sale, an area more than equal to that of all the states which
+established the constitution, if we exclude their western claims; and
+these reserved lands are held for a more beneficial use of their
+forests, minerals, arid tracts, and water rights, by the nation as a
+whole. Another example is the extension of the activity of the
+Department of Agriculture, which seeks the remotest regions of the earth
+for crops suitable to the areas reclaimed by the government, maps and
+analyzes the soils, fosters the improvement of seeds and animals, tells
+the farmer when and how and what to plant, and makes war upon diseases
+of plants and animals and insect pests. The recent legislation for pure
+food and meat inspection, and the whole mass of regulative law under the
+Interstate Commerce clause of the constitution, further illustrates the
+same tendency.
+
+Two ideals were fundamental in traditional American thought, ideals that
+developed in the pioneer era. One was that of individual freedom to
+compete unrestrictedly for the resources of a continent--the squatter
+ideal. To the pioneer government was an evil. The other was the ideal of
+a democracy--"government of the people, by the people and for the
+people." The operation of these ideals took place contemporaneously with
+the passing into private possession of the free public domain and the
+natural resources of the United States. But American democracy was based
+on an abundance of free lands; these were the very conditions that
+shaped its growth and its fundamental traits. Thus time has revealed
+that these two ideals of pioneer democracy had elements of mutual
+hostility and contained the seeds of its dissolution. The present finds
+itself engaged in the task of readjusting its old ideals to new
+conditions and is turning increasingly to government to preserve its
+traditional democracy. It is not surprising that socialism shows
+noteworthy gains as elections continue; that parties are forming on new
+lines; that the demand for primary elections, for popular choice of
+senators, initiative, referendum, and recall, is spreading, and that the
+regions once the center of pioneer democracy exhibit these tendencies in
+the most marked degree. They are efforts to find substitutes for that
+former safeguard of democracy, the disappearing free lands. They are the
+sequence to the extinction of the frontier.
+
+It is necessary next to notice that in the midst of all this national
+energy, and contemporaneous with the tendency to turn to the national
+government for protection to democracy, there is clear evidence of the
+persistence and the development of sectionalism.[321:1] Whether we
+observe the grouping of votes in Congress and in general elections, or
+the organization and utterances of business leaders, or the association
+of scholars, churches, or other representatives of the things of the
+spirit, we find that American life is not only increasing in its
+national intensity but that it is integrating by sections. In part this
+is due to the factor of great spaces which make sectional rather than
+national organization the line of least resistance; but, in part, it is
+also the expression of the separate economic, political, and social
+interests and the separate spiritual life of the various geographic
+provinces or sections. The votes on the tariff, and in general the
+location of the strongholds of the Progressive Republican movement,
+illustrate this fact. The difficulty of a national adjustment of railway
+rates to the diverse interests of different sections is another
+example. Without attempting to enter upon a more extensive discussion of
+sectionalism, I desire simply to point out that there are evidences that
+now, as formerly, the separate geographical interests have their leaders
+and spokesmen, that much Congressional legislation is determined by the
+contests, triumphs, or compromises between the rival sections, and that
+the real federal relations of the United States are shaped by the
+interplay of sectional with national forces rather than by the relation
+of State and Nation. As time goes on and the nation adjusts itself more
+durably to the conditions of the differing geographic sections which
+make it up, they are coming to a new self-consciousness and a revived
+self-assertion. Our national character is a composite of these
+sections.[322:1]
+
+Obviously in attempting to indicate even a portion of the significant
+features of our recent history we have been obliged to take note of a
+complex of forces. The times are so close at hand that the relations
+between events and tendencies force themselves upon our attention. We
+have had to deal with the connections of geography, industrial growth,
+politics, and government. With these we must take into consideration the
+changing social composition, the inherited beliefs and habitual attitude
+of the masses of the people, the psychology of the nation and of the
+separate sections, as well as of the leaders. We must see how these
+leaders are shaped partly by their time and section, and how they are in
+part original, creative, by virtue of their own genius and initiative.
+We cannot neglect the moral tendencies and the ideals. All are related
+parts of the same subject and can no more be properly understood in
+isolation than the movement as a whole can be understood by neglecting
+some of these important factors, or by the use of a single method of
+investigation. Whatever be the truth regarding European history,
+American history is chiefly concerned with social forces, shaping and
+reshaping under the conditions of a nation changing as it adjusts to its
+environment. And this environment progressively reveals new aspects of
+itself, exerts new influences, and calls out new social organs and
+functions.
+
+I have undertaken this rapid survey of recent history for two purposes.
+First, because it has seemed fitting to emphasize the significance of
+American development since the passing of the frontier, and, second,
+because in the observation of present conditions we may find assistance
+in our study of the past.
+
+It is a familiar doctrine that each age studies its history anew and
+with interests determined by the spirit of the time. Each age finds it
+necessary to reconsider at least some portion of the past, from points
+of view furnished by new conditions which reveal the influence and
+significance of forces not adequately known by the historians of the
+previous generation. Unquestionably each investigator and writer is
+influenced by the times in which he lives and while this fact exposes
+the historian to a bias, at the same time it affords him new instruments
+and new insight for dealing with his subject.
+
+If recent history, then, gives new meaning to past events, if it has to
+deal with the rise into a commanding position of forces, the origin and
+growth of which may have been inadequately described or even overlooked
+by historians of the previous generation, it is important to study the
+present and the recent past, not only for themselves but also as the
+source of new hypotheses, new lines of inquiry, new criteria of the
+perspective of the remoter past. And, moreover, a just public opinion
+and a statesmanlike treatment of present problems demand that they be
+seen in their historical relations in order that history may hold the
+lamp for conservative reform.
+
+Seen from the vantage-ground of present developments what new light
+falls upon past events! When we consider what the Mississippi Valley has
+come to be in American life, and when we consider what it is yet to be,
+the young Washington, crossing the snows of the wilderness to summon the
+French to evacuate the portals of the great valley, becomes the herald
+of an empire. When we recall the huge industrial power that has centered
+at Pittsburgh, Braddock's advance to the forks of the Ohio takes on new
+meaning. Even in defeat, he opened a road to what is now the center of
+the world's industrial energy. The modifications which England proposed
+in 1794 to John Jay in the northwestern boundary of the United States
+from the Lake of the Woods to the Mississippi, seemed to him, doubtless,
+significant chiefly as a matter of principle and as a question of the
+retention or loss of beaver grounds. The historians hardly notice the
+proposals. But they involved, in fact, the ownership of the richest and
+most extensive deposits of iron ore in America, the all-important source
+of a fundamental industry of the United States, the occasion for the
+rise of some of the most influential forces of our time.
+
+What continuity and meaning are furnished by the outcome in present
+times of the movements of minor political parties and reform agitations!
+To the historian they have often seemed to be mere curious side eddies,
+vexatious distractions to the course of his literary craft as it
+navigated the stream of historical tendency. And yet, by the revelation
+of the present, what seemed to be side eddies have not seldom proven to
+be the concealed entrances to the main current, and the course which
+seemed the central one has led to blind channels and stagnant waters,
+important in their day, but cut off like oxbow lakes from the mighty
+river of historical progress by the mere permanent and compelling forces
+of the neglected currents.
+
+We may trace the contest between the capitalist and the democratic
+pioneer from the earliest colonial days. It is influential in colonial
+parties. It is seen in the vehement protests of Kentucky frontiersmen in
+petition after petition to the Congress of the Confederation against the
+"nabobs" and men of wealth who took out titles to the pioneers' farms
+while they themselves were too busy defending those farms from the
+Indians to perfect their claims. It is seen in the attitude of the Ohio
+Valley in its backwoods days before the rise of the Whig party, as when
+in 1811 Henry Clay denounced the Bank of the United States as a
+corporation which throve on special privileges--"a special association
+of favored individuals taken from the mass of society, and invested with
+exemptions and surrounded by immunities and privileges." Benton voiced
+the same contest twenty years later when he denounced the bank as
+
+     a company of private individuals, many of them foreigners, and
+     the mass of them residing in a remote and narrow corner of the
+     Union, unconnected by any sympathy with the fertile regions of
+     the Great Valley in which the natural power of this Union, the
+     power of numbers, will be found to reside long before the
+     renewed term of the second charter would expire.
+
+"And where," he asked, "would all this power and money center? In the
+great cities of the Northeast, which have been for forty years and that
+by force of federal legislation, the lion's den of Southern and Western
+money--that den into which all the tracks point inward; from which the
+returning track of a solitary dollar has never yet been seen."
+Declaring, in words that have a very modern sound, that the bank tended
+to multiply nabobs and paupers, and that "a great moneyed power is
+favorable to great capitalists, for it is the principle of capital to
+favor capital," he appealed to the fact of the country's extent and its
+sectional divergences against the nationalizing of capital.
+
+     What a condition for a confederacy of states! What grounds for
+     alarm and terrible apprehension when in a confederacy of such
+     vast extent, so many rival commercial cities, so much
+     sectional jealousy, such violent political parties, such
+     fierce contests for power, there should be but one moneyed
+     tribunal before which all the rival and contending elements
+     must appear.
+
+Even more vehement were the words of Jackson in 1837. "It is now plain,"
+he wrote, "that the war is to be carried on by the monied aristocracy of
+the few against the democracy of numbers; the [prosperous] to make the
+honest laborers hewers of wood and drawers of water through the credit
+and paper system."
+
+Van Buren's administration is usually passed hastily over with hardly
+more than mention of his Independent Treasury plan, and with particular
+consideration of the slavery discussion. But some of the most important
+movements in American social and political history began in these years
+of Jackson and Van Buren. Read the demands of the obscure labor papers
+and the reports of labor's open-air meetings anew, and you will find in
+the utterances of so-called labor visionaries and the Locofoco champions
+of "equal rights for all and special privileges for none," like Evans
+and Jacques, Byrdsall and Leggett, the finger points to the currents
+that now make the main channel of our history; you will find in them
+some of the important planks of the platforms of the triumphant parties
+of our own day. As Professor Commons has shown by his papers and the
+documents which he has published on labor history, an idealistic but
+widespread and influential humanitarian movement, strikingly similar to
+that of the present, arose in the years between 1830 and 1850, dealing
+with social forces in American life, animated by a desire to apply the
+public lands to social amelioration, eager to find new forms of
+democratic development. But the flood of the slavery struggle swept all
+of these movements into its mighty inundation for the time. After the
+war, other influences delayed the revival of the movement. The railroads
+opened the wide prairies after 1850 and made it easy to reach them; and
+decade after decade new sections were reduced to the purposes of
+civilization and to the advantages of the common man as well as the
+promotion of great individual fortunes. The nation centered its
+interests in the development of the West. It is only in our own day that
+this humanitarian democratic wave has reached the level of those earlier
+years. But in the meantime there are clear evidences of the persistence
+of the forces, even though under strange guise. Read the platforms of
+the Greenback-Labor, the Granger, and the Populist parties, and you will
+find in those platforms, discredited and reprobated by the major parties
+of the time, the basic proposals of the Democratic party after its
+revolution under the leadership of Mr. Bryan, and of the Republican
+party after its revolution by Mr. Roosevelt. The Insurgent movement is
+so clearly related to the areas and elements that gave strength to this
+progressive assertion of old democratic ideals with new weapons, that it
+must be regarded as the organized refusal of these persistent
+tendencies to be checked by the advocates of more moderate measures.
+
+I have dealt with these fragments of party history, not, of course, with
+the purpose of expressing any present judgment upon them, but to
+emphasize and give concreteness to the fact that there is disclosed by
+present events a new significance to these contests of radical democracy
+and conservative interests; that they are rather a continuing expression
+of deep-seated forces than fragmentary and sporadic curios for the
+historical museum.
+
+If we should survey the history of our lands from a similar point of
+view, considering the relations of legislation and administration of the
+public domain to the structure of American democracy, it would yield a
+return far beyond that offered by the formal treatment of the subject in
+most of our histories. We should find in the squatter doctrines and
+practices, the seizure of the best soils, the taking of public timber on
+the theory of a right to it by the labor expended on it, fruitful
+material for understanding the atmosphere and ideals under which the
+great corporations developed the West. Men like Senator Benton and
+Delegate Sibley in successive generations defended the trespasses of the
+pioneer and the lumberman upon the public forest lands, and denounced
+the paternal government that "harassed" these men, who were engaged in
+what we should call stealing government timber. It is evident that at
+some time between the middle of the nineteenth century and the present
+time, when we impose jail sentences upon Congressmen caught in such
+violations of the land laws, a change came over the American conscience
+and the civic ideals were modified. That our great industrial
+enterprises developed in the midst of these changing ideals is important
+to recall when we write the history of their activity.
+
+We should find also that we cannot understand the land question without
+seeing its relations to the struggle of sections and classes bidding
+against each other and finding in the public domain a most important
+topic of political bargaining. We should find, too, that the settlement
+of unlike geographic areas in the course of the nation's progress
+resulted in changes in the effect of the land laws; that a system
+intended for the humid prairies was ill-adjusted to the grazing lands
+and coal fields and to the forests in the days of large-scale
+exploitation by corporations commanding great capital. Thus changing
+geographic factors as well as the changing character of the forces which
+occupied the public domain must be considered, if we would understand
+the bearing of legislation and policy in this field.[329:1] It is
+fortunate that suggestive studies of democracy and the land policy have
+already begun to appear.
+
+The whole subject of American agriculture viewed in relation to the
+economic, political, and social life of the nation has important
+contributions to make. If, for example, we study the maps showing the
+transition of the wheat belt from the East to the West, as the virgin
+soils were conquered and made new bases for destructive competition with
+the older wheat States, we shall see how deeply they affected not only
+land values, railroad building, the movement of population, and the
+supply of cheap food, but also how the regions once devoted to single
+cropping of wheat were forced to turn to varied and intensive
+agriculture and to diversified industry, and we shall see also how these
+transformations affected party politics and even the ideals of the
+Americans of the regions thus changed. We shall find in the
+over-production of wheat in the provinces thus rapidly colonized, and in
+the over-production of silver in the mountain provinces which were
+contemporaneously exploited, important explanations of the peculiar
+form which American politics took in the period when Mr. Bryan mastered
+the Democratic party, just as we shall find in the opening of the new
+gold fields in the years immediately following, and in the passing of
+the era of almost free virgin wheat soils, explanations of the more
+recent period when high prices are giving new energy and aggressiveness
+to the demands of the new American industrial democracy.
+
+Enough has been said, it may be assumed, to make clear the point which I
+am trying to elucidate, namely that a comprehension of the United States
+of to-day, an understanding of the rise and progress of the forces which
+have made it what it is, demands that we should rework our history from
+the new points of view afforded by the present. If this is done, it will
+be seen, for example, that the progress of the struggle between North
+and South over slavery and the freed negro, which held the principal
+place in American interest in the two decades after 1850, was, after
+all, only one of the interests in the time. The pages of the
+Congressional debates, the contemporary newspapers, the public documents
+of those twenty years, remain a rich mine for those who will seek
+therein the sources of movements dominant in the present day.
+
+The final consideration to which I ask your attention in this discussion
+of social forces in American life, is with reference to the mode of
+investigating them and the bearing of these investigations upon the
+relations and the goal of history. It has become a precedent, fairly
+well established by the distinguished scholars who have held the office
+which I am about to lay down, to state a position with reference to the
+relations of history and its sister-studies, and even to raise the
+question of the attitude of the historian toward the laws of
+thermodynamics and to seek to find the key of historical development or
+of historical degradation. It is not given to all to bend the bow of
+Ulysses. I shall attempt a lesser task.
+
+We may take some lessons from the scientist. He has enriched knowledge
+especially in recent years by attacking the no-man's lands left
+unexplored by the too sharp delimitation of spheres of activity. These
+new conquests have been especially achieved by the combination of old
+sciences. Physical chemistry, electro-chemistry, geo-physics,
+astro-physics, and a variety of other scientic unions have led to
+audacious hypotheses, veritable flashes of vision, which open new
+regions of activity for a generation of investigators. Moreover they
+have promoted such investigations by furnishing new instruments of
+research. Now in some respects there is an analogy between geology and
+history. The new geologist aims to describe the inorganic earth
+dynamically in terms of natural law, using chemistry, physics,
+mathematics, and even botany and zoology so far as they relate to
+paleontology. But he does not insist that the relative importance of
+physical or chemical factors shall be determined before he applies the
+methods and data of these sciences to his problem. Indeed, he has
+learned that a geological area is too complex a thing to be reduced to a
+single explanation. He has abandoned the single hypothesis for the
+multiple hypothesis. He creates a whole family of possible explanations
+of a given problem and thus avoids the warping influence of partiality
+for a simple theory.
+
+Have we not here an illustration of what is possible and necessary for
+the historian? Is it not well, before attempting to decide whether
+history requires an economic interpretation, or a psychological, or any
+other ultimate interpretation, to recognize that the factors in human
+society are varied and complex; that the political historian handling
+his subject in isolation is certain to miss fundamental facts and
+relations in his treatment of a given age or nation; that the economic
+historian is exposed to the same danger; and so of all of the other
+special historians?
+
+Those who insist that history is simply the effort to tell the thing
+exactly as it was, to state the facts, are confronted with the
+difficulty that the fact which they would represent is not planted on
+the solid ground of fixed conditions; it is in the midst and is itself a
+part of the changing currents, the complex and interacting influences of
+the time, deriving its significance as a fact from its relations to the
+deeper-seated movements of the age, movements so gradual that often only
+the passing years can reveal the truth about the fact and its right to a
+place on the historian's page.
+
+The economic historian is in danger of making his analysis and his
+statement of a law on the basis of present conditions and then passing
+to history for justificatory appendixes to his conclusions. An American
+economist of high rank has recently expressed his conception of "the
+full relation of economic theory, statistics, and history" in these
+words:
+
+     A principle is formulated by _a priori_ reasoning concerning
+     facts of common experience; it is then tested by statistics
+     and promoted to the rank of a known and acknowledged truth;
+     illustrations of its action are then found in narrative
+     history and, on the other hand, the economic law becomes the
+     interpreter of records that would otherwise be confusing and
+     comparatively valueless; the law itself derives its final
+     confirmation from the illustrations of its working which the
+     records afford; but what is at least of equal importance is
+     the parallel fact that the law affords the decisive test of
+     the correctness of those assertions concerning the causes and
+     the effects of past events which it is second nature to make
+     and which historians almost invariably do make in connection
+     with their narrations.[333:1]
+
+There is much in this statement by which the historian may profit, but
+he may doubt also whether the past should serve merely as the
+"illustration" by which to confirm the law deduced from common
+experience by _a priori_ reasoning tested by statistics. In fact the
+pathway of history is strewn with the wrecks of the "known and
+acknowledged truths" of economic law, due not only to defective analysis
+and imperfect statistics, but also to the lack of critical historical
+methods, of insufficient historical-mindedness on the part of the
+economist, to failure to give due attention to the relativity and
+transiency of the conditions from which his laws were deduced.
+
+But the point on which I would lay stress is this. The economist, the
+political scientist, the psychologist, the sociologist, the geographer,
+the student of literature, of art, of religion--all the allied laborers
+in the study of society--have contributions to make to the equipment of
+the historian. These contributions are partly of material, partly of
+tools, partly of new points of view, new hypotheses, new suggestions of
+relations, causes, and emphasis. Each of these special students is in
+some danger of bias by his particular point of view, by his exposure to
+see simply the thing in which he is primarily interested, and also by
+his effort to deduce the universal laws of his separate science. The
+historian, on the other hand, is exposed to the danger of dealing with
+the complex and interacting social forces of a period or of a country,
+from some single point of view to which his special training or interest
+inclines him. If the truth is to be made known, the historian must so
+far familiarize himself with the work, and equip himself with the
+training of his sister-subjects that he can at least avail himself of
+their results and in some reasonable degree master the essential tools
+of their trade. And the followers of the sister-studies must likewise
+familiarize themselves and their students with the work and the methods
+of the historians, and cooperate in the difficult task.
+
+It is necessary that the American historian shall aim at this equipment,
+not so much that he may possess the key to history or satisfy himself in
+regard to its ultimate laws. At present a different duty is before him.
+He must see in American society with its vast spaces, its sections equal
+to European nations, its geographic influences, its brief period of
+development, its variety of nationalities and races, its extraordinary
+industrial growth under the conditions of freedom, its institutions,
+culture, ideals, social psychology, and even its religions forming and
+changing almost under his eyes, one of the richest fields ever offered
+for the preliminary recognition and study of the forces that operate and
+interplay in the making of society.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[311:1] Annual address as the president of the American Historical
+Association, delivered at Indianapolis, December 28, 1910. Reprinted by
+permission from _The American Historical Review_, January, 1911.
+
+[313:1] Van Hise, "Conservation of Natural Resources," pp. 23, 24.
+
+[316:1] _Atlantic Monthly_, December, 1908, vii, p. 745.
+
+[317:1] [Although the words of these early land debates are quoted above
+in Chapter VI, they are repeated because of the light they cast upon the
+present problem.]
+
+[321:1] [I have outlined this subject in various essays, including the
+article on "Sectionalism" in McLaughlin and Hart, "Cyclopedia of
+Government."]
+
+[322:1] [It is not impossible that they may ultimately replace the State
+as the significant administrative and legislative units. There are
+strong evidences of this tendency, such as the organization of the
+Federal Reserve districts, and proposals for railroad administration by
+regions.]
+
+[329:1] [See R. G. Wellington, "Public Lands, 1820-1840"; G. M.
+Stephenson, "Public Lands, 1841-1862"; J. Ise, "Forest Policy."]
+
+[333:1] Professor J. B. Clark, in Commons, ed., "Documentary History of
+American Industrial Society," I. 43-44.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+MIDDLE WESTERN PIONEER DEMOCRACY[335:1]
+
+
+In time of war, when all that this nation has stood for, all the things
+in which it passionately believes, are at stake, we have met to dedicate
+this beautiful home for history.
+
+There is a fitness in the occasion. It is for historic ideals that we
+are fighting. If this nation is one for which we should pour out our
+savings, postpone our differences, go hungry, and even give up life
+itself, it is not because it is a rich, extensive, well-fed and populous
+nation; it is because from its early days America has pressed onward
+toward a goal of its own; that it has followed an ideal, the ideal of a
+democracy developing under conditions unlike those of any other age or
+country.
+
+We are fighting not for an Old World ideal, not for an abstraction, not
+for a philosophical revolution. Broad and generous as are our
+sympathies, widely scattered in origin as are our people, keenly as we
+feel the call of kinship, the thrill of sympathy with the stricken
+nations across the Atlantic, we are fighting for the historic ideals of
+the United States, for the continued existence of the type of society in
+which we believe, because we have proved it good, for the things which
+drew European exiles to our shores, and which inspired the hopes of the
+pioneers.
+
+We are at war that the history of the United States, rich with the
+record of high human purposes, and of faith in the destiny of the common
+man under freedom, filled with the promises of a better world, may not
+become the lost and tragic story of a futile dream.
+
+Yes, it is an American ideal and an American example for which we fight;
+but in that ideal and example lies medicine for the healing of the
+nations. It is the best we have to give to Europe, and it is a matter of
+vital import that we shall safeguard and preserve our power to serve the
+world, and not be overwhelmed in the flood of imperialistic force that
+wills the death of democracy and would send the freeman under the yoke.
+Essential as are our contributions of wealth, the work of our
+scientists, the toil of our farmers and our workmen in factory and
+shipyard, priceless as is the stream of young American manhood which we
+pour forth to stop the flood which flows like moulten lava across the
+green fields and peaceful hamlets of Europe toward the sea and turns to
+ashes and death all that it covers, these contributions have their
+deeper meaning in the American spirit. They are born of the love of
+Democracy.
+
+Long ago in prophetic words Walt Whitman voiced the meaning of our
+present sacrifices:
+
+     "Sail, sail thy best, ship of Democracy,
+     Of value is thy freight, 'tis not the Present only,
+     The Past is also stored in thee,
+     Thou holdest not the venture of thyself alone, not of the Western
+         Continent alone,
+     Earth's resume entire floats on thy keel, O ship, is steadied by
+         thy spars,
+     With thee Time voyages in trust, the antecedent nations sink or
+         swim with thee,
+     With all their ancient struggles, martyrs, heroes, epics, wars,
+         thou bear'st the other continents,
+     Theirs, theirs as much as thine, the destination-port triumphant."
+
+Shortly before the Civil War, a great German, exiled from his native
+land for his love of freedom, came from his new home among the pioneers
+of the Middle West to set forth in Faneuil Hall, the "cradle of
+liberty," in Boston, his vision of the young America that was forming in
+the West, "the last depository of the hopes of all true friends of
+humanity." Speaking of the contrast between the migrations to the
+Mississippi Valley and those of the Old World in other centuries, he
+said:
+
+     It is now not a barbarous multitude pouncing upon old and
+     decrepit empires, not a violent concussion of tribes
+     accompanied by all the horrors of general destruction, but we
+     see the vigorous elements--peaceably congregating and mingling
+     together on virgin soil--; led together by the irresistible
+     attraction of free and broad principles; undertaking to
+     commence a new era in the history of the world, without first
+     destroying the results of the progress of past periods;
+     undertaking to found a cosmopolitan nation without marching
+     over the dead bodies of slain millions.
+
+If Carl Schurz had lived to see the outcome of that Germany from which
+he was sent as an exile, in the days when Prussian bayonets dispersed
+the legislatures and stamped out the beginnings of democratic rule in
+his former country, could he have better pictured the contrasts between
+the Prussian and the American spirit? He went on to say:
+
+     Thus was founded the _great colony of free humanity_, which
+     has not old England alone, but the _world_ for its mother
+     country. And in the colony of free humanity, whose mother
+     country is the world, they established the Republic of equal
+     rights where the title of manhood is the title to citizenship.
+     My friends, if I had a thousand tongues, and a voice as strong
+     as the thunder of heaven, they would not be sufficient to
+     impress upon your minds forcibly enough the greatness of this
+     idea, the overshadowing glory of this result. This was the
+     dream of the truest friends of man from the beginning; for
+     this the noblest blood of martyrs has been shed; for this has
+     mankind waded through seas of blood and tears. There it is
+     now; there it stands, the noble fabric in all the splendor of
+     reality.
+
+It is in a solemn and inspiring time, therefore, that we meet to
+dedicate this building, and the occasion is fitting to the time. We may
+now see, as never before, the deeper significance, the larger meaning of
+these pioneers, whose plain lives and homely annals are glorified as a
+part of the story of the building of a better system of social justice
+under freedom, a broader, and as we fervently hope, a more enduring
+foundation for the welfare and progress under individual liberty of the
+common man, an example of federation, of peaceful adjustments by
+compromise and concession under a self-governing Republic, where
+sections replace nations over a Union as large as Europe, where party
+discussions take the place of warring countries, where the _Pax
+Americana_ furnishes an example for a better world.
+
+As our forefathers, the pioneers, gathered in their neighborhood to
+raise the log cabin, and sanctified it by the name of home, the dwelling
+place of pioneer ideals, so we meet to celebrate the raising of this
+home, this shrine of Minnesota's historic life. It symbolizes the
+conviction that the past and the future of this people are tied
+together; that this Historical Society is the keeper of the records of a
+noteworthy movement in the progress of mankind; that these records are
+not unmeaning and antiquarian, but even in their details are worthy of
+preservation for their revelation of the beginnings of society in the
+midst of a nation caught by the vision of a better future for the world.
+
+Let me repeat the words of Harriet Martineau, who portrayed the American
+of the thirties:
+
+     I regard the American people as a great embryo poet, now
+     moody, now wild, but bringing out results of absolute good
+     sense; restless and wayward in action, but with deep peace at
+     his heart; exulting that he has caught the true aspect of
+     things past and the depth of futurity which lies before him,
+     wherein to create something so magnificent as the world has
+     scarcely begun to dream of. There is the strongest hope of a
+     nation that is capable of being possessed with an idea.
+
+And recall her appeal to the American people to "cherish their high
+democratic hope, their faith in man. The older they grow the more they
+must reverence the dreams of their youth."
+
+The dreams of their youth! Here they shall be preserved, and the
+achievements as well as the aspirations of the men who made the State,
+the men who built on their foundations, the men with large vision and
+power of action, the lesser men in the mass, the leaders who served the
+State and nation with devotion to the cause. Here shall be preserved the
+record of the men who failed to see the larger vision and worked
+impatiently with narrow or selfish or class ends, as well as of those
+who labored with patience and sympathy and mutual concession, with
+readiness to make adjustments and to subordinate their immediate
+interests to the larger good and the immediate safety of the nation.
+
+In the archives of such an old institution as that of the Historical
+Society of Massachusetts, whose treasures run to the beginnings of the
+Puritan colonization, the students cannot fail to find the evidence that
+a State Historical Society is a Book of Judgment wherein is made up the
+record of a people and its leaders. So, as time unfolds, shall be the
+collections of this Society, the depository of the material that shall
+preserve the memory of this people. Each section of this widely extended
+and varied nation has its own peculiar past, its special form of
+society, its traits and its leaders. It were a pity if any section left
+its annals solely to the collectors of a remote region, and it were a
+pity if its collections were not transformed into printed documents and
+monographic studies which can go to the libraries of all the parts of
+the Union and thus enable the student to see the nation as a whole in
+its past as well as in its present.
+
+This Society finds its special field of activity in a great State of the
+Middle West, so new, as history reckons time, that its annals are still
+predominantly those of the pioneers, but so rapidly growing that already
+the era of the pioneers is a part of the history of the past, capable of
+being handled objectively, seen in a perspective that is not possible to
+the observer of the present conditions.
+
+Because of these facts I have taken as the special theme of this address
+the Middle Western Pioneer Democracy, which I would sketch in some of
+its outstanding aspects, and chiefly in the generation before the Civil
+War, for it was from those pioneers that the later colonization to the
+newer parts of the Mississippi Valley derived much of their traits, and
+from whom large numbers of them came.
+
+The North Central States as a whole is a region comparable to all of
+Central Europe. Of these States, a large part of the old
+Northwest,--Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin; and their
+sisters beyond the Mississippi--Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota--were
+still, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the home of an
+essentially pioneer society. Within the lifetime of many living men,
+Wisconsin was called the "Far West," and Minnesota was a land of the
+Indian and the fur traders, a wilderness of forest and prairie beyond
+the "edge of cultivation." That portion of this great region which was
+still in the pioneering period of settlement by 1850 was alone about as
+extensive as the old thirteen States, or Germany and Austria-Hungary
+combined. The region was a huge geographic mold for a new society,
+modeled by nature on the scale of the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, the
+upper Mississippi and the Missouri. Simple and majestic in its vast
+outlines it was graven into a variety that in its detail also had a
+largeness of design. From the Great Lakes extended the massive glacial
+sheet which covered that mighty basin and laid down treasures of soil.
+Vast forests of pine shrouded its upper zone, breaking into hardwood and
+the oak openings as they neared the ocean-like expanses of the prairies.
+Forests again along the Ohio Valley, and beyond, to the west, lay the
+levels of the Great Plains. Within the earth were unexploited treasures
+of coal and lead, copper and iron in such form and quantity as were to
+revolutionize the industrial processes of the world. But nature's
+revelations are progressive, and it was rather the marvelous adaptation
+of the soil to the raising of corn and wheat that drew the pioneers to
+this land of promise, and made a new era of colonization. In the unity
+with variety of this pioneer empire and in its broad levels we have a
+promise of its society.
+
+First had come the children of the interior of the South, and with ax
+and rifle in hand had cut their clearings in the forest, raised their
+log cabins, fought the Indians and by 1830 had pushed their way to the
+very edge of the prairies along the Ohio and Missouri Valleys, leaving
+unoccupied most of the Basin of the Great Lakes.
+
+These slashers of the forest, these self-sufficing pioneers, raising the
+corn and live stock for their own need, living scattered and apart, had
+at first small interest in town life or a share in markets. They were
+passionately devoted to the ideal of equality, but it was an ideal which
+assumed that under free conditions in the midst of unlimited resources,
+the homogeneous society of the pioneers _must_ result in equality. What
+they objected to was arbitrary obstacles, artificial limitations upon
+the freedom of each member of this frontier folk to work out his own
+career without fear or favor. What they instinctively opposed was the
+crystallization of differences, the monopolization of opportunity and
+the fixing of that monopoly by government or by social customs. The road
+must be open. The game must be played according to the rules. There must
+be no artificial stifling of equality of opportunity, no closed doors to
+the able, no stopping the free game before it was played to the end.
+More than that, there was an unformulated, perhaps, but very real
+feeling, that mere success in the game, by which the abler men were able
+to achieve preeminence gave to the successful ones no right to look down
+upon their neighbors, no vested title to assert superiority as a matter
+of pride and to the diminution of the equal right and dignity of the
+less successful.
+
+If this democracy of Southern pioneers, this Jacksonian democracy, was,
+as its socialist critics have called it, in reality a democracy of
+"expectant capitalists," it was not one which expected or acknowledged
+on the part of the successful ones the right to harden their triumphs
+into the rule of a privileged class. In short, if it is indeed true that
+the backwoods democracy was based upon equality of opportunity, it is
+also true that it resented the conception that opportunity under
+competition should result in the hopeless inequality, or rule of class.
+Ever a new clearing must be possible. And because the wilderness seemed
+so unending, the menace to the enjoyment of this ideal seemed rather to
+be feared from government, within or without, than from the operations
+of internal evolution.
+
+From the first, it became evident that these men had means of
+supplementing their individual activity by informal combinations. One of
+the things that impressed all early travelers in the United States was
+the capacity for extra-legal, voluntary association.[343:1] This was
+natural enough; in all America we can study the process by which in a
+new land social customs form and crystallize into law. We can even see
+how the personal leader becomes the governmental official. This power of
+the newly arrived pioneers to join together for a common end without the
+intervention of governmental institutions was one of their marked
+characteristics. The log rolling, the house-raising, the husking bee,
+the apple paring, and the squatters' associations whereby they protected
+themselves against the speculators in securing title to their clearings
+on the public domain, the camp meeting, the mining camp, the vigilantes,
+the cattle-raisers' associations, the "gentlemen's agreements," are a
+few of the indications of this attitude. It is well to emphasize this
+American trait, because in a modified way it has come to be one of the
+most characteristic and important features of the United States of
+to-day. America does through informal association and understandings on
+the part of the people many of the things which in the Old World are and
+can be done only by governmental intervention and compulsion. These
+associations were in America not due to immemorial custom of tribe or
+village community. They were extemporized by voluntary action.
+
+The actions of these associations had an authority akin to that of law.
+They were usually not so much evidences of a disrespect for law and
+order as the only means by which real law and order were possible in a
+region where settlement and society had gone in advance of the
+institutions and instrumentalities of organized society.
+
+Because of these elements of individualistic competition and the power
+of spontaneous association, pioneers were responsive to leadership. The
+backwoodsmen knew that under the free opportunities of his life the
+abler man would reveal himself, and show them the way. By free choice
+and not by compulsion, by spontaneous impulse, and not by the domination
+of a caste, they rallied around a cause, they supported an issue. They
+yielded to the principle of government by agreement, and they hated the
+doctrine of autocracy even before it gained a name.
+
+They looked forward to the extension of their American principles to the
+Old World and their keenest apprehensions came from the possibility of
+the extension of the Old World's system of arbitrary rule, its class
+wars and rivalries and interventions to the destruction of the free
+States and democratic institutions which they were building in the
+forests of America.
+
+If we add to these aspects of early backwoods democracy, its spiritual
+qualities, we shall more easily understand them. These men were
+emotional. As they wrested their clearing from the woods and from the
+savages who surrounded them, as they expanded that clearing and saw the
+beginnings of commonwealths, where only little communities had been, and
+as they saw these commonwealths touch hands with each other along the
+great course of the Mississippi River, they became enthusiastically
+optimistic and confident of the continued expansion of this democracy.
+They had faith in themselves and their destiny. And that optimistic
+faith was responsible both for their confidence in their own ability to
+rule and for the passion for expansion. They looked to the future.
+"Others appeal to history: an American appeals to prophecy; and with
+Malthus in one hand and a map of the back country in the other, he
+boldly defies us to a comparison with America as she is to be," said a
+London periodical in 1821. Just because, perhaps, of the usual isolation
+of their lives, when they came together in associations whether of the
+camp meeting or of the political gathering, they felt the influence of a
+common emotion and enthusiasm. Whether Scotch-Irish Presbyterian,
+Baptist, or Methodist, these people saturated their religion and their
+politics with feeling. Both the stump and the pulpit were centers of
+energy, electric cells capable of starting widespreading fires. They
+_felt_ both their religion and their democracy, and were ready to fight
+for it.
+
+This democracy was one that involved a real feeling of social
+comradeship among its widespread members. Justice Catron, who came from
+Arkansas to the Supreme Court in the presidency of Jackson, said: "The
+people of New Orleans and St. Louis are next neighbors--if we desire to
+know a man in any quarter of the union we inquire of our next neighbor,
+who but the other day lived by him." Exaggerated as this is, it
+nevertheless had a surprising measure of truth for the Middle West as
+well. For the Mississippi River was the great highway down which groups
+of pioneers like Abraham Lincoln, on their rafts and flat boats, brought
+the little neighborhood surplus. After the steamboat came to the western
+waters the voyages up and down by merchants and by farmers shifting
+their homes, brought people into contact with each other over wide
+areas.
+
+This enlarged neighborhood democracy was determined not by a reluctant
+admission that under the law one man is as good as another; it was based
+upon "good fellowship," sympathy and understanding. They were of a
+stock, moreover, which sought new trails and were ready to follow where
+the trail led, innovators in society as well as finders of new lands.
+
+By 1830 the Southern inundation ebbed and a different tide flowed in
+from the northeast by way of the Erie Canal and steam navigation on the
+Great Lakes to occupy the zone unreached by Southern settlement. This
+new tide spread along the margins of the Great Lakes, found the oak
+openings and small prairie islands of Southern Michigan and Wisconsin;
+followed the fertile forested ribbons along the river courses far into
+the prairie lands; and by the end of the forties began to venture into
+the margin of the open prairie.
+
+In 1830 the Middle West contained a little over a million and a half
+people; in 1840, over three and a third millions; in 1850, nearly five
+and a half millions. Although in 1830 the North Atlantic States numbered
+between three and four times as many people as the Middle West, yet in
+those two decades the Middle West made an actual gain of several hundred
+thousand more than did the old section. Counties in the newer states
+rose from a few hundred to ten or fifteen thousand people in the space
+of less than five years. Suddenly, with astonishing rapidity and volume,
+a new people was forming with varied elements, ideals and institutions
+drawn from all over this nation and from Europe. They were confronted
+with the problem of adjusting different stocks, varied customs and
+habits, to their new home.
+
+In comparison with the Ohio Valley, the peculiarity of the occupation of
+the northern zone of the Middle West, lay in the fact that the native
+element was predominantly from the older settlements of the Middle West
+itself and from New York and New England. But it was from the central
+and western counties of New York and from the western and northern parts
+of New England, the rural regions of declining agricultural prosperity,
+that the bulk of this element came.
+
+Thus the influence of the Middle West stretched into the Northeast, and
+attracted a farming population already suffering from western
+competition. The advantage of abundant, fertile, and cheap land, the
+richer agricultural returns, and especially the opportunities for youth
+to rise in all the trades and professions, gave strength to this
+competition. By it New England was profoundly and permanently modified.
+
+This Yankee stock carried with it a habit of community life, in contrast
+with the individualistic democracy of the Southern element. The
+colonizing land companies, the town, the school, the church, the feeling
+of local unity, furnished the evidences of this instinct for
+communities. This instinct was accompanied by the creation of cities,
+the production of a surplus for market, the reaching out to connections
+with the trading centers of the East, the evolution of a more complex
+and at the same time a more integrated industrial society than that of
+the Southern pioneer.
+
+But they did not carry with them the unmodified New England institutions
+and traits. They came at a time and from a people less satisfied with
+the old order than were their neighbors in the East. They were the young
+men with initiative, with discontent; the New York element especially
+was affected by the radicalism of Locofoco democracy which was in
+itself a protest against the established order.
+
+The winds of the prairies swept away almost at once a mass of old habits
+and prepossessions. Said one of these pioneers in a letter to friends in
+the East:
+
+     If you value ease more than money or prosperity, don't
+     come. . . . Hands are too few for the work, houses for the
+     inhabitants, and days for the day's work to be done. . . .
+     Next if you can't stand seeing your old New England ideas,
+     ways of doing, and living and in fact, all of the good old
+     Yankee fashions knocked out of shape and altered, or thrown by
+     as unsuited to the climate, don't be caught out here. But if
+     you can bear grief with a smile, can put up with a scale of
+     accommodations ranging from the soft side of a plank before
+     the fire (and perhaps three in a bed at that) down through the
+     middling and inferior grades; if you are never at a loss for
+     ways to do the most unpracticable things without tools; if you
+     can do all this and some more come on. . . . It is a universal
+     rule here to help one another, each one keeping an eye single
+     to his own business.
+
+They knew that they were leaving many dear associations of the old home,
+giving up many of the comforts of life, sacrificing things which those
+who remained thought too vital to civilization to be left. But they were
+not mere materialists ready to surrender all that life is worth for
+immediate gain. They were idealists themselves, sacrificing the ease of
+the immediate future for the welfare of their children, and convinced of
+the possibility of helping to bring about a better social order and a
+freer life. They were social idealists. But they based their ideals on
+trust in the common man and the readiness to make adjustments, not on
+the rule of a benevolent despot or a controlling class.
+
+The attraction of this new home reached also into the Old World and gave
+a new hope and new impulses to the people of Germany, of England, of
+Ireland, and of Scandinavia. Both economic influences and revolutionary
+discontent promoted German migration at this time; economic causes
+brought the larger volume, but the quest for liberty brought the
+leaders, many of whom were German political exiles. While the latter
+urged, with varying degrees of emphasis, that their own contribution
+should be preserved in their new surroundings, and a few visionaries
+even talked of a German State in the federal system, what was noteworthy
+was the adjustment of the emigrants of the thirties and forties to
+Middle Western conditions; the response to the opportunity to create a
+new type of society in which all gave and all received and no element
+remained isolated. Society was plastic. In the midst of more or less
+antagonism between "bowie knife Southerners," "cow-milking Yankee
+Puritans," "beer-drinking Germans," "wild Irishmen," a process of mutual
+education, a giving and taking, was at work. In the outcome, in spite of
+slowness of assimilation where different groups were compact and
+isolated from the others, and a certain persistence of inherited
+_morale_, there was the creation of a new type, which was neither the
+sum of all its elements, nor a complete fusion in a melting pot. They
+were American pioneers, not outlying fragments of New England, of
+Germany, or of Norway.
+
+The Germans were most strongly represented in the Missouri Valley, in
+St. Louis, in Illinois opposite that city, and in the Lake Shore
+counties of eastern Wisconsin north from Milwaukee. In Cincinnati and
+Cleveland there were many Germans, while in nearly half the counties of
+Ohio, the German immigrants and the Pennsylvania Germans held nearly or
+quite the balance of political power. The Irish came primarily as
+workers on turnpikes, canals and railroads, and tended to remain along
+such lines, or to gather in the growing cities. The Scandinavians, of
+whom the largest proportion were Norwegians, founded their colonies in
+Northern Illinois, and in Southern Wisconsin about the Fox and the head
+waters of Rock River, whence in later years they spread into Iowa,
+Minnesota and North Dakota.
+
+By 1850 about one-sixth of the people of the Middle West were of North
+Atlantic birth, about one-eighth of Southern birth, and a like fraction
+of foreign birth, of whom the Germans were twice as numerous as the
+Irish, and the Scandinavians only slightly more numerous than the Welsh,
+and fewer than the Scotch. There were only a dozen Scandinavians in
+Minnesota. The natives of the British Islands, together with the natives
+of British North America in the Middle West, numbered nearly as many as
+the natives of German lands. But in 1850 almost three-fifths of the
+population were natives of the Middle West itself, and over a third of
+the population lived in Ohio. The cities were especially a mixture of
+peoples. In the five larger cities of the section natives and foreigners
+were nearly balanced. In Chicago the Irish, Germans and natives of the
+North Atlantic States about equaled each other. But in all the other
+cities, the Germans exceeded the Irish in varying proportions. There
+were nearly three to one in Milwaukee.
+
+It is not merely that the section was growing rapidly and was made up of
+various stocks with many different cultures, sectional and European;
+what is more significant is that these elements did not remain as
+separate strata underneath an established ruling order, as was the case
+particularly in New England. All were accepted and intermingling
+components of a forming society, plastic and absorptive. This
+characteristic of the section as "a good mixer" became fixed before the
+large immigrations of the eighties. The foundations of the section were
+laid firmly in a period when the foreign elements were particularly free
+and eager to contribute to a new society and to receive an impress from
+the country which offered them a liberty denied abroad. Significant as
+is this fact, and influential in the solution of America's present
+problems, it is no more important than the fact that in the decade
+before the Civil War, the Southern element in the Middle West had also
+had nearly two generations of direct association with the Northern, and
+had finally been engulfed in a tide of Northeastern and Old World
+settlers.
+
+In this society of pioneers men learned to drop their old national
+animosities. One of the Immigrant Guides of the fifties urged the
+newcomers to abandon their racial animosities. "The American laughs at
+these steerage quarrels," said the author.
+
+Thus the Middle West was teaching the lesson of national
+cross-fertilization instead of national enmities, the possibility of a
+newer and richer civilization, not by preserving unmodified or isolated
+the old component elements, but by breaking down the line-fences, by
+merging the individual life in the common product--a new product, which
+held the promise of world brotherhood. If the pioneers divided their
+allegiance between various parties, Whig, Democrat, Free Soil or
+Republican, it does not follow that the western Whig was like the
+eastern Whig. There was an infiltration of a western quality into all of
+these. The western Whig supported Harrison more because he was a pioneer
+than because he was a Whig. It saw in him a legitimate successor of
+Andrew Jackson. The campaign of 1840 was a Middle Western camp meeting
+on a huge scale. The log cabins, the cider and the coonskins were the
+symbols of the triumph of Middle Western ideas, and were carried with
+misgivings by the merchants, the bankers and the manufacturers of the
+East. In like fashion, the Middle Western wing of the Democratic party
+was as different from the Southern wing wherein lay its strength, as
+Douglas was from Calhoun. It had little in common with the slaveholding
+classes of the South, even while it felt the kinship of the pioneer with
+the people of the Southern upland stock from which so many Westerners
+were descended.
+
+In the later forties and early fifties most of the Middle Western States
+made constitutions. The debates in their conventions and the results
+embodied in the constitutions themselves tell the story of their
+political ideals. Of course, they based the franchise on the principle
+of manhood suffrage. But they also provided for an elective judiciary,
+for restrictions on the borrowing power of the State, lest it fall under
+the control of what they feared as the money power, and several of them
+either provided for the extinguishment of banks of issue, or rigidly
+restrained them. Some of them exempted the homestead from forced sale
+for debt; married women's legal rights were prominent topics in the
+debates of the conventions, and Wisconsin led off by permitting the
+alien to vote after a year's residence. It welcomed the newcomer to the
+freedom and to the obligations of American citizenship.
+
+Although this pioneer society was preponderantly an agricultural society
+it was rapidly learning that agriculture alone was not sufficient for
+its life. It was developing manufactures, trade, mining, the
+professions, and becoming conscious that in a progressive modern state
+it was possible to pass from one industry to another and that all were
+bound by common ties. But it is significant that in the census of 1850,
+Ohio, out of a population of two millions, reported only a thousand
+servants, Iowa only ten in two hundred thousand and Minnesota fifteen
+in its six thousand.
+
+In the intellectual life of this new democracy there was already the
+promise of original contributions even in the midst of the engrossing
+toil and hard life of the pioneer.
+
+The country editor was a leader of his people, not a patent-insides
+recorder of social functions, but a vigorous and independent thinker and
+writer. The subscribers to the newspaper published in the section were
+higher in proportion to population than in the State of New York and not
+greatly inferior to those of New England, although such eastern papers
+as the _New York Tribune_ had an extensive circulation throughout the
+Middle West. The agricultural press presupposed in its articles and
+contributions a level of general intelligence and interest above that of
+the later farmers of the section, at least before the present day.
+
+Farmer boys walked behind the plow with their book in hand and sometimes
+forgot to turn at the end of the furrow; even rare boys, who, like the
+young Howells, "limped barefoot by his father's side with his eyes on
+the cow and his mind on Cervantes and Shakespeare."
+
+Periodicals flourished and faded like the prairie flowers. Some of
+Emerson's best poems first appeared in one of these Ohio Valley
+magazines. But for the most part the literature of the region and the
+period was imitative or reflective of the common things in a not
+uncommon way. It is to its children that the Middle West had to look for
+the expression of its life and its ideals rather than to the busy
+pioneer who was breaking a prairie farm or building up a new community.
+Illiteracy was least among the Yankee pioneers and highest among the
+Southern element. When illiteracy is mapped for 1850 by percentages
+there appears two distinct zones, the one extending from New England,
+the other from the South.
+
+The influence of New England men was strong in the Yankee regions of
+the Middle West. Home missionaries, and representatives of societies for
+the promotion of education in the West, both in the common school and
+denominational colleges, scattered themselves throughout the region and
+left a deep impress in all these States. The conception was firmly fixed
+in the thirties and forties that the West was the coming power in the
+Union, that the fate of civilization was in its hands, and therefore
+rival sects and rival sections strove to influence it to their own
+types. But the Middle West shaped all these educational contributions
+according to her own needs and ideals.
+
+The State Universities were for the most part the result of agitation
+and proposals of men of New England origin; but they became
+characteristic products of Middle Western society, where the community
+as a whole, rather than wealthy benefactors, supported these
+institutions. In the end the community determined their directions in
+accord with popular ideals. They reached down more deeply into the ranks
+of the common people than did the New England or Middle State Colleges;
+they laid more emphasis upon the obviously useful, and became
+coeducational at an early date. This dominance of the community ideals
+had dangers for the Universities, which were called to raise ideals and
+to point new ways, rather than to conform.
+
+Challenging the spaces of the West, struck by the rapidity with which a
+new society was unfolding under their gaze, it is not strange that the
+pioneers dealt in the superlative and saw their destiny with optimistic
+eyes. The meadow lot of the small intervale had become the prairie,
+stretching farther than their gaze could reach.
+
+All was motion and change. A restlessness was universal. Men moved, in
+their single life, from Vermont to New York, from New York to Ohio,
+from Ohio to Wisconsin, from Wisconsin to California, and longed for the
+Hawaiian Islands. When the bark started from their fence rails, they
+felt the call to change. They were conscious of the mobility of their
+society and gloried in it. They broke with the Past and thought to
+create something finer, more fitting for humanity, more beneficial for
+the average man than the world had ever seen.
+
+"With the Past we have literally nothing to do," said B. Gratz Brown in
+a Missouri Fourth of July oration in 1850, "save to dream of it. Its
+lessons are lost and its tongue is silent. We are ourselves at the head
+and front of all political experience. Precedents have lost their virtue
+and all their authority is gone. . . . Experience can profit us only to
+guard from antequated delusions."
+
+"The yoke of opinion," wrote Channing to a Western friend, speaking of
+New England, "is a heavy one, often crushing individuality of judgment
+and action," and he added that the habits, rules, and criticisms under
+which he had grown up had not left him the freedom and courage which are
+needed in the style of address best suited to the Western people.
+Channing no doubt unduly stressed the freedom of the West in this
+respect. The frontier had its own conventions and prejudices, and New
+England was breaking its own cake of custom and proclaiming a new
+liberty at the very time he wrote. But there was truth in the Eastern
+thought of the West, as a land of intellectual toleration, one which
+questioned the old order of things and made innovation its very creed.
+
+The West laid emphasis upon the practical and demanded that ideals
+should be put to work for useful ends; ideals were tested by their
+direct contributions to the betterment of the average man, rather than
+by the production of the man of exceptional genius and distinction.
+
+For, in fine this was the goal of the Middle West, the welfare of the
+average man; not only the man of the South, or of the East, the Yankee,
+or the Irishman, or the German, but all men in one common fellowship.
+This was the hope of their youth, of that youth when Abraham Lincoln
+rose from rail-splitter to country lawyer, from Illinois legislator to
+congressman and from congressman to President.
+
+It is not strange that in all this flux and freedom and novelty and vast
+spaces, the pioneer did not sufficiently consider the need of
+disciplined devotion to the government which he himself created and
+operated. But the name of Lincoln and the response of the pioneer to the
+duties of the Civil War,--to the sacrifices and the restraints on
+freedom which it entailed under his presidency, reminds us that they
+knew how to take part in a common cause, even while they knew that war's
+conditions were destructive of many of the things for which they worked.
+
+There are two kinds of governmental discipline: that which proceeds from
+free choice, in the conviction that restraint of individual or class
+interests is necessary for the common good; and that which is imposed by
+a dominant class, upon a subjected and helpless people. The latter is
+Prussian discipline, the discipline of a harsh machine-like, logical
+organization, based on the rule of a military autocracy. It assumes that
+if you do not crush your opponent first, he will crush you. It is the
+discipline of a nation ruled by its General Staff, assuming war as the
+normal condition of peoples, and attempting with remorseless logic to
+extend its operations to the destruction of freedom everywhere. It can
+only be met by the discipline of a people who use their own government
+for worthy ends, who preserve individuality and mobility in society and
+respect the rights of others, who follow the dictates of humanity and
+fair play, the principles of give and take. The Prussian discipline is
+the discipline of Thor, the War God, against the discipline of the White
+Christ.
+
+Pioneer democracy has had to learn lessons by experience: the lesson
+that government on principles of free democracy can accomplish many
+things which the men of the middle of the nineteenth century did not
+realize were even possible. They have had to sacrifice something of
+their passion for individual unrestraint; they have had to learn that
+the specially trained man, the man fitted for his calling by education
+and experience, whether in the field of science or of industry, has a
+place in government; that the rule of the people is effective and
+enduring only as it incorporates the trained specialist into the
+organization of that government, whether as umpire between contending
+interests or as the efficient instrument in the hands of democracy.
+
+Organized democracy after the era of free land has learned that popular
+government to be successful must not only be legitimately the choice of
+the whole people; that the offices of that government must not only be
+open to all, but that in the fierce struggle of nations in the field of
+economic competition and in the field of war, the salvation and
+perpetuity of the republic depend upon recognition of the fact that
+specialization of the organs of the government, the choice of the fit
+and the capable for office, is quite as important as the extension of
+popular control. When we lost our free lands and our isolation from the
+Old World, we lost our immunity from the results of mistakes, of waste,
+of inefficiency, and of inexperience in our government.
+
+But in the present day we are also learning another lesson which was
+better known to the pioneers than to their immediate successors. We are
+learning that the distinction arising from devotion to the interests of
+the commonwealth is a higher distinction than mere success in economic
+competition. America is now awarding laurels to the men who sacrifice
+their triumphs in the rivalry of business in order to give their service
+to the cause of a liberty-loving nation, their wealth and their genius
+to the success of her ideals. That craving for distinction which once
+drew men to pile up wealth and exhibit power over the industrial
+processes of the nation, is now finding a new outlet in the craving for
+distinction that comes from service to the Union, in satisfaction in the
+use of great talent for the good of the republic.
+
+And all over the nation, in voluntary organizations for aid to the
+government, is being shown the pioneer principle of association that was
+expressed in the "house raising." It is shown in the Red Cross, the Y.
+M. C. A., the Knights of Columbus, the councils and boards of science,
+commerce, labor, agriculture; and in all the countless other types, from
+the association of women in their kitchen who carry out the
+recommendations of the Food Director and revive the plain living of the
+pioneer, to the Boy Scouts who are laying the foundations for a
+self-disciplined and virile generation worthy to follow the trail of the
+backwoodsmen. It is an inspiring prophecy of the revival of the old
+pioneer conception of the obligations and opportunities of
+neighborliness, broadening to a national and even to an international
+scope. The promise of what that wise and lamented philosopher, Josiah
+Royce called, "the beloved community." In the spirit of the pioneer's
+"house raising" lies the salvation of the Republic.
+
+This then is the heritage of pioneer experience,--a passionate belief
+that a democracy was possible which should leave the individual a part
+to play in free society and not make him a cog in a machine operated
+from above; which trusted in the common man, in his tolerance, his
+ability to adjust differences with good humor, and to work out an
+American type from the contributions of all nations--a type for which
+he would fight against those who challenged it in arms, and for which in
+time of war he would make sacrifices, even the temporary sacrifice of
+individual freedom and his life, lest that freedom be lost forever.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[335:1] An address delivered at the dedication of the building of the
+State Historical Society of Minnesota, May 11, 1918. Printed by
+permission of the Society.
+
+[343:1] See De Tocqueville's interesting appreciation of this American
+phenomenon.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Absentee proprietors, 55, 297
+
+Achievement, 309
+
+Adams, Henry, 213
+
+Adams, J. Q., 26, 192, 230
+
+Agriculture, 314, 329;
+  Middle West, 149, 150
+
+Agriculture, Department of, 320
+
+Alamance, 119, 120
+
+Alaska, 296
+
+Albany, 43, 52
+
+Albany congress of 1754, 15
+
+Algonquin Indians, 130
+
+Aliens, land tenure by, 110
+
+Alleghany Mountains, 9, 18, 67;
+  as barrier to be overcome, 195
+
+Allen, Ethan, 54
+
+Allen, W. V., 220
+
+American Historical Assoc., 159
+
+American history, social forces, 311;
+  survey of recent, 311
+
+American life, distinguishing feature, 2
+
+American people, 339
+
+American spirit, 306, 336, 337
+
+"American System," 171, 172
+
+Americanization, effective, 4
+
+Arid lands, 9, 147, 219, 239, 245, 278
+
+Aristocracy, 250, 254, 257, 275
+
+Army posts, frontier, 16;
+  prototypes, 47
+
+Asia, 296
+
+Association, voluntary, 343, 344, 358
+
+Astor's American Fur Co., 6, 143
+
+Atlantic coast, as early frontier, 4;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 190, 191;
+  Northern, History, 295
+
+Atlantic frontier, composition, 12
+
+Atlantic states, 207, 208
+
+Augusta, Ga., 98
+
+Autocracy, 344
+
+
+Back country, 68, 70;
+  democracy of, 248;
+  New England, 75
+
+Backwoods society, 212
+
+Backwoodsmen, 163, 164
+
+Bacon, Francis, 286
+
+Bacon's Rebellion, 84, 247, 251, 301
+
+Baltimore, trade, 108
+
+Bancroft, George, 168
+
+Bank, 171, 254, 325
+
+Bedford, Pa., 5
+
+Beecher, Lyman, 35
+
+Bell, John, 192
+
+Benton, T. H., 26, 35, 192, 325, 328
+
+Berkshires, 60, 71, 77
+
+Beverley, Robert, 85, 91;
+  manor, 92
+
+"Birch seal," 78
+
+Black Hills, 145
+
+Blackmar, F. W., 238
+
+Blank patents, 95
+
+Blood-feud, 253
+
+Blount, William, 187
+
+Blue Ridge, 90, 99
+
+Boone, A. J., 19
+
+Boone, Daniel, 18, 105, 124, 165, 206
+
+Boston, trade, 108
+
+Boutmy, E. G., 211
+
+Braddock, Edward, 181, 324
+
+Brattle, Thomas, 56
+
+British and Middle West, 350
+
+Brown, B. Gratz, 355
+
+Brunswick County, Va., 91
+
+Bryan, W. J., 204, 236, 237, 246, 281, 327, 329
+
+Bryce, James, 165, 206, 211, 284
+
+Buffalo, N. Y., 136, 150, 151
+
+Buffalo herds, 144
+
+Buffer state, 131, 134
+
+Burke, Edmund, 33;
+  on the Germans, 109
+
+Byrd, Col. William, 84, 87, 98
+
+
+Calhoun, J. C., 2, 105, 141, 174, 206, 241;
+  on representation, 117;
+  policy of obtaining western trade for the South, 196
+
+California, 8;
+  gold, 144
+
+Canada, 53, 226;
+  barrier between, and the United States, 131;
+  border warfare, 44;
+  homesteads, 296;
+  Middle West and, 128;
+  wheat fields, 278
+
+Canadians, 227
+
+Canals, deep water, 150
+
+Capital, 276, 305, 325;
+  concentration and combinations, 245, 261, 266, 280, 305-306
+
+"Capitalistic classes," 285
+
+Capitalists, 20;
+  "expectant," 343
+
+Capitals, state, transfers, 121
+
+Captains of industry, 258, 259, 260
+
+Carnegie, Andrew, 260, 265
+
+Caroline cow-pens, 16
+
+Catron, John, 345
+
+Cattle raising in Virginia, 88, 89, 92
+
+Census, first, frontier at, 5
+
+Census of 1820, frontier, 6
+
+Census of 1890, extinction of frontier, 1, 9, 38, 39, 297
+
+Center of nation, 222
+
+Channing, W. E., 355
+
+Charleston, S. C., 88, 108, 196
+
+Chase, S. P., 104, 142
+
+Cherry Valley, 104
+
+Chicago, 137, 150, 151, 180, 350;
+  character, 232
+
+Chillicothe, 133, 223
+
+Cincinnati, 133, 151, 162, 223, 231, 232
+
+Cincinnati and Charleston R. R., 174
+
+Cities, 297, 316-317;
+  northeastern, 294-295;
+  seaboard, 194, 195, 196;
+  three periods of development, 195
+
+Civil War, 356;
+  Middle West and, 142;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 201;
+  Northwest and, 217
+
+Clark, G. R., 131, 167, 186
+
+Clark, J. B., 332
+
+Class distinctions, 280, 285
+
+Clay, Henry, 26, 168, 171, 172, 173, 174, 192, 197, 206, 213, 216, 226,
+    241, 304, 325
+
+Cleaveland, Gen. Moses, 133, 222, 257
+
+Cleveland, 133, 150, 223, 231, 232
+
+Clinton, De Witt, 195, 196
+
+Coal supply, 313
+
+Coast, Atlantic, 206;
+  destiny, 295;
+  interior and, antagonisms, 110
+
+Coeducation, 353
+
+Colden, Cadwallader, 80
+
+Colonial life, 11
+
+Colonial system, 127
+
+Colonization, 312;
+  English and French contrasted, 13-14;
+  peaceful, 169
+
+Colony of free humanity, 337-338
+
+Columbus, Ohio, 162, 229
+
+Combinations of capital and of labor, 245
+
+Commencement seasons, 290
+
+Commons, J. R., 327
+
+Community, "beloved community," 358;
+  life, 347;
+  type of settlement, 73, 74, 125
+
+Competition, 154, 203, 277, 308, 312
+
+Compromise, 174, 198, 230, 236;
+  slavery, 140, 142
+
+Concentration of power and wealth, 245, 261, 266, 280
+
+Concord, Mass., 39
+
+Concurrent majority, 118
+
+Congregational church, 74, 112
+
+Congress and frontiersmen, 252-253
+
+Connecticut, frontier towns, 42, 45, 53;
+  land policy, 76
+
+Connecticut River, 52, 53, 72
+
+Connecticut Valley, 63, 73
+
+Conquest, 269
+
+Conscience, American, 328
+
+Constitution, U. S., 209, 244
+
+Constitutional convention of 1787, 249
+
+Constitutions, state, 121, 252, 352;
+  reconstruction, 192
+
+Cooperation, voluntary, 165, 257, 258
+
+Corn, areas, 149;
+  belt, 151
+
+Corporations, 265, 328
+
+Cotton culture, 28, 139, 255;
+  early extension, 7;
+  transfer from the East to Mississippi Valley, 194
+
+"Cotton Kingdom," 174, 189, 194, 198
+
+Coureurs de bois, 182
+
+Cow pens, 16, 88
+
+Crockett, Davy, 105
+
+Crops, migration, 149
+
+Currency, 148;
+  evil, 32;
+  expansion, 210
+
+Cutler, Manasseh, 141
+
+
+Dairy interests in Wisconsin, 234, 236
+
+Dakotas, settlement, 145, 146
+
+Darien, Ga., 98
+
+Davis, Jefferson, 105, 139, 174
+
+De Bow, J. D. B., 197
+
+De Bow's _Review_, 217
+
+Debs, E. V., 281
+
+Dedham, 40, 58
+
+Deerfield, 48, 52, 58, 70
+
+Democracy, 32, 54, 306;
+  doubts of, 280;
+  established in Old West, 107;
+  free land and, 274;
+  frontier, early, 106;
+  frontier and, 30, 31, 247, 249;
+  Godkin on, 307;
+  in early 18th century, 98;
+  Jacksonian, 192, 302, 342-343;
+  Jeffersonian, 250, 251;
+  magnitude of achievement in the West, 258;
+  Middle West, 154;
+  Mississippi Valley, 183;
+  neighborhood, 346;
+  new type in West, 210, 216;
+  Ohio Valley, influence, 172;
+  Ohio Valley and, 175;
+  organized, 357;
+  origin, 293;
+  outcome of American experiences, 266;
+  pressure on the universities, 283;
+  significance of Mississippi Valley in promoting, 190;
+  Upland South, 165;
+  Western contributions, 243;
+  Western ideals, 261;
+  _see also_ Pioneer democracy
+
+Democratic party, 327, 330;
+  basis, 248;
+  Middle Western wing, 352
+
+Democratic-Republican party, 250
+
+Denver, Colo., 19
+
+De Tocqueville. _See_ Tocqueville
+
+Detroit, 135, 150
+
+Development, American, 205, 221;
+  four changes, 244;
+  personal, 271;
+  significant decade, 246-247;
+  study of, 10;
+  true point of view, 3;
+  Western, 218
+
+D'Iberville. _See_ Iberville
+
+Discovery, 271, 293, 301, 306
+
+Doddridge, Joseph, 115
+
+Dogs for hunting Indians, 45
+
+Douglas, S. A., 140;
+  Lincoln debates, 230
+
+Douglas, William, 109
+
+Down east, 79
+
+Dracut, 111
+
+Dreams, 301, 339
+
+Duel, 253
+
+Duluth, 150, 151, 234
+
+Dunkards, 263
+
+Dunstable, 48, 56
+
+Duquesne, Abraham, 14
+
+Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817), 63;
+  fears of pioneer class, 251
+
+
+East, efforts to restrict advance of frontier, 33, 34;
+  fears of the West, 208;
+  out of touch with West, 18
+
+Economic forces and political institutions, 243
+
+Economic historian, 332
+
+Economic legislation and Ohio Valley, 170
+
+Education, 282;
+  Middle West, 156
+
+Edwards, Jonathan, 63
+
+Egleston, Melville, 55
+
+Eliot, C. W., on corporation, 265;
+  on democracy and slavery, 256
+
+Emerson, R. W., 353;
+  on Lincoln, 256
+
+England, decrease of dependence on, 23;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 180, 186;
+  Old Northwest and, 131, 134
+
+English pioneers, 270
+
+English settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, 226
+
+English stock and English speech, 23
+
+Equality, 274;
+  New England, 61, 62, 63;
+  Western settlers, 212
+
+Erie Canal, 7, 136, 195, 197
+
+Europe, American democracy and, 282;
+  how America reacted on, 3;
+  Southeastern, 294, 295, 316
+
+Europeans, 267
+
+Evolution, American, as key to history, 11
+
+Expansion, 206, 219, 304, 345;
+  Ohio Valley and, 166;
+  world politics, 246
+
+Experts, 284, 285, 286
+
+
+"Fall line," 4, 9, 68;
+  efforts to establish military frontier on, 84
+
+Fairfax, Lord, 92, 123
+
+Far East, 315
+
+Far West, 315, 341
+
+Farm lands, 297
+
+Farm machinery, 276
+
+Farmers, 238, 239
+
+Farmer's frontier, 12, 16, 18
+
+Federal colonial system, 168, 169
+
+Federal Reserve districts, 322
+
+Fertility, 129
+
+Field, Marshall, 265
+
+Finance, 318, 325;
+  pioneer ideas, 148
+
+Fire-arms and Indians, 13
+
+Firmin, Giles, 56
+
+Food supply, 279, 294, 314
+
+Foreign parentage, Indiana and Illinois, 232;
+  Michigan, 233;
+  Western States, 237;
+  Wisconsin, 233-234
+
+Foreign policy, 168, 219
+
+Forest Service, 320
+
+Forest philosophy, 207
+
+"Foresters," 63
+
+Forests, 270, 293;
+  Middle West, 130
+
+Fortified houses, 71
+
+Fourierists, 263
+
+France, efforts to revive empire in America, 167;
+  Middle West and, 131;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 180, 186;
+  western exploration, 163;
+
+Franchise, 249-250, 252
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, Mississippi Valley and, 182;
+  on the Germans, 109
+
+Free Soil party, 141, 173, 217
+
+French explorers, 163
+
+French frontier, 125
+
+French settlers in Michigan and Wisconsin, 226
+
+Frontier, conservative attitude toward advance, 63;
+  definition, 3, 41;
+  demand for independent statehood, 248;
+  efforts to check and restrict it, 33;
+  evil effects, 32;
+  extinction, 1, 9, 38, 39, 321;
+  farmers, 239, 240;
+  first official, 39, 54;
+  French, 125;
+  importance as a military training school, 15;
+  influence toward democracy, 247, 249;
+  kinds and modes of advance, 12;
+  Massachusetts, 65;
+  military, of Old West, 106-107;
+  religious aspects, 36;
+  Spanish, 125;
+  towns in Massachusetts, 42, 45, 53, 70;
+  various comparisons, 10
+
+Frontiersmen, 206, 209, 212;
+  in Congress, 252-253;
+  Mississippi Valley, 182;
+  Virginia idea, 86
+
+Fulton, Robert, 171
+
+Fur trade, 13;
+  England after Revolution, 131;
+  Hudson River, 80;
+  Southern, Old West, 87
+
+
+Gallatin, Albert, 191, 252, 317
+
+Galveston, 202
+
+Garfield, J. A., 241
+
+Geographic factors, 329
+
+Geographic provinces, 158
+
+Georgia, 174, 196;
+  restriction of land tenure, 97;
+  settlement, 97
+
+Germanic germs, 3, 4
+
+Germans, 263;
+  in New York in early times, 5;
+  Middle West and, 137-138, 146;
+  Palatine, 5, 82, 100, 109, 124;
+  political exiles, 349;
+  sectaries, 164;
+  Wisconsin, 23, 227, 236;
+  zone of settlement in Great Valley, 102
+
+Glarus, 236
+
+Glenn, James, 23, 108
+
+Godkin, E. L., 307
+
+Goochland County, Va., 93
+
+Government, 321;
+  paternal, 328;
+  popular, 357
+
+Government discipline, 356
+
+Government expeditions, 17
+
+Government intervention, 344
+
+Government ownership, 148
+
+Government powers, 307
+
+Government regulation, 281
+
+Granger movement, 148, 203, 218, 276, 281
+
+Grant, U. S., 142
+
+Granville, Lord, 95, 123
+
+Great Lakes, 128, 149, 150, 173, 297
+
+Great Plains, 8, 128, 147;
+  Indian trade and war, 144
+
+Great Valley, 100;
+  colonization, 100-101
+
+Greater South, 174
+
+Greeley, Horace, 104
+
+Green Mountain Boys, 78
+
+Greenback movement, 148, 203, 218, 276
+
+Greenway manor, 92
+
+Groseilliers, 180
+
+Groton, 48, 57
+
+Grund, F. J., 7
+
+Grundy, Felix, 192
+
+Gulf coast, 295
+
+Gulf States, 141;
+  occupation, 139
+
+
+Hammond, J. H., on slavery problem in the Mississippi Valley, 198
+
+Hanna, Marcus, 265
+
+Harriman, E. H., 280, 318
+
+Harrison, W. H., 168, 173, 189, 192, 213, 255
+
+Hart, A. B., 177
+
+Hartford, 76
+
+Haverhill, 51, 62
+
+Hayes, R. B., 241
+
+Henry, Patrick, 94
+
+Heroes, 254, 256;
+  Western, 213
+
+High thinking, 287
+
+Higher law, 239
+
+Hill, J. J., 260
+
+Historian, 333
+
+Historic ideals, 306, 335
+
+Historical societies, 159-160, 339
+
+History, character, 331-332;
+  new viewpoints, 330
+
+Holland, J. G., 73
+
+Holst, H. E. von, 24
+
+Home markets, 108, 216
+
+Home missions, 36, 354
+
+Homestead law of 1862, 145, 276
+
+Hoosier State, 224
+
+Housatonic River, 71
+
+Housatonic Valley, 72
+
+Houston, Sam, 105
+
+Howells, W. D., 353
+
+Hudson River, 53, 79;
+  frontier, 43;
+  fur trade, 80
+
+Humanitarian movement, 327
+
+Huxley, T. H., on modern civilization, 300
+
+
+Iberville, P. le M. d', 180
+
+Icarians, 263
+
+Idealists, America the goal, 261;
+  social, 349
+
+Ideals, 239;
+  American, and the West, 290;
+  American, loyalty to, 307;
+  American historic, 306, 335;
+  immigrants, 264;
+  Middle West, 153;
+  Mississippi Valley, 203;
+  pioneer, and the State university, 269;
+  readjustment, 321, 328;
+  Western, 209, 214, 267;
+  Western democracy and, 261
+
+Illinois, composite nationality, 232;
+  elements of settlement, 225;
+  settlement, 135
+
+Illiteracy in Middle West, 353
+
+Immigrants, 277;
+  idealism, 264
+
+Immigration, 146, 215, 316
+
+Indian guides, 17
+
+Indian policy, 10
+
+Indian question, early, 9
+
+Indian reservations, 278
+
+Indian trade, 6, 13, 14;
+  Middle West, 143, 144
+
+Indian wars, 9;
+  New England and, 69;
+  Ohio Valley and, 167
+
+Indiana, character, 232;
+  constitution, 282;
+  elements in settlement, 223-224;
+  settlement, 134
+
+Indianapolis, 162, 229
+
+Indians, buffer state for England, 131, 134;
+  congresses to treat with, 15;
+  effects of trades on, 13;
+  hunting Indians with dogs, 45;
+  influence on Puritans and New England, 44;
+  Middle West and, 133, 134;
+  society, 13
+
+Individualism, 30, 32, 37, 78, 125, 140, 203, 254, 259, 271, 273, 302,
+    306;
+  in the Old West, 107;
+  reaction against, 307;
+  Upland South, 165
+
+Industrial conditions, 280, 281, 285;
+  Middle West, 149, 154;
+  Mississippi Valley, 194, 201;
+  Ohio Valley and, 175
+
+Industry, captains of, and large undertakings, 258, 259, 260;
+  control, 318
+
+Inland waterways, 202
+
+Insurgent movement, 327
+
+Intellectual life and the frontier, 37
+
+Intercolonial congresses, 15
+
+Interior and coast, antagonisms, 110
+
+Internal commerce, 171, 188
+
+Internal improvements, 27, 28, 29, 111, 170, 172, 216, 257;
+  after 1812 to break down barrier to West, 195;
+  Old West, 109
+
+Internal trade, Old West, 108, 109
+
+Iowa, 141, 143;
+  elements and growth, 229;
+  settlement, 137
+
+Ipswich, 56
+
+Irish, 350
+
+Iron mines in Middle West, 152
+
+Iron ore, 313
+
+Iroquois Indians, 13, 80
+
+Irrigation, 258, 279
+
+Isms, 239
+
+Izard, Ralph, 274
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew, 105, 168, 173, 189, 206, 213, 216, 241, 252, 253, 268,
+    326;
+  personification of frontier traits, 252, 254
+
+Jackson, Stonewall, 105
+
+Jacksonian democracy, 192, 302, 342-343
+
+James River, 84, 90;
+  settlement, 93
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, 93, 105, 114, 268;
+  conception of democracy, 250, 251;
+  on England and the Mississippi, 186;
+  on the pioneer in Congress, 253;
+  on the importance of the Mississippi Valley, 188
+
+"Jim River" Valley, 145
+
+Johnson, R. M., 192
+
+Johnson, Sir William, 81, 104
+
+Justice, direct forms in the West, 212
+
+
+Kansas, 142, 144, 146, 151;
+  Populists, 238;
+  settlers, 237
+
+Kansas City, 151
+
+Kentucky, 19, 122, 162, 167, 168, 169, 192, 225, 253;
+  slavery, 174
+
+King Philip's War 40, 46, 69
+
+Kipling, Rudyard, "Foreloper," 270;
+  "Son of the English," 262
+
+
+Labor, combinations, 245;
+  composition of laboring class, 316
+
+Labor theorists, 303, 326
+
+Lamar, L. Q. C. (1825-1893), 25
+
+Lancaster, Mass., 48, 57, 61
+
+Land, 328-329;
+  abundance, 274;
+  abundance, as basis of democracy, 191, 192;
+  alien tenure, 110;
+  free, exhausted, 244-245;
+  free Western, 211, 259;
+  fundamental fact in Western society, 211;
+  "mongering," 61;
+  _see also_ Public lands
+
+Land companies, 123, 347
+
+Land grants, 9;
+  for schools and colleges, 74;
+  to railroads, 276
+
+Land Ordinance of 1785, 132
+
+Land policies, 10
+
+Land system, "equality" principle in New England, 61, 62, 63;
+  Georgia, 97;
+  later federal, 123;
+  New England, 54;
+  New England conflicts, 75;
+  New York State, 80;
+  North Carolina, 95;
+  Old West, 122;
+  Pennsylvania, 101;
+  Virginia, 91;
+  Virginia grants to societies, 85
+
+La Salle, 180
+
+Laurentide glacier, 129
+
+Law and order, 298, 344
+
+Leadership, 213, 291, 292, 307;
+  educated, 286
+
+Lease, Mary Ellen, 240
+
+Legislation, 277, 307;
+  frontier and, 24;
+
+Leicester, 59
+
+Leigh, B. W., 115
+
+Lewis and Clark, 13, 17
+
+Liberty, Bacon on, 286;
+  for universities, 287;
+  individual, 213;
+  Western, 212
+
+Life as a whole, 287
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, 105, 135, 142, 174, 206, 213, 217, 225, 241, 268, 304,
+    356;
+  Douglas debates, 230;
+  embodiment of pioneer period, 255-256;
+  Ohio Valley, influence of, 175
+
+Lincoln, C. H., 113
+
+Litchfield, 71, 76, 124
+
+Livingston manor, 81, 82
+
+Locofocos, 303, 326, 348
+
+Log cabin, 338
+
+"Log cabin campaign," 173
+
+London Company, 301
+
+Loria, Achille, 11
+
+Louisiana, 180, 208
+
+Louisiana Purchase, 25, 34, 140, 167, 213, 251;
+  effect on Mississippi Valley, 189-190
+
+Louisville, 162
+
+Lowell, J. R., on Lincoln, 255
+
+Loyal Land Co., 123, 182
+
+Lumber industry, 152;
+  Wisconsin, 234-235
+
+Lumbermen, 272, 273
+
+Lynch law, 212, 272;
+  New England, 78
+
+
+McKinley, William, 236, 237, 241
+
+Magnitude, 258, 260, 276
+
+Maine, 52-53
+
+Maine coast, 79
+
+Mallet brothers, 180
+
+Manila, battle of, 247
+
+Manorial practice in New York, 83
+
+Marietta, 124, 133, 223, 257
+
+"Mark colonies," 70
+
+Marquette, Jacques, 180
+
+Martineau, Harriet, 214, 303, 339
+
+Massachusetts, attempt to locate frontier line, 39;
+  frontier, 65;
+  frontier towns, 42, 45, 53, 70;
+  locating towns before settlement, 76
+
+Mather, Cotton, attitude as to advancing frontier, 63
+
+Mesabi mines, 152, 234
+
+Mendon, 57
+
+Methodists, 238
+
+Mexico, 295
+
+Michigan, 135-136, 137;
+  development and resources, 233;
+  settlement, 226, 228
+
+Middle region, 27;
+  in formation of the Old West, 79;
+  typical American, 28
+
+Middle West, agriculture, 150;
+  Canada and, 128;
+  Civil War and, 142;
+  early society, 153-154;
+  education, 282;
+  elements of settlement--Northern and Southern, 346, 351;
+  Europe and, 282;
+  flow of population into, 132-133;
+  forests, 130;
+  Germans and, 137-138;
+  Germans and Scandinavians, 146;
+  idealism, 153;
+  immigrants of varied nationalities, 349;
+  importance, 126, 128;
+  increase of settlement in the fifties, 142-143;
+  industrial organism, 149;
+  meaning of term, 126;
+  nationalism, 142;
+  natural resources, 129;
+  New England element, 137;
+  peculiarity and influence, 347;
+  pioneer democracy, 335;
+  settlement, 135, 342;
+  slavery question and, 139;
+  southern zone, 138
+
+Migration, 21, 237, 337;
+  communal vs. individual, 125;
+  crops, 149;
+  interstate, 224;
+  labor, 62;
+  New England, and land policy, 77
+
+Militant expansive movement, 105
+
+Military frontier, 41, 47;
+  early form, 47;
+  Old West, significance, 106-107;
+  Virginia in later 17th century, 83, 84
+
+Milwaukee, 137, 227, 236, 350
+
+Miner's frontier, 12
+
+Mining camps, 9
+
+Mining laws, 10
+
+Minneapolis, 137, 151, 234
+
+Minnesota, 143, 144, 237;
+  economic development, 234;
+  Historical Society, 335, 338-339
+
+Missions to the Indians, 79
+
+Mississippi Company, 123, 182
+
+Mississippi River, 7, 9, 142, 185, 194, 345
+
+Mississippi Valley, 10, 139, 166-167, 324;
+  beginning of stratification, 197;
+  Civil War and, 201;
+  democracy and, 190;
+  early population, 183;
+  economic progress after 1812, 194;
+  England's efforts to control, 180-181;
+  extent, 179;
+  French explorers in, 180;
+  frontiersmen's allegiance, 186-187;
+  idealism, social order, 203-204;
+  industrial growth after the Civil War, 201-202;
+  political power and growth from 1810 to 1840, 193;
+  primitive history, 179;
+  question of severance from the Union, 187;
+  significance in American history, 177, 185;
+  slavery struggle and, 201;
+  social forces, early, 183
+
+Missouri, 192
+
+Missouri Compromise, 140, 174, 226
+
+Missouri Valley, 135
+
+Mohawk Valley, 68, 82
+
+Monroe, James, 150
+
+Monroe Doctrine, 296;
+  germ, 168
+
+Monticello, 93
+
+Moravians, 95, 102
+
+Morgan, J. P., 318
+
+Mormons, 263
+
+Morris, Gouverneur, 207
+
+
+Nashaway, 57
+
+National problem, 293
+
+Nationalism, 29;
+  evils of, 157;
+  Middle West and, 142
+
+Nationalities, mixture, 27;
+  replacement in Wisconsin, 235
+
+Naturalization, 110
+
+Nebraska, 144, 145, 220;
+  settlers, 237
+
+Negro, 295
+
+New England, 27, 301;
+  back lands, 75;
+  coast vs. interior, 111;
+  colonies from, 124;
+  culmination of frontier movement, 78;
+  early official frontier line, 43;
+  economic life, 78;
+  effect on the West, 36;
+  foreign element, 294;
+  frontier protection, 46-47;
+  frontier types, 43-44;
+  Greater New England, 66, 70;
+  ideas, and Middle West, 348;
+  Indian wars, 69;
+  land system, 54;
+  Middle West and, 347;
+  Ohio settlement and, 223;
+  Old West and, 68;
+  Old West and interior New England, 70;
+  pioneer type, 239;
+  streams of settlement from, 215;
+  two New Englands of the formative period of the Old West, 78-79
+
+New Englanders in the Middle West, 137;
+  in Wisconsin and the lake region, 228;
+  three movements of advance from the coast, 136;
+  Westernized, 215, 216
+
+New Glarus, 236
+
+New Hampshire, 69, 72, 77, 111
+
+New Hampshire grants, 77
+
+New Northwest, 222
+
+New Orleans, 136, 137, 167, 187, 188, 189, 217, 295
+
+New South, 218;
+  Old West and, 100
+
+New West, 257
+
+New York City, 136, 195, 318
+
+New York State, early frontier, 43;
+  lack of expansive power, 80;
+  land system, 80;
+  settlement from New England, 83;
+  western, 230
+
+Newspapers of the Middle West, 353
+
+Nitrates, 279
+
+Norfolk, 195
+
+North Carolina, 87, 106;
+  coast vs. upland, 116;
+  in Indiana Settlement, 224;
+  public lands, 95;
+  settlement, 94, 95;
+  slavery, 122;
+  taxation, 118, 119
+
+North Central States, 126;
+  region as a whole, 341
+
+North Dakota, development, 237
+
+Northampton, 63
+
+Northfield, 53
+
+Northwest, democracy, 356;
+  Old and New, 222;
+  _see also_ Old Northwest
+
+Northwest Territory, 222
+
+Northwestern boundary, 324
+
+Norton, C. E., 208-209
+
+Norwegians, 232
+
+Nullification, 117, 254
+
+
+Ohio, diversity of interests, 231-232;
+  elements of settlement, 223;
+  history, 133-134;
+  New England element, 223;
+  Southern contribution to settlement, 223
+
+Ohio Company, 123, 133, 141, 182, 223
+
+Ohio River, 5, 161
+
+Ohio Valley, 104;
+  as a highway, 162;
+  economic legislation and, 170;
+  effects on national expansion, 166;
+  in American history, 157;
+  influence on Lincoln, 175;
+  part in making of the nation, 160;
+  physiography, 160-161;
+  relation to the South, 174;
+  religious spirit, 164, 165;
+  stock and settlement, 164
+
+Oil wells, 297
+
+Oklahoma, 278, 297
+
+Old National road, 136
+
+Old Northwest, 131, 132, 136, 221;
+  as a whole, 241-242;
+  defined, 218;
+  elements of settlement, 222;
+  political position, 236;
+  social origin, 222-223;
+  Southern element in settlement, 223, 225-226;
+  turning point of control, 229
+
+"Old South," 166
+
+Old West, colonization of areas beyond the mountains, 124;
+  consequences of formation, 106;
+  New South and, 100;
+  summary of frontier movement in 17th and early 18th centuries, 98;
+  term defined, 68
+
+Old World, 261, 267, 294, 299, 344, 349;
+  effect of American frontier, 22;
+  West and, 206, 210
+
+Opportunity, 37, 212, 239, 259-260, 261, 263, 271-272, 342, 343
+
+Orangeburg, 96
+
+Ordinance of 1787, 25, 132, 168, 190, 223
+
+Oregon country, 144
+
+Orient, 297
+
+Osgood, H. L., 30
+
+
+Pacific coast, 168, 219, 304
+
+Pacific Northwest, 296
+
+Pacific Ocean, 297, 315
+
+Packing industries, 151
+
+Palatine Germans, 5, 22, 100, 109, 124;
+  New York State and, 82
+
+Palisades, 71
+
+Panama Canal, 295
+
+Panics, 279-280
+
+Paper money, 32, 111, 121, 122, 209
+
+Parkman, Francis, 70, 72, 144, 163
+
+"Particular plantations," 41
+
+Past, lessons of, 355
+
+Patroon estates, 80
+
+Paxton Boys, 112
+
+Pecks "New Guide to the West," 19
+
+Penn, William, 262
+
+Pennsylvania, 23, 27;
+  coast and interior, antagonisms, 112;
+  German settlement, 82, 100;
+  Great Valley of, 68, 164;
+  land grants, 101;
+  new Pennsylvania of the Great Valley, 100;
+  Scotch-Irish, 103, 104;
+  settlement Of Old West part, 83
+
+Pennsylvania Dutch, 22, 100, 110
+
+Perrot, Nicolas, 180
+
+Philadelphia, 106;
+  trade, 108
+
+Physiographic provinces, 127
+
+Piedmont, 68;
+  Virginia, 87, 89
+
+Pig iron, 152, 313
+
+Pine, 151
+
+Pine belt in Middle West, 143
+
+Pioneer democracy, lessons learned, 357;
+  Middle West, 335
+
+Pioneer farmers, 21, 206, 257
+
+Pioneers, conservative fears about, 251, 252;
+  contest with capitalist, 325;
+  contrast of conditions, 279;
+  deeper significance, 338;
+  essence, 271;
+  ideals and the State university, 269;
+  Middle West, 146, 154;
+  Ohio Valley, 167;
+  old ideals, 148;
+  sketch, 19
+
+Pittsburgh, 104, 127, 136, 154-155, 161, 265, 299, 314, 324
+
+Plain people, 256, 267
+
+Political institutions, 243;
+  frontier and, 24
+
+Political parties, 249, 324
+
+Polk, J. K., 105, 192, 255
+
+Pontiac, 131, 144
+
+Poor whites, 224
+
+Population center, 222
+
+Populists, 32, 127, 147, 155, 203, 220, 247, 277, 281, 305;
+  Kansas, 238
+
+Prairie Plains, 129
+
+Prairie states, 239
+
+Prairies, 218, 236, 276, 348;
+  settlement, 145, 147
+
+Presbyterians, 105, 106, 109, 164
+
+Presidency, 254;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 192;
+  Ohio Valley and, 175;
+  Old Northwest and, 222
+
+Prices, 313
+
+Princeton college, 106
+
+Pritchett, H. S., 282
+
+Privilege, 192;
+  conflict against, 120, 121
+
+Proclamation of 1763, 181
+
+Progressive Republican movement, 321
+
+Prohibitionists, 240
+
+"Proletariat," 285
+
+Property, 210;
+  as basis of suffrage, 249
+
+Prosperity, 281
+
+Protection. _See_ Tariff
+
+Provinces, geographic, 158
+
+Provincialism, desirable, 157, 159
+
+Prussianism, 337, 356
+
+Public lands, 25, 132, 303;
+  policy of America, 26, 170;
+  Western lands, first debates on, 191
+
+Public schools, 266, 282
+
+Puget Sound, 298
+
+Puritan ideals, 73, 75, 78;
+  German conflict with, 138
+
+Puritanism, 27
+
+Puritans and Indians, 44
+
+Purrysburg, 97
+
+Pynchon, John, 51, 52
+
+
+Quakers, 105, 112, 164;
+  in settlement of Indiana, 224
+
+Quebec, Province of, 131
+
+Quincy, Josiah, 208
+
+
+Radisson, Sieur de, 180
+
+Railroads, administration by regions, 322;
+  Chicago and, 150;
+  continental, 247;
+  in early fifties, 137;
+  land grants to, 276;
+  Mississippi Valley, 304;
+  northwestern, 145;
+  origin, 14;
+  speculative movement, 276;
+  statistics, 314;
+  western, 218
+
+Rancher's frontier, 12, 16
+
+Ranches, 9, 16;
+  Virginia, 88
+
+Rappahannock River, 84, 90;
+  settlement, 93
+
+Reclamation, 298
+
+Reclamation Service, 320
+
+Red Cloud (Indian), 144
+
+Red River valley, 145
+
+Redemptioners, 22, 90, 97, 100
+
+Reformers, 281, 324;
+  social, 262-263
+
+Regulation, War of the, 248
+
+Regulators, 116, 119, 120, 212
+
+Religion of the Middle West, 345
+
+Religious freedom of the Old West, 121
+
+Religious spirit, Ohio Valley, 164, 165;
+  Upland South, 164, 165
+
+Rensselaerswyck, 80
+
+Representation, 114, 117, 120
+
+Republican party, 327
+
+Research, 284, 287, 331
+
+Revolution, American, 30
+
+Rhodes, J. F., 24
+
+Richmond, Va., 108
+
+Rights, equal, 326-327, 338;
+  of man, 192
+
+Ripley, W. Z., 316
+
+Robertson, James, 105, 187
+
+Rockefeller, J. D., 260, 264-265
+
+Rocky Mountains, 8, 9, 10, 298
+
+Roosevelt, Theodore, 202, 204, 281, 319, 327;
+  on the Mississippi Valley, 178;
+  "Winning of the West," 67
+
+Root, Elihu, 159
+
+Roxbury, 59
+
+Royce, Josiah, 157, 358
+
+Rush, Richard, 317
+
+
+St. Louis, 151, 161, 229
+
+St. Paul, 137, 234
+
+Salisbury, Mass., 56
+
+Salt, 17;
+  annual pilgrimage to coast for, 17
+
+Salt springs, 17, 18
+
+Salzburgers, 97
+
+Sandys, Sir Edwin, 301
+
+Sault Ste. Marie Canal, 149
+
+Scalps, Massachusetts bounty for, 45
+
+Scandinavians, 263, 350;
+  Middle West, 146;
+  Western life, 232-233, 234
+
+Schools, early difficulties, 107;
+  _see also_ Public schools
+
+Schurz, Carl, 337
+
+Science, 284, 330-331
+
+Scientific farming, 294
+
+Scotch Highlanders, 104;
+  Georgia, 98
+
+Scotch-Irish, 5, 22, 71;
+  migration in Great Valley and Piedmont, 103;
+  Pennsylvania, 104;
+  South Carolina, 97;
+  Virginia, 86, 91-92
+
+Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, 105, 109, 164
+
+Scovillites, 116
+
+Seaboard cities, 194, 195, 196
+
+Seattle, 298
+
+"Section" of land, 123, 132
+
+Sectionalism, 27, 28, 52, 157, 215, 220, 321
+
+Sections, relation, 159
+
+Self-government, 169, 190, 207, 248, 275
+
+Self-made man, 219, 318
+
+Servants, 60, 353
+
+Service to the Union, 358
+
+Settlement, community type, 73, 74
+
+Settler, 20
+
+Sevier, John, 105, 187
+
+Seward, W. H., 141;
+  on the Northwest, 230;
+  on the slavery issue in the Mississippi Valley, 199, 200
+
+Shays' Rebellion, 112, 119, 122, 249
+
+Sheffield, 71
+
+Sheldon, George, 58
+
+Shenandoah Valley, 68, 90, 91, 92, 99, 105
+
+Sherman, W. T., 142
+
+Sibley, H. H. (1811-1891), 272, 273, 328
+
+Silver movement, 238, 239, 329
+
+Simsbury, 63
+
+Singletary, Amos, 240
+
+Sioux Indians, 130
+
+Six Nations, 15, 83
+
+Slavery question, 24, 29, 98, 111, 139, 304, 330;
+  compromise movement, 174;
+  democracy and, 256;
+  expansion, 174;
+  Middle West and, 139;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 198, 201;
+  Northwest and, 230;
+  slaves as property, 115;
+  Virginia and North Carolina, 122
+
+Smith, Major Lawrence, 84
+
+Social control, 277
+
+Social forces, in American history, 311;
+  mode of investigating, 330;
+  on the Atlantic coast, 295;
+  political institutions and, 243
+
+Social mobility, 355
+
+Social order, Mississippi Valley, 203-204;
+  new, 263
+
+Social reformers, 262-263
+
+Socialism, 246, 277, 307, 321
+
+Society, backwoods, 212;
+  rebirth of in the West, 205
+
+Soils, 278, 279;
+  search for, 18
+
+Solid South, 217
+
+South, 27, 166, 218;
+  contribution to settlement of Old Northwest (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois),
+    223, 225-226;
+  Ohio Valley and, 174;
+  solid, 217;
+  transforming forces, 295;
+  West and, 196, 197;
+  _see also_ Upland South
+
+South Carolina, 174;
+  condition of antagonism between coast and interior, 116;
+  land system, townships, 96;
+  trade, 108
+
+South Dakota, development, 237
+
+Southeastern Europe, 294, 299, 316
+
+Southerners and the Middle West, 133-134, 135, 138
+
+Southwest, 297
+
+Spain, 167, 181, 246;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 184, 185
+
+Spangenburg, A. G., 17
+
+Spanish America 181, 182, 295
+
+Spanish frontier, 125
+
+Spanish War, 246
+
+Speculation, 319
+
+Spoils system, 32, 254
+
+Spotswood, Alexander, 22, 88, 90, 91, 113, 247;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 180
+
+Spotsylvania County, Va., 90
+
+Spreckles, Claus, 265
+
+Squatter-sovereignty, 140
+
+Squatters, 272, 343;
+  doctrines, 273, 328;
+  ideal, 320;
+  Middle West, 137;
+  Ohio Valley, 170;
+  Pennsylvania in 1726, 101
+
+Stark, John, 103-104
+
+State historical societies, 340
+
+State lines, 127
+
+State universities, 221, 354;
+  as safeguard of democracy, 286;
+  Michigan, 233;
+  peculiar power, 283-284;
+  pioneer ideals and, 269, 281
+
+States, checkerboard, 218;
+  frontier pioneers' demand for statehood, 248;
+  groups, 159;
+  new states vs. Atlantic States, 207;
+  System of, 168
+
+Staunton, Va., 92
+
+Steam navigation, 7, 135, 171
+
+Steel, 313
+
+Steel and iron industry, 152
+
+Stockbridge, 79
+
+Stoddard, Solomon, 45
+
+Success, 288, 309
+
+Sudbury, 39
+
+Suffrage, 192, 216;
+  basis, 249;
+  frontier and extension, 30;
+  manhood, 250, 352
+
+Superior, Lake, 180, 314;
+  iron mines, 152
+
+Swedes, 233
+
+Symmes Purchase, 223
+
+
+Talleyrand, 299
+
+Taney, R. B., 141
+
+Tariff, 25, 27, 170, 172, 197, 216
+
+Taylor, Zachary, 255
+
+Tecumthe, 134, 144
+
+Tennessee, 122, 168, 187, 225, 252, 253;
+  democracy, 192
+
+Tennyson's "Ulysses," 310
+
+Territories, system of, 168, 169
+
+Texas, 168
+
+Thomas, J. B., 174
+
+Tocqueville, A. C. H. C. de, 153, 275, 303, 343
+
+Toledo, Ohio, 231
+
+Toleration, 355
+
+Town meeting, 62
+
+Towns, legislating into existence, 125;
+  locating, Massachusetts, 76;
+  New England and Virginia, 41;
+  new settlements in New England, 55;
+  South Carolina, 96;
+  typical form of establishing in New England, 74;
+  Virginia, 85, 86
+
+Trader's frontier, 12;
+  effects following, 12;
+  rapidity of advance, 12, 13
+
+Trading posts, 14
+
+Transportation, 148;
+  Great Lakes, 150
+
+Tryon, William, 106
+
+Tuscarora War, 94, 95
+
+
+Ulstermen, 103
+
+Unification of the West, 215
+
+United States, collection of nations, 158;
+  development since 1890, 311;
+  federal aspect, 159;
+  fundamental forces, 311;
+  original contribution to society, 281-282;
+  wealth, 312
+
+U. S. Steel Corporation, 152-153, 247, 265, 313
+
+Universities, duties, 292;
+  function, 287;
+  influence of university men, 285;
+  need of freedom, 287;
+  pressure of democracies on, 283;
+  State and, 286;
+  _see also_ State universities
+
+Upland South, 164;
+  religious spirit, 164, 165
+
+
+Van Buren, Martin, 254, 326
+
+Van Rensselaer manor, 81
+
+Vandalia, 229
+
+Verendryes, the, 180
+
+Vermont, 69, 72, 77, 78, 111, 122, 136
+
+Vermonters in Wisconsin and Michigan, 228
+
+Vicksburg, 201
+
+Vigilance committees, 212
+
+Vinton, S. F., 141, 229
+
+Virginia, 301;
+  early attempt to establish frontier, 41;
+  Indian wars, 69-70;
+  inequalities, coast vs. interior, 113;
+  interest in Mississippi Valley, 182;
+  land grants, 91;
+  land grants to societies, 85;
+  Piedmont, society, 95;
+  Piedmont portions, 87, 89;
+  settlement in latter part of 17th century, 83;
+  slavery, 122;
+  two Virginias in later 17th century, 94;
+  Western democracy and, 250
+
+Virginia Convention of 1829-30, 28, 31
+
+Visions, 270, 331, 339-340
+
+Voyageurs, 17
+
+
+Wachovia, 95
+
+Walker, F. A., 128
+
+War of 1812, 168, 213
+
+Washington, George, 92, 124;
+  Mississippi Valley and, 181, 182, 194, 196, 324;
+  Ohio Valley and, 163, 167
+
+Wealth, 213-214, 219, 288, 319;
+  democracy versus, 192;
+  in politics, 173;
+  United States, 312
+
+Wells (town), 47
+
+"Welsh tract," 97
+
+Wentworth, Benning, 77
+
+West, American ideals and, 290;
+  beginning of, 6;
+  center of interest, 327;
+  constructive force, 206;
+  contributions to democracy, 243;
+  factor in American history, 1, 3;
+  ideals, 209, 214, 267;
+  indefiniteness of term, 126;
+  insurgent voice, 319;
+  main streams of settlement, 215;
+  mark of New England, 36;
+  phase of division, 216-217;
+  population, 35;
+  problem of, 205;
+  South and, 196, 197;
+  warnings against, 208, 209;
+  Middle West; _see also_ Old West; Old Northwest
+
+West Virginia, 114
+
+Westchester County, N. Y., 81
+
+Western colleges, 36
+
+Western life, dominant forces, 222
+
+Western Reserve, 124, 133
+
+Western spirit, 310
+
+"Western Waters," 161, 206, 302;
+  men of freedom and independence, 183
+
+"Western World," 161, 166, 206, 302;
+  basis of its civilization, 177
+
+Wheat, 329;
+  areas, 149
+
+Whig party, 27, 173, 304, 351
+
+White, Abraham, 240
+
+White, Hugh, 192
+
+Whitman, Walt, 336
+
+Wilderness, 262, 269, 270, 279
+
+Wilkinson, James, 169, 187
+
+Williams, John (1664-1729), 70
+
+Williams, Roger, 262
+
+Windsor, 76
+
+Winthrop, John, 62
+
+Wisconsin, 137, 138, 218, 294, 341;
+  development and elements, 233-234;
+  German element, 227, 228, 236;
+  New England element, 228;
+  settlement, 226, 227
+
+Wood, Abraham, 98
+
+Woodstock, 59
+
+World's fairs, 156
+
+World-politics, 246, 315
+
+Wyoming Valley, 79, 124
+
+
+Yemassee War, 95
+
+"Young America" doctrine, 140
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+The following words appear in the text with and without hyphens.
+They have been left as in the original.
+
+     battle-field     battlefield
+     coast-wise       coastwise
+     cow-pens         cowpens
+     head-rights      headrights
+     iron-master      ironmaster
+     new-comers       newcomers
+     non-sectional    nonsectional
+     out-vote         outvote
+     rail-splitter    railsplitters
+     sea-board        seaboard
+     slave-holding    slaveholding
+     tide-water       tidewater
+     un-won           unwon
+
+The following corrections have been made to the text:
+
+     page 25--as the nation marched westward.[period is missing in
+     original]
+
+     page 40, footnote 40:5--"American Colonies in the Seventeenth
+     Century,"[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     page 48, footnote 48:4--Sheldon, "Deerfield,"[quotation mark
+     missing in original]
+
+     page 49--your honours [original has opening parenthesis]we
+     haue but litel laft
+
+     page 53--the frontier Towns.[original has extraneous quotation
+     mark]
+
+     page 68, footnote 68:1--Powell, "Physiographic
+     Regions[original has extraneous single quote]"
+
+     page 75, footnote 75:1--Egleston[original has Eggleston],
+     "Land System of the New England Colonies,"
+
+     page 86--at least three foot within the ground."[quotation
+     mark missing in original]
+
+     page 96, footnote 96:3--(N. Y., 1899)[closing parenthesis
+     missing in original], pp. 149, 151;
+
+     page 117, footnote 117:3--pp. 440-447[original has 440-437]
+
+     page 118--it was being exploited,[original has period]
+
+     page 118, footnote 118:2--N. C.[original has N .C.]
+
+     page 123--Preemption and preemptions are hyphenated across
+     line breaks in the original. The diaresis has been reinserted
+     in the rejoined words.
+
+     page 163--American backwoodsmen[original has backswoodsmen]
+
+     page 167--to add the settlements[original has setlements]
+
+     page 171--social conditions of the people whose[original has
+     who] needs
+
+     page 236--stronghold of resistance[original has resistence]
+
+     page 254--formal law and the subtleties[original has
+     subleties]
+
+     page 268--that dwarf [original has extraneous word of] those
+     of the Old World
+
+     page 310--to pause, to make an end,[original has period]
+
+     page 348--to his own business.[original has extraneous
+     quotation mark]
+
+     page 353--at least before [original has extraneous word at]
+     the present day
+
+     page 362--Bryan, W. J., 204, 236, 237, 246, 281, 327,
+     330[original has 329]
+
+     page 363, under Democracy--Godkin[original has Gookin] on, 307
+
+     page 363--Democratic party, 327, 330[original has 329]
+
+     page 363--Discovery, 271[original has 270], 293, 301, 306
+
+     page 363--Douglas[original has Douglass], William, 109
+
+     page 364--Forest[original has Foreign] Service, 320
+
+     page 364, under Germans--Palatine, 5, 82, 100, 109,
+     124[original also lists page 32 in error]
+
+     page 366--Henry, Patrick, 94[original has 95]
+
+     page 366, under Indians: hunting Indians with dogs,
+     45[original has 95]
+
+     page 367--Kipling, Rudyard, "Foreloper[original has
+     Toreloper]," 270
+
+     page 368--Marietta, 124, 133[original has 132], 223, 257
+
+     page 368, under Michigan--development and resources,
+     233[original has 232]
+
+     page 371--Pynchon[original has Pyrichon], John, 51, 52
+
+     page 373--Spangenburg[original has Spangenberg], A. G.
+
+Spelling and punctuation errors in quoted material have been left as in
+the original.
+
+The index entry for James Glenn was after the entry for E. L. Godkin.
+The two entries were reversed to maintain alphabetical order. Index
+entries for Leicester and Leigh, B. W., were combined with the
+Legislation entry. Entries were moved as appropriate.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FRONTIER IN AMERICAN HISTORY***
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