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+Project Gutenberg's Early Theories of Translation, by Flora Ross Amos
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Early Theories of Translation
+
+Author: Flora Ross Amos
+
+Release Date: August 18, 2007 [EBook #22353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION ***
+
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+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in        |
+    | this text. For a complete list, please see the bottom of   |
+    | this document.                                             |
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+=Columbia University=
+
+
+STUDIES IN ENGLISH AND COMPARATIVE
+LITERATURE
+
+EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
+
+
+
+
+EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
+
+BY
+
+FLORA ROSS AMOS
+
+OCTAGON BOOKS
+
+A Division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux
+New York 1973
+
+
+Copyright 1920 by Columbia University Press
+
+
+_Reprinted 1973
+by special arrangement with Columbia University Press_
+
+
+OCTAGON BOOKS
+A DIVISION OF FARRAR, STRAUS & GIROUX, INC.
+19 Union Square West
+New York, N.Y. 10003
+
+
+Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
+
+
+Amos, Flora Ross, 1881-
+   Early theories of translation.
+
+   Original ed. issued in series: Columbia University studies in
+     English and comparative literature.
+
+   Originally presented as the author's thesis, Columbia.
+
+   1. Translating and interpreting. I. Title.
+   II. Series: Columbia University studies in English and comparative
+       literature.
+
+[PN241.A5 1973]                   418'.02                    73-397
+
+ISBN 0-374-90176-7
+
+_Printed in U.S.A. by_ NOBLE OFFSET PRINTERS, INC. New York, N.Y. 10003
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+MY FATHER AND MY MOTHER
+
+
+
+
+     _This Monograph has been approved by the Department of
+     English and Comparative Literature in Columbia University as
+     a contribution to knowledge worthy of publication._
+
+                                       A. H. THORNDIKE,
+                                         _Executive Officer_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the following pages I have attempted to trace certain developments in
+the theory of translation as it has been formulated by English writers.
+I have confined myself, of necessity, to such opinions as have been put
+into words, and avoided making use of deductions from practice other
+than a few obvious and generally accepted conclusions. The procedure
+involves, of course, the omission of some important elements in the
+history of the theory of translation, in that it ignores the
+discrepancies between precept and practice, and the influence which
+practice has exerted upon theory; on the other hand, however, it
+confines a subject, otherwise impossibly large, within measurable
+limits. The chief emphasis has been laid upon the sixteenth century, the
+period of the most enthusiastic experimentation, when, though it was
+still possible for the translator to rest in the comfortable medieval
+conception of his art, the New Learning was offering new problems and
+new ideals to every man who shared in the intellectual awakening of his
+time. In the matter of theory, however, the age was one of beginnings,
+of suggestions, rather than of finished, definitive results; even by the
+end of the century there were still translators who had not yet
+appreciated the immense difference between medieval and modern standards
+of translation. To understand their position, then, it is necessary to
+consider both the preceding period, with its incidental,
+half-unconscious comment, and the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+with their systematized, unified contribution. This last material, in
+especial, is included chiefly because of the light which it throws in
+retrospect on the views of earlier translators, and only the main
+course of theory, by this time fairly easy to follow, is traced.
+
+The aim has in no case been to give bibliographical information. A
+number of translations, important in themselves, have received no
+mention because they have evoked no comment on methods. The references
+given are not necessarily to first editions. Generally speaking, it has
+been the prefaces to translations that have yielded material, and such
+prefaces, especially during the Elizabethan period, are likely to be
+included or omitted in different editions for no very clear reasons.
+Quotations have been modernized, except in the case of Middle English
+verse, where the original form has been kept for the sake of the metre.
+
+The history of the theory of translation is by no means a record of
+easily distinguishable, orderly progression. It shows an odd lack of
+continuity. Those who give rules for translation ignore, in the great
+majority of cases, the contribution of their predecessors and
+contemporaries. Towards the beginning of Elizabeth's reign a small group
+of critics bring to the problems of the translator both technical
+scholarship and alert, original minds, but apparently the new and
+significant ideas which they offer have little or no effect on the
+general course of theory. Again, Tytler, whose _Essay on the Principles
+on Translation_, published towards the end of the eighteenth century,
+may with some reason claim to be the first detailed discussion of the
+questions involved, declares that, with a few exceptions, he has "met
+with nothing that has been written professedly on the subject," a
+statement showing a surprising disregard for the elaborate prefaces that
+accompanied the translations of his own century.
+
+This lack of consecutiveness in criticism is probably partially
+accountable for the slowness with which translators attained the power
+to put into words, clearly and unmistakably, their aims and methods.
+Even if one were to leave aside the childishly vague comment of
+medieval writers and the awkward attempts of Elizabethan translators to
+describe their processes, there would still remain in the modern period
+much that is careless or misleading. The very term "translation" is long
+in defining itself; more difficult terms, like "faithfulness" and
+"accuracy," have widely different meanings with different writers. The
+various kinds of literature are often treated in the mass with little
+attempt at discrimination between them, regardless of the fact that the
+problems of the translator vary with the character of his original.
+Tytler's book, full of interesting detail as it is, turns from prose to
+verse, from lyric to epic, from ancient to modern, till the effect it
+leaves on the reader is fragmentary and confusing.
+
+Moreover, there has never been uniformity of opinion with regard to the
+aims and methods of translation. Even in the age of Pope, when, if ever,
+it was safe to be dogmatic and when the theory of translation seemed
+safely on the way to become standardized, one still hears the voices of
+a few recalcitrants, voices which become louder and more numerous as the
+century advances; in the nineteenth century the most casual survey
+discovers conflicting views on matters of fundamental importance to the
+translator. Who are to be the readers, who the judges, of a translation
+are obviously questions of primary significance to both translator and
+critic, but they are questions which have never been authoritatively
+settled. When, for example, Caxton in the fifteenth century uses the
+"curious" terms which he thinks will appeal to a clerk or a noble
+gentleman, his critics complain because the common people cannot
+understand his words. A similar situation appears in modern times when
+Arnold lays down the law that the judges of an English version of Homer
+must be "scholars, because scholars alone have the means of really
+judging him," and Newman replies that "scholars are the tribunal of
+Erudition, but of Taste the educated but unlearned public must be the
+only rightful judge."
+
+Again, critics have been hesitant in defining the all-important term
+"faithfulness." To one writer fidelity may imply a reproduction of his
+original as nearly as possible word for word and line for line; to
+another it may mean an attempt to carry over into English the spirit of
+the original, at the sacrifice, where necessary, not only of the exact
+words but of the exact substance of his source. The one extreme is
+likely to result in an awkward, more or less unintelligible version; the
+other, as illustrated, for example, by Pope's _Homer_, may give us a
+work so modified by the personality of the translator or by the
+prevailing taste of his time as to be almost a new creation. But while
+it is easy to point out the defects of the two methods, few critics have
+had the courage to give fair consideration to both possibilities; to
+treat the two aims, not as mutually exclusive, but as complementary; to
+realize that the spirit and the letter may be not two but one. In the
+sixteenth century Sir Thomas North translated from the French Amyot's
+wise observation: "The office of a fit translator consisteth not only in
+the faithful expressing of his author's meaning, but also in a certain
+resembling and shadowing forth of the form of his style and manner of
+his speaking"; but few English critics, in the period under our
+consideration, grasped thus firmly the essential connection between
+thought and style and the consequent responsibility of the translator.
+
+Yet it is those critics who have faced all the difficulties boldly, and
+who have urged upon the translator both due regard for the original and
+due regard for English literary standards who have made the most
+valuable contributions to theory. It is much easier to set the standard
+of translation low, to settle matters as does Mr. Chesterton in his
+casual disposition of Fitzgerald's _Omar_: "It is quite clear that
+Fitzgerald's work is much too good to be a good translation." We can, it
+is true, point to few realizations of the ideal theory, but in
+approaching a literature which possesses the English Bible, that
+marvelous union of faithfulness to source with faithfulness to the
+genius of the English language, we can scarcely view the problem of
+translation thus hopelessly.
+
+The most stimulating and suggestive criticism, indeed, has come from men
+who have seen in the very difficulty of the situation opportunities for
+achievement. While the more cautious grammarian has ever been doubtful
+of the quality of the translator's English, fearful of the introduction
+of foreign words, foreign idioms, to the men who have cared most about
+the destinies of the vernacular,--men like Caxton, More, or
+Dryden,--translation has appeared not an enemy to the mother tongue, but
+a means of enlarging and clarifying it. In the time of Elizabeth the
+translator often directed his appeal more especially to those who loved
+their country's language and wished to see it become a more adequate
+medium of expression. That he should, then, look upon translation as a
+promising experiment, rather than a doubtful compromise, is an essential
+characteristic of the good critic.
+
+The necessity for open-mindedness, indeed, in some degree accounts for
+the tentative quality in so much of the theory of translation.
+Translation fills too large a place, is too closely connected with the
+whole course of literary development, to be disposed of easily. As each
+succeeding period has revealed new fashions in literature, new avenues
+of approach to the reader, there have been new translations and the
+theorist has had to reverse or revise the opinions bequeathed to him
+from a previous period. The theory of translation cannot be reduced to a
+rule of thumb; it must again and again be modified to include new facts.
+Thus regarded it becomes a vital part of our literary history, and has
+significance both for those who love the English language and for those
+who love English literature.
+
+In conclusion, it remains only to mention a few of my many obligations.
+To the libraries of Princeton and Harvard as well as Columbia University
+I owe access to much useful material. It is a pleasure to acknowledge my
+indebtedness to Professors Ashley H. Thorndike and William W. Lawrence
+and to Professor William H. Hulme of Western Reserve University for
+helpful criticism and suggestions. In especial I am deeply grateful to
+Professor George Philip Krapp, who first suggested this study and who
+has given me constant encouragement and guidance throughout its course.
+
+_April, 1919._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                 PAGE
+
+  I. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD                                   3
+
+ II. THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE                         49
+
+III. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY                                81
+
+ IV. FROM COWLEY TO POPE                                 135
+
+     INDEX                                               181
+
+
+
+
+I. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
+
+
+
+
+EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
+
+I
+
+THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
+
+
+From the comment of Anglo-Saxon writers one may derive a not inadequate
+idea of the attitude generally prevailing in the medieval period with
+regard to the treatment of material from foreign sources. Suggestive
+statements appear in the prefaces to the works associated with the name
+of Alfred. One method of translation is employed in producing an English
+version of Pope Gregory's _Pastoral Care_. "I began," runs the preface,
+"among other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom, to translate
+into English the book which is called in Latin _Pastoralis_, and in
+English _Shepherd's Book_, sometimes word by word, and sometimes
+according to the sense."[1] A similar practice is described in the
+_Proem_ to _The Consolation of Philosophy_ of Boethius. "King Alfred was
+the interpreter of this book, and turned it from book Latin into
+English, as it is now done. Now he set forth word by word, now sense
+from sense, as clearly and intelligently as he was able."[2] The preface
+to _St. Augustine's Soliloquies_, the beginning of which, unfortunately,
+seems to be lacking, suggests another possible treatment of borrowed
+material. "I gathered for myself," writes the author, "cudgels, and
+stud-shafts, and horizontal shafts, and helves for each of the tools
+that I could work with, and bow-timbers and bolt-timbers for every work
+that I could perform, the comeliest trees, as many as I could carry.
+Neither came I with a burden home, for it did not please me to bring all
+the wood back, even if I could bear it. In each tree I saw something
+that I needed at home; therefore I advise each one who can, and has many
+wains, that he direct his steps to the same wood where I cut the
+stud-shafts. Let him fetch more for himself, and load his wains with
+fair beams, that he may wind many a neat wall, and erect many a rare
+house, and build a fair town, and therein may dwell merrily and softly
+both winter and summer, as I have not yet done."[3]
+
+Aelfric, writing a century later, develops his theories in greater
+detail. Except in the _Preface to Genesis_, they are expressed in Latin,
+the language of the lettered, a fact which suggests that, unlike the
+translations themselves, the prefaces were addressed to readers who
+were, for the most part, opposed to translation into the vernacular and
+who, in addition to this, were in all probability especially suspicious
+of the methods employed by Aelfric. These methods were strongly in the
+direction of popularization. Aelfric's general practice is like that of
+Alfred. He declares repeatedly[4] that he translates sense for sense,
+not always word for word. Furthermore, he desires rather to be clear and
+simple than to adorn his style with rhetorical ornament.[5] Instead of
+unfamiliar terms, he uses "the pure and open words of the language of
+this people."[6] In connection with the translation of the Bible he lays
+down the principle that Latin must give way to English idiom.[7] For all
+these things Aelfric has definite reasons. Keeping always in mind a
+clear conception of the nature of his audience, he does whatever seems
+to him necessary to make his work attractive and, consequently,
+profitable. Preparing his _Grammar_ for "tender youths," though he knows
+that words may be interpreted in many ways, he follows a simple method
+of interpretation in order that the book may not become tiresome.[8] The
+_Homilies_, intended for simple people, are put into simple English,
+that they may more easily reach the hearts of those who read or hear.[9]
+This popularization is extended even farther. Aelfric explains[10] that
+he has abbreviated both the _Homilies_[11] and the _Lives of the
+Saints_,[12] again of deliberate purpose, as appears in his preface to
+the latter: "Hoc sciendum etiam quod prolixiores passiones breuiamus
+verbis non adeo sensu, ne fastidiosis ingeratur tedium si tanta
+prolixitas erit in propria lingua quanta est in latina."
+
+Incidentally, however, Aelfric makes it evident that his were not the
+only theories of translation which the period afforded. In the preface
+to the first collection of _Homilies_ he anticipates the disapproval of
+those who demand greater closeness in following originals. He recognizes
+the fact that his translation may displease some critics "quod non
+semper verbum ex verbo, aut quod breviorem explicationem quam tractatus
+auctorum habent, sive non quod per ordinem ecclesiastici ritus omnia
+Evangelia percurrimus." The _Preface to Genesis_ suggests that the
+writer was familiar with Jerome's insistence on the necessity for
+unusual faithfulness in translating the Bible.[13] Such comment implies
+a mind surprisingly awake to the problems of translation.
+
+The translator who left the narrow path of word for word reproduction
+might, in this early period, easily be led into greater deviations from
+source, especially if his own creative ability came into play. The
+preface to _St. Augustine's Soliloquies_ quoted above carries with it a
+stimulus, not only to translation or compilation, but to work like that
+of Caedmon or Cynewulf, essentially original in many respects, though
+based, in the main, on material already given literary shape in other
+languages. Both characteristics are recognized in Anglo-Saxon comment.
+Caedmon, according to the famous passage in Bede, "all that he could
+learn by hearing meditated with himself, and, as a clean animal
+ruminating, turned into the sweetest verse."[14] Cynewulf in his
+_Elene_, gives us a remarkable piece of author's comment[15] which
+describes the action of his own mind upon material already committed to
+writing by others. On the other hand, it may be noted that the
+_Andreas_, based like the _Elene_ on a single written source, contains
+no hint that the author owes anything to a version of the story in
+another language.[16]
+
+In the English literature which developed in course of time after the
+Conquest the methods of handling borrowed material were similar in their
+variety to those we have observed in Anglo-Saxon times. Translation,
+faithful except for the omission or addition of certain passages,
+compilation, epitome, all the gradations between the close rendering and
+such an individual creation as Chaucer's _Troilus and Criseyde_, are
+exemplified in the works appearing from the thirteenth century on. When
+Lydgate, as late as the fifteenth century, describes one of the
+processes by which literature is produced, we are reminded of
+Anglo-Saxon comment. "Laurence,"[17] the poet's predecessor in
+translating Boccaccio's _Falls of Princes_, is represented as
+
+    In his Prologue affirming of reason,
+    That artificers having exercise,
+    May chaunge & turne by good discretion
+    Shapes & formes, & newly them devise:
+    As Potters whiche to that craft entende
+    Breake & renue their vessels to amende.
+
+    ...
+
+    And semblably these clerkes in writing
+    Thing that was made of auctours them beforn
+    They may of newe finde & fantasye:
+    Out of olde chaffe trye out full fayre corne,
+    Make it more freshe & lusty to the eye,
+    Their subtile witte their labour apply,
+    With their colours agreable of hue,
+    To make olde thinges for to seme newe.[18]
+
+The great majority of these Middle English works contain within
+themselves no clear statement as to which of the many possible methods
+have been employed in their production. As in the case of the
+Anglo-Saxon _Andreas_, a retelling in English of a story already
+existing in another language often presents itself as if it were an
+original composition. The author who puts into the vernacular of his
+country a French romance may call it "my tale." At the end of _Launfal_,
+a version of one of the lays of Marie de France, appears the
+declaration, "Thomas Chestre made this tale."[19] The terms used to
+characterize literary productions and literary processes often have not
+their modern connotation. "Translate" and "translation" are applied
+very loosely even as late as the sixteenth century. _The Legend of Good
+Women_ names _Troilus and Criseyde_ beside _The Romance of the Rose_ as
+"translated" work.[20] Osbern Bokenam, writing in the next century,
+explains that he obtained the material for his legend of St. Margaret
+"the last time I was in Italy, both by scripture and eke by mouth," but
+he still calls the work a "translation."[21] Henry Bradshaw, purposing
+in 1513 to "translate" into English the life of St. Werburge of Chester,
+declares,
+
+    Unto this rude werke myne auctours these shalbe:
+    Fyrst the true legende and the venerable Bede,
+    Mayster Alfrydus and Wyllyam Malusburye,
+    Gyrarde, Polychronicon, and other mo in deed.[22]
+
+Lydgate is requested to translate the legend of St. Giles "after the
+tenor only"; he presents his work as a kind of "brief compilation," but
+he takes no exception to the word "translate."[23] That he should
+designate his _St. Margaret_, a fairly close following of one source, a
+"compilation,"[24] merely strengthens the belief that the terms
+"translate" and "translation" were used synonymously with various other
+words. Osbern Bokenam speaks of the "translator" who "compiled" the
+legend of St. Christiana in English;[25] Chaucer, one remembers,
+"translated" Boethius and "made" the life of St. Cecilia.[26]
+
+To select from this large body of literature, "made," "compiled,"
+"translated," only such works as can claim to be called, in the modern
+sense of the word, "translations" would be a difficult and unprofitable
+task. Rather one must accept the situation as it stands and consider the
+whole mass of such writings as appear, either from the claims of their
+authors or on the authority of modern scholarship, to be of secondary
+origin. "Translations" of this sort are numerous. Chaucer in his own
+time was reckoned "grant translateur."[27] Of the books which Caxton a
+century later issued from his printing press a large proportion were
+English versions of Latin or French works. Our concern, indeed, is with
+the larger and by no means the least valuable part of the literature
+produced during the Middle English period.
+
+The theory which accompanies this nondescript collection of translations
+is scattered throughout various works, and is somewhat liable to
+misinterpretation if taken out of its immediate context. Before
+proceeding to consider it, however, it is necessary to notice certain
+phases of the general literary situation which created peculiar
+difficulties for the translator or which are likely to be confusing to
+the present-day reader. As regards the translator, existing
+circumstances were not encouraging. In the early part of the period he
+occupied a very lowly place. As compared with Latin, or even with
+French, the English language, undeveloped and unstandardized, could make
+its appeal only to the unlearned. It had, in the words of a
+thirteenth-century translator of Bishop Grosseteste's _Castle of Love_,
+"no savor before a clerk."[28] Sometimes, it is true, the English writer
+had the stimulus of patriotism. The translator of _Richard Coeur de
+Lion_ feels that Englishmen ought to be able to read in their own
+tongue the exploits of the English hero. The _Cursor Mundi_ is
+translated
+
+    In to Inglis tong to rede
+    For the love of Inglis lede,
+    Inglis lede of Ingland.[29]
+
+But beyond this there was little to encourage the translator. His
+audience, as compared with the learned and the refined, who read Latin
+and French, was ignorant and undiscriminating; his crude medium was
+entirely unequal to reproducing what had been written in more highly
+developed languages. It is little wonder that in these early days his
+English should be termed "dim and dark." Even after Chaucer had showed
+that the despised language was capable of grace and charm, the writer of
+less genius must often have felt that beside the more sophisticated
+Latin or French, English could boast but scanty resources.
+
+There were difficulties and limitations also in the choice of material
+to be translated. Throughout most of the period literature existed only
+in manuscript; there were few large collections in any one place; travel
+was not easy. Priests, according to the prologue to Mirk's _Festial_,
+written in the early fifteenth century, complained of "default of
+books." To aspire, as did Chaucer's Clerk, to the possession of "twenty
+books" was to aspire high. Translators occasionally give interesting
+details regarding the circumstances under which they read and
+translated. The author of the life of St. Etheldred of Ely refers twice,
+with a certain pride, to a manuscript preserved in the abbey of Godstow
+which he himself has seen and from which he has drawn some of the facts
+which he presents. The translator of the alliterative romance of
+_Alexander_ "borrowed" various books when he undertook his English
+rendering.[30] Earl Rivers, returning from the Continent, brought back a
+manuscript which had been lent him by a French gentleman, and set about
+the translation of his _Dictes and Sayings of the Old Philosophers_.[31]
+It is not improbable that there was a good deal of borrowing, with its
+attendant inconveniences. Even in the sixteenth century Sir Thomas
+Elyot, if we may believe his story, was hampered by the laws of
+property. He became interested in the acts and wisdom of Alexander
+Severus, "which book," he says, "was first written in the Greek tongue
+by his secretary Eucolpius and by good chance was lent unto me by a
+gentleman of Naples called Padericus. In reading whereof I was
+marvelously ravished, and as it hath ever been mine appetite, I wished
+that it had been published in such a tongue as more men might understand
+it. Wherefore with all diligence I endeavored myself whiles I had
+leisure to translate it into English: albeit I could not so exactly
+perform mine enterprise as I might have done, if the owner had not
+importunately called for his book, whereby I was constrained to leave
+some part of the work untranslated."[32] William Paris--to return to the
+earlier period--has left on record a situation which stirs the
+imagination. He translated the legend of St. Cristine while a prisoner
+in the Isle of Man, the only retainer of his unfortunate lord, the Earl
+of Warwick, whose captivity he chose to share.
+
+    He made this lyfe in ynglishe soo,
+    As he satte in prison of stone,
+    Ever as he myghte tent therto
+    Whane he had his lordes service done.[33]
+
+One is tempted to let the fancy play on the combination of circumstances
+that provided him with the particular manuscript from which he worked.
+It is easy, of course, to emphasize overmuch the scarcity and the
+inaccessibility of texts, but it is obvious that the translator's
+choice of subject was largely conditioned by opportunity. He did not
+select from the whole range of literature the work which most appealed
+to his genius. It is a far cry from the Middle Ages to the seventeenth
+century, with its stress on individual choice. Roscommon's advice,
+
+    Examine how your humour is inclined,
+    And what the ruling passion of your mind;
+    Then seek a poet who your way does bend,
+    And choose an author as you choose a friend,
+
+seems absurd in connection with the translator who had to choose what
+was within his reach, and who, in many cases, could not sit down in
+undisturbed possession of his source.
+
+The element of individual choice was also diminished by the intervention
+of friends and patrons. In the fifteenth century, when translators were
+becoming communicative about their affairs, there is frequent reference
+to suggestion from without. Allowing for interest in the new craft of
+printing, there is still so much mention in Caxton's prefaces of
+commissions for translation as to make one feel that "ordering" an
+English version of some foreign book had become no uncommon thing for
+those who owned manuscripts and could afford such commodities as
+translations. Caxton's list ranges from _The Fayttes of Armes_,
+translated at the request of Henry VII from a manuscript lent by the
+king himself, to _The Mirrour of the World_, "translated ... at the
+request, desire, cost, and dispense of the honorable and worshipful man,
+Hugh Bryce, alderman and citizen of London."[34]
+
+One wonders also how the source, thus chosen, presented itself to the
+translator's conception. His references to it are generally vague or
+confused, often positively misleading. Yet to designate with any
+definiteness a French or Latin text was no easy matter. When one
+considers the labor that, of later years, has gone to the classification
+and identification of old manuscripts, the awkward elaboration of
+nomenclature necessary to distinguish them, the complications resulting
+from missing pages and from the undue liberties of copyists, one realizes
+something of the position of the medieval translator. Even categories were
+not forthcoming for his convenience. The religious legend of _St.
+Katherine of Alexandria_ is derived from "chronicles";[35] the moral tale
+of _The Incestuous Daughter_ has its source in "romance";[36]
+Grosseteste's allegory, _The Castle of Love_, is presented as "a romance
+of English ... out of a romance that Sir Robert, Bishop of Lincoln,
+made."[37] The translator who explained "I found it written in old hand"
+was probably giving as adequate an account of his source as truth would
+permit.
+
+Moreover, part of the confusion had often arisen before the manuscript
+came into the hands of the English translator. Often he was engaged in
+translating something that was already a translation. Most frequently it
+was a French version of a Latin original, but sometimes its ancestry was
+complicated by the existence or the tradition of Greek or Hebrew
+sources. The medieval Troy story, with its list of authorities, Dictys,
+Dares, Guido delle Colonne--to cite the favorite names--shows the
+situation in an aggravated form. In such cases the earlier translator's
+blunders and omissions in describing his source were likely to be
+perpetuated in the new rendering.
+
+Such, roughly speaking, were the circumstances under which the
+translator did his work. Some of his peculiar difficulties are,
+approached from another angle, the difficulties of the present-day
+reader. The presence of one or more intermediary versions, a
+complication especially noticeable in England as a result of the French
+occupation after the Conquest, may easily mislead us. The originals of
+many of our texts are either non-extant or not yet discovered, but in
+cases where we do possess the actual source which the English writer
+used, a disconcerting situation often becomes evident. What at first
+seemed to be the English translator's comment on his own treatment of
+source is frequently only a literal rendering of a comment already
+present in his original. It is more convenient to discuss the details of
+such cases in another context, but any general approach to the theory of
+translation in Middle English literature must include this
+consideration. If we are not in possession of the exact original of a
+translation, our conclusions must nearly always be discounted by the
+possibility that not only the subject matter but the comment on that
+subject matter came from the French or Latin source. The pronoun of the
+first person must be regarded with a slight suspicion. "I" may refer to
+the Englishman, but it may also refer to his predecessor who made a
+translation or a compilation in French or Latin. "Compilation" suggests
+another difficulty. Sometimes an apparent reference to source is only an
+appeal to authority for the confirmation of a single detail, an appeal
+which, again, may be the work of the English translator, but may, on the
+other hand, be the contribution of his predecessor. A fairly common
+situation, for example, appears in John Capgrave's _Life of St.
+Augustine_, produced, as its author says, in answer to the request of a
+gentlewoman that he should "translate her truly out of Latin the life of
+St. Augustine, great doctor of the church." Of the work, its editor, Mr.
+Munro, says, "It looks at first sight as though Capgrave had merely
+translated an older Latin text, as he did in the _Life of St. Gilbert_;
+but no Latin life corresponding to our text has been discovered, and as
+Capgrave never refers to 'myn auctour,' and always alludes to himself
+as handling the material, I incline to conclude that he is himself the
+original composer, and that his reference to translation signifies his
+use of Augustine's books, from which he translates whole passages."[38]
+In a case like this it is evidently impossible to draw dogmatic
+conclusions. It may be that Capgrave is using the word "translate" with
+medieval looseness, but it is also possible that some of the comment
+expressed in the first person is translated comment, and the editor adds
+that, though the balance of probability is against it, "it is still
+possible that a Latin life may have been used." Occasionally, it is
+true, comment is stamped unmistakably as belonging to the English
+translator. The translator of a _Canticum de Creatione_ declares that
+there were
+
+    --fro the incarnacioun of Jhesu
+    Til this rym y telle yow
+    Were turned in to englisch,
+    A thousand thre hondred & seventy
+    And fyve yere witterly.
+    Thus in bok founden it is.[39]
+
+Such unquestionably _English_ additions are, unfortunately, rare and the
+situation remains confused.
+
+But this is not the only difficulty which confronts the reader. He
+searches with disappointing results for such general and comprehensive
+statements of the medieval translator's theory as may aid in the
+interpretation of detail. Such statements are few, generally late in
+date, and, even when not directly translated from a predecessor, are
+obviously repetitions of the conventional rule associated with the name
+of Jerome and adopted in Anglo-Saxon times by Alfred and Aelfric. An
+early fifteenth-century translator of the _Secreta Secretorum_, for
+example, carries over into English the preface of the Latin translator:
+"I have translated with great travail into open understanding of Latin
+out of the language of Araby ... sometimes expounding letter by letter,
+and sometimes understanding of understanding, for other manner of
+speaking is with Arabs and other with Latin."[40] Lydgate makes a
+similar statement:
+
+    I wyl translate hyt sothly as I kan,
+    After the lettre, in ordre effectuelly.
+    Thogh I not folwe the wordes by & by,
+    I schal not faille teuching the substance.[41]
+
+Osbern Bokenam declares that he has translated
+
+    Not wurde for wurde--for that ne may be
+    In no translation, aftyr Jeromys decree--
+    But fro sentence to sentence.[42]
+
+There is little attempt at the further analysis which would give this
+principle fresh significance. The translator makes scarcely any effort
+to define the extent to which he may diverge from the words of his
+original or to explain why such divergence is necessary. John de
+Trevisa, who translated so extensively in the later fourteenth century,
+does give some account of his methods, elementary, it is true, but
+honest and individual. His preface to his English prose version of
+Higden's _Polychronicon_ explains: "In some place I shall set word for
+word, and active for active, and passive for passive, a-row right as it
+standeth, without changing of the order of words. But in some place I
+must change the order of words, and set active for passive and
+again-ward. And in some place I must set a reason for a word and tell
+what it meaneth. But for all such changing the meaning shall stand and
+not be changed."[43] An explanation like this, however, is unusual.
+
+Possibly the fact that the translation was in prose affected Trevisa's
+theorizing. A prose rendering could follow its original so closely that
+it was possible to describe the comparatively few changes consequent on
+English usage. In verse, on the other hand, the changes involved were so
+great as to discourage definition. There are, however, a few comments on
+the methods to be employed in poetical renderings. According to the
+_Proem_ to the _Boethius_, Alfred, in the Anglo-Saxon period, first
+translated the book "from Latin into English prose," and then "wrought
+it up once more into verse, as it is now done."[44] At the very
+beginning of the history of Middle English literature Orm attacked the
+problem of the verse translation very directly. He writes of his
+Ormulum:
+
+    Icc hafe sett her o thiss boc
+    Amang Godspelles wordess,
+    All thurrh me sellfenn, manig word
+    The rime swa to fillenn.[45]
+
+Such additions, he says, are necessary if the readers are to understand
+the text and if the metrical form is to be kept.
+
+    Forr whase mot to laewedd follc
+    Larspell off Goddspell tellenn,
+    He mot wel ekenn manig word
+    Amang Godspelless Wordess.
+    & icc ne mihhte nohht min ferrs
+    Ayy withth Godspelless wordess
+    Wel fillenn all, & all forrthi
+    Shollde icc wel offte nede
+    Amang Godspelless wordess don
+    Min word, min ferrs to fillenn.[46]
+
+Later translators, however, seldom followed his lead. There are a few
+comments connected with prose translations; the translator of _The Book
+of the Knight of La Tour Landry_ quotes the explanation of his author
+that he has chosen prose rather than verse "for to abridge it, and that
+it might be better and more plainly to be understood";[47] the Lord in
+Trevisa's _Dialogue_ prefixed to the _Polychronicon_ desires a
+translation in prose, "for commonly prose is more clear than rhyme, more
+easy and more plain to understand";[48] but apparently the only one of
+Orm's successors to put into words his consciousness of the
+complications which accompany a metrical rendering is the author of _The
+Romance of Partenay_, whose epilogue runs:
+
+    As ny as metre can conclude sentence,
+    Cereatly by rew in it have I go.
+    Nerehand stafe by staf, by gret diligence,
+    Savyng that I most metre apply to;
+    The wourdes meve, and sett here & ther so.[49]
+
+What follows, however, shows that he is concerned not so much with the
+peculiar difficulty of translation as with the general difficulty of
+"forging" verse. Whether a man employs Latin, French, or the vernacular,
+he continues,
+
+    Be it in balede, vers, Rime, or prose,
+    He most torn and wend, metrely to close.[50]
+
+Of explicit comment on general principles, then, there is but a small
+amount in connection with Middle English translations. Incidentally,
+however, writers let fall a good deal of information regarding their
+theories and methods. Such material must be interpreted with
+considerable caution, for although the most casual survey makes it clear
+that generally the translator felt bound to put into words something of
+his debt and his responsibility to his predecessors, yet one does not
+know how much significance should attach to this comment. He seldom
+offers clear, unmistakable information as to his difficulties and his
+methods of meeting them. It is peculiarly interesting to come upon such
+explanation of processes as appears at one point in Capgrave's _Life of
+St. Gilbert_. In telling the story of a miracle wrought upon a sick man,
+Capgrave writes: "One of his brethren, which was his keeper, gave him
+this counsel, that he should wind his head with a certain cloth of linen
+which St. Gilbert wore. I suppose verily," continues the translator, "it
+was his alb, for mine author here setteth a word 'subucula,' which is
+both an alb and a shirt, and in the first part of this life the same
+author saith that this holy man wore next his skin no hair as for the
+hardest, nor linen as for the softest, but he went with wool, as with
+the mean."[51] Such care for detail suggests the comparative methods
+later employed by the translators of the Bible, but whether or not it
+was common, it seldom found its way into words. The majority of writers
+acquitted themselves of the translator's duty by introducing at
+intervals somewhat conventional references to source, "in story as we
+read," "in tale as it is told," "as saith the geste," "in rhyme I read,"
+"the prose says," "as mine author doth write," "as it tells in the
+book," "so saith the French tale," "as saith the Latin." Tags like these
+are everywhere present, especially in verse, where they must often have
+proved convenient in eking out the metre. Whether they are to be
+interpreted literally is hard to determine. The reader of English
+versions can seldom be certain whether variants on the more ordinary
+forms are merely stylistic or result from actual differences in
+situation; whether, for example, phrases like "as I have heard tell,"
+"as the book says," "as I find in parchment spell" are rewordings of the
+same fact or represent real distinctions.
+
+One group of doubtful references apparently question the reliability of
+the written source. In most cases the seeming doubt is probably the
+result of awkward phrasing. Statements like "as the story doth us both
+write and mean,"[52] "as the book says and true men tell us,"[53] "but
+the book us lie,"[54] need have little more significance than the
+slightly absurd declaration,
+
+    The gospel nul I forsake nought
+    _Thaugh_ it be written in parchemyn.[55]
+
+Occasional more direct questionings incline one, however, to take the
+matter a little more seriously. The translator of a _Canticum de
+Creatione_, strangely fabulous in content, presents his material with
+the words,
+
+    --as we finden in lectrure,
+    I not whether it be in holy scripture.[56]
+
+The author of one of the legends of the Holy Cross says,
+
+    This tale, quether hit be il or gode,
+    I fande hit writen of the rode.
+    Mani tellis diverseli,
+    For thai finde diverse stori.[57]
+
+Capgrave, in his legend of _St. Katherine_, takes issue unmistakably
+with his source.
+
+    In this reknyng myne auctour & I are too:
+    ffor he accordeth not wytz cronicles that ben olde,
+    But diversyth from hem, & that in many thyngis.
+    There he accordeth, ther I him hold;
+    And where he diversyth in ordre of theis kyngis,
+    I leve hym, & to oder mennys rekenyngis
+    I geve more credens whech be-fore hym and me
+    Sette alle these men in ordre & degre.[58]
+
+Except when this mistrust is made a justification for divergence from
+the original, these comments contribute little to our knowledge of the
+medieval translator's methods and need concern us little. More needful
+of explanation is the reference which implies that the English writer is
+not working from a manuscript, but is reproducing something which he has
+heard read or recounted, or which he has read for himself at some time
+in the past. How is one to interpret phrases like that which introduces
+the story of _Golagros and Gawain_, "as true men me told," or that which
+appears at the beginning of _Rauf Coilyear_, "heard I tell"? One
+explanation, obviously true in some cases, is that such references are
+only conventional. The concluding lines of _Ywain and Gawin_,
+
+    Of them no more have I heard tell
+    Neither in romance nor in spell,[59]
+
+are simply a rough rendering of the French
+
+    Ne ja plus n'en orroiz conter,
+    S'an n'i vialt manconge ajoster.[60]
+
+On the other hand, the author of the long romance of _Ipomadon_, which
+follows its source with a closeness which precludes all possibility of
+reproduction from memory, has tacked on two references to hearing,[61]
+not only without a basis in the French but in direct contradiction to
+Hue de Rotelande's account of the source of his material. In _Emare_,
+"as I have heard minstrels sing in sawe" is apparently introduced as
+the equivalent of the more ordinary phrases "in tale as it is told" and
+"in romance as we read,"[62] the second of which is scarcely compatible
+with the theory of an oral source.
+
+One cannot always, however, dispose of the reference to hearing so
+easily. Contemporary testimony shows that literature was often
+transmitted by word of mouth. Thomas de Cabham mentions the
+"ioculatores, qui cantant gesta principum et vitam sanctorum";[63]
+Robert of Brunne complains that those who sing or say the geste of _Sir
+Tristram_ do not repeat the story exactly as Thomas made it.[64] Even
+though one must recognize the probability that sometimes the immediate
+oral source of the minstrel's tale may have been English, one cannot
+ignore the possibility that occasionally a "translated" saint's life or
+romance may have been the result of hearing a French or Latin narrative
+read or recited. A convincing example of reproduction from memory
+appears in the legend of _St. Etheldred of Ely_, whose author recounts
+certain facts,
+
+    The whiche y founde in the abbey of Godstow y-wis,
+    In hure legent as y dude there that tyme rede,
+
+and later presents other material,
+
+    The whiche y say at Hely y-write.[65]
+
+Such evidence makes us regard with more attention the remark in
+Capgrave's _St. Katherine_,
+
+    --right soo dede I lere
+    Of cronycles whiche (that) I saugh last,[66]
+
+or the lines at the end of _Roberd of Cisyle_,
+
+    Al this is write withoute lyghe
+    At Rome, to ben in memorye,
+    At seint Petres cherche, I knowe.[67]
+
+It is possible also that sometimes a vague phrase like "as the story
+says," or "in tale as it is told," may signify hearing instead of
+reading. But in general one turns from consideration of the references
+to hearing with little more than an increased respect for the superior
+definiteness which belongs to the mention of the "black letters," the
+"parchment," "the French book," or "the Latin book."
+
+Leaving the general situation and examining individual types of
+literature, one finds it possible to draw conclusions which are somewhat
+more definite. The metrical romance--to choose one of the most popular
+literary forms of the period--is nearly always garnished with references
+to source scattered throughout its course in a manner that awakens
+curiosity. Sometimes they do not appear at the beginning of the romance,
+but are introduced in large numbers towards the end; sometimes, after a
+long series of pages containing nothing of the sort, we begin to come
+upon them frequently, perhaps in groups, one appearing every few lines,
+so that their presence constitutes something like a quality of style.
+For example, in _Bevis of Hamtoun_[68] and _The Earl of Toulouse_[69]
+the first references to source come between ll. 800 and 900; in _Ywain
+and Gawin_ the references appear at ll. 9, 3209, and 3669;[70] in _The
+Wars of Alexander_[71] there is a perpetual harping on source, one
+phrase seeming to produce another.
+
+Occasionally one can find a reason for the insertion of the phrase in a
+given place. Sometimes its presence suggests that the translator has
+come upon an unfamiliar word. In _Sir Eglamour of Artois_, speaking of a
+bird that has carried off a child, the author remarks, "a griffin, saith
+the book, he hight";[72] in _Partenay_, in an attempt to give a vessel
+its proper name, the writer says, "I found in scripture that it was a
+barge."[73] This impression of accuracy is most common in connection
+with geographical proper names. In _Torrent of Portyngale_ we have the
+name of a forest, "of Brasill saith the book it was"; in _Partonope of
+Blois_ we find "France was named those ilke days Galles, as mine author
+says,"[74] or "Mine author telleth this church hight the church of
+Albigis."[75] In this same romance the reference to source accompanies a
+definite bit of detail, "The French book thus doth me tell, twenty
+waters he passed full fell."[76] Bevis of Hamtoun kills "forty
+Sarracens, the French saith."[77] As in the case of the last
+illustration, the translator frequently needs to cite his authority
+because the detail he gives is somewhat difficult of belief. In _The
+Sege of Melayne_ the Christian warriors recover their horses
+miraculously "through the prayer of St. Denys, thus will the chronicle
+say";[78] in _The Romance of Partenay_ we read of a wondrous light
+appearing about a tomb, "the French maker saith he saw it with eye."[79]
+Sometimes these phrases suggest that metre and rhyme do not always flow
+easily for the English writer, and that in such difficulties a stock
+space-filler is convenient. Lines like those in Chaucer's _Sir Thopas_,
+
+    And so bifel upon a day,
+    Forsothe _as I you telle may_
+    Sir Thopas wolde outride,
+
+and
+
+    The briddes synge, _it is no nay_,
+      The sparhauke and the papejay
+
+may easily be paralleled by passages containing references to source.
+
+A good illustration from almost every point of view of the significance
+and lack of significance of the appearance of these phrases in a given
+context is the version of the Alexander story usually called _The Wars
+of Alexander_. The frequent references to source in this romance occur
+in sporadic groups. The author begins by putting them in with some
+regularity at the beginnings of the _passus_ into which he divides his
+narrative, but, as the story progresses, he ceases to do so, perhaps
+forgets his first purpose. Sometimes the reference to source suggests
+accuracy: "And five and thirty, as I find, were in the river
+drowned."[80] "Rhinoceros, as I read, the book them calls."[81] The
+strength of some authority is necessary to support the weight of the
+incredible marvels which the story-teller recounts. He tells of a valley
+full of serpents with crowns on their heads, who fed, "as the prose
+tells," on pepper, cloves, and ginger;[82] of enormous crabs with backs,
+"as the book says," bigger and harder than any common stone or
+cockatrice scales;[83] of the golden image of Xerxes, which on the
+approach of Alexander suddenly, "as tells the text," falls to
+pieces.[84] He often has recourse to an authority for support when he
+takes proper names from the Latin. "Luctus it hight, the lettre and the
+line thus it calls."[85] The slayers of Darius are named Besan and
+Anabras, "as the book tells."[86] On the other hand, the signification
+of the reference in its context can be shown to be very slight. As was
+said before, the writer soon forgets to insert it at the beginning of
+the new _passus_; there are plenty of marvels without any citation of
+authority to add to their credibility; and though the proper name
+carries its reference to the Latin, it is usually strangely distorted
+from its original form. So far as bearing on the immediate context is
+concerned, most of the references to source have little more meaning
+than the ordinary tags, "as I you say," "as you may hear," or "as I
+understand."
+
+Apart, however, from the matter of context, one may make a rough
+classification of the romances on the ground of these references.
+Leaving aside the few narratives (e.g. _Sir Percival of Galles_, _King
+Horn_) which contain no suggestion that they are of secondary origin,
+one may distinguish two groups. There is, in the first place, a large
+body of romances which refer in general terms to their originals, but do
+not profess any responsibility for faithful reproduction; in the second
+place, there are some romances whose authors do recognize the claims of
+the original, which is in such cases nearly always definitely described,
+and frequently go so far as to discuss its style or the style to be
+adopted in the English rendering. The first group, which includes
+considerably more than half the romances at present accessible in print,
+affords a confused mass of references. As regards the least definite of
+these, one finds phrases so vague as to suggest that the author himself
+might have had difficulty in identifying his source, phrases where the
+omission of the article ("in rhyme," "in romance," "in story") or the
+use of the plural ("as books say," "as clerks tell," "as men us told,"
+"in stories thus as we read") deprives the words of most of their
+significance. Other references are more definite; the writer mentions
+"this book," "mine author," "the Latin book," "the French book." If
+these phrases are to be trusted, we may conclude that the English
+translator has his text before him; they aid little, however, in
+identification of that text. The fifty-six references in Malory's _Morte
+d'Arthur_ to "the French book" give no particular clue to discovery of
+his sources. The common formula, "as the French book says," marks the
+highest degree of definiteness to which most of these romances attain.
+
+An interesting variant from the commoner forms is the reference to
+_Rom_, generally in the phrase "the book of Rom," which appears in some
+of the romances. The explanation that _Rom_ is a corruption of _romance_
+and that _the book of Rom_ is simply the book of romance or the book
+written in the romance language, French, can easily be supported. In the
+same poem _Rom_ alternates with _romance_: "In Rome this geste is
+chronicled," "as the romance telleth,"[87] "in the chronicles of Rome is
+the date," "in romance as we read."[88] Two versions of _Octavian_ read,
+the one "in books of Rome," the other "in books of ryme."[89] On the
+other hand, there are peculiarities in the use of the word not so easy
+of explanation. It appears in a certain group of romances, _Octavian_,
+_Le Bone Florence of Rome_, _Sir Eglamour of Artois_, _Torrent of
+Portyngale_, _The Earl of Toulouse_, all of which develop in some degree
+the Constance story, familiar in _The Man of Law's Tale_. In all of them
+there is reference to the city of Rome, sometimes very obvious,
+sometimes slight, but perhaps equally significant in the latter case
+because it is introduced in an unexpected, unnecessary way. In _Le Bone
+Florence of Rome_ the heroine is daughter of the Emperor of Rome, and,
+the tale of her wanderings done, the story ends happily with her
+reinstatement in her own city. Octavian is Emperor of Rome, and here
+again the happy conclusion finds place in that city. Sir Eglamour
+belongs to Artois, but he does betake himself to Rome to kill a dragon,
+an episode introduced in one manuscript of the story by the phrase "as
+the book of Rome says."[90] Though the scenes of _Torrent of Portyngale_
+are Portugal, Norway, and Calabria, the Emperor of Rome comes to the
+wedding of the hero, and Torrent himself is finally chosen Emperor,
+presumably of Rome. The Earl of Toulouse, in the romance of that name,
+disguises himself as a monk, and to aid in the illusion some one says of
+him during his disappearance, "Gone is he to his own land: he dwells
+with the Pope of Rome."[91] The Emperor in this story is Emperor of
+Almaigne, but his name, strangely enough, is Diocletian. Again, in
+_Octavian_, one reads in the description of a feast, "there was many a
+rich geste of Rome and of France,"[92] which suggests a distinction
+between a geste of Rome and a geste of France. In _Le Bone Florence of
+Rome_ appears the peculiar statement, "Pope Symonde this story wrote. In
+the chronicles of Rome is the date."[93] In this case the word _Rome_
+seems to have been taken literally enough to cause attribution of the
+story to the Pope. It is evident, then, that whether or not _Rome_ is a
+corruption of _romance_, at any rate one or more of the persons who had
+a hand in producing these narratives must have interpreted the word
+literally, and believed that the book of Rome was a record of
+occurrences in the city of Rome.[94] It is interesting to note that in
+_The Man of Law's Tale_, in speaking of Maurice, the son of Constance,
+Chaucer introduces a reference to the _Gesta Romanorum_:
+
+    In the old Romayn gestes may men fynde
+    Maurice's lyf, I bere it not in mynde.
+
+Such vagueness and uncertainty, if not positive misunderstanding with
+regard to source, are characteristic of many romances. It is not
+difficult to find explanations for this. The writer may, as was
+suggested before, be reproducing a story which he has only heard or
+which he has read at some earlier time. Even if he has the book before
+him, it does not necessarily bear its author's name and it is not easy
+to describe it so that it can be recognized by others. Generally
+speaking, his references to source are honest, so far as they go, and
+can be taken at their face value. Even in cases of apparent falsity
+explanations suggest themselves. There is nearly always the possibility
+that false or contradictory attributions, as, for example, the mention
+of "book" and "books" or "the French book" and "the Latin book" as
+sources of the same romance, are merely stupidly literal renderings of
+the original. In _The Romance of Partenay_, one of the few cases where
+we have unquestionably the French original of the English romance, more
+than once an apparent reference to source in the English is only a close
+following of the French. "I found in scripture that it was a barge"
+corresponds with "Je treuve que c'estoit une barge"; "as saith the
+scripture" with "Ainsi que dient ly escrips";
+
+    For the Cronike doth treteth (sic) this brefly,
+    More ferther wold go, mater finde might I
+
+with
+
+    Mais en brief je m'en passeray
+    Car la cronique en brief passe.
+    Plus déisse, se plus trouvasse.[95]
+
+A similar situation has already been pointed out in _Ywain and Gawin_.
+The most marked example of contradictory evidence is to be found in
+_Octavian_, whose author alternates "as the French says" with "as saith
+the Latin."[96] Here, however, the nearest analogue to the English
+romance, which contains 1962 lines, is a French romance of 5371 lines,
+which begins by mentioning the "grans merueilles qui sont faites, et de
+latin en romanz traites."[97] It is not impossible that the English
+writer used a shorter version which emphasized this reference to the
+Latin, and that his too-faithful adherence to source had confusing
+results. But even if such contradictions cannot be explained, in the
+mass of undistinguished romances there is scarcely anything to suggest
+that the writer is trying to give his work a factitious value by
+misleading references to dignified sources. His faults, as in _Ywain and
+Gawin_, where the name of Chrétien is not carried over from the French,
+are sins of omission, not commission.
+
+No hard and fast line of division can be drawn between the romances just
+discussed and those of the second group, with their frequent and fairly
+definite references to their sources and to their methods of reproducing
+them. A rough chronological division between the two groups can be made
+about the year 1400. _William of Palerne_, assigned by its editor to the
+year 1350, contains a slight indication of the coming change in the
+claim which its author makes to have accomplished his task "as fully as
+the French fully would ask."[98] Poems like Chaucer's _Knight's Tale_
+and _Franklin's Tale_ have only the vague references to source of the
+earlier period, though since they are presented as oral narratives, they
+belong less obviously to the present discussion. The vexed question of
+the signification of the references in _Troilus and Criseyde_ is outside
+the scope of this discussion. Superficially considered, they are an odd
+mingling of the new and the old. Phrases like "as to myn auctour listeth
+to devise" (III, 1817), "as techen bokes olde" (III, 91), "as wryten
+folk thorugh which it is in minde" (IV, 18) suggest the first group. The
+puzzling references to Lollius have a certain definiteness, and
+faithfulness to source is implied in lines like:
+
+    And of his song nought only the sentence,
+    As writ myn auctour called Lollius,
+    But pleynly, save our tonges difference,
+    I dar wel seyn, in al that Troilus
+    Seyde in his song; lo! every word right thus
+    As I shal seyn
+    (I, 393-8)
+
+and
+
+    "For as myn auctour seyde, so seye I" (II, 18).
+
+But from the beginning of the new century, in the work of men like
+Lydgate and Caxton, a new habit of comment becomes noticeable.
+
+Less distinguished translators show a similar development. The author of
+_The Holy Grail_, Harry Lonelich, a London skinner, towards the end of
+his work makes frequent, if perhaps mistaken, attribution of the French
+romance to
+
+    ... myn sire Robert of Borron
+    Whiche that this storie Al & som
+    Owt Of the latyn In to the frensh torned he
+    Be holy chirches Comandment sekerle,[99]
+
+and makes some apology for the defects of his own style:
+
+    And I, As An unkonning Man trewly
+    Into Englisch have drawen this Story;
+    And thowgh that to yow not plesyng It be,
+    Yit that ful Excused ye wolde haven Me
+    Of my necligence and unkonning.[100]
+
+_The Romance of Partenay_ is turned into English by a writer who
+presents himself very modestly:
+
+    I not acqueynted of birth naturall
+    With frenshe his very trew parfightnesse,
+    Nor enpreyntyd is in mind cordiall;
+    O word For other myght take by lachesse,
+    Or peradventure by unconnyngesse.[101]
+
+He intends, however, to be a careful translator:
+
+    As nighe as metre will conclude sentence,
+    Folew I wil my president,
+    Ryght as the frenshe wil yiff me evidence,
+    Cereatly after myn entent,[102]
+
+and he ends by declaring that in spite of the impossibility of giving an
+exact rendering of the French in English metre, he has kept very closely
+to the original. Sometimes, owing to the shortness of the French
+"staffes," he has reproduced in one line two lines of the French, but,
+except for this, comparison will show that the two versions are exactly
+alike.[103]
+
+The translator of _Partonope of Blois_ does not profess such slavish
+faithfulness, though he does profess great admiration for his source,
+
+    The olde booke full well I-wryted,
+    In ffrensh also, and fayre endyted,[104]
+
+and declares himself bound to follow it closely:
+
+    Thus seith myn auctour after whome I write.
+    Blame not me: I moste endite
+    As nye after hym as ever I may,
+    Be it sothe or less I can not say.[105]
+
+However, in the midst of his protestations of faithfulness, he confesses
+to divergence:
+
+    There-fore y do alle my myghthhe
+    To saue my autor ynne sucche wyse
+    As he that mater luste devyse,
+    Where he makyth grete compleynte
+    In french so fayre thatt yt to paynte
+    In Englysche tunngge y saye for me
+    My wyttys alle to dullet bee.
+    He telleth hys tale of sentament
+    I vnderstonde noghth hys entent,
+    Ne wolle ne besy me to lere.[106]
+
+He owns to the abbreviation of descriptive passages, which so many
+English translators had perpetrated in silence:
+
+    Her bewte dyscry fayne wolde I
+    Affter the sentence off myne auctowre,
+    Butte I pray yowe of thys grette labowre
+    I mote at thys tyme excused be;[107]
+
+    Butte who so luste to here of hur a-raye,
+    Lette him go to the ffrensshe bocke,
+    That Idell mater I forsoke
+    To telle hyt in prose or els in ryme,
+    For me thoghte hyt taryed grette tyme.
+    And ys a mater full nedless.[108]
+
+One cannot but suspect that this odd mingling of respect and freedom as
+regards the original describes the attitude of many other translators of
+romances, less articulate in the expression of their theory.
+
+To deal fairly with many of the romances of this second group, one must
+consider the relationship between romance and history and the uncertain
+division between the two. The early chronicles of England generally
+devoted an appreciable space to matters of romance, the stories of Troy,
+of Aeneas, of Arthur. As in the case of the romance proper, such
+chronicles were, even in the modern sense, "translated," for though the
+historian usually compiled his material from more than one source, his
+method was to put together long, consecutive passages from various
+authors, with little attempt at assimilating them into a whole. The
+distinction between history and romance was slow in arising. The _Morte
+Arthure_ offers within a few lines both "romances" and "chronicles" as
+authorities for its statements.[109] In Caxton's preface to _Godfrey of
+Bullogne_ the enumeration of the great names of history includes Arthur
+and Charlemagne, and the story of Godfrey is designated as "this noble
+history which is no fable nor feigned thing." Throughout the period the
+stories of Troy and of Alexander are consistently treated as history,
+and their redactors frequently state that their material has come from
+various places. Nearly all the English Troy stories are translations of
+Guido delle Colonne's _Historia Trojana_, and they take over from their
+original Guido's long discussion of authorities. The Alexander romances
+present the same effect of historical accuracy in passages like the
+following:
+
+    This passage destuted is
+    In the French, well y-wis,
+    Therefore I have, it to colour
+    Borrowed of the Latin author;[110]
+
+    Of what kin he came can I nought find
+    In no book that I bed when I began here
+    The Latin to this language lelliche to turn.[111]
+
+The assumption of the historian's attitude was probably the largest
+factor in the development of the habit of expressing responsibility for
+following the source or for noting divergence from it. Less easy of
+explanation is the fact that comment on style so frequently appears in
+this connection. There is perhaps a touch of it even in Layamon's
+account of his originals, when he approaches his French source: "Layamon
+began to journey wide over this land, and procured the noble books which
+he took for authority. He took the English book that Saint Bede made;
+another he took in Latin that Saint Albin made, and the fair Austin, who
+brought baptism hither; the third he took, (and) laid there in the
+midst, that a French clerk made, who was named Wace, who well could
+write.... Layamon laid before him these books, and turned the leaves ...
+pen he took with fingers, and wrote on book skin, and the true words set
+together, and the three books compressed into one."[112] Robert of
+Brunne, in his _Chronicle of England_, dated as early as 1338, combines
+a lengthy discussion of style with a clear statement of the extent to
+which he has used his sources. Wace tells in French
+
+    All that the Latyn spelles,
+    ffro Eneas till Cadwaladre;
+    this Mayster Wace ther leves he.
+    And ryght as Mayster Wace says,
+    I telle myn Inglis the same ways.[113]
+
+Pers of Langtoft continues the history;
+
+    & as he says, than say I,[114]
+
+writes the translator. Robert admires his predecessors, Dares, whose
+"Latyn is feyre to lere," Wace, who "rymed it in Frankis fyne," and
+Pers, of whose style he says, "feyrer language non ne redis"; but he is
+especially concerned with his own manner of expression. He does not
+aspire to an elaborate literary style; rather, he says,
+
+    I made it not forto be praysed,
+    Bot at the lewed men were aysed.[115]
+
+Consequently he eschews the difficult verse forms then coming into
+fashion, "ryme cowee," "straungere," or "enterlace." He does not write
+for the "disours," "seggers," and "harpours" of his own day, who tell
+the old stories badly.
+
+    Non tham says as thai tham wrought,
+    & in ther sayng it semes noght.[116]
+
+A confusion of pronouns makes it difficult to understand what he
+considers the fault of contemporary renderings. Possibly it is that
+affectation of an obsolete style to which Caxton refers in the preface
+to the _Eneydos_. In any case, he himself rejects "straunge Inglis" for
+"simple speche."
+
+Unlike Robert of Brunne, Andrew of Wyntoun, writing at the beginning of
+the next century, delights in the ornamental style which has added a
+charm to ancient story.
+
+    Quharfore of sic antiquiteis
+    Thei that set haly thare delite
+    Gestis or storyis for to write,
+    Flurist fairly thare purpose
+    With quaynt and curiouse circumstance,
+    For to raise hertis in plesance,
+    And the heraris till excite
+    Be wit or will to do thare delite.[117]
+
+The "antiquiteis" which he has in mind are obviously the tales of Troy.
+Guido delle Colonne, Homer, and Virgil, he continues, all
+
+    Fairly formyt there tretyss,
+    And curiously dytit there storyis.[118]
+
+Some writers, however, did not adopt the elevated style which such
+subject matter deserves.
+
+    Sum usit bot in plane maner
+    Of air done dedis thar mater
+    To writ, as did Dares of Frigy,
+    That wrait of Troy all the story,
+    Bot in till plane and opin style,
+    But curiouse wordis or subtile.[119]
+
+Andrew does not attempt to discuss the application of his theory to
+English style, but he has perhaps suggested the reason why the question
+of style counted for so much in connection with this pseudo-historical
+material. In the introduction to Barbour's _Bruce_, though the point at
+issue is not translation, there is a similar idea. According to Barbour,
+a true story has a special claim to an attractive rendering.
+
+    Storyss to rede ar delitabill,
+    Supposs that thai be nocht bot fabill;
+    Than suld storyss that suthfast wer,
+    And thai war said in gud maner,
+    Have doubill plesance in heryng.
+    The fyrst plesance is the carpyng,
+    And the tothir the suthfastness,
+    That schawys the thing rycht as it wes.[120]
+
+Lydgate, Wyntoun's contemporary, apparently shared his views. In
+translating Boccaccio's _Falls of Princes_ he dispenses with stylistic
+ornament.
+
+    Of freshe colours I toke no maner hede.
+    But my processe playnly for to lede:
+    As me semed it was to me most mete
+    To set apart Rethorykes swete.[121]
+
+But when it came to the Troy story, his matter demanded a different
+treatment. He calls upon Mars
+
+    To do socour my stile to directe,
+    And of my penne the tracys to correcte,
+    Whyche bareyn is of aureate licour,
+    But in thi grace I fynde som favour
+    For to conveye it wyth thyn influence.[122]
+
+He also asks aid of Calliope.
+
+    Now of thy grace be helpyng unto me,
+    And of thy golde dewe lat the lycour wete
+    My dulled breast, that with thyn hony swete
+    Sugrest tongis of rethoricyens,
+    And maistresse art to musicyens.[123]
+
+Like Wyntoun, Lydgate pays tribute to his predecessors, the clerks who
+have kept in memory the great deeds of the past
+
+    ... thorough diligent labour,
+    And enlumyned with many corious flour
+    Of rethorik, to make us comprehend
+    The trouthe of al.[124]
+
+Of Guido in particular he writes that he
+
+    ... had in writyng passynge excellence.
+    For he enlumyneth by craft & cadence
+    This noble story with many fresch colour
+    Of rethorik, & many riche flour
+    Of eloquence to make it sownde bet
+    He in the story hath ymped in and set,
+    That in good feyth I trowe he hath no pere.[125]
+
+None of these men point out the relationship between the style of the
+original and the style to be employed in the English rendering. Caxton,
+the last writer to be considered in this connection, remarks in his
+preface to _The Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_ on the "fair language
+of the French, which was in prose so well and compendiously set and
+written," and in the prologue to the _Eneydos_ tells how he was
+attracted by the "fair and honest terms and words in French," and how,
+after writing a leaf or two, he noted that his English was characterized
+by "fair and strange terms." While it may be that both Caxton and
+Lydgate were trying to reproduce in English the peculiar quality of
+their originals, it is more probable that they beautified their own
+versions as best they could, without feeling it incumbent upon them to
+make their rhetorical devices correspond with those of their
+predecessors. Elsewhere Caxton expresses concern only for his own
+language, as it is to be judged by English readers without regard for
+the qualities of the French. In most cases he characterizes his
+renderings of romance as "simple and rude"; in the preface to _Charles
+the Great_ he says that he uses "no gay terms, nor subtle, nor new
+eloquence"; and in the preface to _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_ he
+declares that he does not know "the art of rhetoric nor of such gay
+terms as now be said in these days and used," and that his only desire
+is to be understood by his readers. The prologue to the _Eneydos_,
+however, tells a different story. According to this he has been blamed
+for expressing himself in "over curious terms which could not be
+understood of the common people" and requested to use "old and homely
+terms." But Caxton objects to the latter as being also unintelligible.
+"In my judgment," he says, "the common terms that be daily used, are
+lighter to be understood than the old and ancient English." He is
+writing, not for the ignorant man, but "only for a clerk and a noble
+gentleman that feeleth and understandeth in feats of arms, in love, and
+in noble chivalry." For this reason, he concludes, "in a mean have I
+reduced and translated this said book into our English, not over rude
+nor curious, but in such terms as shall be understood, by God's grace,
+according to the copy." Though Caxton does not avail himself of
+Wyntoun's theory that the Troy story must be told in "curious and
+subtle" words, it is probable that, like other translators of his
+century, he felt the attraction of the new aureate diction while he
+professed the simplicity of language which existing standards demanded
+of the translator.
+
+Turning from the romance and the history and considering religious
+writings, the second large group of medieval productions, one finds the
+most significant translator's comment associated with the saint's
+legend, though occasionally the short pious tale or the more abstract
+theological treatise makes some contribution. These religious works
+differ from the romances in that they are more frequently based on Latin
+than on French originals, and in that they contain more deliberate and
+more repeated references to the audiences to which they have been
+adapted. The translator does not, like Caxton, write for "a clerk and a
+noble gentleman"; instead he explains repeatedly that he has striven to
+make his work understandable to the unlearned, for, as the author of
+_The Child of Bristow_ pertinently remarks,
+
+    The beste song that ever was made
+    Is not worth a lekys blade
+    But men wol tende ther-tille.[126]
+
+Since Latin enditing is "cumbrous," the translator of _The Blood at
+Hayles_ presents a version in English, "for plainly this the truth will
+tell";[127] Osbern Bokenam will speak and write "plainly, after the
+language of Southfolk speech";[128] John Capgrave, finding that the
+earlier translator of the life of St. Katherine has made the work "full
+hard ... right for the strangeness of his dark language," undertakes to
+translate it "more openly" and "set it more plain."[129] This conception
+of the audience, together with the writer's consciousness that even in
+presenting narrative he is conveying spiritual truths of supreme
+importance to his readers, probably increases the tendency of the
+translator to incorporate into his English version such running
+commentary as at intervals suggests itself to him. He may add a line or
+two of explanation, of exhortation, or, if he recognizes a quotation
+from the Scriptures or from the Fathers, he may supply the authority for
+it. John Capgrave undertakes to translate the life of St. Gilbert "right
+as I find before me, save some additions will I put thereto which men of
+that order have told me, and eke other things that shall fall to my mind
+in the writing which be pertinent to the matter."[130] Nicholas Love
+puts into English _The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ_,
+"with more put to in certain parts, and also with drawing out of divers
+authorities and matters as it seemeth to the writer hereof most speedful
+and edifying to them that be of simple understanding."[131] Such
+incidental citation of authority is evident in _St. Paula_, published
+by Dr. Horstmann side by side with its Latin original.[132] With more
+simplicity and less display of learning, the translator of religious
+works sometimes vaguely adduces authority, as did the translator of
+romances, in connection with an unfamiliar name. One finds such
+statements as: "Manna, so it is written";[133] "Such a fiend, as the
+book tells us, is called Incubus";[134] "In the country of Champagne, as
+the book tells";[135] "Cursates, saith the book, he hight";[136]
+
+    Her body lyeth in strong castylle
+    And Bulstene, seith the boke, it hight;[137]
+
+    In the yer of ur lord of hevene
+    Four hundred and eke ellevene
+    Wandaly the province tok
+    Of Aufrike--so seith the bok.[138]
+
+Often, however, the reference to source is introduced apparently at
+random. On the whole, indeed, the comment which accompanies religious
+writings does not differ essentially in intelligibility or significance
+from that associated with romances; its interest lies mainly in the fact
+that it brings into greater relief tendencies more or less apparent in
+the other form.
+
+One of these is the large proportion of borrowed comment. The constant
+citation of authority in a work such as, for example, _The Golden
+Legend_ was likely to be reproduced in the English with varying degrees
+of faithfulness. A _Life of St. Augustine_, to choose a few
+illustrations from many, reproduces the Latin as in the following
+examples: "as the book telleth us" replaces "dicitur enim"; "of him it
+is said in Glosarie," "ut dicitur in Glossario"; "in the book of his
+confessions the sooth is written for the nonce," "ut legitur in libro
+iii. confessionum."[139] Robert of Brunne's _Handlyng Synne_, as printed
+by the Early English Text Society with its French original, affords
+numerous examples of translated references to authority.
+
+    The tale ys wrytyn, al and sum,
+    In a boke of Vitas Patrum
+
+corresponds with
+
+    Car en vn liure ai troué
+    Qe Vitas Patrum est apelé;
+
+    Thus seyth seynt Anselme, that hit wrote
+    To thys clerkys that weyl hit wote
+
+with
+
+    Ceo nus ad Seint Ancelme dit
+    Qe en la fey fut clerk parfit.
+
+Yet there are variations in the English much more marked than in the
+last example. "Cum l'estorie nus ad cunté" has become "Yn the byble men
+mow hyt se"; while for
+
+    En ve liure qe est apelez
+    La sume des vertuz & des pechiez
+
+the translator has substituted
+
+    Thys same tale tellyth seynt Bede
+    Yn hys gestys that men rede.[140]
+
+This attempt to give the origin of a tale or of a precept more
+accurately than it is given in the French or the Latin leads sometimes
+to strange confusion, more especially when a reference to the Scriptures
+is involved. It was admitted that the Bible was unusually difficult of
+comprehension and that, if the simple were to understand it, it must be
+annotated in various ways. Nicholas Love says that there have been
+written "for lewd men and women ... devout meditations of Christ's life
+more plain in certain parts than is expressed in the gospels of the four
+evangelists."[141] With so much addition of commentary and legend, it
+was often hard to tell what was and what was not in Holy Scripture, and
+consequently while a narrative like _The Birth of Jesus_ cites correctly
+enough the gospels for certain days, of which it gives a free
+rendering,[142] there are cases of amazing attributions, like that at
+the end of the legend of _Ypotis_:
+
+    Seynt Jon the Evangelist
+    Ede on eorthe with Jhesu Crist,
+    This tale he wrot in latin
+    In holi bok in parchemin.[143]
+
+After the fifteenth century is reached, the translator of religious
+works, like the translator of romances, becomes more garrulous in his
+comment and develops a good deal of interest in English style. As a fair
+representative of the period we may take Osbern Bokenam, the translator
+of various saint's legends, a man very much interested in the
+contemporary development of literary expression. Two qualities,
+according to Bokenam, characterize his own style; he writes
+"compendiously" and he avoids "gay speech." He repeatedly disclaims both
+prolixity and rhetorical ornament. His
+
+    ... form of procedyng artificyal
+    Is in no wyse ner poetical.[144]
+
+He cannot emulate the "first rhetoricians," Gower, Chaucer, and Lydgate;
+he comes too late; they have already gathered "the most fresh flowers."
+Moreover the ornamental style would not become him; he does not desire
+
+    ... to have swych eloquence
+    As sum curials han, ner swych asperence
+    In utteryng of here subtyl conceytys
+    In wych oft-tyme ful greth dysceyt is.[145]
+
+To covet the craft of such language would be "great dotage" for an old
+man like him. Yet like those of Lydgate and Caxton, Bokenam's
+protestations are not entirely convincing, and in them one catches
+glimpses of a lurking fondness for the wordiness of fine writing. Though
+Pallas has always refused to lead him
+
+    Of Thully Rethoryk in-to the motlyd mede,
+    Flourys to gadryn of crafty eloquens,[146]
+
+yet he has often prayed her to show him some favor. Elsewhere he finds
+it necessary to apologize for the brevity of part of his work.
+
+    Now have I shewed more compendiously
+    Than it owt have ben this noble pedigree;
+    But in that myn auctour I follow sothly,
+    And also to eschew prolixite,
+    And for my wyt is schort, as ye may se,
+    To the second part I wyl me hye.[147]
+
+The conventionality, indeed, of Bokenam's phraseology and of his
+literary standards and the self-contradictory elements in his statements
+leave one with the impression that he has brought little, if anything,
+that is fresh and individual to add to the theory of translation.
+
+Whether or not the medieval period made progress towards the development
+of a more satisfactory theory is a doubtful question. While men like
+Lydgate, Bokenam, and Caxton generally profess to have reproduced the
+content of their sources and make some mention of the original writers,
+their comment is confused and indefinite; they do not recognize any
+compelling necessity for faithfulness; and one sometimes suspects that
+they excelled their predecessors only in articulateness. As compared
+with Layamon and Orm they show a development scarcely worthy of a lapse
+of more than two centuries. There is perhaps, as time goes on, some
+little advance towards the attainment of modern standards of scholarship
+as regards confession of divergence from sources. In the early part of
+the period variations from the original are only vaguely implied and
+become evident only when the reader can place the English beside the
+French or Latin. In _Floris and Blancheflor_, for example, a much
+condensed version of a descriptive passage in the French is introduced
+by the words, "I ne can tell you how richly the saddle was
+wrought."[148] The romance of _Arthur_ ends with the statement,
+
+    He that will more look,
+    Read in the French book,
+    And he shall find there
+    Things that I leete here.[149]
+
+_The Northern Passion_ turns from the legendary history of the Cross to
+something more nearly resembling the gospel narrative with the
+exhortation, "Forget not Jesus for this tale."[150] As compared with
+this, writers like Nicholas Love or John Capgrave are noticeably
+explicit. Love pauses at various points to explain that he is omitting
+large sections of the original;[151] Capgrave calls attention to his
+interpolations and refers them to their sources.[152] On the other hand,
+there are constant implications that variation from source may be a
+desirable thing and that explanation and apology are unnecessary.
+Bokenam, for example, apologizes rather because _The Golden Legend_ does
+not supply enough material and he must leave out certain things "for
+ignorance."[153] Caxton says of his _Charles the Great_, "If I had been
+more largely informed ... I had better made it."[154]
+
+On the whole, the greatest merit of the later medieval translators
+consists in the quantity of their comment. In spite of the vagueness and
+the absence of originality in their utterances, there is an advantage in
+their very garrulity. Translators needed to become more conscious and
+more deliberate in their work; different methods needed to be defined;
+and the habit of technical discussion had its value, even though the
+quality of the commentary was not particularly good. Apart from a few
+conventional formulas, this habit of comment constituted the bequest of
+medieval translators to their sixteenth-century successors.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Trans. in _Gregory's Pastoral Care_, ed. Sweet, E.E.T.S., p. 7.
+
+[2] Trans. in _King Alfred's Version of the Consolations of Boethius_,
+trans. Sedgefield, 1900.
+
+[3] Trans. in Hargrove, _King Alfred's Old English Version of St.
+Augustine's Soliloquies_, 1902, pp. xliii-xliv.
+
+[4] Latin Preface of the _Catholic Homilies I_, Latin Preface of the _Lives
+of the Saints_, Preface of _Pastoral Letter for Archbishop Wulfstan_. All
+of these are conveniently accessible in White, _Aelfric_, Chap. XIII.
+
+[5] Latin Preface to _Homilies II_.
+
+[6] _Ibid._
+
+[7] _Preface to Genesis._
+
+[8] Latin Preface of the _Grammar_.
+
+[9] Latin Preface to _Homilies I_.
+
+[10] In the selections from the Bible various passages, e.g., genealogies,
+are omitted without comment.
+
+[11] Latin Preface to _Homilies I_.
+
+[12] Latin Preface.
+
+[13] For further comment, see Chapter II.
+
+[14] Trans. in Thorpe, _Caedmon's Metrical Pharaphrase_, London, 1832, p.
+xxv.
+
+[15] Ll. 1238 ff. For trans. see _The Christ of Cynewulf_, ed. Cook, pp.
+xlvi-xlviii.
+
+[16] Cf. comment on l. 1, in Introduction to _Andreas_, ed. Krapp, 1906, p.
+lii: "The Poem opens with the conventional formula of the epic, citing
+tradition as the source of the story, though it is all plainly of literary
+origin."
+
+[17] I.e. Laurent de Premierfait.
+
+[18] _Bochas' Falls of Princes_, 1558.
+
+[19] Ed. Ritson, ll. 1138-9.
+
+[20] A version, ll. 341-4. Cf. Puttenham, "... many of his books be but
+bare translations out of the Latin and French ... as his books of _Troilus
+and Cresseid_, and the _Romant of the Rose_," Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan
+Critical Essays_, ii, 64.
+
+[21] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden_, ed. Horstmann, 1883, ll. 108-9, 124.
+
+[22] _The Life of St. Werburge_, E.E.T.S., ll. 94. 127-130.
+
+[23] _Minor Poems of Lydgate_, E.E.T.S., _Legend of St. Gyle_, ll. 9-10,
+27-32.
+
+[24] _Ibid._, _Legend of St. Margaret_, l. 74.
+
+[25] _St. Christiana_, l. 1028.
+
+[26] _Legend of Good Women_, ll. 425-6.
+
+[27] See the ballade by Eustache Deschamps, quoted in Chaucer, _Works_, ed.
+Morris, vol. 1, p. 82.
+
+[28] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS_, Pt. 1, E.E.T.S., _The Castle of Love_,
+l. 72.
+
+[29] E.E.T.S., _Cotton Vesp. MS._ ll. 233-5.
+
+[30] E.E.T.S., l. 457.
+
+[31] See _Cambridge History of English Literature_, v. 2, p. 313.
+
+[32] Preface to _The Image of Governance_, 1549.
+
+[33] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, ed. Horstmann, _Christine_, ll.
+517-20.
+
+[34] Preface, E.E.T.S.
+
+[35] Capgrave, _St. Katherine of Alexandria_, E.E.T.S., Bk. 3, l. 21.
+
+[36] In _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, l. 45.
+
+[37] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS._ Pt. 1, Appendix, p. 407.
+
+[38] Introduction to Capgrave, _Lives of St. Augustine and St. Gilbert of
+Sempringham_, E.E.T.S.
+
+[39] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, p. 138, ll. 1183-8.
+
+[40] _Three Prose Versions of Secreta Secretorum_, E.E.T.S., Epistle
+Dedicatory to second.
+
+[41] _The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man_, E.E.T.S.
+
+[42] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden_, _St. Agnes_, ll. 680-2.
+
+[43] _Epistle of Sir John Trevisa_, in Pollard, _Fifteenth Century Prose
+and Verse_, p. 208.
+
+[44] In Sedgefield, _King Alfred's Version of Boethius_.
+
+[45] Ed. White, 1852, ll. 41-4.
+
+[46] Ll. 55-64.
+
+[47] E.E.T.S., Preface.
+
+[48] Pollard, _ibid._, p. 208.
+
+[49] E.E.T.S., ll. 6553-7.
+
+[50] Ll. 6565-6.
+
+[51] E.E.T.S., p. 125.
+
+[52] _Altenglische Sammlung, Neue Folge_, _St. Etheldred Eliensis_, l. 162.
+
+[53] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _Erasmus_, l. 4.
+
+[54] _Ibid._, _Magdalena_, l. 48.
+
+[55] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS._, Pt. 1, _St. Bernard's Lamentation_,
+ll. 21-2.
+
+[56] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _Fragment of Canticum de
+Creatione_, ll. 49-50.
+
+[57] _Legends of the Holy Rood_, E.E.T.S., _How the Holy Cross was found by
+St. Helena_, ll. 684-7.
+
+[58] E.E.T.S., Bk. 1, ll. 684-91.
+
+[59] Ed. Ritson, ll. 4027-8.
+
+[60] _Chevalier au Lyon_, ed. W. L. Holland, 1886, ll. 6805-6.
+
+[61] Ed. Kölbing, 1889, ll. 144, 4514.
+
+[62] E.E.T.S., ll. 319, 405, 216.
+
+[63] See Chambers, _The Medieval Stage_, Appendix G.
+
+[64] _Chronicle of England_, ed. Furnivall, ll. 93-104.
+
+[65] _Altenglische Legenden_, _Vita St. Etheldredae Eliensis_, ll. 978-9,
+1112.
+
+[66] Bk. 4, ll. 129-130.
+
+[67] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, ll. 435-7.
+
+[68] E.E.T.S.
+
+[69] Ed. Ritson.
+
+[70] _Ibid._
+
+[71] E.E.T.S.
+
+[72] _Thornton Romances_, l. 848. (Here the writer is probably confused by
+the two words _grype_ and _griffin_.)
+
+[73] E.E.T.S., l. 1284.
+
+[74] E.E.T.S., l. 318.
+
+[75] Ll. 6983-4.
+
+[76] Ll. 688-9.
+
+[77] L. 3643.
+
+[78] E.E.T.S., ll. 523-4.
+
+[79] L. 6105.
+
+[80] E.E.T.S., l. 4734.
+
+[81] L. 4133.
+
+[82] L. 5425.
+
+[83] L. 3894.
+
+[84] L. 2997.
+
+[85] L. 2170.
+
+[86] L. 2428.
+
+[87] _The Earl of Toulouse_, ed. Ritson, ll. 1213, 1197.
+
+[88] _Le Bone Florence of Rome_, ed. Ritson, ll. 2174, 643.
+
+[89] Ed. Sarrazin, 1885, note on l. 10 of the two versions in Northern
+dialect.
+
+[90] _Thornton Romances_, note on l. 718.
+
+[91] L. 1150.
+
+[92] Ll. 1275-6.
+
+[93] Ll. 2173-4.
+
+[94] See Miss Rickert's comment in E.E.T.S. edition of _Emare_, p. xlviii.
+
+[95] English version, ll. 1284, 2115, 5718-9; French version, _Mellusine_,
+ed. Michel, 1854, ll. 1446, 2302, 6150-2.
+
+[96] Ll. 407, 1359.
+
+[97] Ed. Vollmöller, 1883, ll. 5-6.
+
+[98] E.E.T.S., l. 5522.
+
+[99] E.E.T.S., Chap XLVI, ll. 496-9.
+
+[100] Chap. LVI, ll. 521-5.
+
+[101] Ll. 8-12.
+
+[102] Ll. 15-18.
+
+[103] See ll. 6581 ff.
+
+[104] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 500-501.
+
+[105] Ll. 7742-6.
+
+[106] Ll. 2340-8.
+
+[107] Ll. 5144-8.
+
+[108] Ll. 6170-6.
+
+[109] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 3200, 3218.
+
+[110] _King Alexander_, ed. Weber, 1810, ll. 2199-2202.
+
+[111] Alliterative romance of _Alisaunder_, E.E.T.S., ll. 456-9.
+
+[112] Ed. Madden, 1847.
+
+[113] Ed. Furnivall, 1887, ll. 58-62.
+
+[114] L. 70.
+
+[115] Ll. 83-4.
+
+[116] Ll. 95-6.
+
+[117] Original Chronicle, ll. 6-13.
+
+[118] Ll. 16-17.
+
+[119] Ll. 18-23.
+
+[120] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 1-7.
+
+[121] Prologue.
+
+[122] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 29-33.
+
+[123] Ll. 54-8.
+
+[124] Ll. 217-20.
+
+[125] Ll. 361-7.
+
+[126] In _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, ll. 7-9.
+
+[127] _Ibid._, ll. 33, 35.
+
+[128] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden_, _St. Agnes_, ll. 29-30.
+
+[129] _St. Katherine of Alexandria_, _Prologue_, ll. 61-2, 232-3, 64.
+
+[130] _Lives of St. Augustine and St. Gilbert_, _Prologue_.
+
+[131] Oxford, Clarendon Press, _Prohemium_.
+
+[132] In _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_.
+
+[133] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS._, _De Festo Corporis Christi_, l. 170.
+
+[134] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _St. Bernard_, ll. 943-4.
+
+[135] _Ibid._, _Erasmus_, l. 41.
+
+[136] _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, _St. Katherine_, p. 243, l. 451.
+
+[137] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _Christine_, ll. 489-90.
+
+[138] _Ibid._, _St. Augustine_, ll. 1137-40.
+
+[139] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _St. Augustine_, ll. 43, 57-8,
+128.
+
+[140] Ll. 169-70, 785-6, 2475-6.
+
+[141] _Op. cit._, _Prohemium_.
+
+[142] _Altenglische Legenden_, _Geburt Jesu_, ll. 493, 527, 715, etc.
+
+[143] _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, _Ypotis_, ll. 613-16.
+
+[144] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden, St. Margaret_, ll. 84-5.
+
+[145] _Mary Magdalen_, ll. 245-8.
+
+[146] _St. Agnes_, ll. 13-14.
+
+[147] _Op. cit._, _St. Anne_, ll. 209-14.
+
+[148] E.E.T.S., l. 382.
+
+[149] E.E.T.S., ll. 633-6.
+
+[150] E.E.T.S., p. 146, l. 1.
+
+[151] _Op. cit._, pp. 100, 115, 300.
+
+[152] _Life of St. Gilbert_, pp. 103, 135. 141.
+
+[153] _Op. cit._, _St. Katherine_, l. 49.
+
+[154] Preface.
+
+
+
+
+II. THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE
+
+
+The English Bible took its shape under unusual conditions, which had
+their share in the excellence of the final result. Appealing, as it did,
+to all classes, from the scholar, alert for controversial detail, to the
+unlearned layman, concerned only for his soul's welfare, it had its
+growth in the vital atmosphere of strong intellectual and spiritual
+activity. It was not enough that it should bear the test of the
+scholar's criticism; it must also reach the understanding of Tyndale's
+"boy that driveth the plough," demands difficult of satisfaction, but
+conducive theoretically to a fine development of the art of translation.
+To attain scholarly accuracy combined with practical intelligibility
+was, then, the task of the translator.
+
+From both angles criticism reached him. Tyndale refers to "my
+translation in which they affirm unto the lay people (as I have heard
+say) to be I wot not how many thousand heresies," and continues, "For
+they which in times past were wont to look on no more scripture than
+they found in their duns or such like devilish doctrine, have yet now so
+narrowly looked on my translation that there is not so much as one I
+therein if it lack a tittle over his head, but they have noted it, and
+number it unto the ignorant people for an heresy."[155] Tunstall's
+famous reference in his sermon at Paul's Cross to the two thousand
+errors in Tyndale's Testament suggests the undiscriminating criticism,
+addressed to the popular ear and basing its appeal largely on
+"numbering," of which Tyndale complains. The prohibition of "open
+reasoning in your open Taverns and Alehouses"[156] concerning the
+meaning of Scripture, included in the draft of the proclamation for the
+reading of the Great Bible, also implies that there must have been
+enough of popular oral discussion to count for something in the shaping
+of the English Bible. Of the serious comment of more competent judges
+many records remain, enough to make it clear that, although the real
+technical problems involved were often obscured by controversy and by
+the common view that the divine quality of the original made human
+effort negligible, nevertheless the translator did not lack the stimulus
+which comes from intelligent criticism and discussion.
+
+The Bible also had an advantage over other translations in that the idea
+of _progress_ towards an accurate version early arose. Unlike the
+translators of secular works, who frequently boast of the speed with
+which they have accomplished their tasks, the translators of the Bible
+constantly mention the long, careful labor which has gone to their
+undertaking. Tyndale feels in his own work the need for revision, and so
+far as opportunity serves, corrects and polishes his version. Later
+translators consciously based their renderings on those of their
+predecessors. St. Augustine's approval of diversity of translations was
+cited again and again. Tyndale urges "those that are better seen in the
+tongues than I" to "put to their hands to amend" any faults they may
+find in his work.[157] George Joye, his assistant, later his would-be
+rival, declares that we must learn "to depend not whole on any man's
+translation."[158] "Every one," says Coverdale, "doth his best to be
+nighest to the mark. And though they cannot all attain thereto yet
+shooteth one nigher than another";[159] and again, "Sure I am that there
+cometh more knowledge and understanding of the scripture by their
+sundry translations than by all our sophistical doctors. For that one
+translateth something obscurely in one place, the same translateth
+another, or else he himself, more manifestly by a more plain
+vocable."[160] Occasionally the number of experimenters awakened some
+doubts; Cromwell suggests that the bishops make a "perfect
+correction";[161] the patent granted him for the printing of the Bible
+advocates one translation since "the frailty of men is such that the
+diversity thereof may breed and bring forth manyfold inconveniences as
+when wilful and heady folks shall confer upon the diversity of the said
+translations";[162] the translators of the version of 1611 have to
+"answer a third cavil ... against us, for altering and amending our
+translations so oft";[163] but the conception of progress was generally
+accepted, and finds fit expression in the preface to the Authorized
+Version: "Yet for all that, as nothing is begun and perfected at the
+same time, and the later thoughts are thought to be wiser: so, if we
+building on their foundation that went before us, and being holpen by
+their labors, do endeavor to make that better which they left so good;
+no man, we are sure, hath cause to mislike us."[164]
+
+But the English translators had more far-reaching opportunities to
+profit by the experiences of others. In other countries than England men
+were engaged in similar labors. The sixteenth century was rich in new
+Latin versions of the Scriptures. The translations of Erasmus, Beza,
+Pagninus, Münster, Étienne, Montanus, and Tremellius had in turn their
+influence on the English renderings, and Castalio's translation into
+Ciceronian Latin had at least its share of discussion. There was
+constant intercourse between those interested in Bible translation in
+England and on the Continent. English refugees during the persecutions
+fled across the Channel, and towns such as Worms, Zurich, Antwerp, and
+Geneva saw the first printing of most of the early English versions of
+the Scriptures. The Great Bible was set up in Paris. Indeed foreign
+printers had so large a share in the English Bible that it seemed
+sometimes advisable to limit their influence. Richard Grafton writes
+ironically to Cromwell regarding the text of the Bible: "Yea and to make
+it yet truer than it is, therefore Dutchmen dwelling within this realm
+go about the printing of it, which can neither speak good English, nor
+yet write none, and they will be both the printers and correctors
+thereof";[165] and Coverdale and Grafton imply a similar fear in the
+case of Regnault, the Frenchman, who has been printing service books,
+when they ask Cromwell that "henceforth he print no more in the English
+tongue, unless he have an Englishman that is learned to be his
+corrector."[166] Moreover, versions of the Scriptures in other languages
+than English were not unknown in England. In 1530 Henry the Eighth was
+led to prohibit "the having of holy scripture, translated into the
+vulgar tongues of English, _French_, or _Dutch_."[167] Besides this
+general familiarity with foreign translations and foreign printers, a
+more specific indebtedness must be recognized. More's attack on the book
+"which whoso calleth the New Testament calleth it by a wrong name,
+except they will call it Tyndale's testament or Luther's testament"[168]
+is in some degree justified in its reference to German influence.
+Coverdale acknowledges the aid he has received from "the Dutch
+interpreters: whom (because to their singular gifts and special
+diligence in the Bible) I have been the more glad to follow."[169] The
+preface to the version of 1611 says, "Neither did we think much to
+consult the translators or commentators, Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek,
+or Latin, no, nor the _Spanish_, _French_, _Italian_, or _Dutch_."[170]
+Doubtless a great part of the debt lay in matters of exegesis, but in
+his familiarity with so great a number of translations into other
+languages and with the discussion centering around these translations,
+it is impossible that the English translator should have failed to
+obtain suggestions, both practical and theoretical, which applied to
+translation rather than to interpretation. Comments on the general aims
+and methods of translation, happy turns of expression in French or
+German which had their equivalents in English idiom, must frequently
+have illuminated his difficulties. The translators of the Geneva Bible
+show a just realization of the truth when they speak of "the great
+opportunity and occasions which God hath presented unto us in this
+Church, by reason of so many godly and learned men; and such diversities
+of translations in divers tongues."[171]
+
+Of the general history of Biblical translations, already so frequently
+and so adequately treated, only the barest outline is here necessary.
+The various Anglo-Saxon translations and the Wycliffite versions are
+largely detached from the main line of development. From Tyndale's
+translations to the Authorized Version of 1611 the line is surprisingly
+consecutive, though in the matter of theory an early translator
+occasionally anticipates views which obtain general acceptance only
+after a long period of experiment and discussion. Roughly speaking, the
+theory of translation has as its two extremes, the Roman Catholic and
+the Puritan positions, while the 1611 version, where its preface commits
+itself, compromises on the points at issue.
+
+As is to be expected, the most definite statements of the problems
+involved and of their solution are usually found in the comment of those
+practically engaged in the work of translation. The widely discussed
+question whether or not the people should have the Scriptures in the
+vulgar tongue scarcely ever comes down to the difficulties and
+possibilities of the actual undertaking. More's lengthy attack on
+Tyndale's New Testament is chiefly concerned with matters of doctrine.
+Apart from the prefaces to the various issues of the Bible, the most
+elaborate discussion of technical matters is Fulke's _Defence of the
+Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English
+Tongue_, a Protestant reply to the claims of the Rhemish translators,
+published in 1589. Even the more definite comments are bound up with a
+great mass of controversial or hortatory material, so that it is hard to
+disentangle the actual contribution which is being made to the theory of
+translation. Sometimes the translator settled vexed questions by using
+marginal glosses, a method which might make for accuracy but was liable
+to become cumbrous and confusing. Like the prefaces, the glosses
+sometimes contained theological rather than linguistic comment, thus
+proving a special source of controversy. A proclamation of Henry the
+Eighth forbids the printing or importation of "any books of divine
+scripture in the English tongue, with any additions in the margin or any
+prologue ... except the same be first viewed, examined, and allowed by
+the king's highness, or such of his majesty's council, or others, as it
+shall please his grace to assign thereto, but only the plain sentence
+and text."[172] The version of 1611 admitted only linguistic comment.
+
+Though the Anglo-Saxon renderings of the Scriptures are for the most
+part isolated from the main body of translations, there are some points
+of contact. Elizabethan translators frequently cited the example of the
+earlier period as an argument in favor of having the Bible in the vulgar
+tongue. Nor were they entirely unfamiliar with the work of these remote
+predecessors. Foxe, the martyrologist, published in 1571 an edition of
+the four gospels in Anglo-Saxon under the patronage of Archbishop
+Parker. Parker's well-known interest in Old English centered
+particularly around the early versions of the Scriptures. Secretary
+Cecil sends the Archbishop "a very ancient Bible written in Latin and
+old English or Saxon," and Parker in reply comments on "the fair
+antique writing with the Saxon interpretation."[173] Moreover the slight
+record which survives suggests that the problems which confronted the
+Anglo-Saxon translator were not unlike those which met the translator of
+a later period. Aelfric's theory of translation in general is expressed
+in the Latin prefaces to the _Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ and
+the _Lives of the Saints_. Above all things he desires that his work may
+be clear and readable. Hence he has a peculiar regard for brevity. The
+_Homilies_ are rendered "non garrula verbositate"; the _Lives of the
+Saints_ are abbreviated on the principle that "non semper breuitas
+sermonem deturpat sed multotiens honestiorem reddit." Clear, idiomatic
+English is essential even when it demands the sacrifice of verbal
+accuracy. He presents not word for word but sense for sense, and prefers
+the "pure and open words of the language of this people," to a more
+artificial style. His Anglo-Saxon _Preface to Genesis_ implies that he
+felt the need of greater faithfulness in the case of the Bible: "We dare
+write no more in English than the Latin has, nor change the orders
+(endebirdnisse)"; but it goes on to say that it is necessary that Latin
+idiom adapt itself to English idiom.[174]
+
+Apart from Aelfric's prefaces Anglo-Saxon translators of the Scriptures
+have left no comment on their methods. One of the versions of the
+Gospels, however, links itself with later translations by employing as
+preface three of St. Jerome's prologues, among them the _Preface to
+Eusebius_. References to Jerome's and Augustine's theories of
+translation are frequent throughout the course of Biblical translation
+but are generally vague. The _Preface to Eusebius_ and the _Epistle to
+Pammachius_ contain the most complete statements of the principles which
+guided Jerome. Both emphasize the necessity of giving sense for sense
+rather than word for word, "except," says the latter, "in the case of
+the Holy Scriptures where even the order of the words is a mystery."
+This corresponds closely with Aelfric's theory expressed in the preface
+to the _Lives of the Saints_: "Nec potuimus in ista translatione semper
+verbum ex verbo transferre, sed tamen sensum ex sensu," and his
+insistence in the _Preface to Genesis_ on a faithfulness which extends
+even to the _endebirdnisse_ or orders.
+
+The principle "word for word if possible; if not, sense for sense" is
+common in connection with medieval translations, but is susceptible of
+very different interpretations, as appears sometimes from its context.
+Richard Rolle's phrasing of the theory in the preface to his translation
+of the Psalter is: "I follow the letter as much as I may. And where I
+find no proper English I follow the wit of the words"; but he also makes
+the contradictory statement, "In this work I seek no strange English,
+but lightest and commonest, and _such that is most like to the
+Latin_,"[175] a peculiar conception of the translator's obligation to
+his own tongue! The Prologue to the second recension of the Wycliffite
+version, commonly attributed to Purvey, emphasizes, under cover of the
+same apparent theory, the claims of the vernacular. "The best
+translating," it runs, "is out of Latin into English, to translate after
+the sentence, and not only after the words, so that the sentence be as
+open, either opener, in English as in Latin, ... and if the letter may
+not be sued in the translating, let the sentence be ever whole and open,
+for the words owe to serve to the intent and sentence."[176] The growing
+distrust of the Vulgate in some quarters probably accounts in some
+measure for the translator's attempt to make the meaning if necessary
+"more true and more open than it is in the Latin." In any case these
+contrasted theories represent roughly the position of the Roman
+Catholic and, to some extent, the Anglican party as compared with the
+more distinctly Protestant attitude throughout the period when the
+English Bible was taking shape, the former stressing the difficulties of
+translation and consequently discouraging it, or, when permitting it,
+insisting on extreme faithfulness to the original; the latter profiting
+by experiment and criticism and steadily working towards a version which
+would give due heed not only to the claims of the original but to the
+genius of the English language.
+
+Regarded merely as theory, however, a statement like the one just quoted
+obviously failed to give adequate recognition to what the original might
+justly demand, and in that respect justified the fears of those who
+opposed translation. The high standard of accuracy set by such critics
+demanded of the translator an increasing consciousness of the
+difficulties involved and an increasingly clear conception of what
+things were and were not permissible. Purvey himself contributes to this
+end by a definite statement of certain changes which may be allowed the
+English writer.[177] Ablative absolute or participial constructions may
+be replaced by clauses of various kinds, "and this will, in many places,
+make the sentence open, where to English it after the word would be dark
+and doubtful. Also," he continues, "a relative, _which_, may be resolved
+into his antecedent with a conjunction copulative, as thus, _which
+runneth_, and _he runneth_. Also when a word is once set in a reason, it
+may be set forth as oft as it is understood, either as oft as reason and
+need ask; and this word _autem_ either _vero_, may stand for _forsooth_
+either for _but_, and thus I use commonly; and sometimes it may stand
+for _and_, as old grammarians say. Also when rightful construction is
+letted by relation, I resolve it openly, thus, where this reason,
+_Dominum formidabunt adversarii ejus_, should be Englished thus by the
+letter, _the Lord his adversaries shall dread_, I English it thus by
+resolution, _the adversaries of the Lord shall dread him_; and so of
+other reasons that be like." In the later period of Biblical
+translation, when grammatical information was more accessible, such
+elementary comment was not likely to be committed to print, but echoes
+of similar technical difficulties are occasionally heard. Tyndale,
+speaking of the Hebraisms in the Greek Testament, asks his critics to
+"consider the Hebrew phrase ... whose preterperfect tense and present
+tense is both one, and the future tense is the optative mood also, and
+the future tense is oft the imperative mood in the active voice and in
+the passive voice. Likewise person for person, number for number, and
+interrogation for a conditional, and such like is with the Hebrews a
+common usage."[178] The men concerned in the preparation of the Bishops'
+Bible discuss the rendering of tenses in the Psalms. At the beginning of
+the first Psalm the Bishop of Rochester turns "the preterperfect tense
+into the present tense; because the sense is too harsh in the
+preterperfect tense," and the Bishop of Ely advises "the translation of
+the verbs in the Psalms to be used uniformly in one tense."[179]
+
+Purvey's explanations, however, suggest that his mind is occupied, not
+merely with details, but with a somewhat larger problem. Medieval
+translators were frequently disturbed by the fact that it was almost
+impossible to confine an English version to the same number of words as
+the Latin. When they added to the number, they feared that they were
+unfaithful to the original. The need for brevity, for avoiding
+superfluous words, is especially emphasized in connection with the
+Bible. Conciseness, necessary for accuracy, is also an admirable quality
+in itself. Aelfric's approval of this characteristic has already been
+noted. The metrical preface to Rolle's Psalter reads: "This holy man in
+expounding, he followeth holy doctors, and in all his Englishing right
+after the Latin taketh course, and makes it _compendious_, _short_,
+good, and profitable." Purvey says, "Men might expound much openlier and
+_shortlier_ the Bible than the old doctors have expounded it in Latin."
+Besides approving the avoidance of verbose commentary and exposition,
+critics and translators are always on their guard against the employment
+of over many words in translation. Tyndale, in his revision, will "seek
+to bring to compendiousness that which is now translated at the
+length."[180] In certain cases, he says, English reproduces the Hebrew
+original more easily than does the Latin, because in Latin the
+translator must "seek a compass."[181] Coverdale finds a corresponding
+difficulty in turning Latin into English: "The figure called Eclipsis
+divers times used in the scriptures ... though she do garnish the
+sentence in Latin will not so be admitted in other tongues."[182] The
+translator of the Geneva New Testament refers to the "Hebrew and Greek
+phrases, which are strange to render into other tongues, and also
+_short_."[183] The preface to the Rhemish Testament accuses the
+Protestant translators of having in one place put into the text "three
+words more ... than the Greek word doth signify."[184] Strype says of
+Cheke in a passage chiefly concerned with Cheke's attempt at translation
+of the Bible, "He brought in a _short_ and expressive way of writing
+without long and intricate periods,"[185] a comment which suggests that
+possibly the appreciation of conciseness embraced sentence structure as
+well as phrasing. As Tyndale suggests, careful revision made for
+brevity. In Laurence's scheme for correcting his part of the Bishop's
+Bible was the heading "words superfluous";[186] the preface to the
+Authorized Version says, "If anything be halting, or _superfluous_, or
+not so agreeable to the original, the same may be corrected, and the
+truth set in place."[187] As time went on, certain technical means were
+employed to meet the situation. Coverdale incloses in brackets words not
+in the Latin text; the Geneva translators put added words in italics;
+Fulke criticizes the Rhemish translators for neglecting this
+device;[188] and the matter is finally settled by its employment in the
+Authorized Version. Fulke, however, irritated by what he considers a
+superstitious regard for the number of words in the original on the part
+of the Rhemish translators, puts the whole question on a common-sense
+basis. He charges his opponents with making "many imperfect sentences
+... because you will not seem to add that which in translation is no
+addition, but a true translation."[189] "For to translate out of one
+tongue into another," he says in another place, "is a matter of greater
+difficulty than is commonly taken, I mean exactly to yield as much and
+no more than the original containeth, when the words and phrases are so
+different, that few are found which in all points signify the same
+thing, neither more nor less, in divers tongues."[190] And again, "Must
+not such particles in translation be always expressed to make the sense
+plain, which in English without the particle hath no sense or
+understanding. To translate precisely out of the Hebrew is not to
+observe the number of words, but the perfect sense and meaning, as the
+phrase of our tongue will serve to be understood."[191]
+
+For the distinguishing characteristics of the Authorized Version, the
+beauty of its rhythm, the vigor of its native Saxon vocabulary, there is
+little to prepare one in the comment of its translators or their
+predecessors. Apparently the faithful effort to render the original
+truly resulted in a perfection of style of which the translator himself
+was largely unconscious. The declaration in the preface to the version
+of 1611 that "niceness in words was always counted the next step to
+trifling,"[192] and the general condemnation of Castalio's "lewd
+translation,"[193] point to a respect for the original which made the
+translator merely a mouthpiece and the English language merely a medium
+for a divine utterance. Possibly there is to be found in appreciation of
+the style of the original Hebrew, Greek, or Latin some hint of what gave
+the English version its peculiar beauty, though even here it is hard to
+distinguish the tribute paid to style from that paid to content. The
+characterization may be only a bit of vague comparison like that in the
+preface to the Authorized Version, "Hebrew the ancientest, ... Greek the
+most copious, ... Latin the finest,"[194] or the reference in the
+preface to the Rhemish New Testament to the Vulgate as the translation
+"of greatest majesty."[195] The prefaces to the Geneva New Testament and
+the Geneva Bible combine fairly definite linguistic comment with less
+obvious references to style: "And because the Hebrew and Greek phrases,
+which are hard to render in other tongues, and also short, should not be
+so hard, I have sometimes interpreted them without any whit diminishing
+the _grace_ of the sense, as our language doth use them";[196] "Now as
+we have chiefly observed the sense, and labored always to restore it to
+all integrity, so have we most reverently kept the propriety of the
+words, considering that the Apostles who spoke and wrote to the Gentiles
+in the Greek tongue, rather constrained them to the lively phrase of the
+Hebrew, than enterprised far by mollifying their language to speak as
+the Gentiles did. And for this and other causes we have in many places
+reserved the Hebrew phrases, notwithstanding that they may seem somewhat
+hard in their ears that are not well practised and also _delight in the
+sweet sounding phrases_ of the holy Scriptures."[197] On the other hand
+the Rhemish translators defend the retention of these Hebrew phrases on
+the ground of stylistic beauty: "There is a certain majesty and more
+signification in these speeches, and therefore both Greek and Latin keep
+them, although it is no more the Greek or Latin phrase, than it is the
+English."[198] Of peculiar interest is Tyndale's estimate of the
+relative possibilities of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English. Of the
+Bible he writes: "They will say it cannot be translated into our tongue,
+it is so rude. It is not so rude as they are false liars. For the Greek
+tongue agreeth more with the English than with the Latin. And the
+properties of the Hebrew tongue agreeth a thousand times more with the
+English than with the Latin. The manner of speaking is both one; so that
+in a thousand places thou needest not but to translate it into the
+English word for word; when thou must seek a compass in the Latin, and
+yet shalt have much work to translate it well-favoredly, so that it have
+the same grace and sweetness, sense and pure understanding with it in
+the Latin, and as it hath in the Hebrew."[199] The implication that the
+English version might possess the "grace and sweetness" of the Hebrew
+original suggests that Tyndale was not entirely unconscious of the charm
+which his own work possessed, and which it was to transmit to later
+renderings.
+
+The questions most definitely discussed by those concerned in the
+translation of the Bible were questions of vocabulary. Primarily most of
+these discussions centered around points of doctrine and were concerned
+as largely with the meaning of the word in the original as with its
+connotation in English. Yet though not in their first intention
+linguistic, these discussions of necessity had their bearing on the
+general problems debated by rhetoricians of the day and occasionally
+resulted in definite comment on English usage, as when, for example,
+More says: "And in our English tongue this word senior signifieth
+nothing at all, but is a French word used in English more than half in
+mockage, when one will call another my lord in scorn." With the
+exception of Sir John Cheke few of the translators say anything which
+can be construed as advocacy of the employment of native English words.
+Of Cheke's attitude there can, of course, be no doubt. His theory is
+thus described by Strype: "And moreover, in writing any discourse, he
+would allow no words, but such as were pure English, or of Saxon
+original; suffering no adoption of any foreign word into the English
+speech, which he thought was copious enough of itself, without borrowing
+words of other countries. Thus in his own translations into English, he
+would not use any but pure English phrase and expression, which indeed
+made his style here and there a little affected and hard: and forced him
+to use sometimes odd and uncouth words."[200] His Biblical translation
+was a conscious attempt at carrying out these ideas. "Upon this
+account," writes Strype, "Cheke seemed to dislike the English
+translation of the Bible, because in it there were so many foreign
+words. Which made him once attempt a new translation of the New
+Testament, and he completed the gospel of St. Matthew. And made an
+entrance into St. Mark; wherein all along he labored to use only true
+Anglo-Saxon words."[201] Since Cheke's translation remained in
+manuscript till long after the Elizabethan period, its influence was
+probably not far-reaching, but his uncompromising views must have had
+their effect on his contemporaries. Taverner's Bible, a less extreme
+example of the same tendency, seemingly had no influence on later
+renderings.[202]
+
+Regarding the value of synonyms there is considerable comment, the
+prevailing tendency of which is not favorable to unnecessary
+discrimination between pairs of words. This seems to be the attitude of
+Coverdale in two somewhat confused passages in which he attempts to
+consider at the same time the signification of the original word, the
+practice of other translators, and the facts of English usage. Defending
+diversities of translations, he says, "For that one interpreteth
+something obscurely in one place, the same translateth another, or else
+he himself, more manifestly by a more plain vocable of the same meaning
+in another place."[203] As illustrations Coverdale mentions scribe and
+lawyer; elders, and father and mother; repentance, penance, and
+amendment; and continues: "And in this manner have I used in my
+translation, calling it in one place penance that in another place I
+call repentance; and that not only because the interpreters have done so
+before me, but that the adversaries of the truth may see, how that we
+abhor not this word penance as they untruly report of us, no more than
+the interpreters of Latin abhor poenitare, when they read rescipiscere."
+In the preface to the Latin-English Testament of 1535 he says: "And
+though I seem to be all too scrupulous calling it in one place penance,
+that in another I call repentance: and gelded that another calleth
+chaste, this methinks ought not to offend the saying that the holy ghost
+(I trust) is the author of both our doings ... and therefore I heartily
+require thee think no more harm in me for calling it in one place
+penance that in another I call repentance, than I think harm in him that
+calleth it chaste, which by the nature of this word _Eunuchus_ I call
+gelded ... And for my part I ensure thee I am indifferent to call it as
+well with one term as with the other, so long as I know that it is no
+prejudice nor injury to the meaning of the holy ghost."[204] Fulke in
+his answer to Gregory Martin shows the same tendency to ignore
+differences in meaning. Martin says: "Note also that they put the word
+'just,' when faith is joined withal, as Rom. i, 'the just shall live by
+faith,' to signify that justification is by faith. But if works be
+joined withal and keeping the commandments, as in the place alleged,
+Luke i, there they say 'righteous' to suppose justification by works."
+Fulke replies: "This is a marvellous difference, never heard of (I
+think) in the English tongue before, between 'just' and 'righteous,'
+'justice' and 'righteousness.' I am sure there is none of our
+translators, no, nor any professor of justification by faith only, that
+esteemeth it the worth of one hair, whether you say in any place of
+scripture 'just' or 'righteous,' 'justice' or 'righteousness'; and
+therefore freely have they used sometimes the one word, sometimes the
+other.... Certain it is that no Englishman knoweth the difference
+between 'just' and 'righteous,' 'unjust' and 'unrighteous,' saving that
+'righteousness' and 'righteous' are the more familiar English
+words."[205] Martin and Fulke differ in the same way over the use of the
+words "deeds" and "works." The question whether the same English word
+should always be used to represent the same word in the original was
+frequently a matter of discussion. It was probably in the mind of the
+Archbishop of Ely when he wrote to Archbishop Parker, "And if ye
+translate bonitas or misericordiam, to use it likewise in all places of
+the Psalms."[206] The surprising amount of space devoted by the preface
+to the version of 1611 to explaining the usage followed by the
+translators gives some idea of the importance attaching to the matter.
+"We have not tied ourselves," they say, "to an uniformity of phrasing,
+or to an identity of words, as some peradventure would wish that we had
+done, because they observe, that some learned men somewhere, have been
+as exact as they could that way. Truly, that we might not vary from the
+sense of that which we had translated before, if the word signified the
+same in both places (for there be some words that be not of the same
+sense everywhere) we were especially careful, and made a conscience,
+according to our duty. But that we should express the same notion in the
+same particular word; as for example, if we translate the _Hebrew_ or
+_Greek_ word once by _Purpose_, never to call it _Intent_; if one where
+_Journeying_, never _Travelling_; if one where _Think_, never _Suppose_;
+if one where _Pain_, never _Ache_; if one where _Joy_, never _Gladness_,
+etc. Thus to mince the matter, we thought to savor more of curiosity
+than wisdom.... For is the kingdom of God become words or syllables? why
+should we be in bondage to them if we may be free, use one precisely
+when we may use another no less fit, as commodiously?"[207]
+
+It was seldom, however, that the translator felt free to interchange
+words indiscriminately. Of his treatment of the original Purvey writes:
+"But in translating of words equivocal, that is, that hath many
+significations under one letter, may lightly be peril, for Austin saith
+in the 2nd. book of Christian Teaching, that if equivocal words be not
+translated into the sense, either understanding, of the author, it is
+error; as in that place of the Psalm, _the feet of them be swift to shed
+out blood_, the Greek word is equivocal to _sharp_ and _swift_, and he
+that translated _sharp feet_ erred, and a book that hath _sharp feet_ is
+false, and must be amended; as that sentence _unkind young trees shall
+not give deep roots_ oweth to be thus, _the plantings of adultery shall
+not give deep roots_.... Therefore a translator hath great need to
+study well the sentence, both before and after, and look that such
+equivocal words accord with the sentence."[208] Consideration of the
+connotation of English words is required of the translators of the
+Bishops' Bible. "Item that all such words as soundeth in the Old
+Testament to any offence of lightness or obscenity be expressed with
+more convenient terms and phrases."[209] Generally, however, it was the
+theological connotation of words that was at issue, especially the
+question whether words were to be taken in their ecclesiastical or their
+profane sense, that is, whether certain words which through long
+association with the church had come to have a peculiar technical
+meaning should be represented in English by such words as the church
+habitually employed, generally words similar in form to the Latin. The
+question was a large one, and affected other languages than English.
+Foxe, for example, has difficulty in turning into Latin the controversy
+between Archbishop Cranmer and Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. "The
+English style also stuck with him; which having so many ecclesiastical
+phrases and manners of speech, no good Latin expressions could be found
+to answer them."[210] In England trouble arose with the appearance of
+Tyndale's New Testament. More accused him of mistranslating "three words
+of great weight,"[211] priests, church, and charity, for which he had
+substituted _seniors_, _congregation_, and _love_. Robert Ridley,
+chaplain to the Bishop of London, wrote of Tyndale's version: "By this
+translation we shall lose all these Christian words, penance, charity,
+confession, grace, priest, church, which he always calleth a
+congregation.--Idolatria calleth he worshipping of images."[212] Much
+longer is the list of words presented to Convocation some years later by
+the Bishop of Winchester "which he desired for their germane and native
+meaning and for the majesty of their matter might be retained as far as
+possible in their own nature or be turned into English speech as closely
+as possible."[213] It goes so far as to include words like Pontifex,
+Ancilla, Lites, Egenus, Zizania. This theory was largely put into
+practice by the translators of the Rhemish New Testament, who say, "We
+are very precise and religious in following our copy, the old vulgar
+approved Latin: not only in sense, which we hope we always do, but
+sometimes in the very words also and phrases,"[214] and give as
+illustrations of their usage the retention of Corbana, Parasceve,
+Pasche, Azymes, and similar words. Between the two extreme positions
+represented by Tyndale on the one hand and the Rhemish translators on
+the other, is the attitude of Grindal, who thus advises Foxe in the case
+previously mentioned: "In all these matters, as also in most others, it
+will be safe to hold a middle course. My judgment is the same with
+regard to style. For neither is the ecclesiastical style to be
+fastidiously neglected, as it is by some, especially when the heads of
+controversies cannot sometimes be perspicuously explained without it,
+nor, on the other hand, is it to be so superstitiously followed as to
+prevent us sometimes from sprinkling it with the ornaments of
+language."[215] The Authorized Version, following its custom, approves
+the middle course: "We have on the one side avoided the scrupulosity of
+the Puritans, who leave the old Ecclesiastical words, and betake
+themselves to other, as when they put _washing_ for _Baptism_, and
+_Congregation_ instead of _Church_: as also on the other side we have
+shunned the obscurity of the Papists, in their _Azimes_, _Tunike_,
+_Rational_, _Holocausts_, _Praepuce_, _Pasche_, and a number of such
+like."[216]
+
+In the interval between Tyndale's translation and the appearance of the
+Authorized Version the two parties shifted their ground rather
+amusingly. More accuses Tyndale of taking liberties with the prevailing
+English usage, especially when he substitutes congregation for church,
+and insists that the people understand by _church_ what they ought to
+understand. "This is true," he says, "of the usual signification of
+these words themselves in the English tongue, by the common custom of us
+English people, that either now do use these words in our language, or
+that have used before our days. And I say that this common custom and
+usage of speech is the only thing by which we know the right and proper
+signification of any word, in so much that if a word were taken out of
+Latin, French, or Spanish, and were for lack of understanding of the
+tongue from whence it came, used for another thing in English than it
+was in the former tongue: then signifieth it in England none other thing
+than as we use it and understand thereby, whatsoever it signify anywhere
+else. Then say I now that in England this word congregation did never
+signify the number of Christian people with a connotation or
+consideration of their faith or christendom, no more than this word
+assemble, which hath been taken out of the French, and now is by custom
+become English, as congregation is out of the Latin."[217] Later he
+returns to the charge with the words, "And then must he with his
+translation make us an English vocabulary too."[218] In the later
+period, however, the positions are reversed. The conservative party,
+represented by the Rhemish translators, admit that they are employing
+unfamiliar words, but say that it is a question of faithfulness to
+originals, and that the new words "will easily grow to be current and
+familiar,"[219] a contention not without basis when one considers how
+much acceptance or rejection by the English Bible could affect the
+status of a word. Moreover the introduction of new words into the
+Scriptures had its parallel in the efforts being made elsewhere to
+enrich the language. The Rhemish preface, published in 1582, almost
+contemporaneously with Lyly's _Euphues_ and Sidney's _Arcadia_,
+justifies its practice thus: "And why should we be squamish at new words
+or phrases in the Scripture, which are necessary: when we do easily
+admit and follow new words coined in court and in courtly or other
+secular writings?"[220]
+
+The points at issue received their most thorough consideration in the
+controversy between Gregory Martin and William Fulke. Martin, one of the
+translators of the Rhemish Testament, published, in 1582, _A Discovery
+of the Manifold Corruptions of the Holy Scriptures by the Heretics of
+our Days_, a book in which apparently he attacked all the Protestant
+translations with which he was familiar, including Beza's Latin
+Testament and even attempting to involve the English translators in the
+same condemnation with Castalio. Fulke, in his _Defence of the Sincere
+and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures_, reprinted Martin's
+_Discovery_ and replied to it section by section. Both discussions are
+fragmentary and inconsecutive, but there emerges from them at intervals
+a clear statement of principles. Fundamentally the positions of the two
+men are very different. Martin is not concerned with questions of
+abstract scholarship, but with matters of religious belief. "But because
+these places concern no controversy," he says, "I say no more."[221] He
+does not hesitate to place the authority of the Fathers before the
+results of contemporary scholarship. "For were not he a wise man, that
+would prefer one Master Humfrey, Master Fulke, Master Whitakers, or some
+of us poor men, because we have a little smack of the three tongues,
+before St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, St. Augustine, St. Gregory, or St.
+Thomas, that understood well none but one?"[222] Since his field is thus
+narrowed, he finds it easy to lay down definite rules for translation.
+Fulke, on the other hand, believes that translation may be dissociated
+from matters of belief. "If the translator's purpose were evil, yet so
+long as the words and sense of the original tongue will bear him, he
+cannot justly be called a false and heretical translator, albeit he have
+a false and heretical meaning."[223] He is not willing to accept
+unsupported authority, even that of the leaders of his own party. "If
+Luther misliked the Tigurine translation," he says in another attack on
+the Rhemish version, "it is not sufficient to discredit it, seeing
+truth, and not the opinion or authority of men is to be followed in such
+matters,"[224] and again, in the _Defence_, "The Geneva bibles do not
+profess to translate out of Beza's Latin, but out of the Hebrew and
+Greek; and if they agree not always with Beza, what is that to the
+purpose, if they agree with the truth of the original text?"[225]
+Throughout the _Defence_ he is on his guard against Martin's attempts to
+drive him into unqualified acceptance of any set formula of translation.
+
+The crux of the controversy was the treatment of ecclesiastical words.
+Martin accuses the English translators of interpreting such words in
+their "etymological" sense, and consulting profane writers, Homer,
+Pliny, Tully, Virgil,[226] for their meaning, instead of observing the
+ecclesiastical use, which he calls "the usual taking thereof in all
+vulgar speech and writing."[227] Fulke admits part of Martin's claim:
+"We have also answered before that words must not always be translated
+according to their original and general signification, but according to
+such signification as by use they are appropried to be taken. We agree
+also, that words taken by custom of speech into an ecclesiastical
+meaning are not to be altered into a strange or profane
+signification."[228] But ecclesiastical authority is not always a safe
+guide. "How the fathers of the church have used words, it is no rule for
+translators of the scriptures to follow; who oftentimes used words as
+the people did take them, and not as they signified in the apostles'
+time."[229] In difficult cases there is a peculiar advantage in
+consulting profane writers, "who used the words most indifferently in
+respect of our controversies of which they were altogether
+ignorant."[230] Fulke refuses to be reduced to accept entirely either
+the "common" or the "etymological" interpretation. "A translator that
+hath regard to interpret for the ignorant people's instruction, may
+sometimes depart from the etymology or common signification or precise
+turning of word for word, and that for divers causes."[231] To one
+principle, however, he will commit himself: the translator must observe
+common English usage. "We are not lords of the common speech of men," he
+writes, "for if we were, we would teach them to use their terms more
+properly; but seeing we cannot change the use of speech, we follow
+Aristotle's counsel, which is to speak and use words as the common
+people useth."[232] Consequently ecclesiastical must always give way to
+popular usage. "Our meaning is not, that if any Greek terms, or words of
+any other language, have of long time been usurped in our English
+language, the true meaning of which is unknown at this day to the common
+people, but that the same terms may be either in translation or
+exposition set out plainly, to inform the simplicity of the ignorant, by
+such words as of them are better understood. Also when those terms are
+abused by custom of speech, to signify some other thing than they were
+first appointed for, or else to be taken ambiguously for divers things,
+we ought not to be superstitious in these cases, but to avoid
+misunderstanding we may use words according to their original
+signification, as they were taken in such time as they were written by
+the instruments of the Holy Ghost."[233]
+
+Fulke's support of the claims of the English language is not confined to
+general statements. Acquaintance with other languages has given him a
+definite conception of the properties of his own, even in matters of
+detail. He resents the importation of foreign idiom. "If you ask for the
+readiest and most proper English of these words, I must answer you, 'an
+image, a worshipper of images, and worshipping of images,' as we have
+sometimes translated. The other that you would have, 'idol, idolater,
+and idolatry,' be rather Greekish than English words; which though they
+be used by many Englishmen, yet are they not understood of all as the
+other be."[234] "You ... avoid the names of elders, calling them
+ancients, and the wise men sages, as though you had rather speak French
+than English, as we do; like as you translate _confide_, 'have a good
+heart,' after the French phrase, rather than you would say as we do, 'be
+of good comfort.'"[235] Though he admits that English as compared with
+older languages is defective in vocabulary, he insists that this cannot
+be remedied by unwarranted coinage of words. "That we have no greater
+change of words to answer so many of the Hebrew tongue, it is of the
+riches of that tongue, and the poverty of our mother language, which
+hath but two words, image and idol, and both of them borrowed of the
+Latin and Greek: as for other words equivalent, we know not any, and we
+are loth to make any new words of that signification, except the
+multitude of Hebrew words of the same sense coming together do sometimes
+perhaps seem to require it. Therefore as the Greek hath fewer words to
+express this thing than the Hebrew, so hath the Latin fewer than the
+Greek, and the English fewest of all, as will appear if you would
+undertake to give us English words for the thirteen Hebrew words:
+except you would coin such ridiculous inkhorn terms, as you do in the
+New Testament, Azymes, prepuce, neophyte, sandale, parasceve, and such
+like."[236] "When you say 'evangelized,' you do not translate, but feign
+a new word, which is not understood of mere English ears."[237]
+
+Fulke describes himself as never having been "of counsel with any that
+translated the scriptures into English,"[238] but his works were
+regarded with respect, and probably had considerable influence on the
+version of 1611.[239] Ironically enough, they did much to familiarize
+the revisers with the Rhemish version and its merits. On the other hand,
+Fulke's own views had a distinct value. Though on some points he is
+narrowly conservative, and though some of the words which he condemns
+have established themselves in the language nevertheless most of his
+ideas regarding linguistic usage are remarkably sound, and, like those
+of More, commend themselves to modern opinion.
+
+Between the translators of the Bible and the translators of other works
+there were few points of contact. Though similar problems confronted
+both groups, they presented themselves in different guises. The question
+of increasing the vocabulary, for example, is in the case of biblical
+translation so complicated by the theological connotation of words as to
+require a treatment peculiar to itself. Translators of the Bible were
+scarcely ever translators of secular works and vice versa. The chief
+link between the two kinds of translation is supplied by the metrical
+versions of the Psalms. Such verse translations were counted of
+sufficient importance to engage the efforts of men like Parker and
+Coverdale, influential in the main course of Bible translation. Men like
+Thomas Norton, the translator of Calvin's _Institutes_, Richard
+Stanyhurst, the translator of _Virgil_, and others of greater literary
+fame, Wyatt, Surrey, Sidney, Milton, Bacon, experimented, as time went
+on, with these metrical renderings. The list even includes the name of
+King James.[240]
+
+At first there was some idea of creating for such songs a vogue in
+England like that which the similar productions of Marot had enjoyed at
+the French court. Translators felt free to choose what George Wither
+calls "easy and passionate Psalms," and, if they desired, create
+"elegant-seeming paraphrases ... trimmed ... up with rhetorical
+illustrations (suitable to their fancies, and the changeable garb of
+affected language)."[241] The expectations of courtly approbation were,
+however, largely disappointed, but the metrical Psalms came, in time, to
+have a wider and more democratic employment. Complete versions of the
+Psalms in verse came to be regarded as a suitable accompaniment to the
+Bible, until in the Scottish General Assembly of 1601 the proposition
+for a new translation of the Bible was accompanied by a parallel
+proposition for a correction of the Psalms in metre.[242]
+
+Besides this general realization of the practical usefulness of these
+versions in divine service, there was in some quarters an appreciation
+of the peculiar literary quality of the Psalms which tended to express
+itself in new attempts at translation. Arthur Golding, though not
+himself the author of a metrical version, makes the following comment:
+"For whereas the other parts of holy writ (whether they be historical,
+moral, judicial, ceremonial, or prophetical) do commonly set down their
+treatises in open and plain declaration: this part consisting of them
+all, wrappeth up things in types and figures, describing them under
+borrowed personages, and oftentimes winding in matters of prevention,
+speaking of things to come as if they were past or present, and of
+things past as if they were in doing, and every man is made a betrayer
+of the secrets of his own heart. And forasmuch as it consisteth chiefly
+of prayer and thanksgiving, or (which comprehendeth them both) of
+invocation, which is a communication with God, and requireth rather an
+earnest and devout lifting up of the mind than a loud or curious
+utterance of the voice: there be many imperfect sentences, many broken
+speeches, and many displaced words: according as the party that prayed,
+was either prevented with the swiftness of his thoughts, or interrupted
+with vehemency of joy or grief, or forced to surcease through infirmity,
+that he might recover more strength and cheerfulness by interminding
+God's former promises and benefits."[243] George Wither finds that the
+style of the Psalms demands a verse translation. "The language of the
+Muses," he declares, "in which the Psalms were originally written, is
+not so properly expressed in the prose dialect as in verse." "I have
+used some variety of verse," he explains, "because prayers, praises,
+lamentations, triumphs, and subjects which are pastoral, heroical,
+elegiacal, and mixed (all which are found in the Psalms) are not
+properly expressed in one sort of measure."[244]
+
+Besides such perception of the general poetic quality of the Psalms as
+is found in Wither's comment, there was some realization that metrical
+elements were present in various books of Scripture. Jerome, in his
+_Preface to Job_, had called attention to this,[245] but the regular
+translators, whose references to Jerome, though frequent, are somewhat
+vague, apparently made nothing of the suggestion. Elsewhere, however,
+there was an attempt to justify the inclusion of translations of the
+Psalms among other metrical experiments. Googe, defending the having of
+the Psalms in metre, declares that Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other parts of
+the Bible "were written by the first authors in perfect and pleasant
+hexameter verses."[246] Stanyhurst[247] and Fraunce[248] both tried
+putting the Psalms into English hexameters. There was, however, no
+accurate knowledge of the Hebrew verse system. The preface to the
+American _Bay Psalm Book_, published in 1640,[249] explains that "The
+psalms are penned in such verses as are suitable to the poetry of the
+Hebrew language, and not in the common style of such other books of the
+Old Testament as are not poetical.... Then, as all our English songs
+(according to the course of our English poetry) do run in metre, so
+ought David's psalms to be translated into metre, that we may sing the
+Lord's songs, as in our English tongue so in such verses as are familiar
+to an English ear, which are commonly metrical." It is not possible to
+reproduce the Hebrew metres. "As the Lord hath hid from us the Hebrew
+tunes, lest we should think ourselves bound to imitate them; so also the
+course and frame (for the most part) of their Hebrew poetry, that we
+might not think ourselves bound to imitate that, but that every nation
+without scruple might follow as the grave sort of tunes of their own
+country, so the graver sort of verses of their own country's poetry."
+This had already become the common solution of the difficulty, so that
+even Wither keeps to the kinds of verse used in the old Psalm books in
+order that the old tunes may be used.
+
+But though the metrical versions of the Psalms often inclined to
+doggerel, and though they probably had little, if any, influence on the
+Authorized Version, they made their own claims to accuracy, and even
+after the appearance of the King James Bible sometimes demanded
+attention as improved renderings. George Wither, for example, believes
+that in using verse he is being more faithful to the Hebrew than are the
+prose translations. "There is," he says, "a poetical emphasis in many
+places, which requires such an alteration in the grammatical expression,
+as will seem to make some difference in the judgment of the common
+reader; whereas it giveth best life to the author's intention; and makes
+that perspicuous which was made obscure by those mere grammatical
+interpreters, who were not acquainted with the proprieties and liberties
+of this kind of writing." His version is, indeed, "so easy to be
+understood, that some readers have confessed, it hath been instead of a
+comment unto them in sundry hard places." His rendering is not based
+merely on existing English versions; he has "the warrant of best Hebrew
+grammarians, the authority of the Septuagint, and Chaldean paraphrase,
+the example of the ancient and of the best modern prose translators,
+together with the general practice and allowance of all orthodox
+expositors." Like Wither, other translators went back to original
+sources and made their verse renderings real exercises in translation
+rather than mere variations on the accepted English text. From this
+point of view their work had perhaps some value; and though it seems
+regrettable that practically nothing of permanent literary importance
+should have resulted from such repeated experiments, they are
+interesting at least as affording some connection between the sphere of
+the regular translators and the literary world outside.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[155] _Preface to Genesis_, in Pollard, _Records of the English Bible_, p.
+94.
+
+[156] Pollard, p. 266.
+
+[157] _Ibid._, p. 112.
+
+[158] _Ibid._, p. 187.
+
+[159] _Ibid._, p. 205.
+
+[160] Coverdale, _Prologue_ to Bible of 1535.
+
+[161] Pollard, p. 196.
+
+[162] _Ibid._, p. 259.
+
+[163] _Ibid._, p. 365.
+
+[164] _Ibid._, p. 360.
+
+[165] Pollard, p. 220.
+
+[166] _Ibid._, p. 239.
+
+[167] _Ibid._, p. 163.
+
+[168] _Ibid._, p. 126.
+
+[169] _Ibid._, p. 203.
+
+[170] _Ibid._, p. 371.
+
+[171] Pollard, p. 280.
+
+[172] Pollard, p. 241.
+
+[173] Strype, _Life of Parker_, London, 1711, p. 536.
+
+[174] For a further account of Aelfric's theories, see Chapter I.
+
+[175] _The Psalter translated by Richard Rolle of Hampole_, ed. Bramley,
+Oxford, 1884.
+
+[176] Chapter 15, in Pollard, _Fifteenth Century Prose and Verse_.
+
+[177] _Prologue_, Chapter 15.
+
+[178] _Prologue to the New Testament_, printed in Matthew's Bible, 1551.
+
+[179] Strype, _Life of Parker_, p. 208.
+
+[180] Pollard, p. 116.
+
+[181] Preface to _The Obedience of a Christian Man_, in _Doctrinal
+Treatises_, Parker Society, 1848, p. 390.
+
+[182] Pollard, p. 211.
+
+[183] _Ibid._, p. 277.
+
+[184] _Ibid._, p. 306.
+
+[185] _Life of Cheke_, p. 212.
+
+[186] Strype, _Life of Parker_, p. 404.
+
+[187] Pollard, p. 361.
+
+[188] Fulke, _Defence_, Parker Society, p. 552.
+
+[189] _Defence_, p. 552.
+
+[190] _Ibid._, p. 97.
+
+[191] _Ibid._, p. 408.
+
+[192] Pollard, p. 375.
+
+[193] E.g., Fulke, _Defence_, p. 163.
+
+[194] Pollard, p. 349.
+
+[195] _Ibid._, p. 303.
+
+[196] _Ibid._, p. 277.
+
+[197] Pollard, p. 281.
+
+[198] _Ibid._, p. 309.
+
+[199] Preface to _The Obedience of a Christian Man, Doctrinal Treatises_,
+pp. 148-9.
+
+[200] _Life of Cheke_, p. 212.
+
+[201] _Ibid._, p. 212.
+
+[202] An interesting comment of later date than the Authorized Version is
+found in the preface to William L'Isle's _Divers Ancient Monuments of the
+Saxon Tongue_, published in 1638. L'Isle writes: "These monuments of
+reverend antiquity, I mean the Saxon Bibles, to him that understandingly
+reads and well considers the time wherein they were written, will in many
+places convince of affected obscurity some late translations." After
+criticizing the inkhorn terms of the Rhemish translators, he says, "The
+Saxon hath words for Trinity, Unity, and all such foreign words as we are
+now fain to use, because we have forgot better of our own." (In J. L.
+Moore, _Tudor-Stuart Views on the Growth, Status, and Destiny of the
+English Language_.)
+
+[203] _Prologue_ to Bible of 1535.
+
+[204] Pollard, p. 212.
+
+[205] Fulke, pp. 337-8.
+
+[206] Pollard, p. 291.
+
+[207] _Ibid._, p. 374.
+
+[208] _Prologue_, Chapter 15.
+
+[209] Pollard, p. 298.
+
+[210] Strype, _Life of Grindal_, Oxford, 1821, p. 19.
+
+[211] Pollard, p. 127.
+
+[212] _Ibid._, p. 124.
+
+[213] Pollard, p. 274.
+
+[214] _Ibid._, p. 305.
+
+[215] Translated in _Remains of Archbishop Grindal_, Parker Society, 1843,
+p. 234.
+
+[216] Pollard, pp. 375-6.
+
+[217] More, _Confutation of Tyndale_, _Works_, p. 417.
+
+[218] _Ibid._, p. 427.
+
+[219] Pollard, p. 307.
+
+[220] Pollard, p. 291.
+
+[221] _Defence_, p. 42.
+
+[222] _Ibid._, p. 507.
+
+[223] _Defence_, p. 210.
+
+[224] _Confutation of the Rhemish Testament_, New York, 1834, p. 21.
+
+[225] _Defence_, p. 118.
+
+[226] _Ibid._, p. 160.
+
+[227] _Ibid._, p. 217.
+
+[228] _Defence_, p. 217.
+
+[229] _Ibid._, p. 162.
+
+[230] _Ibid._, p. 161.
+
+[231] _Ibid._, p. 58.
+
+[232] _Ibid._, p. 267.
+
+[233] _Defence_, p. 217.
+
+[234] _Ibid._, p. 179.
+
+[235] _Ibid._, p. 90.
+
+[236] _Defence_, p. 206.
+
+[237] _Ibid._, p. 549.
+
+[238] _Ibid._, p. 89.
+
+[239] Pollard, _Introduction_, p. 37.
+
+[240] See Holland, _The Psalmists of Britain_, London, 1843, for a detailed
+account of such translations.
+
+[241] Preface to _The Psalms of David translated into lyric verse_, 1632,
+reprinted by the Spenser Society, 1881.
+
+[242] Holland, p. 251.
+
+[243] _Epistle Dedicatory_, to _The Psalms with M. John Calvin's
+Commentaries_, 1571.
+
+[244] _Op. cit._
+
+[245] See _The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, ed. Schaff and Wace, New
+York, 1893, p. 491.
+
+[246] Holland, Note, p. 89.
+
+[247] Published at the end of his _Virgil_.
+
+[248] In _The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell_, 1591.
+
+[249] Reprinted, New York, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+III. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+The Elizabethan period presents translations in astonishing number and
+variety. As the spirit of the Renaissance began to inspire England,
+translators responded to its stimulus with an enthusiasm denied to later
+times. It was work that appealed to persons of varying ranks and of
+varying degrees of learning. In the early part of the century, according
+to Nash, "every private scholar, William Turner and who not, began to
+vaunt their smattering of Latin in English impressions."[250] Thomas
+Nicholls, the goldsmith, translated Thucydides; Queen Elizabeth
+translated Boethius. The mention of women in this connection suggests
+how widely the impulse was diffused. Richard Hyrde says of the
+translation of Erasmus's _Treatise on the Lord's Prayer_, made by
+Margaret Roper, the daughter of Sir Thomas More, "And as for the
+translation thereof, I dare be bold to say it, that whoso list and well
+can confer and examine the translation with the original, he shall not
+fail to find that she hath showed herself not only erudite and elegant
+in either tongue, but hath also used such wisdom, such discreet and
+substantial judgment, in expressing lively the Latin, as a man may
+peradventure miss in many things translated and turned by them that bear
+the name of right wise and very well learned men."[251] Nicholas Udall
+writes to Queen Katherine that there are a number of women in England
+who know Greek and Latin and are "in the holy scriptures and theology
+so ripe that they are able aptly, cunningly, and with much grace either
+to endite or translate into the vulgar tongue for the public instruction
+and edifying of the unlearned multitude."[252]
+
+The greatness of the field was fitted to arouse and sustain the ardor of
+English translators. In contrast with the number of manuscripts at
+command in earlier days, the sixteenth century must have seemed
+endlessly rich in books. Printing was making the Greek and Latin
+classics newly accessible, and France and Italy, awake before England to
+the new life, were storing the vernacular with translations and with new
+creations. Translators might find their tasks difficult enough and they
+might flag by the way, as Hoby confesses to have done at the end of the
+third book of _The Courtier_, but plucking up courage, they went on to
+the end. Hoby declares, with a vigor that suggests Bunyan's Pilgrim, "I
+whetted my style and settled myself to take in hand the other three
+books";[253] Edward Hellowes, after the hesitation which he describes in
+the Dedication to the 1574 edition of Guevara's _Familiar Epistles_,
+"began to call to mind my God, my Prince, my country, and also your
+worship," and so adequately upheld, went on with his undertaking; Arthur
+Golding, with a breath of relief, sees his rendering of Ovid's
+_Metamorphoses_ at last complete.
+
+    Through Ovid's work of turned shapes I have with painful pace
+    Passed on, until I had attained the end of all my race.
+    And now I have him made so well acquainted with our tongue,
+    As that he may in English verse as in his own be sung.[254]
+
+Sometimes the toilsomeness of the journey was lightened by
+companionship. Now and then, especially in the case of religious works,
+there was collaboration. Luther's _Commentary on Galatians_ was
+undertaken by "certain godly men," of whom "some began it according to
+such skill as they had. Others godly affected, not suffering so good a
+matter in handling to be marred, put to their helping hands for the
+better framing and furthering of so worthy a work."[255] From Thomas
+Norton's record of the conditions under which he translated Calvin's
+_Institution of the Christian Religion_, it is not difficult to feel the
+atmosphere of sympathy and encouragement in which he worked. "Therefore
+in the very beginning of the Queen's Majesty's most blessed reign," he
+writes, "I translated it out of Latin into English, for the commodity of
+the Church of Christ, at the special request of my dear friends of
+worthy memory, Reginald Wolfe and Edward Whitchurch, the one Her
+Majesty's Printer for the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin tongues, the other
+her Highness' Printer of the books of Common Prayer. I performed my work
+in the house of my said friend, Edward Whitchurch, a man well known of
+upright heart and dealing, an ancient zealous Gospeller, as plain and
+true a friend as ever I knew living, and as desirous to do anything to
+common good, specially to the advancement of true religion.... In the
+doing hereof I did not only trust mine own wit or ability, but examined
+my whole doing from sentence to sentence throughout the whole book with
+conference and overlooking of such learned men, as my translation being
+allowed by their judgment, I did both satisfy mine own conscience that I
+had done truly, and their approving of it might be a good warrant to the
+reader that nothing should herein be delivered him but sound, unmingled
+and uncorrupted doctrine, even in such sort as the author himself had
+first framed it. All that I wrote, the grave, learned, and virtuous man,
+M. David Whitehead (whom I name with honorable remembrance) did among
+others, compare with the Latin, examining every sentence throughout the
+whole book. Beside all this, I privately required many, and generally
+all men with whom I ever had any talk of this matter, that if they found
+anything either not truly translated or not plainly Englished, they
+would inform me thereof, promising either to satisfy them or to amend
+it."[256] Norton's next sentence, "Since which time I have not been
+advertised by any man of anything which they would require to be
+altered" probably expresses the fate of most of the many requests for
+criticism that accompany translations, but does not essentially modify
+the impression he conveys of unusually favorable conditions for such
+work. One remembers that Tyndale originally anticipated with some
+confidence a residence in the Bishop of London's house while he
+translated the Bible. Thomas Wilson, again, says of his translation of
+some of the orations of Demosthenes that "even in these my small
+travails both Cambridge and Oxford men have given me their learned
+advice and in some things have set to their helping hand,"[257] and
+Florio declares that it is owing to the help and encouragement of "two
+supporters of knowledge and friendship," Theodore Diodati and Dr.
+Gwinne, that "upheld and armed" he has "passed the pikes."[258]
+
+The translator was also sustained by a conception of the importance of
+his work, a conception sometimes exaggerated, but becoming, as the
+century progressed, clearly and truly defined. Between the lines of the
+dedication which Henry Parker, Lord Morley, prefixes to his translation
+of Petrarch's _Triumphs_,[259] one reads a pathetic story of an
+appreciation which can hardly have equaled the hopes of the author. He
+writes of "one of late days that was groom of the chamber with that
+renowned and valiant prince of high memory, Francis the French king,
+whose name I have forgotten, that did translate these triumphs to that
+said king, which he took so thankfully that he gave to him for his pains
+an hundred crowns, to him and to his heirs of inheritance to enjoy to
+that value in land forever, and took such pleasure in it that
+wheresoever he went, among his precious jewels that book always carried
+with him for his pastime to look upon, and as much esteemed by him as
+the richest diamond he had." Moved by patriotic emulation, Lord Morley
+"translated the said book to that most worthy king, our late sovereign
+lord of perpetual memory, King Henry the Eighth, who as he was a prince
+above all others most excellent, so took he the work very thankfully,
+marvelling much that I could do it, and thinking verily I had not done
+it without help of some other, better knowing in the Italian tongue than
+I; but when he knew the very truth, that I had translated the work
+myself, he was more pleased therewith than he was before, and so what
+his highness did with it is to me unknown."
+
+Hyperbole in estimating the value of the translator's work is not common
+among Lord Morley's successors, but their very recognition of the
+secondary importance of translation often resulted in a modest yet
+dignified insistence on its real value. Richard Eden says that he has
+labored "not as an author but as a translator, lest I be injurious to
+any man in ascribing to myself the travail of other."[260] Nicholas
+Grimald qualifies a translation of Cicero as "my work," and immediately
+adds, "I call it mine as Plautus and Terence called the comedies theirs
+which they made out of Greek."[261] Harrington, the translator of
+_Orlando Furioso_, says of his work: "I had rather men should see and
+know that I borrow at all than that I steal any, and I would wish to be
+called rather one of the worst translators than one of the meaner
+makers, specially since the Earl of Surrey and Sir Thomas Wiat, that are
+yet called the first refiners of the English tongue, were both
+translators out of the Italian. Now for those that count it such a
+contemptible and trifling matter to translate, I will but say to them as
+M. Bartholomew Clarke, an excellent learned man and a right good
+translator, said in a manner of pretty challenge, in his Preface (as I
+remember) upon the Courtier, which book he translated out of Italian
+into Latin. 'You,' saith he, 'that think it such a toy, lay aside my
+book, and take my author in hand, and try a leaf or such a matter, and
+compare it with mine.'"[262] Philemon Holland, the "translator general"
+of his time, writes of his art: "As for myself, since it is neither my
+hap nor hope to attain to such perfection as to bring forth something of
+mine own which may quit the pains of a reader, and much less to perform
+any action that might minister matter to a writer, and yet so far bound
+unto my native country and the blessed state wherein I have lived, as to
+render an account of my years passed and studies employed, during this
+long time of peace and tranquillity, wherein (under the most gracious
+and happy government of a peerless princess, assisted with so prudent,
+politic, and learned Counsel) all good literature hath had free progress
+and flourished in no age so much: methought I owed this duty, to leave
+for my part also (after many others) some small memorial, that might
+give testimony another day what fruits generally this peaceable age of
+ours hath produced. Endeavored I have therefore to stand in the third
+rank, and bestowed those hours which might be spared from the practice
+of my profession and the necessary cares of life, to satisfy my
+countrymen now living and to gratify the age ensuing in this
+kind."[263] To Holland's simple acceptance of his rightful place, it is
+pleasant to add the lines of the poet Daniel, whose imagination was
+stirred in true Elizabethan fashion by the larger relations of the
+translator. Addressing Florio, the interpreter of Montaigne to the
+English people, he thanks him on behalf of both author and readers for
+
+    ... his studious care
+    Who both of him and us doth merit much,
+    Having as sumptuously as he is rare
+    Placed him in the best lodging of our speech,
+    And made him now as free as if born here,
+    And as well ours as theirs, who may be proud
+    To have the franchise of his worth allowed.
+    It being the proportion of a happy pen,
+    Not to b'invassal'd to one monarchy,
+    But dwell with all the better world of men
+    Whose spirits are of one community,
+    Whom neither Ocean, Deserts, Rocks, nor Sands
+    Can keep from th' intertraffic of the mind.[264]
+
+In a less exalted strain come suggestions that the translator's work is
+valuable enough to deserve some tangible recognition. Thomas Fortescue
+urges his reader to consider the case of workmen like himself, "assuring
+thyself that none in any sort do better deserve of their country, that
+none swink or sweat with like pain and anguish, that none in like sort
+hazard or adventure their credit, that none desire less stipend or
+salary for their travail, that none in fine are worse in this age
+recompensed."[265] Nicholas Udall presents detailed reasons why it is to
+be desired that "some able, worthy, and meet persons for doing such
+public benefit to the commonweal as translating of good works and
+writing of chronicles might by some good provision and means have some
+condign sustentation in the same."[266] "Besides," he argues, "that such
+a translator travaileth not to his own private commodity, but to the
+benefit and public use of his country: besides that the thing is such as
+must so thoroughly occupy and possess the doer, and must have him so
+attent to apply that same exercise only, that he may not during that
+season take in hand any other trade of business whereby to purchase his
+living: besides that the thing cannot be done without bestowing of long
+time, great watching, much pains, diligent study, no small charges, as
+well of meat, drink, books, as also of other necessaries, the labor self
+is of itself a more painful and more tedious thing than for a man to
+write or prosecute any argument of his own invention. A man hath his own
+invention ready at his own pleasure without lets or stops, to make such
+discourse as his argument requireth: but a translator must ... at every
+other word stay, and suspend both his cogitation and his pen to look
+upon his author, so that he might in equal time make thrice as much as
+he can be able to translate."
+
+The belief present in the comment of both Fortescue and Udall that the
+work of the translator is of peculiar service to the state is expressed
+in connection with translations of every sort. Richard Taverner declares
+that he has been incited to put into English part of the _Chiliades_ of
+Erasmus by "the love I bear to the furtherance and adornment of my
+native country."[267] William Warde translates _The Secrets of Maister
+Alexis of Piemont_ in order that "as well Englishmen as Italians,
+Frenchmen, or Dutchmen may suck knowledge and profit hereof."[268] John
+Brende, in the Dedication of his _History of Quintus Curtius_, insists
+on the importance of historical knowledge, his appreciation of which has
+made him desire "that we Englishmen might be found as forward in that
+behalf as other nations, which have brought all worthy histories into
+their natural language."[269] Patriotic emulation of what has been done
+in other countries is everywhere present as a motive. Occasionally the
+Englishman shows that he has studied foreign translations for his own
+guidance. Adlington, in his preface to his rendering of _The Golden Ass_
+of Apuleius, says that he does not follow the original in certain
+respects, "for so the French and Spanish translators have not
+done";[270] Hoby says of his translation of _The Courtier_, "I have
+endeavored myself to follow the very meaning and words of the author,
+without being misled by fantasy or leaving out any parcel one or other,
+whereof I know not how some interpreters of this book into other
+languages can excuse themselves, and the more they be conferred, the
+more it will perchance appear."[271] On the whole, however, the comment
+confines itself to general statements like that of Grimald, who in
+translating Cicero is endeavoring "to do likewise for my countrymen as
+Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Dutchmen, and other foreigners have
+liberally done for theirs."[272] In spite of the remarkable output
+England lagged behind other countries. Lord Morley complains that the
+printing of a merry jest is more profitable than the putting forth of
+such excellent works as those of Petrarch, of which England has "very
+few or none, which I do lament in my heart, considering that as well in
+French as in the Italian (in the which both tongues I have some little
+knowledge) there is no excellent work in the Latin, but that straightway
+they set it forth in the vulgar."[273] Morley wrote in the early days
+of the movement for translation, but later translators made similar
+complaints. Hoby says in the preface to _The Courtier_: "In this point
+(I know not by what destiny) Englishmen are most inferior to most of all
+other nations: for where they set their delight and bend themselves with
+an honest strife of matching others to turn into their mother tongue not
+only the witty writings of other languages but also of all philosophers,
+and all sciences both Greek and Latin, our men ween it sufficient to
+have a perfect knowledge to no other end but to profit themselves and
+(as it were) after much pains in breaking up a gap bestow no less to
+close it up again." To the end of the century translation is encouraged
+or defended on the ground that it is a public duty. Thomas Danett is
+urged to translate the _History_ of Philip de Comines by certain
+gentlemen who think it "a great dishonor to our native land that so
+worthy a history being extant in all languages almost in Christendom
+should be suppressed in ours";[274] Chapman writes indignantly of Homer,
+"And if Italian, French, and Spanish have not made it dainty, nor
+thought it any presumption to turn him into their languages, but a fit
+and honorable labor and (in respect of their country's profit and their
+prince's credit) almost necessary, what curious, proud, and poor
+shamefastness should let an English muse to traduce him?"[275]
+
+Besides all this, the translator's conception of his audience encouraged
+and guided his pen. While translations in general could not pretend to
+the strength and universality of appeal which belonged to the Bible,
+nevertheless taken in the mass and judged only by the comment associated
+with them, they suggest a varied public and a surprising contact with
+the essential interests of mankind. The appeals on title pages and in
+prefaces to all kinds of people, from ladies and gentlemen of rank to
+the common and simple sort, not infrequently resemble the calculated
+praises of the advertiser, but admitting this, there still remains much
+that implies a simple confidence in the response of friendly readers.
+Rightly or wrongly, the translator presupposes for himself in many cases
+an audience far removed from academic preoccupations. Richard Eden,
+translating from the Spanish Martin Cortes' _Arte de Navigar_, says,
+"Now therefore this work of the Art of Navigation being published in our
+vulgar tongue, you may be assured to have more store of skilful
+pilots."[276] Golding's translations of Pomponius Mela and Julius
+Solinus Polyhistor are described as, "Right pleasant and profitable for
+Gentlemen, Merchants, Mariners, and Travellers."[277] Hellowes, with an
+excess of rhetoric which takes from his convincingness, presents
+Guevara's _Familiar Epistles_ as teaching "rules for kings to rule,
+counselors to counsel, prelates to practise, captains to execute,
+soldiers to perform, the married to follow, the prosperous to prosecute,
+and the poor in adversity to be comforted, how to write and talk with
+all men in all matters at large."[278] Holland's honest simplicity gives
+greater weight to a similarly sweeping characterization of Pliny's
+_Natural History_ as "not appropriate to the learned only, but
+accommodate to the rude peasant of the country; fitted for the painful
+artisan in town or city; pertinent to the bodily health of man, woman,
+or child; and in one word suiting with all sorts of people living in a
+society and commonweal."[279] In the same preface the need for replying
+to those who oppose translation leads Holland to insist further on the
+practical applicability of his matter. Alternating his own with his
+critics' position, he writes: "It is a shame (quoth one) that _Livy_
+speaketh English as he doth; Latinists only owe to be acquainted with
+him: as who should say the soldier were to have recourse to the
+university for military skill and knowledge, or the scholar to put on
+arms and pitch a camp. What should _Pliny_ (saith another) be read in
+English and the mysteries couched in his books divulged; as if the
+husbandman, the mason, carpenter, goldsmith, lapidary, and engraver,
+with other artificers, were bound to seek unto great clerks or linguists
+for instructions in their several arts." Wilson's translation of
+Demosthenes, again, undertaken, it has been said, with a view to rousing
+a national resistance against Spain, is described on the title page as
+"most needful to be read in these dangerous days of all them that love
+their country's liberty."[280]
+
+Naturally enough, however, especially in the case of translations from
+the Latin and Greek, the academic interest bulks largely in the
+audience, and sometimes makes an unexpected demand for recognition in
+the midst of the more practical appeal. Holland's _Pliny_, for example,
+addresses itself not only to peasants and artisans but to young
+students, who "by the light of the English ... shall be able more
+readily to go away with the dark phrase and obscure constructions of the
+Latin." Chapman, refusing to be burdened with a popular audience, begins
+a preface with the insidious compliment, "I suppose you to be no mere
+reader, since you intend to read Homer."[281] On the other hand, the
+academic reader, whether student or critic, is, if one accepts the
+translator's view, very much on the alert, anxious to confer the English
+version with the original, either that he may improve his own knowledge
+of the foreign language or that he may pick faults in the new rendering.
+Wilson attacks the critics as "drones and no bees, lubbers and no
+learners," but the fault he finds in these "croaking paddocks and
+manifest overweeners of themselves" is that they are "out of reason
+curious judges over the travail and painstaking of others" instead of
+being themselves producers.[282] Apparently there was little fear of the
+indifference which is more discouraging than hostile criticism, and
+though, as is to be expected, it is the hostile criticism that is most
+often reflected in prefaces, there must have been much kindly comment
+like that of Webbe, who, after discussing the relations of Phaer's
+_Virgil_ to the Latin, concludes, "There is not one book among the
+twelve which will not yield you most excellent pleasure in conferring
+the translation with the copy and marking the gallant grace which our
+English speech affordeth."[283]
+
+Such encouragements and incentives are enough to awaken the envy of the
+modern translator. But the sixteenth century had also its peculiar
+difficulties. The English language was neither so rich in resources nor
+so carefully standardized as it has become of later times. It was often
+necessary, indeed, to defend it against the charge that it was not equal
+to translation. Pettie is driven to reply to those who oppose the use of
+the vernacular because "they count it barren, they count it barbarous,
+they count it unworthy to be accounted of."[284] Chapman says in his
+preface to _Achilles' Shield_: "Some will convey their imperfections
+under his Greek shield, and from thence bestow bitter arrows against the
+traduction, affirming their want of admiration grows from the defect of
+our language, not able to express the copiousness (coppie) and elegancy
+of the original." Richard Greenway, who translated the _Annals_ of
+Tacitus, admits cautiously that his medium is "perchance not so fit to
+set out a piece drawn with so curious a pencil."[285] One cannot,
+indeed, help recognizing that as compared with modern English
+Elizabethan English was weak in resources, limited in vocabulary, and
+somewhat uncertain in sentence structure. These disadvantages probably
+account in part for such explanations of the relative difficulty of
+translation as that of Nicholas Udall in his plea that translators
+should be suitably recompensed or that of John Brende in his preface to
+the translation of Quintus Curtius that "in translation a man cannot
+always use his own vein, but shall be compelled to tread in the author's
+steps, which is a harder and more difficult thing to do, than to walk
+his own pace."[286]
+
+Of his difficulties with sentence structure the translator says little,
+a fact rather surprising to the modern reader, conscious as he is of the
+awkwardness of the Elizabethan sentence. Now and then, however, he hints
+at the problems which have arisen in the handling of the Latin period.
+Udall writes of his translation of Erasmus: "I have in some places been
+driven to use mine own judgment in rendering the true sense of the book,
+to speak nothing of a great number of sentences, which by reason of so
+many members, or parentheses, or digressions as have come in places, are
+so long that unless they had been somewhat divided, they would have been
+too hard for an unlearned brain to conceive, much more hard to contain
+and keep it still."[287] Adlington, the translator of _The Golden Ass_
+of Apuleius, says, "I have not so exactly passed through the author as
+to point every sentence exactly as it is in the Latin."[288] A comment
+of Foxe on his difficulty in translating contemporary English into Latin
+suggests that he at least was conscious of the weakness of the English
+sentence as compared with the Latin. Writing to Peter Martyr of his
+Latin version of the controversy between Cranmer and Gardiner, he says
+of the latter: "In his periods, for the most part, he is so profuse,
+that he seems twice to forget himself, rather than to find his end. The
+whole phrase hath in effect that structure that consisting for the most
+part of relatives, it refuses almost all the grace of translation."[289]
+
+Though the question of sentence structure was not given prominence, the
+problem of rectifying deficiencies in vocabulary touched the translator
+very nearly. The possibility of augmenting the language was a vital
+issue in the reign of Elizabeth, but it had a peculiar significance
+where translation was concerned. Here, if anywhere, the need for a large
+vocabulary was felt, and in translations many new words first made their
+appearance. Sir Thomas Elyot early made the connection between
+translation and the movement for increase in vocabulary. In the
+_Proheme_ to _The Knowledge which maketh a wise man_ he explains that in
+_The Governor_ he intended "to augment the English tongue, whereby men
+should ... interpret out of Greek, Latin, or any other tongue into
+English."[290] Later in the century Peele praises the translator
+Harrington,
+
+    ... well-letter'd and discreet,
+    That hath so purely naturalized
+    Strange words, and made them all free denizens,[291]
+
+and--to go somewhat outside the period--the fourth edition of Bullokar's
+_English Expositor_, originally designed to teach "the interpretation of
+the hardest words used in our language," is recommended on the ground
+that those who know no language but the mother tongue, but "are yet
+studiously desirous to read those learned and elegant treatises which
+from their native original have been rendered English (of which sort,
+thanks to the company of painful translators we have not a few) have
+here a volume fit for their purposes, as carefully designed for their
+assistance."[292]
+
+Whether, however, the translator should be allowed to add to the
+vocabulary and what methods he should employ were questions by no means
+easy of settlement. As in Caxton's time, two possible means of acquiring
+new words were suggested, naturalization of foreign words and revival of
+words from older English sources. Against the first of these methods
+there was a good deal of prejudice. Grimald in his preface to his
+translation of Cicero's _De Officiis_, protests against the translation
+that is "uttered with inkhorn terms and not with usual words." Other
+critics are more specific in their condemnation of non-English words.
+Puttenham complains that Southern, in translating Ronsard's French
+rendering of Pindar's hymns and Anacreon's odes, "doth so impudently rob
+the French poet both of his praise and also of his French terms, that I
+cannot so much pity him as be angry with him for his injurious dealing,
+our said maker not being ashamed to use these French words, _freddon_,
+_egar_, _suberbous_, _filanding_, _celest_, _calabrois_, _thebanois_ and
+a number of others, which have no manner of conformity with our language
+either by custom or derivation which may make them tolerable."[293]
+Richard Willes, in his preface to the 1577 edition of Eden's _History of
+Travel in the West and East Indies_, says that though English literature
+owes a large debt to Eden, still "many of his English words cannot be
+excused in my opinion for smelling too much of the Latin."[294] The list
+appended is not so remote from the modern English vocabulary as that
+which Puttenham supplies. Willes cites "_dominators_, _ponderous_,
+_ditionaries_, _portentous_, _antiques_, _despicable_, _solicitate_,
+_obsequious_, _homicide_, _imbibed_, _destructive_, _prodigious_, with
+other such like, in the stead of _lords_, _weighty_, _subjects_,
+_wonderful_, _ancient_, _low_, _careful_, _dutiful_, _man-slaughter_,
+_drunken_, _noisome_, _monstrous_, &c." Yet there were some advocates of
+the use of foreign words. Florio admits with mock humility that he has
+employed "some uncouth terms as _entraine_, _conscientious_, _endear_,
+_tarnish_, _comport_, _efface_, _facilitate_, _amusing_, _debauching_,
+_regret_, _effort_, _emotion_, and such like," and continues, "If you
+like them not, take others most commonly set by them to expound them,
+since they were set to make such likely French words familiar with our
+English, which may well bear them,"[295] a contention which modern usage
+supports. Nicholas Udall pronounces judicially in favor of both methods
+of enriching the language. "Some there be," he says, "which have a mind
+to renew terms that are now almost worn clean out of use, which I do not
+disallow, so it be done with judgment. Some others would ampliate and
+enrich their native tongue with more vocables, which also I commend, if
+it be aptly and wittily assayed. So that if any other do innovate and
+bring up to me a word afore not used or not heard, I would not dispraise
+it: and that I do attempt to bring it into use, another man should not
+cavil at."[296] George Pettie also defends the use of inkhorn terms.
+"Though for my part," he says, "I use those words as little as any, yet
+I know no reason why I should not use them, for it is indeed the ready
+way to enrich our tongue and make it copious."[297] On the whole,
+however, it was safer to advocate the formation of words from
+Anglo-Saxon sources. Golding says of his translation of Philip of
+Mornay: "Great care hath been taken by forming and deriving of fit names
+and terms out of the fountains of our own tongue, though not altogether
+most usual yet always conceivable and easy to be understood; rather than
+by usurping Latin terms, or by borrowing the words of any foreign
+language, lest the matters, which in some cases are mystical enough of
+themselves by reason of their own profoundness, might have been made
+more obscure to the unlearned by setting them down in terms utterly
+unknown to them."[298] Holland says in the preface to his translation of
+Livy: "I framed my pen, not to any affected phrase, but to a mean and
+popular style. Wherein if I have called again into use some old words,
+let it be attributed to the love of my country's language." Even in this
+matter of vocabulary, it will be noted, there was something of the
+stimulus of patriotism, and the possibility of improving his native
+tongue must have appealed to the translator's creative power. Phaer,
+indeed, alleges as one of his motives for translating Virgil "defence of
+my country's language, which I have heard discommended of many, and
+esteemed of some to be more than barbarous."[299]
+
+Convinced, then, that his undertaking, though difficult, meant much both
+to the individual and to the state, the translator gladly set about
+making some part of the great field of foreign literature, ancient and
+modern, accessible to English readers. Of the technicalities of his art
+he has a good deal to say. At a time when prefaces and dedications so
+frequently established personal relations between author and audience,
+it was natural that the translator also should take his readers into his
+confidence regarding his aims and methods. His comment, however, is
+largely incidental. Generally it is applicable only to the work in hand;
+it does not profess to be a statement, even on a small scale, of what
+translation in general ought to be. There is no discussion in English
+corresponding to the small, but comprehensive treatise on _La manière de
+bien traduire d'une langue en autre_ which Étienne Dolet published at
+Lyons in 1540. This casual quality is evidenced by the peculiar way in
+which prefaces in different editions of the same book appear and
+disappear for no apparent reason, possibly at the convenience of the
+printer. It is scarcely fair to interpret as considered, deliberate
+formulation of principles, utterances so unpremeditated and fragmentary.
+The theory which accompanies secular translation is much less clear and
+consecutive than that which accompanies the translation of the Bible.
+Though in the latter case the formulation of theories of translation was
+almost equally incidental, respect for the original, repeated
+experiment, and constant criticism and discussion united to make certain
+principles take very definite shape. Secular translation produced
+nothing so homogeneous. The existence of so many translators, working
+for the most part independently of each other, resulted in a confused
+mass of comment whose real value it is difficult to estimate. It is true
+that the new scholarship with its clearer estimate of literary values
+and its appreciation of the individual's proprietary rights in his own
+writings made itself strongly felt in the sphere of secular translation
+and introduced new standards of accuracy, new definitions of the
+latitude which might be accorded the translator; but much of the old
+freedom in handling material, with the accompanying vagueness as to the
+limits of the translator's function, persisted throughout the time of
+Elizabeth.
+
+In many cases the standards recognized by sixteenth-century translators
+were little more exacting than those of the medieval period. With many
+writers adequate recognition of source was a matter of choice rather
+than of obligation. The English translator might make suitable
+attribution of a work to its author and he might undertake to reproduce
+its substance in its entirety, but he might, on the other hand, fail to
+acknowledge any indebtedness to a predecessor or he might add or omit
+material, since he was governed apparently only by the extent of his own
+powers or by his conception of what would be most pleasing or edifying
+to his readers. To the theory of his art he gave little serious
+consideration. He did not attempt to analyse the style of the source
+which he had chosen. If he praised his author, it was in the
+conventional language of compliment, which showed no real discrimination
+and which, one suspects, often disguised mere advertising. His estimate
+of his own capabilities was only the repetition of the medieval formula,
+with its profession of inadequacy for the task and its claim to have
+used simple speech devoid of rhetorical ornament. That it was nothing
+but a formula was recognized at the time and is good-naturedly pointed
+out in the words of Harrington: "Certainly if I should confess or rather
+profess that my verse is unartificial, the style rude, the phrase
+barbarous, the metre unpleasant, many more would believe it to be so
+than would imagine that I thought them so."[300]
+
+This medieval quality, less excusable later in the century when the new
+learning had declared itself, appears with more justification in the
+comment of the early sixteenth century. Though the translator's field
+was widening and was becoming more broadly European, the works chosen
+for translation belonged largely to the types popular in the Middle Ages
+and the comment attached to them was a repetition of timeworn phrases.
+Alexander Barclay, who is best known as the author of _The Ship of
+Fools_, published in 1508, but who also has to his credit several other
+translations of contemporary moral and allegorical poems from Latin and
+French and even, in anticipation of the newer era, a version of
+Sallust's _Jugurthine War_, offers his translations of _The Ship of
+Fools_[301] and of Mancini's _Mirror of Good Manners_[302] not to the
+learned, who might judge of their correctness, but to "rude people," who
+may hope to be benefited morally by perusing them. He has written _The
+Ship of Fools_ in "common and rural terms"; he does not follow the
+author "word by word"; and though he professes to have reproduced for
+the most part the "sentence" of the original, he admits "sometimes
+adding, sometimes detracting and taking away such things as seemeth me
+unnecessary and superfluous."[303] His contemporary, Lord Berners,
+writes for a more courtly audience, but he professes much the same
+methods. He introduces his _Arthur of Little Britain_, "not presuming
+that I have reduced it into fresh, ornate, polished English, for I know
+myself insufficient in the facundious art of rhetoric, and also I am but
+a learner of the language of French: howbeit I trust my simple reason
+hath led me to the understanding of the true sentence of the
+matter."[304] Of his translation of Froissart he says, "And in that I
+have not followed mine author word by word, yet I trust I have ensued
+the true report of the sentence of the matter."[305] Sir Francis Bryan,
+under whose direction Berners' translation of _The Golden Book of Marcus
+Aurelius_ was issued in 1535, the year after its author's death,
+expresses his admiration of the "high and sweet styles"[306] of the
+versions in other languages which have preceded this English rendering,
+but similar phrases had been used so often in the characterization of
+undistinguished writings that this comment hardly suggests the new and
+peculiar quality of Guevara's style.
+
+As the century advanced, these older, easier standards were maintained
+especially among translators who chose material similar to that of
+Barclay and Berners, the popular work of edification, the novella, which
+took the place of the romance. The purveyors of entertaining narrative,
+indeed, realized in some degree the minor importance of their work as
+compared with that of more serious scholars and acted accordingly. The
+preface to Turbervile's _Tragical Tales_ throws some light on the
+author's idea of the comparative values of translations. He thought of
+translating Lucan, but Melpomene appeared to warn him against so
+ambitious an enterprise, and admitting his unfitness for the task, he
+applied himself instead to this translation "out of sundry
+Italians."[307] Anthony Munday apologizes for his "simple translation"
+of _Palmerin d'Oliva_ by remarking that "to translate allows little
+occasion of fine pen work,"[308] a comment which goes far to account for
+the doubtful quality of his productions in this field.
+
+Even when the translator of pleasant tales ranked his work high, it was
+generally on the ground that his readers would receive from it profit as
+well as amusement; he laid no claim to academic correctness. He
+mentioned or refrained from mentioning his sources at his own
+discretion. Painter, in inaugurating the vogue of the novella, is
+exceptionally careful in attributing each story to its author,[309] but
+Whetstone's _Rock of Regard_ contains no hint that it is translated, and
+_The Petit Palace of Pettie his Pleasure_ conveys the impression of
+original work. "I dare not compare," runs the prefatory _Letter to
+Gentlewomen Readers_ by R. B., "this work with the former Palaces of
+Pleasure, because comparisons are odious, and because they contain
+histories, translated out of grave authors and learned writers; and this
+containeth discourses devised by a green youthful capacity, and
+repeated in a manner extempore."[310] It was, again, the personal
+preference of the individual or the extent of his linguistic knowledge
+that determined whether the translator should employ the original
+Italian or Spanish versions of some collections or should content
+himself with an intermediary French rendering. Painter, accurate as he
+is in describing his sources, confesses that he has often used the
+French version of Boccaccio, though, or perhaps because, it is less
+finely written than its original. Thomas Fortescue uses the French
+version for his translation of _The Forest_, a collection of histories
+"written in three sundry tongues, in the Spanish first by Petrus Mexia,
+and thence done into the Italian, and last into the French by Claudius
+Gringet, late citizen of Paris."[311] The most regrettable latitude of
+all, judging by theoretic standards of translation, was the careless
+freedom which writers of this group were inclined to appropriate.
+Anthony Munday, to take an extreme case, translating _Palmerin of
+England_ from the French, makes a perfunctory apology in his Epistle
+Dedicatory for his inaccuracies: "If you find the translation altered,
+or the true sense in some place of a matter impaired, let this excuse
+answer in default in that case. A work so large is sufficient to tire so
+simple a workman in himself. Beside the printer may in some place let an
+error escape."[312] Fortescue justifies, adequately enough, his omission
+of various tales by the plea that "the lack of one annoyeth not or
+maimeth not the other," but incidentally he throws light on the practice
+of others, less conscientious, who "add or change at their pleasure."
+
+There is perhaps danger of underrating the value of the theory which
+accompanies translations of this sort. The translators have left
+comparatively little comment on their methods, and it may be that now
+and then more satisfactory principles were implicit. Yet even when the
+translator took his task seriously, his prefatory remarks almost always
+betrayed that there was something defective in his theory or careless in
+his execution. Bartholomew Young translates Montemayor's _Diana_ from
+the Spanish after a careful consideration of texts. "Having compared the
+French copies with the Spanish original," he writes, "I judge the first
+part to be exquisite, the other two corruptly done, with a confusion of
+verse into prose, and leaving out in many places divers hard sentences,
+and some leaves at the end of the third part, wherefore they are but
+blind guides of any to be imitated."[313] After this, unhappily, in the
+press of greater affairs he lets the work come from the printer
+unsupervised and presumably full of errors, "the copy being very dark
+and interlined, and I loath to write it out again." Robert Tofte
+addresses his _Honor's Academy or the Famous Pastoral of the Fair
+Shepherdess Julietta_ "to the courteous and judicious reader and to none
+other"; he explains that he refuses to write for "the sottish
+multitude," that monster "who knows not when aught well is or amiss";
+and blames "such idle thieves as do purloin from others' mint what's
+none of their own coin."[314] In spite of this, his preface makes no
+mention of Nicholas de Montreux, the original author, and if it were not
+for the phrase on the title page, "done into English," one would not
+suspect that the book was a translation. The apology of the printer,
+Thomas Creede, "Some faults no doubt there be, especially in the verses,
+and to speak truth, how could it be otherwise, when he wrote all this
+volume (as it were) cursorily and in haste, never having so much leisure
+as to overlook one leaf after he had scribbled the same," stamps Tofte
+as perhaps a facile, but certainly not a conscientious workman.
+
+Another fashionable form of literature, the popular religious or
+didactic work, was governed by standards of translation not unlike those
+which controlled the fictitious narrative. In the work of Lord Berners
+the romance had not yet made way for its more sophisticated rival, the
+novella. His translation from Guevara, however, marked the beginning of
+a new fashion. While Barclay's _Ship of Fools_ and _Mirror of Good
+Manners_ were addressed, like their medieval predecessors, to "lewd"
+people, with _The Golden Book_ began the vogue of a new type of didactic
+literature, similar in its moral purpose and in its frequent employment
+of narrative material to the religious works of the Middle Ages, but
+with new stylistic elements that made their appeal, as did the novella,
+not to the rustic and unlearned, but to courtly readers. The prefaces to
+_The Golden Book_ and to the translations which succeeded it throw
+little light on the theory of their authors, but what comment there is
+points to methods like those employed by the translators of the romance
+and the novella. Though later translators like Hellowes went to the
+original Spanish, Berners, Bryan, and North employ instead the
+intermediary French rendering. Praise of Guevara's style becomes a
+wearisome repetition of conventional phrases, a rhetorical exercise for
+the English writer rather than a serious attempt to analyze the
+peculiarities of the Spanish. Exaggeratedly typical is the comment of
+Hellowes in the 1574 edition of Guevara's _Epistles_, where he repeats
+with considerable complacency the commendation of the original work
+which was "contained in my former preface, as followeth. Being furnished
+so fully with sincere doctrine, so unused eloquence, so high a style, so
+apt similitudes, so excellent discourses, so convenient examples, so
+profound sentences, so old antiquities, so ancient histories, such
+variety of matter, so pleasant recreations, so strange things alleged,
+and certain parcels of Scripture with such dexterity handled, that it
+may hardly be discerned, whether shall be greater, either thy pleasure
+by reading, or profit by following the same."[315]
+
+Guevara himself was perhaps responsible for the failure of his
+translators to make any formal recognition of responsibility for
+reproducing his style. His fictitious account of the sources of _The
+Golden Book_ is medieval in tone. He has translated, not word for word,
+but thought for thought, and for the rudeness of his original he has
+substituted a more lofty style.[316] His English translators reverse the
+latter process. Hellowes affirms that his translation of the _Epistles_
+"goeth agreeable unto the Author thereof," but confesses that he wants
+"both gloss and hue of rare eloquence, used in the polishing of the rest
+of his works." North later translated from the French Amyot's
+epoch-making principle: "the office of a fit translator consisteth not
+only in the faithful expressing of his author's meaning, but also in a
+certain resembling and shadowing out of the form of his style and manner
+of his speaking,"[317] but all that he has to say of his _Dial of
+Princes_ is that he has reduced it into English "according to my small
+knowledge and tender years."[318] Here again, though the translator may
+sometimes have tried to adopt newer and more difficult standards, he
+does not make this explicit in his comment.
+
+Obviously, however, academic standards of accuracy were not likely to
+make their first appearance in connection with fashionable court
+literature; one expects to find them associated rather with the
+translations of the great classical literature, which Renaissance
+scholars approached with such enthusiasm and respect. One of the first
+of these, the translation of the _Aeneid_ made by the Scotch poet, Gavin
+Douglas, appeared, like the translations of Barclay and Berners, in the
+early sixteenth century. Douglas's comment,[319] which shows a good deal
+of conscious effort at definition of the translator's duties, is an odd
+mingling of the medieval and the modern. He begins with a eulogy of
+Virgil couched in the undiscriminating, exaggerated terms of the
+previous period. Unlike the many medieval redactors of the Troy story,
+however, he does not assume the historian's liberty of selection and
+combination from a variety of sources. He regards Virgil as "a per se,"
+and waxes indignant over Caxton's _Eneydos_, whose author represented it
+as based on a French rendering of the great poet. It is, says Douglas,
+"no more like than the devil and St. Austin." In proof of this he cites
+Caxton's treatment of proper names. Douglas claims, reasonably enough,
+that if he followed his original word for word, the result would be
+unintelligible, and he appeals to St. Gregory and Horace in support of
+this contention. All his plea, however, is for freedom rather than
+accuracy, and one scarcely knows how to interpret his profession of
+faithfulness:
+
+    And thus I am constrenyt, as neir I may,
+    To hald his vers & go nane other way,
+    Les sum history, subtill word, or the ryme
+    Causith me make digressione sum tyme.
+
+Yet whether or not Douglas's "digressions" are permissible, such
+renderings as he illustrates involve no more latitude than is sanctioned
+by the schoolboy's Latin Grammar. He is disturbed by the necessity for
+using more words in English than the Latin has, and he feels it
+incumbent upon him to explain,
+
+    ... sum tyme of a word I mon mak thre,
+    In witness of this term _oppetere_.
+
+English, he says in another place, cannot without the use of additional
+words reproduce the difference between synonymous terms like _animal_
+and _homo_; _genus_, _sexus_, and _species_; _objectum_ and _subjectum_;
+_arbor_ and _lignum_. Such comment, interesting because definite, is
+nevertheless no more significant than that which had appeared in the
+Purvey preface to the Bible more than a hundred years earlier. One is
+reminded that most of the material which the present-day translator
+finds in grammars of foreign languages was not yet in existence in any
+generally accessible form.
+
+Such elementary aids were, however, in process of formulation during the
+sixteenth century. Mr. Foster Watson quotes from an edition of Mancinus,
+published as early probably as 1520, the following directions for
+putting Latin into English: "Whoso will learn to turn Latin into
+English, let him first take of the easiest Latin, and when he
+understandeth clearly what the Latin meaneth, let him say the English of
+every Latin word that way, as the sentence may appear most clearly to
+his ear, and where the English of the Latin words of the text will not
+make the sentence fair, let him take the English of those Latin words by
+whom (which) the Latin words of the text should be expounded and if that
+(they) will not be enough to make the sentence perfect, let him add more
+English, and that not only words, but also when need requireth, whole
+clauses such as will agree best to the sentence."[320] By the new
+methods of study advocated by men like Cheke and Ascham translation as
+practiced by students must have become a much more intelligent process,
+and the literary man who had received such preparatory training must
+have realized that variations from the original such as had troubled
+Douglas needed no apology, but might be taken for granted.
+
+Further help was offered to students in the shape of various literal
+translations from the classics. The translator of Seneca's _Hercules
+Furens_ undertook the work "to conduct by some means to further
+understanding the unripened scholars of this realm to whom I thought it
+should be no less thankful for me to interpret some Latin work into this
+our own tongue than for Erasmus in Latin to expound the Greek."[321]
+"Neither could I satisfy myself," he continues, "till I had throughout
+this whole tragedy of Seneca so travailed that I had in English given
+verse for verse (as far as the English tongue permits) and word for word
+the Latin, whereby I might both make some trial of myself and as it were
+teach the little children to go that yet can but creep." Abraham
+Fleming, translating Virgil's _Georgics_ "grammatically," expresses his
+original "in plain words applied to blunt capacities, considering the
+expositor's drift to consist in delivering a direct order of
+construction for the relief of weak grammatists, not in attempting by
+curious device and disposition to content courtly humanists, whose
+desire he hath been more willing at this time to suspend, because he
+would in some exact sort satisfy such as need the supply of his
+travail."[322] William Bullokar prefaces his translation of Esop's
+_Fables_ with the words: "I have translated out of Latin into English,
+but not in the best phrase of English, though English be capable of the
+perfect sense thereof, and might be used in the best phrase, had not my
+care been to keep it somewhat nearer the Latin phrase, that the English
+learner of Latin, reading over these authors in both languages, might
+the more easily confer them together in their sense, and the better
+understand the one by the other: and for that respect of easy
+conference, I have kept the like course in my translation of Tully's
+_Offices_ out of Latin into English to be imprinted shortly also."[323]
+
+Text books like these, valuable and necessary as they were, can scarcely
+claim a place in the history of literature. Bullokar himself,
+recognizing this, promises that "if God lend me life and ability to
+translate any other author into English hereafter, I will bend myself to
+follow the excellency of English in the best phrase thereof, more than I
+will bend it to the phrases of the language to be translated." In
+avoiding the overliteral method, however, the translator of the classics
+sometimes assumed a regrettable freedom, not only with the words but
+with the substance of his source. With regard to his translation of the
+_Aeneid_ Phaer represents himself as "Trusting that you, my right
+worshipful masters and students of universities and such as be teachers
+of children and readers of this author in Latin, will not be too much
+offended though every verse answer not to your expectation. For (besides
+the diversity between a construction and a translation) you know there
+be many mystical secrets in this writer, which uttered in English would
+show little pleasure and in my opinion are better to be untouched than
+to diminish the grace of the rest with tediousness and darkness. I have
+therefore followed the counsel of Horace, touching the duty of a good
+interpreter, _Qui quae desperat nitescere posse, relinquit_, by which
+occasion somewhat I have in places omitted, somewhat altered, and some
+things I have expounded, and all to the ease of inferior readers, for
+you that are learned need not to be instructed."[324] Though Jasper
+Heywood's version of _Hercules Furens_ is an example of the literal
+translation for the use of students, most of the other members of the
+group of young men who in 1581 published their translations of Seneca
+protest that they have reproduced the meaning, not the words of their
+author. Alexander Neville, a precocious youth who translated the fifth
+tragedy in "this sixteenth year of mine age," determined "not to be
+precise in following the author word for word, but sometimes by
+addition, sometimes by subtraction, to use the aptest phrases in giving
+the sense that I could invent."[325] Neville's translation is
+"oftentimes rudely increased with mine own simple invention";[326] John
+Studley has changed the first chorus of the _Medea_, "because in it I
+saw nothing but an heap of profane stories and names of profane
+idols";[327] Heywood himself, since the existing text of the _Troas_ is
+imperfect, admits having "with addition of mine own pen supplied the
+want of some things,"[328] and says that he has also replaced the third
+chorus, because much of it is "heaped number of far and strange
+countries." Most radical of all is the theory according to which Thomas
+Drant translated the _Satires_ of Horace. That Drant could be faithful
+even to excess is evident from his preface to _The Wailings of Jeremiah_
+included in the same volume with his version of Horace. "That thou
+mightest have this rueful parcel of Scripture pure and sincere, not
+swerved or altered, I laid it to the touchstone, the native tongue. I
+weighed it with the Chaldee Targum and the Septuaginta. I desired to
+jump so nigh with the Hebrew, that it doth erewhile deform the vein of
+the English, the proprieties of that language and ours being in some
+speeches so much dissemblable." But with Horace Drant pursues a
+different course. As a moralist it is justifiable for him to translate
+Horace because the Latin poet satirizes that wickedness which Jeremiah
+mourned over. Horace's satire, however, is not entirely applicable to
+conditions in England; "he never saw that with the view of his eye which
+his pensive translator cannot but overview with the languish of his
+soul." Moreover Horace's style is capable of improvement, an improvement
+which Drant is quite ready to provide. "His eloquence is sometimes too
+sharp, and therefore I have blunted it, and sometimes too dull, and
+therefore I have whetted it, helping him to ebb and helping him to
+rise." With his reader Drant is equally high-handed. "I dare not warrant
+the reader to understand him in all places," he writes, "no more than he
+did me. Howbeit I have made him more lightsome well nigh by one half (a
+small accomplishment for one of my continuance) and if thou canst not
+now in all points perceive him (thou must bear with me) in sooth the
+default is thine own." After this one is somewhat prepared for Drant's
+remarkable summary of his methods. "First I have now done as the people
+of God were commanded to do with their captive women that were handsome
+and beautiful: I have shaved off his hair and pared off his nails, that
+is, I have wiped away all his vanity and superfluity of matter. Further,
+I have for the most part drawn his private carpings of this or that man
+to a general moral. I have Englished things not according to the vein of
+the Latin propriety, but of his own vulgar tongue. I have interfered (to
+remove his obscurity and sometimes to better his matter) much of mine
+own devising. I have pieced his reason, eked and mended his similitudes,
+mollified his hardness, prolonged his cortall kind of speeches, changed
+and much altered his words, but not his sentence, or at least (I dare
+say) not his purpose."[329] Even the novella does not afford examples of
+such deliberate justification of undue liberty with source.
+
+Why such a situation existed may be partially explained. The Elizabethan
+writer was almost as slow as his medieval predecessor to make
+distinctions between different kinds of literature. Both the novella and
+the epic might be classed as "histories," and "histories" were valuable
+because they aided the reader in the actual conduct of life. Arthur
+Golding tells in the preface to his translation of Justin the story of
+how Alexander the Great "coming into a school and finding not Homer's
+works there ... gave the master a buffet with his fist: meaning that the
+knowledge of _Histories_ was a thing necessary to all estates and
+degrees."[330] It was the content of a work that was most important, and
+comment like that of Drant makes us realize how persistent was the
+conception that such content was common property which might be adjusted
+to the needs of different readers. The lesser freedoms of the translator
+were probably largely due to the difficulties inherent in a metrical
+rendering. It is "ryme" that partially accounts for some of Douglas's
+"digressions." Seneca's _Hercules Furens_, literal as the translation
+purports to be, is reproduced "verse for verse, as far as the English
+tongue permits." Thomas Twyne, who completed the work which Phaer began,
+calls attention to the difficulty "in this kind of translation to
+enforce their rime to another man's meaning."[331] Edward Hake, it is
+not unlikely, expresses a common idea when he gives as one of his
+reasons for employing verse rather than prose "that prose requireth a
+more exact labor than metre doth."[332] If one is to believe Abraham
+Fleming, one of the adherents of Gabriel Harvey, matters may be improved
+by the adoption of classical metres. Fleming has translated Virgil's
+_Bucolics_ and _Georgics_ "not in foolish rhyme, the nice observance
+whereof many times darkeneth, corrupteth, perverteth, and falsifieth
+both the sense and the signification, but with due proportion and
+measure."[333]
+
+Seemingly, however, the translators who advocated the employment of the
+hexameter made little use of the argument that to do so made it possible
+to reproduce the original more faithfully. Stanyhurst, who says that in
+his translation of the first four books of the _Aeneid_ he is carrying
+out Ascham's wish that the university students should "apply their wits
+in beautifying our English language with heroical verses," chooses
+Virgil as the subject of his experiment for "his peerless style and
+matchless stuff,"[334] leaving his reader with the impression that the
+claims of his author were probably subordinate in the translator's mind
+to his interest in Ascham's theories. Possibly he shared his master's
+belief that "even the best translation is for mere necessity but an evil
+imped wing to fly withal, or a heavy stump leg of wood to go
+withal."[335] In discussion of the style to be employed in the metrical
+rendering there was the same failure to make explicit the connection
+between the original and the translation. Many critics accepted the
+principle that "decorum" of style was essential in the translation of
+certain kinds of poetry, but they based their demand for this quality on
+its extrinsic suitability much more than on its presence in the work to
+be translated. In Turbervile's elaborate comment on the style which he
+has used in his translation of the _Eclogues_ of Mantuan, there is the
+same baffling vagueness in his references to the quality of the original
+that is felt in the prefaces of Lydgate and Caxton. "Though I have
+altered the tongue," he says, "I trust I have not changed the author's
+meaning or sense in anything, but played the part of a true interpreter,
+observing that we call Decorum in each respect, as far as the poet's and
+our mother tongue will give me leave. For as the conference between
+shepherds is familiar stuff and homely, so have I shaped my style and
+tempered it with such common and ordinary phrase of speech as countrymen
+do use in their affairs; alway minding the saying of Horace, whose
+sentence I have thus Englished:
+
+    To set a manly head upon a horse's neck
+    And all the limbs with divers plumes of divers hue to deck,
+    Or paint a woman's face aloft to open show,
+    And make the picture end in fish with scaly skin below,
+    I think (my friends) would cause you laugh and smile to see
+    How ill these ill-compacted things and numbers would agree.
+
+For indeed he that shall translate a shepherd's tale and use the talk
+and style of an heroical personage, expressing the silly man's meaning
+with lofty thundering words, in my simple judgment joins (as Horace
+saith) a horse's neck and a man's head together. For as the one were
+monstrous to see, so were the other too fond and foolish to read.
+Wherefore I have (I say) used the common country phrase according to the
+person of the speakers in every Eclogue, as though indeed the man
+himself should tell his tale. If there be anything herein that thou
+shalt happen to mistake, neither blame the learned poet, nor control the
+clownish shepherd (good reader) but me that presumed rashly to offer so
+unworthy matter to thy survey."[336] Another phase of "decorum," the
+necessity for employing a lofty style in dealing with the affairs of
+great persons, comes in for discussion in connection with translations
+of Seneca and Virgil. Jasper Heywood makes his excuses in case his
+translation of the _Troas_ has "not kept the royalty of speech meet for
+a tragedy";[337] Stanyhurst praises Phaer for his "picked and lofty
+words";[338] but he himself is blamed by Puttenham because his own words
+lack dignity. "In speaking or writing of a prince's affairs and
+fortunes," writes Puttenham, "there is a certain decorum, that we may
+not use the same terms in their business as we might very well do in a
+meaner person's, the case being all one, such reverence is due to their
+estates."[339] He instances Stanyhurst's renderings, "Aeneas was fain to
+_trudge_ out of Troy" and "what moved Juno to _tug_ so great a captain
+as Aeneas," and declares that the term _trudge_ is "better to be spoken
+of a beggar, or of a rogue, or of a lackey," and that the word _tug_
+"spoken in this case is so undecent as none other could have been
+devised, and took his first original from the cart." A similar objection
+to the employment of a "plain" style in telling the Troy story was made,
+it will be remembered, in the early fifteenth century by Wyntoun.
+
+The matter of decorum was to receive further attention in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In general, however, the comment
+associated with verse translations does not anticipate that of later
+times and is scarcely more significant than that which accompanies the
+novella. So long, indeed, as the theory of translation was so largely
+concerned with the claims of the reader, there was little room for
+initiative. It was no mark of originality to say that the translation
+must be profitable or entertaining, clear and easily understood; these
+rules had already been laid down by generations of translators. The real
+opportunity for a fresh, individual approach to the problems of
+translation lay in consideration of the claims of the original author.
+Renaissance scholarship was bringing a new knowledge of texts and
+authors and encouraging a new alertness of mind in approaching texts
+written in foreign languages. It was now possible, while making
+faithfulness to source obligatory instead of optional, to put the matter
+on a reasonable basis. The most vigorous and suggestive comment came
+from a small number of men of scholarly tastes and of active minds, who
+brought to the subject both learning and enthusiasm, and who were not
+content with vague, conventional forms of words.
+
+It was prose rather than verse renderings that occupied the attention of
+these theorists, and in the works which they chose for translation the
+intellectual was generally stronger than the artistic appeal. Their
+translations, however, showed a variety peculiarly characteristic of the
+English Renaissance. Interest in classical scholarship was nearly always
+associated with interest in the new religious doctrines, and hence the
+new theories of translation were attached impartially either to
+renderings of the classics or to versions of contemporary theological
+works, valuable on account of the close, careful thinking which they
+contained, as contrasted with the more superficial charm of writings
+like those of Guevara. An Elizabethan scholar, indeed, might have
+hesitated if asked which was the more important, the Greek or Latin
+classic or the theological treatise. Nash praises Golding
+indiscriminately "for his industrious toil in Englishing Ovid's
+_Metamorphoses_, besides many other exquisite editions of divinity
+turned by him out of the French tongue into our own."[340] Golding
+himself, translating one of these "exquisite editions of divinity,"
+Calvin's _Sermons on the Book of Job_, insists so strongly on the
+"substance, importance, and travail"[341] which belong to the work that
+one is ready to believe that he ranked it higher than any of his other
+translations. Nor was the contribution from this field to be despised.
+Though the translation of the Bible was an isolated task which had few
+relations with other forms of translation, what few affiliations it
+developed were almost entirely with theological works like those of
+Erasmus, Melanchthon, Calvin, and to the translation of such writings
+Biblical standards of accuracy were transferred. On the other hand the
+translator of Erasmus or Calvin was likely to have other and very
+different interests, which did much to save him from a narrow pedantry.
+Nicholas Udall, for example, who had a large share in the translation of
+Erasmus's _Paraphrase on the New Testament_, also translated parts of
+Terence and is best known as the author of _Ralph Roister Doister_.
+Thomas Norton, who translated Calvin's _Institution of the Christian
+Religion_, has been credited with a share in _Gorboduc_.
+
+It was towards the middle of the century that these translators began to
+formulate their views, and probably the decades immediately before and
+after the accession of Elizabeth were more fruitful in theory than any
+other part of the period. Certain centers of influence may be rather
+clearly distinguished. In contemporary references to the early part of the
+century Sir Thomas Elyot and Sir Thomas More are generally coupled together
+as authorities on translation. Slightly later St. John's College,
+Cambridge, "that most famous and fortunate nurse of all learning,"[342]
+exerted through its masters and students a powerful influence. Much of the
+fame of the college was due to Sir John Cheke, "a man of men," according to
+Nash, "supernaturally traded in all tongues." Cheke is associated, in one
+way and another, with an odd variety of translations--Nicholls' translation
+of a French version of _Thucydides_,[343] Hoby's _Courtier_,[344] Wilson's
+_Demosthenes_[345]--suggesting something of the range of his sympathies.
+
+Though little of his own comment survives, the echoes of his opinions in
+Ascham's _Schoolmaster_ and the preface to Wilson's _Demosthenes_ make
+one suspect that his teaching was possibly the strongest force at work
+at the time to produce higher standards for translation. As the century
+progressed Sir William Cecil, in his early days a distinguished student
+at St. John's and an intimate associate of Cheke's, maintained, in spite
+of the cares of state, the tradition of his college as the patron of
+various translators and the recipient of numerous dedications prefixed
+to their productions. It is from the midcentury translators, however,
+that the most distinctive comment emanates. United in various
+combinations, now by religious sympathies, now by a common enthusiasm
+for learning, now by the influence of an individual, they form a group
+fairly homogeneous so far as their theories of translation are
+concerned, appreciative of academic correctness, but ready to consider
+also the claims of the reader and the nature of the vernacular.
+
+The earlier translators, Elyot and More, have left small but significant
+comment on methods. More's expression of theory was elicited by
+Tyndale's translation of the Bible; of the technical difficulties
+involved in his own translation of _The Life of Pico della Mirandola_ he
+says nothing. Elyot is one of the first translators to approach his task
+from a new angle. Translating from Greek to English, he observed, like
+Tyndale, the differences and correspondences between the two languages.
+His _Doctrinal of Princes_ was translated "to the intent only that I
+would assay if our English tongue might receive the quick and proper
+sentences pronounced by the Greeks."[346] The experiment had interesting
+results. "And in this experience," he continues, "I have found (if I be
+not much deceived) that the form of speaking, called in Greek and also
+in English _Phrasis_, much nearer approacheth to that which at this day
+we use, than the order of the Latin tongue. I mean in the sentences and
+not in the words."
+
+A peculiarly good exponent of the new vitality which was taking
+possession of the theory of translation is Nicholas Udall, whose
+opinions have been already cited in this chapter. The versatility of
+intellect evinced by the list of his varied interests, dramatic,
+academic, religious, showed itself also in his views regarding
+translation. In the various prefaces and dedications which he
+contributed to the translation of Erasmus's _Paraphrase_ he touches on
+problems of all sorts--stipends for translators, the augmentation of the
+English vocabulary, sentence structure in translation, the style of
+Erasmus, the individual quality in the style of every writer--but all
+these questions he treats lightly and undogmatically. Translation,
+according to Udall, should not conform to iron rules. He is not
+disturbed by the diversity of methods exhibited in the _Paraphrase_.
+"Though every translator," he writes, "follow his own vein in turning
+the Latin into English, yet doth none willingly swerve or dissent from
+the mind and sense of his author, albeit some go more near to the words
+of the author, and some use the liberty of translating at large, not so
+precisely binding themselves to the strait interpretation of every word
+and syllable."[347] In his own share of the translation Udall inclines
+rather to the free than to the literal method. He has not been able
+"fully to discharge the office of a good translator,"[348] partly
+because of the ornate quality of Erasmus's style, partly because he
+wishes to be understood by the unlearned. He does not feel so scrupulous
+as he would if he were translating the text of Scripture, though even in
+the latter connection he is guilty of the heretical opinion that "if the
+translators were not altogether so precise as they are, but had some
+more regard to expressing of the sense, I think in my judgment they
+should do better." It will be noted, however, that Udall's advocacy of
+freedom is an individual reaction, not the repetition of a formula. The
+preface to his translation of the _Apophthegmes_ of Erasmus helps to
+redress the balance in favor of accuracy. "I have labored," he says, "to
+discharge the duty of a translator, that is, keeping and following the
+sense of my book, to interpret and turn the Latin into English, with as
+much grace of our vulgar tongue as in my slender power and knowledge
+hath lain."[349] The rest of the preface shows that Udall, in his
+concern for the quality of the English, did not make "following the
+sense" an excuse for undue liberties. Writing "with a regard for young
+scholars and students, who get great value from comparing languages," he
+is most careful to note such slight changes and omissions as he has made
+in the text. Explanations and annotations have been printed "in a small
+letter with some directory mark," and "any Greek or Latin verse or word,
+whereof the pith and grace of the saying dependeth" has been retained, a
+sacrifice to scholarship for which he apologizes to the unlearned
+reader.
+
+Nicholas Grimald, who published his translation of Cicero's _Offices_
+shortly after the accession of Elizabeth, is much more dogmatic in his
+rules for translation than is Udall. "Howbeit look," runs the preface,
+"what rule the Rhetorician gives in precept, to be observed of an Orator
+in telling of his tale: that it be short, and without idle words: that
+it be plain, and without dark sense: that it be provable, and without
+any swerving from the truth: the same rule should be used in examining
+and judging of translation. For if it be not as brief as the very
+author's text requireth, what so is added to his perfect style shall
+appear superfluous, and to serve rather to the making of some paraphrase
+or commentary. Thereto if it be uttered with inkhorn terms, and not with
+usual words: or if it be phrased with wrested or far-fetched forms of
+speech, not fair but harsh, not easy but hard, not natural but violent
+it shall seem to be. Then also, in case it yield not the meaning of the
+author, but either following fancy or misled by error forsakes the true
+pattern, it cannot be approved for a faithful and sure interpretation,
+which ought to be taken for the greatest praise of all."[350] In
+Grimald's insistence on a brevity equal to that of the original and in
+his unmodified opposition to innovations in vocabulary, there is
+something of pedantic narrowness. His criticism of Cicero is not
+illuminating and his estimate, in this connection, of his own
+accomplishment is amusingly complacent. In Cicero's work "marvellous is
+the matter, flowing the eloquence, rich the store of stuff, and full
+artificial the enditing: but how I," he continues, "have expressed the
+same, the more the book be perused, the better it may chance to appear.
+None other translation in our tongue have I seen but one, which is of
+all men of any learning so well liked that they repute it and consider
+it as none: yet if ye list to compare this somewhat with that nothing,
+peradventure this somewhat will serve somewhat the more." Yet in spite
+of his limitations Grimald has some breadth of outlook. A work like his
+own, he believes, can help the reader to a greater command of the
+vernacular. "Here is for him occasion both to whet his wit and also to
+file his tongue. For although an Englishman hath his mother tongue and
+can talk apace as he learned of his dame, yet is it one thing to tittle
+tattle, I wot not how, or to chatter like a jay, and another to bestow
+his words wisely, orderly, pleasantly, and pithily." The writer knows
+men who could speak Latin "readily and well-favoredly, who to have done
+as much in our language and to have handled the same matter, would have
+been half black." Careful study of this translation will help a man "as
+well in the English as the Latin, to weigh well properties of words,
+fashions of phrases, and the ornaments of both."
+
+Another interesting document is the preface entitled _The Translator to
+the Reader_ which appeared in 1578 in the fourth edition of Thomas
+Norton's translation of Calvin's _Institution of the Christian
+Religion_. The opinions which it contains took shape some years earlier,
+for the author expressly states that the translation has not been
+changed at all from what it was in the first impression, published in
+1561, and that the considerations which he now formulates governed him
+in the beginning. Norton, like Grimald, insists on extreme accuracy in
+following the original, but he bases his demand on a truth largely
+ignored by translators up to this time, the essential relationship
+between thought and style. He makes the following surprisingly
+penetrative comment on the nature and significance of Calvin's Latin
+style: "I considered how the author thereof had of long time purposely
+labored to write the same most exactly, and to pack great plenty of
+matter in small room of words, yea and those so circumspectly and
+precisely ordered, to avoid the cavillations of such, as for enmity to
+the truth therein contained, would gladly seek and abuse all advantages
+which might be found by any oversight in penning of it, that the
+sentences were thereby become so full as nothing might well be added
+without idle superfluity, and again so nighly pared that nothing might
+be minished without taking away some necessary substance of matter
+therein expressed. This manner of writing, beside the peculiar terms of
+arts and figures, and the difficulty of the matters themselves, being
+throughout interlaced with the schoolmen's controversies, made a great
+hardness in the author's own book, in that tongue wherein otherwise he
+is both plentiful and easy, insomuch that it sufficeth not to read him
+once, unless you can be content to read in vain." Then follows Norton's
+estimate of the translator's duty in such a case: "I durst not presume
+to warrant myself to have his meaning without his words. And they that
+wot well what it is to translate well and faithfully, specially in
+matters of religion, do know that not only the grammatical construction
+of words sufficeth, but the very building and order to observe all
+advantages of vehemence or grace, by placing or accent of words, maketh
+much to the true setting forth of a writer's mind." Norton, however, did
+not entirely forget his readers. He approached his task with "great
+doubtfulness," fully conscious of the dilemma involved. "If I should
+follow the words, I saw that of necessity the hardness of the
+translation must needs be greater than was in the tongue wherein it was
+originally written. If I should leave the course of words, and grant
+myself liberty after the natural manner of my own tongue, to say that in
+English which I conceived to be his meaning in Latin, I plainly
+perceived how hardly I might escape error." In the end he determined "to
+follow the words so near as the phrase of the English tongue would
+suffer me." Unhappily Norton, like Grimald and like some of the
+translators of the Bible, has an exaggerated regard for brevity. He
+claims that "if the English book were printed in such paper and letter
+as the Latin is, it should not exceed the Latin in quantity," and that
+students "shall not find any more English than shall suffice to construe
+the Latin withal, except in such few places where the great difference
+of the phrases of the languages enforced me." Yet he believes that his
+version is not unnecessarily hard to understand, and he urges readers
+who have found it difficult to "read it ofter, in which doing you shall
+find (as many have confessed to me that they have found by experience)
+that those things which at first reading shall displease you for
+hardness shall be found so easy as so hard matter would suffer, and for
+the most part more easy than some other phrase which should with greater
+looseness and smoother sliding away deceive your understanding."
+
+Thomas Wilson, who dedicated his translation of Demosthenes to Sir
+William Cecil in 1570, links himself with the earlier group of
+translators by his detailed references to Cheke. Like Norton he is very
+conscious of the difficulty of translation. "I never found in my life,"
+he writes of this piece of work, "anything so hard for me to do." "Such
+a hard thing it is," he adds later, "to bring matter out of any one
+language into another." A vigorous advocate of translation, however, he
+does not despise his own tongue. "The cunning is no less," he declares,
+"and the praise as great in my judgment, to translate anything
+excellently into English, as into any other language," and he hopes
+that, if his own attempt proves unsuccessful, others will make the
+trial, "that such an orator as this is might be so framed to speak our
+tongue as none were able to amend him, and that he might be found to be
+most like himself." Wilson comes to his task with all the equipment that
+the period could afford; his preface gives evidence of a critical
+acquaintance with numerous Latin renderings of his author. From Cheke,
+however, he has gained something more valuable, the power to feel the
+vital, permanent quality in the work of Demosthenes. Cheke, he says,
+"was moved greatly to like Demosthenes above all others, for that he
+saw him so familiarly applying himself to the sense and understanding of
+the common people, that he sticked not to say that none ever was more
+fit to make an Englishman tell his tale praiseworthily in any open
+hearing either in parliament or in pulpit or otherwise, than this only
+orator was." Wilson shares this opinion and, representative of the
+changing standards of Elizabethan scholarship, prefers Demosthenes to
+Cicero. "Demosthenes used a plain, familiar manner of writing and
+speaking in all his actions," he says in his _Preface to the Reader_,
+"applying himself to the people's nature and to their understanding
+without using of proheme to win credit or devising conclusion to move
+affections and to purchase favor after he had done his matters.... And
+were it not better and more wisdom to speak plainly and nakedly after
+the common sort of men in few words, than to overflow with unnecessary
+and superfluous eloquence as Cicero is thought sometimes to do." "Never
+did glass so truly represent man's face," he writes later, "as
+Demosthenes doth show the world to us, and as it was then, so is it now,
+and will be so still, till the consummation and end of all things shall
+be." From Cheke Wilson has received also training in methods of
+translation and especially in the handling of the vernacular. "Master
+Cheke's judgment was great," he recalls, "in translating out of one
+tongue into another, and better skill he had in our English speech to
+judge of the phrases and properties of words and to divide sentences
+than any one else that I have known. And often he would English his
+matters out of the Latin or Greek upon the sudden, by looking of the
+book only, without reading or construing anything at all, an usage right
+worthy and very profitable for all men, as well for the understanding of
+the book, as also for the aptness of framing the author's meaning, and
+bettering thereby their judgment, and therewithal perfecting their
+tongue and utterance of speech." In speaking of his own methods,
+however, Wilson's emphasis is on his faithfulness to the original. "But
+perhaps," he writes, "whereas I have been somewhat curious to follow
+Demosthenes' natural phrase, it may be thought that I do speak over bare
+English. Well I had rather follow his vein, the which was to speak
+simply and plainly to the common people's understanding, than to
+overflourish with superfluous speech, although I might thereby be
+counted equal with the best that ever wrote English."
+
+Though now and then the comment of these men is slightly vague or
+inconsistent, in general they describe their methods clearly and fully.
+Other translators, expressing themselves with less sureness and
+adequacy, leave the impression that they have adopted similar
+standards. Translations, for example, of Calvin's _Commentary on
+Acts_[351] and Luther's _Commentary on Galatians_[352] are described on
+their title pages as "faithfully translated" from the Latin. B. R.'s
+preface to his translation of Herodotus, though its meaning is somewhat
+obscured by rhetoric, suggests a suitable regard for the original.
+"Neither of these," he writes of the two books which he has completed,
+"are braved out in their colors as the use is nowadays, and yet so
+seemly as either you will love them because they are modest, or not
+mislike them because they are not impudent, since in refusing idle
+pearls to make them seem gaudy, they reject not modest apparel to cause
+them to go comely. The truth is (Gentlemen) in making the new attire, I
+was fain to go by their old array, cutting out my cloth by another
+man's measure, being great difference whether we invent a fashion of
+our own, or imitate a pattern set down by another. Which I speak not to
+this end, for that myself could have done more eloquently than our
+author hath in Greek, but that the course of his writing being most
+sweet in Greek, converted into English loseth a great part of his
+grace."[353] Outside of the field of theology or of classical prose
+there were translators who strove for accuracy. Hoby, profiting
+doubtless by his association with Cheke, endeavored in translating _The
+Courtier_ "to follow the very meaning and words of the author, without
+being misled by fantasy, or leaving out any parcel one or other."[354]
+Robert Peterson claims that his version of Della Casa's _Galateo_ is
+"not cunningly but faithfully translated."[355] The printer of Carew's
+translation of Tasso explains: "In that which is done, I have caused
+the Italian to be printed together with the English, for the delight
+and benefit of those gentlemen that love that most lively language. And
+thereby the learned reader shall see how strict a course the translator
+hath tied himself in the whole work, usurping as little liberty as any
+whatsoever as ever wrote with any commendations."[356] Even translators
+who do not profess to be overfaithful display a consciousness of the
+existence of definite standards of accuracy. Thomas Chaloner, another
+of the friends of Cheke, translating Erasmus's _Praise of Folly_ for
+"mean men of baser wits and condition," chooses "to be counted a scant
+true interpreter." "I have not pained myself," he says, "to render word
+for word, nor proverb for proverb ... which may be thought by some
+cunning translators a deadly sin."[357] To the author of the _Menechmi_
+the word "translation" has a distinct connotation. The printer of the
+work has found him "very loath and unwilling to hazard this to the
+curious view of envious detraction, being (as he tells me) neither so
+exactly written as it may carry any name of translation, nor such
+liberty therein used as that he would notoriously differ from the
+poet's own order."[358] Richard Knolles, whose translation of Bodin's
+_Six Books of a Commonweal_ was published in 1606, employed both the
+French and the Latin versions of the treatise, and describes himself as
+on this account "seeking therein the true sense and meaning of the
+author, rather than precisely following the strict rules of a nice
+translator, in observing the very words of the author."[359] The
+translators of this later time, however, seldom put into words theories
+so scholarly as those formulated earlier in the period, when, even
+though the demand for accuracy might sometimes be exaggerated, it was
+nevertheless the result of thoughtful discrimination. There was some
+reason why a man like Gabriel Harvey, living towards the end of
+Elizabeth's reign, should look back with regret to the time when
+England produced men like Cheke and his contemporaries.[360]
+
+One must frequently remind oneself, however, that the absence of
+expressed theory need not involve the absence of standards. Among
+translators as among original writers a fondness for analyzing and
+describing processes did not necessarily accompany literary skill. Much
+more activity of mind and respect for originals may have existed among
+verse translators than is evident from their scanty comment. The most
+famous prose translators have little to say about their methods.
+Golding, who produced so much both in verse and prose, and who usually
+wrote prefaces to his translations, scarcely ever discusses
+technicalities. Now and then, however, he lets fall an incidental remark
+which suggests very definite ideals. In translating Caesar, for example,
+though at first he planned merely to complete Brend's translation, he
+ended by taking the whole work into his own hands, because, as he says,
+"I was desirous to have the body of the whole story compacted uniform
+and of one style throughout,"[361] a comment worthy of a much more
+modern critic. Philemon Holland, again, contributes almost nothing to
+theory, though his vigorous defense of his art and his appreciation of
+the stylistic qualities of his originals bear witness to true scholarly
+enthusiasm. On the whole, however, though the distinctive contribution
+of the period is the plea of the renaissance scholars that a reasonable
+faithfulness should be displayed, the comment of the mass of translators
+shows little grasp of the new principles. When one considers, in
+addition to their very inadequate expression of theory, the prevailing
+characteristics of their practice, the balance turns unmistakably in
+favor of a careless freedom in translation.
+
+Some of the deficiencies in sixteenth-century theory are supplied by
+Chapman, who applies himself with considerable zest to laying down the
+principles which in his opinion should govern poetical translations.
+Producing his versions of Homer in the last years of the sixteenth and
+early years of the seventeenth century, he forms a link between the two
+periods. In some respects he anticipates later critics. He attacks both
+the overstrict and the overloose methods of translation:
+
+                            the brake
+    That those translators stick in, that affect
+    Their word for word traductions (where they lose
+    The free grace of their natural dialect,
+    And shame their authors with a forced gloss)
+    I laugh to see; and yet as much abhor
+    More license from the words than may express
+    Their full compression, and make clear the author.[362]
+
+It is literalism, however, which bears the brunt of his attack. He is
+always conscious, "how pedantical and absurd an affectation it is in the
+interpretation of any author (much more of Homer) to turn him word for
+word, when (according to Horace and other best lawgivers to translators)
+it is the part of every knowing and judicial interpreter, not to follow
+the number and order of words, but the material things themselves, and
+sentences to weigh diligently, and to clothe and adorn them with words,
+and such a style and form of oration, as are most apt for the language
+in which they are converted."[363] Strangely enough, he thinks this
+literalism the prevailing fault of translators. He hardly dares present
+his work
+
+    To reading judgments, since so gen'rally,
+    Custom hath made ev'n th'ablest agents err
+    In these translations; all so much apply
+    Their pains and cunnings word for word to render
+    Their patient authors, when they may as well
+    Make fish with fowl, camels with whales, engender,
+    Or their tongues' speech in other mouths compell.[364]
+
+Chapman, however, believes that it is possible to overcome the
+difficulties of translation. Although the "sense and elegancy" of Greek
+and English are of "distinguished natures," he holds that it requires
+
+    Only a judgment to make both consent
+    In sense and elocution; and aspire,
+    As well to reach the spirit that was spent
+    In his example, as with art to pierce
+    His grammar, and etymology of words.
+
+This same theory was taken up by numerous seventeenth and eighteenth
+century translators. Avoiding as it does the two extremes, it easily
+commended itself to the reason. Unfortunately it was frequently
+appropriated by critics who were not inclined to labor strenuously with
+the problems of translation. One misses in much of the later comment the
+vigorous thinking of the early Renaissance translators. The theory of
+translation was not yet regarded as "a common work of building" to which
+each might contribute, and much that was valuable in sixteenth-century
+comment was lost by forgetfulness and neglect.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[250] Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. I, p. 313.
+
+[251] _Introduction_, in Foster Watson, _Vives and the Renaissance
+Education of Women_, 1912.
+
+[252] Letter prefixed to John, in _Paraphrase of Erasmus on the New
+Testament_, London, 1548.
+
+[253] _Dedication_, 1588.
+
+[254] _To the Reader_, in _Shakespeare's Ovid_, ed. W. H. D. Rouse, 1904.
+
+[255] Bishop of London's preface _To the Reader_, in _A Commentary of Dr.
+Martin Luther upon the Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians_, London, 1577.
+
+[256] Preface to _The Institution of the Christian Religion_, London, 1578.
+
+[257] Preface to _The Three Orations of Demosthenes_, London, 1570.
+
+[258] Dedication of _Montaigne's Essays_, London, 1603.
+
+[259] Reprinted, Roxburghe Club, 1887.
+
+[260] Preface to _The Book of Metals_, in Arber, _The First Three English
+Books on America_, 1885.
+
+[261] Dedication of _Marcus Tullius Cicero's Three Books of Duties_, 1558.
+
+[262] _A Brief Apology for Poetry_, in Gregory Smith, vol. 2, p. 219.
+
+[263] Preface to _The Natural History of C. Plinius Secundus_, London,
+1601.
+
+[264] _Letter to John Florio_, in _Florio's Montaigne_, Tudor Translations.
+
+[265] _To the Reader_, in _The Forest_, London, 1576.
+
+[266] Dedication to Edward VI, in _Paraphrase of Erasmus_.
+
+[267] _Prologue to Proverbs or Adagies with new additions gathered out of
+the Chiliades of Erasmus by Richard Taverner_, London, 1539.
+
+[268] _Epistle_ prefixed to translation, 1568.
+
+[269] Published, Tottell, 1561.
+
+[270] Reprinted, London, 1915.
+
+[271] _Dedication_, in edition of 1588.
+
+[272] _Op. cit._
+
+[273] _Dedication_, _op. cit._
+
+[274] _Dedication_, dated 1596, of _The History of Philip de Comines_,
+London, 1601.
+
+[275] _Dedication_ of _Achilles' Shield_ in Gregory Smith, vol. 2, p. 300.
+
+[276] _Preface_ in Arber, _op. cit._
+
+[277] _Preface_, dated 1584, to translation published 1590.
+
+[278] Title page, 1574.
+
+[279] _To the Reader_, _op. cit._
+
+[280] London, 1570.
+
+[281] Preface to _Seven Books of the Iliad of Homer_, in Gregory Smith,
+vol. 2, p. 293.
+
+[282] _Op. cit._
+
+[283] Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 262.
+
+[284] Preface to _Civile Conversation of Stephen Guazzo_, 1586.
+
+[285] Dedication of _The End of Nero and Beginning of Galba_, 1598.
+
+[286] _Op. cit._
+
+[287] _Address to Queen Katherine_, prefixed to Luke.
+
+[288] _Preface._
+
+[289] Translated in Strype, _Life of Grindal_, Oxford, 1821, p. 22.
+
+[290] Preface to _The Governor_, ed. Croft.
+
+[291] _Ad Maecenatem Prologus to Order of the Garter_, in _Works_, ed.
+Dyce, p. 584.
+
+[292] Quoted in J. L. Moore, _Tudor-Stuart Views on the Growth, Status, and
+Destiny of the English Language_.
+
+[293] In Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. 2, p. 171.
+
+[294] Quoted in Moore, _op. cit._
+
+[295] _To the Reader_, in 1603 edition of Montaigne's _Essays_.
+
+[296] _Address to Queen Katherine_, prefixed to Luke.
+
+[297] _To the Reader_ in _Civile Conversation of Stephen Guazzo_, 1586.
+
+[298] _Preface_, 1587.
+
+[299] _Master Phaer's Conclusion to his Interpretation of the Aeneidos of
+Virgil_, in edition of 1573.
+
+[300] _A Brief Apology for Poetry_, in Gregory Smith, vol. 1, pp. 217-18.
+
+[301] Ed. T. H. Jamieson, Edinburgh, 1874.
+
+[302] Reprinted, Spenser Society, 1885.
+
+[303] _The Argument._
+
+[304] Reprinted, London, 1814, _Prologue_.
+
+[305] Ed. E. V. Utterson, London, 1812, _Preface_.
+
+[306] _The Golden Book_, London, 1538, _Conclusion_.
+
+[307] Title page, in Turbervile, _Tragical Tales_, Edinburgh, 1837.
+
+[308] _To the Reader_, in _Palmerin d'Oliva_, London, 1637.
+
+[309] See Painter, _Palace of Pleasure_, ed. Jacobs, 1890.
+
+[310] _The Petit Palace of Pettie his Pleasure_, ed. Gollancz, 1908.
+
+[311] _Dedication._
+
+[312] _Palmerin of England_, ed. Southey, London, 1807.
+
+[313] _Preface to divers learned gentlemen_, in _Diana of George of
+Montemayor_, London, 1598.
+
+[314] _To the Reader_, in _Honor's Academy_, London, 1610.
+
+[315] _The Familiar Epistles of Sir Anthony of Guevara_, London, 1574, _To
+the Reader_.
+
+[316] _Prologue_ and _Argument_ of Guevara, translated in North, _Dial of
+Princes_, 1619.
+
+[317] In North, _The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans_, 1579.
+
+[318] _Dedication_ in edition of 1568.
+
+[319] _Prologue_ to Book I, _Aeneid_, reprinted Bannatyne Club.
+
+[320] Foster Watson, _The English Grammar Schools to 1660_, Cambridge,
+1908, pp. 405-6.
+
+[321] _Dedication_, in Spearing, _The Elizabethan Translations of Seneca's
+Tragedies_, Cambridge, 1912.
+
+[322] _To the Reader_, in _The Georgics translated by A. F._, London, 1589.
+
+[323] _Preface_, reprinted in Plessow, _Fabeldichtung in England_, Berlin,
+1906.
+
+[324] _Conclusion_, edition of 1573.
+
+[325] _Seneca His Ten Tragedies_, 1581, _Dedication_ of Fifth.
+
+[326] _To the Reader._
+
+[327] _Agamemnon and Medea_ from edition of 1556, ed. Spearing, 1913,
+_Preface_ of _Medea_.
+
+[328] _To the Readers_, prefixed to _Troas_, in Spearing, _The Elizabethan
+Translations of Seneca's Tragedies_.
+
+[329] _A Medicinable Moral, that is, the two books of Horace his satires
+Englished acccording to the prescription of St. Hierome_, London, 1566, _To
+the Reader_.
+
+[330] _Preface_ to the Earl of Oxford, in _The Abridgment of the Histories
+of Trogus Pompeius collected and written in the Latin tongue by Justin_,
+London, 1563.
+
+[331] _To the Gentle Reader_, in Phaer's Virgil, 1583.
+
+[332] _Epistle Dedicatory_ to _A Compendious Form of Living_, quoted in
+Introduction to _News out of Powles Churchyard_, reprinted London, 1872, p.
+xxx.
+
+[333] _The Bucolics of Virgil together with his Georgics_, London, 1589,
+_The Argument_.
+
+[334] _Preface_ in Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 137.
+
+[335] _The Schoolmaster_, in _Works_, London, 1864, vol. 3, p. 226.
+
+[336] _To the Reader_, prefixed to translation of _Eclogues_ of Mantuan,
+1567.
+
+[337] _To the Reader_, in _The Elizabethan Translations of Seneca's
+Tragedies_.
+
+[338] Stanyhurst's _Aeneid_, in _Arber's Scholar's Library_, p. 5.
+
+[339] _Ibid._, _Introduction_, p. xix, quoted from _The Art of English
+Poesy_.
+
+[340] Preface to Greene's _Menaphon_, in Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 315.
+
+[341] _Dedication_, dated 1573, in edition of 1584.
+
+[342] Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 313.
+
+[343] Dedicated to Cheke.
+
+[344] See Cheke's Letter in _The Courtier_, Tudor Translations, London,
+1900.
+
+[345] See _Epistle_ prefixed to translation.
+
+[346] Quoted in _Life_ prefixed to _The Governor_, ed. Croft.
+
+[347] _Address to Queen Katherine_ prefixed to _Paraphrase_.
+
+[348] _Address to Katharine_ prefixed to Luke.
+
+[349] _To the Reader_, in edition of 1564, literally reprinted Boston,
+Lincolnshire, 1877.
+
+[350] _To the Reader_, in _Marcus Tullius Cicero's Three Books of Duties_,
+1558.
+
+[351] Translated by Christopher Featherstone, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1844.
+
+[352] London, 1577.
+
+[353] _To the Gentlemen Readers_, in _Herodotus_, translated by B. R.,
+London, 1584.
+
+[354] _Op. cit._
+
+[355] _Dedication_, in edition of 1576, reprinted, ed. Spingarn, Boston,
+1914.
+
+[356] _Preface_, in _Godfrey of Bulloigne_, London, 1594, reprinted in
+Grosart, _Occasional Issues_, 1881.
+
+[357] _To the Reader_, in edition of 1549.
+
+[358] _The Printer to the Reader_, reprinted in _Shakespeare's Library_,
+1875.
+
+[359] _To the Reader._
+
+[360] See _Works_, ed. Grosart, II, 50.
+
+[361] _Dedication_, London, 1590.
+
+[362] _To the Reader_, in _The Iliads of Homer_, Charles Scribner's Sons,
+p. xvi.
+
+[363] P. xxv.
+
+[364] P. xv.
+
+
+
+
+IV. FROM COWLEY TO POPE
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+FROM COWLEY TO POPE
+
+
+Although the ardor of the Elizabethan translator as he approached the
+vast, almost unbroken field of foreign literature may well awaken the
+envy of his modern successor, in many respects the period of Dryden and
+Pope has more claim to be regarded as the Golden Age of the English
+translator. Patriotic enthusiasm had, it is true, lost something of its
+earlier fire, but national conditions were in general not unfavorable to
+translation. Though the seventeenth century, torn by civil discords, was
+very unlike the period which Holland had lovingly described as "this
+long time of peace and tranquillity, wherein ... all good literature
+hath had free course and flourished,"[365] yet, despite the rise and
+fall of governments, the stream of translation flowed on almost
+uninterruptedly. Sandys' _Ovid_ is presented by its author, after his
+visit to America, as "bred in the New World, of the rudeness whereof it
+cannot but participate; especially having wars and tumults to bring it
+to light instead of the Muses,"[366] but the more ordinary translation,
+bred at home in England during the seventeenth century, apparently
+suffered little from the political strife which surrounded it, while the
+eighteenth century afforded a "peace and tranquillity" even greater than
+that which had prevailed under Elizabeth.
+
+Throughout the period translation was regarded as an important labor,
+deserving of every encouragement. As in the sixteenth century, friends
+and patrons united to offer advice and aid to the author who engaged in
+this work. Henry Brome, dedicating a translation of Horace to Sir
+William Backhouse, writes of his own share of the volume, "to the
+translation whereof my pleasant retirement and conveniencies at your
+delightsome habitation have liberally contributed."[367] Doctor Barten
+Holiday includes in his preface to a version of Juvenal and Persius an
+interesting list of "worthy friends" who have assisted him. "My honored
+friend, Mr. John Selden (of such eminency in the studies of antiquities
+and languages) and Mr. Farnaby ... procured me a fair copy from the
+famous library of St. James's, and a manuscript copy from our herald of
+learning, Mr. Camden. My dear friend, the patriarch of our poets, Ben
+Jonson, sent in an ancient manuscript partly written in the Saxon
+character." Then follow names of less note, Casaubon, Anyan, Price.[368]
+Dryden tells the same story. He has been permitted to consult the Earl
+of Lauderdale's manuscript translation of Virgil. "Besides this help,
+which was not inconsiderable," he writes, "Mr. Congreve has done me the
+favor to review the _Aeneis_, and compare my version with the
+original."[369] Later comes his recognition of indebtedness of a more
+material character. "Being invited by that worthy gentleman, Sir William
+Bowyer, to Denham Court, I translated the First Georgic at his house,
+and the greatest part of the last Aeneid. A more friendly entertainment
+no man ever found.... The Seventh Aeneid was made English at Burleigh,
+the magnificent abode of the Earl of Exeter."[370]
+
+While private individuals thus rallied to the help of the translator,
+the world in general regarded his work with increasing respect. The
+great Dryden thought it not unworthy of his powers to engage in putting
+classical verse into English garb. His successor Pope early turned to
+the same pleasant and profitable task. Johnson, the literary dictator of
+the next age, described Rowe's version of Lucan as "one of the greatest
+productions of English poetry."[371] The comprehensive editions of the
+works of British poets which began to appear towards the end of the
+eighteenth century regularly included English renderings, generally
+contemporaneous, of the great poetry of other countries.
+
+The growing dignity of this department of literature and the Augustan
+fondness for literary criticism combined to produce a large body of
+comment on methods of translation. The more ambitious translations of
+the eighteenth century, for example, were accompanied by long prefaces,
+containing, in addition to the elaborate paraphernalia of contemporary
+scholarship, detailed discussion of the best rules for putting a foreign
+classic into English. Almost every possible phase of the art had been
+broached in one place and another before the century ended. In its last
+decade there appeared the first attempt in English at a complete and
+detailed treatment of the theory of translation as such, Tytler's _Essay
+on the Principles of Translation_.
+
+From the sixteenth-century theory of translation, so much of which is
+incidental and uncertain in expression, it is a pleasure to come to the
+deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and
+meaning, of the earlier critics of our period, men like Denham, Cowley,
+and Dryden. In contrast to the mass of unrelated individual opinions
+attached to the translations of Elizabeth's time, the criticism of the
+seventeenth century emanates, for the most part, from a small group of
+men, who supply standards for lesser commentators and who, if they do
+not invariably agree with one another, are yet thoroughly familiar with
+one another's views. The field of discussion also has narrowed
+considerably, and theory has gained by becoming less scattering.
+Translation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries showed certain
+new developments, the most marked of which was the tendency among
+translators who aspired to the highest rank to confine their efforts to
+verse renderings of the Greek and Latin classics. A favorite remark was
+that it is the greatest poet who suffers most in being turned from one
+language into another. In spite of this, or perhaps for this reason, the
+common ambition was to undertake Virgil, who was generally regarded as
+the greatest of epic poets, and attempts to translate at least a part of
+the _Aeneid_ were astonishingly frequent. As early as 1658 the Fourth
+Book is described as "translated ... in our day at least ten times into
+English."[372] Horace came next in popularity; by the beginning of the
+eighteenth century, according to one translator, he had been
+"translated, paraphrased, or criticized on by persons of all conditions
+and both sexes."[373] As the century progressed, Homer usurped the place
+formerly occupied by Virgil as the object of the most ambitious effort
+and the center of discussion. But there were other translations of the
+classics. Cooke, dedicating his translation of Hesiod to the Duke of
+Argyll, says to his patron: "You, my lord, know how the works of genius
+lift up the head of a nation above her neighbors, and give as much honor
+as success in arms; among these we must reckon our translations of the
+classics; by which when we have naturalized all Greece and Rome, we
+shall be so much richer than they by so many original productions as we
+have of our own."[374] Seemingly there was an attempt to naturalize "all
+Greece and Rome." Anacreon, Pindar, Apollonius Rhodius, Lucretius,
+Tibullus, Statius, Juvenal, Persius, Ovid, Lucan, are names taken almost
+at random from the list of seventeenth and eighteenth-century
+translations. Criticism, however, was ready to concern itself with the
+translation of any classic, ancient or modern. Denham's two famous
+pronouncements are connected, the one with his own translation of the
+Second Book of the _Aeneid_, the other with Sir Richard Fanshaw's
+rendering of _Il Pastor Fido_. In the later eighteenth century
+voluminous comment accompanied Hoole's _Ariosto_ and Mickle's _Camoens_.
+
+At present, however, we are concerned not with the number and variety of
+these translations, but with their homogeneity. As translators showed
+themselves less inclined to wander over the whole field of literature,
+the theory of translation assumed much more manageable proportions. A
+further limitation of the area of discussion was made by Denham, who
+expressly excluded from his consideration "them who deal in matters of
+fact or matters of faith,"[375] thus disposing of the theological
+treatises which had formerly divided attention with the classics.
+
+The aims of the translator were also clarified by definition of his
+audience. John Vicars, publishing in 1632 _The XII. Aeneids of Virgil
+translated into English decasyllables_, adduces as one of his motives
+"the common good and public utility which I hoped might accrue to young
+students and grammatical tyros,"[376] but later writers seldom repeat
+this appeal to the learner. The next year John Brinsley issued _Virgil's
+Eclogues, with his book De Apibus, translated grammatically, and also
+according to the propriety of our English tongue so far as Grammar and
+the verse will permit_. A significant comment in the "Directions" runs:
+"As for the fear of making truants by these translations, a conceit
+which arose merely upon the abuse of other translations, never intended
+for this end, I hope that happy experience of this kind will in time
+drive it and all like to it utterly out of schools and out of the minds
+of all." Apparently the schoolmaster's ban upon the unauthorized use of
+translations was establishing the distinction between the English
+version which might claim to be ranked as literature and that which
+Johnson later designated as "the clandestine refuge of schoolboys."[377]
+
+Another limitation of the audience was, however, less admirable. For the
+widely democratic appeal of the Elizabethan translator was substituted
+an appeal to a class, distinguished, if one may believe the philosopher
+Hobbes, as much by social position as by intellect. In discussing the
+vocabulary to be employed by the translator, Hobbes professes opinions
+not unlike those of the sixteenth-century critics. Like Puttenham, he
+makes a distinction between words as suited or unsuited for the epic
+style. "The names of instruments and tools of artificers, and words of
+art," he says in the preface to his _Homer_, "though of use in the
+schools, are far from being fit to be spoken by a hero. He may delight
+in the arts themselves, and have skill in some of them, but his glory
+lies not in that, but in courage, nobility, and other virtues of nature,
+or in the command he has over other men." In Hobbes' objection to the
+use of unfamiliar words, also, there is nothing new; but in the
+standards by which he tries such terms there is something amusingly
+characteristic of his time. In the choice of words, "the first
+indiscretion is in the use of such words as to the readers of poesy
+(which are commonly Persons of the best Quality)"--it is only fair to
+reproduce Hobbes' capitalization--"are not sufficiently known. For the
+work of an heroic poem is to raise admiration (principally) for three
+virtues, valor, beauty, and love; to the reading whereof women no less
+than men have a just pretence though their skill in language be not so
+universal. And therefore foreign words, till by long use they become
+vulgar, are unintelligible to them." Dryden is similarly restrained by
+the thought of his readers. He does not try to reproduce the "Doric
+dialect" of Theocritus, "for Theocritus writ to Sicilians, who spoke
+that dialect; and I direct this part of my translations to our ladies,
+who neither understand, nor will take pleasure in such homely
+expressions."[378] In translating the _Aeneid_ he follows what he
+conceives to have been Virgil's practice. "I will not give the reasons,"
+he declares, "why I writ not always in the proper terms of navigation,
+land-service, or in the cant of any profession. I will only say that
+Virgil has avoided those properties, because he writ not to mariners,
+soldiers, astronomers, gardeners, peasants, etc., but to all in general,
+and in particular to men and ladies of the first quality, who have been
+better bred than to be too nicely knowing in such things."[379]
+
+Another element in theory which displays the strength and weakness of
+the time is the treatment of the work of other countries and other
+periods. A changed attitude towards the achievements of foreign
+translators becomes evident early in the seventeenth century. In the
+prefaces to an edition of the works of Du Bartas in English there are
+signs of a growing satisfaction with the English language as a medium
+and an increasing conviction that England can surpass the rest of Europe
+in the work of translation. Thomas Hudson, in an address to James VI of
+Scotland, attached to his translation of _The History of Judith_, quotes
+an interesting conversation which he held on one occasion with that
+pedantic monarch. "It pleased your Highness," he recalls, "not only to
+esteem the peerless style of the Greek Homer and the Latin Virgil to be
+inimitable to us (whose tongue is barbarous and corrupted), but also to
+allege (partly through delight your majesty took in the haughty style of
+those most famous writers, and partly to sound the opinion of others)
+that also the lofty phrases, the grave inditement, the facund terms of
+the French Salust (for the like resemblance) could not be followed nor
+sufficiently expressed in our rough and unpolished English
+language."[380] It was to prove that he could reproduce the French poet
+"succinctly and sensibly in our vulgar speech" that Hudson undertook the
+_Judith_. According to the complimentary verses addressed to the famous
+Sylvester on his translations from the same author, the English tongue
+has responded nobly to the demands put upon it. Sylvester has shown
+
+    ... that French tongue's plenty to be such.
+    And yet that ours can utter full as much.[381]
+
+John Davies of Hereford, writing of another of Sylvester's translations,
+describes English as acquitting itself well when it competes with
+French, and continues
+
+    If French to English were so strictly bound
+    It would but passing lamely strive with it;
+    And soon be forc'd to lose both grace and ground,
+    Although they strove with equal skill and wit.[382]
+
+An opinion characteristic of the latter part of the century is that of
+the Earl of Roscommon, who, after praising the work of the earlier
+French translators, says,
+
+    From hence our generous emulation came,
+    We undertook, and we performed the same:
+    But now we show the world another way,
+    And in translated verse do more than they.[383]
+
+Dryden finds little to praise in the French and Italian renderings of
+Virgil. "Segrais ... is wholly destitute of elevation, though his
+version is much better than that of the two brothers, or any of the rest
+who have attempted Virgil. Hannibal Caro is a great name among the
+Italians; yet his translation is most scandalously mean."[384] "What I
+have said," he declares somewhat farther on, "though it has the face of
+arrogance, yet is intended for the honor of my country; and therefore I
+will boldly own that this English translation has more of Virgil's
+spirit in it than either the French or Italian."[385]
+
+On translators outside their own period seventeenth-century critics
+bestowed even less consideration than on their French or Italian
+contemporaries. Earlier writers were forgotten, or remembered only to be
+condemned. W. L., Gent., who in 1628 published a translation of Virgil's
+_Eclogues_, expresses his surprise that a poet like Virgil "should yet
+stand still as a _noli me tangere_, whom no man either durst or would
+undertake; only Master Spenser long since translated the _Gnat_ (a
+little fragment of Virgil's excellence), giving the world peradventure
+to conceive that he would at one time or other have gone through with
+the rest of this poet's work."[386] Vicars' translation of the _Aeneid_
+is accompanied by a letter in which the author's cousin, Thomas Vicars,
+congratulates him on his "great pains in transplanting this worthiest of
+Latin poets into a mellow and neat English soil (a thing not done
+before)."[387] Denham announces, "There are so few translations which
+deserve praise, that I scarce ever saw any which deserved pardon; those
+who travail in that kind being for the most part so unhappy as to rob
+others without enriching themselves, pulling down the fame of good
+authors without raising their own." Brome,[388] writing in 1666,
+rejoices in the good fortune of Horace's "good friend Virgil ... who
+being plundered of all his ornaments by the old translators, was
+restored to others with double lustre by those standard-bearers of wit
+and judgment, Denham and Waller,"[389] and in proof of his statements
+puts side by side translations of the same passage by Phaer and Denham.
+Later, in 1688, an anonymous writer recalls the work of Phaer and
+Stanyhurst only to disparage it. Introducing his translation of Virgil,
+"who has so long unhappily continued a stranger to tolerable English,"
+he says that he has "observed how _Player_ and _Stainhurst_ of old ...
+had murdered the most absolute of poets."[390] One dissenting note is
+found in Robert Gould's lines prefixed to a 1687 edition of Fairfax's
+_Godfrey of Bulloigne_.
+
+    See here, you dull translators, look with shame
+    Upon this stately monument of fame,
+    And to amaze you more, reflect how long
+    It is, since first 'twas taught the English tongue:
+    In what a dark age it was brought to light;
+    Dark? No, our age is dark, and that was bright.
+    Of all these versions which now brightest shine,
+    Most, Fairfax, are but foils to set off thine:
+    Ev'n Horace can't of too much justice boast,
+    His unaffected, easy style is lost:
+    And Ogilby's the lumber of the stall;
+    But thy translation does atone for all.[391]
+
+Dryden, too, approves of Fairfax, considered at least as a metrist. He
+includes him with Spenser among the "great masters of our language," and
+adds, "many besides myself have heard our famous Waller own that he
+derived the harmony of his numbers from _Godfrey of Bulloign_, which was
+turned into English by Mr. Fairfax."[392] But even Dryden, who sometimes
+saw beyond his own period, does not share the admiration which some of
+his friends entertain for Chapman. "The Earl of Mulgrave and Mr.
+Waller," he writes in the _Examen Poeticum_, "two of the best judges of
+our age, have assured me that they could never read over the translation
+of Chapman without incredible pleasure and extreme transport. This
+admiration of theirs must needs proceed from the author himself, for the
+translator has thrown him down as far as harsh numbers, improper
+English, and a monstrous length of verse could carry him."[393]
+
+In this satisfaction with their own country and their own era there
+lurked certain dangers for seventeenth-century writers. The quality
+becomes, as we shall see, more noticeable in the eighteenth century,
+when the shackles which English taste laid upon original poetry were
+imposed also upon translated verse. The theory of translation was
+hampered in its development by the narrow complacency of its exponents,
+and the record of this time is by no means one of uniform progress. The
+seventeenth century shows clearly marked alternations of opinion; now it
+sanctions extreme methods; now, by reaction, it inclines towards more
+moderate views. The eighteenth century, during the greater part of its
+course, produces little that is new in the way of theory, and adopts,
+without much attempt to analyze them, the formulas left by the preceding
+period. We may now resume the history of these developments at the point
+where it was dropped in Chapter III, at the end of Elizabeth's reign.
+
+In the first part of the new century the few minor translators who
+described their methods held theories much like those of Chapman. W. L.,
+Gent., in the extremely flowery and discursive preface to his version of
+Virgil's _Eclogues_, says, "Some readers I make no doubt they (the
+translations) will meet with in these dainty mouthed times, that will
+tax me with not coming resolved word for word and line for line with the
+author.... I used the freedom of a translator, not tying myself to the
+tyranny of a grammatical construction but breaking the shell into many
+pieces, was only careful to preserve the kernel safe and whole from the
+violence of a wrong or wrested interpretation." After a long simile
+drawn from the hunting field he concludes, "No more do I conceive my
+course herein to be faulty though I do not affect to follow my author so
+close as to tread upon his heels." John Vicars, who professes to have
+robed Virgil in "a homespun English gray-coat plain," says of his
+manner, "I have aimed at these three things, perspicuity of the matter,
+fidelity to the author, and facility or smoothness to recreate thee my
+reader. Now if any critical or curious wit tax me with a _Frustra fit
+per plura &c._ and blame my not curious confinement to my author line
+for line, I answer (and I hope this answer will satisfy the moderate and
+ingenuous) that though peradventure I could (as in my Babel's Balm I
+have done throughout the whole translation) yet in regard of the lofty
+majesty of this my author's style, I would not adventure so to pinch his
+spirits, as to make him seem to walk like a lifeless ghost. But on
+thinking on that of Horace, _Brevis esse laboro obscurus fio_, I
+presumed (yet still having an eye to the genuine sense as I was able)
+to expatiate with poetical liberty, where necessity of matter and phrase
+enforced." Vicars' warrant for his practice is the oftquoted caution of
+Horace, _Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere_.
+
+But the seventeenth century was not disposed to continue uninterruptedly
+the tradition of previous translators. In translated, as in original
+verse a new era was to begin, acclaimed as such in its own day, and
+associated like the new poetry, with the names of Denham and Cowley as
+both poets and critics and with that of Waller as poet. Peculiarly
+characteristic of the movement was its hostility towards literal
+translation, a hostility apparent also, as we have seen, in Chapman. "I
+consider it a vulgar error in translating poets," writes Denham in the
+preface to his _Destruction of Troy_, "to affect being Fidus Interpres,"
+and again in his lines to Fanshaw:
+
+    That servile path thou nobly dost decline
+    Of tracing word by word, and line by line.
+    Those are the labored births of slavish brains,
+    Not the effect of poetry but pains;
+    Cheap, vulgar arts, whose narrowness affords
+    No flight for thoughts, but poorly sticks at words.
+
+Sprat is anxious to claim for Cowley much of the credit for introducing
+"this way of leaving verbal translations and chiefly regarding the sense
+and genius of the author," which "was scarce heard of in England before
+this present age."[394]
+
+Why Chapman and later translators should have fixed upon extreme
+literalness as the besetting fault of their predecessors and
+contemporaries, it is hard to see. It is true that the recognition of
+the desirability of faithfulness to the original was the most
+distinctive contribution that sixteenth-century critics made to the
+theory of translation, but this principle was largely associated with
+prose renderings of a different type from that now under discussion.
+If, like Denham, one excludes "matters of fact and matters of faith,"
+the body of translation which remains is scarcely distinguished by
+slavish adherence to the letter. As a matter of fact, however,
+sixteenth-century translation was obviously an unfamiliar field to most
+seventeenth-century commentators, and although their generalizations
+include all who have gone before them, their illustrations are usually
+drawn from the early part of their own century. Ben Jonson, whose
+translation of Horace's _Art of Poetry_ is cited by Dryden as an
+example of "metaphrase, or turning an author word by word and line by
+line from one language to another,"[395] is perhaps largely responsible
+for the mistaken impression regarding the earlier translators. Thomas
+May and George Sandys are often included in the same category. Sandys'
+translation of Ovid is regarded by Dryden as typical of its time. Its
+literalism, its resulting lack of poetry, "proceeded from the wrong
+judgment of the age in which he lived. They neither knew good verse nor
+loved it; they were scholars, 'tis true, but they were pedants; and for
+all their pedantic pains, all their translations want to be translated
+into English."[396]
+
+But neither Jonson, Sandys, nor May has much to say with regard to the
+proper methods of translation. The most definite utterance of the group
+is found in the lines which Jonson addressed to May on his translation
+of Lucan:
+
+    But who hath them interpreted, and brought
+    Lucan's whole frame unto us, and so wrought
+    As not the smallest joint or gentlest word
+    In the great mass or machine there is stirr'd?
+    The self same genius! so the world will say
+    The sun translated, or the son of May.[397]
+
+May's own preface says nothing of his theories. Sandys says of his Ovid,
+"To the translation I have given what perfection my pen could bestow, by
+polishing, altering, or restoring the harsh, improper, or mistaken with
+a nicer exactness than perhaps is required in so long a labor,"[398] a
+comment open to various interpretations. His metrical version of the
+Psalms is described as "paraphrastically translated," and it is worthy
+of note that Cowley, in his attack on the practice of too literal
+translation, should have chosen this part of Sandys' work as
+illustrative of the methods which he condemns. For the translators of
+the new school, though professedly the foes of the word for word method,
+carried their hostility to existing theories of translation much
+farther. Cowley begins, reasonably enough, by pointing out the absurdity
+of translating a poet literally. "If a man should undertake to translate
+Pindar word for word, it would be thought that one madman had translated
+another; as may appear when a person who understands not the original
+reads the verbal traduction of him into Latin prose, than which nothing
+seems more raving.... And I would gladly know what applause our best
+pieces of English poesy could expect from a Frenchman or Italian, if
+converted faithfully and word for word into French or Italian
+prose."[399] But, ignoring the possibility of a reasonable regard for
+both the original and the English, such as had been advocated by Chapman
+or by minor translators like W. L. and Vicars, Cowley suggests a more
+radical method. Since of necessity much of the beauty of a poem is lost
+in translation, the translator must supply new beauties. "For men
+resolving in no case to shoot beyond the mark," he says, "it is a
+thousand to one if they shoot not short of it." "We must needs confess
+that after all these losses sustained by Pindar, all we can add to him
+by our wit or invention (not deserting still his subject) is not likely
+to make him a richer man than he was in his own country." Finally comes
+a definite statement of Cowley's method: "Upon this ground I have in
+these two Odes of Pindar taken, left out and added what I please; nor
+make it so much my aim to let the reader know precisely what he spoke as
+what was his way and manner of speaking, which has not been yet (that I
+know of) introduced into English, though it be the noblest and highest
+kind of writing in verse." Denham, in his lines on Fanshaw's translation
+of Guarini, had already approved of a similar method:
+
+    A new and nobler way thou dost pursue
+    To make translations and translators too.
+    They but preserve the ashes, thou the flame,
+    True to his sense, but truer to his fame.
+    Feeding his current, where thou find'st it low
+    Let'st in thine own to make it rise and flow;
+    Wisely restoring whatsoever grace
+    Is lost by change of times, or tongues, or place.
+
+Denham, however, justifies the procedure for reasons which must have had
+their appeal for the translator who was conscious of real creative
+power. "Poesy," he says in the preface to his translation from the
+_Aeneid_, "is of so subtle a spirit that in the pouring out of one
+language into another it will all evaporate; and if a new spirit be not
+added in transfusion, there will remain nothing but a _caput mortuum_."
+The new method, which Cowley is willing to designate as _imitation_ if
+the critics refuse to it the name of translation, is described by Dryden
+with his usual clearness. "I take imitation of an author in their
+sense," he says, "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one
+who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to
+translate his words, or be confined to his sense, but only to set him as
+a pattern, and to write as he supposes that author would have done, had
+he lived in our age, and in our country."[400]
+
+Yet, after all, the new fashion was far from revolutionizing either the
+theory or the practice of translation. Dryden says of Denham that "he
+advised more liberty than he took himself," and of both Denham and
+Cowley, "I dare not say that either of them have carried this libertine
+way of rendering authors (as Mr Cowley calls it) so far as my definition
+reaches; for in the _Pindaric Odes_ the customs and ceremonies of
+ancient Greece are still observed."[401] In the theory of the less
+distinguished translators of the second and third quarters of the
+century, the influence of Denham and Cowley shows itself, if at all, in
+the claim to have translated paraphrastically and the complacency with
+which translators describe their practice as "new," a condition of
+things which might have prevailed without the intervention of the method
+of imitation. About the year 1680 there comes a definite reaction
+against too great liberty in the treatment of foreign authors. Thomas
+Creech, defining what may justly be expected of the translator of
+Horace, says, "If the sense of the author is delivered, the variety of
+expression kept (which I must despair of after Quintillian hath assured
+us that he is most happily bold in his words) and his fancy not
+debauched (for I cannot think myself able to improve Horace) 'tis all
+that can be expected from a version."[402] After quoting with approval
+what Cowley has said of the inadequacy of any translation, he continues:
+"'Tis true he (Cowley) improves this consideration, and urges it as
+concluding against all strict and faithful versions, in which I must beg
+leave to dissent, thinking it better to convey down the learning of the
+ancients than their empty sound suited to the present times, and show
+the age their whole substance, rather than their ghost embodied in some
+light air of my own." An anonymous writer presents a group of critics
+who are disgusted with contemporary fashions in translation and wish to
+go back to those which prevailed in the early part of the century.[403]
+
+    Acer, incensed, exclaimed against the age,
+    Said some of our new poets had of late
+    Set up a lazy fashion to translate,
+    Speak authors how they please, and if they call
+    Stuff they make paraphrase, that answers all.
+    Pedantic verse, effeminately smooth,
+    Racked through all little rules of art to soothe,
+    The soft'ned age industriously compile,
+    Main wit and cripple fancy all the while.
+    A license far beyond poetic use
+    Not to translate old authors but abuse
+    The wit of Romans; and their lofty sense
+    Degrade into new poems made from thence,
+    Disguise old Rome in our new eloquence.
+
+Aesculape shares the opinion of Acer.
+
+    And thought it fit wits should be more confined
+    To author's sense, and to their periods too,
+    Must leave out nothing, every sense must do,
+    And though they cannot render verse for verse,
+    Yet every period's sense they must rehearse.
+
+Finally Metellus, speaking for the group, orders Laelius, one of their
+number, to translate the Fourth Book of the _Aeneid_, keeping himself in
+due subordination to Virgil.
+
+    We all bid then translate it the old way
+    Not a-la-mode, but like George Sandys or May;
+    Show Virgil's every period, not steal sense
+    To make up a new-fashioned poem thence.
+
+Other translators, though not defending the literal method, do not
+advocate imitation. Roscommon, in the _Essay on Translated Verse_,
+demands fidelity to the substance of the original when he says,
+
+    The genuine sense, intelligibly told,
+    Shows a translator both discreet and bold.
+    Excursions are inexpiably bad,
+    And 'tis much safer to leave out than add,
+
+but, unlike Phaer, he forbids the omission of difficult passages:
+
+    Abstruse and mystic thoughts you must express,
+    With painful care and seeming easiness.
+
+Dryden considers the whole situation in detail.[404] He admires Cowley's
+_Pindaric Odes_ and admits that both Pindar and his translator do not
+come under ordinary rules, but he fears the effect of Cowley's example
+"when writers of unequal parts to him shall imitate so bold an
+undertaking," and believes that only a poet so "wild and ungovernable"
+as Pindar justifies the method of Cowley. "If Virgil, or Ovid, or any
+regular intelligible authors be thus used, 'tis no longer to be called
+their work, when neither the thoughts nor words are drawn from the
+original; but instead of them there is something new produced, which is
+almost the creation of another hand.... He who is inquisitive to know an
+author's thoughts will be disappointed in his expectation; and 'tis not
+always that a man will be contented to have a present made him, when he
+expects the payment of a debt. To state it fairly; imitation is the most
+advantageous way for a translator to show himself, but the greatest
+wrong which can be done to the memory and reputation of the dead."
+
+Though imitation was not generally accepted as a standard method of
+translation, certain elements in the theory of Denham and Cowley
+remained popular throughout the seventeenth and even the eighteenth
+century. A favorite comment in the complimentary verses attached to
+translations is the assertion that the translator has not only equaled
+but surpassed his original. An extreme example of this is Dryden's
+fatuous reference to the Earl of Mulgrave's translation of Ovid:
+
+    How will sweet Ovid's ghost be pleased to hear
+    His fame augmented by an English peer,
+    How he embellishes his Helen's loves,
+    Outdoes his softness, and his sense improves.[405]
+
+His earlier lines to Sir Robert Howard on the latter's translation of
+the _Achilleis_ of Statius are somewhat less bald:
+
+    To understand how much we owe to you,
+    We must your numbers with your author's view;
+    Then shall we see his work was lamely rough,
+    Each figure stiff as if designed in buff;
+    His colours laid so thick on every place,
+    As only showed the paint, but hid the face;
+    But as in perspective we beauties see
+    Which in the glass, not in the picture be,
+    So here our sight obligingly mistakes
+    That wealth which his your bounty only makes.
+    Thus vulgar dishes are by cooks disguised,
+    More for their dressing than their substance prized.[406]
+
+It was especially in cases where the original lacked smoothness and
+perspicuity, the qualities which appealed most strongly to the century,
+that the claim to improvement was made. Often, however, it was
+associated with notably accurate versions. Cartwright calls upon the
+readers of Holiday's _Persius_,
+
+                who when they shall view
+    How truly with thine author thou dost pace,
+    How hand in hand ye go, what equal grace
+    Thou dost observe with him in every term,
+    They cannot but, if just, justly affirm
+    That did your times as do your lines agree,
+    He might be thought to have translated thee,
+    But that he's darker, not so strong; wherein
+    Thy greater art more clearly may be seen,
+    Which does thy Persius' cloudy storms display
+    With lightning and with thunder; both which lay
+    Couched perchance in him, but wanted force
+    To break, or light from darkness to divorce,
+    Till thine exhaled skill compressed it so,
+    That forced the clouds to break, the light to show,
+    The thunder to be heard. That now each child
+    Can prattle what was meant; whilst thou art styled
+    Of all, with titles of true dignity
+    For lofty phrase and perspicuity.[407]
+
+J. A. addresses Lucretius in lines prefixed to Creech's translation,
+
+    But Lord, how much you're changed, how much improv'd!
+    Your native roughness all is left behind,
+    But still the same good man tho' more refin'd,[408]
+
+and Otway says to the translator:
+
+    For when the rich original we peruse,
+    And by it try the metal you produce,
+    Though there indeed the purest ore we find,
+    Yet still by you it something is refined;
+    Thus when the great Lucretius gives a loose
+    And lashes to her speed his fiery Muse,
+    Still with him you maintain an equal pace,
+    And bear full stretch upon him all the race;
+    But when in rugged way we find him rein
+    His verse, and not so smooth a stroke maintain,
+    There the advantage he receives is found,
+    By you taught temper, and to choose his ground.[409]
+
+So authoritative a critic as Roscommon, however, seems to oppose
+attempts at improvement when he writes,
+
+    Your author always will the best advise,
+    Fall when he falls, and when he rises, rise,
+
+a precept which Tytler, writing at the end of the next century,
+considers the one doubtful rule in _The Essay on Translated Verse_. "Far
+from adopting the former part of this maxim," he declares, "I consider
+it to be the duty of a poetical translator, never to suffer his original
+to fall. He must maintain with him a perpetual contest of genius; he
+must attend him in his highest flights, and soar, if he can, beyond him:
+and when he perceives, at any time a diminution of his powers, when he
+sees a drooping wing, he must raise him on his own pinions."[410]
+
+The influence of Denham and Cowley is also seen in what is perhaps the
+most significant element in the seventeenth-century theory of
+translation. These men advocated freedom in translation, not because
+such freedom would give the translator a greater opportunity to display
+his own powers, but because it would enable him to reproduce more truly
+the spirit of the original. A good translator must, first of all, know
+his author intimately. Where Denham's expressions are fuller than
+Virgil's, they are, he says, "but the impressions which the often
+reading of him hath left upon my thoughts." Possessing this intimate
+acquaintance, the English writer must try to think and write as if he
+were identified with his author. Dryden, who, in spite of his general
+principles, sometimes practised something uncommonly like imitation,
+says in the preface to _Sylvae_: "I must acknowledge that I have many
+times exceeded my commission; for I have both added and omitted, and
+even sometimes very boldly made such expositions of my authors as no
+Dutch commentator will forgive me.... Where I have enlarged them, I
+desire the false critics would not always think that those thoughts are
+wholly mine, but either that they are secretly in the poet, or may be
+fairly deduced from him; or at least, if both these considerations
+should fail, that my own is of a piece with his, and that if he were
+living, and an Englishman, they are such as he would probably have
+written."[411]
+
+By a sort of irony the more faithful translator came in time to
+recognize this as one of the precepts of his art, and sometimes to use
+it as an argument against too much liberty. The Earl of Roscommon says
+in the preface to his translation of Horace's _Art of Poetry_, "I have
+kept as close as I could both to the meaning and the words of the
+author, and done nothing but what I believe he would forgive if he were
+alive; and I have often asked myself this question." Dryden follows his
+protest against imitation by saying: "Nor must we understand the
+language only of the poet, but his particular turn of thoughts and
+expression, which are the characters that distinguish, and, as it were,
+individuate him from all other writers. When we come thus far, 'tis
+time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his
+thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to
+vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance."[412] Such
+faithfulness, according to Dryden, involves the appreciation and the
+reproduction of the qualities in an author which distinguish him from
+others, or, to use his own words, "the maintaining the character of an
+author which distinguishes him from all others, and makes him appear
+that individual poet whom you would interpret."[413] Dryden thinks that
+English translators have not sufficiently recognized the necessity for
+this. "For example, not only the thoughts, but the style and
+versification of Virgil and Ovid are very different: yet I see, even in
+our best poets who have translated some parts of them, that they have
+confounded their several talents, and, by endeavoring only at the
+sweetness and harmony of numbers, have made them so much alike that, if
+I did not know the originals, I should never be able to judge by the
+copies which was Virgil and which was Ovid. It was objected against a
+late noble painter that he drew many graceful pictures, but few of them
+were like. And this happened because he always studied himself more than
+those who sat to him. In such translators I can easily distinguish the
+hand which performed the work, but I cannot distinguish their poet from
+another."
+
+But critics recognized that study and pains alone could not furnish the
+translator for his work. "To be a thorough translator," says Dryden, "he
+must be a thorough poet,"[414] or to put it, as does Roscommon, somewhat
+more mildly, he must by nature possess the more essential
+characteristics of his author. Admitting this, Creech writes with a
+slight air of apology, "I cannot choose but smile to think that I, who
+have ... too little ill nature (for that is commonly thought a
+necessary ingredient) to be a satirist, should venture upon
+Horace."[415] Dryden finds by experience that he can more easily
+translate a poet akin to himself. His translations of Ovid please him.
+"Whether it be the partiality of an old man to his youngest child I know
+not; but they appear to me the best of all my endeavors in this kind.
+Perhaps this poet is more easy to be translated than some others whom I
+have lately attempted; perhaps, too, he was more according to my
+genius."[416] He looks forward with pleasure to putting the whole of the
+_Iliad_ into English. "And this I dare assure the world beforehand, that
+I have found, by trial, Homer a more pleasing task than Virgil, though I
+say not the translation will be less laborious; for the Grecian is more
+according to my genius than the Latin poet."[417] The insistence on the
+necessity for kinship between the author and the translator is the
+principal idea in Roscommon's _Essay on Translated Verse_. According to
+Roscommon,
+
+    Each poet with a different talent writes,
+    One praises, one instructs, another bites.
+    Horace could ne'er aspire to epic bays,
+    Nor lofty Maro stoop to lyric lays.
+
+This, then, is his advice to the would-be translator:
+
+    Examine how your humour is inclined,
+    And which the ruling passion of your mind;
+    Then, seek a poet who your way does bend,
+    And choose an author as you choose a friend.
+    United by this sympathetic bond,
+    You grow familiar, intimate, and fond;
+    Your thoughts, your words, your styles, your souls agree,
+    No longer his interpreter but he.
+
+Though the plea of reproducing the spirit of the original was sometimes
+made a pretext for undue latitude, it is evident that there was here an
+important contribution to the theory of translation. In another respect,
+also, the consideration of metrical effects, the seventeenth century
+shows some advance,--an advance, however, which must be laid chiefly to
+the credit of Dryden. Apparently there was no tendency towards
+innovation and experiment in the matter of verse forms.
+Seventeenth-century translators, satisfied with the couplet and kindred
+measures, did not consider, as the Elizabethans had done, the
+possibility of introducing classical metres. Creech says of Horace,
+"'Tis certain our language is not capable of the numbers of the
+poet,"[418] and leaves the matter there. Holiday says of his translation
+of the same poet: "But many, no doubt, will say Horace is by me
+forsaken, his lyric softness and emphatical Muse maimed; that there is a
+general defection from his genuine harmony. Those I must tell, I have in
+this translation rather sought his spirit than numbers; yet the music of
+verse not neglected neither, since the English ear better heareth the
+distich, and findeth that sweetness and air which the Latin affecteth
+and (questionless) attaineth in sapphics or iambic measures."[419]
+Dryden frequently complains of the difficulty of translation into
+English metre, especially when the poet to be translated is Virgil. The
+use of rhyme causes trouble. It "is certainly a constraint even to the
+best poets, and those who make it with most ease.... What it adds to
+sweetness, it takes away from sense; and he who loses the least by it
+may be called a gainer. It often makes us swerve from an author's
+meaning; as, if a mark be set up for an archer at a great distance, let
+him aim as exactly as he can, the least wind will take his arrow, and
+divert it from the white."[420] The line of the heroic couplet is not
+long enough to reproduce the hexameter, and Virgil is especially
+succinct. "To make him copious is to alter his character; and to
+translate him line for line is impossible, because the Latin is
+naturally a more succinct language than either the Italian, Spanish,
+French, or even than the English, which, by reason of its monosyllables,
+is far the most compendious of them. Virgil is much the closest of any
+Roman poet, and the Latin hexameter has more feet than the English
+heroic."[421] Yet though Dryden admits that Caro, the Italian
+translator, who used blank verse, made his task easier thereby, he does
+not think of abandoning the couplet for any of the verse forms which
+earlier translators had tried. He finds Chapman's _Homer_ characterized
+by "harsh numbers ... and a monstrous length of verse," and thinks his
+own period "a much better age than was the last ... for versification
+and the art of numbers."[422] Roscommon, whose version of Horace's _Art
+of Poetry_ is in blank verse, says that Jonson's translation lacks
+clearness as a result not only of his literalness but of "the constraint
+of rhyme,"[423] but makes no further attack on the couplet as the
+regular vehicle for translation.
+
+Dryden, however, is peculiarly interested in the general effect of his
+verse as compared with that of his originals. "I have attempted," he
+says in the _Examen Poeticum_, "to restore Ovid to his native sweetness,
+easiness, and smoothness, and to give my poetry a kind of cadence and,
+as we call it, a run of verse, as like the original as the English can
+come to the Latin."[424] In his study of Virgil previous to translating
+the _Aeneid_ he observed "above all, the elegance of his expressions
+and the harmony of his numbers."[425] Elsewhere he says of his author,
+"His verse is everywhere sounding the very thing in your ears whose
+sense it bears, yet the numbers are perpetually varied to increase the
+delight of the reader; so that the same sounds are never repeated twice
+together."[426] These metrical effects he has tried to reproduce in
+English. "The turns of his verse, his breakings, his numbers, and his
+gravity, I have as far imitated as the poverty of our language and the
+hastiness of my performance would allow," he says in the preface to
+_Sylvae_.[427] In his translation of the whole _Aeneid_ he was guided by
+the same considerations. "Virgil ... is everywhere elegant, sweet, and
+flowing in his hexameters. His words are not only chosen, but the places
+in which he ranks them for the sound. He who removes them from the
+station wherein their master set them spoils the harmony. What he says
+of the Sibyl's prophecies may be as properly applied to every word of
+his: they must be read in order as they lie; the least breath
+discomposes them and somewhat of their divinity is lost. I cannot boast
+that I have been thus exact in my verses; but I have endeavored to
+follow the example of my master, and am the first Englishman, perhaps,
+who made it his design to copy him in his numbers, his choice of words,
+and his placing them for the sweetness of the sound. On this last
+consideration I have shunned the _caesura_ as much as possibly I could:
+for, wherever that is used, it gives a roughness to the verse; of which
+we have little need in a language which is overstocked with
+consonants."[428] Views like these contribute much to an adequate
+conception of what faithfulness in translation demands.
+
+From the lucid, intelligent comment of Dryden it is disappointing to
+turn to the body of doctrine produced by his successors. In spite of the
+widespread interest in translation during the eighteenth century, little
+progress was made in formulating the theory of the art, and many of the
+voluminous prefaces of translators deserve the criticism which Johnson
+applied to Garth, "his notions are half-formed." So far as concerns the
+general method of translation, the principles laid down by critics are
+often mere repetitions of the conclusions already reached in the
+preceding century. Most theorists were ready to adopt Dryden's view that
+the translator should strike a middle course between the very free and
+the very close method. Put into words by a recognized authority, so
+reasonable an opinion could hardly fail of acceptance. It appealed to
+the eighteenth-century mind as adequate, and more than one translator,
+professing to give rules for translation, merely repeated in his own
+words what Dryden had already said. Garth declares in the preface
+condemned by Johnson: "Translation is commonly either verbal, a
+paraphrase, or an imitation.... The manner that seems most suitable for
+this present undertaking is neither to follow the author too close out
+of a critical timorousness, nor abandon him too wantonly through a
+poetic boldness. The original should always be kept in mind, without too
+apparent a deviation from the sense. Where it is otherwise, it is not a
+version but an imitation."[429] Grainger says in the introduction to his
+_Tibullus_: "Verbal translations are always inelegant, because always
+destitute of beauty of idiom and language; for by their fidelity to an
+author's words, they become treacherous to his reputation; on the other
+hand, a too wanton departure from the letter often varies the sense and
+alters the manner. The translator chose the middle way, and meant
+neither to tread on the heels of Tibullus nor yet to lose sight of
+him."[430] The preface to Fawkes' _Theocritus_ harks back to Dryden: "A
+too faithful translation, Mr. Dryden says, must be a pedantic one....
+And as I have not endeavored to give a verbal translation, so neither
+have I indulged myself in a rash paraphrase, which always loses the
+spirit of an ancient by degenerating into the modern manners of
+expression."[431]
+
+Yet behind these well-sounding phrases there lay, one suspects, little
+vigorous thought. Both the clarity and the honesty which belong to
+Dryden's utterances are absent from much of the comment of the
+eighteenth century. The apparent judicial impartiality of Garth, Fawkes,
+Grainger, and their contemporaries disappears on closer examination. In
+reality the balance of opinion in the time of Pope and Johnson inclines
+very perceptibly in favor of freedom. Imitation, it is true, soon ceases
+to enter into the discussion of translation proper, but literalism is
+attacked again and again, till one is ready to ask, with Dryden, "Who
+defends it?" Mickle's preface to _The Lusiad_ states with unusual
+frankness what was probably the underlying idea in most of the theory of
+the time. Writing "not to gratify the dull few, whose greatest pleasure
+is to see what the author exactly says," but "to give a poem that might
+live in the English language," Mickle puts up a vigorous defense of his
+methods. "Literal translation of poetry," he insists, "is a solecism.
+You may construe your author, indeed, but if with some translators you
+boast that you have left your author to speak for himself, that you have
+neither added nor diminished, you have in reality grossly abused him,
+and deceived yourself. Your literal translations can have no claim to
+the original felicities of expression, the energy, elegance, and fire of
+the original poetry. It may bear, indeed, a resemblance, but such an
+one as a corpse in the sepulchre bears to the former man, when he moved
+in the bloom and vigor of life.
+
+    Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere, fidus
+    Interpres--
+
+was the taste of the Augustan age. None but a poet can translate a poet.
+The freedom which this precept gives will, therefore, in a poet's hands,
+not only infuse the energy, elegance, and fire of the author's poetry
+into his own version, but will give it also the spirit of an
+original."[432] A similarly clear statement of the real facts of the
+situation appears in Johnson's remarks on translators. His test for a
+translation is its readability, and to attain this quality he thinks it
+permissible for the translator to improve on his author. "To a thousand
+cavils," he writes in the course of his comments on Pope's _Homer_, "one
+answer is necessary; the purpose of a writer is to be read, and the
+criticism which would destroy the power of pleasing must be blown
+aside."[433] The same view comes forward in his estimate of Cowley's
+work. "The Anacreon of Cowley, like the Homer of Pope, has admitted the
+decoration of some modern graces, by which he is undoubtedly more
+amiable to common readers, and perhaps, if they would honestly declare
+their own perceptions, to far the greater part of those whom courtesy
+and ignorance are content to style the learned."[434]
+
+In certain matters, however, the translator claimed especial freedom. "A
+work of this nature," says Trapp of his translation of the _Aeneid_, "is
+to be regarded in two different views, both as a poem and as a
+translated poem." This gives the translator some latitude. "The thought
+and contrivance are his author's, but his language and the turn of his
+versification are his own."[435] Pope holds the same opinion. A
+translator must "give his author entire and unmaimed" but for the rest
+the diction and versification are his own province.[436] Such a dictum
+was sure to meet with approval, for dignity of language and smoothness
+of verse were the very qualities on which the period prided itself. It
+was in these respects that translators hoped to improve on the work of
+the preceding age. Fawkes, the translator of Theocritus, believes that
+many lines in Dryden's _Miscellany_ "will sound very harshly in the
+polished ears of the present age," and that Creech's translation of his
+author can be popular only with those who "having no ear for poetical
+numbers, are better pleased with the rough music of the last age than
+the refined harmony of this." Johnson, who strongly approved of Dryden's
+performance, accepts it as natural that there should be other attempts
+at the translation of Virgil, "since the English ear has been accustomed
+to the mellifluence of Pope's numbers, and the diction of poetry has
+become more splendid."[437] There was something of poetic justice in
+this attitude towards the seventeenth century, itself so unappreciative
+of the achievements of earlier translators, but exemplified in practice,
+it showed the peculiar limitations of the age of Pope.
+
+As in the seventeenth century, the heroic couplet was the predominant
+form in translations. Blank verse, when employed, was generally
+associated with a protest against the prevailing methods of translators.
+Trapp and Brady, both of whom early in the century attempted blank verse
+renderings of the _Aeneid_, justify their use of this form on the ground
+that it permits greater faithfulness to the original. Brady intends to
+avoid the rock upon which other translators have split, "and that seems
+to me to be their translating this noble and elegant poet into rhyme; by
+which they were sometimes forced to abandon the sense, and at other
+times to cramp it very much, which inconveniences may probably be
+avoided in blank verse."[438] Trapp makes a more violent onslaught upon
+earlier translations, which he finds "commonly so very licentious that
+they can scarce be called so much as paraphrases," and presents the
+employment of blank verse as in some degree a remedy for this. "The
+fetters of rhyme often cramp the expression and spoil the verse, and so
+you can both translate more closely and also more fully express the
+spirit of your author without it than with it."[439] Neither version
+however was kindly received, and though there continued to be occasional
+efforts to break away from what Warton calls "the Gothic shackles of
+rhyme"[440] or from the oversmoothness of Augustan verse, the more
+popular translators set the stamp of their approval on the couplet in
+its classical perfection. Grainger, who translated Tibullus, discusses
+the possibility of using the "alternate" stanza, but ends by saying that
+he has generally "preferred the heroic measure, which is not better
+suited to the lofty sound of the epic muse than to the complaining tone
+of the elegy."[441] Hoole chooses the couplet for his version of
+Ariosto, because it occupies the same place in English that the octave
+stanza occupies in Italian, and because it is capable of great variety.
+"Of all the various styles used by the best poets," he says, "none seems
+so well adapted to the mixed and familiar narrative as that of Dryden in
+his last production, known by the name of his _Fables_, which by their
+harmony, spirit, ease, and variety of versification, exhibit an
+admirable model for a translation of Ariosto."[442] It was, however, to
+the regularity of Pope's couplet that most translators aspired. Francis,
+the translator of Horace, who succeeded in pleasing his readers in spite
+of his failure to conform with popular standards, puts the situation
+well in a comment which recalls a similar utterance of Dryden. "The
+misfortune of our translators," he says, "is that they have only one
+style; and consequently all their authors, Homer, Virgil, Horace, and
+Ovid, are compelled to speak in the same numbers, and the same unvaried
+expression. The free-born spirit of poetry is confined in twenty
+constant syllables, and the sense regularly ends with every second line,
+as if the writer had not strength enough to support himself or courage
+enough to venture into a third."[443]
+
+Revolts against the couplet, then, were few and generally unsuccessful.
+Prose translations of the epic, such as have in our own day attained
+some popularity, were in the eighteenth century regarded with especial
+disfavor. It was known that they had some vogue in France, but that was
+not considered a recommendation. The English translation of Madame
+Dacier's prose Homer, issued by Ozell, Oldisworth, and Broome, was
+greeted with scorn. Trapp, in the preface to his Virgil, refers to the
+new French fashion with true insular contempt. Segrais' translation is
+"almost as good as the French language will allow, which is just as fit
+for an epic poem as an ambling nag is for a war horse.... Their language
+is excellent for prose, but quite otherwise for verse, especially
+heroic. And therefore tho' the translating of poems into prose is a
+strange modern invention, yet the French transprosers are so far in the
+right because their language will not bear verse." Mickle, mentioning in
+his _Dissertation on the Lusiad_ that "M. Duperron de Castera, in 1735,
+gave in French prose a loose unpoetical paraphrase of the Lusiad,"
+feels it necessary to append in a note his opinion that "a literal prose
+translation of poetry is an attempt as absurd as to translate fire into
+water."
+
+If there was little encouragement for the translator to experiment with
+new solutions of the problems of versification, there was equally little
+latitude allowed him in the other division of his peculiar province,
+diction. In accordance with existing standards, critics doubled their
+insistence on Decorum, a quality in which they found the productions of
+former times lacking. Johnson criticizes Dryden's _Juvenal_ on the
+ground that it wants the dignity of its original.[444] Fawkes finds
+Creech "more rustic than any of the rustics in the Sicilian bard," and
+adduces in proof many illustrations, from his calling a "noble pastoral
+cup a fine two-handled pot" to his dubbing his characters "Tawney Bess,
+Tom, Will, Dick" in vulgar English style.[445] Fanshaw, says Mickle in
+the preface to his translation of Camoens, had not "the least idea of
+the dignity of the epic style." The originals themselves, however,
+presented obstacles to suitable rendering. Preston finds this so in the
+case of Apollonius Rhodius, and offers this explanation of the matter:
+"Ancient terms of art, even if they can be made intelligible, cannot be
+rendered, with any degree of grace, into a modern language, where the
+corresponding terms are debased into vulgarity by low and familiar use.
+Many passages of this kind are to be found in Homer. They are frequent
+also in Apollonius Rhodius; particularly so, from the exactness which he
+affects in describing everything."[446] Warton, unusually tolerant of
+Augustan taste in this respect, finds the same difficulty in the
+_Eclogues_ and _Georgics_ of Virgil. "A poem whose excellence peculiarly
+consists in the graces of diction," his preface runs, "is far more
+difficult to be translated, than a work where sentiment, or passion, or
+imagination is chiefly displayed.... Besides, the meanness of the terms
+of husbandry is concealed and lost in a dead language, and they convey
+no low and despicable image to the mind; but the coarse and common words
+I was necessitated to use in the following translation, viz. _plough and
+sow_, _wheat_, _dung_, _ashes_, _horse and cow_, etc., will, I fear,
+unconquerably disgust many a delicate reader, if he doth not make proper
+allowance for a modern compared with an ancient language."[447]
+According to Hoole, the English language confines the translator within
+narrow limits. A translation of Berni's _Orlando Innamorato_ into
+English verse would be almost impossible, "the narrative descending to
+such familiar images and expressions as would by no means suit the
+genius of our language and poetry."[448] The task of translating
+Ariosto, though not so hopeless, is still arduous on this account.
+"There is a certain easy negligence in his muse that often assumes a
+playful mode of expression incompatible with the nature of our present
+poetry.... An English translator will have frequent reason to regret the
+more rigid genius of the language, that rarely permits him in this
+respect, to attempt even an imitation of his author."
+
+The comments quoted in the preceding pages make one realize that, while
+the translator was left astonishingly free as regarded his treatment of
+the original, it was at his peril that he ran counter to contemporary
+literary standards. The discussion centering around Pope's _Homer_, at
+once the most popular and the most typical translation of the period,
+may be taken as presenting the situation in epitome. Like other prefaces
+of the time, Pope's introductory remarks are, whether intentionally or
+unintentionally, misleading. He begins, in orthodox fashion, by
+advocating the middle course approved by Dryden. "It is certain," he
+writes, "no literal translation can be just to an excellent original in
+a superior language: but it is a great mistake to imagine (as many have
+done) that a rash paraphrase can make amends for this general defect;
+which is no less in danger to lose the spirit of an ancient, by
+deviating into the modern manners of expression." Continuing, however,
+he urges an unusual degree of faithfulness. The translator must not
+think of improving upon his author. "I will venture to say," he
+declares, "there have not been more men misled in former times by a
+servile, dull adherence to the letter, than have been deluded in ours by
+a chimerical insolent hope of raising and improving their author....
+'Tis a great secret in writing to know when to be plain, and when
+poetical and figurative; and it is what Homer will teach us, if we will
+but follow modestly in his footsteps. Where his diction is bold and
+lofty, let us raise ours as high as we can; but where his is plain and
+humble, we ought not to be deterred from imitating him by the fear of
+incurring the censure of a mere English critic." The translator ought to
+endeavor to "copy him in all the variations of his style, and the
+different modulations of his numbers; to preserve, in the more active or
+descriptive parts, a warmth and elevation; in the more sedate or
+narrative, a plainness and solemnity; in the speeches a fullness and
+perspicuity; in the sentences a shortness and gravity: not to neglect
+even the little figures and turns on the words, nor sometimes the very
+cast of the periods; neither to omit nor confound any rites and customs
+of antiquity."
+
+Declarations like this would, if taken alone, make one rate Pope as a
+pioneer in the art of translation. Unfortunately the comment of his
+critics, even of those who admired him, tells a different story. "To say
+of this noble work that it is the best which ever appeared of the kind,
+would be speaking in much lower terms than it deserves," writes
+Melmoth, himself a successful translator, in _Fitzosborne's Letters_.
+Melmoth's description of Pope's method is, however, very different from
+that offered by Pope himself. "Mr. Pope," he says, "seems, in most
+places, to have been inspired with the same sublime spirit that animates
+his original; as he often takes fire from a single hint in his author,
+and blazes out even with a stronger and brighter flame of poetry. Thus
+the character of Thersites, as it stands in the English _Iliad_, is
+heightened, I think, with more masterly strokes of satire than appear in
+the Greek; as many of those similes in Homer, which would appear,
+perhaps, to a modern eye too naked and unornamented, are painted by Pope
+in all the beautiful drapery of the most graceful metaphor"--a statement
+backed by citation of the famous moonlight passage, which Melmoth finds
+finer than the corresponding passage in the original. There is no doubt
+in the critic's mind as to the desirability of improving upon Homer.
+"There is no ancient author," he declares, "more likely to betray an
+injudicious interpreter into meannesses than Homer.... But a skilful
+artist knows how to embellish the most ordinary subject; and what would
+be low and spiritless from a less masterly pencil, becomes pleasing and
+graceful when worked up by Mr. Pope."[449]
+
+Melmoth's last comment suggests Matthew Arnold's remark, "Pope composes
+with his eye on his style, into which he translates his object, whatever
+it may be,"[450] but in intention the two criticisms are very different.
+To the average eighteenth-century reader Homer was entirely acceptable
+"when worked up by Mr. Pope." Slashing Bentley might declare that it
+"must not be called Homer," but he admitted that "it was a pretty poem."
+Less competent critics, unhampered by Bentley's scholarly doubts,
+thought the work adequate both as a poem and as a translated poem.
+Dennis, in his _Remarks upon Pope's Homer_, quotes from a recent review
+some characteristic phrases. "I know not which I should most admire,"
+says the reviewer, "the justness of the original, or the force and
+beauty of the language, or the sounding variety of the numbers."[451]
+Prior, with more honesty, refuses to bother his head over "the justness
+of the original," and gratefully welcomes the English version.
+
+    Hang Homer and Virgil; their meaning to seek,
+    A man must have pok'd into Latin and Greek;
+    Those who love their own tongue, we have reason to hope,
+    Have read them translated by Dryden and Pope.[452]
+
+In general, critics, whether men of letters or Grub Street reviewers,
+saw both Pope's _Iliad_ and Homer's _Iliad_ through the medium of
+eighteenth-century taste. Even Dennis's onslaught, which begins with a
+violent contradiction of the hackneyed tribute quoted above, leaves the
+impression that its vigor comes rather from personal animus than from
+distrust of existing literary standards or from any new and individual
+theory of translation.
+
+With the romantic movement, however, comes criticism which presents to
+us Pope's _Iliad_ as seen in the light of common day instead of through
+the flattering illusions which had previously veiled it. New translators
+like Macpherson and Cowper, though too courteous to direct their attack
+specifically against the great Augustan, make it evident that they have
+adopted new standards of faithfulness and that they no longer admire
+either the diction or the versification which made Pope supreme among
+his contemporaries. Macpherson gives it as his opinion that, although
+Homer has been repeatedly translated into most of the languages of
+modern Europe, "these versions were rather paraphrases than faithful
+translations, attempts to give the spirit of Homer, without the
+character and peculiarities of his poetry and diction," and that
+translators have failed especially in reproducing "the magnificent
+simplicity, if the epithet may be used, of the original, which can never
+be characteristically expressed in the antithetical quaintness of modern
+fine writing."[453] Cowper's prefaces show that he has given serious
+consideration to all the opinions of the theorists of his century, and
+that his own views are fundamentally opposed to those generally
+professed. His own basic principle is that of fidelity to his author,
+and, like every sensible critic, he sees that the translator must
+preserve a mean between the free and the close methods. This approval of
+compromise is not, however, a mere formula; Cowper attempts to throw
+light upon it from various angles. The couplet he immediately repudiates
+as an enemy to fidelity. "I will venture to assert that a just
+translation of any ancient poet in rhyme is impossible," he declares.
+"No human ingenuity can be equal to the task of closing every couplet
+with sounds homotonous, expressing at the same time the full sense of
+his original. The translator's ingenuity, indeed, in this case becomes
+itself a snare, and the readier he is at invention and expedient, the
+more likely he is to be betrayed into the wildest departures from the
+guide whom he professes to follow."[454] The popular idea that the
+translator should try to imagine to himself the style which his author
+would have used had he been writing in English is to Cowper "a direction
+which wants nothing but practicability to recommend it. For suppose six
+persons, equally qualified for the task, employed to translate the same
+Ancient into their own language, with this rule to guide them. In the
+event it would be found that each had fallen on a manner different from
+that of all the rest, and by probable inference it would follow that
+none had fallen on the right."[455]
+
+Cowper's advocacy of Miltonic blank verse as a suitable vehicle for a
+translation of Homer need not concern us here, but another innovation on
+which he lays considerable stress in his prefaces helps to throw light
+on the practice and the standards of his immediate predecessors. With
+more veracity than Pope, he represents himself as having followed his
+author even in his "plainer" passages. "The passages which will be least
+noticed, and possibly not at all, except by those who shall wish to find
+me at a fault," he writes in the preface to the first edition, "are
+those which have cost me abundantly the most labor. It is difficult to
+kill a sheep with dignity in a modern language, to slay and prepare it
+for the table, detailing every circumstance in the process. Difficult
+also, without sinking below the level of poetry, to harness mules to a
+wagon, particularizing every article of their furniture, straps, rings,
+staples, and even the tying of the knots that kept all together. Homer,
+who writes always to the eye with all his sublimity and grandeur, has
+the minuteness of a Flemish painter." In the preface to his second
+edition he recurs to this problem and makes a significant comment on
+Pope's method of solving it. "There is no end of passages in Homer," he
+repeats, "which must creep unless they be lifted; yet in all such, all
+embellishment is out of the question. The hero puts on his clothes, or
+refreshes himself with food and wine, or he yokes his steeds, takes a
+journey, and in the evening preparation is made for his repose. To give
+relief to subjects prosaic as these without seeming unseasonably tumid
+is extremely difficult. Mr. Pope abridges some of them, and others he
+omits; but neither of these liberties was compatible with the nature of
+my undertaking."[456]
+
+That Cowper's reaction against Pope's ideals was not a thing of sudden
+growth is evident from a letter more outspoken than the prefaces. "Not
+much less than thirty years since," he writes in 1788, "Alston and I
+read Homer through together. The result was a discovery that there is
+hardly a thing in the world of which Pope is so entirely destitute as a
+taste for Homer.... I remembered how we had been disgusted; how often we
+had sought the simplicity and majesty of Homer in his English
+representative, and had found instead of them puerile conceits,
+extravagant metaphors, and the tinsel of modern embellishment in every
+possible position."[457]
+
+Cowper's "discovery," startling, almost heretical at the time when it
+was made, is now little more than a commonplace. We have long recognized
+that Pope's Homer is not the real Homer; it is scarcely an exaggeration
+to say, as does Mr. Andrew Lang, "It is almost as if he had taken
+Homer's theme and written the poem himself."[458] Yet it is surprising
+to see how nearly the eighteenth-century ambition, "to write a poem that
+will live in the English language" has been answered in the case of
+Pope. Though the "tinsel" of his embellishment is no longer even
+"modern," his translation seems able to hold its own against later verse
+renderings based on sounder theories. The Augustan translator strove to
+give his work "elegance, energy, and fire," and despite the false
+elegance, we can still feel something of true energy and fire as we read
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_.
+
+The truth is that, in translated as in original literature the
+permanent and the transitory elements are often oddly mingled. The fate
+of Pope's Homer helps us to reconcile two opposed views regarding the
+future history of verse translations. Our whole study of the varying
+standards set for translators makes us feel the truth of Mr. Lang's
+conclusion: "There can be then, it appears, no final English translation
+of Homer. In each there must be, in addition to what is Greek and
+eternal, the element of what is modern, personal, and fleeting."[459]
+The translator, it is obvious, must speak in the dialect and move in the
+measures of his own day, thereby very often failing to attract the
+attention of a later day. Yet there must be some place in our scheme for
+the faith expressed by Matthew Arnold in his essays on translating
+Homer, that "the task of translating Homer into English verse both will
+be re-attempted, and may be re-attempted successfully."[460] For in
+translation there is involved enough of creation to supply the
+incalculable element which cheats the theorist. Possibly some day the
+miracle may be wrought, and, in spite of changing literary fashions, we
+may have our English version of Homer in a form sufficient not only for
+an age but for all time.
+
+It is this incalculable quality in creative work that has made
+theorizing on the methods of translation more than a mere academic
+exercise. Forced to adjust itself to the facts of actual production,
+theory has had to follow new paths as literature has followed new paths,
+and in the process it has acquired fresh vigor and flexibility. Even as
+we leave the period of Pope, we can see the dull inadequacy of a
+worn-out collection of rules giving way before the honest, individual
+approach of Cowper. "Many a fair precept in poetry," says Dryden apropos
+of Roscommon's rules for translation, "is like a seeming demonstration
+in the mathematics, very specious in the diagram, but failing in the
+mechanic operation."[461] Confronted by such discrepancies, the theorist
+has again and again had to modify his "specious" rules, with the result
+that the theory of translation, though a small, is yet a living and
+growing element in human thought.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[365] _Preface to the Reader_, in _The Natural History of C. Plinius
+Secundus_, London, 1601.
+
+[366] _Dedication_, in _Ovid's Metamorphosis, Englished by G. S._, London,
+1640.
+
+[367] _Dedication_, in _The Poems of Horace rendered into Verse by Several
+Persons_, London, 1666.
+
+[368] _Juvenal and Persius_, translated by Barten Holyday, Oxford, 1673
+(published posthumously).
+
+[369] _Dedication of the Aeneis_, in _Essays of John Dryden_, ed. W. P.
+Ker, v. 2, p. 235.
+
+[370] _Postscript to the Reader_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 243.
+
+[371] _Rowe_, in _Lives of the Poets_, Dublin, 1804, p. 284.
+
+[372] _The Argument_, in _The Passion of Dido for Aeneas_, translated by
+Edmund Waller and Sidney Godolphin, London, 1658.
+
+[373] _Dedication_, in _Translations of Horace_. John Hanway, 1730.
+
+[374] _Dedication_, dated 1728, reprinted in _The English Poets_, London,
+1810, v. 20.
+
+[375] _Preface_ to _The Destruction of Troy_, in Denham, _Poems and
+Translations_, London, 1709.
+
+[376] _To the courteous not curious reader._
+
+[377] Comment on Trapp's "blank version" of Virgil, in _Life of Dryden_.
+
+[378] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 266.
+
+[379] _Dedication of the Aeneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 236.
+
+[380] In _Du Bartas, His Divine Words and Works_, translated by Sylvester,
+London, 1641.
+
+[381] Lines by E. G., same edition.
+
+[382] Same edition, p. 322.
+
+[383] _An Essay on Translated Verse._
+
+[384] _Dedication of the Aeneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 220.
+
+[385] P. 222.
+
+[386] _To the worthy reader._
+
+[387] _To the courteous not curious reader_, in _The XII. Aeneids of
+Virgil_, 1632.
+
+[388] Preface to _The Destruction of Troy_.
+
+[389] Dedication of _The Poems of Horace_.
+
+[390] _To the Reader_, in _The First Book of Virgil's Aeneis_, London,
+1688.
+
+[391] Reprinted in _Godfrey of Bulloigne_, translated by Fairfax, New York,
+1849.
+
+[392] _Essays_, v. 2, p. 249.
+
+[393] _Essays_, v. 2, p. 14.
+
+[394] Sprat, _Life of Cowley_, in _Prose Works of Abraham Cowley_, London,
+1826.
+
+[395] _Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, v. 1, p.
+237.
+
+[396] _Dedication of Examen Poeticum_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 10. Johnson,
+writing of the latter part of the seventeenth century, says, "The authority
+of Jonson, Sandys, and Holiday had fixed the judgment of the nation" (_The
+Idler_, 69), and Tytler, in his _Essay on the Principles of Translation_,
+1791, says, "In poetical translation the English writers of the sixteenth,
+and the greatest part of the seventeenth century, seem to have had no other
+care than (in Denham's phrase) to translate language into language, and to
+have placed their whole merit in presenting a literal and servile
+transcript of their original."
+
+[397] In Lucan's _Pharsalia_, translated May, 1659.
+
+[398] _To the Reader_, in Ovid's _Metamorphosis_, translated Sandys,
+London, 1640.
+
+[399] _Preface_ to _Pindaric Odes_, reprinted in _Essays and other Prose
+Writings_, Oxford, 1915.
+
+[400] _Preface to Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 239.
+
+[401] Pp. 239-40.
+
+[402] Dedication to Dryden, 1684, in _The Odes, Satires, and Epistles of
+Horace done into English_, London, 1688.
+
+[403] _Metellus his Dialogues, Relation of a Journey to Tunbridge Wells,
+with the Fourth Book of Virgil's Aeneid in English_, London, 1693.
+
+[404] _Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, vol. 1, p.
+240.
+
+[405] _To the Earl of Roscommon on his excellent Essay on Translated
+Verse._
+
+[406] In Sir Robert Howard's _Poems_, London, 1660.
+
+[407] In Holiday's _Persius_, Fifth Edition, 1650.
+
+[408] In Creech's _Lucretius_, Third Edition, Oxford, 1683.
+
+[409] In Creech's _Lucretius_, Third Edition, Oxford, 1683.
+
+[410] _Essay on the Principles of Translation_, Everyman's Library, pp.
+45-6.
+
+[411] _Essays_, v. 1, p. 252.
+
+[412] _Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, v. 1, p.
+241.
+
+[413] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 254.
+
+[414] _Ibid._, p. 264.
+
+[415] _Preface_, in Second Edition of _Odes of Horace_, London, 1688.
+
+[416] _Examen Poeticum_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 9.
+
+[417] _Preface to the Fables_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 251.
+
+[418] _To the Reader_, in _The Odes, Satires, and Epistles of Horace_,
+London, 1688.
+
+[419] _Preface_ to translation of Horace, 1652.
+
+[420] _Dedication of the Eneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, pp. 220-1.
+
+[421] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, pp. 256-7.
+
+[422] _Examen Poeticum_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 14.
+
+[423] _Preface._
+
+[424] _Essays_, v. 2, p. 10.
+
+[425] _Dedication of the Eneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 223.
+
+[426] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 255.
+
+[427] _Essays_, v. 1, p. 258.
+
+[428] _Dedication of the Eneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 215.
+
+[429] In _Ovid's Metamorphoses translated by Dryden, Addison, Garth_, etc.,
+reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 20.
+
+[430] _Advertisement_ to _Elegies of Tibullus_, reprinted in same volume.
+
+[431] _Preface_ to _Idylliums of Theocritus_, reprinted in same volume.
+
+[432] _Dissertation on The Lusiad_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v.
+21.
+
+[433] _Pope_, in _Lives of the Poets_, p. 568.
+
+[434] _Cowley_, in _Lives_, p. 25.
+
+[435] Preface of 1718, reprinted in _The Works of Virgil translated into
+English blank verse by Joseph Trapp_, London, 1735.
+
+[436] _Preface to Homer's Iliad._
+
+[437] _Dryden_ in _Lives of the Poets_, p. 226.
+
+[438] _Proposals for a translation of Virgil's Aeneis in Blank Verse_,
+London, 1713.
+
+[439] _Preface_, _op. cit._
+
+[440] _Prefatory Dedication_, in _The Works of Virgil in English Verse_,
+London, 1763.
+
+[441] _Advertisement_, _op. cit._
+
+[442] _Preface_ to _Ariosto_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 21.
+
+[443] _Preface_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 19.
+
+[444] _Dryden_, in _Lives_, p. 226.
+
+[445] _Op. cit._
+
+[446] _Preface_, reprinted in _The British Poets_, Chiswick, 1822, v. 90.
+
+[447] _Prefatory Dedication_, in _The Works of Virgil in English Verse_,
+London, 1763.
+
+[448] _Preface_ to _Ariosto_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 21.
+
+[449] Pp. 53-4.
+
+[450] _Essays_, Oxford Edition, p. 258.
+
+[451] _Mr. Dennis's Remarks upon Pope's Homer_, London, 1717, p. 9.
+
+[452] In _Down Hall, a Ballad_.
+
+[453] Preface to _The Iliad of Homer_, translated by James Macpherson,
+London, 1773.
+
+[454] Preface to first edition, taken from _The Iliad of Homer, translated
+by the late William Cowper_, London, 1802.
+
+[455] Preface to first edition, taken from _The Iliad of Homer, translated
+by the late William Cowper_, London, 1802.
+
+[456] _Preface prepared by Mr. Cowper for a Second Edition_, in edition of
+1802.
+
+[457] _Letters_, ed. Wright, London, 1904, v. 3, p. 233.
+
+[458] _History of English Literature_, p. 384.
+
+[459] Preface to _The Odyssey of Homer done into English Prose_.
+
+[460] Lecture, III, in _Essays_, p. 311.
+
+[461] _Preface to Sylvae_, in _Essays_, v. 1, p. 252.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Adlington, William, 89, 94.
+
+Aelfric, 4-5, 15, 55, 56, 58.
+
+Alfred, 3-4, 15, 17.
+
+_Alexander_, 10, 34.
+
+Amyot, Jacques, xii, 106.
+
+_Andreas_, 6, 7.
+
+Andrew of Wyntoun, 35-6, 39, 116.
+
+Arnold, Matthew, xi, 172, 177.
+
+_Arthur_, 45.
+
+Ascham, Roger, 109, 114.
+
+Augustine, St., 50, 55.
+
+_Authorized Version of 1611_, 51, 52, 54, 60, 61, 66, 68.
+
+
+Bacon, Francis, 75.
+
+Barbour, John, 36-7.
+
+Barclay, Alexander, 100-1.
+
+_Bay Psalm Book_, 77.
+
+Bentley, Richard, 172.
+
+Berners, Lord, 101, 105.
+
+_Bevis of Hamtoun_, 23, 24.
+
+_Birth of Jesus_, 43.
+
+_Bishops' Bible_, 58, 59, 67.
+
+_Blood of Hayles_, 40.
+
+Bokenam, Osbern, 8, 16, 40, 43-4, 46.
+
+_Book of the Knight of La Tour Landry_, 18.
+
+B. R., 127-8.
+
+Bradshaw, Henry, 8.
+
+Brady, N., 166-7.
+
+Brende, John, 88-9, 94, 129.
+
+Brinsley, John, 140.
+
+Brome, Henry, 136, 144.
+
+Bryan, Sir Francis, 101, 105.
+
+Bullokar, John, 95.
+
+Bullokar, William, 109-10.
+
+
+Caedmon, 6.
+
+_Canticum de Creatione_, 15, 20.
+
+Capgrave, John, 14, 19, 20-1, 22, 40, 45.
+
+Carew, Richard, 128.
+
+Cartwright, William, 155.
+
+Castalio, 51, 61, 70.
+
+_Castle of Love_, Grosseteste's, 9, 13.
+
+Caxton, William, 9, 12, 31, 44, 96, 115.
+
+  _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_, 38.
+
+  _Charles the Great_, 38, 46.
+
+  _Eneydos_, 35, 38, 39.
+
+  _Fayttes of Arms_, 12.
+
+  _Godfrey of Bullogne_, 33.
+
+  _Mirror of the World_, 12.
+
+  _Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_, 38.
+
+Cecil, Sir William, 119, 125.
+
+Chaloner, Sir Thomas, 128.
+
+Chapman, George, 90, 92, 93, 130-1, 145, 146, 147, 150, 161.
+
+Chaucer, Geoffrey, 9, 10, 30.
+
+  _Franklin's Tale_, 30.
+
+  _Knight's Tale_, 30.
+
+  _Legend of Good Women_, 8.
+
+  _Life of St. Cecilia_, 8.
+
+  _Man of Law's Tale_, 27, 28.
+
+  _Romance of the Rose_, 8.
+
+  _Sir Thopas_, 24.
+
+  _Troilus and Criseyde_, 6, 8, 30-1.
+
+Cheke, Sir John, 59, 63, 108, 119, 125-6, 128.
+
+_Child of Bristow_, 39-40.
+
+Chrétien de Troyes, 30.
+
+Cooke, Thomas, 138-9.
+
+Coverdale, Miles, 50-1, 52, 59, 60, 64-5, 74.
+
+Cowley, Abraham, 137, 147, 149-50, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 165.
+
+Cowper, William, 173, 174 ff.
+
+Creech, Thomas, 151-2, 155-6, 158-9, 160, 166, 169.
+
+Cromwell, Thomas, 51.
+
+_Cursor Mundi_, 10.
+
+Cynewulf, 6.
+
+
+Dacier, Mme., 168.
+
+Danett, Thomas, 90.
+
+Daniel, Samuel, 87.
+
+Davies of Hereford, John, 142.
+
+Denham, Sir John, 137, 139, 144, 147, 150-1, 154, 156, 157.
+
+Dennis, John, 173.
+
+Dolet, Étienne, 99.
+
+Douglas, Gavin, 107-8.
+
+Drant, Thomas, 111 ff.
+
+Dryden, John, 136-7, 141, 143, 145, 148, 151, 153-4, 154-5, 157-8, 159,
+    160-1, 162, 163, 166, 169, 177-8.
+
+
+_Earl of Toulouse_, 23, 27.
+
+Eden, Richard, 85, 91, 96.
+
+_Elene_, 6.
+
+Ely, Bishop of, 65.
+
+Elyot, Sir Thomas, 11, 95, 118, 119-20.
+
+_Emare_, 21.
+
+
+Fairfax, Edward, 144-5.
+
+_Falls of Princes_, Boccaccio's, 7, 37.
+
+Fanshaw, Sir Richard, 139, 147, 169.
+
+Fawkes, Francis, 164, 166, 169.
+
+Fleming, Abraham, 109, 114.
+
+Florio, John, 84, 87, 97.
+
+_Floris and Blancheflor_, 45.
+
+Fortescue, Thomas, 87, 103.
+
+Foxe, John, 54, 67, 68, 94-5.
+
+Francis, Philip, 168.
+
+Fraunce, Abraham, 77.
+
+Fulke, William, 54, 60, 65, 70 ff.
+
+
+Garth, Sir Samuel, 163.
+
+_Geneva Bible_, 53, 60, 61.
+
+_Geneva New Testament_, 59, 61.
+
+_Gesta Romanorum_, 28.
+
+_Golagros and Gawain_, 21.
+
+_Golden Legend_, 41.
+
+Golding, Arthur, 75-6, 82, 91, 97-8, 113, 117-8, 129-30.
+
+Googe, Barnaby, 77.
+
+Gould, Robert, 144.
+
+Grainger, James, 163-4, 167.
+
+Greenway, Richard, 93.
+
+Grimald, Nicholas, 85, 89, 96, 121-3.
+
+Grindal, Archbishop, 68.
+
+Guevara, 106.
+
+Guido delle Colonne, 34.
+
+
+Hake, Edward, 113-4.
+
+_Handlyng Synne_, 42.
+
+Harrington, Sir John, 85-6, 95, 100.
+
+Harvey, Gabriel, 114, 129.
+
+Hellowes, Edward, 82, 91, 105-6.
+
+Heywood, Jasper, 111, 116.
+
+Hobbes, Thomas, 140-1.
+
+Hoby, Sir Thomas, 82, 89, 90, 119, 128.
+
+Holiday, Barten, 136, 155, 160.
+
+_Holy Grail_, 31.
+
+Holland, Philemon, 86, 91-2, 98, 130, 135.
+
+Hoole, John, 139, 167, 170.
+
+Howard, Sir Robert, 154.
+
+Hudson, Thomas, 142.
+
+Hue de Rotelande, 21.
+
+Hyrde, Richard, 81.
+
+
+_Incestuous Daughter_, 13.
+
+_Ipomadon_, 21.
+
+
+James VI of Scotland, 75, 142.
+
+Jerome, St., 5, 15, 55-6, 76.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 137, 140, 148, note, 163, 165, 166, 169.
+
+Jonson, Ben, 136, 148, 149, 161.
+
+Joye, George, 50.
+
+
+_King Alexander_, 34.
+
+_King Horn_, 26.
+
+Knolles, Richard, 129.
+
+
+Lang, Andrew, 176, 177.
+
+_Launfal_, 7.
+
+Laurent de Premierfait, 7.
+
+Layamon, 34.
+
+_Le Bone Florence of Rome_, 27, 28.
+
+_Life of St. Augustine_, 41-2.
+
+L'Isle, William, 63, note.
+
+Lonelich, Harry, 31.
+
+Love, Nicholas, 41, 43, 45.
+
+Lydgate, John, 7, 8, 16, 31, 37-8, 44, 115.
+
+
+Macpherson, James, 173-4.
+
+Malory, Sir Thomas, 26.
+
+Mancinus, 108.
+
+Marot, Clement, 75.
+
+Martin, Gregory, 65, 70-1.
+
+May, Thomas, 148, 149.
+
+Melmoth, William, 171, 172.
+
+_Menechmi_, trans. of, 128.
+
+_Metellus his Dialogues_, 152-3.
+
+Mickle, William Julius, 139, 164-5, 168-9.
+
+Milton, John, 75.
+
+Mirk, John, 10.
+
+More, Sir Thomas, 52, 53, 63, 67, 69, 118, 119.
+
+Morley, Lord, 84-5, 89.
+
+_Morte Arthur_, 33.
+
+Mulgrave, Earl of, 154.
+
+Munday, Anthony, 102, 103.
+
+
+Nash, Thomas, 81, 117.
+
+Neville, Alexander, 111.
+
+Nicholls, Thomas, 81, 119.
+
+North, Sir Thomas, 105, 106.
+
+_Northern Passion_, 45.
+
+Norton, Thomas, 74, 83-4, 118, 123-5.
+
+
+_Octavian_, 27, 28, 29.
+
+Orm, 17.
+
+Otway, Thomas, 156.
+
+
+Painter, William, 102, 103.
+
+Paris, William, 11.
+
+Parker, Archbishop, 54-5, 74.
+
+_Partonope of Blois_, 24, 32-3.
+
+Peele, George, 95.
+
+Peterson, Robert, 128.
+
+Pettie, George, 93, 97.
+
+Phaer, Thomas, 93, 98, 110-1, 116, 144, 153.
+
+_Polychronicon_, 16.
+
+Pope, Alexander, 137, 165, 166, 170 ff.
+
+Preston, W., 169.
+
+Prior, Matthew, 173.
+
+Purvey, John, 56, 57-8, 59, 66-7.
+
+Puttenham, (?) Richard, 96, 116, 140, 144, 153.
+
+
+_Rauf Coilyear_, 21.
+
+_Rhemish Testament_, 59, 61, 62, 68, 70.
+
+_Richard Coeur de Lion_, 9-10.
+
+Ridley, Robert, 67.
+
+Rivers, Earl, 10-1.
+
+_Roberd of Cisyle_, 22-3.
+
+Robert of Brunne, 22, 34-5, 42.
+
+Rolle, Richard, 56, 58-9.
+
+_Romance of Partenay_, 18, 24, 29, 31-2.
+
+Roscommon, Earl of, 12, 143, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 177.
+
+Rowe, Nicholas, 137.
+
+
+Sandys, George, 135, 148, 149.
+
+_Secreta Secretorum_, 15-16.
+
+_Sege of Melayne_, 24.
+
+Seneca's Tragedies, trans. of, 109, 111, 113.
+
+Sidney, Sir Philip, 75.
+
+_Sir Eglamour of Artois_, 23, 27.
+
+_Sir Percival of Galles_, 26.
+
+Southern, John, 96.
+
+Sprat, Thomas, 146.
+
+_St. Etheldred of Ely_, 10, 22.
+
+_St. Katherine of Alexandria_, 13.
+
+_St. Paula_, 41.
+
+Stanyhurst, Richard, 74, 77, 114, 116, 144.
+
+Studley, John, 111.
+
+Surrey, Earl of, 75.
+
+Sylvester, Joshua, 142.
+
+
+Taverner, Richard, 63, 88.
+
+Thomas de Cabham, 22.
+
+Tofte, Robert, 104.
+
+_Torrent of Portyngale_, 24, 27.
+
+Trapp, Joseph, 165, 167, 168.
+
+Trevisa, John de, 16-17, 18.
+
+Turbervile, George, 102, 115-6.
+
+Twyne, Thomas, 113.
+
+Tyndale, William, 49, 50, 58, 59, 62, 67, 84, 119.
+
+Tytler, Alexander, x, 137, 148, note, 156.
+
+
+Udall, Nicholas, 81-2, 87-8, 94, 97, 118, 120-1.
+
+
+Vicars, John, 139-40, 143-4, 146-7, 150.
+
+
+W. L., Gent., 143, 146, 150.
+
+Waller, Edmund, 144, 145.
+
+Warde, William, 88.
+
+_Wars of Alexander_, 23, 25.
+
+Warton, Joseph, 167, 169-70.
+
+Webbe, William, 93.
+
+Whetstone, George, 102.
+
+Willes, Richard, 96-7.
+
+_William of Palerne_, 30.
+
+Wilson, Thomas, 84, 92-3, 119, 125 ff.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of, 67-8.
+
+Wither, George, 75, 76, 77, 78.
+
+Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 75.
+
+
+Young, Bartholomew, 104.
+
+_Ypotis_, 43.
+
+_Ywain and Gawin_, 21, 23, 29, 30.
+
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Notes:                                       |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 14: Double quotes inside double quotes amended to     |
+    | single quotes.                                             |
+    | Page 26: Beween amended to between.                        |
+    | Page 43: Saint's legends _sic_.                            |
+    | Page 56: Insistance amended to insistence.                 |
+    | Page 82: Double quotes at the end of the Golding quote     |
+    | removed.                                                   |
+    | Page 87: Double quotes at the end of the Daniel quote      |
+    | removed.                                                   |
+    | Page 97: Comma added after _amusing_.                      |
+    | Page 109: Esop _sic_.                                      |
+    | Page 142: Facund _sic_.                                    |
+    | Page 144: Closing quotes added to the Denham quote.        |
+    | Page 184: Bartholemew corrected to Bartholomew.            |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Note 41: Comma at the end of the footnote removed. The     |
+    | comma might indicate that additional information is        |
+    | missing from the footnote.                                 |
+    | Note 329: Acccording _sic_.                                |
+    |                                                            |
+    | The variant spellings of Bulloign, Bulloigne and Bullogne  |
+    | have been retained.                                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | References in the notes to Ovid's _Metamormorphosis_       |
+    | are as per the original.                                   |
+    |                                                            |
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Early Theories of Translation, by Flora Ross Amos
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Early Theories of Translation, by Flora Ross Amos
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+
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+Title: Early Theories of Translation
+
+Author: Flora Ross Amos
+
+Release Date: August 18, 2007 [EBook #22353]
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+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this text. For a
+complete list, please see the bottom of this document.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>Columbia University</h4>
+
+<h4>STUDIES IN ENGLISH AND COMPARATIVE
+LITERATURE</h4>
+
+<h3>EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION</h3>
+
+
+
+<h1>EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>FLORA ROSS AMOS</h2>
+
+<p class="frontend">OCTAGON BOOKS<br />
+A Division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux<br />
+New York 1973</p>
+
+<p class="frontend">Copyright 1920 by Columbia University Press</p>
+
+<p class="frontend"><i>Reprinted 1973<br />
+by special arrangement with Columbia University Press</i></p>
+
+<p class="frontend">OCTAGON BOOKS<br />
+<span class="smcap">A Division of Farrar, Straus &amp; Giroux, Inc.</span><br />
+19 Union Square West<br />
+New York, N.Y. 10003</p>
+
+<p class="frontblock">Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data</p>
+
+<p class="frontblock">Amos, Flora Ross, 1881-<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Early theories of translation.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Original ed. issued in series: Columbia University studies in</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">English and comparative literature.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Originally presented as the author's thesis, Columbia.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Translating and interpreting. I. Title.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">II. Series: Columbia University studies in English and comparative</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">literature.</span><br />
+<br />
+[PN241.A5 1973]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;418'.02&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;73-397<br />
+ISBN 0-374-90176-7</p>
+
+<p class="frontend"><i>Printed in U.S.A. by</i> NOBLE OFFSET PRINTERS, INC. New York, N.Y. 10003</p>
+<hr style="width: 30%;" />
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">to</span></h4>
+<h3>MY FATHER AND MY MOTHER</h3>
+
+<div class="frontblock2"><p><i>This Monograph has been approved by the Department of
+English and Comparative Literature in Columbia University as
+a contribution to knowledge worthy of publication.</i></p>
+
+<p class="right">
+A. H. THORNDIKE,<br />
+<i>Executive Officer</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the following pages I have attempted to trace certain developments in
+the theory of translation as it has been formulated by English writers.
+I have confined myself, of necessity, to such opinions as have been put
+into words, and avoided making use of deductions from practice other
+than a few obvious and generally accepted conclusions. The procedure
+involves, of course, the omission of some important elements in the
+history of the theory of translation, in that it ignores the
+discrepancies between precept and practice, and the influence which
+practice has exerted upon theory; on the other hand, however, it
+confines a subject, otherwise impossibly large, within measurable
+limits. The chief emphasis has been laid upon the sixteenth century, the
+period of the most enthusiastic experimentation, when, though it was
+still possible for the translator to rest in the comfortable medieval
+conception of his art, the New Learning was offering new problems and
+new ideals to every man who shared in the intellectual awakening of his
+time. In the matter of theory, however, the age was one of beginnings,
+of suggestions, rather than of finished, definitive results; even by the
+end of the century there were still translators who had not yet
+appreciated the immense difference between medieval and modern standards
+of translation. To understand their position, then, it is necessary to
+consider both the preceding period, with its incidental,
+half-unconscious comment, and the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+with their systematized, unified contribution. This last material, in
+especial, is included chiefly because of the light which it throws in
+retrospect on the views of earlier translators, and only the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span> main
+course of theory, by this time fairly easy to follow, is traced.</p>
+
+<p>The aim has in no case been to give bibliographical information. A
+number of translations, important in themselves, have received no
+mention because they have evoked no comment on methods. The references
+given are not necessarily to first editions. Generally speaking, it has
+been the prefaces to translations that have yielded material, and such
+prefaces, especially during the Elizabethan period, are likely to be
+included or omitted in different editions for no very clear reasons.
+Quotations have been modernized, except in the case of Middle English
+verse, where the original form has been kept for the sake of the metre.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the theory of translation is by no means a record of
+easily distinguishable, orderly progression. It shows an odd lack of
+continuity. Those who give rules for translation ignore, in the great
+majority of cases, the contribution of their predecessors and
+contemporaries. Towards the beginning of Elizabeth's reign a small group
+of critics bring to the problems of the translator both technical
+scholarship and alert, original minds, but apparently the new and
+significant ideas which they offer have little or no effect on the
+general course of theory. Again, Tytler, whose <i>Essay on the Principles
+on Translation</i>, published towards the end of the eighteenth century,
+may with some reason claim to be the first detailed discussion of the
+questions involved, declares that, with a few exceptions, he has "met
+with nothing that has been written professedly on the subject," a
+statement showing a surprising disregard for the elaborate prefaces that
+accompanied the translations of his own century.</p>
+
+<p>This lack of consecutiveness in criticism is probably partially
+accountable for the slowness with which translators attained the power
+to put into words, clearly and unmistakably, their aims and methods.
+Even if one were to leave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">xi</a></span> aside the childishly vague comment of
+medieval writers and the awkward attempts of Elizabethan translators to
+describe their processes, there would still remain in the modern period
+much that is careless or misleading. The very term "translation" is long
+in defining itself; more difficult terms, like "faithfulness" and
+"accuracy," have widely different meanings with different writers. The
+various kinds of literature are often treated in the mass with little
+attempt at discrimination between them, regardless of the fact that the
+problems of the translator vary with the character of his original.
+Tytler's book, full of interesting detail as it is, turns from prose to
+verse, from lyric to epic, from ancient to modern, till the effect it
+leaves on the reader is fragmentary and confusing.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, there has never been uniformity of opinion with regard to the
+aims and methods of translation. Even in the age of Pope, when, if ever,
+it was safe to be dogmatic and when the theory of translation seemed
+safely on the way to become standardized, one still hears the voices of
+a few recalcitrants, voices which become louder and more numerous as the
+century advances; in the nineteenth century the most casual survey
+discovers conflicting views on matters of fundamental importance to the
+translator. Who are to be the readers, who the judges, of a translation
+are obviously questions of primary significance to both translator and
+critic, but they are questions which have never been authoritatively
+settled. When, for example, Caxton in the fifteenth century uses the
+"curious" terms which he thinks will appeal to a clerk or a noble
+gentleman, his critics complain because the common people cannot
+understand his words. A similar situation appears in modern times when
+Arnold lays down the law that the judges of an English version of Homer
+must be "scholars, because scholars alone have the means of really
+judging him," and Newman replies that "scholars are the tribunal of
+Erudition, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">xii</a></span> of Taste the educated but unlearned public must be the
+only rightful judge."</p>
+
+<p>Again, critics have been hesitant in defining the all-important term
+"faithfulness." To one writer fidelity may imply a reproduction of his
+original as nearly as possible word for word and line for line; to
+another it may mean an attempt to carry over into English the spirit of
+the original, at the sacrifice, where necessary, not only of the exact
+words but of the exact substance of his source. The one extreme is
+likely to result in an awkward, more or less unintelligible version; the
+other, as illustrated, for example, by Pope's <i>Homer</i>, may give us a
+work so modified by the personality of the translator or by the
+prevailing taste of his time as to be almost a new creation. But while
+it is easy to point out the defects of the two methods, few critics have
+had the courage to give fair consideration to both possibilities; to
+treat the two aims, not as mutually exclusive, but as complementary; to
+realize that the spirit and the letter may be not two but one. In the
+sixteenth century Sir Thomas North translated from the French Amyot's
+wise observation: "The office of a fit translator consisteth not only in
+the faithful expressing of his author's meaning, but also in a certain
+resembling and shadowing forth of the form of his style and manner of
+his speaking"; but few English critics, in the period under our
+consideration, grasped thus firmly the essential connection between
+thought and style and the consequent responsibility of the translator.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it is those critics who have faced all the difficulties boldly, and
+who have urged upon the translator both due regard for the original and
+due regard for English literary standards who have made the most
+valuable contributions to theory. It is much easier to set the standard
+of translation low, to settle matters as does Mr. Chesterton in his
+casual disposition of Fitzgerald's <i>Omar</i>: "It is quite clear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">xiii</a></span> that
+Fitzgerald's work is much too good to be a good translation." We can, it
+is true, point to few realizations of the ideal theory, but in
+approaching a literature which possesses the English Bible, that
+marvelous union of faithfulness to source with faithfulness to the
+genius of the English language, we can scarcely view the problem of
+translation thus hopelessly.</p>
+
+<p>The most stimulating and suggestive criticism, indeed, has come from men
+who have seen in the very difficulty of the situation opportunities for
+achievement. While the more cautious grammarian has ever been doubtful
+of the quality of the translator's English, fearful of the introduction
+of foreign words, foreign idioms, to the men who have cared most about
+the destinies of the vernacular,&mdash;men like Caxton, More, or
+Dryden,&mdash;translation has appeared not an enemy to the mother tongue, but
+a means of enlarging and clarifying it. In the time of Elizabeth the
+translator often directed his appeal more especially to those who loved
+their country's language and wished to see it become a more adequate
+medium of expression. That he should, then, look upon translation as a
+promising experiment, rather than a doubtful compromise, is an essential
+characteristic of the good critic.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity for open-mindedness, indeed, in some degree accounts for
+the tentative quality in so much of the theory of translation.
+Translation fills too large a place, is too closely connected with the
+whole course of literary development, to be disposed of easily. As each
+succeeding period has revealed new fashions in literature, new avenues
+of approach to the reader, there have been new translations and the
+theorist has had to reverse or revise the opinions bequeathed to him
+from a previous period. The theory of translation cannot be reduced to a
+rule of thumb; it must again and again be modified to include new facts.
+Thus regarded it becomes a vital part of our literary history, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">xiv</a></span> has
+significance both for those who love the English language and for those
+who love English literature.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, it remains only to mention a few of my many obligations.
+To the libraries of Princeton and Harvard as well as Columbia University
+I owe access to much useful material. It is a pleasure to acknowledge my
+indebtedness to Professors Ashley H. Thorndike and William W. Lawrence
+and to Professor William H. Hulme of Western Reserve University for
+helpful criticism and suggestions. In especial I am deeply grateful to
+Professor George Philip Krapp, who first suggested this study and who
+has given me constant encouragement and guidance throughout its course.</p>
+
+<p><i>April, 1919.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">xv</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC">
+<tr><td align='right'>CHAPTER</td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Medieval Period</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'> II.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Translation of the Bible</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Sixteenth Century</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'> IV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">From Cowley To Pope</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>I. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION</h1><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>I</h2>
+
+<h2>THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD</h2>
+
+
+<p>From the comment of Anglo-Saxon writers one may derive a not inadequate
+idea of the attitude generally prevailing in the medieval period with
+regard to the treatment of material from foreign sources. Suggestive
+statements appear in the prefaces to the works associated with the name
+of Alfred. One method of translation is employed in producing an English
+version of Pope Gregory's <i>Pastoral Care</i>. "I began," runs the preface,
+"among other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom, to translate
+into English the book which is called in Latin <i>Pastoralis</i>, and in
+English <i>Shepherd's Book</i>, sometimes word by word, and sometimes
+according to the sense."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> A similar practice is described in the
+<i>Proem</i> to <i>The Consolation of Philosophy</i> of Boethius. "King Alfred was
+the interpreter of this book, and turned it from book Latin into
+English, as it is now done. Now he set forth word by word, now sense
+from sense, as clearly and intelligently as he was able."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The preface
+to <i>St. Augustine's Soliloquies</i>, the beginning of which, unfortunately,
+seems to be lacking, suggests another possible treatment of borrowed
+material. "I gathered for myself," writes the author, "cudgels, and
+stud-shafts, and horizontal shafts, and helves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> for each of the tools
+that I could work with, and bow-timbers and bolt-timbers for every work
+that I could perform, the comeliest trees, as many as I could carry.
+Neither came I with a burden home, for it did not please me to bring all
+the wood back, even if I could bear it. In each tree I saw something
+that I needed at home; therefore I advise each one who can, and has many
+wains, that he direct his steps to the same wood where I cut the
+stud-shafts. Let him fetch more for himself, and load his wains with
+fair beams, that he may wind many a neat wall, and erect many a rare
+house, and build a fair town, and therein may dwell merrily and softly
+both winter and summer, as I have not yet done."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Aelfric, writing a century later, develops his theories in greater
+detail. Except in the <i>Preface to Genesis</i>, they are expressed in Latin,
+the language of the lettered, a fact which suggests that, unlike the
+translations themselves, the prefaces were addressed to readers who
+were, for the most part, opposed to translation into the vernacular and
+who, in addition to this, were in all probability especially suspicious
+of the methods employed by Aelfric. These methods were strongly in the
+direction of popularization. Aelfric's general practice is like that of
+Alfred. He declares repeatedly<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> that he translates sense for sense,
+not always word for word. Furthermore, he desires rather to be clear and
+simple than to adorn his style with rhetorical ornament.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Instead of
+unfamiliar terms, he uses "the pure and open words of the language of
+this people."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> In connection with the translation of the Bible he lays
+down the principle that Latin must give way to English idiom.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> For all
+these things Aelfric has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span> definite reasons. Keeping always in mind a
+clear conception of the nature of his audience, he does whatever seems
+to him necessary to make his work attractive and, consequently,
+profitable. Preparing his <i>Grammar</i> for "tender youths," though he knows
+that words may be interpreted in many ways, he follows a simple method
+of interpretation in order that the book may not become tiresome.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The
+<i>Homilies</i>, intended for simple people, are put into simple English,
+that they may more easily reach the hearts of those who read or hear.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+This popularization is extended even farther. Aelfric explains<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> that
+he has abbreviated both the <i>Homilies</i><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and the <i>Lives of the
+Saints</i>,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> again of deliberate purpose, as appears in his preface to
+the latter: "Hoc sciendum etiam quod prolixiores passiones breuiamus
+verbis non adeo sensu, ne fastidiosis ingeratur tedium si tanta
+prolixitas erit in propria lingua quanta est in latina."</p>
+
+<p>Incidentally, however, Aelfric makes it evident that his were not the
+only theories of translation which the period afforded. In the preface
+to the first collection of <i>Homilies</i> he anticipates the disapproval of
+those who demand greater closeness in following originals. He recognizes
+the fact that his translation may displease some critics "quod non
+semper verbum ex verbo, aut quod breviorem explicationem quam tractatus
+auctorum habent, sive non quod per ordinem ecclesiastici ritus omnia
+Evangelia percurrimus." The <i>Preface to Genesis</i> suggests that the
+writer was familiar with Jerome's insistence on the necessity for
+unusual faithfulness in translating the Bible.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Such comment implies
+a mind surprisingly awake to the problems of translation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The translator who left the narrow path of word for word reproduction
+might, in this early period, easily be led into greater deviations from
+source, especially if his own creative ability came into play. The
+preface to <i>St. Augustine's Soliloquies</i> quoted above carries with it a
+stimulus, not only to translation or compilation, but to work like that
+of Caedmon or Cynewulf, essentially original in many respects, though
+based, in the main, on material already given literary shape in other
+languages. Both characteristics are recognized in Anglo-Saxon comment.
+Caedmon, according to the famous passage in Bede, "all that he could
+learn by hearing meditated with himself, and, as a clean animal
+ruminating, turned into the sweetest verse."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Cynewulf in his
+<i>Elene</i>, gives us a remarkable piece of author's comment<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> which
+describes the action of his own mind upon material already committed to
+writing by others. On the other hand, it may be noted that the
+<i>Andreas</i>, based like the <i>Elene</i> on a single written source, contains
+no hint that the author owes anything to a version of the story in
+another language.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the English literature which developed in course of time after the
+Conquest the methods of handling borrowed material were similar in their
+variety to those we have observed in Anglo-Saxon times. Translation,
+faithful except for the omission or addition of certain passages,
+compilation, epitome, all the gradations between the close rendering and
+such an individual creation as Chaucer's <i>Troilus and Criseyde</i>, are
+exemplified in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> works appearing from the thirteenth century on. When
+Lydgate, as late as the fifteenth century, describes one of the
+processes by which literature is produced, we are reminded of
+Anglo-Saxon comment. "Laurence,"<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> the poet's predecessor in
+translating Boccaccio's <i>Falls of Princes</i>, is represented as</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In his Prologue affirming of reason,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That artificers having exercise,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">May chaunge &amp; turne by good discretion<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shapes &amp; formes, &amp; newly them devise:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As Potters whiche to that craft entende<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Breake &amp; renue their vessels to amende.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">...<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And semblably these clerkes in writing<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thing that was made of auctours them beforn<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They may of newe finde &amp; fantasye:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Out of olde chaffe trye out full fayre corne,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Make it more freshe &amp; lusty to the eye,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their subtile witte their labour apply,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With their colours agreable of hue,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To make olde thinges for to seme newe.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The great majority of these Middle English works contain within
+themselves no clear statement as to which of the many possible methods
+have been employed in their production. As in the case of the
+Anglo-Saxon <i>Andreas</i>, a retelling in English of a story already
+existing in another language often presents itself as if it were an
+original composition. The author who puts into the vernacular of his
+country a French romance may call it "my tale." At the end of <i>Launfal</i>,
+a version of one of the lays of Marie de France, appears the
+declaration, "Thomas Chestre made this tale."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The terms used to
+characterize literary productions and literary processes often have not
+their modern connotation. "Translate" and "translation" are applied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span>
+very loosely even as late as the sixteenth century. <i>The Legend of Good
+Women</i> names <i>Troilus and Criseyde</i> beside <i>The Romance of the Rose</i> as
+"translated" work.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Osbern Bokenam, writing in the next century,
+explains that he obtained the material for his legend of St. Margaret
+"the last time I was in Italy, both by scripture and eke by mouth," but
+he still calls the work a "translation."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Henry Bradshaw, purposing
+in 1513 to "translate" into English the life of St. Werburge of Chester,
+declares,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Unto this rude werke myne auctours these shalbe:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fyrst the true legende and the venerable Bede,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mayster Alfrydus and Wyllyam Malusburye,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Gyrarde, Polychronicon, and other mo in deed.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Lydgate is requested to translate the legend of St. Giles "after the
+tenor only"; he presents his work as a kind of "brief compilation," but
+he takes no exception to the word "translate."<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> That he should
+designate his <i>St. Margaret</i>, a fairly close following of one source, a
+"compilation,"<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> merely strengthens the belief that the terms
+"translate" and "translation" were used synonymously with various other
+words. Osbern Bokenam speaks of the "translator" who "compiled" the
+legend of St. Christiana in English;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Chaucer, one remembers,
+"translated" Boethius and "made" the life of St. Cecilia.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>To select from this large body of literature, "made,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> "compiled,"
+"translated," only such works as can claim to be called, in the modern
+sense of the word, "translations" would be a difficult and unprofitable
+task. Rather one must accept the situation as it stands and consider the
+whole mass of such writings as appear, either from the claims of their
+authors or on the authority of modern scholarship, to be of secondary
+origin. "Translations" of this sort are numerous. Chaucer in his own
+time was reckoned "grant translateur."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Of the books which Caxton a
+century later issued from his printing press a large proportion were
+English versions of Latin or French works. Our concern, indeed, is with
+the larger and by no means the least valuable part of the literature
+produced during the Middle English period.</p>
+
+<p>The theory which accompanies this nondescript collection of translations
+is scattered throughout various works, and is somewhat liable to
+misinterpretation if taken out of its immediate context. Before
+proceeding to consider it, however, it is necessary to notice certain
+phases of the general literary situation which created peculiar
+difficulties for the translator or which are likely to be confusing to
+the present-day reader. As regards the translator, existing
+circumstances were not encouraging. In the early part of the period he
+occupied a very lowly place. As compared with Latin, or even with
+French, the English language, undeveloped and unstandardized, could make
+its appeal only to the unlearned. It had, in the words of a
+thirteenth-century translator of Bishop Grosseteste's <i>Castle of Love</i>,
+"no savor before a clerk."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Sometimes, it is true, the English writer
+had the stimulus of patriotism. The translator of <i>Richard C[oe]ur de
+Lion</i> feels that Englishmen ought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> to be able to read in their own
+tongue the exploits of the English hero. The <i>Cursor Mundi</i> is
+translated</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In to Inglis tong to rede<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For the love of Inglis lede,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Inglis lede of Ingland.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But beyond this there was little to encourage the translator. His
+audience, as compared with the learned and the refined, who read Latin
+and French, was ignorant and undiscriminating; his crude medium was
+entirely unequal to reproducing what had been written in more highly
+developed languages. It is little wonder that in these early days his
+English should be termed "dim and dark." Even after Chaucer had showed
+that the despised language was capable of grace and charm, the writer of
+less genius must often have felt that beside the more sophisticated
+Latin or French, English could boast but scanty resources.</p>
+
+<p>There were difficulties and limitations also in the choice of material
+to be translated. Throughout most of the period literature existed only
+in manuscript; there were few large collections in any one place; travel
+was not easy. Priests, according to the prologue to Mirk's <i>Festial</i>,
+written in the early fifteenth century, complained of "default of
+books." To aspire, as did Chaucer's Clerk, to the possession of "twenty
+books" was to aspire high. Translators occasionally give interesting
+details regarding the circumstances under which they read and
+translated. The author of the life of St. Etheldred of Ely refers twice,
+with a certain pride, to a manuscript preserved in the abbey of Godstow
+which he himself has seen and from which he has drawn some of the facts
+which he presents. The translator of the alliterative romance of
+<i>Alexander</i> "borrowed" various books when he undertook his English
+rendering.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Earl Rivers, returning from the Continent, brought back a
+manuscript which had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span> been lent him by a French gentleman, and set about
+the translation of his <i>Dictes and Sayings of the Old Philosophers</i>.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+It is not improbable that there was a good deal of borrowing, with its
+attendant inconveniences. Even in the sixteenth century Sir Thomas
+Elyot, if we may believe his story, was hampered by the laws of
+property. He became interested in the acts and wisdom of Alexander
+Severus, "which book," he says, "was first written in the Greek tongue
+by his secretary Eucolpius and by good chance was lent unto me by a
+gentleman of Naples called Padericus. In reading whereof I was
+marvelously ravished, and as it hath ever been mine appetite, I wished
+that it had been published in such a tongue as more men might understand
+it. Wherefore with all diligence I endeavored myself whiles I had
+leisure to translate it into English: albeit I could not so exactly
+perform mine enterprise as I might have done, if the owner had not
+importunately called for his book, whereby I was constrained to leave
+some part of the work untranslated."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> William Paris&mdash;to return to the
+earlier period&mdash;has left on record a situation which stirs the
+imagination. He translated the legend of St. Cristine while a prisoner
+in the Isle of Man, the only retainer of his unfortunate lord, the Earl
+of Warwick, whose captivity he chose to share.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">He made this lyfe in ynglishe soo,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As he satte in prison of stone,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ever as he myghte tent therto<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Whane he had his lordes service done.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>One is tempted to let the fancy play on the combination of circumstances
+that provided him with the particular manuscript from which he worked.
+It is easy, of course, to emphasize overmuch the scarcity and the
+inaccessibility of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> texts, but it is obvious that the translator's
+choice of subject was largely conditioned by opportunity. He did not
+select from the whole range of literature the work which most appealed
+to his genius. It is a far cry from the Middle Ages to the seventeenth
+century, with its stress on individual choice. Roscommon's advice,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Examine how your humour is inclined,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And what the ruling passion of your mind;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then seek a poet who your way does bend,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And choose an author as you choose a friend,<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>seems absurd in connection with the translator who had to choose what
+was within his reach, and who, in many cases, could not sit down in
+undisturbed possession of his source.</p>
+
+<p>The element of individual choice was also diminished by the intervention
+of friends and patrons. In the fifteenth century, when translators were
+becoming communicative about their affairs, there is frequent reference
+to suggestion from without. Allowing for interest in the new craft of
+printing, there is still so much mention in Caxton's prefaces of
+commissions for translation as to make one feel that "ordering" an
+English version of some foreign book had become no uncommon thing for
+those who owned manuscripts and could afford such commodities as
+translations. Caxton's list ranges from <i>The Fayttes of Armes</i>,
+translated at the request of Henry VII from a manuscript lent by the
+king himself, to <i>The Mirrour of the World</i>, "translated ... at the
+request, desire, cost, and dispense of the honorable and worshipful man,
+Hugh Bryce, alderman and citizen of London."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>One wonders also how the source, thus chosen, presented itself to the
+translator's conception. His references to it are generally vague or
+confused, often positively misleading. Yet to designate with any
+definiteness a French or Latin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span> text was no easy matter. When one
+considers the labor that, of later years, has gone to the classification
+and identification of old manuscripts, the awkward elaboration of
+nomenclature necessary to distinguish them, the complications resulting
+from missing pages and from the undue liberties of copyists, one realizes
+something of the position of the medieval translator. Even categories were
+not forthcoming for his convenience. The religious legend of <i>St.
+Katherine of Alexandria</i> is derived from "chronicles";<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> the moral tale
+of <i>The Incestuous Daughter</i> has its source in "romance";<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+Grosseteste's allegory, <i>The Castle of Love</i>, is presented as "a romance
+of English ... out of a romance that Sir Robert, Bishop of Lincoln,
+made."<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The translator who explained "I found it written in old hand"
+was probably giving as adequate an account of his source as truth would
+permit.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, part of the confusion had often arisen before the manuscript
+came into the hands of the English translator. Often he was engaged in
+translating something that was already a translation. Most frequently it
+was a French version of a Latin original, but sometimes its ancestry was
+complicated by the existence or the tradition of Greek or Hebrew
+sources. The medieval Troy story, with its list of authorities, Dictys,
+Dares, Guido delle Colonne&mdash;to cite the favorite names&mdash;shows the
+situation in an aggravated form. In such cases the earlier translator's
+blunders and omissions in describing his source were likely to be
+perpetuated in the new rendering.</p>
+
+<p>Such, roughly speaking, were the circumstances under which the
+translator did his work. Some of his peculiar difficulties are,
+approached from another angle, the difficulties of the present-day
+reader. The presence of one or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> more intermediary versions, a
+complication especially noticeable in England as a result of the French
+occupation after the Conquest, may easily mislead us. The originals of
+many of our texts are either non-extant or not yet discovered, but in
+cases where we do possess the actual source which the English writer
+used, a disconcerting situation often becomes evident. What at first
+seemed to be the English translator's comment on his own treatment of
+source is frequently only a literal rendering of a comment already
+present in his original. It is more convenient to discuss the details of
+such cases in another context, but any general approach to the theory of
+translation in Middle English literature must include this
+consideration. If we are not in possession of the exact original of a
+translation, our conclusions must nearly always be discounted by the
+possibility that not only the subject matter but the comment on that
+subject matter came from the French or Latin source. The pronoun of the
+first person must be regarded with a slight suspicion. "I" may refer to
+the Englishman, but it may also refer to his predecessor who made a
+translation or a compilation in French or Latin. "Compilation" suggests
+another difficulty. Sometimes an apparent reference to source is only an
+appeal to authority for the confirmation of a single detail, an appeal
+which, again, may be the work of the English translator, but may, on the
+other hand, be the contribution of his predecessor. A fairly common
+situation, for example, appears in John Capgrave's <i>Life of St.
+Augustine</i>, produced, as its author says, in answer to the request of a
+gentlewoman that he should "translate her truly out of Latin the life of
+St. Augustine, great doctor of the church." Of the work, its editor, Mr.
+Munro, says, "It looks at first sight as though Capgrave had merely
+translated an older Latin text, as he did in the <i>Life of St. Gilbert</i>;
+but no Latin life corresponding to our text has been discovered, and as
+Capgrave never refers to 'myn auctour,' and always alludes to himself
+as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span> handling the material, I incline to conclude that he is himself the
+original composer, and that his reference to translation signifies his
+use of Augustine's books, from which he translates whole passages."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+In a case like this it is evidently impossible to draw dogmatic
+conclusions. It may be that Capgrave is using the word "translate" with
+medieval looseness, but it is also possible that some of the comment
+expressed in the first person is translated comment, and the editor adds
+that, though the balance of probability is against it, "it is still
+possible that a Latin life may have been used." Occasionally, it is
+true, comment is stamped unmistakably as belonging to the English
+translator. The translator of a <i>Canticum de Creatione</i> declares that
+there were</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&mdash;fro the incarnacioun of Jhesu<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Til this rym y telle yow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Were turned in to englisch,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A thousand thre hondred &amp; seventy<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And fyve yere witterly.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thus in bok founden it is.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such unquestionably <i>English</i> additions are, unfortunately, rare and the
+situation remains confused.</p>
+
+<p>But this is not the only difficulty which confronts the reader. He
+searches with disappointing results for such general and comprehensive
+statements of the medieval translator's theory as may aid in the
+interpretation of detail. Such statements are few, generally late in
+date, and, even when not directly translated from a predecessor, are
+obviously repetitions of the conventional rule associated with the name
+of Jerome and adopted in Anglo-Saxon times by Alfred and Aelfric. An
+early fifteenth-century translator of the <i>Secreta Secretorum</i>, for
+example, carries over into English the preface<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span> of the Latin translator:
+"I have translated with great travail into open understanding of Latin
+out of the language of Araby ... sometimes expounding letter by letter,
+and sometimes understanding of understanding, for other manner of
+speaking is with Arabs and other with Latin."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Lydgate makes a
+similar statement:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I wyl translate hyt sothly as I kan,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">After the lettre, in ordre effectuelly.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thogh I not folwe the wordes by &amp; by,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I schal not faille teuching the substance.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Osbern Bokenam declares that he has translated</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Not wurde for wurde&mdash;for that ne may be<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In no translation, aftyr Jeromys decree&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But fro sentence to sentence.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>There is little attempt at the further analysis which would give this
+principle fresh significance. The translator makes scarcely any effort
+to define the extent to which he may diverge from the words of his
+original or to explain why such divergence is necessary. John de
+Trevisa, who translated so extensively in the later fourteenth century,
+does give some account of his methods, elementary, it is true, but
+honest and individual. His preface to his English prose version of
+Higden's <i>Polychronicon</i> explains: "In some place I shall set word for
+word, and active for active, and passive for passive, a-row right as it
+standeth, without changing of the order of words. But in some place I
+must change the order of words, and set active for passive and
+again-ward. And in some place I must set a reason for a word and tell
+what it meaneth. But for all such changing the meaning shall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> stand and
+not be changed."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> An explanation like this, however, is unusual.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the fact that the translation was in prose affected Trevisa's
+theorizing. A prose rendering could follow its original so closely that
+it was possible to describe the comparatively few changes consequent on
+English usage. In verse, on the other hand, the changes involved were so
+great as to discourage definition. There are, however, a few comments on
+the methods to be employed in poetical renderings. According to the
+<i>Proem</i> to the <i>Boethius</i>, Alfred, in the Anglo-Saxon period, first
+translated the book "from Latin into English prose," and then "wrought
+it up once more into verse, as it is now done."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> At the very
+beginning of the history of Middle English literature Orm attacked the
+problem of the verse translation very directly. He writes of his
+Ormulum:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Icc hafe sett her o thiss boc<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Amang Godspelles wordess,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All thurrh me sellfenn, manig word<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The rime swa to fillenn.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such additions, he says, are necessary if the readers are to understand
+the text and if the metrical form is to be kept.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Forr whase mot to laewedd follc<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Larspell off Goddspell tellenn,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He mot wel ekenn manig word<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Amang Godspelless Wordess.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&amp; icc ne mihhte nohht min ferrs<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ayy withth Godspelless wordess<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wel fillenn all, &amp; all forrthi<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shollde icc wel offte nede<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Amang Godspelless wordess don<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Min word, min ferrs to fillenn.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span></p>
+<p>Later translators, however, seldom followed his lead. There are a few
+comments connected with prose translations; the translator of <i>The Book
+of the Knight of La Tour Landry</i> quotes the explanation of his author
+that he has chosen prose rather than verse "for to abridge it, and that
+it might be better and more plainly to be understood";<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> the Lord in
+Trevisa's <i>Dialogue</i> prefixed to the <i>Polychronicon</i> desires a
+translation in prose, "for commonly prose is more clear than rhyme, more
+easy and more plain to understand";<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> but apparently the only one of
+Orm's successors to put into words his consciousness of the
+complications which accompany a metrical rendering is the author of <i>The
+Romance of Partenay</i>, whose epilogue runs:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">As ny as metre can conclude sentence,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Cereatly by rew in it have I go.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nerehand stafe by staf, by gret diligence,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Savyng that I most metre apply to;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The wourdes meve, and sett here &amp; ther so.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>What follows, however, shows that he is concerned not so much with the
+peculiar difficulty of translation as with the general difficulty of
+"forging" verse. Whether a man employs Latin, French, or the vernacular,
+he continues,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Be it in balede, vers, Rime, or prose,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He most torn and wend, metrely to close.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Of explicit comment on general principles, then, there is but a small
+amount in connection with Middle English translations. Incidentally,
+however, writers let fall a good deal of information regarding their
+theories and methods. Such material must be interpreted with
+considerable caution, for although the most casual survey makes it clear
+that generally the translator felt bound to put into words<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span> something of
+his debt and his responsibility to his predecessors, yet one does not
+know how much significance should attach to this comment. He seldom
+offers clear, unmistakable information as to his difficulties and his
+methods of meeting them. It is peculiarly interesting to come upon such
+explanation of processes as appears at one point in Capgrave's <i>Life of
+St. Gilbert</i>. In telling the story of a miracle wrought upon a sick man,
+Capgrave writes: "One of his brethren, which was his keeper, gave him
+this counsel, that he should wind his head with a certain cloth of linen
+which St. Gilbert wore. I suppose verily," continues the translator, "it
+was his alb, for mine author here setteth a word 'subucula,' which is
+both an alb and a shirt, and in the first part of this life the same
+author saith that this holy man wore next his skin no hair as for the
+hardest, nor linen as for the softest, but he went with wool, as with
+the mean."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> Such care for detail suggests the comparative methods
+later employed by the translators of the Bible, but whether or not it
+was common, it seldom found its way into words. The majority of writers
+acquitted themselves of the translator's duty by introducing at
+intervals somewhat conventional references to source, "in story as we
+read," "in tale as it is told," "as saith the geste," "in rhyme I read,"
+"the prose says," "as mine author doth write," "as it tells in the
+book," "so saith the French tale," "as saith the Latin." Tags like these
+are everywhere present, especially in verse, where they must often have
+proved convenient in eking out the metre. Whether they are to be
+interpreted literally is hard to determine. The reader of English
+versions can seldom be certain whether variants on the more ordinary
+forms are merely stylistic or result from actual differences in
+situation; whether, for example, phrases like "as I have heard tell,"
+"as the book says," "as I find in parchment spell" are rewordings of the
+same fact or represent real distinctions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One group of doubtful references apparently question the reliability of
+the written source. In most cases the seeming doubt is probably the
+result of awkward phrasing. Statements like "as the story doth us both
+write and mean,"<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> "as the book says and true men tell us,"<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> "but
+the book us lie,"<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> need have little more significance than the
+slightly absurd declaration,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The gospel nul I forsake nought<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Thaugh</i> it be written in parchemyn.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Occasional more direct questionings incline one, however, to take the
+matter a little more seriously. The translator of a <i>Canticum de
+Creatione</i>, strangely fabulous in content, presents his material with
+the words,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&mdash;as we finden in lectrure,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I not whether it be in holy scripture.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The author of one of the legends of the Holy Cross says,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">This tale, quether hit be il or gode,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I fande hit writen of the rode.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mani tellis diverseli,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For thai finde diverse stori.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Capgrave, in his legend of <i>St. Katherine</i>, takes issue unmistakably
+with his source.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In this reknyng myne auctour &amp; I are too:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">ffor he accordeth not wytz cronicles that ben olde,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But diversyth from hem, &amp; that in many thyngis.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There he accordeth, ther I him hold;<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>
+<span class="i0">And where he diversyth in ordre of theis kyngis,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I leve hym, &amp; to oder mennys rekenyngis<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I geve more credens whech be-fore hym and me<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sette alle these men in ordre &amp; degre.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Except when this mistrust is made a justification for divergence from
+the original, these comments contribute little to our knowledge of the
+medieval translator's methods and need concern us little. More needful
+of explanation is the reference which implies that the English writer is
+not working from a manuscript, but is reproducing something which he has
+heard read or recounted, or which he has read for himself at some time
+in the past. How is one to interpret phrases like that which introduces
+the story of <i>Golagros and Gawain</i>, "as true men me told," or that which
+appears at the beginning of <i>Rauf Coilyear</i>, "heard I tell"? One
+explanation, obviously true in some cases, is that such references are
+only conventional. The concluding lines of <i>Ywain and Gawin</i>,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Of them no more have I heard tell<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Neither in romance nor in spell,<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>are simply a rough rendering of the French</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Ne ja plus n'en orroiz conter,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">S'an n'i vialt manconge ajoster.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the author of the long romance of <i>Ipomadon</i>, which
+follows its source with a closeness which precludes all possibility of
+reproduction from memory, has tacked on two references to hearing,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
+not only without a basis in the French but in direct contradiction to
+Hue de Rotelande's account of the source of his material. In <i>Emare</i>,
+"as I have heard minstrels sing in sawe" is apparently introduced as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>
+the equivalent of the more ordinary phrases "in tale as it is told" and
+"in romance as we read,"<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> the second of which is scarcely compatible
+with the theory of an oral source.</p>
+
+<p>One cannot always, however, dispose of the reference to hearing so
+easily. Contemporary testimony shows that literature was often
+transmitted by word of mouth. Thomas de Cabham mentions the
+"ioculatores, qui cantant gesta principum et vitam sanctorum";<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
+Robert of Brunne complains that those who sing or say the geste of <i>Sir
+Tristram</i> do not repeat the story exactly as Thomas made it.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> Even
+though one must recognize the probability that sometimes the immediate
+oral source of the minstrel's tale may have been English, one cannot
+ignore the possibility that occasionally a "translated" saint's life or
+romance may have been the result of hearing a French or Latin narrative
+read or recited. A convincing example of reproduction from memory
+appears in the legend of <i>St. Etheldred of Ely</i>, whose author recounts
+certain facts,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The whiche y founde in the abbey of Godstow y-wis,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In hure legent as y dude there that tyme rede,<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and later presents other material,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The whiche y say at Hely y-write.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such evidence makes us regard with more attention the remark in
+Capgrave's <i>St. Katherine</i>,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&mdash;right soo dede I lere<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of cronycles whiche (that) I saugh last,<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>or the lines at the end of <i>Roberd of Cisyle</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Al this is write withoute lyghe<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">At Rome, to ben in memorye,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">At seint Petres cherche, I knowe.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It is possible also that sometimes a vague phrase like "as the story
+says," or "in tale as it is told," may signify hearing instead of
+reading. But in general one turns from consideration of the references
+to hearing with little more than an increased respect for the superior
+definiteness which belongs to the mention of the "black letters," the
+"parchment," "the French book," or "the Latin book."</p>
+
+<p>Leaving the general situation and examining individual types of
+literature, one finds it possible to draw conclusions which are somewhat
+more definite. The metrical romance&mdash;to choose one of the most popular
+literary forms of the period&mdash;is nearly always garnished with references
+to source scattered throughout its course in a manner that awakens
+curiosity. Sometimes they do not appear at the beginning of the romance,
+but are introduced in large numbers towards the end; sometimes, after a
+long series of pages containing nothing of the sort, we begin to come
+upon them frequently, perhaps in groups, one appearing every few lines,
+so that their presence constitutes something like a quality of style.
+For example, in <i>Bevis of Hamtoun</i><a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> and <i>The Earl of Toulouse</i><a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>
+the first references to source come between ll. 800 and 900; in <i>Ywain
+and Gawin</i> the references appear at ll. 9, 3209, and 3669;<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> in <i>The
+Wars of Alexander</i><a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> there is a perpetual harping on source, one
+phrase seeming to produce another.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally one can find a reason for the insertion of the phrase in a
+given place. Sometimes its presence suggests that the translator has
+come upon an unfamiliar word. In <i>Sir Eglamour of Artois</i>, speaking of a
+bird that has carried off a child, the author remarks, "a griffin, saith
+the book,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> he hight";<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> in <i>Partenay</i>, in an attempt to give a vessel
+its proper name, the writer says, "I found in scripture that it was a
+barge."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> This impression of accuracy is most common in connection
+with geographical proper names. In <i>Torrent of Portyngale</i> we have the
+name of a forest, "of Brasill saith the book it was"; in <i>Partonope of
+Blois</i> we find "France was named those ilke days Galles, as mine author
+says,"<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> or "Mine author telleth this church hight the church of
+Albigis."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> In this same romance the reference to source accompanies a
+definite bit of detail, "The French book thus doth me tell, twenty
+waters he passed full fell."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> Bevis of Hamtoun kills "forty
+Sarracens, the French saith."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> As in the case of the last
+illustration, the translator frequently needs to cite his authority
+because the detail he gives is somewhat difficult of belief. In <i>The
+Sege of Melayne</i> the Christian warriors recover their horses
+miraculously "through the prayer of St. Denys, thus will the chronicle
+say";<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> in <i>The Romance of Partenay</i> we read of a wondrous light
+appearing about a tomb, "the French maker saith he saw it with eye."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>
+Sometimes these phrases suggest that metre and rhyme do not always flow
+easily for the English writer, and that in such difficulties a stock
+space-filler is convenient. Lines like those in Chaucer's <i>Sir Thopas</i>,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And so bifel upon a day,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Forsothe <i>as I you telle may</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sir Thopas wolde outride,<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The briddes synge, <i>it is no nay</i>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The sparhauke and the papejay<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>may easily be paralleled by passages containing references to source.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span></p><p>A good illustration from almost every point of view of the significance
+and lack of significance of the appearance of these phrases in a given
+context is the version of the Alexander story usually called <i>The Wars
+of Alexander</i>. The frequent references to source in this romance occur
+in sporadic groups. The author begins by putting them in with some
+regularity at the beginnings of the <i>passus</i> into which he divides his
+narrative, but, as the story progresses, he ceases to do so, perhaps
+forgets his first purpose. Sometimes the reference to source suggests
+accuracy: "And five and thirty, as I find, were in the river
+drowned."<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> "Rhinoceros, as I read, the book them calls."<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> The
+strength of some authority is necessary to support the weight of the
+incredible marvels which the story-teller recounts. He tells of a valley
+full of serpents with crowns on their heads, who fed, "as the prose
+tells," on pepper, cloves, and ginger;<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> of enormous crabs with backs,
+"as the book says," bigger and harder than any common stone or
+cockatrice scales;<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> of the golden image of Xerxes, which on the
+approach of Alexander suddenly, "as tells the text," falls to
+pieces.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> He often has recourse to an authority for support when he
+takes proper names from the Latin. "Luctus it hight, the lettre and the
+line thus it calls."<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> The slayers of Darius are named Besan and
+Anabras, "as the book tells."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> On the other hand, the signification
+of the reference in its context can be shown to be very slight. As was
+said before, the writer soon forgets to insert it at the beginning of
+the new <i>passus</i>; there are plenty of marvels without any citation of
+authority to add to their credibility; and though the proper name
+carries its reference to the Latin, it is usually strangely distorted
+from its original form. So far as bearing on the immediate context is
+concerned, most of the references to source have little more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> meaning
+than the ordinary tags, "as I you say," "as you may hear," or "as I
+understand."</p>
+
+<p>Apart, however, from the matter of context, one may make a rough
+classification of the romances on the ground of these references.
+Leaving aside the few narratives (e.g. <i>Sir Percival of Galles</i>, <i>King
+Horn</i>) which contain no suggestion that they are of secondary origin,
+one may distinguish two groups. There is, in the first place, a large
+body of romances which refer in general terms to their originals, but do
+not profess any responsibility for faithful reproduction; in the second
+place, there are some romances whose authors do recognize the claims of
+the original, which is in such cases nearly always definitely described,
+and frequently go so far as to discuss its style or the style to be
+adopted in the English rendering. The first group, which includes
+considerably more than half the romances at present accessible in print,
+affords a confused mass of references. As regards the least definite of
+these, one finds phrases so vague as to suggest that the author himself
+might have had difficulty in identifying his source, phrases where the
+omission of the article ("in rhyme," "in romance," "in story") or the
+use of the plural ("as books say," "as clerks tell," "as men us told,"
+"in stories thus as we read") deprives the words of most of their
+significance. Other references are more definite; the writer mentions
+"this book," "mine author," "the Latin book," "the French book." If
+these phrases are to be trusted, we may conclude that the English
+translator has his text before him; they aid little, however, in
+identification of that text. The fifty-six references in Malory's <i>Morte
+d'Arthur</i> to "the French book" give no particular clue to discovery of
+his sources. The common formula, "as the French book says," marks the
+highest degree of definiteness to which most of these romances attain.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting variant from the commoner forms is the reference to
+<i>Rom</i>, generally in the phrase "the book of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span> Rom," which appears in some
+of the romances. The explanation that <i>Rom</i> is a corruption of <i>romance</i>
+and that <i>the book of Rom</i> is simply the book of romance or the book
+written in the romance language, French, can easily be supported. In the
+same poem <i>Rom</i> alternates with <i>romance</i>: "In Rome this geste is
+chronicled," "as the romance telleth,"<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> "in the chronicles of Rome is
+the date," "in romance as we read."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Two versions of <i>Octavian</i> read,
+the one "in books of Rome," the other "in books of ryme."<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> On the
+other hand, there are peculiarities in the use of the word not so easy
+of explanation. It appears in a certain group of romances, <i>Octavian</i>,
+<i>Le Bone Florence of Rome</i>, <i>Sir Eglamour of Artois</i>, <i>Torrent of
+Portyngale</i>, <i>The Earl of Toulouse</i>, all of which develop in some degree
+the Constance story, familiar in <i>The Man of Law's Tale</i>. In all of them
+there is reference to the city of Rome, sometimes very obvious,
+sometimes slight, but perhaps equally significant in the latter case
+because it is introduced in an unexpected, unnecessary way. In <i>Le Bone
+Florence of Rome</i> the heroine is daughter of the Emperor of Rome, and,
+the tale of her wanderings done, the story ends happily with her
+reinstatement in her own city. Octavian is Emperor of Rome, and here
+again the happy conclusion finds place in that city. Sir Eglamour
+belongs to Artois, but he does betake himself to Rome to kill a dragon,
+an episode introduced in one manuscript of the story by the phrase "as
+the book of Rome says."<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> Though the scenes of <i>Torrent of Portyngale</i>
+are Portugal, Norway, and Calabria, the Emperor of Rome comes to the
+wedding of the hero, and Torrent himself is finally chosen Emperor,
+presumably of Rome. The Earl of Toulouse, in the romance of that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> name,
+disguises himself as a monk, and to aid in the illusion some one says of
+him during his disappearance, "Gone is he to his own land: he dwells
+with the Pope of Rome."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> The Emperor in this story is Emperor of
+Almaigne, but his name, strangely enough, is Diocletian. Again, in
+<i>Octavian</i>, one reads in the description of a feast, "there was many a
+rich geste of Rome and of France,"<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> which suggests a distinction
+between a geste of Rome and a geste of France. In <i>Le Bone Florence of
+Rome</i> appears the peculiar statement, "Pope Symonde this story wrote. In
+the chronicles of Rome is the date."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> In this case the word <i>Rome</i>
+seems to have been taken literally enough to cause attribution of the
+story to the Pope. It is evident, then, that whether or not <i>Rome</i> is a
+corruption of <i>romance</i>, at any rate one or more of the persons who had
+a hand in producing these narratives must have interpreted the word
+literally, and believed that the book of Rome was a record of
+occurrences in the city of Rome.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> It is interesting to note that in
+<i>The Man of Law's Tale</i>, in speaking of Maurice, the son of Constance,
+Chaucer introduces a reference to the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In the old Romayn gestes may men fynde<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Maurice's lyf, I bere it not in mynde.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such vagueness and uncertainty, if not positive misunderstanding with
+regard to source, are characteristic of many romances. It is not
+difficult to find explanations for this. The writer may, as was
+suggested before, be reproducing a story which he has only heard or
+which he has read at some earlier time. Even if he has the book before
+him, it does not necessarily bear its author's name and it is not easy
+to describe it so that it can be recognized by others. Generally
+speaking, his references to source are honest, so far as they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span> go, and
+can be taken at their face value. Even in cases of apparent falsity
+explanations suggest themselves. There is nearly always the possibility
+that false or contradictory attributions, as, for example, the mention
+of "book" and "books" or "the French book" and "the Latin book" as
+sources of the same romance, are merely stupidly literal renderings of
+the original. In <i>The Romance of Partenay</i>, one of the few cases where
+we have unquestionably the French original of the English romance, more
+than once an apparent reference to source in the English is only a close
+following of the French. "I found in scripture that it was a barge"
+corresponds with "Je treuve que c'estoit une barge"; "as saith the
+scripture" with "Ainsi que dient ly escrips";</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">For the Cronike doth treteth (sic) this brefly,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">More ferther wold go, mater finde might I<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>with</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Mais en brief je m'en passeray<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Car la cronique en brief passe.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Plus d&eacute;isse, se plus trouvasse.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A similar situation has already been pointed out in <i>Ywain and Gawin</i>.
+The most marked example of contradictory evidence is to be found in
+<i>Octavian</i>, whose author alternates "as the French says" with "as saith
+the Latin."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Here, however, the nearest analogue to the English
+romance, which contains 1962 lines, is a French romance of 5371 lines,
+which begins by mentioning the "grans merueilles qui sont faites, et de
+latin en romanz traites."<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> It is not impossible that the English
+writer used a shorter version which emphasized this reference to the
+Latin, and that his too-faithful adherence to source had confusing
+results. But even if such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span> contradictions cannot be explained, in the
+mass of undistinguished romances there is scarcely anything to suggest
+that the writer is trying to give his work a factitious value by
+misleading references to dignified sources. His faults, as in <i>Ywain and
+Gawin</i>, where the name of Chr&eacute;tien is not carried over from the French,
+are sins of omission, not commission.</p>
+
+<p>No hard and fast line of division can be drawn between the romances just
+discussed and those of the second group, with their frequent and fairly
+definite references to their sources and to their methods of reproducing
+them. A rough chronological division between the two groups can be made
+about the year 1400. <i>William of Palerne</i>, assigned by its editor to the
+year 1350, contains a slight indication of the coming change in the
+claim which its author makes to have accomplished his task "as fully as
+the French fully would ask."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> Poems like Chaucer's <i>Knight's Tale</i>
+and <i>Franklin's Tale</i> have only the vague references to source of the
+earlier period, though since they are presented as oral narratives, they
+belong less obviously to the present discussion. The vexed question of
+the signification of the references in <i>Troilus and Criseyde</i> is outside
+the scope of this discussion. Superficially considered, they are an odd
+mingling of the new and the old. Phrases like "as to myn auctour listeth
+to devise" (III, 1817), "as techen bokes olde" (III, 91), "as wryten
+folk thorugh which it is in minde" (IV, 18) suggest the first group. The
+puzzling references to Lollius have a certain definiteness, and
+faithfulness to source is implied in lines like:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And of his song nought only the sentence,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As writ myn auctour called Lollius,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But pleynly, save our tonges difference,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I dar wel seyn, in al that Troilus<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>
+<span class="i0">Seyde in his song; lo! every word right thus<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As I shal seyn<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">(I, 393-8)<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"For as myn auctour seyde, so seye I" (II, 18).<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But from the beginning of the new century, in the work of men like
+Lydgate and Caxton, a new habit of comment becomes noticeable.</p>
+
+<p>Less distinguished translators show a similar development. The author of
+<i>The Holy Grail</i>, Harry Lonelich, a London skinner, towards the end of
+his work makes frequent, if perhaps mistaken, attribution of the French
+romance to</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... myn sire Robert of Borron<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Whiche that this storie Al &amp; som<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Owt Of the latyn In to the frensh torned he<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Be holy chirches Comandment sekerle,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and makes some apology for the defects of his own style:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And I, As An unkonning Man trewly<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Into Englisch have drawen this Story;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And thowgh that to yow not plesyng It be,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yit that ful Excused ye wolde haven Me<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of my necligence and unkonning.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><i>The Romance of Partenay</i> is turned into English by a writer who
+presents himself very modestly:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I not acqueynted of birth naturall<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With frenshe his very trew parfightnesse,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nor enpreyntyd is in mind cordiall;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O word For other myght take by lachesse,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or peradventure by unconnyngesse.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He intends, however, to be a careful translator:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">As nighe as metre will conclude sentence,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Folew I wil my president,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ryght as the frenshe wil yiff me evidence,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Cereatly after myn entent,<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span></p>
+<p>and he ends by declaring that in spite of the impossibility of giving an
+exact rendering of the French in English metre, he has kept very closely
+to the original. Sometimes, owing to the shortness of the French
+"staffes," he has reproduced in one line two lines of the French, but,
+except for this, comparison will show that the two versions are exactly
+alike.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>The translator of <i>Partonope of Blois</i> does not profess such slavish
+faithfulness, though he does profess great admiration for his source,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The olde booke full well I-wryted,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In ffrensh also, and fayre endyted,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and declares himself bound to follow it closely:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Thus seith myn auctour after whome I write.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Blame not me: I moste endite<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As nye after hym as ever I may,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Be it sothe or less I can not say.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>However, in the midst of his protestations of faithfulness, he confesses
+to divergence:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">There-fore y do alle my myghthhe<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To saue my autor ynne sucche wyse<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As he that mater luste devyse,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where he makyth grete compleynte<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In french so fayre thatt yt to paynte<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In Englysche tunngge y saye for me<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">My wyttys alle to dullet bee.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He telleth hys tale of sentament<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I vnderstonde noghth hys entent,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ne wolle ne besy me to lere.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He owns to the abbreviation of descriptive passages, which so many
+English translators had perpetrated in silence:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Her bewte dyscry fayne wolde I<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Affter the sentence off myne auctowre,<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>
+<span class="i0">Butte I pray yowe of thys grette labowre<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I mote at thys tyme excused be;<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Butte who so luste to here of hur a-raye,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lette him go to the ffrensshe bocke,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That Idell mater I forsoke<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To telle hyt in prose or els in ryme,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For me thoghte hyt taryed grette tyme.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And ys a mater full nedless.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>One cannot but suspect that this odd mingling of respect and freedom as
+regards the original describes the attitude of many other translators of
+romances, less articulate in the expression of their theory.</p>
+
+<p>To deal fairly with many of the romances of this second group, one must
+consider the relationship between romance and history and the uncertain
+division between the two. The early chronicles of England generally
+devoted an appreciable space to matters of romance, the stories of Troy,
+of Aeneas, of Arthur. As in the case of the romance proper, such
+chronicles were, even in the modern sense, "translated," for though the
+historian usually compiled his material from more than one source, his
+method was to put together long, consecutive passages from various
+authors, with little attempt at assimilating them into a whole. The
+distinction between history and romance was slow in arising. The <i>Morte
+Arthure</i> offers within a few lines both "romances" and "chronicles" as
+authorities for its statements.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> In Caxton's preface to <i>Godfrey of
+Bullogne</i> the enumeration of the great names of history includes Arthur
+and Charlemagne, and the story of Godfrey is designated as "this noble
+history which is no fable nor feigned thing." Throughout the period the
+stories of Troy and of Alexander are consistently treated as history,
+and their redactors frequently state that their material has come from
+various places. Nearly all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> the English Troy stories are translations of
+Guido delle Colonne's <i>Historia Trojana</i>, and they take over from their
+original Guido's long discussion of authorities. The Alexander romances
+present the same effect of historical accuracy in passages like the
+following:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">This passage destuted is<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In the French, well y-wis,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Therefore I have, it to colour<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Borrowed of the Latin author;<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Of what kin he came can I nought find<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In no book that I bed when I began here<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Latin to this language lelliche to turn.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The assumption of the historian's attitude was probably the largest
+factor in the development of the habit of expressing responsibility for
+following the source or for noting divergence from it. Less easy of
+explanation is the fact that comment on style so frequently appears in
+this connection. There is perhaps a touch of it even in Layamon's
+account of his originals, when he approaches his French source: "Layamon
+began to journey wide over this land, and procured the noble books which
+he took for authority. He took the English book that Saint Bede made;
+another he took in Latin that Saint Albin made, and the fair Austin, who
+brought baptism hither; the third he took, (and) laid there in the
+midst, that a French clerk made, who was named Wace, who well could
+write.... Layamon laid before him these books, and turned the leaves ...
+pen he took with fingers, and wrote on book skin, and the true words set
+together, and the three books compressed into one."<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> Robert of
+Brunne, in his <i>Chronicle of England</i>, dated as early as 1338, combines
+a lengthy discussion of style with a clear statement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> of the extent to
+which he has used his sources. Wace tells in French</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">All that the Latyn spelles,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">ffro Eneas till Cadwaladre;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">this Mayster Wace ther leves he.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And ryght as Mayster Wace says,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I telle myn Inglis the same ways.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Pers of Langtoft continues the history;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&amp; as he says, than say I,<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>writes the translator. Robert admires his predecessors, Dares, whose
+"Latyn is feyre to lere," Wace, who "rymed it in Frankis fyne," and
+Pers, of whose style he says, "feyrer language non ne redis"; but he is
+especially concerned with his own manner of expression. He does not
+aspire to an elaborate literary style; rather, he says,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I made it not forto be praysed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bot at the lewed men were aysed.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Consequently he eschews the difficult verse forms then coming into
+fashion, "ryme cowee," "straungere," or "enterlace." He does not write
+for the "disours," "seggers," and "harpours" of his own day, who tell
+the old stories badly.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Non tham says as thai tham wrought,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&amp; in ther sayng it semes noght.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A confusion of pronouns makes it difficult to understand what he
+considers the fault of contemporary renderings. Possibly it is that
+affectation of an obsolete style to which Caxton refers in the preface
+to the <i>Eneydos</i>. In any case, he himself rejects "straunge Inglis" for
+"simple speche."</p>
+
+<p>Unlike Robert of Brunne, Andrew of Wyntoun, writing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> at the beginning of
+the next century, delights in the ornamental style which has added a
+charm to ancient story.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Quharfore of sic antiquiteis<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thei that set haly thare delite<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Gestis or storyis for to write,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Flurist fairly thare purpose<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With quaynt and curiouse circumstance,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For to raise hertis in plesance,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the heraris till excite<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Be wit or will to do thare delite.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The "antiquiteis" which he has in mind are obviously the tales of Troy.
+Guido delle Colonne, Homer, and Virgil, he continues, all</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Fairly formyt there tretyss,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And curiously dytit there storyis.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Some writers, however, did not adopt the elevated style which such
+subject matter deserves.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Sum usit bot in plane maner<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of air done dedis thar mater<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To writ, as did Dares of Frigy,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That wrait of Troy all the story,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bot in till plane and opin style,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But curiouse wordis or subtile.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Andrew does not attempt to discuss the application of his theory to
+English style, but he has perhaps suggested the reason why the question
+of style counted for so much in connection with this pseudo-historical
+material. In the introduction to Barbour's <i>Bruce</i>, though the point at
+issue is not translation, there is a similar idea. According to Barbour,
+a true story has a special claim to an attractive rendering.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Storyss to rede ar delitabill,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Supposs that thai be nocht bot fabill;<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>
+<span class="i0">Than suld storyss that suthfast wer,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And thai war said in gud maner,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Have doubill plesance in heryng.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The fyrst plesance is the carpyng,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the tothir the suthfastness,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That schawys the thing rycht as it wes.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Lydgate, Wyntoun's contemporary, apparently shared his views. In
+translating Boccaccio's <i>Falls of Princes</i> he dispenses with stylistic
+ornament.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Of freshe colours I toke no maner hede.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But my processe playnly for to lede:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As me semed it was to me most mete<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To set apart Rethorykes swete.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>But when it came to the Troy story, his matter demanded a different
+treatment. He calls upon Mars</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To do socour my stile to directe,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And of my penne the tracys to correcte,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Whyche bareyn is of aureate licour,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But in thi grace I fynde som favour<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For to conveye it wyth thyn influence.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He also asks aid of Calliope.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Now of thy grace be helpyng unto me,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And of thy golde dewe lat the lycour wete<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">My dulled breast, that with thyn hony swete<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sugrest tongis of rethoricyens,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And maistresse art to musicyens.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Like Wyntoun, Lydgate pays tribute to his predecessors, the clerks who
+have kept in memory the great deeds of the past</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... thorough diligent labour,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And enlumyned with many corious flour<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of rethorik, to make us comprehend<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The trouthe of al.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span></p>
+<p>Of Guido in particular he writes that he</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... had in writyng passynge excellence.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For he enlumyneth by craft &amp; cadence<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">This noble story with many fresch colour<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of rethorik, &amp; many riche flour<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of eloquence to make it sownde bet<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He in the story hath ymped in and set,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That in good feyth I trowe he hath no pere.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>None of these men point out the relationship between the style of the
+original and the style to be employed in the English rendering. Caxton,
+the last writer to be considered in this connection, remarks in his
+preface to <i>The Recuyell of the Histories of Troy</i> on the "fair language
+of the French, which was in prose so well and compendiously set and
+written," and in the prologue to the <i>Eneydos</i> tells how he was
+attracted by the "fair and honest terms and words in French," and how,
+after writing a leaf or two, he noted that his English was characterized
+by "fair and strange terms." While it may be that both Caxton and
+Lydgate were trying to reproduce in English the peculiar quality of
+their originals, it is more probable that they beautified their own
+versions as best they could, without feeling it incumbent upon them to
+make their rhetorical devices correspond with those of their
+predecessors. Elsewhere Caxton expresses concern only for his own
+language, as it is to be judged by English readers without regard for
+the qualities of the French. In most cases he characterizes his
+renderings of romance as "simple and rude"; in the preface to <i>Charles
+the Great</i> he says that he uses "no gay terms, nor subtle, nor new
+eloquence"; and in the preface to <i>Blanchardyn and Eglantine</i> he
+declares that he does not know "the art of rhetoric nor of such gay
+terms as now be said in these days and used," and that his only desire
+is to be understood by his readers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span> The prologue to the <i>Eneydos</i>,
+however, tells a different story. According to this he has been blamed
+for expressing himself in "over curious terms which could not be
+understood of the common people" and requested to use "old and homely
+terms." But Caxton objects to the latter as being also unintelligible.
+"In my judgment," he says, "the common terms that be daily used, are
+lighter to be understood than the old and ancient English." He is
+writing, not for the ignorant man, but "only for a clerk and a noble
+gentleman that feeleth and understandeth in feats of arms, in love, and
+in noble chivalry." For this reason, he concludes, "in a mean have I
+reduced and translated this said book into our English, not over rude
+nor curious, but in such terms as shall be understood, by God's grace,
+according to the copy." Though Caxton does not avail himself of
+Wyntoun's theory that the Troy story must be told in "curious and
+subtle" words, it is probable that, like other translators of his
+century, he felt the attraction of the new aureate diction while he
+professed the simplicity of language which existing standards demanded
+of the translator.</p>
+
+<p>Turning from the romance and the history and considering religious
+writings, the second large group of medieval productions, one finds the
+most significant translator's comment associated with the saint's
+legend, though occasionally the short pious tale or the more abstract
+theological treatise makes some contribution. These religious works
+differ from the romances in that they are more frequently based on Latin
+than on French originals, and in that they contain more deliberate and
+more repeated references to the audiences to which they have been
+adapted. The translator does not, like Caxton, write for "a clerk and a
+noble gentleman"; instead he explains repeatedly that he has striven to
+make his work understandable to the unlearned, for, as the author of
+<i>The Child of Bristow</i> pertinently remarks,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The beste song that ever was made<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is not worth a lekys blade<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But men wol tende ther-tille.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Since Latin enditing is "cumbrous," the translator of <i>The Blood at
+Hayles</i> presents a version in English, "for plainly this the truth will
+tell";<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> Osbern Bokenam will speak and write "plainly, after the
+language of Southfolk speech";<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> John Capgrave, finding that the
+earlier translator of the life of St. Katherine has made the work "full
+hard ... right for the strangeness of his dark language," undertakes to
+translate it "more openly" and "set it more plain."<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> This conception
+of the audience, together with the writer's consciousness that even in
+presenting narrative he is conveying spiritual truths of supreme
+importance to his readers, probably increases the tendency of the
+translator to incorporate into his English version such running
+commentary as at intervals suggests itself to him. He may add a line or
+two of explanation, of exhortation, or, if he recognizes a quotation
+from the Scriptures or from the Fathers, he may supply the authority for
+it. John Capgrave undertakes to translate the life of St. Gilbert "right
+as I find before me, save some additions will I put thereto which men of
+that order have told me, and eke other things that shall fall to my mind
+in the writing which be pertinent to the matter."<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> Nicholas Love
+puts into English <i>The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ</i>,
+"with more put to in certain parts, and also with drawing out of divers
+authorities and matters as it seemeth to the writer hereof most speedful
+and edifying to them that be of simple understanding."<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> Such
+incidental<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> citation of authority is evident in <i>St. Paula</i>, published
+by Dr. Horstmann side by side with its Latin original.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> With more
+simplicity and less display of learning, the translator of religious
+works sometimes vaguely adduces authority, as did the translator of
+romances, in connection with an unfamiliar name. One finds such
+statements as: "Manna, so it is written";<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> "Such a fiend, as the
+book tells us, is called Incubus";<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> "In the country of Champagne, as
+the book tells";<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> "Cursates, saith the book, he hight";<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Her body lyeth in strong castylle<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Bulstene, seith the boke, it hight;<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a><br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In the yer of ur lord of hevene<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Four hundred and eke ellevene<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wandaly the province tok<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of Aufrike&mdash;so seith the bok.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Often, however, the reference to source is introduced apparently at
+random. On the whole, indeed, the comment which accompanies religious
+writings does not differ essentially in intelligibility or significance
+from that associated with romances; its interest lies mainly in the fact
+that it brings into greater relief tendencies more or less apparent in
+the other form.</p>
+
+<p>One of these is the large proportion of borrowed comment. The constant
+citation of authority in a work such as, for example, <i>The Golden
+Legend</i> was likely to be reproduced in the English with varying degrees
+of faithfulness. A <i>Life of St. Augustine</i>, to choose a few
+illustrations from many, reproduces the Latin as in the following
+examples: "as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span> book telleth us" replaces "dicitur enim"; "of him it
+is said in Glosarie," "ut dicitur in Glossario"; "in the book of his
+confessions the sooth is written for the nonce," "ut legitur in libro
+iii. confessionum."<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> Robert of Brunne's <i>Handlyng Synne</i>, as printed
+by the Early English Text Society with its French original, affords
+numerous examples of translated references to authority.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The tale ys wrytyn, al and sum,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In a boke of Vitas Patrum<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>corresponds with</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Car en vn liure ai trou&eacute;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Qe Vitas Patrum est apel&eacute;;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Thus seyth seynt Anselme, that hit wrote<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To thys clerkys that weyl hit wote<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>with</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Ceo nus ad Seint Ancelme dit<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Qe en la fey fut clerk parfit.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Yet there are variations in the English much more marked than in the
+last example. "Cum l'estorie nus ad cunt&eacute;" has become "Yn the byble men
+mow hyt se"; while for</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">En ve liure qe est apelez<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">La sume des vertuz &amp; des pechiez<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>the translator has substituted</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Thys same tale tellyth seynt Bede<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yn hys gestys that men rede.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This attempt to give the origin of a tale or of a precept more
+accurately than it is given in the French or the Latin leads sometimes
+to strange confusion, more especially when a reference to the Scriptures
+is involved. It was admitted that the Bible was unusually difficult of
+comprehension and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span> that, if the simple were to understand it, it must be
+annotated in various ways. Nicholas Love says that there have been
+written "for lewd men and women ... devout meditations of Christ's life
+more plain in certain parts than is expressed in the gospels of the four
+evangelists."<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> With so much addition of commentary and legend, it
+was often hard to tell what was and what was not in Holy Scripture, and
+consequently while a narrative like <i>The Birth of Jesus</i> cites correctly
+enough the gospels for certain days, of which it gives a free
+rendering,<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> there are cases of amazing attributions, like that at
+the end of the legend of <i>Ypotis</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Seynt Jon the Evangelist<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ede on eorthe with Jhesu Crist,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">This tale he wrot in latin<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In holi bok in parchemin.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>After the fifteenth century is reached, the translator of religious
+works, like the translator of romances, becomes more garrulous in his
+comment and develops a good deal of interest in English style. As a fair
+representative of the period we may take Osbern Bokenam, the translator
+of various saint's legends, a man very much interested in the
+contemporary development of literary expression. Two qualities,
+according to Bokenam, characterize his own style; he writes
+"compendiously" and he avoids "gay speech." He repeatedly disclaims both
+prolixity and rhetorical ornament. His</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... form of procedyng artificyal<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is in no wyse ner poetical.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He cannot emulate the "first rhetoricians," Gower, Chaucer, and Lydgate;
+he comes too late; they have already gathered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span> "the most fresh flowers."
+Moreover the ornamental style would not become him; he does not desire</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... to have swych eloquence<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As sum curials han, ner swych asperence<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In utteryng of here subtyl conceytys<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In wych oft-tyme ful greth dysceyt is.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To covet the craft of such language would be "great dotage" for an old
+man like him. Yet like those of Lydgate and Caxton, Bokenam's
+protestations are not entirely convincing, and in them one catches
+glimpses of a lurking fondness for the wordiness of fine writing. Though
+Pallas has always refused to lead him</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Of Thully Rethoryk in-to the motlyd mede,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Flourys to gadryn of crafty eloquens,<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>yet he has often prayed her to show him some favor. Elsewhere he finds
+it necessary to apologize for the brevity of part of his work.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Now have I shewed more compendiously<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Than it owt have ben this noble pedigree;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But in that myn auctour I follow sothly,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And also to eschew prolixite,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And for my wyt is schort, as ye may se,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To the second part I wyl me hye.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The conventionality, indeed, of Bokenam's phraseology and of his
+literary standards and the self-contradictory elements in his statements
+leave one with the impression that he has brought little, if anything,
+that is fresh and individual to add to the theory of translation.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not the medieval period made progress towards the development
+of a more satisfactory theory is a doubtful question. While men like
+Lydgate, Bokenam, and Caxton generally profess to have reproduced the
+content of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> sources and make some mention of the original writers,
+their comment is confused and indefinite; they do not recognize any
+compelling necessity for faithfulness; and one sometimes suspects that
+they excelled their predecessors only in articulateness. As compared
+with Layamon and Orm they show a development scarcely worthy of a lapse
+of more than two centuries. There is perhaps, as time goes on, some
+little advance towards the attainment of modern standards of scholarship
+as regards confession of divergence from sources. In the early part of
+the period variations from the original are only vaguely implied and
+become evident only when the reader can place the English beside the
+French or Latin. In <i>Floris and Blancheflor</i>, for example, a much
+condensed version of a descriptive passage in the French is introduced
+by the words, "I ne can tell you how richly the saddle was
+wrought."<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> The romance of <i>Arthur</i> ends with the statement,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">He that will more look,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Read in the French book,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And he shall find there<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Things that I leete here.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><i>The Northern Passion</i> turns from the legendary history of the Cross to
+something more nearly resembling the gospel narrative with the
+exhortation, "Forget not Jesus for this tale."<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> As compared with
+this, writers like Nicholas Love or John Capgrave are noticeably
+explicit. Love pauses at various points to explain that he is omitting
+large sections of the original;<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Capgrave calls attention to his
+interpolations and refers them to their sources.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> On the other hand,
+there are constant implications that variation from source may be a
+desirable thing and that explanation and apology<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span> are unnecessary.
+Bokenam, for example, apologizes rather because <i>The Golden Legend</i> does
+not supply enough material and he must leave out certain things "for
+ignorance."<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> Caxton says of his <i>Charles the Great</i>, "If I had been
+more largely informed ... I had better made it."<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p>
+
+<p>On the whole, the greatest merit of the later medieval translators
+consists in the quantity of their comment. In spite of the vagueness and
+the absence of originality in their utterances, there is an advantage in
+their very garrulity. Translators needed to become more conscious and
+more deliberate in their work; different methods needed to be defined;
+and the habit of technical discussion had its value, even though the
+quality of the commentary was not particularly good. Apart from a few
+conventional formulas, this habit of comment constituted the bequest of
+medieval translators to their sixteenth-century successors.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Trans. in <i>Gregory's Pastoral Care</i>, ed. Sweet, E.E.T.S.,
+p. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Trans. in <i>King Alfred's Version of the Consolations of
+Boethius</i>, trans. Sedgefield, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Trans. in Hargrove, <i>King Alfred's Old English Version of
+St. Augustine's Soliloquies</i>, 1902, pp. xliii-xliv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Latin Preface of the <i>Catholic Homilies I</i>, Latin Preface
+of the <i>Lives of the Saints</i>, Preface of <i>Pastoral Letter for Archbishop
+Wulfstan</i>. All of these are conveniently accessible in White, <i>Aelfric</i>,
+Chap. XIII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Latin Preface to <i>Homilies II</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Preface to Genesis.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Latin Preface of the <i>Grammar</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Latin Preface to <i>Homilies I</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> In the selections from the Bible various passages, e.g.,
+genealogies, are omitted without comment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Latin Preface to <i>Homilies I</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Latin Preface.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> For further comment, see Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Trans. in Thorpe, <i>Caedmon's Metrical Pharaphrase</i>,
+London, 1832, p. xxv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Ll. 1238 ff. For trans. see <i>The Christ of Cynewulf</i>, ed.
+Cook, pp. xlvi-xlviii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Cf. comment on l. 1, in Introduction to <i>Andreas</i>, ed.
+Krapp, 1906, p. lii: "The Poem opens with the conventional formula of
+the epic, citing tradition as the source of the story, though it is all
+plainly of literary origin."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> I.e. Laurent de Premierfait.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Bochas' Falls of Princes</i>, 1558.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Ed. Ritson, ll. 1138-9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> A version, ll. 341-4. Cf. Puttenham, "... many of his
+books be but bare translations out of the Latin and French ... as his
+books of <i>Troilus and Cresseid</i>, and the <i>Romant of the Rose</i>," Gregory
+Smith, <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i>, ii, 64.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Osbern Bokenam's Legenden</i>, ed. Horstmann, 1883, ll.
+108-9, 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>The Life of St. Werburge</i>, E.E.T.S., ll. 94. 127-130.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> <i>Minor Poems of Lydgate</i>, E.E.T.S., <i>Legend of St. Gyle</i>,
+ll. 9-10, 27-32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <i>Legend of St. Margaret</i>, l. 74.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>St. Christiana</i>, l. 1028.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Legend of Good Women</i>, ll. 425-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> See the ballade by Eustache Deschamps, quoted in Chaucer,
+<i>Works</i>, ed. Morris, vol. 1, p. 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Minor Poems of the Vernon MS</i>, Pt. 1, E.E.T.S., <i>The
+Castle of Love</i>, l. 72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> E.E.T.S., <i>Cotton Vesp. MS.</i> ll. 233-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> E.E.T.S., l. 457.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> See <i>Cambridge History of English Literature</i>, v. 2, p.
+313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Image of Governance</i>, 1549.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, ed. Horstmann,
+<i>Christine</i>, ll. 517-20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Preface, E.E.T.S.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Capgrave, <i>St. Katherine of Alexandria</i>, E.E.T.S., Bk. 3,
+l. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> In <i>Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge</i>, l. 45.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Minor Poems of the Vernon MS.</i> Pt. 1, Appendix, p. 407.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Introduction to Capgrave, <i>Lives of St. Augustine and St.
+Gilbert of Sempringham</i>, E.E.T.S.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, p. 138, ll. 1183-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>Three Prose Versions of Secreta Secretorum</i>, E.E.T.S.,
+Epistle Dedicatory to second.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man</i>, E.E.T.S.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Osbern Bokenam's Legenden</i>, <i>St. Agnes</i>, ll. 680-2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Epistle of Sir John Trevisa</i>, in Pollard, <i>Fifteenth
+Century Prose and Verse</i>, p. 208.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> In Sedgefield, <i>King Alfred's Version of Boethius</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Ed. White, 1852, ll. 41-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Ll. 55-64.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> E.E.T.S., Preface.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Pollard, <i>ibid.</i>, p. 208.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> E.E.T.S., ll. 6553-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ll. 6565-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> E.E.T.S., p. 125.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>Altenglische Sammlung, Neue Folge</i>, <i>St. Etheldred
+Eliensis</i>, l. 162.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, <i>Erasmus</i>, l. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <i>Magdalena</i>, l. 48.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Minor Poems of the Vernon MS.</i>, Pt. 1, <i>St. Bernard's
+Lamentation</i>, ll. 21-2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, <i>Fragment of Canticum
+de Creatione</i>, ll. 49-50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Legends of the Holy Rood</i>, E.E.T.S., <i>How the Holy Cross
+was found by St. Helena</i>, ll. 684-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> E.E.T.S., Bk. 1, ll. 684-91.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Ed. Ritson, ll. 4027-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>Chevalier au Lyon</i>, ed. W. L. Holland, 1886, ll. 6805-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Ed. K&ouml;lbing, 1889, ll. 144, 4514.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> E.E.T.S., ll. 319, 405, 216.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> See Chambers, <i>The Medieval Stage</i>, Appendix G.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Chronicle of England</i>, ed. Furnivall, ll. 93-104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> <i>Altenglische Legenden</i>, <i>Vita St. Etheldredae Eliensis</i>,
+ll. 978-9, 1112.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Bk. 4, ll. 129-130.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, ll. 435-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> E.E.T.S.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Ed. Ritson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> E.E.T.S.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> <i>Thornton Romances</i>, l. 848. (Here the writer is probably
+confused by the two words <i>grype</i> and <i>griffin</i>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> E.E.T.S., l. 1284.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> E.E.T.S., l. 318.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Ll. 6983-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Ll. 688-9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> L. 3643.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> E.E.T.S., ll. 523-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> L. 6105.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> E.E.T.S., l. 4734.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> L. 4133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> L. 5425.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> L. 3894.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> L. 2997.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> L. 2170.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> L. 2428.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>The Earl of Toulouse</i>, ed. Ritson, ll. 1213, 1197.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>Le Bone Florence of Rome</i>, ed. Ritson, ll. 2174, 643.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Ed. Sarrazin, 1885, note on l. 10 of the two versions in
+Northern dialect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> <i>Thornton Romances</i>, note on l. 718.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> L. 1150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Ll. 1275-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Ll. 2173-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> See Miss Rickert's comment in E.E.T.S. edition of <i>Emare</i>,
+p. xlviii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> English version, ll. 1284, 2115, 5718-9; French version,
+<i>Mellusine</i>, ed. Michel, 1854, ll. 1446, 2302, 6150-2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Ll. 407, 1359.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Ed. Vollm&ouml;ller, 1883, ll. 5-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> E.E.T.S., l. 5522.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> E.E.T.S., Chap XLVI, ll. 496-9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Chap. LVI, ll. 521-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Ll. 8-12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Ll. 15-18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> See ll. 6581 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 500-501.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Ll. 7742-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Ll. 2340-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Ll. 5144-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Ll. 6170-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 3200, 3218.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> <i>King Alexander</i>, ed. Weber, 1810, ll. 2199-2202.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Alliterative romance of <i>Alisaunder</i>, E.E.T.S., ll.
+456-9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Ed. Madden, 1847.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Ed. Furnivall, 1887, ll. 58-62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> L. 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Ll. 83-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Ll. 95-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Original Chronicle, ll. 6-13.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Ll. 16-17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Ll. 18-23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 1-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Prologue.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 29-33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Ll. 54-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> Ll. 217-20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Ll. 361-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> In <i>Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge</i>, ll. 7-9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ll. 33, 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> <i>Osbern Bokenam's Legenden</i>, <i>St. Agnes</i>, ll. 29-30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> <i>St. Katherine of Alexandria</i>, <i>Prologue</i>, ll. 61-2,
+232-3, 64.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> <i>Lives of St. Augustine and St. Gilbert</i>, <i>Prologue</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Oxford, Clarendon Press, <i>Prohemium</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> In <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Minor Poems of the Vernon MS.</i>, <i>De Festo Corporis
+Christi</i>, l. 170.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, <i>St. Bernard</i>, ll.
+943-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <i>Erasmus</i>, l. 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge</i>, <i>St. Katherine</i>, p.
+243, l. 451.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, <i>Christine</i>, ll.
+489-90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <i>St. Augustine</i>, ll. 1137-40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> <i>Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden</i>, <i>St. Augustine</i>, ll.
+43, 57-8, 128.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Ll. 169-70, 785-6, 2475-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, <i>Prohemium</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> <i>Altenglische Legenden</i>, <i>Geburt Jesu</i>, ll. 493, 527,
+715, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> <i>Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge</i>, <i>Ypotis</i>, ll.
+613-16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> <i>Osbern Bokenam's Legenden, St. Margaret</i>, ll. 84-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>Mary Magdalen</i>, ll. 245-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> <i>St. Agnes</i>, ll. 13-14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, <i>St. Anne</i>, ll. 209-14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> E.E.T.S., l. 382.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> E.E.T.S., ll. 633-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> E.E.T.S., p. 146, l. 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, pp. 100, 115, 300.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>Life of St. Gilbert</i>, pp. 103, 135. 141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, <i>St. Katherine</i>, l. 49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Preface.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span></p>
+<h2>II. THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span></p>
+<h2>II</h2>
+
+<h2>THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The English Bible took its shape under unusual conditions, which had
+their share in the excellence of the final result. Appealing, as it did,
+to all classes, from the scholar, alert for controversial detail, to the
+unlearned layman, concerned only for his soul's welfare, it had its
+growth in the vital atmosphere of strong intellectual and spiritual
+activity. It was not enough that it should bear the test of the
+scholar's criticism; it must also reach the understanding of Tyndale's
+"boy that driveth the plough," demands difficult of satisfaction, but
+conducive theoretically to a fine development of the art of translation.
+To attain scholarly accuracy combined with practical intelligibility
+was, then, the task of the translator.</p>
+
+<p>From both angles criticism reached him. Tyndale refers to "my
+translation in which they affirm unto the lay people (as I have heard
+say) to be I wot not how many thousand heresies," and continues, "For
+they which in times past were wont to look on no more scripture than
+they found in their duns or such like devilish doctrine, have yet now so
+narrowly looked on my translation that there is not so much as one I
+therein if it lack a tittle over his head, but they have noted it, and
+number it unto the ignorant people for an heresy."<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> Tunstall's
+famous reference in his sermon at Paul's Cross to the two thousand
+errors in Tyndale's Testament suggests the undiscriminating criticism,
+addressed to the popular ear and basing its appeal largely on
+"numbering,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span> of which Tyndale complains. The prohibition of "open
+reasoning in your open Taverns and Alehouses"<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> concerning the
+meaning of Scripture, included in the draft of the proclamation for the
+reading of the Great Bible, also implies that there must have been
+enough of popular oral discussion to count for something in the shaping
+of the English Bible. Of the serious comment of more competent judges
+many records remain, enough to make it clear that, although the real
+technical problems involved were often obscured by controversy and by
+the common view that the divine quality of the original made human
+effort negligible, nevertheless the translator did not lack the stimulus
+which comes from intelligent criticism and discussion.</p>
+
+<p>The Bible also had an advantage over other translations in that the idea
+of <i>progress</i> towards an accurate version early arose. Unlike the
+translators of secular works, who frequently boast of the speed with
+which they have accomplished their tasks, the translators of the Bible
+constantly mention the long, careful labor which has gone to their
+undertaking. Tyndale feels in his own work the need for revision, and so
+far as opportunity serves, corrects and polishes his version. Later
+translators consciously based their renderings on those of their
+predecessors. St. Augustine's approval of diversity of translations was
+cited again and again. Tyndale urges "those that are better seen in the
+tongues than I" to "put to their hands to amend" any faults they may
+find in his work.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> George Joye, his assistant, later his would-be
+rival, declares that we must learn "to depend not whole on any man's
+translation."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> "Every one," says Coverdale, "doth his best to be
+nighest to the mark. And though they cannot all attain thereto yet
+shooteth one nigher than another";<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> and again, "Sure I am that there
+cometh more knowledge and understanding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span> of the scripture by their
+sundry translations than by all our sophistical doctors. For that one
+translateth something obscurely in one place, the same translateth
+another, or else he himself, more manifestly by a more plain
+vocable."<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> Occasionally the number of experimenters awakened some
+doubts; Cromwell suggests that the bishops make a "perfect
+correction";<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> the patent granted him for the printing of the Bible
+advocates one translation since "the frailty of men is such that the
+diversity thereof may breed and bring forth manyfold inconveniences as
+when wilful and heady folks shall confer upon the diversity of the said
+translations";<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> the translators of the version of 1611 have to
+"answer a third cavil ... against us, for altering and amending our
+translations so oft";<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> but the conception of progress was generally
+accepted, and finds fit expression in the preface to the Authorized
+Version: "Yet for all that, as nothing is begun and perfected at the
+same time, and the later thoughts are thought to be wiser: so, if we
+building on their foundation that went before us, and being holpen by
+their labors, do endeavor to make that better which they left so good;
+no man, we are sure, hath cause to mislike us."<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the English translators had more far-reaching opportunities to
+profit by the experiences of others. In other countries than England men
+were engaged in similar labors. The sixteenth century was rich in new
+Latin versions of the Scriptures. The translations of Erasmus, Beza,
+Pagninus, M&uuml;nster, &Eacute;tienne, Montanus, and Tremellius had in turn their
+influence on the English renderings, and Castalio's translation into
+Ciceronian Latin had at least its share of discussion. There was
+constant intercourse between those interested in Bible translation in
+England and on the Continent. English refugees during the persecutions
+fled across the Channel, and towns such as Worms, Zurich, Antwerp,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> and
+Geneva saw the first printing of most of the early English versions of
+the Scriptures. The Great Bible was set up in Paris. Indeed foreign
+printers had so large a share in the English Bible that it seemed
+sometimes advisable to limit their influence. Richard Grafton writes
+ironically to Cromwell regarding the text of the Bible: "Yea and to make
+it yet truer than it is, therefore Dutchmen dwelling within this realm
+go about the printing of it, which can neither speak good English, nor
+yet write none, and they will be both the printers and correctors
+thereof";<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> and Coverdale and Grafton imply a similar fear in the
+case of Regnault, the Frenchman, who has been printing service books,
+when they ask Cromwell that "henceforth he print no more in the English
+tongue, unless he have an Englishman that is learned to be his
+corrector."<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> Moreover, versions of the Scriptures in other languages
+than English were not unknown in England. In 1530 Henry the Eighth was
+led to prohibit "the having of holy scripture, translated into the
+vulgar tongues of English, <i>French</i>, or <i>Dutch</i>."<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> Besides this
+general familiarity with foreign translations and foreign printers, a
+more specific indebtedness must be recognized. More's attack on the book
+"which whoso calleth the New Testament calleth it by a wrong name,
+except they will call it Tyndale's testament or Luther's testament"<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>
+is in some degree justified in its reference to German influence.
+Coverdale acknowledges the aid he has received from "the Dutch
+interpreters: whom (because to their singular gifts and special
+diligence in the Bible) I have been the more glad to follow."<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> The
+preface to the version of 1611 says, "Neither did we think much to
+consult the translators or commentators, Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek,
+or Latin, no, nor the <i>Spanish</i>, <i>French</i>, <i>Italian</i>, or <i>Dutch</i>."<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>
+Doubtless a great part of the debt lay in matters of exegesis, but in
+his familiarity with so great a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span> number of translations into other
+languages and with the discussion centering around these translations,
+it is impossible that the English translator should have failed to
+obtain suggestions, both practical and theoretical, which applied to
+translation rather than to interpretation. Comments on the general aims
+and methods of translation, happy turns of expression in French or
+German which had their equivalents in English idiom, must frequently
+have illuminated his difficulties. The translators of the Geneva Bible
+show a just realization of the truth when they speak of "the great
+opportunity and occasions which God hath presented unto us in this
+Church, by reason of so many godly and learned men; and such diversities
+of translations in divers tongues."<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the general history of Biblical translations, already so frequently
+and so adequately treated, only the barest outline is here necessary.
+The various Anglo-Saxon translations and the Wycliffite versions are
+largely detached from the main line of development. From Tyndale's
+translations to the Authorized Version of 1611 the line is surprisingly
+consecutive, though in the matter of theory an early translator
+occasionally anticipates views which obtain general acceptance only
+after a long period of experiment and discussion. Roughly speaking, the
+theory of translation has as its two extremes, the Roman Catholic and
+the Puritan positions, while the 1611 version, where its preface commits
+itself, compromises on the points at issue.</p>
+
+<p>As is to be expected, the most definite statements of the problems
+involved and of their solution are usually found in the comment of those
+practically engaged in the work of translation. The widely discussed
+question whether or not the people should have the Scriptures in the
+vulgar tongue scarcely ever comes down to the difficulties and
+possibilities of the actual undertaking. More's lengthy attack on
+Tyndale's New Testament is chiefly concerned with matters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span> of doctrine.
+Apart from the prefaces to the various issues of the Bible, the most
+elaborate discussion of technical matters is Fulke's <i>Defence of the
+Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English
+Tongue</i>, a Protestant reply to the claims of the Rhemish translators,
+published in 1589. Even the more definite comments are bound up with a
+great mass of controversial or hortatory material, so that it is hard to
+disentangle the actual contribution which is being made to the theory of
+translation. Sometimes the translator settled vexed questions by using
+marginal glosses, a method which might make for accuracy but was liable
+to become cumbrous and confusing. Like the prefaces, the glosses
+sometimes contained theological rather than linguistic comment, thus
+proving a special source of controversy. A proclamation of Henry the
+Eighth forbids the printing or importation of "any books of divine
+scripture in the English tongue, with any additions in the margin or any
+prologue ... except the same be first viewed, examined, and allowed by
+the king's highness, or such of his majesty's council, or others, as it
+shall please his grace to assign thereto, but only the plain sentence
+and text."<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> The version of 1611 admitted only linguistic comment.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Anglo-Saxon renderings of the Scriptures are for the most
+part isolated from the main body of translations, there are some points
+of contact. Elizabethan translators frequently cited the example of the
+earlier period as an argument in favor of having the Bible in the vulgar
+tongue. Nor were they entirely unfamiliar with the work of these remote
+predecessors. Foxe, the martyrologist, published in 1571 an edition of
+the four gospels in Anglo-Saxon under the patronage of Archbishop
+Parker. Parker's well-known interest in Old English centered
+particularly around the early versions of the Scriptures. Secretary
+Cecil sends the Archbishop "a very ancient Bible written in Latin and
+old English or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span> Saxon," and Parker in reply comments on "the fair
+antique writing with the Saxon interpretation."<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Moreover the slight
+record which survives suggests that the problems which confronted the
+Anglo-Saxon translator were not unlike those which met the translator of
+a later period. Aelfric's theory of translation in general is expressed
+in the Latin prefaces to the <i>Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church</i> and
+the <i>Lives of the Saints</i>. Above all things he desires that his work may
+be clear and readable. Hence he has a peculiar regard for brevity. The
+<i>Homilies</i> are rendered "non garrula verbositate"; the <i>Lives of the
+Saints</i> are abbreviated on the principle that "non semper breuitas
+sermonem deturpat sed multotiens honestiorem reddit." Clear, idiomatic
+English is essential even when it demands the sacrifice of verbal
+accuracy. He presents not word for word but sense for sense, and prefers
+the "pure and open words of the language of this people," to a more
+artificial style. His Anglo-Saxon <i>Preface to Genesis</i> implies that he
+felt the need of greater faithfulness in the case of the Bible: "We dare
+write no more in English than the Latin has, nor change the orders
+(endebirdnisse)"; but it goes on to say that it is necessary that Latin
+idiom adapt itself to English idiom.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p>
+
+<p>Apart from Aelfric's prefaces Anglo-Saxon translators of the Scriptures
+have left no comment on their methods. One of the versions of the
+Gospels, however, links itself with later translations by employing as
+preface three of St. Jerome's prologues, among them the <i>Preface to
+Eusebius</i>. References to Jerome's and Augustine's theories of
+translation are frequent throughout the course of Biblical translation
+but are generally vague. The <i>Preface to Eusebius</i> and the <i>Epistle to
+Pammachius</i> contain the most complete statements of the principles which
+guided Jerome. Both emphasize the necessity of giving sense for sense
+rather than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> word for word, "except," says the latter, "in the case of
+the Holy Scriptures where even the order of the words is a mystery."
+This corresponds closely with Aelfric's theory expressed in the preface
+to the <i>Lives of the Saints</i>: "Nec potuimus in ista translatione semper
+verbum ex verbo transferre, sed tamen sensum ex sensu," and his
+insistence in the <i>Preface to Genesis</i> on a faithfulness which extends
+even to the <i>endebirdnisse</i> or orders.</p>
+
+<p>The principle "word for word if possible; if not, sense for sense" is
+common in connection with medieval translations, but is susceptible of
+very different interpretations, as appears sometimes from its context.
+Richard Rolle's phrasing of the theory in the preface to his translation
+of the Psalter is: "I follow the letter as much as I may. And where I
+find no proper English I follow the wit of the words"; but he also makes
+the contradictory statement, "In this work I seek no strange English,
+but lightest and commonest, and <i>such that is most like to the
+Latin</i>,"<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> a peculiar conception of the translator's obligation to
+his own tongue! The Prologue to the second recension of the Wycliffite
+version, commonly attributed to Purvey, emphasizes, under cover of the
+same apparent theory, the claims of the vernacular. "The best
+translating," it runs, "is out of Latin into English, to translate after
+the sentence, and not only after the words, so that the sentence be as
+open, either opener, in English as in Latin, ... and if the letter may
+not be sued in the translating, let the sentence be ever whole and open,
+for the words owe to serve to the intent and sentence."<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> The growing
+distrust of the Vulgate in some quarters probably accounts in some
+measure for the translator's attempt to make the meaning if necessary
+"more true and more open than it is in the Latin." In any case these
+contrasted theories represent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span> roughly the position of the Roman
+Catholic and, to some extent, the Anglican party as compared with the
+more distinctly Protestant attitude throughout the period when the
+English Bible was taking shape, the former stressing the difficulties of
+translation and consequently discouraging it, or, when permitting it,
+insisting on extreme faithfulness to the original; the latter profiting
+by experiment and criticism and steadily working towards a version which
+would give due heed not only to the claims of the original but to the
+genius of the English language.</p>
+
+<p>Regarded merely as theory, however, a statement like the one just quoted
+obviously failed to give adequate recognition to what the original might
+justly demand, and in that respect justified the fears of those who
+opposed translation. The high standard of accuracy set by such critics
+demanded of the translator an increasing consciousness of the
+difficulties involved and an increasingly clear conception of what
+things were and were not permissible. Purvey himself contributes to this
+end by a definite statement of certain changes which may be allowed the
+English writer.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> Ablative absolute or participial constructions may
+be replaced by clauses of various kinds, "and this will, in many places,
+make the sentence open, where to English it after the word would be dark
+and doubtful. Also," he continues, "a relative, <i>which</i>, may be resolved
+into his antecedent with a conjunction copulative, as thus, <i>which
+runneth</i>, and <i>he runneth</i>. Also when a word is once set in a reason, it
+may be set forth as oft as it is understood, either as oft as reason and
+need ask; and this word <i>autem</i> either <i>vero</i>, may stand for <i>forsooth</i>
+either for <i>but</i>, and thus I use commonly; and sometimes it may stand
+for <i>and</i>, as old grammarians say. Also when rightful construction is
+letted by relation, I resolve it openly, thus, where this reason,
+<i>Dominum formidabunt adversarii ejus</i>, should be Englished thus by the
+letter, <i>the Lord his adversaries shall dread</i>, I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span> English it thus by
+resolution, <i>the adversaries of the Lord shall dread him</i>; and so of
+other reasons that be like." In the later period of Biblical
+translation, when grammatical information was more accessible, such
+elementary comment was not likely to be committed to print, but echoes
+of similar technical difficulties are occasionally heard. Tyndale,
+speaking of the Hebraisms in the Greek Testament, asks his critics to
+"consider the Hebrew phrase ... whose preterperfect tense and present
+tense is both one, and the future tense is the optative mood also, and
+the future tense is oft the imperative mood in the active voice and in
+the passive voice. Likewise person for person, number for number, and
+interrogation for a conditional, and such like is with the Hebrews a
+common usage."<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> The men concerned in the preparation of the Bishops'
+Bible discuss the rendering of tenses in the Psalms. At the beginning of
+the first Psalm the Bishop of Rochester turns "the preterperfect tense
+into the present tense; because the sense is too harsh in the
+preterperfect tense," and the Bishop of Ely advises "the translation of
+the verbs in the Psalms to be used uniformly in one tense."<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p>
+
+<p>Purvey's explanations, however, suggest that his mind is occupied, not
+merely with details, but with a somewhat larger problem. Medieval
+translators were frequently disturbed by the fact that it was almost
+impossible to confine an English version to the same number of words as
+the Latin. When they added to the number, they feared that they were
+unfaithful to the original. The need for brevity, for avoiding
+superfluous words, is especially emphasized in connection with the
+Bible. Conciseness, necessary for accuracy, is also an admirable quality
+in itself. Aelfric's approval of this characteristic has already been
+noted. The metrical preface to Rolle's Psalter reads: "This holy man in
+expounding,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span> he followeth holy doctors, and in all his Englishing right
+after the Latin taketh course, and makes it <i>compendious</i>, <i>short</i>,
+good, and profitable." Purvey says, "Men might expound much openlier and
+<i>shortlier</i> the Bible than the old doctors have expounded it in Latin."
+Besides approving the avoidance of verbose commentary and exposition,
+critics and translators are always on their guard against the employment
+of over many words in translation. Tyndale, in his revision, will "seek
+to bring to compendiousness that which is now translated at the
+length."<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> In certain cases, he says, English reproduces the Hebrew
+original more easily than does the Latin, because in Latin the
+translator must "seek a compass."<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> Coverdale finds a corresponding
+difficulty in turning Latin into English: "The figure called Eclipsis
+divers times used in the scriptures ... though she do garnish the
+sentence in Latin will not so be admitted in other tongues."<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> The
+translator of the Geneva New Testament refers to the "Hebrew and Greek
+phrases, which are strange to render into other tongues, and also
+<i>short</i>."<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> The preface to the Rhemish Testament accuses the
+Protestant translators of having in one place put into the text "three
+words more ... than the Greek word doth signify."<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> Strype says of
+Cheke in a passage chiefly concerned with Cheke's attempt at translation
+of the Bible, "He brought in a <i>short</i> and expressive way of writing
+without long and intricate periods,"<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> a comment which suggests that
+possibly the appreciation of conciseness embraced sentence structure as
+well as phrasing. As Tyndale suggests, careful revision made for
+brevity. In Laurence's scheme for correcting his part of the Bishop's
+Bible was the heading "words superfluous";<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> the preface<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> to the
+Authorized Version says, "If anything be halting, or <i>superfluous</i>, or
+not so agreeable to the original, the same may be corrected, and the
+truth set in place."<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> As time went on, certain technical means were
+employed to meet the situation. Coverdale incloses in brackets words not
+in the Latin text; the Geneva translators put added words in italics;
+Fulke criticizes the Rhemish translators for neglecting this
+device;<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> and the matter is finally settled by its employment in the
+Authorized Version. Fulke, however, irritated by what he considers a
+superstitious regard for the number of words in the original on the part
+of the Rhemish translators, puts the whole question on a common-sense
+basis. He charges his opponents with making "many imperfect sentences
+... because you will not seem to add that which in translation is no
+addition, but a true translation."<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> "For to translate out of one
+tongue into another," he says in another place, "is a matter of greater
+difficulty than is commonly taken, I mean exactly to yield as much and
+no more than the original containeth, when the words and phrases are so
+different, that few are found which in all points signify the same
+thing, neither more nor less, in divers tongues."<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> And again, "Must
+not such particles in translation be always expressed to make the sense
+plain, which in English without the particle hath no sense or
+understanding. To translate precisely out of the Hebrew is not to
+observe the number of words, but the perfect sense and meaning, as the
+phrase of our tongue will serve to be understood."<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the distinguishing characteristics of the Authorized Version, the
+beauty of its rhythm, the vigor of its native Saxon vocabulary, there is
+little to prepare one in the comment of its translators or their
+predecessors. Apparently the faithful effort to render the original
+truly resulted in a perfection of style of which the translator himself
+was largely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span> unconscious. The declaration in the preface to the version
+of 1611 that "niceness in words was always counted the next step to
+trifling,"<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> and the general condemnation of Castalio's "lewd
+translation,"<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> point to a respect for the original which made the
+translator merely a mouthpiece and the English language merely a medium
+for a divine utterance. Possibly there is to be found in appreciation of
+the style of the original Hebrew, Greek, or Latin some hint of what gave
+the English version its peculiar beauty, though even here it is hard to
+distinguish the tribute paid to style from that paid to content. The
+characterization may be only a bit of vague comparison like that in the
+preface to the Authorized Version, "Hebrew the ancientest, ... Greek the
+most copious, ... Latin the finest,"<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> or the reference in the
+preface to the Rhemish New Testament to the Vulgate as the translation
+"of greatest majesty."<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> The prefaces to the Geneva New Testament and
+the Geneva Bible combine fairly definite linguistic comment with less
+obvious references to style: "And because the Hebrew and Greek phrases,
+which are hard to render in other tongues, and also short, should not be
+so hard, I have sometimes interpreted them without any whit diminishing
+the <i>grace</i> of the sense, as our language doth use them";<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> "Now as
+we have chiefly observed the sense, and labored always to restore it to
+all integrity, so have we most reverently kept the propriety of the
+words, considering that the Apostles who spoke and wrote to the Gentiles
+in the Greek tongue, rather constrained them to the lively phrase of the
+Hebrew, than enterprised far by mollifying their language to speak as
+the Gentiles did. And for this and other causes we have in many places
+reserved the Hebrew phrases, notwithstanding that they may seem somewhat
+hard in their ears that are not well practised and also <i>delight in the
+sweet sounding phrases</i> of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span> the holy Scriptures."<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> On the other hand
+the Rhemish translators defend the retention of these Hebrew phrases on
+the ground of stylistic beauty: "There is a certain majesty and more
+signification in these speeches, and therefore both Greek and Latin keep
+them, although it is no more the Greek or Latin phrase, than it is the
+English."<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> Of peculiar interest is Tyndale's estimate of the
+relative possibilities of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English. Of the
+Bible he writes: "They will say it cannot be translated into our tongue,
+it is so rude. It is not so rude as they are false liars. For the Greek
+tongue agreeth more with the English than with the Latin. And the
+properties of the Hebrew tongue agreeth a thousand times more with the
+English than with the Latin. The manner of speaking is both one; so that
+in a thousand places thou needest not but to translate it into the
+English word for word; when thou must seek a compass in the Latin, and
+yet shalt have much work to translate it well-favoredly, so that it have
+the same grace and sweetness, sense and pure understanding with it in
+the Latin, and as it hath in the Hebrew."<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> The implication that the
+English version might possess the "grace and sweetness" of the Hebrew
+original suggests that Tyndale was not entirely unconscious of the charm
+which his own work possessed, and which it was to transmit to later
+renderings.</p>
+
+<p>The questions most definitely discussed by those concerned in the
+translation of the Bible were questions of vocabulary. Primarily most of
+these discussions centered around points of doctrine and were concerned
+as largely with the meaning of the word in the original as with its
+connotation in English. Yet though not in their first intention
+linguistic, these discussions of necessity had their bearing on the
+general problems debated by rhetoricians of the day and occasionally
+resulted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> in definite comment on English usage, as when, for example,
+More says: "And in our English tongue this word senior signifieth
+nothing at all, but is a French word used in English more than half in
+mockage, when one will call another my lord in scorn." With the
+exception of Sir John Cheke few of the translators say anything which
+can be construed as advocacy of the employment of native English words.
+Of Cheke's attitude there can, of course, be no doubt. His theory is
+thus described by Strype: "And moreover, in writing any discourse, he
+would allow no words, but such as were pure English, or of Saxon
+original; suffering no adoption of any foreign word into the English
+speech, which he thought was copious enough of itself, without borrowing
+words of other countries. Thus in his own translations into English, he
+would not use any but pure English phrase and expression, which indeed
+made his style here and there a little affected and hard: and forced him
+to use sometimes odd and uncouth words."<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> His Biblical translation
+was a conscious attempt at carrying out these ideas. "Upon this
+account," writes Strype, "Cheke seemed to dislike the English
+translation of the Bible, because in it there were so many foreign
+words. Which made him once attempt a new translation of the New
+Testament, and he completed the gospel of St. Matthew. And made an
+entrance into St. Mark; wherein all along he labored to use only true
+Anglo-Saxon words."<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> Since Cheke's translation remained in
+manuscript till long after the Elizabethan period, its influence was
+probably not far-reaching, but his uncompromising views must have had
+their effect on his contemporaries. Taverner's Bible, a less extreme
+example of the same tendency, seemingly had no influence on later
+renderings.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span></p><p>Regarding the value of synonyms there is considerable comment, the
+prevailing tendency of which is not favorable to unnecessary
+discrimination between pairs of words. This seems to be the attitude of
+Coverdale in two somewhat confused passages in which he attempts to
+consider at the same time the signification of the original word, the
+practice of other translators, and the facts of English usage. Defending
+diversities of translations, he says, "For that one interpreteth
+something obscurely in one place, the same translateth another, or else
+he himself, more manifestly by a more plain vocable of the same meaning
+in another place."<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> As illustrations Coverdale mentions scribe and
+lawyer; elders, and father and mother; repentance, penance, and
+amendment; and continues: "And in this manner have I used in my
+translation, calling it in one place penance that in another place I
+call repentance; and that not only because the interpreters have done so
+before me, but that the adversaries of the truth may see, how that we
+abhor not this word penance as they untruly report of us, no more than
+the interpreters of Latin abhor poenitare, when they read rescipiscere."
+In the preface to the Latin-English Testament of 1535 he says: "And
+though I seem to be all too scrupulous calling it in one place penance,
+that in another I call repentance: and gelded that another calleth
+chaste, this methinks ought not to offend the saying that the holy ghost
+(I trust) is the author of both our doings ... and therefore I heartily
+require thee think no more harm in me for calling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span> it in one place
+penance that in another I call repentance, than I think harm in him that
+calleth it chaste, which by the nature of this word <i>Eunuchus</i> I call
+gelded ... And for my part I ensure thee I am indifferent to call it as
+well with one term as with the other, so long as I know that it is no
+prejudice nor injury to the meaning of the holy ghost."<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> Fulke in
+his answer to Gregory Martin shows the same tendency to ignore
+differences in meaning. Martin says: "Note also that they put the word
+'just,' when faith is joined withal, as Rom. i, 'the just shall live by
+faith,' to signify that justification is by faith. But if works be
+joined withal and keeping the commandments, as in the place alleged,
+Luke i, there they say 'righteous' to suppose justification by works."
+Fulke replies: "This is a marvellous difference, never heard of (I
+think) in the English tongue before, between 'just' and 'righteous,'
+'justice' and 'righteousness.' I am sure there is none of our
+translators, no, nor any professor of justification by faith only, that
+esteemeth it the worth of one hair, whether you say in any place of
+scripture 'just' or 'righteous,' 'justice' or 'righteousness'; and
+therefore freely have they used sometimes the one word, sometimes the
+other.... Certain it is that no Englishman knoweth the difference
+between 'just' and 'righteous,' 'unjust' and 'unrighteous,' saving that
+'righteousness' and 'righteous' are the more familiar English
+words."<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> Martin and Fulke differ in the same way over the use of the
+words "deeds" and "works." The question whether the same English word
+should always be used to represent the same word in the original was
+frequently a matter of discussion. It was probably in the mind of the
+Archbishop of Ely when he wrote to Archbishop Parker, "And if ye
+translate bonitas or misericordiam, to use it likewise in all places of
+the Psalms."<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> The surprising amount of space devoted by the preface
+to the version of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span> 1611 to explaining the usage followed by the
+translators gives some idea of the importance attaching to the matter.
+"We have not tied ourselves," they say, "to an uniformity of phrasing,
+or to an identity of words, as some peradventure would wish that we had
+done, because they observe, that some learned men somewhere, have been
+as exact as they could that way. Truly, that we might not vary from the
+sense of that which we had translated before, if the word signified the
+same in both places (for there be some words that be not of the same
+sense everywhere) we were especially careful, and made a conscience,
+according to our duty. But that we should express the same notion in the
+same particular word; as for example, if we translate the <i>Hebrew</i> or
+<i>Greek</i> word once by <i>Purpose</i>, never to call it <i>Intent</i>; if one where
+<i>Journeying</i>, never <i>Travelling</i>; if one where <i>Think</i>, never <i>Suppose</i>;
+if one where <i>Pain</i>, never <i>Ache</i>; if one where <i>Joy</i>, never <i>Gladness</i>,
+etc. Thus to mince the matter, we thought to savor more of curiosity
+than wisdom.... For is the kingdom of God become words or syllables? why
+should we be in bondage to them if we may be free, use one precisely
+when we may use another no less fit, as commodiously?"<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was seldom, however, that the translator felt free to interchange
+words indiscriminately. Of his treatment of the original Purvey writes:
+"But in translating of words equivocal, that is, that hath many
+significations under one letter, may lightly be peril, for Austin saith
+in the 2nd. book of Christian Teaching, that if equivocal words be not
+translated into the sense, either understanding, of the author, it is
+error; as in that place of the Psalm, <i>the feet of them be swift to shed
+out blood</i>, the Greek word is equivocal to <i>sharp</i> and <i>swift</i>, and he
+that translated <i>sharp feet</i> erred, and a book that hath <i>sharp feet</i> is
+false, and must be amended; as that sentence <i>unkind young trees shall
+not give deep roots</i> oweth to be thus, <i>the plantings of adultery shall
+not give deep roots</i>....<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> Therefore a translator hath great need to
+study well the sentence, both before and after, and look that such
+equivocal words accord with the sentence."<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> Consideration of the
+connotation of English words is required of the translators of the
+Bishops' Bible. "Item that all such words as soundeth in the Old
+Testament to any offence of lightness or obscenity be expressed with
+more convenient terms and phrases."<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> Generally, however, it was the
+theological connotation of words that was at issue, especially the
+question whether words were to be taken in their ecclesiastical or their
+profane sense, that is, whether certain words which through long
+association with the church had come to have a peculiar technical
+meaning should be represented in English by such words as the church
+habitually employed, generally words similar in form to the Latin. The
+question was a large one, and affected other languages than English.
+Foxe, for example, has difficulty in turning into Latin the controversy
+between Archbishop Cranmer and Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. "The
+English style also stuck with him; which having so many ecclesiastical
+phrases and manners of speech, no good Latin expressions could be found
+to answer them."<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> In England trouble arose with the appearance of
+Tyndale's New Testament. More accused him of mistranslating "three words
+of great weight,"<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> priests, church, and charity, for which he had
+substituted <i>seniors</i>, <i>congregation</i>, and <i>love</i>. Robert Ridley,
+chaplain to the Bishop of London, wrote of Tyndale's version: "By this
+translation we shall lose all these Christian words, penance, charity,
+confession, grace, priest, church, which he always calleth a
+congregation.&mdash;Idolatria calleth he worshipping of images."<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> Much
+longer is the list of words presented to Convocation some years later by
+the Bishop of Winchester "which he desired for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span> their germane and native
+meaning and for the majesty of their matter might be retained as far as
+possible in their own nature or be turned into English speech as closely
+as possible."<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> It goes so far as to include words like Pontifex,
+Ancilla, Lites, Egenus, Zizania. This theory was largely put into
+practice by the translators of the Rhemish New Testament, who say, "We
+are very precise and religious in following our copy, the old vulgar
+approved Latin: not only in sense, which we hope we always do, but
+sometimes in the very words also and phrases,"<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> and give as
+illustrations of their usage the retention of Corbana, Parasceve,
+Pasche, Azymes, and similar words. Between the two extreme positions
+represented by Tyndale on the one hand and the Rhemish translators on
+the other, is the attitude of Grindal, who thus advises Foxe in the case
+previously mentioned: "In all these matters, as also in most others, it
+will be safe to hold a middle course. My judgment is the same with
+regard to style. For neither is the ecclesiastical style to be
+fastidiously neglected, as it is by some, especially when the heads of
+controversies cannot sometimes be perspicuously explained without it,
+nor, on the other hand, is it to be so superstitiously followed as to
+prevent us sometimes from sprinkling it with the ornaments of
+language."<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> The Authorized Version, following its custom, approves
+the middle course: "We have on the one side avoided the scrupulosity of
+the Puritans, who leave the old Ecclesiastical words, and betake
+themselves to other, as when they put <i>washing</i> for <i>Baptism</i>, and
+<i>Congregation</i> instead of <i>Church</i>: as also on the other side we have
+shunned the obscurity of the Papists, in their <i>Azimes</i>, <i>Tunike</i>,
+<i>Rational</i>, <i>Holocausts</i>, <i>Praepuce</i>, <i>Pasche</i>, and a number of such
+like."<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the interval between Tyndale's translation and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> appearance of the
+Authorized Version the two parties shifted their ground rather
+amusingly. More accuses Tyndale of taking liberties with the prevailing
+English usage, especially when he substitutes congregation for church,
+and insists that the people understand by <i>church</i> what they ought to
+understand. "This is true," he says, "of the usual signification of
+these words themselves in the English tongue, by the common custom of us
+English people, that either now do use these words in our language, or
+that have used before our days. And I say that this common custom and
+usage of speech is the only thing by which we know the right and proper
+signification of any word, in so much that if a word were taken out of
+Latin, French, or Spanish, and were for lack of understanding of the
+tongue from whence it came, used for another thing in English than it
+was in the former tongue: then signifieth it in England none other thing
+than as we use it and understand thereby, whatsoever it signify anywhere
+else. Then say I now that in England this word congregation did never
+signify the number of Christian people with a connotation or
+consideration of their faith or christendom, no more than this word
+assemble, which hath been taken out of the French, and now is by custom
+become English, as congregation is out of the Latin."<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> Later he
+returns to the charge with the words, "And then must he with his
+translation make us an English vocabulary too."<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> In the later
+period, however, the positions are reversed. The conservative party,
+represented by the Rhemish translators, admit that they are employing
+unfamiliar words, but say that it is a question of faithfulness to
+originals, and that the new words "will easily grow to be current and
+familiar,"<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> a contention not without basis when one considers how
+much acceptance or rejection by the English Bible could affect the
+status of a word. Moreover the introduction of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> new words into the
+Scriptures had its parallel in the efforts being made elsewhere to
+enrich the language. The Rhemish preface, published in 1582, almost
+contemporaneously with Lyly's <i>Euphues</i> and Sidney's <i>Arcadia</i>,
+justifies its practice thus: "And why should we be squamish at new words
+or phrases in the Scripture, which are necessary: when we do easily
+admit and follow new words coined in court and in courtly or other
+secular writings?"<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a></p>
+
+<p>The points at issue received their most thorough consideration in the
+controversy between Gregory Martin and William Fulke. Martin, one of the
+translators of the Rhemish Testament, published, in 1582, <i>A Discovery
+of the Manifold Corruptions of the Holy Scriptures by the Heretics of
+our Days</i>, a book in which apparently he attacked all the Protestant
+translations with which he was familiar, including Beza's Latin
+Testament and even attempting to involve the English translators in the
+same condemnation with Castalio. Fulke, in his <i>Defence of the Sincere
+and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures</i>, reprinted Martin's
+<i>Discovery</i> and replied to it section by section. Both discussions are
+fragmentary and inconsecutive, but there emerges from them at intervals
+a clear statement of principles. Fundamentally the positions of the two
+men are very different. Martin is not concerned with questions of
+abstract scholarship, but with matters of religious belief. "But because
+these places concern no controversy," he says, "I say no more."<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> He
+does not hesitate to place the authority of the Fathers before the
+results of contemporary scholarship. "For were not he a wise man, that
+would prefer one Master Humfrey, Master Fulke, Master Whitakers, or some
+of us poor men, because we have a little smack of the three tongues,
+before St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, St. Augustine, St. Gregory, or St.
+Thomas, that understood well none but one?"<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> Since his field is thus
+narrowed, he finds it easy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span> to lay down definite rules for translation.
+Fulke, on the other hand, believes that translation may be dissociated
+from matters of belief. "If the translator's purpose were evil, yet so
+long as the words and sense of the original tongue will bear him, he
+cannot justly be called a false and heretical translator, albeit he have
+a false and heretical meaning."<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> He is not willing to accept
+unsupported authority, even that of the leaders of his own party. "If
+Luther misliked the Tigurine translation," he says in another attack on
+the Rhemish version, "it is not sufficient to discredit it, seeing
+truth, and not the opinion or authority of men is to be followed in such
+matters,"<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> and again, in the <i>Defence</i>, "The Geneva bibles do not
+profess to translate out of Beza's Latin, but out of the Hebrew and
+Greek; and if they agree not always with Beza, what is that to the
+purpose, if they agree with the truth of the original text?"<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>
+Throughout the <i>Defence</i> he is on his guard against Martin's attempts to
+drive him into unqualified acceptance of any set formula of translation.</p>
+
+<p>The crux of the controversy was the treatment of ecclesiastical words.
+Martin accuses the English translators of interpreting such words in
+their "etymological" sense, and consulting profane writers, Homer,
+Pliny, Tully, Virgil,<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> for their meaning, instead of observing the
+ecclesiastical use, which he calls "the usual taking thereof in all
+vulgar speech and writing."<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> Fulke admits part of Martin's claim:
+"We have also answered before that words must not always be translated
+according to their original and general signification, but according to
+such signification as by use they are appropried to be taken. We agree
+also, that words taken by custom of speech into an ecclesiastical
+meaning are not to be altered into a strange or profane
+signification."<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> But ecclesiastical authority is not always a safe
+guide. "How the fathers of the church have used words, it is no rule for
+translators of the scriptures to follow; who oftentimes used words as
+the people did take them, and not as they signified in the apostles'
+time."<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> In difficult cases there is a peculiar advantage in
+consulting profane writers, "who used the words most indifferently in
+respect of our controversies of which they were altogether
+ignorant."<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> Fulke refuses to be reduced to accept entirely either
+the "common" or the "etymological" interpretation. "A translator that
+hath regard to interpret for the ignorant people's instruction, may
+sometimes depart from the etymology or common signification or precise
+turning of word for word, and that for divers causes."<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> To one
+principle, however, he will commit himself: the translator must observe
+common English usage. "We are not lords of the common speech of men," he
+writes, "for if we were, we would teach them to use their terms more
+properly; but seeing we cannot change the use of speech, we follow
+Aristotle's counsel, which is to speak and use words as the common
+people useth."<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> Consequently ecclesiastical must always give way to
+popular usage. "Our meaning is not, that if any Greek terms, or words of
+any other language, have of long time been usurped in our English
+language, the true meaning of which is unknown at this day to the common
+people, but that the same terms may be either in translation or
+exposition set out plainly, to inform the simplicity of the ignorant, by
+such words as of them are better understood. Also when those terms are
+abused by custom of speech, to signify some other thing than they were
+first appointed for, or else to be taken ambiguously for divers things,
+we ought not to be superstitious in these cases, but to avoid
+misunderstanding we may use words according<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span> to their original
+signification, as they were taken in such time as they were written by
+the instruments of the Holy Ghost."<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a></p>
+
+<p>Fulke's support of the claims of the English language is not confined to
+general statements. Acquaintance with other languages has given him a
+definite conception of the properties of his own, even in matters of
+detail. He resents the importation of foreign idiom. "If you ask for the
+readiest and most proper English of these words, I must answer you, 'an
+image, a worshipper of images, and worshipping of images,' as we have
+sometimes translated. The other that you would have, 'idol, idolater,
+and idolatry,' be rather Greekish than English words; which though they
+be used by many Englishmen, yet are they not understood of all as the
+other be."<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> "You ... avoid the names of elders, calling them
+ancients, and the wise men sages, as though you had rather speak French
+than English, as we do; like as you translate <i>confide</i>, 'have a good
+heart,' after the French phrase, rather than you would say as we do, 'be
+of good comfort.'"<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> Though he admits that English as compared with
+older languages is defective in vocabulary, he insists that this cannot
+be remedied by unwarranted coinage of words. "That we have no greater
+change of words to answer so many of the Hebrew tongue, it is of the
+riches of that tongue, and the poverty of our mother language, which
+hath but two words, image and idol, and both of them borrowed of the
+Latin and Greek: as for other words equivalent, we know not any, and we
+are loth to make any new words of that signification, except the
+multitude of Hebrew words of the same sense coming together do sometimes
+perhaps seem to require it. Therefore as the Greek hath fewer words to
+express this thing than the Hebrew, so hath the Latin fewer than the
+Greek, and the English fewest of all, as will appear if you would
+undertake to give us<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> English words for the thirteen Hebrew words:
+except you would coin such ridiculous inkhorn terms, as you do in the
+New Testament, Azymes, prepuce, neophyte, sandale, parasceve, and such
+like."<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> "When you say 'evangelized,' you do not translate, but feign
+a new word, which is not understood of mere English ears."<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></p>
+
+<p>Fulke describes himself as never having been "of counsel with any that
+translated the scriptures into English,"<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> but his works were
+regarded with respect, and probably had considerable influence on the
+version of 1611.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> Ironically enough, they did much to familiarize
+the revisers with the Rhemish version and its merits. On the other hand,
+Fulke's own views had a distinct value. Though on some points he is
+narrowly conservative, and though some of the words which he condemns
+have established themselves in the language nevertheless most of his
+ideas regarding linguistic usage are remarkably sound, and, like those
+of More, commend themselves to modern opinion.</p>
+
+<p>Between the translators of the Bible and the translators of other works
+there were few points of contact. Though similar problems confronted
+both groups, they presented themselves in different guises. The question
+of increasing the vocabulary, for example, is in the case of biblical
+translation so complicated by the theological connotation of words as to
+require a treatment peculiar to itself. Translators of the Bible were
+scarcely ever translators of secular works and vice versa. The chief
+link between the two kinds of translation is supplied by the metrical
+versions of the Psalms. Such verse translations were counted of
+sufficient importance to engage the efforts of men like Parker and
+Coverdale, influential in the main course of Bible translation. Men like
+Thomas Norton, the translator of Calvin's <i>Institutes</i>, Richard
+Stanyhurst, the translator of <i>Virgil</i>, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span> others of greater literary
+fame, Wyatt, Surrey, Sidney, Milton, Bacon, experimented, as time went
+on, with these metrical renderings. The list even includes the name of
+King James.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p>
+
+<p>At first there was some idea of creating for such songs a vogue in
+England like that which the similar productions of Marot had enjoyed at
+the French court. Translators felt free to choose what George Wither
+calls "easy and passionate Psalms," and, if they desired, create
+"elegant-seeming paraphrases ... trimmed ... up with rhetorical
+illustrations (suitable to their fancies, and the changeable garb of
+affected language)."<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> The expectations of courtly approbation were,
+however, largely disappointed, but the metrical Psalms came, in time, to
+have a wider and more democratic employment. Complete versions of the
+Psalms in verse came to be regarded as a suitable accompaniment to the
+Bible, until in the Scottish General Assembly of 1601 the proposition
+for a new translation of the Bible was accompanied by a parallel
+proposition for a correction of the Psalms in metre.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p>
+
+<p>Besides this general realization of the practical usefulness of these
+versions in divine service, there was in some quarters an appreciation
+of the peculiar literary quality of the Psalms which tended to express
+itself in new attempts at translation. Arthur Golding, though not
+himself the author of a metrical version, makes the following comment:
+"For whereas the other parts of holy writ (whether they be historical,
+moral, judicial, ceremonial, or prophetical) do commonly set down their
+treatises in open and plain declaration: this part consisting of them
+all, wrappeth up things<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> in types and figures, describing them under
+borrowed personages, and oftentimes winding in matters of prevention,
+speaking of things to come as if they were past or present, and of
+things past as if they were in doing, and every man is made a betrayer
+of the secrets of his own heart. And forasmuch as it consisteth chiefly
+of prayer and thanksgiving, or (which comprehendeth them both) of
+invocation, which is a communication with God, and requireth rather an
+earnest and devout lifting up of the mind than a loud or curious
+utterance of the voice: there be many imperfect sentences, many broken
+speeches, and many displaced words: according as the party that prayed,
+was either prevented with the swiftness of his thoughts, or interrupted
+with vehemency of joy or grief, or forced to surcease through infirmity,
+that he might recover more strength and cheerfulness by interminding
+God's former promises and benefits."<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> George Wither finds that the
+style of the Psalms demands a verse translation. "The language of the
+Muses," he declares, "in which the Psalms were originally written, is
+not so properly expressed in the prose dialect as in verse." "I have
+used some variety of verse," he explains, "because prayers, praises,
+lamentations, triumphs, and subjects which are pastoral, heroical,
+elegiacal, and mixed (all which are found in the Psalms) are not
+properly expressed in one sort of measure."<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a></p>
+
+<p>Besides such perception of the general poetic quality of the Psalms as
+is found in Wither's comment, there was some realization that metrical
+elements were present in various books of Scripture. Jerome, in his
+<i>Preface to Job</i>, had called attention to this,<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> but the regular
+translators, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> references to Jerome, though frequent, are somewhat
+vague, apparently made nothing of the suggestion. Elsewhere, however,
+there was an attempt to justify the inclusion of translations of the
+Psalms among other metrical experiments. Googe, defending the having of
+the Psalms in metre, declares that Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other parts of
+the Bible "were written by the first authors in perfect and pleasant
+hexameter verses."<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> Stanyhurst<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> and Fraunce<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> both tried
+putting the Psalms into English hexameters. There was, however, no
+accurate knowledge of the Hebrew verse system. The preface to the
+American <i>Bay Psalm Book</i>, published in 1640,<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> explains that "The
+psalms are penned in such verses as are suitable to the poetry of the
+Hebrew language, and not in the common style of such other books of the
+Old Testament as are not poetical.... Then, as all our English songs
+(according to the course of our English poetry) do run in metre, so
+ought David's psalms to be translated into metre, that we may sing the
+Lord's songs, as in our English tongue so in such verses as are familiar
+to an English ear, which are commonly metrical." It is not possible to
+reproduce the Hebrew metres. "As the Lord hath hid from us the Hebrew
+tunes, lest we should think ourselves bound to imitate them; so also the
+course and frame (for the most part) of their Hebrew poetry, that we
+might not think ourselves bound to imitate that, but that every nation
+without scruple might follow as the grave sort of tunes of their own
+country, so the graver sort of verses of their own country's poetry."
+This had already become the common solution of the difficulty, so that
+even Wither keeps to the kinds of verse used in the old Psalm books in
+order that the old tunes may be used.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span></p><p>But though the metrical versions of the Psalms often inclined to
+doggerel, and though they probably had little, if any, influence on the
+Authorized Version, they made their own claims to accuracy, and even
+after the appearance of the King James Bible sometimes demanded
+attention as improved renderings. George Wither, for example, believes
+that in using verse he is being more faithful to the Hebrew than are the
+prose translations. "There is," he says, "a poetical emphasis in many
+places, which requires such an alteration in the grammatical expression,
+as will seem to make some difference in the judgment of the common
+reader; whereas it giveth best life to the author's intention; and makes
+that perspicuous which was made obscure by those mere grammatical
+interpreters, who were not acquainted with the proprieties and liberties
+of this kind of writing." His version is, indeed, "so easy to be
+understood, that some readers have confessed, it hath been instead of a
+comment unto them in sundry hard places." His rendering is not based
+merely on existing English versions; he has "the warrant of best Hebrew
+grammarians, the authority of the Septuagint, and Chaldean paraphrase,
+the example of the ancient and of the best modern prose translators,
+together with the general practice and allowance of all orthodox
+expositors." Like Wither, other translators went back to original
+sources and made their verse renderings real exercises in translation
+rather than mere variations on the accepted English text. From this
+point of view their work had perhaps some value; and though it seems
+regrettable that practically nothing of permanent literary importance
+should have resulted from such repeated experiments, they are
+interesting at least as affording some connection between the sphere of
+the regular translators and the literary world outside.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>Preface to Genesis</i>, in Pollard, <i>Records of the English
+Bible</i>, p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Pollard, p. 266.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 112.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 187.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 205.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Coverdale, <i>Prologue</i> to Bible of 1535.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Pollard, p. 196.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 259.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 365.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Pollard, p. 220.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 239.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 163.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 126.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 203.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 371.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Pollard, p. 280.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Pollard, p. 241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> Strype, <i>Life of Parker</i>, London, 1711, p. 536.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> For a further account of Aelfric's theories, see Chapter
+I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> <i>The Psalter translated by Richard Rolle of Hampole</i>, ed.
+Bramley, Oxford, 1884.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Chapter 15, in Pollard, <i>Fifteenth Century Prose and
+Verse</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <i>Prologue</i>, Chapter 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> <i>Prologue to the New Testament</i>, printed in Matthew's
+Bible, 1551.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Strype, <i>Life of Parker</i>, p. 208.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> Pollard, p. 116.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Obedience of a Christian Man</i>, in
+<i>Doctrinal Treatises</i>, Parker Society, 1848, p. 390.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> Pollard, p. 211.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 277.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 306.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <i>Life of Cheke</i>, p. 212.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Strype, <i>Life of Parker</i>, p. 404.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Pollard, p. 361.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> Fulke, <i>Defence</i>, Parker Society, p. 552.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <i>Defence</i>, p. 552.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 97.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 408.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> Pollard, p. 375.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> E.g., Fulke, <i>Defence</i>, p. 163.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Pollard, p. 349.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 303.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 277.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> Pollard, p. 281.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 309.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Obedience of a Christian Man, Doctrinal
+Treatises</i>, pp. 148-9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> <i>Life of Cheke</i>, p. 212.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 212.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> An interesting comment of later date than the Authorized
+Version is found in the preface to William L'Isle's <i>Divers Ancient
+Monuments of the Saxon Tongue</i>, published in 1638. L'Isle writes: "These
+monuments of reverend antiquity, I mean the Saxon Bibles, to him that
+understandingly reads and well considers the time wherein they were
+written, will in many places convince of affected obscurity some late
+translations." After criticizing the inkhorn terms of the Rhemish
+translators, he says, "The Saxon hath words for Trinity, Unity, and all
+such foreign words as we are now fain to use, because we have forgot
+better of our own." (In J. L. Moore, <i>Tudor-Stuart Views on the Growth,
+Status, and Destiny of the English Language</i>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> <i>Prologue</i> to Bible of 1535.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> Pollard, p. 212.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Fulke, pp. 337-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Pollard, p. 291.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 374.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> <i>Prologue</i>, Chapter 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> Pollard, p. 298.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> Strype, <i>Life of Grindal</i>, Oxford, 1821, p. 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> Pollard, p. 127.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> Pollard, p. 274.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 305.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> Translated in <i>Remains of Archbishop Grindal</i>, Parker
+Society, 1843, p. 234.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> Pollard, pp. 375-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> More, <i>Confutation of Tyndale</i>, <i>Works</i>, p. 417.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 427.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Pollard, p. 307.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> Pollard, p. 291.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> <i>Defence</i>, p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 507.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> <i>Defence</i>, p. 210.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> <i>Confutation of the Rhemish Testament</i>, New York, 1834,
+p. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> <i>Defence</i>, p. 118.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 160.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> <i>Defence</i>, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 162.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 161.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 267.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> <i>Defence</i>, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 179.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> <i>Defence</i>, p. 206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 549.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 89.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> Pollard, <i>Introduction</i>, p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> See Holland, <i>The Psalmists of Britain</i>, London, 1843,
+for a detailed account of such translations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Psalms of David translated into lyric
+verse</i>, 1632, reprinted by the Spenser Society, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> Holland, p. 251.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> <i>Epistle Dedicatory</i>, to <i>The Psalms with M. John
+Calvin's Commentaries</i>, 1571.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> See <i>The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, ed. Schaff and
+Wace, New York, 1893, p. 491.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Holland, Note, p. 89.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Published at the end of his <i>Virgil</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> In <i>The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell</i>, 1591.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> Reprinted, New York, 1903.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span></p>
+<h2>III. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span></p>
+<h2>III</h2>
+
+<h2>THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Elizabethan period presents translations in astonishing number and
+variety. As the spirit of the Renaissance began to inspire England,
+translators responded to its stimulus with an enthusiasm denied to later
+times. It was work that appealed to persons of varying ranks and of
+varying degrees of learning. In the early part of the century, according
+to Nash, "every private scholar, William Turner and who not, began to
+vaunt their smattering of Latin in English impressions."<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> Thomas
+Nicholls, the goldsmith, translated Thucydides; Queen Elizabeth
+translated Boethius. The mention of women in this connection suggests
+how widely the impulse was diffused. Richard Hyrde says of the
+translation of Erasmus's <i>Treatise on the Lord's Prayer</i>, made by
+Margaret Roper, the daughter of Sir Thomas More, "And as for the
+translation thereof, I dare be bold to say it, that whoso list and well
+can confer and examine the translation with the original, he shall not
+fail to find that she hath showed herself not only erudite and elegant
+in either tongue, but hath also used such wisdom, such discreet and
+substantial judgment, in expressing lively the Latin, as a man may
+peradventure miss in many things translated and turned by them that bear
+the name of right wise and very well learned men."<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> Nicholas Udall
+writes to Queen Katherine that there are a number of women in England
+who know Greek and Latin and are "in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> holy scriptures and theology
+so ripe that they are able aptly, cunningly, and with much grace either
+to endite or translate into the vulgar tongue for the public instruction
+and edifying of the unlearned multitude."<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p>
+
+<p>The greatness of the field was fitted to arouse and sustain the ardor of
+English translators. In contrast with the number of manuscripts at
+command in earlier days, the sixteenth century must have seemed
+endlessly rich in books. Printing was making the Greek and Latin
+classics newly accessible, and France and Italy, awake before England to
+the new life, were storing the vernacular with translations and with new
+creations. Translators might find their tasks difficult enough and they
+might flag by the way, as Hoby confesses to have done at the end of the
+third book of <i>The Courtier</i>, but plucking up courage, they went on to
+the end. Hoby declares, with a vigor that suggests Bunyan's Pilgrim, "I
+whetted my style and settled myself to take in hand the other three
+books";<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Edward Hellowes, after the hesitation which he describes in
+the Dedication to the 1574 edition of Guevara's <i>Familiar Epistles</i>,
+"began to call to mind my God, my Prince, my country, and also your
+worship," and so adequately upheld, went on with his undertaking; Arthur
+Golding, with a breath of relief, sees his rendering of Ovid's
+<i>Metamorphoses</i> at last complete.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Through Ovid's work of turned shapes I have with painful pace<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Passed on, until I had attained the end of all my race.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And now I have him made so well acquainted with our tongue,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As that he may in English verse as in his own be sung.<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes the toilsomeness of the journey was lightened by
+companionship. Now and then, especially in the case<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> of religious works,
+there was collaboration. Luther's <i>Commentary on Galatians</i> was
+undertaken by "certain godly men," of whom "some began it according to
+such skill as they had. Others godly affected, not suffering so good a
+matter in handling to be marred, put to their helping hands for the
+better framing and furthering of so worthy a work."<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> From Thomas
+Norton's record of the conditions under which he translated Calvin's
+<i>Institution of the Christian Religion</i>, it is not difficult to feel the
+atmosphere of sympathy and encouragement in which he worked. "Therefore
+in the very beginning of the Queen's Majesty's most blessed reign," he
+writes, "I translated it out of Latin into English, for the commodity of
+the Church of Christ, at the special request of my dear friends of
+worthy memory, Reginald Wolfe and Edward Whitchurch, the one Her
+Majesty's Printer for the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin tongues, the other
+her Highness' Printer of the books of Common Prayer. I performed my work
+in the house of my said friend, Edward Whitchurch, a man well known of
+upright heart and dealing, an ancient zealous Gospeller, as plain and
+true a friend as ever I knew living, and as desirous to do anything to
+common good, specially to the advancement of true religion.... In the
+doing hereof I did not only trust mine own wit or ability, but examined
+my whole doing from sentence to sentence throughout the whole book with
+conference and overlooking of such learned men, as my translation being
+allowed by their judgment, I did both satisfy mine own conscience that I
+had done truly, and their approving of it might be a good warrant to the
+reader that nothing should herein be delivered him but sound, unmingled
+and uncorrupted doctrine, even in such sort as the author himself had
+first framed it. All that I wrote, the grave, learned, and virtuous man,
+M.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span> David Whitehead (whom I name with honorable remembrance) did among
+others, compare with the Latin, examining every sentence throughout the
+whole book. Beside all this, I privately required many, and generally
+all men with whom I ever had any talk of this matter, that if they found
+anything either not truly translated or not plainly Englished, they
+would inform me thereof, promising either to satisfy them or to amend
+it."<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> Norton's next sentence, "Since which time I have not been
+advertised by any man of anything which they would require to be
+altered" probably expresses the fate of most of the many requests for
+criticism that accompany translations, but does not essentially modify
+the impression he conveys of unusually favorable conditions for such
+work. One remembers that Tyndale originally anticipated with some
+confidence a residence in the Bishop of London's house while he
+translated the Bible. Thomas Wilson, again, says of his translation of
+some of the orations of Demosthenes that "even in these my small
+travails both Cambridge and Oxford men have given me their learned
+advice and in some things have set to their helping hand,"<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> and
+Florio declares that it is owing to the help and encouragement of "two
+supporters of knowledge and friendship," Theodore Diodati and Dr.
+Gwinne, that "upheld and armed" he has "passed the pikes."<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a></p>
+
+<p>The translator was also sustained by a conception of the importance of
+his work, a conception sometimes exaggerated, but becoming, as the
+century progressed, clearly and truly defined. Between the lines of the
+dedication which Henry Parker, Lord Morley, prefixes to his translation
+of Petrarch's <i>Triumphs</i>,<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> one reads a pathetic story of an
+appreciation which can hardly have equaled the hopes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> of the author. He
+writes of "one of late days that was groom of the chamber with that
+renowned and valiant prince of high memory, Francis the French king,
+whose name I have forgotten, that did translate these triumphs to that
+said king, which he took so thankfully that he gave to him for his pains
+an hundred crowns, to him and to his heirs of inheritance to enjoy to
+that value in land forever, and took such pleasure in it that
+wheresoever he went, among his precious jewels that book always carried
+with him for his pastime to look upon, and as much esteemed by him as
+the richest diamond he had." Moved by patriotic emulation, Lord Morley
+"translated the said book to that most worthy king, our late sovereign
+lord of perpetual memory, King Henry the Eighth, who as he was a prince
+above all others most excellent, so took he the work very thankfully,
+marvelling much that I could do it, and thinking verily I had not done
+it without help of some other, better knowing in the Italian tongue than
+I; but when he knew the very truth, that I had translated the work
+myself, he was more pleased therewith than he was before, and so what
+his highness did with it is to me unknown."</p>
+
+<p>Hyperbole in estimating the value of the translator's work is not common
+among Lord Morley's successors, but their very recognition of the
+secondary importance of translation often resulted in a modest yet
+dignified insistence on its real value. Richard Eden says that he has
+labored "not as an author but as a translator, lest I be injurious to
+any man in ascribing to myself the travail of other."<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> Nicholas
+Grimald qualifies a translation of Cicero as "my work," and immediately
+adds, "I call it mine as Plautus and Terence called the comedies theirs
+which they made out of Greek."<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> Harrington, the translator of
+<i>Orlando</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span> <i>Furioso</i>, says of his work: "I had rather men should see and
+know that I borrow at all than that I steal any, and I would wish to be
+called rather one of the worst translators than one of the meaner
+makers, specially since the Earl of Surrey and Sir Thomas Wiat, that are
+yet called the first refiners of the English tongue, were both
+translators out of the Italian. Now for those that count it such a
+contemptible and trifling matter to translate, I will but say to them as
+M. Bartholomew Clarke, an excellent learned man and a right good
+translator, said in a manner of pretty challenge, in his Preface (as I
+remember) upon the Courtier, which book he translated out of Italian
+into Latin. 'You,' saith he, 'that think it such a toy, lay aside my
+book, and take my author in hand, and try a leaf or such a matter, and
+compare it with mine.'"<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> Philemon Holland, the "translator general"
+of his time, writes of his art: "As for myself, since it is neither my
+hap nor hope to attain to such perfection as to bring forth something of
+mine own which may quit the pains of a reader, and much less to perform
+any action that might minister matter to a writer, and yet so far bound
+unto my native country and the blessed state wherein I have lived, as to
+render an account of my years passed and studies employed, during this
+long time of peace and tranquillity, wherein (under the most gracious
+and happy government of a peerless princess, assisted with so prudent,
+politic, and learned Counsel) all good literature hath had free progress
+and flourished in no age so much: methought I owed this duty, to leave
+for my part also (after many others) some small memorial, that might
+give testimony another day what fruits generally this peaceable age of
+ours hath produced. Endeavored I have therefore to stand in the third
+rank, and bestowed those hours which might be spared from the practice
+of my profession and the necessary cares of life, to satisfy my
+countrymen now living<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span> and to gratify the age ensuing in this
+kind."<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> To Holland's simple acceptance of his rightful place, it is
+pleasant to add the lines of the poet Daniel, whose imagination was
+stirred in true Elizabethan fashion by the larger relations of the
+translator. Addressing Florio, the interpreter of Montaigne to the
+English people, he thanks him on behalf of both author and readers for</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... his studious care<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Who both of him and us doth merit much,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Having as sumptuously as he is rare<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Placed him in the best lodging of our speech,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And made him now as free as if born here,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And as well ours as theirs, who may be proud<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To have the franchise of his worth allowed.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It being the proportion of a happy pen,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Not to b'invassal'd to one monarchy,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But dwell with all the better world of men<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Whose spirits are of one community,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Whom neither Ocean, Deserts, Rocks, nor Sands<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Can keep from th' intertraffic of the mind.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In a less exalted strain come suggestions that the translator's work is
+valuable enough to deserve some tangible recognition. Thomas Fortescue
+urges his reader to consider the case of workmen like himself, "assuring
+thyself that none in any sort do better deserve of their country, that
+none swink or sweat with like pain and anguish, that none in like sort
+hazard or adventure their credit, that none desire less stipend or
+salary for their travail, that none in fine are worse in this age
+recompensed."<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> Nicholas Udall presents detailed reasons why it is to
+be desired that "some able, worthy, and meet persons for doing such
+public benefit to the commonweal as translating of good works<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> and
+writing of chronicles might by some good provision and means have some
+condign sustentation in the same."<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> "Besides," he argues, "that such
+a translator travaileth not to his own private commodity, but to the
+benefit and public use of his country: besides that the thing is such as
+must so thoroughly occupy and possess the doer, and must have him so
+attent to apply that same exercise only, that he may not during that
+season take in hand any other trade of business whereby to purchase his
+living: besides that the thing cannot be done without bestowing of long
+time, great watching, much pains, diligent study, no small charges, as
+well of meat, drink, books, as also of other necessaries, the labor self
+is of itself a more painful and more tedious thing than for a man to
+write or prosecute any argument of his own invention. A man hath his own
+invention ready at his own pleasure without lets or stops, to make such
+discourse as his argument requireth: but a translator must ... at every
+other word stay, and suspend both his cogitation and his pen to look
+upon his author, so that he might in equal time make thrice as much as
+he can be able to translate."</p>
+
+<p>The belief present in the comment of both Fortescue and Udall that the
+work of the translator is of peculiar service to the state is expressed
+in connection with translations of every sort. Richard Taverner declares
+that he has been incited to put into English part of the <i>Chiliades</i> of
+Erasmus by "the love I bear to the furtherance and adornment of my
+native country."<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> William Warde translates <i>The Secrets of Maister
+Alexis of Piemont</i> in order that "as well Englishmen as Italians,
+Frenchmen, or Dutchmen may suck knowledge and profit hereof."<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> John
+Brende, in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span> Dedication of his <i>History of Quintus Curtius</i>, insists
+on the importance of historical knowledge, his appreciation of which has
+made him desire "that we Englishmen might be found as forward in that
+behalf as other nations, which have brought all worthy histories into
+their natural language."<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> Patriotic emulation of what has been done
+in other countries is everywhere present as a motive. Occasionally the
+Englishman shows that he has studied foreign translations for his own
+guidance. Adlington, in his preface to his rendering of <i>The Golden Ass</i>
+of Apuleius, says that he does not follow the original in certain
+respects, "for so the French and Spanish translators have not
+done";<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> Hoby says of his translation of <i>The Courtier</i>, "I have
+endeavored myself to follow the very meaning and words of the author,
+without being misled by fantasy or leaving out any parcel one or other,
+whereof I know not how some interpreters of this book into other
+languages can excuse themselves, and the more they be conferred, the
+more it will perchance appear."<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> On the whole, however, the comment
+confines itself to general statements like that of Grimald, who in
+translating Cicero is endeavoring "to do likewise for my countrymen as
+Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Dutchmen, and other foreigners have
+liberally done for theirs."<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> In spite of the remarkable output
+England lagged behind other countries. Lord Morley complains that the
+printing of a merry jest is more profitable than the putting forth of
+such excellent works as those of Petrarch, of which England has "very
+few or none, which I do lament in my heart, considering that as well in
+French as in the Italian (in the which both tongues I have some little
+knowledge) there is no excellent work in the Latin, but that straightway
+they set it forth in the vulgar."<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> Morley wrote in the early days<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>
+of the movement for translation, but later translators made similar
+complaints. Hoby says in the preface to <i>The Courtier</i>: "In this point
+(I know not by what destiny) Englishmen are most inferior to most of all
+other nations: for where they set their delight and bend themselves with
+an honest strife of matching others to turn into their mother tongue not
+only the witty writings of other languages but also of all philosophers,
+and all sciences both Greek and Latin, our men ween it sufficient to
+have a perfect knowledge to no other end but to profit themselves and
+(as it were) after much pains in breaking up a gap bestow no less to
+close it up again." To the end of the century translation is encouraged
+or defended on the ground that it is a public duty. Thomas Danett is
+urged to translate the <i>History</i> of Philip de Comines by certain
+gentlemen who think it "a great dishonor to our native land that so
+worthy a history being extant in all languages almost in Christendom
+should be suppressed in ours";<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> Chapman writes indignantly of Homer,
+"And if Italian, French, and Spanish have not made it dainty, nor
+thought it any presumption to turn him into their languages, but a fit
+and honorable labor and (in respect of their country's profit and their
+prince's credit) almost necessary, what curious, proud, and poor
+shamefastness should let an English muse to traduce him?"<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p>
+
+<p>Besides all this, the translator's conception of his audience encouraged
+and guided his pen. While translations in general could not pretend to
+the strength and universality of appeal which belonged to the Bible,
+nevertheless taken in the mass and judged only by the comment associated
+with them, they suggest a varied public and a surprising contact with
+the essential interests of mankind. The appeals on title pages and in
+prefaces to all kinds of people,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> from ladies and gentlemen of rank to
+the common and simple sort, not infrequently resemble the calculated
+praises of the advertiser, but admitting this, there still remains much
+that implies a simple confidence in the response of friendly readers.
+Rightly or wrongly, the translator presupposes for himself in many cases
+an audience far removed from academic preoccupations. Richard Eden,
+translating from the Spanish Martin Cortes' <i>Arte de Navigar</i>, says,
+"Now therefore this work of the Art of Navigation being published in our
+vulgar tongue, you may be assured to have more store of skilful
+pilots."<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> Golding's translations of Pomponius Mela and Julius
+Solinus Polyhistor are described as, "Right pleasant and profitable for
+Gentlemen, Merchants, Mariners, and Travellers."<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> Hellowes, with an
+excess of rhetoric which takes from his convincingness, presents
+Guevara's <i>Familiar Epistles</i> as teaching "rules for kings to rule,
+counselors to counsel, prelates to practise, captains to execute,
+soldiers to perform, the married to follow, the prosperous to prosecute,
+and the poor in adversity to be comforted, how to write and talk with
+all men in all matters at large."<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> Holland's honest simplicity gives
+greater weight to a similarly sweeping characterization of Pliny's
+<i>Natural History</i> as "not appropriate to the learned only, but
+accommodate to the rude peasant of the country; fitted for the painful
+artisan in town or city; pertinent to the bodily health of man, woman,
+or child; and in one word suiting with all sorts of people living in a
+society and commonweal."<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> In the same preface the need for replying
+to those who oppose translation leads Holland to insist further on the
+practical applicability of his matter. Alternating his own with his
+critics' position, he writes: "It is a shame (quoth one) that <i>Livy</i>
+speaketh English as he doth; Latinists<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> only owe to be acquainted with
+him: as who should say the soldier were to have recourse to the
+university for military skill and knowledge, or the scholar to put on
+arms and pitch a camp. What should <i>Pliny</i> (saith another) be read in
+English and the mysteries couched in his books divulged; as if the
+husbandman, the mason, carpenter, goldsmith, lapidary, and engraver,
+with other artificers, were bound to seek unto great clerks or linguists
+for instructions in their several arts." Wilson's translation of
+Demosthenes, again, undertaken, it has been said, with a view to rousing
+a national resistance against Spain, is described on the title page as
+"most needful to be read in these dangerous days of all them that love
+their country's liberty."<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p>
+
+<p>Naturally enough, however, especially in the case of translations from
+the Latin and Greek, the academic interest bulks largely in the
+audience, and sometimes makes an unexpected demand for recognition in
+the midst of the more practical appeal. Holland's <i>Pliny</i>, for example,
+addresses itself not only to peasants and artisans but to young
+students, who "by the light of the English ... shall be able more
+readily to go away with the dark phrase and obscure constructions of the
+Latin." Chapman, refusing to be burdened with a popular audience, begins
+a preface with the insidious compliment, "I suppose you to be no mere
+reader, since you intend to read Homer."<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> On the other hand, the
+academic reader, whether student or critic, is, if one accepts the
+translator's view, very much on the alert, anxious to confer the English
+version with the original, either that he may improve his own knowledge
+of the foreign language or that he may pick faults in the new rendering.
+Wilson attacks the critics as "drones and no bees, lubbers and no
+learners," but the fault he finds in these "croaking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> paddocks and
+manifest overweeners of themselves" is that they are "out of reason
+curious judges over the travail and painstaking of others" instead of
+being themselves producers.<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> Apparently there was little fear of the
+indifference which is more discouraging than hostile criticism, and
+though, as is to be expected, it is the hostile criticism that is most
+often reflected in prefaces, there must have been much kindly comment
+like that of Webbe, who, after discussing the relations of Phaer's
+<i>Virgil</i> to the Latin, concludes, "There is not one book among the
+twelve which will not yield you most excellent pleasure in conferring
+the translation with the copy and marking the gallant grace which our
+English speech affordeth."<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such encouragements and incentives are enough to awaken the envy of the
+modern translator. But the sixteenth century had also its peculiar
+difficulties. The English language was neither so rich in resources nor
+so carefully standardized as it has become of later times. It was often
+necessary, indeed, to defend it against the charge that it was not equal
+to translation. Pettie is driven to reply to those who oppose the use of
+the vernacular because "they count it barren, they count it barbarous,
+they count it unworthy to be accounted of."<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> Chapman says in his
+preface to <i>Achilles' Shield</i>: "Some will convey their imperfections
+under his Greek shield, and from thence bestow bitter arrows against the
+traduction, affirming their want of admiration grows from the defect of
+our language, not able to express the copiousness (coppie) and elegancy
+of the original." Richard Greenway, who translated the <i>Annals</i> of
+Tacitus, admits cautiously that his medium is "perchance not so fit to
+set out a piece drawn with so curious a pencil."<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> One cannot,
+indeed, help recognizing that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> as compared with modern English
+Elizabethan English was weak in resources, limited in vocabulary, and
+somewhat uncertain in sentence structure. These disadvantages probably
+account in part for such explanations of the relative difficulty of
+translation as that of Nicholas Udall in his plea that translators
+should be suitably recompensed or that of John Brende in his preface to
+the translation of Quintus Curtius that "in translation a man cannot
+always use his own vein, but shall be compelled to tread in the author's
+steps, which is a harder and more difficult thing to do, than to walk
+his own pace."<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of his difficulties with sentence structure the translator says little,
+a fact rather surprising to the modern reader, conscious as he is of the
+awkwardness of the Elizabethan sentence. Now and then, however, he hints
+at the problems which have arisen in the handling of the Latin period.
+Udall writes of his translation of Erasmus: "I have in some places been
+driven to use mine own judgment in rendering the true sense of the book,
+to speak nothing of a great number of sentences, which by reason of so
+many members, or parentheses, or digressions as have come in places, are
+so long that unless they had been somewhat divided, they would have been
+too hard for an unlearned brain to conceive, much more hard to contain
+and keep it still."<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> Adlington, the translator of <i>The Golden Ass</i>
+of Apuleius, says, "I have not so exactly passed through the author as
+to point every sentence exactly as it is in the Latin."<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> A comment
+of Foxe on his difficulty in translating contemporary English into Latin
+suggests that he at least was conscious of the weakness of the English
+sentence as compared with the Latin. Writing to Peter Martyr of his
+Latin version of the controversy between Cranmer and Gardiner, he says
+of the latter: "In his periods, for the most part, he is so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> profuse,
+that he seems twice to forget himself, rather than to find his end. The
+whole phrase hath in effect that structure that consisting for the most
+part of relatives, it refuses almost all the grace of translation."<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a></p>
+
+<p>Though the question of sentence structure was not given prominence, the
+problem of rectifying deficiencies in vocabulary touched the translator
+very nearly. The possibility of augmenting the language was a vital
+issue in the reign of Elizabeth, but it had a peculiar significance
+where translation was concerned. Here, if anywhere, the need for a large
+vocabulary was felt, and in translations many new words first made their
+appearance. Sir Thomas Elyot early made the connection between
+translation and the movement for increase in vocabulary. In the
+<i>Proheme</i> to <i>The Knowledge which maketh a wise man</i> he explains that in
+<i>The Governor</i> he intended "to augment the English tongue, whereby men
+should ... interpret out of Greek, Latin, or any other tongue into
+English."<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> Later in the century Peele praises the translator
+Harrington,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... well-letter'd and discreet,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That hath so purely naturalized<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Strange words, and made them all free denizens,<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and&mdash;to go somewhat outside the period&mdash;the fourth edition of Bullokar's
+<i>English Expositor</i>, originally designed to teach "the interpretation of
+the hardest words used in our language," is recommended on the ground
+that those who know no language but the mother tongue, but "are yet
+studiously desirous to read those learned and elegant treatises which
+from their native original have been rendered English (of which sort,
+thanks to the company of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span> painful translators we have not a few) have
+here a volume fit for their purposes, as carefully designed for their
+assistance."<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a></p>
+
+<p>Whether, however, the translator should be allowed to add to the
+vocabulary and what methods he should employ were questions by no means
+easy of settlement. As in Caxton's time, two possible means of acquiring
+new words were suggested, naturalization of foreign words and revival of
+words from older English sources. Against the first of these methods
+there was a good deal of prejudice. Grimald in his preface to his
+translation of Cicero's <i>De Officiis</i>, protests against the translation
+that is "uttered with inkhorn terms and not with usual words." Other
+critics are more specific in their condemnation of non-English words.
+Puttenham complains that Southern, in translating Ronsard's French
+rendering of Pindar's hymns and Anacreon's odes, "doth so impudently rob
+the French poet both of his praise and also of his French terms, that I
+cannot so much pity him as be angry with him for his injurious dealing,
+our said maker not being ashamed to use these French words, <i>freddon</i>,
+<i>egar</i>, <i>suberbous</i>, <i>filanding</i>, <i>celest</i>, <i>calabrois</i>, <i>thebanois</i> and
+a number of others, which have no manner of conformity with our language
+either by custom or derivation which may make them tolerable."<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>
+Richard Willes, in his preface to the 1577 edition of Eden's <i>History of
+Travel in the West and East Indies</i>, says that though English literature
+owes a large debt to Eden, still "many of his English words cannot be
+excused in my opinion for smelling too much of the Latin."<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> The list
+appended is not so remote from the modern English vocabulary as that
+which Puttenham supplies. Willes cites "<i>dominators</i>, <i>ponderous</i>,
+<i>ditionaries</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span> <i>portentous</i>, <i>antiques</i>, <i>despicable</i>, <i>solicitate</i>,
+<i>obsequious</i>, <i>homicide</i>, <i>imbibed</i>, <i>destructive</i>, <i>prodigious</i>, with
+other such like, in the stead of <i>lords</i>, <i>weighty</i>, <i>subjects</i>,
+<i>wonderful</i>, <i>ancient</i>, <i>low</i>, <i>careful</i>, <i>dutiful</i>, <i>man-slaughter</i>,
+<i>drunken</i>, <i>noisome</i>, <i>monstrous</i>, &amp;c." Yet there were some advocates of
+the use of foreign words. Florio admits with mock humility that he has
+employed "some uncouth terms as <i>entraine</i>, <i>conscientious</i>, <i>endear</i>,
+<i>tarnish</i>, <i>comport</i>, <i>efface</i>, <i>facilitate</i>, <i>amusing</i>, <i>debauching</i>,
+<i>regret</i>, <i>effort</i>, <i>emotion</i>, and such like," and continues, "If you
+like them not, take others most commonly set by them to expound them,
+since they were set to make such likely French words familiar with our
+English, which may well bear them,"<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> a contention which modern usage
+supports. Nicholas Udall pronounces judicially in favor of both methods
+of enriching the language. "Some there be," he says, "which have a mind
+to renew terms that are now almost worn clean out of use, which I do not
+disallow, so it be done with judgment. Some others would ampliate and
+enrich their native tongue with more vocables, which also I commend, if
+it be aptly and wittily assayed. So that if any other do innovate and
+bring up to me a word afore not used or not heard, I would not dispraise
+it: and that I do attempt to bring it into use, another man should not
+cavil at."<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> George Pettie also defends the use of inkhorn terms.
+"Though for my part," he says, "I use those words as little as any, yet
+I know no reason why I should not use them, for it is indeed the ready
+way to enrich our tongue and make it copious."<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> On the whole,
+however, it was safer to advocate the formation of words from
+Anglo-Saxon sources. Golding says of his translation of Philip of
+Mornay: "Great care hath been taken by forming and deriving of fit names
+and terms out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> fountains of our own tongue, though not altogether
+most usual yet always conceivable and easy to be understood; rather than
+by usurping Latin terms, or by borrowing the words of any foreign
+language, lest the matters, which in some cases are mystical enough of
+themselves by reason of their own profoundness, might have been made
+more obscure to the unlearned by setting them down in terms utterly
+unknown to them."<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> Holland says in the preface to his translation of
+Livy: "I framed my pen, not to any affected phrase, but to a mean and
+popular style. Wherein if I have called again into use some old words,
+let it be attributed to the love of my country's language." Even in this
+matter of vocabulary, it will be noted, there was something of the
+stimulus of patriotism, and the possibility of improving his native
+tongue must have appealed to the translator's creative power. Phaer,
+indeed, alleges as one of his motives for translating Virgil "defence of
+my country's language, which I have heard discommended of many, and
+esteemed of some to be more than barbarous."<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a></p>
+
+<p>Convinced, then, that his undertaking, though difficult, meant much both
+to the individual and to the state, the translator gladly set about
+making some part of the great field of foreign literature, ancient and
+modern, accessible to English readers. Of the technicalities of his art
+he has a good deal to say. At a time when prefaces and dedications so
+frequently established personal relations between author and audience,
+it was natural that the translator also should take his readers into his
+confidence regarding his aims and methods. His comment, however, is
+largely incidental. Generally it is applicable only to the work in hand;
+it does not profess to be a statement, even on a small scale, of what
+translation in general ought to be. There is no discussion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span> in English
+corresponding to the small, but comprehensive treatise on <i>La mani&egrave;re de
+bien traduire d'une langue en autre</i> which &Eacute;tienne Dolet published at
+Lyons in 1540. This casual quality is evidenced by the peculiar way in
+which prefaces in different editions of the same book appear and
+disappear for no apparent reason, possibly at the convenience of the
+printer. It is scarcely fair to interpret as considered, deliberate
+formulation of principles, utterances so unpremeditated and fragmentary.
+The theory which accompanies secular translation is much less clear and
+consecutive than that which accompanies the translation of the Bible.
+Though in the latter case the formulation of theories of translation was
+almost equally incidental, respect for the original, repeated
+experiment, and constant criticism and discussion united to make certain
+principles take very definite shape. Secular translation produced
+nothing so homogeneous. The existence of so many translators, working
+for the most part independently of each other, resulted in a confused
+mass of comment whose real value it is difficult to estimate. It is true
+that the new scholarship with its clearer estimate of literary values
+and its appreciation of the individual's proprietary rights in his own
+writings made itself strongly felt in the sphere of secular translation
+and introduced new standards of accuracy, new definitions of the
+latitude which might be accorded the translator; but much of the old
+freedom in handling material, with the accompanying vagueness as to the
+limits of the translator's function, persisted throughout the time of
+Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases the standards recognized by sixteenth-century translators
+were little more exacting than those of the medieval period. With many
+writers adequate recognition of source was a matter of choice rather
+than of obligation. The English translator might make suitable
+attribution of a work to its author and he might undertake<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> to reproduce
+its substance in its entirety, but he might, on the other hand, fail to
+acknowledge any indebtedness to a predecessor or he might add or omit
+material, since he was governed apparently only by the extent of his own
+powers or by his conception of what would be most pleasing or edifying
+to his readers. To the theory of his art he gave little serious
+consideration. He did not attempt to analyse the style of the source
+which he had chosen. If he praised his author, it was in the
+conventional language of compliment, which showed no real discrimination
+and which, one suspects, often disguised mere advertising. His estimate
+of his own capabilities was only the repetition of the medieval formula,
+with its profession of inadequacy for the task and its claim to have
+used simple speech devoid of rhetorical ornament. That it was nothing
+but a formula was recognized at the time and is good-naturedly pointed
+out in the words of Harrington: "Certainly if I should confess or rather
+profess that my verse is unartificial, the style rude, the phrase
+barbarous, the metre unpleasant, many more would believe it to be so
+than would imagine that I thought them so."<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></p>
+
+<p>This medieval quality, less excusable later in the century when the new
+learning had declared itself, appears with more justification in the
+comment of the early sixteenth century. Though the translator's field
+was widening and was becoming more broadly European, the works chosen
+for translation belonged largely to the types popular in the Middle Ages
+and the comment attached to them was a repetition of timeworn phrases.
+Alexander Barclay, who is best known as the author of <i>The Ship of
+Fools</i>, published in 1508, but who also has to his credit several other
+translations of contemporary moral and allegorical poems from Latin and
+French and even, in anticipation of the newer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span> era, a version of
+Sallust's <i>Jugurthine War</i>, offers his translations of <i>The Ship of
+Fools</i><a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> and of Mancini's <i>Mirror of Good Manners</i><a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> not to the
+learned, who might judge of their correctness, but to "rude people," who
+may hope to be benefited morally by perusing them. He has written <i>The
+Ship of Fools</i> in "common and rural terms"; he does not follow the
+author "word by word"; and though he professes to have reproduced for
+the most part the "sentence" of the original, he admits "sometimes
+adding, sometimes detracting and taking away such things as seemeth me
+unnecessary and superfluous."<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> His contemporary, Lord Berners,
+writes for a more courtly audience, but he professes much the same
+methods. He introduces his <i>Arthur of Little Britain</i>, "not presuming
+that I have reduced it into fresh, ornate, polished English, for I know
+myself insufficient in the facundious art of rhetoric, and also I am but
+a learner of the language of French: howbeit I trust my simple reason
+hath led me to the understanding of the true sentence of the
+matter."<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> Of his translation of Froissart he says, "And in that I
+have not followed mine author word by word, yet I trust I have ensued
+the true report of the sentence of the matter."<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> Sir Francis Bryan,
+under whose direction Berners' translation of <i>The Golden Book of Marcus
+Aurelius</i> was issued in 1535, the year after its author's death,
+expresses his admiration of the "high and sweet styles"<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> of the
+versions in other languages which have preceded this English rendering,
+but similar phrases had been used so often in the characterization of
+undistinguished writings that this comment hardly suggests the new and
+peculiar quality of Guevara's style.</p>
+
+<p>As the century advanced, these older, easier standards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> were maintained
+especially among translators who chose material similar to that of
+Barclay and Berners, the popular work of edification, the novella, which
+took the place of the romance. The purveyors of entertaining narrative,
+indeed, realized in some degree the minor importance of their work as
+compared with that of more serious scholars and acted accordingly. The
+preface to Turbervile's <i>Tragical Tales</i> throws some light on the
+author's idea of the comparative values of translations. He thought of
+translating Lucan, but Melpomene appeared to warn him against so
+ambitious an enterprise, and admitting his unfitness for the task, he
+applied himself instead to this translation "out of sundry
+Italians."<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> Anthony Munday apologizes for his "simple translation"
+of <i>Palmerin d'Oliva</i> by remarking that "to translate allows little
+occasion of fine pen work,"<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> a comment which goes far to account for
+the doubtful quality of his productions in this field.</p>
+
+<p>Even when the translator of pleasant tales ranked his work high, it was
+generally on the ground that his readers would receive from it profit as
+well as amusement; he laid no claim to academic correctness. He
+mentioned or refrained from mentioning his sources at his own
+discretion. Painter, in inaugurating the vogue of the novella, is
+exceptionally careful in attributing each story to its author,<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> but
+Whetstone's <i>Rock of Regard</i> contains no hint that it is translated, and
+<i>The Petit Palace of Pettie his Pleasure</i> conveys the impression of
+original work. "I dare not compare," runs the prefatory <i>Letter to
+Gentlewomen Readers</i> by R. B., "this work with the former Palaces of
+Pleasure, because comparisons are odious, and because they contain
+histories, translated out of grave authors and learned writers; and this
+containeth discourses devised by a green youthful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> capacity, and
+repeated in a manner extempore."<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> It was, again, the personal
+preference of the individual or the extent of his linguistic knowledge
+that determined whether the translator should employ the original
+Italian or Spanish versions of some collections or should content
+himself with an intermediary French rendering. Painter, accurate as he
+is in describing his sources, confesses that he has often used the
+French version of Boccaccio, though, or perhaps because, it is less
+finely written than its original. Thomas Fortescue uses the French
+version for his translation of <i>The Forest</i>, a collection of histories
+"written in three sundry tongues, in the Spanish first by Petrus Mexia,
+and thence done into the Italian, and last into the French by Claudius
+Gringet, late citizen of Paris."<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> The most regrettable latitude of
+all, judging by theoretic standards of translation, was the careless
+freedom which writers of this group were inclined to appropriate.
+Anthony Munday, to take an extreme case, translating <i>Palmerin of
+England</i> from the French, makes a perfunctory apology in his Epistle
+Dedicatory for his inaccuracies: "If you find the translation altered,
+or the true sense in some place of a matter impaired, let this excuse
+answer in default in that case. A work so large is sufficient to tire so
+simple a workman in himself. Beside the printer may in some place let an
+error escape."<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> Fortescue justifies, adequately enough, his omission
+of various tales by the plea that "the lack of one annoyeth not or
+maimeth not the other," but incidentally he throws light on the practice
+of others, less conscientious, who "add or change at their pleasure."</p>
+
+<p>There is perhaps danger of underrating the value of the theory which
+accompanies translations of this sort. The translators have left
+comparatively little comment on their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span> methods, and it may be that now
+and then more satisfactory principles were implicit. Yet even when the
+translator took his task seriously, his prefatory remarks almost always
+betrayed that there was something defective in his theory or careless in
+his execution. Bartholomew Young translates Montemayor's <i>Diana</i> from
+the Spanish after a careful consideration of texts. "Having compared the
+French copies with the Spanish original," he writes, "I judge the first
+part to be exquisite, the other two corruptly done, with a confusion of
+verse into prose, and leaving out in many places divers hard sentences,
+and some leaves at the end of the third part, wherefore they are but
+blind guides of any to be imitated."<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> After this, unhappily, in the
+press of greater affairs he lets the work come from the printer
+unsupervised and presumably full of errors, "the copy being very dark
+and interlined, and I loath to write it out again." Robert Tofte
+addresses his <i>Honor's Academy or the Famous Pastoral of the Fair
+Shepherdess Julietta</i> "to the courteous and judicious reader and to none
+other"; he explains that he refuses to write for "the sottish
+multitude," that monster "who knows not when aught well is or amiss";
+and blames "such idle thieves as do purloin from others' mint what's
+none of their own coin."<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> In spite of this, his preface makes no
+mention of Nicholas de Montreux, the original author, and if it were not
+for the phrase on the title page, "done into English," one would not
+suspect that the book was a translation. The apology of the printer,
+Thomas Creede, "Some faults no doubt there be, especially in the verses,
+and to speak truth, how could it be otherwise, when he wrote all this
+volume (as it were) cursorily and in haste, never having so much leisure
+as to overlook one leaf after he had scribbled the same," stamps Tofte<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span>
+as perhaps a facile, but certainly not a conscientious workman.</p>
+
+<p>Another fashionable form of literature, the popular religious or
+didactic work, was governed by standards of translation not unlike those
+which controlled the fictitious narrative. In the work of Lord Berners
+the romance had not yet made way for its more sophisticated rival, the
+novella. His translation from Guevara, however, marked the beginning of
+a new fashion. While Barclay's <i>Ship of Fools</i> and <i>Mirror of Good
+Manners</i> were addressed, like their medieval predecessors, to "lewd"
+people, with <i>The Golden Book</i> began the vogue of a new type of didactic
+literature, similar in its moral purpose and in its frequent employment
+of narrative material to the religious works of the Middle Ages, but
+with new stylistic elements that made their appeal, as did the novella,
+not to the rustic and unlearned, but to courtly readers. The prefaces to
+<i>The Golden Book</i> and to the translations which succeeded it throw
+little light on the theory of their authors, but what comment there is
+points to methods like those employed by the translators of the romance
+and the novella. Though later translators like Hellowes went to the
+original Spanish, Berners, Bryan, and North employ instead the
+intermediary French rendering. Praise of Guevara's style becomes a
+wearisome repetition of conventional phrases, a rhetorical exercise for
+the English writer rather than a serious attempt to analyze the
+peculiarities of the Spanish. Exaggeratedly typical is the comment of
+Hellowes in the 1574 edition of Guevara's <i>Epistles</i>, where he repeats
+with considerable complacency the commendation of the original work
+which was "contained in my former preface, as followeth. Being furnished
+so fully with sincere doctrine, so unused eloquence, so high a style, so
+apt similitudes, so excellent discourses, so convenient examples, so
+profound sentences, so old antiquities, so ancient histories, such
+variety of matter,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> so pleasant recreations, so strange things alleged,
+and certain parcels of Scripture with such dexterity handled, that it
+may hardly be discerned, whether shall be greater, either thy pleasure
+by reading, or profit by following the same."<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a></p>
+
+<p>Guevara himself was perhaps responsible for the failure of his
+translators to make any formal recognition of responsibility for
+reproducing his style. His fictitious account of the sources of <i>The
+Golden Book</i> is medieval in tone. He has translated, not word for word,
+but thought for thought, and for the rudeness of his original he has
+substituted a more lofty style.<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> His English translators reverse the
+latter process. Hellowes affirms that his translation of the <i>Epistles</i>
+"goeth agreeable unto the Author thereof," but confesses that he wants
+"both gloss and hue of rare eloquence, used in the polishing of the rest
+of his works." North later translated from the French Amyot's
+epoch-making principle: "the office of a fit translator consisteth not
+only in the faithful expressing of his author's meaning, but also in a
+certain resembling and shadowing out of the form of his style and manner
+of his speaking,"<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> but all that he has to say of his <i>Dial of
+Princes</i> is that he has reduced it into English "according to my small
+knowledge and tender years."<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> Here again, though the translator may
+sometimes have tried to adopt newer and more difficult standards, he
+does not make this explicit in his comment.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, however, academic standards of accuracy were not likely to
+make their first appearance in connection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> with fashionable court
+literature; one expects to find them associated rather with the
+translations of the great classical literature, which Renaissance
+scholars approached with such enthusiasm and respect. One of the first
+of these, the translation of the <i>Aeneid</i> made by the Scotch poet, Gavin
+Douglas, appeared, like the translations of Barclay and Berners, in the
+early sixteenth century. Douglas's comment,<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> which shows a good deal
+of conscious effort at definition of the translator's duties, is an odd
+mingling of the medieval and the modern. He begins with a eulogy of
+Virgil couched in the undiscriminating, exaggerated terms of the
+previous period. Unlike the many medieval redactors of the Troy story,
+however, he does not assume the historian's liberty of selection and
+combination from a variety of sources. He regards Virgil as "a per se,"
+and waxes indignant over Caxton's <i>Eneydos</i>, whose author represented it
+as based on a French rendering of the great poet. It is, says Douglas,
+"no more like than the devil and St. Austin." In proof of this he cites
+Caxton's treatment of proper names. Douglas claims, reasonably enough,
+that if he followed his original word for word, the result would be
+unintelligible, and he appeals to St. Gregory and Horace in support of
+this contention. All his plea, however, is for freedom rather than
+accuracy, and one scarcely knows how to interpret his profession of
+faithfulness:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And thus I am constrenyt, as neir I may,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To hald his vers &amp; go nane other way,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Les sum history, subtill word, or the ryme<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Causith me make digressione sum tyme.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Yet whether or not Douglas's "digressions" are permissible, such
+renderings as he illustrates involve no more latitude than is sanctioned
+by the schoolboy's Latin Grammar. He is disturbed by the necessity for
+using more words in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> English than the Latin has, and he feels it
+incumbent upon him to explain,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... sum tyme of a word I mon mak thre,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In witness of this term <i>oppetere</i>.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>English, he says in another place, cannot without the use of additional
+words reproduce the difference between synonymous terms like <i>animal</i>
+and <i>homo</i>; <i>genus</i>, <i>sexus</i>, and <i>species</i>; <i>objectum</i> and <i>subjectum</i>;
+<i>arbor</i> and <i>lignum</i>. Such comment, interesting because definite, is
+nevertheless no more significant than that which had appeared in the
+Purvey preface to the Bible more than a hundred years earlier. One is
+reminded that most of the material which the present-day translator
+finds in grammars of foreign languages was not yet in existence in any
+generally accessible form.</p>
+
+<p>Such elementary aids were, however, in process of formulation during the
+sixteenth century. Mr. Foster Watson quotes from an edition of Mancinus,
+published as early probably as 1520, the following directions for
+putting Latin into English: "Whoso will learn to turn Latin into
+English, let him first take of the easiest Latin, and when he
+understandeth clearly what the Latin meaneth, let him say the English of
+every Latin word that way, as the sentence may appear most clearly to
+his ear, and where the English of the Latin words of the text will not
+make the sentence fair, let him take the English of those Latin words by
+whom (which) the Latin words of the text should be expounded and if that
+(they) will not be enough to make the sentence perfect, let him add more
+English, and that not only words, but also when need requireth, whole
+clauses such as will agree best to the sentence."<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> By the new
+methods of study advocated by men like Cheke and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> Ascham translation as
+practiced by students must have become a much more intelligent process,
+and the literary man who had received such preparatory training must
+have realized that variations from the original such as had troubled
+Douglas needed no apology, but might be taken for granted.</p>
+
+<p>Further help was offered to students in the shape of various literal
+translations from the classics. The translator of Seneca's <i>Hercules
+Furens</i> undertook the work "to conduct by some means to further
+understanding the unripened scholars of this realm to whom I thought it
+should be no less thankful for me to interpret some Latin work into this
+our own tongue than for Erasmus in Latin to expound the Greek."<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a>
+"Neither could I satisfy myself," he continues, "till I had throughout
+this whole tragedy of Seneca so travailed that I had in English given
+verse for verse (as far as the English tongue permits) and word for word
+the Latin, whereby I might both make some trial of myself and as it were
+teach the little children to go that yet can but creep." Abraham
+Fleming, translating Virgil's <i>Georgics</i> "grammatically," expresses his
+original "in plain words applied to blunt capacities, considering the
+expositor's drift to consist in delivering a direct order of
+construction for the relief of weak grammatists, not in attempting by
+curious device and disposition to content courtly humanists, whose
+desire he hath been more willing at this time to suspend, because he
+would in some exact sort satisfy such as need the supply of his
+travail."<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> William Bullokar prefaces his translation of Esop's
+<i>Fables</i> with the words: "I have translated out of Latin into English,
+but not in the best phrase of English, though English be capable of the
+perfect sense thereof, and might be used in the best phrase,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> had not my
+care been to keep it somewhat nearer the Latin phrase, that the English
+learner of Latin, reading over these authors in both languages, might
+the more easily confer them together in their sense, and the better
+understand the one by the other: and for that respect of easy
+conference, I have kept the like course in my translation of Tully's
+<i>Offices</i> out of Latin into English to be imprinted shortly also."<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a></p>
+
+<p>Text books like these, valuable and necessary as they were, can scarcely
+claim a place in the history of literature. Bullokar himself,
+recognizing this, promises that "if God lend me life and ability to
+translate any other author into English hereafter, I will bend myself to
+follow the excellency of English in the best phrase thereof, more than I
+will bend it to the phrases of the language to be translated." In
+avoiding the overliteral method, however, the translator of the classics
+sometimes assumed a regrettable freedom, not only with the words but
+with the substance of his source. With regard to his translation of the
+<i>Aeneid</i> Phaer represents himself as "Trusting that you, my right
+worshipful masters and students of universities and such as be teachers
+of children and readers of this author in Latin, will not be too much
+offended though every verse answer not to your expectation. For (besides
+the diversity between a construction and a translation) you know there
+be many mystical secrets in this writer, which uttered in English would
+show little pleasure and in my opinion are better to be untouched than
+to diminish the grace of the rest with tediousness and darkness. I have
+therefore followed the counsel of Horace, touching the duty of a good
+interpreter, <i>Qui quae desperat nitescere posse, relinquit</i>, by which
+occasion somewhat I have in places omitted, somewhat altered, and some
+things I have expounded, and all to the ease of inferior<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> readers, for
+you that are learned need not to be instructed."<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> Though Jasper
+Heywood's version of <i>Hercules Furens</i> is an example of the literal
+translation for the use of students, most of the other members of the
+group of young men who in 1581 published their translations of Seneca
+protest that they have reproduced the meaning, not the words of their
+author. Alexander Neville, a precocious youth who translated the fifth
+tragedy in "this sixteenth year of mine age," determined "not to be
+precise in following the author word for word, but sometimes by
+addition, sometimes by subtraction, to use the aptest phrases in giving
+the sense that I could invent."<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> Neville's translation is
+"oftentimes rudely increased with mine own simple invention";<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> John
+Studley has changed the first chorus of the <i>Medea</i>, "because in it I
+saw nothing but an heap of profane stories and names of profane
+idols";<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> Heywood himself, since the existing text of the <i>Troas</i> is
+imperfect, admits having "with addition of mine own pen supplied the
+want of some things,"<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> and says that he has also replaced the third
+chorus, because much of it is "heaped number of far and strange
+countries." Most radical of all is the theory according to which Thomas
+Drant translated the <i>Satires</i> of Horace. That Drant could be faithful
+even to excess is evident from his preface to <i>The Wailings of Jeremiah</i>
+included in the same volume with his version of Horace. "That thou
+mightest have this rueful parcel of Scripture pure and sincere, not
+swerved or altered, I laid it to the touchstone, the native tongue. I
+weighed it with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> Chaldee Targum and the Septuaginta. I desired to
+jump so nigh with the Hebrew, that it doth erewhile deform the vein of
+the English, the proprieties of that language and ours being in some
+speeches so much dissemblable." But with Horace Drant pursues a
+different course. As a moralist it is justifiable for him to translate
+Horace because the Latin poet satirizes that wickedness which Jeremiah
+mourned over. Horace's satire, however, is not entirely applicable to
+conditions in England; "he never saw that with the view of his eye which
+his pensive translator cannot but overview with the languish of his
+soul." Moreover Horace's style is capable of improvement, an improvement
+which Drant is quite ready to provide. "His eloquence is sometimes too
+sharp, and therefore I have blunted it, and sometimes too dull, and
+therefore I have whetted it, helping him to ebb and helping him to
+rise." With his reader Drant is equally high-handed. "I dare not warrant
+the reader to understand him in all places," he writes, "no more than he
+did me. Howbeit I have made him more lightsome well nigh by one half (a
+small accomplishment for one of my continuance) and if thou canst not
+now in all points perceive him (thou must bear with me) in sooth the
+default is thine own." After this one is somewhat prepared for Drant's
+remarkable summary of his methods. "First I have now done as the people
+of God were commanded to do with their captive women that were handsome
+and beautiful: I have shaved off his hair and pared off his nails, that
+is, I have wiped away all his vanity and superfluity of matter. Further,
+I have for the most part drawn his private carpings of this or that man
+to a general moral. I have Englished things not according to the vein of
+the Latin propriety, but of his own vulgar tongue. I have interfered (to
+remove his obscurity and sometimes to better his matter) much of mine
+own devising. I have pieced his reason, eked and mended his similitudes,
+mollified his hardness, prolonged his cortall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> kind of speeches, changed
+and much altered his words, but not his sentence, or at least (I dare
+say) not his purpose."<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> Even the novella does not afford examples of
+such deliberate justification of undue liberty with source.</p>
+
+<p>Why such a situation existed may be partially explained. The Elizabethan
+writer was almost as slow as his medieval predecessor to make
+distinctions between different kinds of literature. Both the novella and
+the epic might be classed as "histories," and "histories" were valuable
+because they aided the reader in the actual conduct of life. Arthur
+Golding tells in the preface to his translation of Justin the story of
+how Alexander the Great "coming into a school and finding not Homer's
+works there ... gave the master a buffet with his fist: meaning that the
+knowledge of <i>Histories</i> was a thing necessary to all estates and
+degrees."<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> It was the content of a work that was most important, and
+comment like that of Drant makes us realize how persistent was the
+conception that such content was common property which might be adjusted
+to the needs of different readers. The lesser freedoms of the translator
+were probably largely due to the difficulties inherent in a metrical
+rendering. It is "ryme" that partially accounts for some of Douglas's
+"digressions." Seneca's <i>Hercules Furens</i>, literal as the translation
+purports to be, is reproduced "verse for verse, as far as the English
+tongue permits." Thomas Twyne, who completed the work which Phaer began,
+calls attention to the difficulty "in this kind of translation to
+enforce their rime to another man's meaning."<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> Edward Hake, it is
+not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> unlikely, expresses a common idea when he gives as one of his
+reasons for employing verse rather than prose "that prose requireth a
+more exact labor than metre doth."<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> If one is to believe Abraham
+Fleming, one of the adherents of Gabriel Harvey, matters may be improved
+by the adoption of classical metres. Fleming has translated Virgil's
+<i>Bucolics</i> and <i>Georgics</i> "not in foolish rhyme, the nice observance
+whereof many times darkeneth, corrupteth, perverteth, and falsifieth
+both the sense and the signification, but with due proportion and
+measure."<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></p>
+
+<p>Seemingly, however, the translators who advocated the employment of the
+hexameter made little use of the argument that to do so made it possible
+to reproduce the original more faithfully. Stanyhurst, who says that in
+his translation of the first four books of the <i>Aeneid</i> he is carrying
+out Ascham's wish that the university students should "apply their wits
+in beautifying our English language with heroical verses," chooses
+Virgil as the subject of his experiment for "his peerless style and
+matchless stuff,"<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> leaving his reader with the impression that the
+claims of his author were probably subordinate in the translator's mind
+to his interest in Ascham's theories. Possibly he shared his master's
+belief that "even the best translation is for mere necessity but an evil
+imped wing to fly withal, or a heavy stump leg of wood to go
+withal."<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> In discussion of the style to be employed in the metrical
+rendering there was the same failure to make explicit the connection
+between the original and the translation. Many critics accepted the
+principle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> that "decorum" of style was essential in the translation of
+certain kinds of poetry, but they based their demand for this quality on
+its extrinsic suitability much more than on its presence in the work to
+be translated. In Turbervile's elaborate comment on the style which he
+has used in his translation of the <i>Eclogues</i> of Mantuan, there is the
+same baffling vagueness in his references to the quality of the original
+that is felt in the prefaces of Lydgate and Caxton. "Though I have
+altered the tongue," he says, "I trust I have not changed the author's
+meaning or sense in anything, but played the part of a true interpreter,
+observing that we call Decorum in each respect, as far as the poet's and
+our mother tongue will give me leave. For as the conference between
+shepherds is familiar stuff and homely, so have I shaped my style and
+tempered it with such common and ordinary phrase of speech as countrymen
+do use in their affairs; alway minding the saying of Horace, whose
+sentence I have thus Englished:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To set a manly head upon a horse's neck<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And all the limbs with divers plumes of divers hue to deck,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or paint a woman's face aloft to open show,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And make the picture end in fish with scaly skin below,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I think (my friends) would cause you laugh and smile to see<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How ill these ill-compacted things and numbers would agree.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>For indeed he that shall translate a shepherd's tale and use the talk
+and style of an heroical personage, expressing the silly man's meaning
+with lofty thundering words, in my simple judgment joins (as Horace
+saith) a horse's neck and a man's head together. For as the one were
+monstrous to see, so were the other too fond and foolish to read.
+Wherefore I have (I say) used the common country phrase according to the
+person of the speakers in every Eclogue, as though indeed the man
+himself should tell his tale. If there be anything herein that thou
+shalt happen to mistake, neither blame the learned poet, nor control the
+clownish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> shepherd (good reader) but me that presumed rashly to offer so
+unworthy matter to thy survey."<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> Another phase of "decorum," the
+necessity for employing a lofty style in dealing with the affairs of
+great persons, comes in for discussion in connection with translations
+of Seneca and Virgil. Jasper Heywood makes his excuses in case his
+translation of the <i>Troas</i> has "not kept the royalty of speech meet for
+a tragedy";<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> Stanyhurst praises Phaer for his "picked and lofty
+words";<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> but he himself is blamed by Puttenham because his own words
+lack dignity. "In speaking or writing of a prince's affairs and
+fortunes," writes Puttenham, "there is a certain decorum, that we may
+not use the same terms in their business as we might very well do in a
+meaner person's, the case being all one, such reverence is due to their
+estates."<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> He instances Stanyhurst's renderings, "Aeneas was fain to
+<i>trudge</i> out of Troy" and "what moved Juno to <i>tug</i> so great a captain
+as Aeneas," and declares that the term <i>trudge</i> is "better to be spoken
+of a beggar, or of a rogue, or of a lackey," and that the word <i>tug</i>
+"spoken in this case is so undecent as none other could have been
+devised, and took his first original from the cart." A similar objection
+to the employment of a "plain" style in telling the Troy story was made,
+it will be remembered, in the early fifteenth century by Wyntoun.</p>
+
+<p>The matter of decorum was to receive further attention in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In general, however, the comment
+associated with verse translations does not anticipate that of later
+times and is scarcely more significant than that which accompanies the
+novella. So long, indeed, as the theory of translation was so largely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span>
+concerned with the claims of the reader, there was little room for
+initiative. It was no mark of originality to say that the translation
+must be profitable or entertaining, clear and easily understood; these
+rules had already been laid down by generations of translators. The real
+opportunity for a fresh, individual approach to the problems of
+translation lay in consideration of the claims of the original author.
+Renaissance scholarship was bringing a new knowledge of texts and
+authors and encouraging a new alertness of mind in approaching texts
+written in foreign languages. It was now possible, while making
+faithfulness to source obligatory instead of optional, to put the matter
+on a reasonable basis. The most vigorous and suggestive comment came
+from a small number of men of scholarly tastes and of active minds, who
+brought to the subject both learning and enthusiasm, and who were not
+content with vague, conventional forms of words.</p>
+
+<p>It was prose rather than verse renderings that occupied the attention of
+these theorists, and in the works which they chose for translation the
+intellectual was generally stronger than the artistic appeal. Their
+translations, however, showed a variety peculiarly characteristic of the
+English Renaissance. Interest in classical scholarship was nearly always
+associated with interest in the new religious doctrines, and hence the
+new theories of translation were attached impartially either to
+renderings of the classics or to versions of contemporary theological
+works, valuable on account of the close, careful thinking which they
+contained, as contrasted with the more superficial charm of writings
+like those of Guevara. An Elizabethan scholar, indeed, might have
+hesitated if asked which was the more important, the Greek or Latin
+classic or the theological treatise. Nash praises Golding
+indiscriminately "for his industrious toil in Englishing Ovid's
+<i>Metamorphoses</i>, besides many other exquisite editions of divinity
+turned by him out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span> French tongue into our own."<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> Golding
+himself, translating one of these "exquisite editions of divinity,"
+Calvin's <i>Sermons on the Book of Job</i>, insists so strongly on the
+"substance, importance, and travail"<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> which belong to the work that
+one is ready to believe that he ranked it higher than any of his other
+translations. Nor was the contribution from this field to be despised.
+Though the translation of the Bible was an isolated task which had few
+relations with other forms of translation, what few affiliations it
+developed were almost entirely with theological works like those of
+Erasmus, Melanchthon, Calvin, and to the translation of such writings
+Biblical standards of accuracy were transferred. On the other hand the
+translator of Erasmus or Calvin was likely to have other and very
+different interests, which did much to save him from a narrow pedantry.
+Nicholas Udall, for example, who had a large share in the translation of
+Erasmus's <i>Paraphrase on the New Testament</i>, also translated parts of
+Terence and is best known as the author of <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i>.
+Thomas Norton, who translated Calvin's <i>Institution of the Christian
+Religion</i>, has been credited with a share in <i>Gorboduc</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It was towards the middle of the century that these translators began to
+formulate their views, and probably the decades immediately before and
+after the accession of Elizabeth were more fruitful in theory than any
+other part of the period. Certain centers of influence may be rather
+clearly distinguished. In contemporary references to the early part of the
+century Sir Thomas Elyot and Sir Thomas More are generally coupled together
+as authorities on translation. Slightly later St. John's College,
+Cambridge, "that most famous and fortunate nurse of all learning,"<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a>
+exerted through its masters and students a powerful influence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span> Much of the
+fame of the college was due to Sir John Cheke, "a man of men," according to
+Nash, "supernaturally traded in all tongues." Cheke is associated, in one
+way and another, with an odd variety of translations&mdash;Nicholls' translation
+of a French version of <i>Thucydides</i>,<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> Hoby's <i>Courtier</i>,<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> Wilson's
+<i>Demosthenes</i><a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a>&mdash;suggesting something of the range of his sympathies.</p>
+
+<p>Though little of his own comment survives, the echoes of his opinions in
+Ascham's <i>Schoolmaster</i> and the preface to Wilson's <i>Demosthenes</i> make
+one suspect that his teaching was possibly the strongest force at work
+at the time to produce higher standards for translation. As the century
+progressed Sir William Cecil, in his early days a distinguished student
+at St. John's and an intimate associate of Cheke's, maintained, in spite
+of the cares of state, the tradition of his college as the patron of
+various translators and the recipient of numerous dedications prefixed
+to their productions. It is from the midcentury translators, however,
+that the most distinctive comment emanates. United in various
+combinations, now by religious sympathies, now by a common enthusiasm
+for learning, now by the influence of an individual, they form a group
+fairly homogeneous so far as their theories of translation are
+concerned, appreciative of academic correctness, but ready to consider
+also the claims of the reader and the nature of the vernacular.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier translators, Elyot and More, have left small but significant
+comment on methods. More's expression of theory was elicited by
+Tyndale's translation of the Bible; of the technical difficulties
+involved in his own translation of <i>The Life of Pico della Mirandola</i> he
+says nothing. Elyot is one of the first translators to approach his task
+from a new angle. Translating from Greek to English, he observed, like
+Tyndale, the differences and correspondences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> between the two languages.
+His <i>Doctrinal of Princes</i> was translated "to the intent only that I
+would assay if our English tongue might receive the quick and proper
+sentences pronounced by the Greeks."<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> The experiment had interesting
+results. "And in this experience," he continues, "I have found (if I be
+not much deceived) that the form of speaking, called in Greek and also
+in English <i>Phrasis</i>, much nearer approacheth to that which at this day
+we use, than the order of the Latin tongue. I mean in the sentences and
+not in the words."</p>
+
+<p>A peculiarly good exponent of the new vitality which was taking
+possession of the theory of translation is Nicholas Udall, whose
+opinions have been already cited in this chapter. The versatility of
+intellect evinced by the list of his varied interests, dramatic,
+academic, religious, showed itself also in his views regarding
+translation. In the various prefaces and dedications which he
+contributed to the translation of Erasmus's <i>Paraphrase</i> he touches on
+problems of all sorts&mdash;stipends for translators, the augmentation of the
+English vocabulary, sentence structure in translation, the style of
+Erasmus, the individual quality in the style of every writer&mdash;but all
+these questions he treats lightly and undogmatically. Translation,
+according to Udall, should not conform to iron rules. He is not
+disturbed by the diversity of methods exhibited in the <i>Paraphrase</i>.
+"Though every translator," he writes, "follow his own vein in turning
+the Latin into English, yet doth none willingly swerve or dissent from
+the mind and sense of his author, albeit some go more near to the words
+of the author, and some use the liberty of translating at large, not so
+precisely binding themselves to the strait interpretation of every word
+and syllable."<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> In his own share of the translation Udall inclines
+rather to the free than to the literal method. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span> has not been able
+"fully to discharge the office of a good translator,"<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> partly
+because of the ornate quality of Erasmus's style, partly because he
+wishes to be understood by the unlearned. He does not feel so scrupulous
+as he would if he were translating the text of Scripture, though even in
+the latter connection he is guilty of the heretical opinion that "if the
+translators were not altogether so precise as they are, but had some
+more regard to expressing of the sense, I think in my judgment they
+should do better." It will be noted, however, that Udall's advocacy of
+freedom is an individual reaction, not the repetition of a formula. The
+preface to his translation of the <i>Apophthegmes</i> of Erasmus helps to
+redress the balance in favor of accuracy. "I have labored," he says, "to
+discharge the duty of a translator, that is, keeping and following the
+sense of my book, to interpret and turn the Latin into English, with as
+much grace of our vulgar tongue as in my slender power and knowledge
+hath lain."<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> The rest of the preface shows that Udall, in his
+concern for the quality of the English, did not make "following the
+sense" an excuse for undue liberties. Writing "with a regard for young
+scholars and students, who get great value from comparing languages," he
+is most careful to note such slight changes and omissions as he has made
+in the text. Explanations and annotations have been printed "in a small
+letter with some directory mark," and "any Greek or Latin verse or word,
+whereof the pith and grace of the saying dependeth" has been retained, a
+sacrifice to scholarship for which he apologizes to the unlearned
+reader.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholas Grimald, who published his translation of Cicero's <i>Offices</i>
+shortly after the accession of Elizabeth, is much more dogmatic in his
+rules for translation than is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> Udall. "Howbeit look," runs the preface,
+"what rule the Rhetorician gives in precept, to be observed of an Orator
+in telling of his tale: that it be short, and without idle words: that
+it be plain, and without dark sense: that it be provable, and without
+any swerving from the truth: the same rule should be used in examining
+and judging of translation. For if it be not as brief as the very
+author's text requireth, what so is added to his perfect style shall
+appear superfluous, and to serve rather to the making of some paraphrase
+or commentary. Thereto if it be uttered with inkhorn terms, and not with
+usual words: or if it be phrased with wrested or far-fetched forms of
+speech, not fair but harsh, not easy but hard, not natural but violent
+it shall seem to be. Then also, in case it yield not the meaning of the
+author, but either following fancy or misled by error forsakes the true
+pattern, it cannot be approved for a faithful and sure interpretation,
+which ought to be taken for the greatest praise of all."<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> In
+Grimald's insistence on a brevity equal to that of the original and in
+his unmodified opposition to innovations in vocabulary, there is
+something of pedantic narrowness. His criticism of Cicero is not
+illuminating and his estimate, in this connection, of his own
+accomplishment is amusingly complacent. In Cicero's work "marvellous is
+the matter, flowing the eloquence, rich the store of stuff, and full
+artificial the enditing: but how I," he continues, "have expressed the
+same, the more the book be perused, the better it may chance to appear.
+None other translation in our tongue have I seen but one, which is of
+all men of any learning so well liked that they repute it and consider
+it as none: yet if ye list to compare this somewhat with that nothing,
+peradventure this somewhat will serve somewhat the more." Yet in spite
+of his limitations Grimald has some breadth of outlook. A work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> like his
+own, he believes, can help the reader to a greater command of the
+vernacular. "Here is for him occasion both to whet his wit and also to
+file his tongue. For although an Englishman hath his mother tongue and
+can talk apace as he learned of his dame, yet is it one thing to tittle
+tattle, I wot not how, or to chatter like a jay, and another to bestow
+his words wisely, orderly, pleasantly, and pithily." The writer knows
+men who could speak Latin "readily and well-favoredly, who to have done
+as much in our language and to have handled the same matter, would have
+been half black." Careful study of this translation will help a man "as
+well in the English as the Latin, to weigh well properties of words,
+fashions of phrases, and the ornaments of both."</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting document is the preface entitled <i>The Translator to
+the Reader</i> which appeared in 1578 in the fourth edition of Thomas
+Norton's translation of Calvin's <i>Institution of the Christian
+Religion</i>. The opinions which it contains took shape some years earlier,
+for the author expressly states that the translation has not been
+changed at all from what it was in the first impression, published in
+1561, and that the considerations which he now formulates governed him
+in the beginning. Norton, like Grimald, insists on extreme accuracy in
+following the original, but he bases his demand on a truth largely
+ignored by translators up to this time, the essential relationship
+between thought and style. He makes the following surprisingly
+penetrative comment on the nature and significance of Calvin's Latin
+style: "I considered how the author thereof had of long time purposely
+labored to write the same most exactly, and to pack great plenty of
+matter in small room of words, yea and those so circumspectly and
+precisely ordered, to avoid the cavillations of such, as for enmity to
+the truth therein contained, would gladly seek and abuse all advantages
+which might be found by any oversight in penning of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> it, that the
+sentences were thereby become so full as nothing might well be added
+without idle superfluity, and again so nighly pared that nothing might
+be minished without taking away some necessary substance of matter
+therein expressed. This manner of writing, beside the peculiar terms of
+arts and figures, and the difficulty of the matters themselves, being
+throughout interlaced with the schoolmen's controversies, made a great
+hardness in the author's own book, in that tongue wherein otherwise he
+is both plentiful and easy, insomuch that it sufficeth not to read him
+once, unless you can be content to read in vain." Then follows Norton's
+estimate of the translator's duty in such a case: "I durst not presume
+to warrant myself to have his meaning without his words. And they that
+wot well what it is to translate well and faithfully, specially in
+matters of religion, do know that not only the grammatical construction
+of words sufficeth, but the very building and order to observe all
+advantages of vehemence or grace, by placing or accent of words, maketh
+much to the true setting forth of a writer's mind." Norton, however, did
+not entirely forget his readers. He approached his task with "great
+doubtfulness," fully conscious of the dilemma involved. "If I should
+follow the words, I saw that of necessity the hardness of the
+translation must needs be greater than was in the tongue wherein it was
+originally written. If I should leave the course of words, and grant
+myself liberty after the natural manner of my own tongue, to say that in
+English which I conceived to be his meaning in Latin, I plainly
+perceived how hardly I might escape error." In the end he determined "to
+follow the words so near as the phrase of the English tongue would
+suffer me." Unhappily Norton, like Grimald and like some of the
+translators of the Bible, has an exaggerated regard for brevity. He
+claims that "if the English book were printed in such paper and letter
+as the Latin is, it should not exceed the Latin in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> quantity," and that
+students "shall not find any more English than shall suffice to construe
+the Latin withal, except in such few places where the great difference
+of the phrases of the languages enforced me." Yet he believes that his
+version is not unnecessarily hard to understand, and he urges readers
+who have found it difficult to "read it ofter, in which doing you shall
+find (as many have confessed to me that they have found by experience)
+that those things which at first reading shall displease you for
+hardness shall be found so easy as so hard matter would suffer, and for
+the most part more easy than some other phrase which should with greater
+looseness and smoother sliding away deceive your understanding."</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Wilson, who dedicated his translation of Demosthenes to Sir
+William Cecil in 1570, links himself with the earlier group of
+translators by his detailed references to Cheke. Like Norton he is very
+conscious of the difficulty of translation. "I never found in my life,"
+he writes of this piece of work, "anything so hard for me to do." "Such
+a hard thing it is," he adds later, "to bring matter out of any one
+language into another." A vigorous advocate of translation, however, he
+does not despise his own tongue. "The cunning is no less," he declares,
+"and the praise as great in my judgment, to translate anything
+excellently into English, as into any other language," and he hopes
+that, if his own attempt proves unsuccessful, others will make the
+trial, "that such an orator as this is might be so framed to speak our
+tongue as none were able to amend him, and that he might be found to be
+most like himself." Wilson comes to his task with all the equipment that
+the period could afford; his preface gives evidence of a critical
+acquaintance with numerous Latin renderings of his author. From Cheke,
+however, he has gained something more valuable, the power to feel the
+vital, permanent quality in the work of Demosthenes. Cheke, he says,
+"was moved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> greatly to like Demosthenes above all others, for that he
+saw him so familiarly applying himself to the sense and understanding of
+the common people, that he sticked not to say that none ever was more
+fit to make an Englishman tell his tale praiseworthily in any open
+hearing either in parliament or in pulpit or otherwise, than this only
+orator was." Wilson shares this opinion and, representative of the
+changing standards of Elizabethan scholarship, prefers Demosthenes to
+Cicero. "Demosthenes used a plain, familiar manner of writing and
+speaking in all his actions," he says in his <i>Preface to the Reader</i>,
+"applying himself to the people's nature and to their understanding
+without using of proheme to win credit or devising conclusion to move
+affections and to purchase favor after he had done his matters.... And
+were it not better and more wisdom to speak plainly and nakedly after
+the common sort of men in few words, than to overflow with unnecessary
+and superfluous eloquence as Cicero is thought sometimes to do." "Never
+did glass so truly represent man's face," he writes later, "as
+Demosthenes doth show the world to us, and as it was then, so is it now,
+and will be so still, till the consummation and end of all things shall
+be." From Cheke Wilson has received also training in methods of
+translation and especially in the handling of the vernacular. "Master
+Cheke's judgment was great," he recalls, "in translating out of one
+tongue into another, and better skill he had in our English speech to
+judge of the phrases and properties of words and to divide sentences
+than any one else that I have known. And often he would English his
+matters out of the Latin or Greek upon the sudden, by looking of the
+book only, without reading or construing anything at all, an usage right
+worthy and very profitable for all men, as well for the understanding of
+the book, as also for the aptness of framing the author's meaning, and
+bettering thereby their judgment, and therewithal perfecting their
+tongue and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span> utterance of speech." In speaking of his own methods,
+however, Wilson's emphasis is on his faithfulness to the original. "But
+perhaps," he writes, "whereas I have been somewhat curious to follow
+Demosthenes' natural phrase, it may be thought that I do speak over bare
+English. Well I had rather follow his vein, the which was to speak
+simply and plainly to the common people's understanding, than to
+overflourish with superfluous speech, although I might thereby be
+counted equal with the best that ever wrote English."</p>
+
+<p>Though now and then the comment of these men is slightly vague or
+inconsistent, in general they describe their methods clearly and fully.
+Other translators, expressing themselves with less sureness and
+adequacy, leave the impression that they have adopted similar
+standards. Translations, for example, of Calvin's <i>Commentary on
+Acts</i><a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> and Luther's <i>Commentary on Galatians</i><a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> are described on
+their title pages as "faithfully translated" from the Latin. B. R.'s
+preface to his translation of Herodotus, though its meaning is somewhat
+obscured by rhetoric, suggests a suitable regard for the original.
+"Neither of these," he writes of the two books which he has completed,
+"are braved out in their colors as the use is nowadays, and yet so
+seemly as either you will love them because they are modest, or not
+mislike them because they are not impudent, since in refusing idle
+pearls to make them seem gaudy, they reject not modest apparel to cause
+them to go comely. The truth is (Gentlemen) in making the new attire, I
+was fain to go by their old array, cutting out my cloth by another
+man's measure, being great difference whether we invent a fashion of
+our own, or imitate a pattern set down by another. Which I speak not to
+this end, for that myself could have done more eloquently than our
+author hath<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> in Greek, but that the course of his writing being most
+sweet in Greek, converted into English loseth a great part of his
+grace."<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> Outside of the field of theology or of classical prose
+there were translators who strove for accuracy. Hoby, profiting
+doubtless by his association with Cheke, endeavored in translating <i>The
+Courtier</i> "to follow the very meaning and words of the author, without
+being misled by fantasy, or leaving out any parcel one or other."<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a>
+Robert Peterson claims that his version of Della Casa's <i>Galateo</i> is
+"not cunningly but faithfully translated."<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> The printer of Carew's
+translation of Tasso explains: "In that which is done, I have caused
+the Italian to be printed together with the English, for the delight
+and benefit of those gentlemen that love that most lively language. And
+thereby the learned reader shall see how strict a course the translator
+hath tied himself in the whole work, usurping as little liberty as any
+whatsoever as ever wrote with any commendations."<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> Even translators
+who do not profess to be overfaithful display a consciousness of the
+existence of definite standards of accuracy. Thomas Chaloner, another
+of the friends of Cheke, translating Erasmus's <i>Praise of Folly</i> for
+"mean men of baser wits and condition," chooses "to be counted a scant
+true interpreter." "I have not pained myself," he says, "to render word
+for word, nor proverb for proverb ... which may be thought by some
+cunning translators a deadly sin."<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> To the author of the <i>Menechmi</i>
+the word "translation" has a distinct connotation. The printer of the
+work has found him "very loath and unwilling to hazard this to the
+curious view of envious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> detraction, being (as he tells me) neither so
+exactly written as it may carry any name of translation, nor such
+liberty therein used as that he would notoriously differ from the
+poet's own order."<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> Richard Knolles, whose translation of Bodin's
+<i>Six Books of a Commonweal</i> was published in 1606, employed both the
+French and the Latin versions of the treatise, and describes himself as
+on this account "seeking therein the true sense and meaning of the
+author, rather than precisely following the strict rules of a nice
+translator, in observing the very words of the author."<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> The
+translators of this later time, however, seldom put into words theories
+so scholarly as those formulated earlier in the period, when, even
+though the demand for accuracy might sometimes be exaggerated, it was
+nevertheless the result of thoughtful discrimination. There was some
+reason why a man like Gabriel Harvey, living towards the end of
+Elizabeth's reign, should look back with regret to the time when
+England produced men like Cheke and his contemporaries.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a></p>
+
+<p>One must frequently remind oneself, however, that the absence of
+expressed theory need not involve the absence of standards. Among
+translators as among original writers a fondness for analyzing and
+describing processes did not necessarily accompany literary skill. Much
+more activity of mind and respect for originals may have existed among
+verse translators than is evident from their scanty comment. The most
+famous prose translators have little to say about their methods.
+Golding, who produced so much both in verse and prose, and who usually
+wrote prefaces to his translations, scarcely ever discusses
+technicalities. Now and then, however, he lets fall an incidental remark
+which suggests very definite ideals. In translating Caesar, for example,
+though at first he planned merely to complete Brend's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> translation, he
+ended by taking the whole work into his own hands, because, as he says,
+"I was desirous to have the body of the whole story compacted uniform
+and of one style throughout,"<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> a comment worthy of a much more
+modern critic. Philemon Holland, again, contributes almost nothing to
+theory, though his vigorous defense of his art and his appreciation of
+the stylistic qualities of his originals bear witness to true scholarly
+enthusiasm. On the whole, however, though the distinctive contribution
+of the period is the plea of the renaissance scholars that a reasonable
+faithfulness should be displayed, the comment of the mass of translators
+shows little grasp of the new principles. When one considers, in
+addition to their very inadequate expression of theory, the prevailing
+characteristics of their practice, the balance turns unmistakably in
+favor of a careless freedom in translation.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the deficiencies in sixteenth-century theory are supplied by
+Chapman, who applies himself with considerable zest to laying down the
+principles which in his opinion should govern poetical translations.
+Producing his versions of Homer in the last years of the sixteenth and
+early years of the seventeenth century, he forms a link between the two
+periods. In some respects he anticipates later critics. He attacks both
+the overstrict and the overloose methods of translation:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8">the brake<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That those translators stick in, that affect<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their word for word traductions (where they lose<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The free grace of their natural dialect,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And shame their authors with a forced gloss)<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I laugh to see; and yet as much abhor<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">More license from the words than may express<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their full compression, and make clear the author.<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span></p>
+<p>It is literalism, however, which bears the brunt of his attack. He is
+always conscious, "how pedantical and absurd an affectation it is in the
+interpretation of any author (much more of Homer) to turn him word for
+word, when (according to Horace and other best lawgivers to translators)
+it is the part of every knowing and judicial interpreter, not to follow
+the number and order of words, but the material things themselves, and
+sentences to weigh diligently, and to clothe and adorn them with words,
+and such a style and form of oration, as are most apt for the language
+in which they are converted."<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> Strangely enough, he thinks this
+literalism the prevailing fault of translators. He hardly dares present
+his work</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To reading judgments, since so gen'rally,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Custom hath made ev'n th'ablest agents err<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In these translations; all so much apply<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their pains and cunnings word for word to render<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their patient authors, when they may as well<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Make fish with fowl, camels with whales, engender,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or their tongues' speech in other mouths compell.<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Chapman, however, believes that it is possible to overcome the
+difficulties of translation. Although the "sense and elegancy" of Greek
+and English are of "distinguished natures," he holds that it requires</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Only a judgment to make both consent<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In sense and elocution; and aspire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As well to reach the spirit that was spent<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In his example, as with art to pierce<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His grammar, and etymology of words.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This same theory was taken up by numerous seventeenth and eighteenth
+century translators. Avoiding as it does the two extremes, it easily
+commended itself to the reason. Unfortunately it was frequently
+appropriated by critics<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> who were not inclined to labor strenuously with
+the problems of translation. One misses in much of the later comment the
+vigorous thinking of the early Renaissance translators. The theory of
+translation was not yet regarded as "a common work of building" to which
+each might contribute, and much that was valuable in sixteenth-century
+comment was lost by forgetfulness and neglect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Gregory Smith, <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i>, vol. I, p.
+313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> <i>Introduction</i>, in Foster Watson, <i>Vives and the
+Renaissance Education of Women</i>, 1912.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> Letter prefixed to John, in <i>Paraphrase of Erasmus on the
+New Testament</i>, London, 1548.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, 1588.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>Shakespeare's Ovid</i>, ed. W. H. D.
+Rouse, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Bishop of London's preface <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>A
+Commentary of Dr. Martin Luther upon the Epistle of St. Paul to the
+Galatians</i>, London, 1577.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Institution of the Christian Religion</i>,
+London, 1578.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Three Orations of Demosthenes</i>, London,
+1570.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> Dedication of <i>Montaigne's Essays</i>, London, 1603.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> Reprinted, Roxburghe Club, 1887.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Book of Metals</i>, in Arber, <i>The First
+Three English Books on America</i>, 1885.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> Dedication of <i>Marcus Tullius Cicero's Three Books of
+Duties</i>, 1558.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> <i>A Brief Apology for Poetry</i>, in Gregory Smith, vol. 2,
+p. 219.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Natural History of C. Plinius Secundus</i>,
+London, 1601.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> <i>Letter to John Florio</i>, in <i>Florio's Montaigne</i>, Tudor
+Translations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>The Forest</i>, London, 1576.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> Dedication to Edward VI, in <i>Paraphrase of Erasmus</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> <i>Prologue to Proverbs or Adagies with new additions
+gathered out of the Chiliades of Erasmus by Richard Taverner</i>, London,
+1539.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> <i>Epistle</i> prefixed to translation, 1568.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> Published, Tottell, 1561.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> Reprinted, London, 1915.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, in edition of 1588.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, dated 1596, of <i>The History of Philip de
+Comines</i>, London, 1601.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i> of <i>Achilles' Shield</i> in Gregory Smith, vol.
+2, p. 300.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> in Arber, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, dated 1584, to translation published 1590.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> Title page, 1574.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> London, 1570.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Preface to <i>Seven Books of the Iliad of Homer</i>, in
+Gregory Smith, vol. 2, p. 293.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 262.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> Preface to <i>Civile Conversation of Stephen Guazzo</i>,
+1586.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> Dedication of <i>The End of Nero and Beginning of Galba</i>,
+1598.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> <i>Address to Queen Katherine</i>, prefixed to Luke.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> <i>Preface.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> Translated in Strype, <i>Life of Grindal</i>, Oxford, 1821, p.
+22.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Governor</i>, ed. Croft.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> <i>Ad Maecenatem Prologus to Order of the Garter</i>, in
+<i>Works</i>, ed. Dyce, p. 584.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> Quoted in J. L. Moore, <i>Tudor-Stuart Views on the Growth,
+Status, and Destiny of the English Language</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> In Gregory Smith, <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i>, vol. 2,
+p. 171.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> Quoted in Moore, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in 1603 edition of Montaigne's
+<i>Essays</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> <i>Address to Queen Katherine</i>, prefixed to Luke.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i> in <i>Civile Conversation of Stephen
+Guazzo</i>, 1586.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, 1587.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> <i>Master Phaer's Conclusion to his Interpretation of the
+Aeneidos of Virgil</i>, in edition of 1573.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> <i>A Brief Apology for Poetry</i>, in Gregory Smith, vol. 1,
+pp. 217-18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> Ed. T. H. Jamieson, Edinburgh, 1874.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> Reprinted, Spenser Society, 1885.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> <i>The Argument.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> Reprinted, London, 1814, <i>Prologue</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> Ed. E. V. Utterson, London, 1812, <i>Preface</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> <i>The Golden Book</i>, London, 1538, <i>Conclusion</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> Title page, in Turbervile, <i>Tragical Tales</i>, Edinburgh,
+1837.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>Palmerin d'Oliva</i>, London, 1637.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> See Painter, <i>Palace of Pleasure</i>, ed. Jacobs, 1890.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> <i>The Petit Palace of Pettie his Pleasure</i>, ed. Gollancz,
+1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> <i>Dedication.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> <i>Palmerin of England</i>, ed. Southey, London, 1807.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> <i>Preface to divers learned gentlemen</i>, in <i>Diana of
+George of Montemayor</i>, London, 1598.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>Honor's Academy</i>, London, 1610.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> <i>The Familiar Epistles of Sir Anthony of Guevara</i>,
+London, 1574, <i>To the Reader</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> <i>Prologue</i> and <i>Argument</i> of Guevara, translated in
+North, <i>Dial of Princes</i>, 1619.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> In North, <i>The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans</i>,
+1579.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i> in edition of 1568.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> <i>Prologue</i> to Book I, <i>Aeneid</i>, reprinted Bannatyne
+Club.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> Foster Watson, <i>The English Grammar Schools to 1660</i>,
+Cambridge, 1908, pp. 405-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, in Spearing, <i>The Elizabethan Translations
+of Seneca's Tragedies</i>, Cambridge, 1912.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>The Georgics translated by A. F.</i>,
+London, 1589.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, reprinted in Plessow, <i>Fabeldichtung in
+England</i>, Berlin, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> <i>Conclusion</i>, edition of 1573.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> <i>Seneca His Ten Tragedies</i>, 1581, <i>Dedication</i> of Fifth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> <i>To the Reader.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> <i>Agamemnon and Medea</i> from edition of 1556, ed. Spearing,
+1913, <i>Preface</i> of <i>Medea</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> <i>To the Readers</i>, prefixed to <i>Troas</i>, in Spearing, <i>The
+Elizabethan Translations of Seneca's Tragedies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> <i>A Medicinable Moral, that is, the two books of Horace
+his satires Englished acccording to the prescription of St. Hierome</i>,
+London, 1566, <i>To the Reader</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> to the Earl of Oxford, in <i>The Abridgment of
+the Histories of Trogus Pompeius collected and written in the Latin
+tongue by Justin</i>, London, 1563.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> <i>To the Gentle Reader</i>, in Phaer's Virgil, 1583.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> <i>Epistle Dedicatory</i> to <i>A Compendious Form of Living</i>,
+quoted in Introduction to <i>News out of Powles Churchyard</i>, reprinted
+London, 1872, p. xxx.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> <i>The Bucolics of Virgil together with his Georgics</i>,
+London, 1589, <i>The Argument</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> in Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 137.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> <i>The Schoolmaster</i>, in <i>Works</i>, London, 1864, vol. 3, p.
+226.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, prefixed to translation of <i>Eclogues</i> of
+Mantuan, 1567.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>The Elizabethan Translations of
+Seneca's Tragedies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> Stanyhurst's <i>Aeneid</i>, in <i>Arber's Scholar's Library</i>, p.
+5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <i>Introduction</i>, p. xix, quoted from <i>The Art of
+English Poesy</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Preface to Greene's <i>Menaphon</i>, in Gregory Smith, vol. 1,
+p. 315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, dated 1573, in edition of 1584.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> Dedicated to Cheke.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> See Cheke's Letter in <i>The Courtier</i>, Tudor Translations,
+London, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> See <i>Epistle</i> prefixed to translation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> Quoted in <i>Life</i> prefixed to <i>The Governor</i>, ed. Croft.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> <i>Address to Queen Katherine</i> prefixed to <i>Paraphrase</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> <i>Address to Katharine</i> prefixed to Luke.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in edition of 1564, literally reprinted
+Boston, Lincolnshire, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>Marcus Tullius Cicero's Three Books
+of Duties</i>, 1558.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> Translated by Christopher Featherstone, reprinted,
+Edinburgh, 1844.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> London, 1577.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> <i>To the Gentlemen Readers</i>, in <i>Herodotus</i>, translated by
+B. R., London, 1584.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, in edition of 1576, reprinted, ed.
+Spingarn, Boston, 1914.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, in <i>Godfrey of Bulloigne</i>, London, 1594,
+reprinted in Grosart, <i>Occasional Issues</i>, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in edition of 1549.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> <i>The Printer to the Reader</i>, reprinted in <i>Shakespeare's
+Library</i>, 1875.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> <i>To the Reader.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> See <i>Works</i>, ed. Grosart, II, 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, London, 1590.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>The Iliads of Homer</i>, Charles
+Scribner's Sons, p. xvi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> P. xxv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> P. xv.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span></p>
+<h2>IV. FROM COWLEY TO POPE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span></p>
+<h2>IV</h2>
+
+<h2>FROM COWLEY TO POPE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Although the ardor of the Elizabethan translator as he approached the
+vast, almost unbroken field of foreign literature may well awaken the
+envy of his modern successor, in many respects the period of Dryden and
+Pope has more claim to be regarded as the Golden Age of the English
+translator. Patriotic enthusiasm had, it is true, lost something of its
+earlier fire, but national conditions were in general not unfavorable to
+translation. Though the seventeenth century, torn by civil discords, was
+very unlike the period which Holland had lovingly described as "this
+long time of peace and tranquillity, wherein ... all good literature
+hath had free course and flourished,"<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> yet, despite the rise and
+fall of governments, the stream of translation flowed on almost
+uninterruptedly. Sandys' <i>Ovid</i> is presented by its author, after his
+visit to America, as "bred in the New World, of the rudeness whereof it
+cannot but participate; especially having wars and tumults to bring it
+to light instead of the Muses,"<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> but the more ordinary translation,
+bred at home in England during the seventeenth century, apparently
+suffered little from the political strife which surrounded it, while the
+eighteenth century afforded a "peace and tranquillity" even greater than
+that which had prevailed under Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span></p><p>Throughout the period translation was regarded as an important labor,
+deserving of every encouragement. As in the sixteenth century, friends
+and patrons united to offer advice and aid to the author who engaged in
+this work. Henry Brome, dedicating a translation of Horace to Sir
+William Backhouse, writes of his own share of the volume, "to the
+translation whereof my pleasant retirement and conveniencies at your
+delightsome habitation have liberally contributed."<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> Doctor Barten
+Holiday includes in his preface to a version of Juvenal and Persius an
+interesting list of "worthy friends" who have assisted him. "My honored
+friend, Mr. John Selden (of such eminency in the studies of antiquities
+and languages) and Mr. Farnaby ... procured me a fair copy from the
+famous library of St. James's, and a manuscript copy from our herald of
+learning, Mr. Camden. My dear friend, the patriarch of our poets, Ben
+Jonson, sent in an ancient manuscript partly written in the Saxon
+character." Then follow names of less note, Casaubon, Anyan, Price.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a>
+Dryden tells the same story. He has been permitted to consult the Earl
+of Lauderdale's manuscript translation of Virgil. "Besides this help,
+which was not inconsiderable," he writes, "Mr. Congreve has done me the
+favor to review the <i>Aeneis</i>, and compare my version with the
+original."<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> Later comes his recognition of indebtedness of a more
+material character. "Being invited by that worthy gentleman, Sir William
+Bowyer, to Denham Court, I translated the First Georgic at his house,
+and the greatest part of the last Aeneid. A more friendly entertainment
+no man ever found.... The Seventh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> Aeneid was made English at Burleigh,
+the magnificent abode of the Earl of Exeter."<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></p>
+
+<p>While private individuals thus rallied to the help of the translator,
+the world in general regarded his work with increasing respect. The
+great Dryden thought it not unworthy of his powers to engage in putting
+classical verse into English garb. His successor Pope early turned to
+the same pleasant and profitable task. Johnson, the literary dictator of
+the next age, described Rowe's version of Lucan as "one of the greatest
+productions of English poetry."<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> The comprehensive editions of the
+works of British poets which began to appear towards the end of the
+eighteenth century regularly included English renderings, generally
+contemporaneous, of the great poetry of other countries.</p>
+
+<p>The growing dignity of this department of literature and the Augustan
+fondness for literary criticism combined to produce a large body of
+comment on methods of translation. The more ambitious translations of
+the eighteenth century, for example, were accompanied by long prefaces,
+containing, in addition to the elaborate paraphernalia of contemporary
+scholarship, detailed discussion of the best rules for putting a foreign
+classic into English. Almost every possible phase of the art had been
+broached in one place and another before the century ended. In its last
+decade there appeared the first attempt in English at a complete and
+detailed treatment of the theory of translation as such, Tytler's <i>Essay
+on the Principles of Translation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From the sixteenth-century theory of translation, so much of which is
+incidental and uncertain in expression, it is a pleasure to come to the
+deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and
+meaning, of the earlier critics of our period, men like Denham, Cowley,
+and Dryden.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> In contrast to the mass of unrelated individual opinions
+attached to the translations of Elizabeth's time, the criticism of the
+seventeenth century emanates, for the most part, from a small group of
+men, who supply standards for lesser commentators and who, if they do
+not invariably agree with one another, are yet thoroughly familiar with
+one another's views. The field of discussion also has narrowed
+considerably, and theory has gained by becoming less scattering.
+Translation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries showed certain
+new developments, the most marked of which was the tendency among
+translators who aspired to the highest rank to confine their efforts to
+verse renderings of the Greek and Latin classics. A favorite remark was
+that it is the greatest poet who suffers most in being turned from one
+language into another. In spite of this, or perhaps for this reason, the
+common ambition was to undertake Virgil, who was generally regarded as
+the greatest of epic poets, and attempts to translate at least a part of
+the <i>Aeneid</i> were astonishingly frequent. As early as 1658 the Fourth
+Book is described as "translated ... in our day at least ten times into
+English."<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> Horace came next in popularity; by the beginning of the
+eighteenth century, according to one translator, he had been
+"translated, paraphrased, or criticized on by persons of all conditions
+and both sexes."<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> As the century progressed, Homer usurped the place
+formerly occupied by Virgil as the object of the most ambitious effort
+and the center of discussion. But there were other translations of the
+classics. Cooke, dedicating his translation of Hesiod to the Duke of
+Argyll, says to his patron: "You, my lord, know how the works of genius
+lift up the head of a nation above her neighbors, and give as much honor
+as success in arms;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> among these we must reckon our translations of the
+classics; by which when we have naturalized all Greece and Rome, we
+shall be so much richer than they by so many original productions as we
+have of our own."<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> Seemingly there was an attempt to naturalize "all
+Greece and Rome." Anacreon, Pindar, Apollonius Rhodius, Lucretius,
+Tibullus, Statius, Juvenal, Persius, Ovid, Lucan, are names taken almost
+at random from the list of seventeenth and eighteenth-century
+translations. Criticism, however, was ready to concern itself with the
+translation of any classic, ancient or modern. Denham's two famous
+pronouncements are connected, the one with his own translation of the
+Second Book of the <i>Aeneid</i>, the other with Sir Richard Fanshaw's
+rendering of <i>Il Pastor Fido</i>. In the later eighteenth century
+voluminous comment accompanied Hoole's <i>Ariosto</i> and Mickle's <i>Camoens</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At present, however, we are concerned not with the number and variety of
+these translations, but with their homogeneity. As translators showed
+themselves less inclined to wander over the whole field of literature,
+the theory of translation assumed much more manageable proportions. A
+further limitation of the area of discussion was made by Denham, who
+expressly excluded from his consideration "them who deal in matters of
+fact or matters of faith,"<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> thus disposing of the theological
+treatises which had formerly divided attention with the classics.</p>
+
+<p>The aims of the translator were also clarified by definition of his
+audience. John Vicars, publishing in 1632 <i>The XII. Aeneids of Virgil
+translated into English decasyllables</i>, adduces as one of his motives
+"the common good and public utility which I hoped might accrue to young
+students and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> grammatical tyros,"<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> but later writers seldom repeat
+this appeal to the learner. The next year John Brinsley issued <i>Virgil's
+Eclogues, with his book De Apibus, translated grammatically, and also
+according to the propriety of our English tongue so far as Grammar and
+the verse will permit</i>. A significant comment in the "Directions" runs:
+"As for the fear of making truants by these translations, a conceit
+which arose merely upon the abuse of other translations, never intended
+for this end, I hope that happy experience of this kind will in time
+drive it and all like to it utterly out of schools and out of the minds
+of all." Apparently the schoolmaster's ban upon the unauthorized use of
+translations was establishing the distinction between the English
+version which might claim to be ranked as literature and that which
+Johnson later designated as "the clandestine refuge of schoolboys."<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another limitation of the audience was, however, less admirable. For the
+widely democratic appeal of the Elizabethan translator was substituted
+an appeal to a class, distinguished, if one may believe the philosopher
+Hobbes, as much by social position as by intellect. In discussing the
+vocabulary to be employed by the translator, Hobbes professes opinions
+not unlike those of the sixteenth-century critics. Like Puttenham, he
+makes a distinction between words as suited or unsuited for the epic
+style. "The names of instruments and tools of artificers, and words of
+art," he says in the preface to his <i>Homer</i>, "though of use in the
+schools, are far from being fit to be spoken by a hero. He may delight
+in the arts themselves, and have skill in some of them, but his glory
+lies not in that, but in courage, nobility, and other virtues of nature,
+or in the command he has over other men." In Hobbes' objection to the
+use of unfamiliar words, also, there is nothing new; but in the
+standards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> by which he tries such terms there is something amusingly
+characteristic of his time. In the choice of words, "the first
+indiscretion is in the use of such words as to the readers of poesy
+(which are commonly Persons of the best Quality)"&mdash;it is only fair to
+reproduce Hobbes' capitalization&mdash;"are not sufficiently known. For the
+work of an heroic poem is to raise admiration (principally) for three
+virtues, valor, beauty, and love; to the reading whereof women no less
+than men have a just pretence though their skill in language be not so
+universal. And therefore foreign words, till by long use they become
+vulgar, are unintelligible to them." Dryden is similarly restrained by
+the thought of his readers. He does not try to reproduce the "Doric
+dialect" of Theocritus, "for Theocritus writ to Sicilians, who spoke
+that dialect; and I direct this part of my translations to our ladies,
+who neither understand, nor will take pleasure in such homely
+expressions."<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> In translating the <i>Aeneid</i> he follows what he
+conceives to have been Virgil's practice. "I will not give the reasons,"
+he declares, "why I writ not always in the proper terms of navigation,
+land-service, or in the cant of any profession. I will only say that
+Virgil has avoided those properties, because he writ not to mariners,
+soldiers, astronomers, gardeners, peasants, etc., but to all in general,
+and in particular to men and ladies of the first quality, who have been
+better bred than to be too nicely knowing in such things."<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another element in theory which displays the strength and weakness of
+the time is the treatment of the work of other countries and other
+periods. A changed attitude towards the achievements of foreign
+translators becomes evident early in the seventeenth century. In the
+prefaces to an edition of the works of Du Bartas in English there are
+signs of a growing satisfaction with the English language<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span> as a medium
+and an increasing conviction that England can surpass the rest of Europe
+in the work of translation. Thomas Hudson, in an address to James VI of
+Scotland, attached to his translation of <i>The History of Judith</i>, quotes
+an interesting conversation which he held on one occasion with that
+pedantic monarch. "It pleased your Highness," he recalls, "not only to
+esteem the peerless style of the Greek Homer and the Latin Virgil to be
+inimitable to us (whose tongue is barbarous and corrupted), but also to
+allege (partly through delight your majesty took in the haughty style of
+those most famous writers, and partly to sound the opinion of others)
+that also the lofty phrases, the grave inditement, the facund terms of
+the French Salust (for the like resemblance) could not be followed nor
+sufficiently expressed in our rough and unpolished English
+language."<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> It was to prove that he could reproduce the French poet
+"succinctly and sensibly in our vulgar speech" that Hudson undertook the
+<i>Judith</i>. According to the complimentary verses addressed to the famous
+Sylvester on his translations from the same author, the English tongue
+has responded nobly to the demands put upon it. Sylvester has shown</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">... that French tongue's plenty to be such.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And yet that ours can utter full as much.<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>John Davies of Hereford, writing of another of Sylvester's translations,
+describes English as acquitting itself well when it competes with
+French, and continues</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">If French to English were so strictly bound<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It would but passing lamely strive with it;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And soon be forc'd to lose both grace and ground,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Although they strove with equal skill and wit.<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span></p>
+<p>An opinion characteristic of the latter part of the century is that of
+the Earl of Roscommon, who, after praising the work of the earlier
+French translators, says,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">From hence our generous emulation came,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">We undertook, and we performed the same:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But now we show the world another way,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And in translated verse do more than they.<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Dryden finds little to praise in the French and Italian renderings of
+Virgil. "Segrais ... is wholly destitute of elevation, though his
+version is much better than that of the two brothers, or any of the rest
+who have attempted Virgil. Hannibal Caro is a great name among the
+Italians; yet his translation is most scandalously mean."<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> "What I
+have said," he declares somewhat farther on, "though it has the face of
+arrogance, yet is intended for the honor of my country; and therefore I
+will boldly own that this English translation has more of Virgil's
+spirit in it than either the French or Italian."<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p>
+
+<p>On translators outside their own period seventeenth-century critics
+bestowed even less consideration than on their French or Italian
+contemporaries. Earlier writers were forgotten, or remembered only to be
+condemned. W. L., Gent., who in 1628 published a translation of Virgil's
+<i>Eclogues</i>, expresses his surprise that a poet like Virgil "should yet
+stand still as a <i>noli me tangere</i>, whom no man either durst or would
+undertake; only Master Spenser long since translated the <i>Gnat</i> (a
+little fragment of Virgil's excellence), giving the world peradventure
+to conceive that he would at one time or other have gone through with
+the rest of this poet's work."<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> Vicars' translation of the <i>Aeneid</i>
+is accompanied by a letter in which the author's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> cousin, Thomas Vicars,
+congratulates him on his "great pains in transplanting this worthiest of
+Latin poets into a mellow and neat English soil (a thing not done
+before)."<a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> Denham announces, "There are so few translations which
+deserve praise, that I scarce ever saw any which deserved pardon; those
+who travail in that kind being for the most part so unhappy as to rob
+others without enriching themselves, pulling down the fame of good
+authors without raising their own." Brome,<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> writing in 1666,
+rejoices in the good fortune of Horace's "good friend Virgil ... who
+being plundered of all his ornaments by the old translators, was
+restored to others with double lustre by those standard-bearers of wit
+and judgment, Denham and Waller,"<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> and in proof of his statements
+puts side by side translations of the same passage by Phaer and Denham.
+Later, in 1688, an anonymous writer recalls the work of Phaer and
+Stanyhurst only to disparage it. Introducing his translation of Virgil,
+"who has so long unhappily continued a stranger to tolerable English,"
+he says that he has "observed how <i>Player</i> and <i>Stainhurst</i> of old ...
+had murdered the most absolute of poets."<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> One dissenting note is
+found in Robert Gould's lines prefixed to a 1687 edition of Fairfax's
+<i>Godfrey of Bulloigne</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">See here, you dull translators, look with shame<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Upon this stately monument of fame,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And to amaze you more, reflect how long<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It is, since first 'twas taught the English tongue:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In what a dark age it was brought to light;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dark? No, our age is dark, and that was bright.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of all these versions which now brightest shine,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Most, Fairfax, are but foils to set off thine:<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>
+<span class="i0">Ev'n Horace can't of too much justice boast,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His unaffected, easy style is lost:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Ogilby's the lumber of the stall;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But thy translation does atone for all.<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Dryden, too, approves of Fairfax, considered at least as a metrist. He
+includes him with Spenser among the "great masters of our language," and
+adds, "many besides myself have heard our famous Waller own that he
+derived the harmony of his numbers from <i>Godfrey of Bulloign</i>, which was
+turned into English by Mr. Fairfax."<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> But even Dryden, who sometimes
+saw beyond his own period, does not share the admiration which some of
+his friends entertain for Chapman. "The Earl of Mulgrave and Mr.
+Waller," he writes in the <i>Examen Poeticum</i>, "two of the best judges of
+our age, have assured me that they could never read over the translation
+of Chapman without incredible pleasure and extreme transport. This
+admiration of theirs must needs proceed from the author himself, for the
+translator has thrown him down as far as harsh numbers, improper
+English, and a monstrous length of verse could carry him."<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this satisfaction with their own country and their own era there
+lurked certain dangers for seventeenth-century writers. The quality
+becomes, as we shall see, more noticeable in the eighteenth century,
+when the shackles which English taste laid upon original poetry were
+imposed also upon translated verse. The theory of translation was
+hampered in its development by the narrow complacency of its exponents,
+and the record of this time is by no means one of uniform progress. The
+seventeenth century shows clearly marked alternations of opinion; now it
+sanctions extreme methods; now, by reaction, it inclines towards more
+moderate views. The eighteenth century, during the greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> part of its
+course, produces little that is new in the way of theory, and adopts,
+without much attempt to analyze them, the formulas left by the preceding
+period. We may now resume the history of these developments at the point
+where it was dropped in Chapter III, at the end of Elizabeth's reign.</p>
+
+<p>In the first part of the new century the few minor translators who
+described their methods held theories much like those of Chapman. W. L.,
+Gent., in the extremely flowery and discursive preface to his version of
+Virgil's <i>Eclogues</i>, says, "Some readers I make no doubt they (the
+translations) will meet with in these dainty mouthed times, that will
+tax me with not coming resolved word for word and line for line with the
+author.... I used the freedom of a translator, not tying myself to the
+tyranny of a grammatical construction but breaking the shell into many
+pieces, was only careful to preserve the kernel safe and whole from the
+violence of a wrong or wrested interpretation." After a long simile
+drawn from the hunting field he concludes, "No more do I conceive my
+course herein to be faulty though I do not affect to follow my author so
+close as to tread upon his heels." John Vicars, who professes to have
+robed Virgil in "a homespun English gray-coat plain," says of his
+manner, "I have aimed at these three things, perspicuity of the matter,
+fidelity to the author, and facility or smoothness to recreate thee my
+reader. Now if any critical or curious wit tax me with a <i>Frustra fit
+per plura &amp;c.</i> and blame my not curious confinement to my author line
+for line, I answer (and I hope this answer will satisfy the moderate and
+ingenuous) that though peradventure I could (as in my Babel's Balm I
+have done throughout the whole translation) yet in regard of the lofty
+majesty of this my author's style, I would not adventure so to pinch his
+spirits, as to make him seem to walk like a lifeless ghost. But on
+thinking on that of Horace, <i>Brevis esse laboro obscurus fio</i>, I
+presumed (yet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> still having an eye to the genuine sense as I was able)
+to expatiate with poetical liberty, where necessity of matter and phrase
+enforced." Vicars' warrant for his practice is the oftquoted caution of
+Horace, <i>Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere</i>.</p>
+
+<p>But the seventeenth century was not disposed to continue uninterruptedly
+the tradition of previous translators. In translated, as in original
+verse a new era was to begin, acclaimed as such in its own day, and
+associated like the new poetry, with the names of Denham and Cowley as
+both poets and critics and with that of Waller as poet. Peculiarly
+characteristic of the movement was its hostility towards literal
+translation, a hostility apparent also, as we have seen, in Chapman. "I
+consider it a vulgar error in translating poets," writes Denham in the
+preface to his <i>Destruction of Troy</i>, "to affect being Fidus Interpres,"
+and again in his lines to Fanshaw:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">That servile path thou nobly dost decline<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of tracing word by word, and line by line.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Those are the labored births of slavish brains,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Not the effect of poetry but pains;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Cheap, vulgar arts, whose narrowness affords<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No flight for thoughts, but poorly sticks at words.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Sprat is anxious to claim for Cowley much of the credit for introducing
+"this way of leaving verbal translations and chiefly regarding the sense
+and genius of the author," which "was scarce heard of in England before
+this present age."<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a></p>
+
+<p>Why Chapman and later translators should have fixed upon extreme
+literalness as the besetting fault of their predecessors and
+contemporaries, it is hard to see. It is true that the recognition of
+the desirability of faithfulness to the original was the most
+distinctive contribution that sixteenth-century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> critics made to the
+theory of translation, but this principle was largely associated with
+prose renderings of a different type from that now under discussion.
+If, like Denham, one excludes "matters of fact and matters of faith,"
+the body of translation which remains is scarcely distinguished by
+slavish adherence to the letter. As a matter of fact, however,
+sixteenth-century translation was obviously an unfamiliar field to most
+seventeenth-century commentators, and although their generalizations
+include all who have gone before them, their illustrations are usually
+drawn from the early part of their own century. Ben Jonson, whose
+translation of Horace's <i>Art of Poetry</i> is cited by Dryden as an
+example of "metaphrase, or turning an author word by word and line by
+line from one language to another,"<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> is perhaps largely responsible
+for the mistaken impression regarding the earlier translators. Thomas
+May and George Sandys are often included in the same category. Sandys'
+translation of Ovid is regarded by Dryden as typical of its time. Its
+literalism, its resulting lack of poetry, "proceeded from the wrong
+judgment of the age in which he lived. They neither knew good verse nor
+loved it; they were scholars, 'tis true, but they were pedants; and for
+all their pedantic pains, all their translations want to be translated
+into English."<a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a></p>
+
+<p>But neither Jonson, Sandys, nor May has much to say with regard to the
+proper methods of translation. The most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> definite utterance of the group
+is found in the lines which Jonson addressed to May on his translation
+of Lucan:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">But who hath them interpreted, and brought<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lucan's whole frame unto us, and so wrought<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As not the smallest joint or gentlest word<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In the great mass or machine there is stirr'd?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The self same genius! so the world will say<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The sun translated, or the son of May.<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>May's own preface says nothing of his theories. Sandys says of his Ovid,
+"To the translation I have given what perfection my pen could bestow, by
+polishing, altering, or restoring the harsh, improper, or mistaken with
+a nicer exactness than perhaps is required in so long a labor,"<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> a
+comment open to various interpretations. His metrical version of the
+Psalms is described as "paraphrastically translated," and it is worthy
+of note that Cowley, in his attack on the practice of too literal
+translation, should have chosen this part of Sandys' work as
+illustrative of the methods which he condemns. For the translators of
+the new school, though professedly the foes of the word for word method,
+carried their hostility to existing theories of translation much
+farther. Cowley begins, reasonably enough, by pointing out the absurdity
+of translating a poet literally. "If a man should undertake to translate
+Pindar word for word, it would be thought that one madman had translated
+another; as may appear when a person who understands not the original
+reads the verbal traduction of him into Latin prose, than which nothing
+seems more raving.... And I would gladly know what applause our best
+pieces of English poesy could expect from a Frenchman or Italian, if
+converted faithfully and word for word into French or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span> Italian
+prose."<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> But, ignoring the possibility of a reasonable regard for
+both the original and the English, such as had been advocated by Chapman
+or by minor translators like W. L. and Vicars, Cowley suggests a more
+radical method. Since of necessity much of the beauty of a poem is lost
+in translation, the translator must supply new beauties. "For men
+resolving in no case to shoot beyond the mark," he says, "it is a
+thousand to one if they shoot not short of it." "We must needs confess
+that after all these losses sustained by Pindar, all we can add to him
+by our wit or invention (not deserting still his subject) is not likely
+to make him a richer man than he was in his own country." Finally comes
+a definite statement of Cowley's method: "Upon this ground I have in
+these two Odes of Pindar taken, left out and added what I please; nor
+make it so much my aim to let the reader know precisely what he spoke as
+what was his way and manner of speaking, which has not been yet (that I
+know of) introduced into English, though it be the noblest and highest
+kind of writing in verse." Denham, in his lines on Fanshaw's translation
+of Guarini, had already approved of a similar method:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">A new and nobler way thou dost pursue<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To make translations and translators too.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They but preserve the ashes, thou the flame,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">True to his sense, but truer to his fame.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Feeding his current, where thou find'st it low<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Let'st in thine own to make it rise and flow;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wisely restoring whatsoever grace<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is lost by change of times, or tongues, or place.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Denham, however, justifies the procedure for reasons which must have had
+their appeal for the translator who was conscious of real creative
+power. "Poesy," he says in the preface to his translation from the
+<i>Aeneid</i>, "is of so subtle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> a spirit that in the pouring out of one
+language into another it will all evaporate; and if a new spirit be not
+added in transfusion, there will remain nothing but a <i>caput mortuum</i>."
+The new method, which Cowley is willing to designate as <i>imitation</i> if
+the critics refuse to it the name of translation, is described by Dryden
+with his usual clearness. "I take imitation of an author in their
+sense," he says, "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one
+who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to
+translate his words, or be confined to his sense, but only to set him as
+a pattern, and to write as he supposes that author would have done, had
+he lived in our age, and in our country."<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></p>
+
+<p>Yet, after all, the new fashion was far from revolutionizing either the
+theory or the practice of translation. Dryden says of Denham that "he
+advised more liberty than he took himself," and of both Denham and
+Cowley, "I dare not say that either of them have carried this libertine
+way of rendering authors (as Mr Cowley calls it) so far as my definition
+reaches; for in the <i>Pindaric Odes</i> the customs and ceremonies of
+ancient Greece are still observed."<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> In the theory of the less
+distinguished translators of the second and third quarters of the
+century, the influence of Denham and Cowley shows itself, if at all, in
+the claim to have translated paraphrastically and the complacency with
+which translators describe their practice as "new," a condition of
+things which might have prevailed without the intervention of the method
+of imitation. About the year 1680 there comes a definite reaction
+against too great liberty in the treatment of foreign authors. Thomas
+Creech, defining what may justly be expected of the translator of
+Horace, says, "If the sense of the author is delivered, the variety of
+expression kept (which I must despair of after Quintillian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> hath assured
+us that he is most happily bold in his words) and his fancy not
+debauched (for I cannot think myself able to improve Horace) 'tis all
+that can be expected from a version."<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> After quoting with approval
+what Cowley has said of the inadequacy of any translation, he continues:
+"'Tis true he (Cowley) improves this consideration, and urges it as
+concluding against all strict and faithful versions, in which I must beg
+leave to dissent, thinking it better to convey down the learning of the
+ancients than their empty sound suited to the present times, and show
+the age their whole substance, rather than their ghost embodied in some
+light air of my own." An anonymous writer presents a group of critics
+who are disgusted with contemporary fashions in translation and wish to
+go back to those which prevailed in the early part of the century.<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Acer, incensed, exclaimed against the age,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Said some of our new poets had of late<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Set up a lazy fashion to translate,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Speak authors how they please, and if they call<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Stuff they make paraphrase, that answers all.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Pedantic verse, effeminately smooth,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Racked through all little rules of art to soothe,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The soft'ned age industriously compile,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Main wit and cripple fancy all the while.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A license far beyond poetic use<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Not to translate old authors but abuse<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The wit of Romans; and their lofty sense<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Degrade into new poems made from thence,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Disguise old Rome in our new eloquence.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Aesculape shares the opinion of Acer.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And thought it fit wits should be more confined<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To author's sense, and to their periods too,<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>
+<span class="i0">Must leave out nothing, every sense must do,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And though they cannot render verse for verse,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yet every period's sense they must rehearse.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Finally Metellus, speaking for the group, orders Laelius, one of their
+number, to translate the Fourth Book of the <i>Aeneid</i>, keeping himself in
+due subordination to Virgil.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">We all bid then translate it the old way<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Not a-la-mode, but like George Sandys or May;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Show Virgil's every period, not steal sense<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To make up a new-fashioned poem thence.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Other translators, though not defending the literal method, do not
+advocate imitation. Roscommon, in the <i>Essay on Translated Verse</i>,
+demands fidelity to the substance of the original when he says,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The genuine sense, intelligibly told,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shows a translator both discreet and bold.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Excursions are inexpiably bad,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And 'tis much safer to leave out than add,<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>but, unlike Phaer, he forbids the omission of difficult passages:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Abstruse and mystic thoughts you must express,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With painful care and seeming easiness.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Dryden considers the whole situation in detail.<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> He admires Cowley's
+<i>Pindaric Odes</i> and admits that both Pindar and his translator do not
+come under ordinary rules, but he fears the effect of Cowley's example
+"when writers of unequal parts to him shall imitate so bold an
+undertaking," and believes that only a poet so "wild and ungovernable"
+as Pindar justifies the method of Cowley. "If Virgil, or Ovid, or any
+regular intelligible authors be thus used, 'tis no longer to be called
+their work, when neither the thoughts nor words are drawn from the
+original; but instead of them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> there is something new produced, which is
+almost the creation of another hand.... He who is inquisitive to know an
+author's thoughts will be disappointed in his expectation; and 'tis not
+always that a man will be contented to have a present made him, when he
+expects the payment of a debt. To state it fairly; imitation is the most
+advantageous way for a translator to show himself, but the greatest
+wrong which can be done to the memory and reputation of the dead."</p>
+
+<p>Though imitation was not generally accepted as a standard method of
+translation, certain elements in the theory of Denham and Cowley
+remained popular throughout the seventeenth and even the eighteenth
+century. A favorite comment in the complimentary verses attached to
+translations is the assertion that the translator has not only equaled
+but surpassed his original. An extreme example of this is Dryden's
+fatuous reference to the Earl of Mulgrave's translation of Ovid:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">How will sweet Ovid's ghost be pleased to hear<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His fame augmented by an English peer,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How he embellishes his Helen's loves,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Outdoes his softness, and his sense improves.<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>His earlier lines to Sir Robert Howard on the latter's translation of
+the <i>Achilleis</i> of Statius are somewhat less bald:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To understand how much we owe to you,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">We must your numbers with your author's view;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then shall we see his work was lamely rough,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Each figure stiff as if designed in buff;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His colours laid so thick on every place,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As only showed the paint, but hid the face;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But as in perspective we beauties see<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which in the glass, not in the picture be,<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span>
+<span class="i0">So here our sight obligingly mistakes<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That wealth which his your bounty only makes.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thus vulgar dishes are by cooks disguised,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">More for their dressing than their substance prized.<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It was especially in cases where the original lacked smoothness and
+perspicuity, the qualities which appealed most strongly to the century,
+that the claim to improvement was made. Often, however, it was
+associated with notably accurate versions. Cartwright calls upon the
+readers of Holiday's <i>Persius</i>,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">who when they shall view<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How truly with thine author thou dost pace,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How hand in hand ye go, what equal grace<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thou dost observe with him in every term,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They cannot but, if just, justly affirm<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That did your times as do your lines agree,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He might be thought to have translated thee,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But that he's darker, not so strong; wherein<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thy greater art more clearly may be seen,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which does thy Persius' cloudy storms display<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With lightning and with thunder; both which lay<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Couched perchance in him, but wanted force<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To break, or light from darkness to divorce,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Till thine exhaled skill compressed it so,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That forced the clouds to break, the light to show,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The thunder to be heard. That now each child<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Can prattle what was meant; whilst thou art styled<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of all, with titles of true dignity<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For lofty phrase and perspicuity.<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>J. A. addresses Lucretius in lines prefixed to Creech's translation,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">But Lord, how much you're changed, how much improv'd!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Your native roughness all is left behind,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But still the same good man tho' more refin'd,<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a><br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>and Otway says to the translator:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">For when the rich original we peruse,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And by it try the metal you produce,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Though there indeed the purest ore we find,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yet still by you it something is refined;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thus when the great Lucretius gives a loose<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And lashes to her speed his fiery Muse,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Still with him you maintain an equal pace,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And bear full stretch upon him all the race;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But when in rugged way we find him rein<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His verse, and not so smooth a stroke maintain,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There the advantage he receives is found,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">By you taught temper, and to choose his ground.<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>So authoritative a critic as Roscommon, however, seems to oppose
+attempts at improvement when he writes,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Your author always will the best advise,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fall when he falls, and when he rises, rise,<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>a precept which Tytler, writing at the end of the next century,
+considers the one doubtful rule in <i>The Essay on Translated Verse</i>. "Far
+from adopting the former part of this maxim," he declares, "I consider
+it to be the duty of a poetical translator, never to suffer his original
+to fall. He must maintain with him a perpetual contest of genius; he
+must attend him in his highest flights, and soar, if he can, beyond him:
+and when he perceives, at any time a diminution of his powers, when he
+sees a drooping wing, he must raise him on his own pinions."<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a></p>
+
+<p>The influence of Denham and Cowley is also seen in what is perhaps the
+most significant element in the seventeenth-century theory of
+translation. These men advocated freedom in translation, not because
+such freedom would give the translator a greater opportunity to display
+his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span> powers, but because it would enable him to reproduce more truly
+the spirit of the original. A good translator must, first of all, know
+his author intimately. Where Denham's expressions are fuller than
+Virgil's, they are, he says, "but the impressions which the often
+reading of him hath left upon my thoughts." Possessing this intimate
+acquaintance, the English writer must try to think and write as if he
+were identified with his author. Dryden, who, in spite of his general
+principles, sometimes practised something uncommonly like imitation,
+says in the preface to <i>Sylvae</i>: "I must acknowledge that I have many
+times exceeded my commission; for I have both added and omitted, and
+even sometimes very boldly made such expositions of my authors as no
+Dutch commentator will forgive me.... Where I have enlarged them, I
+desire the false critics would not always think that those thoughts are
+wholly mine, but either that they are secretly in the poet, or may be
+fairly deduced from him; or at least, if both these considerations
+should fail, that my own is of a piece with his, and that if he were
+living, and an Englishman, they are such as he would probably have
+written."<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a></p>
+
+<p>By a sort of irony the more faithful translator came in time to
+recognize this as one of the precepts of his art, and sometimes to use
+it as an argument against too much liberty. The Earl of Roscommon says
+in the preface to his translation of Horace's <i>Art of Poetry</i>, "I have
+kept as close as I could both to the meaning and the words of the
+author, and done nothing but what I believe he would forgive if he were
+alive; and I have often asked myself this question." Dryden follows his
+protest against imitation by saying: "Nor must we understand the
+language only of the poet, but his particular turn of thoughts and
+expression, which are the characters that distinguish, and, as it were,
+individuate him from all other writers. When we come thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> far, 'tis
+time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his
+thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to
+vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance."<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> Such
+faithfulness, according to Dryden, involves the appreciation and the
+reproduction of the qualities in an author which distinguish him from
+others, or, to use his own words, "the maintaining the character of an
+author which distinguishes him from all others, and makes him appear
+that individual poet whom you would interpret."<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> Dryden thinks that
+English translators have not sufficiently recognized the necessity for
+this. "For example, not only the thoughts, but the style and
+versification of Virgil and Ovid are very different: yet I see, even in
+our best poets who have translated some parts of them, that they have
+confounded their several talents, and, by endeavoring only at the
+sweetness and harmony of numbers, have made them so much alike that, if
+I did not know the originals, I should never be able to judge by the
+copies which was Virgil and which was Ovid. It was objected against a
+late noble painter that he drew many graceful pictures, but few of them
+were like. And this happened because he always studied himself more than
+those who sat to him. In such translators I can easily distinguish the
+hand which performed the work, but I cannot distinguish their poet from
+another."</p>
+
+<p>But critics recognized that study and pains alone could not furnish the
+translator for his work. "To be a thorough translator," says Dryden, "he
+must be a thorough poet,"<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> or to put it, as does Roscommon, somewhat
+more mildly, he must by nature possess the more essential
+characteristics of his author. Admitting this, Creech writes with a
+slight air of apology, "I cannot choose but smile to think that I, who
+have ... too little ill nature (for that is commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> thought a
+necessary ingredient) to be a satirist, should venture upon
+Horace."<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> Dryden finds by experience that he can more easily
+translate a poet akin to himself. His translations of Ovid please him.
+"Whether it be the partiality of an old man to his youngest child I know
+not; but they appear to me the best of all my endeavors in this kind.
+Perhaps this poet is more easy to be translated than some others whom I
+have lately attempted; perhaps, too, he was more according to my
+genius."<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> He looks forward with pleasure to putting the whole of the
+<i>Iliad</i> into English. "And this I dare assure the world beforehand, that
+I have found, by trial, Homer a more pleasing task than Virgil, though I
+say not the translation will be less laborious; for the Grecian is more
+according to my genius than the Latin poet."<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> The insistence on the
+necessity for kinship between the author and the translator is the
+principal idea in Roscommon's <i>Essay on Translated Verse</i>. According to
+Roscommon,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Each poet with a different talent writes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">One praises, one instructs, another bites.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Horace could ne'er aspire to epic bays,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nor lofty Maro stoop to lyric lays.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This, then, is his advice to the would-be translator:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Examine how your humour is inclined,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And which the ruling passion of your mind;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then, seek a poet who your way does bend,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And choose an author as you choose a friend.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">United by this sympathetic bond,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">You grow familiar, intimate, and fond;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Your thoughts, your words, your styles, your souls agree,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No longer his interpreter but he.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>Though the plea of reproducing the spirit of the original was sometimes
+made a pretext for undue latitude, it is evident that there was here an
+important contribution to the theory of translation. In another respect,
+also, the consideration of metrical effects, the seventeenth century
+shows some advance,&mdash;an advance, however, which must be laid chiefly to
+the credit of Dryden. Apparently there was no tendency towards
+innovation and experiment in the matter of verse forms.
+Seventeenth-century translators, satisfied with the couplet and kindred
+measures, did not consider, as the Elizabethans had done, the
+possibility of introducing classical metres. Creech says of Horace,
+"'Tis certain our language is not capable of the numbers of the
+poet,"<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> and leaves the matter there. Holiday says of his translation
+of the same poet: "But many, no doubt, will say Horace is by me
+forsaken, his lyric softness and emphatical Muse maimed; that there is a
+general defection from his genuine harmony. Those I must tell, I have in
+this translation rather sought his spirit than numbers; yet the music of
+verse not neglected neither, since the English ear better heareth the
+distich, and findeth that sweetness and air which the Latin affecteth
+and (questionless) attaineth in sapphics or iambic measures."<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a>
+Dryden frequently complains of the difficulty of translation into
+English metre, especially when the poet to be translated is Virgil. The
+use of rhyme causes trouble. It "is certainly a constraint even to the
+best poets, and those who make it with most ease.... What it adds to
+sweetness, it takes away from sense; and he who loses the least by it
+may be called a gainer. It often makes us swerve from an author's
+meaning; as, if a mark be set up for an archer at a great distance, let
+him aim as exactly as he can, the least wind will take his arrow, and
+divert it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> from the white."<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> The line of the heroic couplet is not
+long enough to reproduce the hexameter, and Virgil is especially
+succinct. "To make him copious is to alter his character; and to
+translate him line for line is impossible, because the Latin is
+naturally a more succinct language than either the Italian, Spanish,
+French, or even than the English, which, by reason of its monosyllables,
+is far the most compendious of them. Virgil is much the closest of any
+Roman poet, and the Latin hexameter has more feet than the English
+heroic."<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> Yet though Dryden admits that Caro, the Italian
+translator, who used blank verse, made his task easier thereby, he does
+not think of abandoning the couplet for any of the verse forms which
+earlier translators had tried. He finds Chapman's <i>Homer</i> characterized
+by "harsh numbers ... and a monstrous length of verse," and thinks his
+own period "a much better age than was the last ... for versification
+and the art of numbers."<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> Roscommon, whose version of Horace's <i>Art
+of Poetry</i> is in blank verse, says that Jonson's translation lacks
+clearness as a result not only of his literalness but of "the constraint
+of rhyme,"<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> but makes no further attack on the couplet as the
+regular vehicle for translation.</p>
+
+<p>Dryden, however, is peculiarly interested in the general effect of his
+verse as compared with that of his originals. "I have attempted," he
+says in the <i>Examen Poeticum</i>, "to restore Ovid to his native sweetness,
+easiness, and smoothness, and to give my poetry a kind of cadence and,
+as we call it, a run of verse, as like the original as the English can
+come to the Latin."<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> In his study of Virgil previous to translating
+the <i>Aeneid</i> he observed "above all, the elegance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> of his expressions
+and the harmony of his numbers."<a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> Elsewhere he says of his author,
+"His verse is everywhere sounding the very thing in your ears whose
+sense it bears, yet the numbers are perpetually varied to increase the
+delight of the reader; so that the same sounds are never repeated twice
+together."<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> These metrical effects he has tried to reproduce in
+English. "The turns of his verse, his breakings, his numbers, and his
+gravity, I have as far imitated as the poverty of our language and the
+hastiness of my performance would allow," he says in the preface to
+<i>Sylvae</i>.<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> In his translation of the whole <i>Aeneid</i> he was guided by
+the same considerations. "Virgil ... is everywhere elegant, sweet, and
+flowing in his hexameters. His words are not only chosen, but the places
+in which he ranks them for the sound. He who removes them from the
+station wherein their master set them spoils the harmony. What he says
+of the Sibyl's prophecies may be as properly applied to every word of
+his: they must be read in order as they lie; the least breath
+discomposes them and somewhat of their divinity is lost. I cannot boast
+that I have been thus exact in my verses; but I have endeavored to
+follow the example of my master, and am the first Englishman, perhaps,
+who made it his design to copy him in his numbers, his choice of words,
+and his placing them for the sweetness of the sound. On this last
+consideration I have shunned the <i>caesura</i> as much as possibly I could:
+for, wherever that is used, it gives a roughness to the verse; of which
+we have little need in a language which is overstocked with
+consonants."<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> Views like these contribute much to an adequate
+conception of what faithfulness in translation demands.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span></p><p>From the lucid, intelligent comment of Dryden it is disappointing to
+turn to the body of doctrine produced by his successors. In spite of the
+widespread interest in translation during the eighteenth century, little
+progress was made in formulating the theory of the art, and many of the
+voluminous prefaces of translators deserve the criticism which Johnson
+applied to Garth, "his notions are half-formed." So far as concerns the
+general method of translation, the principles laid down by critics are
+often mere repetitions of the conclusions already reached in the
+preceding century. Most theorists were ready to adopt Dryden's view that
+the translator should strike a middle course between the very free and
+the very close method. Put into words by a recognized authority, so
+reasonable an opinion could hardly fail of acceptance. It appealed to
+the eighteenth-century mind as adequate, and more than one translator,
+professing to give rules for translation, merely repeated in his own
+words what Dryden had already said. Garth declares in the preface
+condemned by Johnson: "Translation is commonly either verbal, a
+paraphrase, or an imitation.... The manner that seems most suitable for
+this present undertaking is neither to follow the author too close out
+of a critical timorousness, nor abandon him too wantonly through a
+poetic boldness. The original should always be kept in mind, without too
+apparent a deviation from the sense. Where it is otherwise, it is not a
+version but an imitation."<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> Grainger says in the introduction to his
+<i>Tibullus</i>: "Verbal translations are always inelegant, because always
+destitute of beauty of idiom and language; for by their fidelity to an
+author's words, they become treacherous to his reputation; on the other
+hand, a too wanton departure from the letter often varies the sense and
+alters the manner. The translator chose the middle way, and meant
+neither to tread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> on the heels of Tibullus nor yet to lose sight of
+him."<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> The preface to Fawkes' <i>Theocritus</i> harks back to Dryden: "A
+too faithful translation, Mr. Dryden says, must be a pedantic one....
+And as I have not endeavored to give a verbal translation, so neither
+have I indulged myself in a rash paraphrase, which always loses the
+spirit of an ancient by degenerating into the modern manners of
+expression."<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a></p>
+
+<p>Yet behind these well-sounding phrases there lay, one suspects, little
+vigorous thought. Both the clarity and the honesty which belong to
+Dryden's utterances are absent from much of the comment of the
+eighteenth century. The apparent judicial impartiality of Garth, Fawkes,
+Grainger, and their contemporaries disappears on closer examination. In
+reality the balance of opinion in the time of Pope and Johnson inclines
+very perceptibly in favor of freedom. Imitation, it is true, soon ceases
+to enter into the discussion of translation proper, but literalism is
+attacked again and again, till one is ready to ask, with Dryden, "Who
+defends it?" Mickle's preface to <i>The Lusiad</i> states with unusual
+frankness what was probably the underlying idea in most of the theory of
+the time. Writing "not to gratify the dull few, whose greatest pleasure
+is to see what the author exactly says," but "to give a poem that might
+live in the English language," Mickle puts up a vigorous defense of his
+methods. "Literal translation of poetry," he insists, "is a solecism.
+You may construe your author, indeed, but if with some translators you
+boast that you have left your author to speak for himself, that you have
+neither added nor diminished, you have in reality grossly abused him,
+and deceived yourself. Your literal translations can have no claim to
+the original felicities of expression, the energy, elegance, and fire of
+the original poetry. It may bear, indeed, a resemblance,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> but such an
+one as a corpse in the sepulchre bears to the former man, when he moved
+in the bloom and vigor of life.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere, fidus<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Interpres&mdash;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>was the taste of the Augustan age. None but a poet can translate a poet.
+The freedom which this precept gives will, therefore, in a poet's hands,
+not only infuse the energy, elegance, and fire of the author's poetry
+into his own version, but will give it also the spirit of an
+original."<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> A similarly clear statement of the real facts of the
+situation appears in Johnson's remarks on translators. His test for a
+translation is its readability, and to attain this quality he thinks it
+permissible for the translator to improve on his author. "To a thousand
+cavils," he writes in the course of his comments on Pope's <i>Homer</i>, "one
+answer is necessary; the purpose of a writer is to be read, and the
+criticism which would destroy the power of pleasing must be blown
+aside."<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> The same view comes forward in his estimate of Cowley's
+work. "The Anacreon of Cowley, like the Homer of Pope, has admitted the
+decoration of some modern graces, by which he is undoubtedly more
+amiable to common readers, and perhaps, if they would honestly declare
+their own perceptions, to far the greater part of those whom courtesy
+and ignorance are content to style the learned."<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p>
+
+<p>In certain matters, however, the translator claimed especial freedom. "A
+work of this nature," says Trapp of his translation of the <i>Aeneid</i>, "is
+to be regarded in two different views, both as a poem and as a
+translated poem." This gives the translator some latitude. "The thought
+and contrivance are his author's, but his language and the turn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span> of his
+versification are his own."<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> Pope holds the same opinion. A
+translator must "give his author entire and unmaimed" but for the rest
+the diction and versification are his own province.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> Such a dictum
+was sure to meet with approval, for dignity of language and smoothness
+of verse were the very qualities on which the period prided itself. It
+was in these respects that translators hoped to improve on the work of
+the preceding age. Fawkes, the translator of Theocritus, believes that
+many lines in Dryden's <i>Miscellany</i> "will sound very harshly in the
+polished ears of the present age," and that Creech's translation of his
+author can be popular only with those who "having no ear for poetical
+numbers, are better pleased with the rough music of the last age than
+the refined harmony of this." Johnson, who strongly approved of Dryden's
+performance, accepts it as natural that there should be other attempts
+at the translation of Virgil, "since the English ear has been accustomed
+to the mellifluence of Pope's numbers, and the diction of poetry has
+become more splendid."<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> There was something of poetic justice in
+this attitude towards the seventeenth century, itself so unappreciative
+of the achievements of earlier translators, but exemplified in practice,
+it showed the peculiar limitations of the age of Pope.</p>
+
+<p>As in the seventeenth century, the heroic couplet was the predominant
+form in translations. Blank verse, when employed, was generally
+associated with a protest against the prevailing methods of translators.
+Trapp and Brady, both of whom early in the century attempted blank verse
+renderings of the <i>Aeneid</i>, justify their use of this form on the ground
+that it permits greater faithfulness to the original. Brady intends to
+avoid the rock upon which other translators<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> have split, "and that seems
+to me to be their translating this noble and elegant poet into rhyme; by
+which they were sometimes forced to abandon the sense, and at other
+times to cramp it very much, which inconveniences may probably be
+avoided in blank verse."<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> Trapp makes a more violent onslaught upon
+earlier translations, which he finds "commonly so very licentious that
+they can scarce be called so much as paraphrases," and presents the
+employment of blank verse as in some degree a remedy for this. "The
+fetters of rhyme often cramp the expression and spoil the verse, and so
+you can both translate more closely and also more fully express the
+spirit of your author without it than with it."<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> Neither version
+however was kindly received, and though there continued to be occasional
+efforts to break away from what Warton calls "the Gothic shackles of
+rhyme"<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> or from the oversmoothness of Augustan verse, the more
+popular translators set the stamp of their approval on the couplet in
+its classical perfection. Grainger, who translated Tibullus, discusses
+the possibility of using the "alternate" stanza, but ends by saying that
+he has generally "preferred the heroic measure, which is not better
+suited to the lofty sound of the epic muse than to the complaining tone
+of the elegy."<a name="FNanchor_441_441" id="FNanchor_441_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> Hoole chooses the couplet for his version of
+Ariosto, because it occupies the same place in English that the octave
+stanza occupies in Italian, and because it is capable of great variety.
+"Of all the various styles used by the best poets," he says, "none seems
+so well adapted to the mixed and familiar narrative as that of Dryden in
+his last production, known by the name of his <i>Fables</i>, which by their
+harmony, spirit, ease, and variety of versification, exhibit an
+admirable model for a translation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span> Ariosto."<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> It was, however, to
+the regularity of Pope's couplet that most translators aspired. Francis,
+the translator of Horace, who succeeded in pleasing his readers in spite
+of his failure to conform with popular standards, puts the situation
+well in a comment which recalls a similar utterance of Dryden. "The
+misfortune of our translators," he says, "is that they have only one
+style; and consequently all their authors, Homer, Virgil, Horace, and
+Ovid, are compelled to speak in the same numbers, and the same unvaried
+expression. The free-born spirit of poetry is confined in twenty
+constant syllables, and the sense regularly ends with every second line,
+as if the writer had not strength enough to support himself or courage
+enough to venture into a third."<a name="FNanchor_443_443" id="FNanchor_443_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></p>
+
+<p>Revolts against the couplet, then, were few and generally unsuccessful.
+Prose translations of the epic, such as have in our own day attained
+some popularity, were in the eighteenth century regarded with especial
+disfavor. It was known that they had some vogue in France, but that was
+not considered a recommendation. The English translation of Madame
+Dacier's prose Homer, issued by Ozell, Oldisworth, and Broome, was
+greeted with scorn. Trapp, in the preface to his Virgil, refers to the
+new French fashion with true insular contempt. Segrais' translation is
+"almost as good as the French language will allow, which is just as fit
+for an epic poem as an ambling nag is for a war horse.... Their language
+is excellent for prose, but quite otherwise for verse, especially
+heroic. And therefore tho' the translating of poems into prose is a
+strange modern invention, yet the French transprosers are so far in the
+right because their language will not bear verse." Mickle, mentioning in
+his <i>Dissertation on the Lusiad</i> that "M. Duperron de Castera, in 1735,
+gave in French prose a loose unpoetical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span> paraphrase of the Lusiad,"
+feels it necessary to append in a note his opinion that "a literal prose
+translation of poetry is an attempt as absurd as to translate fire into
+water."</p>
+
+<p>If there was little encouragement for the translator to experiment with
+new solutions of the problems of versification, there was equally little
+latitude allowed him in the other division of his peculiar province,
+diction. In accordance with existing standards, critics doubled their
+insistence on Decorum, a quality in which they found the productions of
+former times lacking. Johnson criticizes Dryden's <i>Juvenal</i> on the
+ground that it wants the dignity of its original.<a name="FNanchor_444_444" id="FNanchor_444_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> Fawkes finds
+Creech "more rustic than any of the rustics in the Sicilian bard," and
+adduces in proof many illustrations, from his calling a "noble pastoral
+cup a fine two-handled pot" to his dubbing his characters "Tawney Bess,
+Tom, Will, Dick" in vulgar English style.<a name="FNanchor_445_445" id="FNanchor_445_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> Fanshaw, says Mickle in
+the preface to his translation of Camoens, had not "the least idea of
+the dignity of the epic style." The originals themselves, however,
+presented obstacles to suitable rendering. Preston finds this so in the
+case of Apollonius Rhodius, and offers this explanation of the matter:
+"Ancient terms of art, even if they can be made intelligible, cannot be
+rendered, with any degree of grace, into a modern language, where the
+corresponding terms are debased into vulgarity by low and familiar use.
+Many passages of this kind are to be found in Homer. They are frequent
+also in Apollonius Rhodius; particularly so, from the exactness which he
+affects in describing everything."<a name="FNanchor_446_446" id="FNanchor_446_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> Warton, unusually tolerant of
+Augustan taste in this respect, finds the same difficulty in the
+<i>Eclogues</i> and <i>Georgics</i> of Virgil. "A poem whose excellence peculiarly
+consists in the graces of diction," his preface runs, "is far more
+difficult to be translated, than a work where sentiment, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> passion, or
+imagination is chiefly displayed.... Besides, the meanness of the terms
+of husbandry is concealed and lost in a dead language, and they convey
+no low and despicable image to the mind; but the coarse and common words
+I was necessitated to use in the following translation, viz. <i>plough and
+sow</i>, <i>wheat</i>, <i>dung</i>, <i>ashes</i>, <i>horse and cow</i>, etc., will, I fear,
+unconquerably disgust many a delicate reader, if he doth not make proper
+allowance for a modern compared with an ancient language."<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a>
+According to Hoole, the English language confines the translator within
+narrow limits. A translation of Berni's <i>Orlando Innamorato</i> into
+English verse would be almost impossible, "the narrative descending to
+such familiar images and expressions as would by no means suit the
+genius of our language and poetry."<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> The task of translating
+Ariosto, though not so hopeless, is still arduous on this account.
+"There is a certain easy negligence in his muse that often assumes a
+playful mode of expression incompatible with the nature of our present
+poetry.... An English translator will have frequent reason to regret the
+more rigid genius of the language, that rarely permits him in this
+respect, to attempt even an imitation of his author."</p>
+
+<p>The comments quoted in the preceding pages make one realize that, while
+the translator was left astonishingly free as regarded his treatment of
+the original, it was at his peril that he ran counter to contemporary
+literary standards. The discussion centering around Pope's <i>Homer</i>, at
+once the most popular and the most typical translation of the period,
+may be taken as presenting the situation in epitome. Like other prefaces
+of the time, Pope's introductory remarks are, whether intentionally or
+unintentionally, misleading. He begins, in orthodox fashion, by
+advocating the middle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> course approved by Dryden. "It is certain," he
+writes, "no literal translation can be just to an excellent original in
+a superior language: but it is a great mistake to imagine (as many have
+done) that a rash paraphrase can make amends for this general defect;
+which is no less in danger to lose the spirit of an ancient, by
+deviating into the modern manners of expression." Continuing, however,
+he urges an unusual degree of faithfulness. The translator must not
+think of improving upon his author. "I will venture to say," he
+declares, "there have not been more men misled in former times by a
+servile, dull adherence to the letter, than have been deluded in ours by
+a chimerical insolent hope of raising and improving their author....
+'Tis a great secret in writing to know when to be plain, and when
+poetical and figurative; and it is what Homer will teach us, if we will
+but follow modestly in his footsteps. Where his diction is bold and
+lofty, let us raise ours as high as we can; but where his is plain and
+humble, we ought not to be deterred from imitating him by the fear of
+incurring the censure of a mere English critic." The translator ought to
+endeavor to "copy him in all the variations of his style, and the
+different modulations of his numbers; to preserve, in the more active or
+descriptive parts, a warmth and elevation; in the more sedate or
+narrative, a plainness and solemnity; in the speeches a fullness and
+perspicuity; in the sentences a shortness and gravity: not to neglect
+even the little figures and turns on the words, nor sometimes the very
+cast of the periods; neither to omit nor confound any rites and customs
+of antiquity."</p>
+
+<p>Declarations like this would, if taken alone, make one rate Pope as a
+pioneer in the art of translation. Unfortunately the comment of his
+critics, even of those who admired him, tells a different story. "To say
+of this noble work that it is the best which ever appeared of the kind,
+would be speaking in much lower terms than it deserves,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> writes
+Melmoth, himself a successful translator, in <i>Fitzosborne's Letters</i>.
+Melmoth's description of Pope's method is, however, very different from
+that offered by Pope himself. "Mr. Pope," he says, "seems, in most
+places, to have been inspired with the same sublime spirit that animates
+his original; as he often takes fire from a single hint in his author,
+and blazes out even with a stronger and brighter flame of poetry. Thus
+the character of Thersites, as it stands in the English <i>Iliad</i>, is
+heightened, I think, with more masterly strokes of satire than appear in
+the Greek; as many of those similes in Homer, which would appear,
+perhaps, to a modern eye too naked and unornamented, are painted by Pope
+in all the beautiful drapery of the most graceful metaphor"&mdash;a statement
+backed by citation of the famous moonlight passage, which Melmoth finds
+finer than the corresponding passage in the original. There is no doubt
+in the critic's mind as to the desirability of improving upon Homer.
+"There is no ancient author," he declares, "more likely to betray an
+injudicious interpreter into meannesses than Homer.... But a skilful
+artist knows how to embellish the most ordinary subject; and what would
+be low and spiritless from a less masterly pencil, becomes pleasing and
+graceful when worked up by Mr. Pope."<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></p>
+
+<p>Melmoth's last comment suggests Matthew Arnold's remark, "Pope composes
+with his eye on his style, into which he translates his object, whatever
+it may be,"<a name="FNanchor_450_450" id="FNanchor_450_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> but in intention the two criticisms are very different.
+To the average eighteenth-century reader Homer was entirely acceptable
+"when worked up by Mr. Pope." Slashing Bentley might declare that it
+"must not be called Homer," but he admitted that "it was a pretty poem."
+Less competent critics, unhampered by Bentley's scholarly doubts,
+thought the work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> adequate both as a poem and as a translated poem.
+Dennis, in his <i>Remarks upon Pope's Homer</i>, quotes from a recent review
+some characteristic phrases. "I know not which I should most admire,"
+says the reviewer, "the justness of the original, or the force and
+beauty of the language, or the sounding variety of the numbers."<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a>
+Prior, with more honesty, refuses to bother his head over "the justness
+of the original," and gratefully welcomes the English version.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Hang Homer and Virgil; their meaning to seek,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A man must have pok'd into Latin and Greek;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Those who love their own tongue, we have reason to hope,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Have read them translated by Dryden and Pope.<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In general, critics, whether men of letters or Grub Street reviewers,
+saw both Pope's <i>Iliad</i> and Homer's <i>Iliad</i> through the medium of
+eighteenth-century taste. Even Dennis's onslaught, which begins with a
+violent contradiction of the hackneyed tribute quoted above, leaves the
+impression that its vigor comes rather from personal animus than from
+distrust of existing literary standards or from any new and individual
+theory of translation.</p>
+
+<p>With the romantic movement, however, comes criticism which presents to
+us Pope's <i>Iliad</i> as seen in the light of common day instead of through
+the flattering illusions which had previously veiled it. New translators
+like Macpherson and Cowper, though too courteous to direct their attack
+specifically against the great Augustan, make it evident that they have
+adopted new standards of faithfulness and that they no longer admire
+either the diction or the versification which made Pope supreme among
+his contemporaries. Macpherson gives it as his opinion that, although
+Homer has been repeatedly translated into most of the languages of
+modern Europe, "these versions were rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> paraphrases than faithful
+translations, attempts to give the spirit of Homer, without the
+character and peculiarities of his poetry and diction," and that
+translators have failed especially in reproducing "the magnificent
+simplicity, if the epithet may be used, of the original, which can never
+be characteristically expressed in the antithetical quaintness of modern
+fine writing."<a name="FNanchor_453_453" id="FNanchor_453_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> Cowper's prefaces show that he has given serious
+consideration to all the opinions of the theorists of his century, and
+that his own views are fundamentally opposed to those generally
+professed. His own basic principle is that of fidelity to his author,
+and, like every sensible critic, he sees that the translator must
+preserve a mean between the free and the close methods. This approval of
+compromise is not, however, a mere formula; Cowper attempts to throw
+light upon it from various angles. The couplet he immediately repudiates
+as an enemy to fidelity. "I will venture to assert that a just
+translation of any ancient poet in rhyme is impossible," he declares.
+"No human ingenuity can be equal to the task of closing every couplet
+with sounds homotonous, expressing at the same time the full sense of
+his original. The translator's ingenuity, indeed, in this case becomes
+itself a snare, and the readier he is at invention and expedient, the
+more likely he is to be betrayed into the wildest departures from the
+guide whom he professes to follow."<a name="FNanchor_454_454" id="FNanchor_454_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> The popular idea that the
+translator should try to imagine to himself the style which his author
+would have used had he been writing in English is to Cowper "a direction
+which wants nothing but practicability to recommend it. For suppose six
+persons, equally qualified for the task, employed to translate the same
+Ancient into their own language, with this rule to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> guide them. In the
+event it would be found that each had fallen on a manner different from
+that of all the rest, and by probable inference it would follow that
+none had fallen on the right."<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cowper's advocacy of Miltonic blank verse as a suitable vehicle for a
+translation of Homer need not concern us here, but another innovation on
+which he lays considerable stress in his prefaces helps to throw light
+on the practice and the standards of his immediate predecessors. With
+more veracity than Pope, he represents himself as having followed his
+author even in his "plainer" passages. "The passages which will be least
+noticed, and possibly not at all, except by those who shall wish to find
+me at a fault," he writes in the preface to the first edition, "are
+those which have cost me abundantly the most labor. It is difficult to
+kill a sheep with dignity in a modern language, to slay and prepare it
+for the table, detailing every circumstance in the process. Difficult
+also, without sinking below the level of poetry, to harness mules to a
+wagon, particularizing every article of their furniture, straps, rings,
+staples, and even the tying of the knots that kept all together. Homer,
+who writes always to the eye with all his sublimity and grandeur, has
+the minuteness of a Flemish painter." In the preface to his second
+edition he recurs to this problem and makes a significant comment on
+Pope's method of solving it. "There is no end of passages in Homer," he
+repeats, "which must creep unless they be lifted; yet in all such, all
+embellishment is out of the question. The hero puts on his clothes, or
+refreshes himself with food and wine, or he yokes his steeds, takes a
+journey, and in the evening preparation is made for his repose. To give
+relief to subjects prosaic as these without seeming unseasonably tumid
+is extremely difficult. Mr. Pope abridges some of them, and others he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
+omits; but neither of these liberties was compatible with the nature of
+my undertaking."<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a></p>
+
+<p>That Cowper's reaction against Pope's ideals was not a thing of sudden
+growth is evident from a letter more outspoken than the prefaces. "Not
+much less than thirty years since," he writes in 1788, "Alston and I
+read Homer through together. The result was a discovery that there is
+hardly a thing in the world of which Pope is so entirely destitute as a
+taste for Homer.... I remembered how we had been disgusted; how often we
+had sought the simplicity and majesty of Homer in his English
+representative, and had found instead of them puerile conceits,
+extravagant metaphors, and the tinsel of modern embellishment in every
+possible position."<a name="FNanchor_457_457" id="FNanchor_457_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cowper's "discovery," startling, almost heretical at the time when it
+was made, is now little more than a commonplace. We have long recognized
+that Pope's Homer is not the real Homer; it is scarcely an exaggeration
+to say, as does Mr. Andrew Lang, "It is almost as if he had taken
+Homer's theme and written the poem himself."<a name="FNanchor_458_458" id="FNanchor_458_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> Yet it is surprising
+to see how nearly the eighteenth-century ambition, "to write a poem that
+will live in the English language" has been answered in the case of
+Pope. Though the "tinsel" of his embellishment is no longer even
+"modern," his translation seems able to hold its own against later verse
+renderings based on sounder theories. The Augustan translator strove to
+give his work "elegance, energy, and fire," and despite the false
+elegance, we can still feel something of true energy and fire as we read
+the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is that, in translated as in original literature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> the
+permanent and the transitory elements are often oddly mingled. The fate
+of Pope's Homer helps us to reconcile two opposed views regarding the
+future history of verse translations. Our whole study of the varying
+standards set for translators makes us feel the truth of Mr. Lang's
+conclusion: "There can be then, it appears, no final English translation
+of Homer. In each there must be, in addition to what is Greek and
+eternal, the element of what is modern, personal, and fleeting."<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a>
+The translator, it is obvious, must speak in the dialect and move in the
+measures of his own day, thereby very often failing to attract the
+attention of a later day. Yet there must be some place in our scheme for
+the faith expressed by Matthew Arnold in his essays on translating
+Homer, that "the task of translating Homer into English verse both will
+be re-attempted, and may be re-attempted successfully."<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> For in
+translation there is involved enough of creation to supply the
+incalculable element which cheats the theorist. Possibly some day the
+miracle may be wrought, and, in spite of changing literary fashions, we
+may have our English version of Homer in a form sufficient not only for
+an age but for all time.</p>
+
+<p>It is this incalculable quality in creative work that has made
+theorizing on the methods of translation more than a mere academic
+exercise. Forced to adjust itself to the facts of actual production,
+theory has had to follow new paths as literature has followed new paths,
+and in the process it has acquired fresh vigor and flexibility. Even as
+we leave the period of Pope, we can see the dull inadequacy of a
+worn-out collection of rules giving way before the honest, individual
+approach of Cowper. "Many a fair precept in poetry," says Dryden apropos
+of Roscommon's rules for translation, "is like a seeming demonstration
+in the mathematics,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> very specious in the diagram, but failing in the
+mechanic operation."<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> Confronted by such discrepancies, the theorist
+has again and again had to modify his "specious" rules, with the result
+that the theory of translation, though a small, is yet a living and
+growing element in human thought.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> <i>Preface to the Reader</i>, in <i>The Natural History of C.
+Plinius Secundus</i>, London, 1601.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, in <i>Ovid's Metamorphosis, Englished by G.
+S.</i>, London, 1640.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, in <i>The Poems of Horace rendered into Verse
+by Several Persons</i>, London, 1666.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> <i>Juvenal and Persius</i>, translated by Barten Holyday,
+Oxford, 1673 (published posthumously).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> <i>Dedication of the Aeneis</i>, in <i>Essays of John Dryden</i>,
+ed. W. P. Ker, v. 2, p. 235.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> <i>Postscript to the Reader</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 243.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> <i>Rowe</i>, in <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, Dublin, 1804, p. 284.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> <i>The Argument</i>, in <i>The Passion of Dido for Aeneas</i>,
+translated by Edmund Waller and Sidney Godolphin, London, 1658.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, in <i>Translations of Horace</i>. John Hanway,
+1730.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> <i>Dedication</i>, dated 1728, reprinted in <i>The English
+Poets</i>, London, 1810, v. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> to <i>The Destruction of Troy</i>, in Denham, <i>Poems
+and Translations</i>, London, 1709.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> <i>To the courteous not curious reader.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> Comment on Trapp's "blank version" of Virgil, in <i>Life of
+Dryden</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> <i>Preface to Sylvae</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 266.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> <i>Dedication of the Aeneis</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 236.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> In <i>Du Bartas, His Divine Words and Works</i>, translated by
+Sylvester, London, 1641.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> Lines by E. G., same edition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> Same edition, p. 322.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> <i>An Essay on Translated Verse.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> <i>Dedication of the Aeneis</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 220.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> P. 222.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> <i>To the worthy reader.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> <i>To the courteous not curious reader</i>, in <i>The XII.
+Aeneids of Virgil</i>, 1632.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Destruction of Troy</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> Dedication of <i>The Poems of Horace</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>The First Book of Virgil's Aeneis</i>,
+London, 1688.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> Reprinted in <i>Godfrey of Bulloigne</i>, translated by
+Fairfax, New York, 1849.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 249.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> Sprat, <i>Life of Cowley</i>, in <i>Prose Works of Abraham
+Cowley</i>, London, 1826.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> <i>Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles</i>,
+<i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 237.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> <i>Dedication of Examen Poeticum</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 10.
+Johnson, writing of the latter part of the seventeenth century, says,
+"The authority of Jonson, Sandys, and Holiday had fixed the judgment of
+the nation" (<i>The Idler</i>, 69), and Tytler, in his <i>Essay on the
+Principles of Translation</i>, 1791, says, "In poetical translation the
+English writers of the sixteenth, and the greatest part of the
+seventeenth century, seem to have had no other care than (in Denham's
+phrase) to translate language into language, and to have placed their
+whole merit in presenting a literal and servile transcript of their
+original."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> In Lucan's <i>Pharsalia</i>, translated May, 1659.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in Ovid's <i>Metamorphosis</i>, translated
+Sandys, London, 1640.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> to <i>Pindaric Odes</i>, reprinted in <i>Essays and
+other Prose Writings</i>, Oxford, 1915.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> <i>Preface to Ovid's Epistles</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 239.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> Pp. 239-40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> Dedication to Dryden, 1684, in <i>The Odes, Satires, and
+Epistles of Horace done into English</i>, London, 1688.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> <i>Metellus his Dialogues, Relation of a Journey to
+Tunbridge Wells, with the Fourth Book of Virgil's Aeneid in English</i>,
+London, 1693.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> <i>Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles</i>,
+<i>Essays</i>, vol. 1, p. 240.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> <i>To the Earl of Roscommon on his excellent Essay on
+Translated Verse.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> In Sir Robert Howard's <i>Poems</i>, London, 1660.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> In Holiday's <i>Persius</i>, Fifth Edition, 1650.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> In Creech's <i>Lucretius</i>, Third Edition, Oxford, 1683.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> In Creech's <i>Lucretius</i>, Third Edition, Oxford, 1683.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> <i>Essay on the Principles of Translation</i>, Everyman's
+Library, pp. 45-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 252.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> <i>Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles</i>,
+<i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> <i>Preface to Sylvae</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 264.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, in Second Edition of <i>Odes of Horace</i>, London,
+1688.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> <i>Examen Poeticum</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> <i>Preface to the Fables</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 251.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> <i>To the Reader</i>, in <i>The Odes, Satires, and Epistles of
+Horace</i>, London, 1688.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> to translation of Horace, 1652.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> <i>Dedication of the Eneis</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, pp. 220-1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> <i>Preface to Sylvae</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, pp. 256-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> <i>Examen Poeticum</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> <i>Preface.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> <i>Dedication of the Eneis</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 223.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> <i>Preface to Sylvae</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 255.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 258.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> <i>Dedication of the Eneis</i>, <i>Essays</i>, v. 2, p. 215.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> In <i>Ovid's Metamorphoses translated by Dryden, Addison,
+Garth</i>, etc., reprinted in <i>The English Poets</i>, v. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> <i>Advertisement</i> to <i>Elegies of Tibullus</i>, reprinted in
+same volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> to <i>Idylliums of Theocritus</i>, reprinted in same
+volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> <i>Dissertation on The Lusiad</i>, reprinted in <i>The English
+Poets</i>, v. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> <i>Pope</i>, in <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, p. 568.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> <i>Cowley</i>, in <i>Lives</i>, p. 25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> Preface of 1718, reprinted in <i>The Works of Virgil
+translated into English blank verse by Joseph Trapp</i>, London, 1735.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> <i>Preface to Homer's Iliad.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> <i>Dryden</i> in <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, p. 226.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> <i>Proposals for a translation of Virgil's Aeneis in Blank
+Verse</i>, London, 1713.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> <i>Prefatory Dedication</i>, in <i>The Works of Virgil in
+English Verse</i>, London, 1763.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> <i>Advertisement</i>, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> to <i>Ariosto</i>, reprinted in <i>The English Poets</i>,
+v. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, reprinted in <i>The English Poets</i>, v. 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> <i>Dryden</i>, in <i>Lives</i>, p. 226.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_445_445" id="Footnote_445_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_446_446" id="Footnote_446_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a> <i>Preface</i>, reprinted in <i>The British Poets</i>, Chiswick,
+1822, v. 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_447_447" id="Footnote_447_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a> <i>Prefatory Dedication</i>, in <i>The Works of Virgil in
+English Verse</i>, London, 1763.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_448_448" id="Footnote_448_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a> <i>Preface</i> to <i>Ariosto</i>, reprinted in <i>The English Poets</i>,
+v. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> Pp. 53-4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> <i>Essays</i>, Oxford Edition, p. 258.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> <i>Mr. Dennis's Remarks upon Pope's Homer</i>, London, 1717,
+p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> In <i>Down Hall, a Ballad</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_453_453" id="Footnote_453_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Iliad of Homer</i>, translated by James
+Macpherson, London, 1773.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> Preface to first edition, taken from <i>The Iliad of Homer,
+translated by the late William Cowper</i>, London, 1802.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> Preface to first edition, taken from <i>The Iliad of Homer,
+translated by the late William Cowper</i>, London, 1802.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> <i>Preface prepared by Mr. Cowper for a Second Edition</i>, in
+edition of 1802.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> <i>Letters</i>, ed. Wright, London, 1904, v. 3, p. 233.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> <i>History of English Literature</i>, p. 384.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> Preface to <i>The Odyssey of Homer done into English
+Prose</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> Lecture, III, in <i>Essays</i>, p. 311.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> <i>Preface to Sylvae</i>, in <i>Essays</i>, v. 1, p. 252.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+Adlington, William, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aelfric, <a href="#Page_4">4-5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alfred, <a href="#Page_3">3-4</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Alexander</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Amyot, Jacques, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Andreas</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Andrew of Wyntoun, <a href="#Page_35">35-6</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Arnold, Matthew, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Arthur</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ascham, Roger, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Authorized Version of 1611</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Barbour, John, <a href="#Page_36">36-7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Barclay, Alexander, <a href="#Page_100">100-1</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Bay Psalm Book</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bentley, Richard, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Berners, Lord, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Bevis of Hamtoun</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Birth of Jesus</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Bishops' Bible</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Blood of Hayles</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bokenam, Osbern, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43-4</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Book of the Knight of La Tour Landry</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+B. R., <a href="#Page_127">127-8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bradshaw, Henry, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brady, N., <a href="#Page_166">166-7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brende, John, <a href="#Page_88">88-9</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brinsley, John, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brome, Henry, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bryan, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bullokar, John, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bullokar, William, <a href="#Page_109">109-10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Caedmon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Canticum de Creatione</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Capgrave, John, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20-1</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Carew, Richard, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cartwright, William, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Castalio, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Castle of Love</i>, Grosseteste's, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Caxton, William, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Blanchardyn and Eglantine</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Charles the Great</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Eneydos</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Fayttes of Arms</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Godfrey of Bullogne</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Mirror of the World</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Recuyell of the Histories of Troy</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cecil, Sir William, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chaloner, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chapman, George, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-1</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chaucer, Geoffrey, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Franklin's Tale</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Knight's Tale</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Legend of Good Women</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Life of St. Cecilia</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Man of Law's Tale</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Romance of the Rose</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sir Thopas</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Troilus and Criseyde</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30-1</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cheke, Sir John, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125-6</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Child of Bristow</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39-40</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chr&eacute;tien de Troyes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cooke, Thomas, <a href="#Page_138">138-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Coverdale, Miles, <a href="#Page_50">50-1</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-5</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cowley, Abraham, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149-50</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cowper, William, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Creech, Thomas, <a href="#Page_151">151-2</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155-6</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158-9</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cromwell, Thomas, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Cursor Mundi</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cynewulf, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Dacier, Mme., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Danett, Thomas, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Daniel, Samuel, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Davies of Hereford, John, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Denham, Sir John, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150-1</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dennis, John, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dolet, &Eacute;tienne, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Douglas, Gavin, <a href="#Page_107">107-8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Drant, Thomas, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Dryden, John, <a href="#Page_136">136-7</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153-4</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154-5</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157-8</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href="#Page_160">160-1</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-8</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Earl of Toulouse</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eden, Richard, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Elene</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ely, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elyot, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Emare</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fairfax, Edward, <a href="#Page_144">144-5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Falls of Princes</i>, Boccaccio's, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fanshaw, Sir Richard, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fawkes, Francis, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fleming, Abraham, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Florio, John, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Floris and Blancheflor</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fortescue, Thomas, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Foxe, John, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94-5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Francis, Philip, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fraunce, Abraham, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fulke, William, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Garth, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Geneva Bible</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Geneva New Testament</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Gesta Romanorum</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Golagros and Gawain</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Golden Legend</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Golding, Arthur, <a href="#Page_75">75-6</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97-8</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117-8</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129-30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Googe, Barnaby, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gould, Robert, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grainger, James, <a href="#Page_163">163-4</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greenway, Richard, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grimald, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121-3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grindal, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Guevara, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Guido delle Colonne, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hake, Edward, <a href="#Page_113">113-4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Handlyng Synne</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Harrington, Sir John, <a href="#Page_85">85-6</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Harvey, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hellowes, Edward, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105-6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Heywood, Jasper, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hobbes, Thomas, <a href="#Page_140">140-1</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+Hoby, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Holiday, Barten, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Holy Grail</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Holland, Philemon, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-2</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hoole, John, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Howard, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hudson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hue de Rotelande, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hyrde, Richard, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Incestuous Daughter</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ipomadon</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+James VI of Scotland, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jerome, St., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-6</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Johnson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Footnote_396_396">note</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Joye, George, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>King Alexander</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>King Horn</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Knolles, Richard, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Lang, Andrew, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Launfal</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Laurent de Premierfait, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Layamon, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Le Bone Florence of Rome</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Life of St. Augustine</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41-2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+L'Isle, William, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Footnote_202_202">note</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lonelich, Harry, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Love, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lydgate, John, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-8</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Macpherson, James, <a href="#Page_173">173-4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Malory, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mancinus, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marot, Clement, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Martin, Gregory, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70-1</a>.<br />
+<br />
+May, Thomas, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Melmoth, William, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Menechmi</i>, trans. of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Metellus his Dialogues</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152-3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mickle, William Julius, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-5</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Milton, John, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mirk, John, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+More, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Morley, Lord, <a href="#Page_84">84-5</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Morte Arthur</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mulgrave, Earl of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Munday, Anthony, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Nash, Thomas, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Neville, Alexander, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nicholls, Thomas, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+North, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Northern Passion</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Norton, Thomas, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83-4</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123-5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Octavian</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Orm, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Otway, Thomas, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Painter, William, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Paris, William, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Parker, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_54">54-5</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Partonope of Blois</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32-3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Peele, George, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Peterson, Robert, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pettie, George, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Phaer, Thomas, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110-1</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Polychronicon</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pope, Alexander, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Preston, W., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span>Prior, Matthew, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Purvey, John, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57-8</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66-7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Puttenham, (?) Richard, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Rauf Coilyear</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Rhemish Testament</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Richard C[oe]ur de Lion</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9-10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ridley, Robert, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rivers, Earl, <a href="#Page_10">10-1</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Roberd of Cisyle</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22-3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Robert of Brunne, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34-5</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rolle, Richard, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Romance of Partenay</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31-2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roscommon, Earl of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rowe, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Sandys, George, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Secreta Secretorum</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15-16</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sege of Melayne</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Seneca's Tragedies, trans. of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sidney, Sir Philip, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sir Eglamour of Artois</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sir Percival of Galles</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Southern, John, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sprat, Thomas, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>St. Etheldred of Ely</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>St. Katherine of Alexandria</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>St. Paula</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stanyhurst, Richard, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Studley, John, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Surrey, Earl of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sylvester, Joshua, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Taverner, Richard, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thomas de Cabham, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tofte, Robert, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Torrent of Portyngale</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Trapp, Joseph, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Trevisa, John de, <a href="#Page_16">16-17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Turbervile, George, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115-6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Twyne, Thomas, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tyndale, William, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tytler, Alexander, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Footnote_396_396">note</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Udall, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_81">81-2</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-8</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120-1</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Vicars, John, <a href="#Page_139">139-40</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143-4</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146-7</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+W. L., Gent., <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Waller, Edmund, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Warde, William, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Wars of Alexander</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Warton, Joseph, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Webbe, William, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Whetstone, George, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Willes, Richard, <a href="#Page_96">96-7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>William of Palerne</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wilson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92-3</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Winchester, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_67">67-8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wither, George, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wyatt, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Young, Bartholomew, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ypotis</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ywain and Gawin</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_14">14</a>: Double quotes inside double quotes amended to single quotes.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_26">26</a>: Beween amended to between.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_43">43</a>: Saint's legends <i>sic</i>.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_56">56</a>: Insistance amended to insistence.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_82">82</a>: Double quotes at the end of the Golding quote removed.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_87">87</a>: Double quotes at the end of the Daniel quote removed.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_97">97</a>: Comma added after <i>amusing</i>.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_109">109</a>: Esop <i>sic</i>.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_142">142</a>: Facund <i>sic</i>.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_144">144</a>: Closing quotes added to the Denham quote.</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_184">184</a>: Bartholemew corrected to Bartholomew.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Footnote_41_41">Note 41</a>: Comma at the end of the footnote removed. The comma might
+indicate that additional information is missing from the footnote.</p>
+<p><a href="#Footnote_329_329">Note 329</a>: Acccording <i>sic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The variant spellings of Bulloign, Bulloigne and Bullogne have been
+retained.</p>
+
+<p>References in the notes to Ovid's <i>Metamormorphosis</i> are as per the
+original.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Early Theories of Translation, by Flora Ross Amos
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Early Theories of Translation
+
+Author: Flora Ross Amos
+
+Release Date: August 18, 2007 [EBook #22353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Starner and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in        |
+    | this text. For a complete list, please see the bottom of   |
+    | this document.                                             |
+    |                                                            |
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+=Columbia University=
+
+
+STUDIES IN ENGLISH AND COMPARATIVE
+LITERATURE
+
+EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
+
+
+
+
+EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
+
+BY
+
+FLORA ROSS AMOS
+
+OCTAGON BOOKS
+
+A Division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux
+New York 1973
+
+
+Copyright 1920 by Columbia University Press
+
+
+_Reprinted 1973
+by special arrangement with Columbia University Press_
+
+
+OCTAGON BOOKS
+A DIVISION OF FARRAR, STRAUS & GIROUX, INC.
+19 Union Square West
+New York, N.Y. 10003
+
+
+Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
+
+
+Amos, Flora Ross, 1881-
+   Early theories of translation.
+
+   Original ed. issued in series: Columbia University studies in
+     English and comparative literature.
+
+   Originally presented as the author's thesis, Columbia.
+
+   1. Translating and interpreting. I. Title.
+   II. Series: Columbia University studies in English and comparative
+       literature.
+
+[PN241.A5 1973]                   418'.02                    73-397
+
+ISBN 0-374-90176-7
+
+_Printed in U.S.A. by_ NOBLE OFFSET PRINTERS, INC. New York, N.Y. 10003
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+MY FATHER AND MY MOTHER
+
+
+
+
+     _This Monograph has been approved by the Department of
+     English and Comparative Literature in Columbia University as
+     a contribution to knowledge worthy of publication._
+
+                                       A. H. THORNDIKE,
+                                         _Executive Officer_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the following pages I have attempted to trace certain developments in
+the theory of translation as it has been formulated by English writers.
+I have confined myself, of necessity, to such opinions as have been put
+into words, and avoided making use of deductions from practice other
+than a few obvious and generally accepted conclusions. The procedure
+involves, of course, the omission of some important elements in the
+history of the theory of translation, in that it ignores the
+discrepancies between precept and practice, and the influence which
+practice has exerted upon theory; on the other hand, however, it
+confines a subject, otherwise impossibly large, within measurable
+limits. The chief emphasis has been laid upon the sixteenth century, the
+period of the most enthusiastic experimentation, when, though it was
+still possible for the translator to rest in the comfortable medieval
+conception of his art, the New Learning was offering new problems and
+new ideals to every man who shared in the intellectual awakening of his
+time. In the matter of theory, however, the age was one of beginnings,
+of suggestions, rather than of finished, definitive results; even by the
+end of the century there were still translators who had not yet
+appreciated the immense difference between medieval and modern standards
+of translation. To understand their position, then, it is necessary to
+consider both the preceding period, with its incidental,
+half-unconscious comment, and the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+with their systematized, unified contribution. This last material, in
+especial, is included chiefly because of the light which it throws in
+retrospect on the views of earlier translators, and only the main
+course of theory, by this time fairly easy to follow, is traced.
+
+The aim has in no case been to give bibliographical information. A
+number of translations, important in themselves, have received no
+mention because they have evoked no comment on methods. The references
+given are not necessarily to first editions. Generally speaking, it has
+been the prefaces to translations that have yielded material, and such
+prefaces, especially during the Elizabethan period, are likely to be
+included or omitted in different editions for no very clear reasons.
+Quotations have been modernized, except in the case of Middle English
+verse, where the original form has been kept for the sake of the metre.
+
+The history of the theory of translation is by no means a record of
+easily distinguishable, orderly progression. It shows an odd lack of
+continuity. Those who give rules for translation ignore, in the great
+majority of cases, the contribution of their predecessors and
+contemporaries. Towards the beginning of Elizabeth's reign a small group
+of critics bring to the problems of the translator both technical
+scholarship and alert, original minds, but apparently the new and
+significant ideas which they offer have little or no effect on the
+general course of theory. Again, Tytler, whose _Essay on the Principles
+on Translation_, published towards the end of the eighteenth century,
+may with some reason claim to be the first detailed discussion of the
+questions involved, declares that, with a few exceptions, he has "met
+with nothing that has been written professedly on the subject," a
+statement showing a surprising disregard for the elaborate prefaces that
+accompanied the translations of his own century.
+
+This lack of consecutiveness in criticism is probably partially
+accountable for the slowness with which translators attained the power
+to put into words, clearly and unmistakably, their aims and methods.
+Even if one were to leave aside the childishly vague comment of
+medieval writers and the awkward attempts of Elizabethan translators to
+describe their processes, there would still remain in the modern period
+much that is careless or misleading. The very term "translation" is long
+in defining itself; more difficult terms, like "faithfulness" and
+"accuracy," have widely different meanings with different writers. The
+various kinds of literature are often treated in the mass with little
+attempt at discrimination between them, regardless of the fact that the
+problems of the translator vary with the character of his original.
+Tytler's book, full of interesting detail as it is, turns from prose to
+verse, from lyric to epic, from ancient to modern, till the effect it
+leaves on the reader is fragmentary and confusing.
+
+Moreover, there has never been uniformity of opinion with regard to the
+aims and methods of translation. Even in the age of Pope, when, if ever,
+it was safe to be dogmatic and when the theory of translation seemed
+safely on the way to become standardized, one still hears the voices of
+a few recalcitrants, voices which become louder and more numerous as the
+century advances; in the nineteenth century the most casual survey
+discovers conflicting views on matters of fundamental importance to the
+translator. Who are to be the readers, who the judges, of a translation
+are obviously questions of primary significance to both translator and
+critic, but they are questions which have never been authoritatively
+settled. When, for example, Caxton in the fifteenth century uses the
+"curious" terms which he thinks will appeal to a clerk or a noble
+gentleman, his critics complain because the common people cannot
+understand his words. A similar situation appears in modern times when
+Arnold lays down the law that the judges of an English version of Homer
+must be "scholars, because scholars alone have the means of really
+judging him," and Newman replies that "scholars are the tribunal of
+Erudition, but of Taste the educated but unlearned public must be the
+only rightful judge."
+
+Again, critics have been hesitant in defining the all-important term
+"faithfulness." To one writer fidelity may imply a reproduction of his
+original as nearly as possible word for word and line for line; to
+another it may mean an attempt to carry over into English the spirit of
+the original, at the sacrifice, where necessary, not only of the exact
+words but of the exact substance of his source. The one extreme is
+likely to result in an awkward, more or less unintelligible version; the
+other, as illustrated, for example, by Pope's _Homer_, may give us a
+work so modified by the personality of the translator or by the
+prevailing taste of his time as to be almost a new creation. But while
+it is easy to point out the defects of the two methods, few critics have
+had the courage to give fair consideration to both possibilities; to
+treat the two aims, not as mutually exclusive, but as complementary; to
+realize that the spirit and the letter may be not two but one. In the
+sixteenth century Sir Thomas North translated from the French Amyot's
+wise observation: "The office of a fit translator consisteth not only in
+the faithful expressing of his author's meaning, but also in a certain
+resembling and shadowing forth of the form of his style and manner of
+his speaking"; but few English critics, in the period under our
+consideration, grasped thus firmly the essential connection between
+thought and style and the consequent responsibility of the translator.
+
+Yet it is those critics who have faced all the difficulties boldly, and
+who have urged upon the translator both due regard for the original and
+due regard for English literary standards who have made the most
+valuable contributions to theory. It is much easier to set the standard
+of translation low, to settle matters as does Mr. Chesterton in his
+casual disposition of Fitzgerald's _Omar_: "It is quite clear that
+Fitzgerald's work is much too good to be a good translation." We can, it
+is true, point to few realizations of the ideal theory, but in
+approaching a literature which possesses the English Bible, that
+marvelous union of faithfulness to source with faithfulness to the
+genius of the English language, we can scarcely view the problem of
+translation thus hopelessly.
+
+The most stimulating and suggestive criticism, indeed, has come from men
+who have seen in the very difficulty of the situation opportunities for
+achievement. While the more cautious grammarian has ever been doubtful
+of the quality of the translator's English, fearful of the introduction
+of foreign words, foreign idioms, to the men who have cared most about
+the destinies of the vernacular,--men like Caxton, More, or
+Dryden,--translation has appeared not an enemy to the mother tongue, but
+a means of enlarging and clarifying it. In the time of Elizabeth the
+translator often directed his appeal more especially to those who loved
+their country's language and wished to see it become a more adequate
+medium of expression. That he should, then, look upon translation as a
+promising experiment, rather than a doubtful compromise, is an essential
+characteristic of the good critic.
+
+The necessity for open-mindedness, indeed, in some degree accounts for
+the tentative quality in so much of the theory of translation.
+Translation fills too large a place, is too closely connected with the
+whole course of literary development, to be disposed of easily. As each
+succeeding period has revealed new fashions in literature, new avenues
+of approach to the reader, there have been new translations and the
+theorist has had to reverse or revise the opinions bequeathed to him
+from a previous period. The theory of translation cannot be reduced to a
+rule of thumb; it must again and again be modified to include new facts.
+Thus regarded it becomes a vital part of our literary history, and has
+significance both for those who love the English language and for those
+who love English literature.
+
+In conclusion, it remains only to mention a few of my many obligations.
+To the libraries of Princeton and Harvard as well as Columbia University
+I owe access to much useful material. It is a pleasure to acknowledge my
+indebtedness to Professors Ashley H. Thorndike and William W. Lawrence
+and to Professor William H. Hulme of Western Reserve University for
+helpful criticism and suggestions. In especial I am deeply grateful to
+Professor George Philip Krapp, who first suggested this study and who
+has given me constant encouragement and guidance throughout its course.
+
+_April, 1919._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                 PAGE
+
+  I. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD                                   3
+
+ II. THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE                         49
+
+III. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY                                81
+
+ IV. FROM COWLEY TO POPE                                 135
+
+     INDEX                                               181
+
+
+
+
+I. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
+
+
+
+
+EARLY THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
+
+I
+
+THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
+
+
+From the comment of Anglo-Saxon writers one may derive a not inadequate
+idea of the attitude generally prevailing in the medieval period with
+regard to the treatment of material from foreign sources. Suggestive
+statements appear in the prefaces to the works associated with the name
+of Alfred. One method of translation is employed in producing an English
+version of Pope Gregory's _Pastoral Care_. "I began," runs the preface,
+"among other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom, to translate
+into English the book which is called in Latin _Pastoralis_, and in
+English _Shepherd's Book_, sometimes word by word, and sometimes
+according to the sense."[1] A similar practice is described in the
+_Proem_ to _The Consolation of Philosophy_ of Boethius. "King Alfred was
+the interpreter of this book, and turned it from book Latin into
+English, as it is now done. Now he set forth word by word, now sense
+from sense, as clearly and intelligently as he was able."[2] The preface
+to _St. Augustine's Soliloquies_, the beginning of which, unfortunately,
+seems to be lacking, suggests another possible treatment of borrowed
+material. "I gathered for myself," writes the author, "cudgels, and
+stud-shafts, and horizontal shafts, and helves for each of the tools
+that I could work with, and bow-timbers and bolt-timbers for every work
+that I could perform, the comeliest trees, as many as I could carry.
+Neither came I with a burden home, for it did not please me to bring all
+the wood back, even if I could bear it. In each tree I saw something
+that I needed at home; therefore I advise each one who can, and has many
+wains, that he direct his steps to the same wood where I cut the
+stud-shafts. Let him fetch more for himself, and load his wains with
+fair beams, that he may wind many a neat wall, and erect many a rare
+house, and build a fair town, and therein may dwell merrily and softly
+both winter and summer, as I have not yet done."[3]
+
+Aelfric, writing a century later, develops his theories in greater
+detail. Except in the _Preface to Genesis_, they are expressed in Latin,
+the language of the lettered, a fact which suggests that, unlike the
+translations themselves, the prefaces were addressed to readers who
+were, for the most part, opposed to translation into the vernacular and
+who, in addition to this, were in all probability especially suspicious
+of the methods employed by Aelfric. These methods were strongly in the
+direction of popularization. Aelfric's general practice is like that of
+Alfred. He declares repeatedly[4] that he translates sense for sense,
+not always word for word. Furthermore, he desires rather to be clear and
+simple than to adorn his style with rhetorical ornament.[5] Instead of
+unfamiliar terms, he uses "the pure and open words of the language of
+this people."[6] In connection with the translation of the Bible he lays
+down the principle that Latin must give way to English idiom.[7] For all
+these things Aelfric has definite reasons. Keeping always in mind a
+clear conception of the nature of his audience, he does whatever seems
+to him necessary to make his work attractive and, consequently,
+profitable. Preparing his _Grammar_ for "tender youths," though he knows
+that words may be interpreted in many ways, he follows a simple method
+of interpretation in order that the book may not become tiresome.[8] The
+_Homilies_, intended for simple people, are put into simple English,
+that they may more easily reach the hearts of those who read or hear.[9]
+This popularization is extended even farther. Aelfric explains[10] that
+he has abbreviated both the _Homilies_[11] and the _Lives of the
+Saints_,[12] again of deliberate purpose, as appears in his preface to
+the latter: "Hoc sciendum etiam quod prolixiores passiones breuiamus
+verbis non adeo sensu, ne fastidiosis ingeratur tedium si tanta
+prolixitas erit in propria lingua quanta est in latina."
+
+Incidentally, however, Aelfric makes it evident that his were not the
+only theories of translation which the period afforded. In the preface
+to the first collection of _Homilies_ he anticipates the disapproval of
+those who demand greater closeness in following originals. He recognizes
+the fact that his translation may displease some critics "quod non
+semper verbum ex verbo, aut quod breviorem explicationem quam tractatus
+auctorum habent, sive non quod per ordinem ecclesiastici ritus omnia
+Evangelia percurrimus." The _Preface to Genesis_ suggests that the
+writer was familiar with Jerome's insistence on the necessity for
+unusual faithfulness in translating the Bible.[13] Such comment implies
+a mind surprisingly awake to the problems of translation.
+
+The translator who left the narrow path of word for word reproduction
+might, in this early period, easily be led into greater deviations from
+source, especially if his own creative ability came into play. The
+preface to _St. Augustine's Soliloquies_ quoted above carries with it a
+stimulus, not only to translation or compilation, but to work like that
+of Caedmon or Cynewulf, essentially original in many respects, though
+based, in the main, on material already given literary shape in other
+languages. Both characteristics are recognized in Anglo-Saxon comment.
+Caedmon, according to the famous passage in Bede, "all that he could
+learn by hearing meditated with himself, and, as a clean animal
+ruminating, turned into the sweetest verse."[14] Cynewulf in his
+_Elene_, gives us a remarkable piece of author's comment[15] which
+describes the action of his own mind upon material already committed to
+writing by others. On the other hand, it may be noted that the
+_Andreas_, based like the _Elene_ on a single written source, contains
+no hint that the author owes anything to a version of the story in
+another language.[16]
+
+In the English literature which developed in course of time after the
+Conquest the methods of handling borrowed material were similar in their
+variety to those we have observed in Anglo-Saxon times. Translation,
+faithful except for the omission or addition of certain passages,
+compilation, epitome, all the gradations between the close rendering and
+such an individual creation as Chaucer's _Troilus and Criseyde_, are
+exemplified in the works appearing from the thirteenth century on. When
+Lydgate, as late as the fifteenth century, describes one of the
+processes by which literature is produced, we are reminded of
+Anglo-Saxon comment. "Laurence,"[17] the poet's predecessor in
+translating Boccaccio's _Falls of Princes_, is represented as
+
+    In his Prologue affirming of reason,
+    That artificers having exercise,
+    May chaunge & turne by good discretion
+    Shapes & formes, & newly them devise:
+    As Potters whiche to that craft entende
+    Breake & renue their vessels to amende.
+
+    ...
+
+    And semblably these clerkes in writing
+    Thing that was made of auctours them beforn
+    They may of newe finde & fantasye:
+    Out of olde chaffe trye out full fayre corne,
+    Make it more freshe & lusty to the eye,
+    Their subtile witte their labour apply,
+    With their colours agreable of hue,
+    To make olde thinges for to seme newe.[18]
+
+The great majority of these Middle English works contain within
+themselves no clear statement as to which of the many possible methods
+have been employed in their production. As in the case of the
+Anglo-Saxon _Andreas_, a retelling in English of a story already
+existing in another language often presents itself as if it were an
+original composition. The author who puts into the vernacular of his
+country a French romance may call it "my tale." At the end of _Launfal_,
+a version of one of the lays of Marie de France, appears the
+declaration, "Thomas Chestre made this tale."[19] The terms used to
+characterize literary productions and literary processes often have not
+their modern connotation. "Translate" and "translation" are applied
+very loosely even as late as the sixteenth century. _The Legend of Good
+Women_ names _Troilus and Criseyde_ beside _The Romance of the Rose_ as
+"translated" work.[20] Osbern Bokenam, writing in the next century,
+explains that he obtained the material for his legend of St. Margaret
+"the last time I was in Italy, both by scripture and eke by mouth," but
+he still calls the work a "translation."[21] Henry Bradshaw, purposing
+in 1513 to "translate" into English the life of St. Werburge of Chester,
+declares,
+
+    Unto this rude werke myne auctours these shalbe:
+    Fyrst the true legende and the venerable Bede,
+    Mayster Alfrydus and Wyllyam Malusburye,
+    Gyrarde, Polychronicon, and other mo in deed.[22]
+
+Lydgate is requested to translate the legend of St. Giles "after the
+tenor only"; he presents his work as a kind of "brief compilation," but
+he takes no exception to the word "translate."[23] That he should
+designate his _St. Margaret_, a fairly close following of one source, a
+"compilation,"[24] merely strengthens the belief that the terms
+"translate" and "translation" were used synonymously with various other
+words. Osbern Bokenam speaks of the "translator" who "compiled" the
+legend of St. Christiana in English;[25] Chaucer, one remembers,
+"translated" Boethius and "made" the life of St. Cecilia.[26]
+
+To select from this large body of literature, "made," "compiled,"
+"translated," only such works as can claim to be called, in the modern
+sense of the word, "translations" would be a difficult and unprofitable
+task. Rather one must accept the situation as it stands and consider the
+whole mass of such writings as appear, either from the claims of their
+authors or on the authority of modern scholarship, to be of secondary
+origin. "Translations" of this sort are numerous. Chaucer in his own
+time was reckoned "grant translateur."[27] Of the books which Caxton a
+century later issued from his printing press a large proportion were
+English versions of Latin or French works. Our concern, indeed, is with
+the larger and by no means the least valuable part of the literature
+produced during the Middle English period.
+
+The theory which accompanies this nondescript collection of translations
+is scattered throughout various works, and is somewhat liable to
+misinterpretation if taken out of its immediate context. Before
+proceeding to consider it, however, it is necessary to notice certain
+phases of the general literary situation which created peculiar
+difficulties for the translator or which are likely to be confusing to
+the present-day reader. As regards the translator, existing
+circumstances were not encouraging. In the early part of the period he
+occupied a very lowly place. As compared with Latin, or even with
+French, the English language, undeveloped and unstandardized, could make
+its appeal only to the unlearned. It had, in the words of a
+thirteenth-century translator of Bishop Grosseteste's _Castle of Love_,
+"no savor before a clerk."[28] Sometimes, it is true, the English writer
+had the stimulus of patriotism. The translator of _Richard Coeur de
+Lion_ feels that Englishmen ought to be able to read in their own
+tongue the exploits of the English hero. The _Cursor Mundi_ is
+translated
+
+    In to Inglis tong to rede
+    For the love of Inglis lede,
+    Inglis lede of Ingland.[29]
+
+But beyond this there was little to encourage the translator. His
+audience, as compared with the learned and the refined, who read Latin
+and French, was ignorant and undiscriminating; his crude medium was
+entirely unequal to reproducing what had been written in more highly
+developed languages. It is little wonder that in these early days his
+English should be termed "dim and dark." Even after Chaucer had showed
+that the despised language was capable of grace and charm, the writer of
+less genius must often have felt that beside the more sophisticated
+Latin or French, English could boast but scanty resources.
+
+There were difficulties and limitations also in the choice of material
+to be translated. Throughout most of the period literature existed only
+in manuscript; there were few large collections in any one place; travel
+was not easy. Priests, according to the prologue to Mirk's _Festial_,
+written in the early fifteenth century, complained of "default of
+books." To aspire, as did Chaucer's Clerk, to the possession of "twenty
+books" was to aspire high. Translators occasionally give interesting
+details regarding the circumstances under which they read and
+translated. The author of the life of St. Etheldred of Ely refers twice,
+with a certain pride, to a manuscript preserved in the abbey of Godstow
+which he himself has seen and from which he has drawn some of the facts
+which he presents. The translator of the alliterative romance of
+_Alexander_ "borrowed" various books when he undertook his English
+rendering.[30] Earl Rivers, returning from the Continent, brought back a
+manuscript which had been lent him by a French gentleman, and set about
+the translation of his _Dictes and Sayings of the Old Philosophers_.[31]
+It is not improbable that there was a good deal of borrowing, with its
+attendant inconveniences. Even in the sixteenth century Sir Thomas
+Elyot, if we may believe his story, was hampered by the laws of
+property. He became interested in the acts and wisdom of Alexander
+Severus, "which book," he says, "was first written in the Greek tongue
+by his secretary Eucolpius and by good chance was lent unto me by a
+gentleman of Naples called Padericus. In reading whereof I was
+marvelously ravished, and as it hath ever been mine appetite, I wished
+that it had been published in such a tongue as more men might understand
+it. Wherefore with all diligence I endeavored myself whiles I had
+leisure to translate it into English: albeit I could not so exactly
+perform mine enterprise as I might have done, if the owner had not
+importunately called for his book, whereby I was constrained to leave
+some part of the work untranslated."[32] William Paris--to return to the
+earlier period--has left on record a situation which stirs the
+imagination. He translated the legend of St. Cristine while a prisoner
+in the Isle of Man, the only retainer of his unfortunate lord, the Earl
+of Warwick, whose captivity he chose to share.
+
+    He made this lyfe in ynglishe soo,
+    As he satte in prison of stone,
+    Ever as he myghte tent therto
+    Whane he had his lordes service done.[33]
+
+One is tempted to let the fancy play on the combination of circumstances
+that provided him with the particular manuscript from which he worked.
+It is easy, of course, to emphasize overmuch the scarcity and the
+inaccessibility of texts, but it is obvious that the translator's
+choice of subject was largely conditioned by opportunity. He did not
+select from the whole range of literature the work which most appealed
+to his genius. It is a far cry from the Middle Ages to the seventeenth
+century, with its stress on individual choice. Roscommon's advice,
+
+    Examine how your humour is inclined,
+    And what the ruling passion of your mind;
+    Then seek a poet who your way does bend,
+    And choose an author as you choose a friend,
+
+seems absurd in connection with the translator who had to choose what
+was within his reach, and who, in many cases, could not sit down in
+undisturbed possession of his source.
+
+The element of individual choice was also diminished by the intervention
+of friends and patrons. In the fifteenth century, when translators were
+becoming communicative about their affairs, there is frequent reference
+to suggestion from without. Allowing for interest in the new craft of
+printing, there is still so much mention in Caxton's prefaces of
+commissions for translation as to make one feel that "ordering" an
+English version of some foreign book had become no uncommon thing for
+those who owned manuscripts and could afford such commodities as
+translations. Caxton's list ranges from _The Fayttes of Armes_,
+translated at the request of Henry VII from a manuscript lent by the
+king himself, to _The Mirrour of the World_, "translated ... at the
+request, desire, cost, and dispense of the honorable and worshipful man,
+Hugh Bryce, alderman and citizen of London."[34]
+
+One wonders also how the source, thus chosen, presented itself to the
+translator's conception. His references to it are generally vague or
+confused, often positively misleading. Yet to designate with any
+definiteness a French or Latin text was no easy matter. When one
+considers the labor that, of later years, has gone to the classification
+and identification of old manuscripts, the awkward elaboration of
+nomenclature necessary to distinguish them, the complications resulting
+from missing pages and from the undue liberties of copyists, one realizes
+something of the position of the medieval translator. Even categories were
+not forthcoming for his convenience. The religious legend of _St.
+Katherine of Alexandria_ is derived from "chronicles";[35] the moral tale
+of _The Incestuous Daughter_ has its source in "romance";[36]
+Grosseteste's allegory, _The Castle of Love_, is presented as "a romance
+of English ... out of a romance that Sir Robert, Bishop of Lincoln,
+made."[37] The translator who explained "I found it written in old hand"
+was probably giving as adequate an account of his source as truth would
+permit.
+
+Moreover, part of the confusion had often arisen before the manuscript
+came into the hands of the English translator. Often he was engaged in
+translating something that was already a translation. Most frequently it
+was a French version of a Latin original, but sometimes its ancestry was
+complicated by the existence or the tradition of Greek or Hebrew
+sources. The medieval Troy story, with its list of authorities, Dictys,
+Dares, Guido delle Colonne--to cite the favorite names--shows the
+situation in an aggravated form. In such cases the earlier translator's
+blunders and omissions in describing his source were likely to be
+perpetuated in the new rendering.
+
+Such, roughly speaking, were the circumstances under which the
+translator did his work. Some of his peculiar difficulties are,
+approached from another angle, the difficulties of the present-day
+reader. The presence of one or more intermediary versions, a
+complication especially noticeable in England as a result of the French
+occupation after the Conquest, may easily mislead us. The originals of
+many of our texts are either non-extant or not yet discovered, but in
+cases where we do possess the actual source which the English writer
+used, a disconcerting situation often becomes evident. What at first
+seemed to be the English translator's comment on his own treatment of
+source is frequently only a literal rendering of a comment already
+present in his original. It is more convenient to discuss the details of
+such cases in another context, but any general approach to the theory of
+translation in Middle English literature must include this
+consideration. If we are not in possession of the exact original of a
+translation, our conclusions must nearly always be discounted by the
+possibility that not only the subject matter but the comment on that
+subject matter came from the French or Latin source. The pronoun of the
+first person must be regarded with a slight suspicion. "I" may refer to
+the Englishman, but it may also refer to his predecessor who made a
+translation or a compilation in French or Latin. "Compilation" suggests
+another difficulty. Sometimes an apparent reference to source is only an
+appeal to authority for the confirmation of a single detail, an appeal
+which, again, may be the work of the English translator, but may, on the
+other hand, be the contribution of his predecessor. A fairly common
+situation, for example, appears in John Capgrave's _Life of St.
+Augustine_, produced, as its author says, in answer to the request of a
+gentlewoman that he should "translate her truly out of Latin the life of
+St. Augustine, great doctor of the church." Of the work, its editor, Mr.
+Munro, says, "It looks at first sight as though Capgrave had merely
+translated an older Latin text, as he did in the _Life of St. Gilbert_;
+but no Latin life corresponding to our text has been discovered, and as
+Capgrave never refers to 'myn auctour,' and always alludes to himself
+as handling the material, I incline to conclude that he is himself the
+original composer, and that his reference to translation signifies his
+use of Augustine's books, from which he translates whole passages."[38]
+In a case like this it is evidently impossible to draw dogmatic
+conclusions. It may be that Capgrave is using the word "translate" with
+medieval looseness, but it is also possible that some of the comment
+expressed in the first person is translated comment, and the editor adds
+that, though the balance of probability is against it, "it is still
+possible that a Latin life may have been used." Occasionally, it is
+true, comment is stamped unmistakably as belonging to the English
+translator. The translator of a _Canticum de Creatione_ declares that
+there were
+
+    --fro the incarnacioun of Jhesu
+    Til this rym y telle yow
+    Were turned in to englisch,
+    A thousand thre hondred & seventy
+    And fyve yere witterly.
+    Thus in bok founden it is.[39]
+
+Such unquestionably _English_ additions are, unfortunately, rare and the
+situation remains confused.
+
+But this is not the only difficulty which confronts the reader. He
+searches with disappointing results for such general and comprehensive
+statements of the medieval translator's theory as may aid in the
+interpretation of detail. Such statements are few, generally late in
+date, and, even when not directly translated from a predecessor, are
+obviously repetitions of the conventional rule associated with the name
+of Jerome and adopted in Anglo-Saxon times by Alfred and Aelfric. An
+early fifteenth-century translator of the _Secreta Secretorum_, for
+example, carries over into English the preface of the Latin translator:
+"I have translated with great travail into open understanding of Latin
+out of the language of Araby ... sometimes expounding letter by letter,
+and sometimes understanding of understanding, for other manner of
+speaking is with Arabs and other with Latin."[40] Lydgate makes a
+similar statement:
+
+    I wyl translate hyt sothly as I kan,
+    After the lettre, in ordre effectuelly.
+    Thogh I not folwe the wordes by & by,
+    I schal not faille teuching the substance.[41]
+
+Osbern Bokenam declares that he has translated
+
+    Not wurde for wurde--for that ne may be
+    In no translation, aftyr Jeromys decree--
+    But fro sentence to sentence.[42]
+
+There is little attempt at the further analysis which would give this
+principle fresh significance. The translator makes scarcely any effort
+to define the extent to which he may diverge from the words of his
+original or to explain why such divergence is necessary. John de
+Trevisa, who translated so extensively in the later fourteenth century,
+does give some account of his methods, elementary, it is true, but
+honest and individual. His preface to his English prose version of
+Higden's _Polychronicon_ explains: "In some place I shall set word for
+word, and active for active, and passive for passive, a-row right as it
+standeth, without changing of the order of words. But in some place I
+must change the order of words, and set active for passive and
+again-ward. And in some place I must set a reason for a word and tell
+what it meaneth. But for all such changing the meaning shall stand and
+not be changed."[43] An explanation like this, however, is unusual.
+
+Possibly the fact that the translation was in prose affected Trevisa's
+theorizing. A prose rendering could follow its original so closely that
+it was possible to describe the comparatively few changes consequent on
+English usage. In verse, on the other hand, the changes involved were so
+great as to discourage definition. There are, however, a few comments on
+the methods to be employed in poetical renderings. According to the
+_Proem_ to the _Boethius_, Alfred, in the Anglo-Saxon period, first
+translated the book "from Latin into English prose," and then "wrought
+it up once more into verse, as it is now done."[44] At the very
+beginning of the history of Middle English literature Orm attacked the
+problem of the verse translation very directly. He writes of his
+Ormulum:
+
+    Icc hafe sett her o thiss boc
+    Amang Godspelles wordess,
+    All thurrh me sellfenn, manig word
+    The rime swa to fillenn.[45]
+
+Such additions, he says, are necessary if the readers are to understand
+the text and if the metrical form is to be kept.
+
+    Forr whase mot to laewedd follc
+    Larspell off Goddspell tellenn,
+    He mot wel ekenn manig word
+    Amang Godspelless Wordess.
+    & icc ne mihhte nohht min ferrs
+    Ayy withth Godspelless wordess
+    Wel fillenn all, & all forrthi
+    Shollde icc wel offte nede
+    Amang Godspelless wordess don
+    Min word, min ferrs to fillenn.[46]
+
+Later translators, however, seldom followed his lead. There are a few
+comments connected with prose translations; the translator of _The Book
+of the Knight of La Tour Landry_ quotes the explanation of his author
+that he has chosen prose rather than verse "for to abridge it, and that
+it might be better and more plainly to be understood";[47] the Lord in
+Trevisa's _Dialogue_ prefixed to the _Polychronicon_ desires a
+translation in prose, "for commonly prose is more clear than rhyme, more
+easy and more plain to understand";[48] but apparently the only one of
+Orm's successors to put into words his consciousness of the
+complications which accompany a metrical rendering is the author of _The
+Romance of Partenay_, whose epilogue runs:
+
+    As ny as metre can conclude sentence,
+    Cereatly by rew in it have I go.
+    Nerehand stafe by staf, by gret diligence,
+    Savyng that I most metre apply to;
+    The wourdes meve, and sett here & ther so.[49]
+
+What follows, however, shows that he is concerned not so much with the
+peculiar difficulty of translation as with the general difficulty of
+"forging" verse. Whether a man employs Latin, French, or the vernacular,
+he continues,
+
+    Be it in balede, vers, Rime, or prose,
+    He most torn and wend, metrely to close.[50]
+
+Of explicit comment on general principles, then, there is but a small
+amount in connection with Middle English translations. Incidentally,
+however, writers let fall a good deal of information regarding their
+theories and methods. Such material must be interpreted with
+considerable caution, for although the most casual survey makes it clear
+that generally the translator felt bound to put into words something of
+his debt and his responsibility to his predecessors, yet one does not
+know how much significance should attach to this comment. He seldom
+offers clear, unmistakable information as to his difficulties and his
+methods of meeting them. It is peculiarly interesting to come upon such
+explanation of processes as appears at one point in Capgrave's _Life of
+St. Gilbert_. In telling the story of a miracle wrought upon a sick man,
+Capgrave writes: "One of his brethren, which was his keeper, gave him
+this counsel, that he should wind his head with a certain cloth of linen
+which St. Gilbert wore. I suppose verily," continues the translator, "it
+was his alb, for mine author here setteth a word 'subucula,' which is
+both an alb and a shirt, and in the first part of this life the same
+author saith that this holy man wore next his skin no hair as for the
+hardest, nor linen as for the softest, but he went with wool, as with
+the mean."[51] Such care for detail suggests the comparative methods
+later employed by the translators of the Bible, but whether or not it
+was common, it seldom found its way into words. The majority of writers
+acquitted themselves of the translator's duty by introducing at
+intervals somewhat conventional references to source, "in story as we
+read," "in tale as it is told," "as saith the geste," "in rhyme I read,"
+"the prose says," "as mine author doth write," "as it tells in the
+book," "so saith the French tale," "as saith the Latin." Tags like these
+are everywhere present, especially in verse, where they must often have
+proved convenient in eking out the metre. Whether they are to be
+interpreted literally is hard to determine. The reader of English
+versions can seldom be certain whether variants on the more ordinary
+forms are merely stylistic or result from actual differences in
+situation; whether, for example, phrases like "as I have heard tell,"
+"as the book says," "as I find in parchment spell" are rewordings of the
+same fact or represent real distinctions.
+
+One group of doubtful references apparently question the reliability of
+the written source. In most cases the seeming doubt is probably the
+result of awkward phrasing. Statements like "as the story doth us both
+write and mean,"[52] "as the book says and true men tell us,"[53] "but
+the book us lie,"[54] need have little more significance than the
+slightly absurd declaration,
+
+    The gospel nul I forsake nought
+    _Thaugh_ it be written in parchemyn.[55]
+
+Occasional more direct questionings incline one, however, to take the
+matter a little more seriously. The translator of a _Canticum de
+Creatione_, strangely fabulous in content, presents his material with
+the words,
+
+    --as we finden in lectrure,
+    I not whether it be in holy scripture.[56]
+
+The author of one of the legends of the Holy Cross says,
+
+    This tale, quether hit be il or gode,
+    I fande hit writen of the rode.
+    Mani tellis diverseli,
+    For thai finde diverse stori.[57]
+
+Capgrave, in his legend of _St. Katherine_, takes issue unmistakably
+with his source.
+
+    In this reknyng myne auctour & I are too:
+    ffor he accordeth not wytz cronicles that ben olde,
+    But diversyth from hem, & that in many thyngis.
+    There he accordeth, ther I him hold;
+    And where he diversyth in ordre of theis kyngis,
+    I leve hym, & to oder mennys rekenyngis
+    I geve more credens whech be-fore hym and me
+    Sette alle these men in ordre & degre.[58]
+
+Except when this mistrust is made a justification for divergence from
+the original, these comments contribute little to our knowledge of the
+medieval translator's methods and need concern us little. More needful
+of explanation is the reference which implies that the English writer is
+not working from a manuscript, but is reproducing something which he has
+heard read or recounted, or which he has read for himself at some time
+in the past. How is one to interpret phrases like that which introduces
+the story of _Golagros and Gawain_, "as true men me told," or that which
+appears at the beginning of _Rauf Coilyear_, "heard I tell"? One
+explanation, obviously true in some cases, is that such references are
+only conventional. The concluding lines of _Ywain and Gawin_,
+
+    Of them no more have I heard tell
+    Neither in romance nor in spell,[59]
+
+are simply a rough rendering of the French
+
+    Ne ja plus n'en orroiz conter,
+    S'an n'i vialt manconge ajoster.[60]
+
+On the other hand, the author of the long romance of _Ipomadon_, which
+follows its source with a closeness which precludes all possibility of
+reproduction from memory, has tacked on two references to hearing,[61]
+not only without a basis in the French but in direct contradiction to
+Hue de Rotelande's account of the source of his material. In _Emare_,
+"as I have heard minstrels sing in sawe" is apparently introduced as
+the equivalent of the more ordinary phrases "in tale as it is told" and
+"in romance as we read,"[62] the second of which is scarcely compatible
+with the theory of an oral source.
+
+One cannot always, however, dispose of the reference to hearing so
+easily. Contemporary testimony shows that literature was often
+transmitted by word of mouth. Thomas de Cabham mentions the
+"ioculatores, qui cantant gesta principum et vitam sanctorum";[63]
+Robert of Brunne complains that those who sing or say the geste of _Sir
+Tristram_ do not repeat the story exactly as Thomas made it.[64] Even
+though one must recognize the probability that sometimes the immediate
+oral source of the minstrel's tale may have been English, one cannot
+ignore the possibility that occasionally a "translated" saint's life or
+romance may have been the result of hearing a French or Latin narrative
+read or recited. A convincing example of reproduction from memory
+appears in the legend of _St. Etheldred of Ely_, whose author recounts
+certain facts,
+
+    The whiche y founde in the abbey of Godstow y-wis,
+    In hure legent as y dude there that tyme rede,
+
+and later presents other material,
+
+    The whiche y say at Hely y-write.[65]
+
+Such evidence makes us regard with more attention the remark in
+Capgrave's _St. Katherine_,
+
+    --right soo dede I lere
+    Of cronycles whiche (that) I saugh last,[66]
+
+or the lines at the end of _Roberd of Cisyle_,
+
+    Al this is write withoute lyghe
+    At Rome, to ben in memorye,
+    At seint Petres cherche, I knowe.[67]
+
+It is possible also that sometimes a vague phrase like "as the story
+says," or "in tale as it is told," may signify hearing instead of
+reading. But in general one turns from consideration of the references
+to hearing with little more than an increased respect for the superior
+definiteness which belongs to the mention of the "black letters," the
+"parchment," "the French book," or "the Latin book."
+
+Leaving the general situation and examining individual types of
+literature, one finds it possible to draw conclusions which are somewhat
+more definite. The metrical romance--to choose one of the most popular
+literary forms of the period--is nearly always garnished with references
+to source scattered throughout its course in a manner that awakens
+curiosity. Sometimes they do not appear at the beginning of the romance,
+but are introduced in large numbers towards the end; sometimes, after a
+long series of pages containing nothing of the sort, we begin to come
+upon them frequently, perhaps in groups, one appearing every few lines,
+so that their presence constitutes something like a quality of style.
+For example, in _Bevis of Hamtoun_[68] and _The Earl of Toulouse_[69]
+the first references to source come between ll. 800 and 900; in _Ywain
+and Gawin_ the references appear at ll. 9, 3209, and 3669;[70] in _The
+Wars of Alexander_[71] there is a perpetual harping on source, one
+phrase seeming to produce another.
+
+Occasionally one can find a reason for the insertion of the phrase in a
+given place. Sometimes its presence suggests that the translator has
+come upon an unfamiliar word. In _Sir Eglamour of Artois_, speaking of a
+bird that has carried off a child, the author remarks, "a griffin, saith
+the book, he hight";[72] in _Partenay_, in an attempt to give a vessel
+its proper name, the writer says, "I found in scripture that it was a
+barge."[73] This impression of accuracy is most common in connection
+with geographical proper names. In _Torrent of Portyngale_ we have the
+name of a forest, "of Brasill saith the book it was"; in _Partonope of
+Blois_ we find "France was named those ilke days Galles, as mine author
+says,"[74] or "Mine author telleth this church hight the church of
+Albigis."[75] In this same romance the reference to source accompanies a
+definite bit of detail, "The French book thus doth me tell, twenty
+waters he passed full fell."[76] Bevis of Hamtoun kills "forty
+Sarracens, the French saith."[77] As in the case of the last
+illustration, the translator frequently needs to cite his authority
+because the detail he gives is somewhat difficult of belief. In _The
+Sege of Melayne_ the Christian warriors recover their horses
+miraculously "through the prayer of St. Denys, thus will the chronicle
+say";[78] in _The Romance of Partenay_ we read of a wondrous light
+appearing about a tomb, "the French maker saith he saw it with eye."[79]
+Sometimes these phrases suggest that metre and rhyme do not always flow
+easily for the English writer, and that in such difficulties a stock
+space-filler is convenient. Lines like those in Chaucer's _Sir Thopas_,
+
+    And so bifel upon a day,
+    Forsothe _as I you telle may_
+    Sir Thopas wolde outride,
+
+and
+
+    The briddes synge, _it is no nay_,
+      The sparhauke and the papejay
+
+may easily be paralleled by passages containing references to source.
+
+A good illustration from almost every point of view of the significance
+and lack of significance of the appearance of these phrases in a given
+context is the version of the Alexander story usually called _The Wars
+of Alexander_. The frequent references to source in this romance occur
+in sporadic groups. The author begins by putting them in with some
+regularity at the beginnings of the _passus_ into which he divides his
+narrative, but, as the story progresses, he ceases to do so, perhaps
+forgets his first purpose. Sometimes the reference to source suggests
+accuracy: "And five and thirty, as I find, were in the river
+drowned."[80] "Rhinoceros, as I read, the book them calls."[81] The
+strength of some authority is necessary to support the weight of the
+incredible marvels which the story-teller recounts. He tells of a valley
+full of serpents with crowns on their heads, who fed, "as the prose
+tells," on pepper, cloves, and ginger;[82] of enormous crabs with backs,
+"as the book says," bigger and harder than any common stone or
+cockatrice scales;[83] of the golden image of Xerxes, which on the
+approach of Alexander suddenly, "as tells the text," falls to
+pieces.[84] He often has recourse to an authority for support when he
+takes proper names from the Latin. "Luctus it hight, the lettre and the
+line thus it calls."[85] The slayers of Darius are named Besan and
+Anabras, "as the book tells."[86] On the other hand, the signification
+of the reference in its context can be shown to be very slight. As was
+said before, the writer soon forgets to insert it at the beginning of
+the new _passus_; there are plenty of marvels without any citation of
+authority to add to their credibility; and though the proper name
+carries its reference to the Latin, it is usually strangely distorted
+from its original form. So far as bearing on the immediate context is
+concerned, most of the references to source have little more meaning
+than the ordinary tags, "as I you say," "as you may hear," or "as I
+understand."
+
+Apart, however, from the matter of context, one may make a rough
+classification of the romances on the ground of these references.
+Leaving aside the few narratives (e.g. _Sir Percival of Galles_, _King
+Horn_) which contain no suggestion that they are of secondary origin,
+one may distinguish two groups. There is, in the first place, a large
+body of romances which refer in general terms to their originals, but do
+not profess any responsibility for faithful reproduction; in the second
+place, there are some romances whose authors do recognize the claims of
+the original, which is in such cases nearly always definitely described,
+and frequently go so far as to discuss its style or the style to be
+adopted in the English rendering. The first group, which includes
+considerably more than half the romances at present accessible in print,
+affords a confused mass of references. As regards the least definite of
+these, one finds phrases so vague as to suggest that the author himself
+might have had difficulty in identifying his source, phrases where the
+omission of the article ("in rhyme," "in romance," "in story") or the
+use of the plural ("as books say," "as clerks tell," "as men us told,"
+"in stories thus as we read") deprives the words of most of their
+significance. Other references are more definite; the writer mentions
+"this book," "mine author," "the Latin book," "the French book." If
+these phrases are to be trusted, we may conclude that the English
+translator has his text before him; they aid little, however, in
+identification of that text. The fifty-six references in Malory's _Morte
+d'Arthur_ to "the French book" give no particular clue to discovery of
+his sources. The common formula, "as the French book says," marks the
+highest degree of definiteness to which most of these romances attain.
+
+An interesting variant from the commoner forms is the reference to
+_Rom_, generally in the phrase "the book of Rom," which appears in some
+of the romances. The explanation that _Rom_ is a corruption of _romance_
+and that _the book of Rom_ is simply the book of romance or the book
+written in the romance language, French, can easily be supported. In the
+same poem _Rom_ alternates with _romance_: "In Rome this geste is
+chronicled," "as the romance telleth,"[87] "in the chronicles of Rome is
+the date," "in romance as we read."[88] Two versions of _Octavian_ read,
+the one "in books of Rome," the other "in books of ryme."[89] On the
+other hand, there are peculiarities in the use of the word not so easy
+of explanation. It appears in a certain group of romances, _Octavian_,
+_Le Bone Florence of Rome_, _Sir Eglamour of Artois_, _Torrent of
+Portyngale_, _The Earl of Toulouse_, all of which develop in some degree
+the Constance story, familiar in _The Man of Law's Tale_. In all of them
+there is reference to the city of Rome, sometimes very obvious,
+sometimes slight, but perhaps equally significant in the latter case
+because it is introduced in an unexpected, unnecessary way. In _Le Bone
+Florence of Rome_ the heroine is daughter of the Emperor of Rome, and,
+the tale of her wanderings done, the story ends happily with her
+reinstatement in her own city. Octavian is Emperor of Rome, and here
+again the happy conclusion finds place in that city. Sir Eglamour
+belongs to Artois, but he does betake himself to Rome to kill a dragon,
+an episode introduced in one manuscript of the story by the phrase "as
+the book of Rome says."[90] Though the scenes of _Torrent of Portyngale_
+are Portugal, Norway, and Calabria, the Emperor of Rome comes to the
+wedding of the hero, and Torrent himself is finally chosen Emperor,
+presumably of Rome. The Earl of Toulouse, in the romance of that name,
+disguises himself as a monk, and to aid in the illusion some one says of
+him during his disappearance, "Gone is he to his own land: he dwells
+with the Pope of Rome."[91] The Emperor in this story is Emperor of
+Almaigne, but his name, strangely enough, is Diocletian. Again, in
+_Octavian_, one reads in the description of a feast, "there was many a
+rich geste of Rome and of France,"[92] which suggests a distinction
+between a geste of Rome and a geste of France. In _Le Bone Florence of
+Rome_ appears the peculiar statement, "Pope Symonde this story wrote. In
+the chronicles of Rome is the date."[93] In this case the word _Rome_
+seems to have been taken literally enough to cause attribution of the
+story to the Pope. It is evident, then, that whether or not _Rome_ is a
+corruption of _romance_, at any rate one or more of the persons who had
+a hand in producing these narratives must have interpreted the word
+literally, and believed that the book of Rome was a record of
+occurrences in the city of Rome.[94] It is interesting to note that in
+_The Man of Law's Tale_, in speaking of Maurice, the son of Constance,
+Chaucer introduces a reference to the _Gesta Romanorum_:
+
+    In the old Romayn gestes may men fynde
+    Maurice's lyf, I bere it not in mynde.
+
+Such vagueness and uncertainty, if not positive misunderstanding with
+regard to source, are characteristic of many romances. It is not
+difficult to find explanations for this. The writer may, as was
+suggested before, be reproducing a story which he has only heard or
+which he has read at some earlier time. Even if he has the book before
+him, it does not necessarily bear its author's name and it is not easy
+to describe it so that it can be recognized by others. Generally
+speaking, his references to source are honest, so far as they go, and
+can be taken at their face value. Even in cases of apparent falsity
+explanations suggest themselves. There is nearly always the possibility
+that false or contradictory attributions, as, for example, the mention
+of "book" and "books" or "the French book" and "the Latin book" as
+sources of the same romance, are merely stupidly literal renderings of
+the original. In _The Romance of Partenay_, one of the few cases where
+we have unquestionably the French original of the English romance, more
+than once an apparent reference to source in the English is only a close
+following of the French. "I found in scripture that it was a barge"
+corresponds with "Je treuve que c'estoit une barge"; "as saith the
+scripture" with "Ainsi que dient ly escrips";
+
+    For the Cronike doth treteth (sic) this brefly,
+    More ferther wold go, mater finde might I
+
+with
+
+    Mais en brief je m'en passeray
+    Car la cronique en brief passe.
+    Plus deisse, se plus trouvasse.[95]
+
+A similar situation has already been pointed out in _Ywain and Gawin_.
+The most marked example of contradictory evidence is to be found in
+_Octavian_, whose author alternates "as the French says" with "as saith
+the Latin."[96] Here, however, the nearest analogue to the English
+romance, which contains 1962 lines, is a French romance of 5371 lines,
+which begins by mentioning the "grans merueilles qui sont faites, et de
+latin en romanz traites."[97] It is not impossible that the English
+writer used a shorter version which emphasized this reference to the
+Latin, and that his too-faithful adherence to source had confusing
+results. But even if such contradictions cannot be explained, in the
+mass of undistinguished romances there is scarcely anything to suggest
+that the writer is trying to give his work a factitious value by
+misleading references to dignified sources. His faults, as in _Ywain and
+Gawin_, where the name of Chretien is not carried over from the French,
+are sins of omission, not commission.
+
+No hard and fast line of division can be drawn between the romances just
+discussed and those of the second group, with their frequent and fairly
+definite references to their sources and to their methods of reproducing
+them. A rough chronological division between the two groups can be made
+about the year 1400. _William of Palerne_, assigned by its editor to the
+year 1350, contains a slight indication of the coming change in the
+claim which its author makes to have accomplished his task "as fully as
+the French fully would ask."[98] Poems like Chaucer's _Knight's Tale_
+and _Franklin's Tale_ have only the vague references to source of the
+earlier period, though since they are presented as oral narratives, they
+belong less obviously to the present discussion. The vexed question of
+the signification of the references in _Troilus and Criseyde_ is outside
+the scope of this discussion. Superficially considered, they are an odd
+mingling of the new and the old. Phrases like "as to myn auctour listeth
+to devise" (III, 1817), "as techen bokes olde" (III, 91), "as wryten
+folk thorugh which it is in minde" (IV, 18) suggest the first group. The
+puzzling references to Lollius have a certain definiteness, and
+faithfulness to source is implied in lines like:
+
+    And of his song nought only the sentence,
+    As writ myn auctour called Lollius,
+    But pleynly, save our tonges difference,
+    I dar wel seyn, in al that Troilus
+    Seyde in his song; lo! every word right thus
+    As I shal seyn
+    (I, 393-8)
+
+and
+
+    "For as myn auctour seyde, so seye I" (II, 18).
+
+But from the beginning of the new century, in the work of men like
+Lydgate and Caxton, a new habit of comment becomes noticeable.
+
+Less distinguished translators show a similar development. The author of
+_The Holy Grail_, Harry Lonelich, a London skinner, towards the end of
+his work makes frequent, if perhaps mistaken, attribution of the French
+romance to
+
+    ... myn sire Robert of Borron
+    Whiche that this storie Al & som
+    Owt Of the latyn In to the frensh torned he
+    Be holy chirches Comandment sekerle,[99]
+
+and makes some apology for the defects of his own style:
+
+    And I, As An unkonning Man trewly
+    Into Englisch have drawen this Story;
+    And thowgh that to yow not plesyng It be,
+    Yit that ful Excused ye wolde haven Me
+    Of my necligence and unkonning.[100]
+
+_The Romance of Partenay_ is turned into English by a writer who
+presents himself very modestly:
+
+    I not acqueynted of birth naturall
+    With frenshe his very trew parfightnesse,
+    Nor enpreyntyd is in mind cordiall;
+    O word For other myght take by lachesse,
+    Or peradventure by unconnyngesse.[101]
+
+He intends, however, to be a careful translator:
+
+    As nighe as metre will conclude sentence,
+    Folew I wil my president,
+    Ryght as the frenshe wil yiff me evidence,
+    Cereatly after myn entent,[102]
+
+and he ends by declaring that in spite of the impossibility of giving an
+exact rendering of the French in English metre, he has kept very closely
+to the original. Sometimes, owing to the shortness of the French
+"staffes," he has reproduced in one line two lines of the French, but,
+except for this, comparison will show that the two versions are exactly
+alike.[103]
+
+The translator of _Partonope of Blois_ does not profess such slavish
+faithfulness, though he does profess great admiration for his source,
+
+    The olde booke full well I-wryted,
+    In ffrensh also, and fayre endyted,[104]
+
+and declares himself bound to follow it closely:
+
+    Thus seith myn auctour after whome I write.
+    Blame not me: I moste endite
+    As nye after hym as ever I may,
+    Be it sothe or less I can not say.[105]
+
+However, in the midst of his protestations of faithfulness, he confesses
+to divergence:
+
+    There-fore y do alle my myghthhe
+    To saue my autor ynne sucche wyse
+    As he that mater luste devyse,
+    Where he makyth grete compleynte
+    In french so fayre thatt yt to paynte
+    In Englysche tunngge y saye for me
+    My wyttys alle to dullet bee.
+    He telleth hys tale of sentament
+    I vnderstonde noghth hys entent,
+    Ne wolle ne besy me to lere.[106]
+
+He owns to the abbreviation of descriptive passages, which so many
+English translators had perpetrated in silence:
+
+    Her bewte dyscry fayne wolde I
+    Affter the sentence off myne auctowre,
+    Butte I pray yowe of thys grette labowre
+    I mote at thys tyme excused be;[107]
+
+    Butte who so luste to here of hur a-raye,
+    Lette him go to the ffrensshe bocke,
+    That Idell mater I forsoke
+    To telle hyt in prose or els in ryme,
+    For me thoghte hyt taryed grette tyme.
+    And ys a mater full nedless.[108]
+
+One cannot but suspect that this odd mingling of respect and freedom as
+regards the original describes the attitude of many other translators of
+romances, less articulate in the expression of their theory.
+
+To deal fairly with many of the romances of this second group, one must
+consider the relationship between romance and history and the uncertain
+division between the two. The early chronicles of England generally
+devoted an appreciable space to matters of romance, the stories of Troy,
+of Aeneas, of Arthur. As in the case of the romance proper, such
+chronicles were, even in the modern sense, "translated," for though the
+historian usually compiled his material from more than one source, his
+method was to put together long, consecutive passages from various
+authors, with little attempt at assimilating them into a whole. The
+distinction between history and romance was slow in arising. The _Morte
+Arthure_ offers within a few lines both "romances" and "chronicles" as
+authorities for its statements.[109] In Caxton's preface to _Godfrey of
+Bullogne_ the enumeration of the great names of history includes Arthur
+and Charlemagne, and the story of Godfrey is designated as "this noble
+history which is no fable nor feigned thing." Throughout the period the
+stories of Troy and of Alexander are consistently treated as history,
+and their redactors frequently state that their material has come from
+various places. Nearly all the English Troy stories are translations of
+Guido delle Colonne's _Historia Trojana_, and they take over from their
+original Guido's long discussion of authorities. The Alexander romances
+present the same effect of historical accuracy in passages like the
+following:
+
+    This passage destuted is
+    In the French, well y-wis,
+    Therefore I have, it to colour
+    Borrowed of the Latin author;[110]
+
+    Of what kin he came can I nought find
+    In no book that I bed when I began here
+    The Latin to this language lelliche to turn.[111]
+
+The assumption of the historian's attitude was probably the largest
+factor in the development of the habit of expressing responsibility for
+following the source or for noting divergence from it. Less easy of
+explanation is the fact that comment on style so frequently appears in
+this connection. There is perhaps a touch of it even in Layamon's
+account of his originals, when he approaches his French source: "Layamon
+began to journey wide over this land, and procured the noble books which
+he took for authority. He took the English book that Saint Bede made;
+another he took in Latin that Saint Albin made, and the fair Austin, who
+brought baptism hither; the third he took, (and) laid there in the
+midst, that a French clerk made, who was named Wace, who well could
+write.... Layamon laid before him these books, and turned the leaves ...
+pen he took with fingers, and wrote on book skin, and the true words set
+together, and the three books compressed into one."[112] Robert of
+Brunne, in his _Chronicle of England_, dated as early as 1338, combines
+a lengthy discussion of style with a clear statement of the extent to
+which he has used his sources. Wace tells in French
+
+    All that the Latyn spelles,
+    ffro Eneas till Cadwaladre;
+    this Mayster Wace ther leves he.
+    And ryght as Mayster Wace says,
+    I telle myn Inglis the same ways.[113]
+
+Pers of Langtoft continues the history;
+
+    & as he says, than say I,[114]
+
+writes the translator. Robert admires his predecessors, Dares, whose
+"Latyn is feyre to lere," Wace, who "rymed it in Frankis fyne," and
+Pers, of whose style he says, "feyrer language non ne redis"; but he is
+especially concerned with his own manner of expression. He does not
+aspire to an elaborate literary style; rather, he says,
+
+    I made it not forto be praysed,
+    Bot at the lewed men were aysed.[115]
+
+Consequently he eschews the difficult verse forms then coming into
+fashion, "ryme cowee," "straungere," or "enterlace." He does not write
+for the "disours," "seggers," and "harpours" of his own day, who tell
+the old stories badly.
+
+    Non tham says as thai tham wrought,
+    & in ther sayng it semes noght.[116]
+
+A confusion of pronouns makes it difficult to understand what he
+considers the fault of contemporary renderings. Possibly it is that
+affectation of an obsolete style to which Caxton refers in the preface
+to the _Eneydos_. In any case, he himself rejects "straunge Inglis" for
+"simple speche."
+
+Unlike Robert of Brunne, Andrew of Wyntoun, writing at the beginning of
+the next century, delights in the ornamental style which has added a
+charm to ancient story.
+
+    Quharfore of sic antiquiteis
+    Thei that set haly thare delite
+    Gestis or storyis for to write,
+    Flurist fairly thare purpose
+    With quaynt and curiouse circumstance,
+    For to raise hertis in plesance,
+    And the heraris till excite
+    Be wit or will to do thare delite.[117]
+
+The "antiquiteis" which he has in mind are obviously the tales of Troy.
+Guido delle Colonne, Homer, and Virgil, he continues, all
+
+    Fairly formyt there tretyss,
+    And curiously dytit there storyis.[118]
+
+Some writers, however, did not adopt the elevated style which such
+subject matter deserves.
+
+    Sum usit bot in plane maner
+    Of air done dedis thar mater
+    To writ, as did Dares of Frigy,
+    That wrait of Troy all the story,
+    Bot in till plane and opin style,
+    But curiouse wordis or subtile.[119]
+
+Andrew does not attempt to discuss the application of his theory to
+English style, but he has perhaps suggested the reason why the question
+of style counted for so much in connection with this pseudo-historical
+material. In the introduction to Barbour's _Bruce_, though the point at
+issue is not translation, there is a similar idea. According to Barbour,
+a true story has a special claim to an attractive rendering.
+
+    Storyss to rede ar delitabill,
+    Supposs that thai be nocht bot fabill;
+    Than suld storyss that suthfast wer,
+    And thai war said in gud maner,
+    Have doubill plesance in heryng.
+    The fyrst plesance is the carpyng,
+    And the tothir the suthfastness,
+    That schawys the thing rycht as it wes.[120]
+
+Lydgate, Wyntoun's contemporary, apparently shared his views. In
+translating Boccaccio's _Falls of Princes_ he dispenses with stylistic
+ornament.
+
+    Of freshe colours I toke no maner hede.
+    But my processe playnly for to lede:
+    As me semed it was to me most mete
+    To set apart Rethorykes swete.[121]
+
+But when it came to the Troy story, his matter demanded a different
+treatment. He calls upon Mars
+
+    To do socour my stile to directe,
+    And of my penne the tracys to correcte,
+    Whyche bareyn is of aureate licour,
+    But in thi grace I fynde som favour
+    For to conveye it wyth thyn influence.[122]
+
+He also asks aid of Calliope.
+
+    Now of thy grace be helpyng unto me,
+    And of thy golde dewe lat the lycour wete
+    My dulled breast, that with thyn hony swete
+    Sugrest tongis of rethoricyens,
+    And maistresse art to musicyens.[123]
+
+Like Wyntoun, Lydgate pays tribute to his predecessors, the clerks who
+have kept in memory the great deeds of the past
+
+    ... thorough diligent labour,
+    And enlumyned with many corious flour
+    Of rethorik, to make us comprehend
+    The trouthe of al.[124]
+
+Of Guido in particular he writes that he
+
+    ... had in writyng passynge excellence.
+    For he enlumyneth by craft & cadence
+    This noble story with many fresch colour
+    Of rethorik, & many riche flour
+    Of eloquence to make it sownde bet
+    He in the story hath ymped in and set,
+    That in good feyth I trowe he hath no pere.[125]
+
+None of these men point out the relationship between the style of the
+original and the style to be employed in the English rendering. Caxton,
+the last writer to be considered in this connection, remarks in his
+preface to _The Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_ on the "fair language
+of the French, which was in prose so well and compendiously set and
+written," and in the prologue to the _Eneydos_ tells how he was
+attracted by the "fair and honest terms and words in French," and how,
+after writing a leaf or two, he noted that his English was characterized
+by "fair and strange terms." While it may be that both Caxton and
+Lydgate were trying to reproduce in English the peculiar quality of
+their originals, it is more probable that they beautified their own
+versions as best they could, without feeling it incumbent upon them to
+make their rhetorical devices correspond with those of their
+predecessors. Elsewhere Caxton expresses concern only for his own
+language, as it is to be judged by English readers without regard for
+the qualities of the French. In most cases he characterizes his
+renderings of romance as "simple and rude"; in the preface to _Charles
+the Great_ he says that he uses "no gay terms, nor subtle, nor new
+eloquence"; and in the preface to _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_ he
+declares that he does not know "the art of rhetoric nor of such gay
+terms as now be said in these days and used," and that his only desire
+is to be understood by his readers. The prologue to the _Eneydos_,
+however, tells a different story. According to this he has been blamed
+for expressing himself in "over curious terms which could not be
+understood of the common people" and requested to use "old and homely
+terms." But Caxton objects to the latter as being also unintelligible.
+"In my judgment," he says, "the common terms that be daily used, are
+lighter to be understood than the old and ancient English." He is
+writing, not for the ignorant man, but "only for a clerk and a noble
+gentleman that feeleth and understandeth in feats of arms, in love, and
+in noble chivalry." For this reason, he concludes, "in a mean have I
+reduced and translated this said book into our English, not over rude
+nor curious, but in such terms as shall be understood, by God's grace,
+according to the copy." Though Caxton does not avail himself of
+Wyntoun's theory that the Troy story must be told in "curious and
+subtle" words, it is probable that, like other translators of his
+century, he felt the attraction of the new aureate diction while he
+professed the simplicity of language which existing standards demanded
+of the translator.
+
+Turning from the romance and the history and considering religious
+writings, the second large group of medieval productions, one finds the
+most significant translator's comment associated with the saint's
+legend, though occasionally the short pious tale or the more abstract
+theological treatise makes some contribution. These religious works
+differ from the romances in that they are more frequently based on Latin
+than on French originals, and in that they contain more deliberate and
+more repeated references to the audiences to which they have been
+adapted. The translator does not, like Caxton, write for "a clerk and a
+noble gentleman"; instead he explains repeatedly that he has striven to
+make his work understandable to the unlearned, for, as the author of
+_The Child of Bristow_ pertinently remarks,
+
+    The beste song that ever was made
+    Is not worth a lekys blade
+    But men wol tende ther-tille.[126]
+
+Since Latin enditing is "cumbrous," the translator of _The Blood at
+Hayles_ presents a version in English, "for plainly this the truth will
+tell";[127] Osbern Bokenam will speak and write "plainly, after the
+language of Southfolk speech";[128] John Capgrave, finding that the
+earlier translator of the life of St. Katherine has made the work "full
+hard ... right for the strangeness of his dark language," undertakes to
+translate it "more openly" and "set it more plain."[129] This conception
+of the audience, together with the writer's consciousness that even in
+presenting narrative he is conveying spiritual truths of supreme
+importance to his readers, probably increases the tendency of the
+translator to incorporate into his English version such running
+commentary as at intervals suggests itself to him. He may add a line or
+two of explanation, of exhortation, or, if he recognizes a quotation
+from the Scriptures or from the Fathers, he may supply the authority for
+it. John Capgrave undertakes to translate the life of St. Gilbert "right
+as I find before me, save some additions will I put thereto which men of
+that order have told me, and eke other things that shall fall to my mind
+in the writing which be pertinent to the matter."[130] Nicholas Love
+puts into English _The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ_,
+"with more put to in certain parts, and also with drawing out of divers
+authorities and matters as it seemeth to the writer hereof most speedful
+and edifying to them that be of simple understanding."[131] Such
+incidental citation of authority is evident in _St. Paula_, published
+by Dr. Horstmann side by side with its Latin original.[132] With more
+simplicity and less display of learning, the translator of religious
+works sometimes vaguely adduces authority, as did the translator of
+romances, in connection with an unfamiliar name. One finds such
+statements as: "Manna, so it is written";[133] "Such a fiend, as the
+book tells us, is called Incubus";[134] "In the country of Champagne, as
+the book tells";[135] "Cursates, saith the book, he hight";[136]
+
+    Her body lyeth in strong castylle
+    And Bulstene, seith the boke, it hight;[137]
+
+    In the yer of ur lord of hevene
+    Four hundred and eke ellevene
+    Wandaly the province tok
+    Of Aufrike--so seith the bok.[138]
+
+Often, however, the reference to source is introduced apparently at
+random. On the whole, indeed, the comment which accompanies religious
+writings does not differ essentially in intelligibility or significance
+from that associated with romances; its interest lies mainly in the fact
+that it brings into greater relief tendencies more or less apparent in
+the other form.
+
+One of these is the large proportion of borrowed comment. The constant
+citation of authority in a work such as, for example, _The Golden
+Legend_ was likely to be reproduced in the English with varying degrees
+of faithfulness. A _Life of St. Augustine_, to choose a few
+illustrations from many, reproduces the Latin as in the following
+examples: "as the book telleth us" replaces "dicitur enim"; "of him it
+is said in Glosarie," "ut dicitur in Glossario"; "in the book of his
+confessions the sooth is written for the nonce," "ut legitur in libro
+iii. confessionum."[139] Robert of Brunne's _Handlyng Synne_, as printed
+by the Early English Text Society with its French original, affords
+numerous examples of translated references to authority.
+
+    The tale ys wrytyn, al and sum,
+    In a boke of Vitas Patrum
+
+corresponds with
+
+    Car en vn liure ai troue
+    Qe Vitas Patrum est apele;
+
+    Thus seyth seynt Anselme, that hit wrote
+    To thys clerkys that weyl hit wote
+
+with
+
+    Ceo nus ad Seint Ancelme dit
+    Qe en la fey fut clerk parfit.
+
+Yet there are variations in the English much more marked than in the
+last example. "Cum l'estorie nus ad cunte" has become "Yn the byble men
+mow hyt se"; while for
+
+    En ve liure qe est apelez
+    La sume des vertuz & des pechiez
+
+the translator has substituted
+
+    Thys same tale tellyth seynt Bede
+    Yn hys gestys that men rede.[140]
+
+This attempt to give the origin of a tale or of a precept more
+accurately than it is given in the French or the Latin leads sometimes
+to strange confusion, more especially when a reference to the Scriptures
+is involved. It was admitted that the Bible was unusually difficult of
+comprehension and that, if the simple were to understand it, it must be
+annotated in various ways. Nicholas Love says that there have been
+written "for lewd men and women ... devout meditations of Christ's life
+more plain in certain parts than is expressed in the gospels of the four
+evangelists."[141] With so much addition of commentary and legend, it
+was often hard to tell what was and what was not in Holy Scripture, and
+consequently while a narrative like _The Birth of Jesus_ cites correctly
+enough the gospels for certain days, of which it gives a free
+rendering,[142] there are cases of amazing attributions, like that at
+the end of the legend of _Ypotis_:
+
+    Seynt Jon the Evangelist
+    Ede on eorthe with Jhesu Crist,
+    This tale he wrot in latin
+    In holi bok in parchemin.[143]
+
+After the fifteenth century is reached, the translator of religious
+works, like the translator of romances, becomes more garrulous in his
+comment and develops a good deal of interest in English style. As a fair
+representative of the period we may take Osbern Bokenam, the translator
+of various saint's legends, a man very much interested in the
+contemporary development of literary expression. Two qualities,
+according to Bokenam, characterize his own style; he writes
+"compendiously" and he avoids "gay speech." He repeatedly disclaims both
+prolixity and rhetorical ornament. His
+
+    ... form of procedyng artificyal
+    Is in no wyse ner poetical.[144]
+
+He cannot emulate the "first rhetoricians," Gower, Chaucer, and Lydgate;
+he comes too late; they have already gathered "the most fresh flowers."
+Moreover the ornamental style would not become him; he does not desire
+
+    ... to have swych eloquence
+    As sum curials han, ner swych asperence
+    In utteryng of here subtyl conceytys
+    In wych oft-tyme ful greth dysceyt is.[145]
+
+To covet the craft of such language would be "great dotage" for an old
+man like him. Yet like those of Lydgate and Caxton, Bokenam's
+protestations are not entirely convincing, and in them one catches
+glimpses of a lurking fondness for the wordiness of fine writing. Though
+Pallas has always refused to lead him
+
+    Of Thully Rethoryk in-to the motlyd mede,
+    Flourys to gadryn of crafty eloquens,[146]
+
+yet he has often prayed her to show him some favor. Elsewhere he finds
+it necessary to apologize for the brevity of part of his work.
+
+    Now have I shewed more compendiously
+    Than it owt have ben this noble pedigree;
+    But in that myn auctour I follow sothly,
+    And also to eschew prolixite,
+    And for my wyt is schort, as ye may se,
+    To the second part I wyl me hye.[147]
+
+The conventionality, indeed, of Bokenam's phraseology and of his
+literary standards and the self-contradictory elements in his statements
+leave one with the impression that he has brought little, if anything,
+that is fresh and individual to add to the theory of translation.
+
+Whether or not the medieval period made progress towards the development
+of a more satisfactory theory is a doubtful question. While men like
+Lydgate, Bokenam, and Caxton generally profess to have reproduced the
+content of their sources and make some mention of the original writers,
+their comment is confused and indefinite; they do not recognize any
+compelling necessity for faithfulness; and one sometimes suspects that
+they excelled their predecessors only in articulateness. As compared
+with Layamon and Orm they show a development scarcely worthy of a lapse
+of more than two centuries. There is perhaps, as time goes on, some
+little advance towards the attainment of modern standards of scholarship
+as regards confession of divergence from sources. In the early part of
+the period variations from the original are only vaguely implied and
+become evident only when the reader can place the English beside the
+French or Latin. In _Floris and Blancheflor_, for example, a much
+condensed version of a descriptive passage in the French is introduced
+by the words, "I ne can tell you how richly the saddle was
+wrought."[148] The romance of _Arthur_ ends with the statement,
+
+    He that will more look,
+    Read in the French book,
+    And he shall find there
+    Things that I leete here.[149]
+
+_The Northern Passion_ turns from the legendary history of the Cross to
+something more nearly resembling the gospel narrative with the
+exhortation, "Forget not Jesus for this tale."[150] As compared with
+this, writers like Nicholas Love or John Capgrave are noticeably
+explicit. Love pauses at various points to explain that he is omitting
+large sections of the original;[151] Capgrave calls attention to his
+interpolations and refers them to their sources.[152] On the other hand,
+there are constant implications that variation from source may be a
+desirable thing and that explanation and apology are unnecessary.
+Bokenam, for example, apologizes rather because _The Golden Legend_ does
+not supply enough material and he must leave out certain things "for
+ignorance."[153] Caxton says of his _Charles the Great_, "If I had been
+more largely informed ... I had better made it."[154]
+
+On the whole, the greatest merit of the later medieval translators
+consists in the quantity of their comment. In spite of the vagueness and
+the absence of originality in their utterances, there is an advantage in
+their very garrulity. Translators needed to become more conscious and
+more deliberate in their work; different methods needed to be defined;
+and the habit of technical discussion had its value, even though the
+quality of the commentary was not particularly good. Apart from a few
+conventional formulas, this habit of comment constituted the bequest of
+medieval translators to their sixteenth-century successors.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Trans. in _Gregory's Pastoral Care_, ed. Sweet, E.E.T.S., p. 7.
+
+[2] Trans. in _King Alfred's Version of the Consolations of Boethius_,
+trans. Sedgefield, 1900.
+
+[3] Trans. in Hargrove, _King Alfred's Old English Version of St.
+Augustine's Soliloquies_, 1902, pp. xliii-xliv.
+
+[4] Latin Preface of the _Catholic Homilies I_, Latin Preface of the _Lives
+of the Saints_, Preface of _Pastoral Letter for Archbishop Wulfstan_. All
+of these are conveniently accessible in White, _Aelfric_, Chap. XIII.
+
+[5] Latin Preface to _Homilies II_.
+
+[6] _Ibid._
+
+[7] _Preface to Genesis._
+
+[8] Latin Preface of the _Grammar_.
+
+[9] Latin Preface to _Homilies I_.
+
+[10] In the selections from the Bible various passages, e.g., genealogies,
+are omitted without comment.
+
+[11] Latin Preface to _Homilies I_.
+
+[12] Latin Preface.
+
+[13] For further comment, see Chapter II.
+
+[14] Trans. in Thorpe, _Caedmon's Metrical Pharaphrase_, London, 1832, p.
+xxv.
+
+[15] Ll. 1238 ff. For trans. see _The Christ of Cynewulf_, ed. Cook, pp.
+xlvi-xlviii.
+
+[16] Cf. comment on l. 1, in Introduction to _Andreas_, ed. Krapp, 1906, p.
+lii: "The Poem opens with the conventional formula of the epic, citing
+tradition as the source of the story, though it is all plainly of literary
+origin."
+
+[17] I.e. Laurent de Premierfait.
+
+[18] _Bochas' Falls of Princes_, 1558.
+
+[19] Ed. Ritson, ll. 1138-9.
+
+[20] A version, ll. 341-4. Cf. Puttenham, "... many of his books be but
+bare translations out of the Latin and French ... as his books of _Troilus
+and Cresseid_, and the _Romant of the Rose_," Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan
+Critical Essays_, ii, 64.
+
+[21] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden_, ed. Horstmann, 1883, ll. 108-9, 124.
+
+[22] _The Life of St. Werburge_, E.E.T.S., ll. 94. 127-130.
+
+[23] _Minor Poems of Lydgate_, E.E.T.S., _Legend of St. Gyle_, ll. 9-10,
+27-32.
+
+[24] _Ibid._, _Legend of St. Margaret_, l. 74.
+
+[25] _St. Christiana_, l. 1028.
+
+[26] _Legend of Good Women_, ll. 425-6.
+
+[27] See the ballade by Eustache Deschamps, quoted in Chaucer, _Works_, ed.
+Morris, vol. 1, p. 82.
+
+[28] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS_, Pt. 1, E.E.T.S., _The Castle of Love_,
+l. 72.
+
+[29] E.E.T.S., _Cotton Vesp. MS._ ll. 233-5.
+
+[30] E.E.T.S., l. 457.
+
+[31] See _Cambridge History of English Literature_, v. 2, p. 313.
+
+[32] Preface to _The Image of Governance_, 1549.
+
+[33] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, ed. Horstmann, _Christine_, ll.
+517-20.
+
+[34] Preface, E.E.T.S.
+
+[35] Capgrave, _St. Katherine of Alexandria_, E.E.T.S., Bk. 3, l. 21.
+
+[36] In _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, l. 45.
+
+[37] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS._ Pt. 1, Appendix, p. 407.
+
+[38] Introduction to Capgrave, _Lives of St. Augustine and St. Gilbert of
+Sempringham_, E.E.T.S.
+
+[39] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, p. 138, ll. 1183-8.
+
+[40] _Three Prose Versions of Secreta Secretorum_, E.E.T.S., Epistle
+Dedicatory to second.
+
+[41] _The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man_, E.E.T.S.
+
+[42] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden_, _St. Agnes_, ll. 680-2.
+
+[43] _Epistle of Sir John Trevisa_, in Pollard, _Fifteenth Century Prose
+and Verse_, p. 208.
+
+[44] In Sedgefield, _King Alfred's Version of Boethius_.
+
+[45] Ed. White, 1852, ll. 41-4.
+
+[46] Ll. 55-64.
+
+[47] E.E.T.S., Preface.
+
+[48] Pollard, _ibid._, p. 208.
+
+[49] E.E.T.S., ll. 6553-7.
+
+[50] Ll. 6565-6.
+
+[51] E.E.T.S., p. 125.
+
+[52] _Altenglische Sammlung, Neue Folge_, _St. Etheldred Eliensis_, l. 162.
+
+[53] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _Erasmus_, l. 4.
+
+[54] _Ibid._, _Magdalena_, l. 48.
+
+[55] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS._, Pt. 1, _St. Bernard's Lamentation_,
+ll. 21-2.
+
+[56] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _Fragment of Canticum de
+Creatione_, ll. 49-50.
+
+[57] _Legends of the Holy Rood_, E.E.T.S., _How the Holy Cross was found by
+St. Helena_, ll. 684-7.
+
+[58] E.E.T.S., Bk. 1, ll. 684-91.
+
+[59] Ed. Ritson, ll. 4027-8.
+
+[60] _Chevalier au Lyon_, ed. W. L. Holland, 1886, ll. 6805-6.
+
+[61] Ed. Koelbing, 1889, ll. 144, 4514.
+
+[62] E.E.T.S., ll. 319, 405, 216.
+
+[63] See Chambers, _The Medieval Stage_, Appendix G.
+
+[64] _Chronicle of England_, ed. Furnivall, ll. 93-104.
+
+[65] _Altenglische Legenden_, _Vita St. Etheldredae Eliensis_, ll. 978-9,
+1112.
+
+[66] Bk. 4, ll. 129-130.
+
+[67] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, ll. 435-7.
+
+[68] E.E.T.S.
+
+[69] Ed. Ritson.
+
+[70] _Ibid._
+
+[71] E.E.T.S.
+
+[72] _Thornton Romances_, l. 848. (Here the writer is probably confused by
+the two words _grype_ and _griffin_.)
+
+[73] E.E.T.S., l. 1284.
+
+[74] E.E.T.S., l. 318.
+
+[75] Ll. 6983-4.
+
+[76] Ll. 688-9.
+
+[77] L. 3643.
+
+[78] E.E.T.S., ll. 523-4.
+
+[79] L. 6105.
+
+[80] E.E.T.S., l. 4734.
+
+[81] L. 4133.
+
+[82] L. 5425.
+
+[83] L. 3894.
+
+[84] L. 2997.
+
+[85] L. 2170.
+
+[86] L. 2428.
+
+[87] _The Earl of Toulouse_, ed. Ritson, ll. 1213, 1197.
+
+[88] _Le Bone Florence of Rome_, ed. Ritson, ll. 2174, 643.
+
+[89] Ed. Sarrazin, 1885, note on l. 10 of the two versions in Northern
+dialect.
+
+[90] _Thornton Romances_, note on l. 718.
+
+[91] L. 1150.
+
+[92] Ll. 1275-6.
+
+[93] Ll. 2173-4.
+
+[94] See Miss Rickert's comment in E.E.T.S. edition of _Emare_, p. xlviii.
+
+[95] English version, ll. 1284, 2115, 5718-9; French version, _Mellusine_,
+ed. Michel, 1854, ll. 1446, 2302, 6150-2.
+
+[96] Ll. 407, 1359.
+
+[97] Ed. Vollmoeller, 1883, ll. 5-6.
+
+[98] E.E.T.S., l. 5522.
+
+[99] E.E.T.S., Chap XLVI, ll. 496-9.
+
+[100] Chap. LVI, ll. 521-5.
+
+[101] Ll. 8-12.
+
+[102] Ll. 15-18.
+
+[103] See ll. 6581 ff.
+
+[104] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 500-501.
+
+[105] Ll. 7742-6.
+
+[106] Ll. 2340-8.
+
+[107] Ll. 5144-8.
+
+[108] Ll. 6170-6.
+
+[109] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 3200, 3218.
+
+[110] _King Alexander_, ed. Weber, 1810, ll. 2199-2202.
+
+[111] Alliterative romance of _Alisaunder_, E.E.T.S., ll. 456-9.
+
+[112] Ed. Madden, 1847.
+
+[113] Ed. Furnivall, 1887, ll. 58-62.
+
+[114] L. 70.
+
+[115] Ll. 83-4.
+
+[116] Ll. 95-6.
+
+[117] Original Chronicle, ll. 6-13.
+
+[118] Ll. 16-17.
+
+[119] Ll. 18-23.
+
+[120] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 1-7.
+
+[121] Prologue.
+
+[122] Ed. E.E.T.S., ll. 29-33.
+
+[123] Ll. 54-8.
+
+[124] Ll. 217-20.
+
+[125] Ll. 361-7.
+
+[126] In _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, ll. 7-9.
+
+[127] _Ibid._, ll. 33, 35.
+
+[128] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden_, _St. Agnes_, ll. 29-30.
+
+[129] _St. Katherine of Alexandria_, _Prologue_, ll. 61-2, 232-3, 64.
+
+[130] _Lives of St. Augustine and St. Gilbert_, _Prologue_.
+
+[131] Oxford, Clarendon Press, _Prohemium_.
+
+[132] In _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_.
+
+[133] _Minor Poems of the Vernon MS._, _De Festo Corporis Christi_, l. 170.
+
+[134] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _St. Bernard_, ll. 943-4.
+
+[135] _Ibid._, _Erasmus_, l. 41.
+
+[136] _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, _St. Katherine_, p. 243, l. 451.
+
+[137] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _Christine_, ll. 489-90.
+
+[138] _Ibid._, _St. Augustine_, ll. 1137-40.
+
+[139] _Sammlung Altenglischer Legenden_, _St. Augustine_, ll. 43, 57-8,
+128.
+
+[140] Ll. 169-70, 785-6, 2475-6.
+
+[141] _Op. cit._, _Prohemium_.
+
+[142] _Altenglische Legenden_, _Geburt Jesu_, ll. 493, 527, 715, etc.
+
+[143] _Altenglische Legenden, Neue Folge_, _Ypotis_, ll. 613-16.
+
+[144] _Osbern Bokenam's Legenden, St. Margaret_, ll. 84-5.
+
+[145] _Mary Magdalen_, ll. 245-8.
+
+[146] _St. Agnes_, ll. 13-14.
+
+[147] _Op. cit._, _St. Anne_, ll. 209-14.
+
+[148] E.E.T.S., l. 382.
+
+[149] E.E.T.S., ll. 633-6.
+
+[150] E.E.T.S., p. 146, l. 1.
+
+[151] _Op. cit._, pp. 100, 115, 300.
+
+[152] _Life of St. Gilbert_, pp. 103, 135. 141.
+
+[153] _Op. cit._, _St. Katherine_, l. 49.
+
+[154] Preface.
+
+
+
+
+II. THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE TRANSLATION OF THE BIBLE
+
+
+The English Bible took its shape under unusual conditions, which had
+their share in the excellence of the final result. Appealing, as it did,
+to all classes, from the scholar, alert for controversial detail, to the
+unlearned layman, concerned only for his soul's welfare, it had its
+growth in the vital atmosphere of strong intellectual and spiritual
+activity. It was not enough that it should bear the test of the
+scholar's criticism; it must also reach the understanding of Tyndale's
+"boy that driveth the plough," demands difficult of satisfaction, but
+conducive theoretically to a fine development of the art of translation.
+To attain scholarly accuracy combined with practical intelligibility
+was, then, the task of the translator.
+
+From both angles criticism reached him. Tyndale refers to "my
+translation in which they affirm unto the lay people (as I have heard
+say) to be I wot not how many thousand heresies," and continues, "For
+they which in times past were wont to look on no more scripture than
+they found in their duns or such like devilish doctrine, have yet now so
+narrowly looked on my translation that there is not so much as one I
+therein if it lack a tittle over his head, but they have noted it, and
+number it unto the ignorant people for an heresy."[155] Tunstall's
+famous reference in his sermon at Paul's Cross to the two thousand
+errors in Tyndale's Testament suggests the undiscriminating criticism,
+addressed to the popular ear and basing its appeal largely on
+"numbering," of which Tyndale complains. The prohibition of "open
+reasoning in your open Taverns and Alehouses"[156] concerning the
+meaning of Scripture, included in the draft of the proclamation for the
+reading of the Great Bible, also implies that there must have been
+enough of popular oral discussion to count for something in the shaping
+of the English Bible. Of the serious comment of more competent judges
+many records remain, enough to make it clear that, although the real
+technical problems involved were often obscured by controversy and by
+the common view that the divine quality of the original made human
+effort negligible, nevertheless the translator did not lack the stimulus
+which comes from intelligent criticism and discussion.
+
+The Bible also had an advantage over other translations in that the idea
+of _progress_ towards an accurate version early arose. Unlike the
+translators of secular works, who frequently boast of the speed with
+which they have accomplished their tasks, the translators of the Bible
+constantly mention the long, careful labor which has gone to their
+undertaking. Tyndale feels in his own work the need for revision, and so
+far as opportunity serves, corrects and polishes his version. Later
+translators consciously based their renderings on those of their
+predecessors. St. Augustine's approval of diversity of translations was
+cited again and again. Tyndale urges "those that are better seen in the
+tongues than I" to "put to their hands to amend" any faults they may
+find in his work.[157] George Joye, his assistant, later his would-be
+rival, declares that we must learn "to depend not whole on any man's
+translation."[158] "Every one," says Coverdale, "doth his best to be
+nighest to the mark. And though they cannot all attain thereto yet
+shooteth one nigher than another";[159] and again, "Sure I am that there
+cometh more knowledge and understanding of the scripture by their
+sundry translations than by all our sophistical doctors. For that one
+translateth something obscurely in one place, the same translateth
+another, or else he himself, more manifestly by a more plain
+vocable."[160] Occasionally the number of experimenters awakened some
+doubts; Cromwell suggests that the bishops make a "perfect
+correction";[161] the patent granted him for the printing of the Bible
+advocates one translation since "the frailty of men is such that the
+diversity thereof may breed and bring forth manyfold inconveniences as
+when wilful and heady folks shall confer upon the diversity of the said
+translations";[162] the translators of the version of 1611 have to
+"answer a third cavil ... against us, for altering and amending our
+translations so oft";[163] but the conception of progress was generally
+accepted, and finds fit expression in the preface to the Authorized
+Version: "Yet for all that, as nothing is begun and perfected at the
+same time, and the later thoughts are thought to be wiser: so, if we
+building on their foundation that went before us, and being holpen by
+their labors, do endeavor to make that better which they left so good;
+no man, we are sure, hath cause to mislike us."[164]
+
+But the English translators had more far-reaching opportunities to
+profit by the experiences of others. In other countries than England men
+were engaged in similar labors. The sixteenth century was rich in new
+Latin versions of the Scriptures. The translations of Erasmus, Beza,
+Pagninus, Muenster, Etienne, Montanus, and Tremellius had in turn their
+influence on the English renderings, and Castalio's translation into
+Ciceronian Latin had at least its share of discussion. There was
+constant intercourse between those interested in Bible translation in
+England and on the Continent. English refugees during the persecutions
+fled across the Channel, and towns such as Worms, Zurich, Antwerp, and
+Geneva saw the first printing of most of the early English versions of
+the Scriptures. The Great Bible was set up in Paris. Indeed foreign
+printers had so large a share in the English Bible that it seemed
+sometimes advisable to limit their influence. Richard Grafton writes
+ironically to Cromwell regarding the text of the Bible: "Yea and to make
+it yet truer than it is, therefore Dutchmen dwelling within this realm
+go about the printing of it, which can neither speak good English, nor
+yet write none, and they will be both the printers and correctors
+thereof";[165] and Coverdale and Grafton imply a similar fear in the
+case of Regnault, the Frenchman, who has been printing service books,
+when they ask Cromwell that "henceforth he print no more in the English
+tongue, unless he have an Englishman that is learned to be his
+corrector."[166] Moreover, versions of the Scriptures in other languages
+than English were not unknown in England. In 1530 Henry the Eighth was
+led to prohibit "the having of holy scripture, translated into the
+vulgar tongues of English, _French_, or _Dutch_."[167] Besides this
+general familiarity with foreign translations and foreign printers, a
+more specific indebtedness must be recognized. More's attack on the book
+"which whoso calleth the New Testament calleth it by a wrong name,
+except they will call it Tyndale's testament or Luther's testament"[168]
+is in some degree justified in its reference to German influence.
+Coverdale acknowledges the aid he has received from "the Dutch
+interpreters: whom (because to their singular gifts and special
+diligence in the Bible) I have been the more glad to follow."[169] The
+preface to the version of 1611 says, "Neither did we think much to
+consult the translators or commentators, Chaldee, Hebrew, Syrian, Greek,
+or Latin, no, nor the _Spanish_, _French_, _Italian_, or _Dutch_."[170]
+Doubtless a great part of the debt lay in matters of exegesis, but in
+his familiarity with so great a number of translations into other
+languages and with the discussion centering around these translations,
+it is impossible that the English translator should have failed to
+obtain suggestions, both practical and theoretical, which applied to
+translation rather than to interpretation. Comments on the general aims
+and methods of translation, happy turns of expression in French or
+German which had their equivalents in English idiom, must frequently
+have illuminated his difficulties. The translators of the Geneva Bible
+show a just realization of the truth when they speak of "the great
+opportunity and occasions which God hath presented unto us in this
+Church, by reason of so many godly and learned men; and such diversities
+of translations in divers tongues."[171]
+
+Of the general history of Biblical translations, already so frequently
+and so adequately treated, only the barest outline is here necessary.
+The various Anglo-Saxon translations and the Wycliffite versions are
+largely detached from the main line of development. From Tyndale's
+translations to the Authorized Version of 1611 the line is surprisingly
+consecutive, though in the matter of theory an early translator
+occasionally anticipates views which obtain general acceptance only
+after a long period of experiment and discussion. Roughly speaking, the
+theory of translation has as its two extremes, the Roman Catholic and
+the Puritan positions, while the 1611 version, where its preface commits
+itself, compromises on the points at issue.
+
+As is to be expected, the most definite statements of the problems
+involved and of their solution are usually found in the comment of those
+practically engaged in the work of translation. The widely discussed
+question whether or not the people should have the Scriptures in the
+vulgar tongue scarcely ever comes down to the difficulties and
+possibilities of the actual undertaking. More's lengthy attack on
+Tyndale's New Testament is chiefly concerned with matters of doctrine.
+Apart from the prefaces to the various issues of the Bible, the most
+elaborate discussion of technical matters is Fulke's _Defence of the
+Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English
+Tongue_, a Protestant reply to the claims of the Rhemish translators,
+published in 1589. Even the more definite comments are bound up with a
+great mass of controversial or hortatory material, so that it is hard to
+disentangle the actual contribution which is being made to the theory of
+translation. Sometimes the translator settled vexed questions by using
+marginal glosses, a method which might make for accuracy but was liable
+to become cumbrous and confusing. Like the prefaces, the glosses
+sometimes contained theological rather than linguistic comment, thus
+proving a special source of controversy. A proclamation of Henry the
+Eighth forbids the printing or importation of "any books of divine
+scripture in the English tongue, with any additions in the margin or any
+prologue ... except the same be first viewed, examined, and allowed by
+the king's highness, or such of his majesty's council, or others, as it
+shall please his grace to assign thereto, but only the plain sentence
+and text."[172] The version of 1611 admitted only linguistic comment.
+
+Though the Anglo-Saxon renderings of the Scriptures are for the most
+part isolated from the main body of translations, there are some points
+of contact. Elizabethan translators frequently cited the example of the
+earlier period as an argument in favor of having the Bible in the vulgar
+tongue. Nor were they entirely unfamiliar with the work of these remote
+predecessors. Foxe, the martyrologist, published in 1571 an edition of
+the four gospels in Anglo-Saxon under the patronage of Archbishop
+Parker. Parker's well-known interest in Old English centered
+particularly around the early versions of the Scriptures. Secretary
+Cecil sends the Archbishop "a very ancient Bible written in Latin and
+old English or Saxon," and Parker in reply comments on "the fair
+antique writing with the Saxon interpretation."[173] Moreover the slight
+record which survives suggests that the problems which confronted the
+Anglo-Saxon translator were not unlike those which met the translator of
+a later period. Aelfric's theory of translation in general is expressed
+in the Latin prefaces to the _Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ and
+the _Lives of the Saints_. Above all things he desires that his work may
+be clear and readable. Hence he has a peculiar regard for brevity. The
+_Homilies_ are rendered "non garrula verbositate"; the _Lives of the
+Saints_ are abbreviated on the principle that "non semper breuitas
+sermonem deturpat sed multotiens honestiorem reddit." Clear, idiomatic
+English is essential even when it demands the sacrifice of verbal
+accuracy. He presents not word for word but sense for sense, and prefers
+the "pure and open words of the language of this people," to a more
+artificial style. His Anglo-Saxon _Preface to Genesis_ implies that he
+felt the need of greater faithfulness in the case of the Bible: "We dare
+write no more in English than the Latin has, nor change the orders
+(endebirdnisse)"; but it goes on to say that it is necessary that Latin
+idiom adapt itself to English idiom.[174]
+
+Apart from Aelfric's prefaces Anglo-Saxon translators of the Scriptures
+have left no comment on their methods. One of the versions of the
+Gospels, however, links itself with later translations by employing as
+preface three of St. Jerome's prologues, among them the _Preface to
+Eusebius_. References to Jerome's and Augustine's theories of
+translation are frequent throughout the course of Biblical translation
+but are generally vague. The _Preface to Eusebius_ and the _Epistle to
+Pammachius_ contain the most complete statements of the principles which
+guided Jerome. Both emphasize the necessity of giving sense for sense
+rather than word for word, "except," says the latter, "in the case of
+the Holy Scriptures where even the order of the words is a mystery."
+This corresponds closely with Aelfric's theory expressed in the preface
+to the _Lives of the Saints_: "Nec potuimus in ista translatione semper
+verbum ex verbo transferre, sed tamen sensum ex sensu," and his
+insistence in the _Preface to Genesis_ on a faithfulness which extends
+even to the _endebirdnisse_ or orders.
+
+The principle "word for word if possible; if not, sense for sense" is
+common in connection with medieval translations, but is susceptible of
+very different interpretations, as appears sometimes from its context.
+Richard Rolle's phrasing of the theory in the preface to his translation
+of the Psalter is: "I follow the letter as much as I may. And where I
+find no proper English I follow the wit of the words"; but he also makes
+the contradictory statement, "In this work I seek no strange English,
+but lightest and commonest, and _such that is most like to the
+Latin_,"[175] a peculiar conception of the translator's obligation to
+his own tongue! The Prologue to the second recension of the Wycliffite
+version, commonly attributed to Purvey, emphasizes, under cover of the
+same apparent theory, the claims of the vernacular. "The best
+translating," it runs, "is out of Latin into English, to translate after
+the sentence, and not only after the words, so that the sentence be as
+open, either opener, in English as in Latin, ... and if the letter may
+not be sued in the translating, let the sentence be ever whole and open,
+for the words owe to serve to the intent and sentence."[176] The growing
+distrust of the Vulgate in some quarters probably accounts in some
+measure for the translator's attempt to make the meaning if necessary
+"more true and more open than it is in the Latin." In any case these
+contrasted theories represent roughly the position of the Roman
+Catholic and, to some extent, the Anglican party as compared with the
+more distinctly Protestant attitude throughout the period when the
+English Bible was taking shape, the former stressing the difficulties of
+translation and consequently discouraging it, or, when permitting it,
+insisting on extreme faithfulness to the original; the latter profiting
+by experiment and criticism and steadily working towards a version which
+would give due heed not only to the claims of the original but to the
+genius of the English language.
+
+Regarded merely as theory, however, a statement like the one just quoted
+obviously failed to give adequate recognition to what the original might
+justly demand, and in that respect justified the fears of those who
+opposed translation. The high standard of accuracy set by such critics
+demanded of the translator an increasing consciousness of the
+difficulties involved and an increasingly clear conception of what
+things were and were not permissible. Purvey himself contributes to this
+end by a definite statement of certain changes which may be allowed the
+English writer.[177] Ablative absolute or participial constructions may
+be replaced by clauses of various kinds, "and this will, in many places,
+make the sentence open, where to English it after the word would be dark
+and doubtful. Also," he continues, "a relative, _which_, may be resolved
+into his antecedent with a conjunction copulative, as thus, _which
+runneth_, and _he runneth_. Also when a word is once set in a reason, it
+may be set forth as oft as it is understood, either as oft as reason and
+need ask; and this word _autem_ either _vero_, may stand for _forsooth_
+either for _but_, and thus I use commonly; and sometimes it may stand
+for _and_, as old grammarians say. Also when rightful construction is
+letted by relation, I resolve it openly, thus, where this reason,
+_Dominum formidabunt adversarii ejus_, should be Englished thus by the
+letter, _the Lord his adversaries shall dread_, I English it thus by
+resolution, _the adversaries of the Lord shall dread him_; and so of
+other reasons that be like." In the later period of Biblical
+translation, when grammatical information was more accessible, such
+elementary comment was not likely to be committed to print, but echoes
+of similar technical difficulties are occasionally heard. Tyndale,
+speaking of the Hebraisms in the Greek Testament, asks his critics to
+"consider the Hebrew phrase ... whose preterperfect tense and present
+tense is both one, and the future tense is the optative mood also, and
+the future tense is oft the imperative mood in the active voice and in
+the passive voice. Likewise person for person, number for number, and
+interrogation for a conditional, and such like is with the Hebrews a
+common usage."[178] The men concerned in the preparation of the Bishops'
+Bible discuss the rendering of tenses in the Psalms. At the beginning of
+the first Psalm the Bishop of Rochester turns "the preterperfect tense
+into the present tense; because the sense is too harsh in the
+preterperfect tense," and the Bishop of Ely advises "the translation of
+the verbs in the Psalms to be used uniformly in one tense."[179]
+
+Purvey's explanations, however, suggest that his mind is occupied, not
+merely with details, but with a somewhat larger problem. Medieval
+translators were frequently disturbed by the fact that it was almost
+impossible to confine an English version to the same number of words as
+the Latin. When they added to the number, they feared that they were
+unfaithful to the original. The need for brevity, for avoiding
+superfluous words, is especially emphasized in connection with the
+Bible. Conciseness, necessary for accuracy, is also an admirable quality
+in itself. Aelfric's approval of this characteristic has already been
+noted. The metrical preface to Rolle's Psalter reads: "This holy man in
+expounding, he followeth holy doctors, and in all his Englishing right
+after the Latin taketh course, and makes it _compendious_, _short_,
+good, and profitable." Purvey says, "Men might expound much openlier and
+_shortlier_ the Bible than the old doctors have expounded it in Latin."
+Besides approving the avoidance of verbose commentary and exposition,
+critics and translators are always on their guard against the employment
+of over many words in translation. Tyndale, in his revision, will "seek
+to bring to compendiousness that which is now translated at the
+length."[180] In certain cases, he says, English reproduces the Hebrew
+original more easily than does the Latin, because in Latin the
+translator must "seek a compass."[181] Coverdale finds a corresponding
+difficulty in turning Latin into English: "The figure called Eclipsis
+divers times used in the scriptures ... though she do garnish the
+sentence in Latin will not so be admitted in other tongues."[182] The
+translator of the Geneva New Testament refers to the "Hebrew and Greek
+phrases, which are strange to render into other tongues, and also
+_short_."[183] The preface to the Rhemish Testament accuses the
+Protestant translators of having in one place put into the text "three
+words more ... than the Greek word doth signify."[184] Strype says of
+Cheke in a passage chiefly concerned with Cheke's attempt at translation
+of the Bible, "He brought in a _short_ and expressive way of writing
+without long and intricate periods,"[185] a comment which suggests that
+possibly the appreciation of conciseness embraced sentence structure as
+well as phrasing. As Tyndale suggests, careful revision made for
+brevity. In Laurence's scheme for correcting his part of the Bishop's
+Bible was the heading "words superfluous";[186] the preface to the
+Authorized Version says, "If anything be halting, or _superfluous_, or
+not so agreeable to the original, the same may be corrected, and the
+truth set in place."[187] As time went on, certain technical means were
+employed to meet the situation. Coverdale incloses in brackets words not
+in the Latin text; the Geneva translators put added words in italics;
+Fulke criticizes the Rhemish translators for neglecting this
+device;[188] and the matter is finally settled by its employment in the
+Authorized Version. Fulke, however, irritated by what he considers a
+superstitious regard for the number of words in the original on the part
+of the Rhemish translators, puts the whole question on a common-sense
+basis. He charges his opponents with making "many imperfect sentences
+... because you will not seem to add that which in translation is no
+addition, but a true translation."[189] "For to translate out of one
+tongue into another," he says in another place, "is a matter of greater
+difficulty than is commonly taken, I mean exactly to yield as much and
+no more than the original containeth, when the words and phrases are so
+different, that few are found which in all points signify the same
+thing, neither more nor less, in divers tongues."[190] And again, "Must
+not such particles in translation be always expressed to make the sense
+plain, which in English without the particle hath no sense or
+understanding. To translate precisely out of the Hebrew is not to
+observe the number of words, but the perfect sense and meaning, as the
+phrase of our tongue will serve to be understood."[191]
+
+For the distinguishing characteristics of the Authorized Version, the
+beauty of its rhythm, the vigor of its native Saxon vocabulary, there is
+little to prepare one in the comment of its translators or their
+predecessors. Apparently the faithful effort to render the original
+truly resulted in a perfection of style of which the translator himself
+was largely unconscious. The declaration in the preface to the version
+of 1611 that "niceness in words was always counted the next step to
+trifling,"[192] and the general condemnation of Castalio's "lewd
+translation,"[193] point to a respect for the original which made the
+translator merely a mouthpiece and the English language merely a medium
+for a divine utterance. Possibly there is to be found in appreciation of
+the style of the original Hebrew, Greek, or Latin some hint of what gave
+the English version its peculiar beauty, though even here it is hard to
+distinguish the tribute paid to style from that paid to content. The
+characterization may be only a bit of vague comparison like that in the
+preface to the Authorized Version, "Hebrew the ancientest, ... Greek the
+most copious, ... Latin the finest,"[194] or the reference in the
+preface to the Rhemish New Testament to the Vulgate as the translation
+"of greatest majesty."[195] The prefaces to the Geneva New Testament and
+the Geneva Bible combine fairly definite linguistic comment with less
+obvious references to style: "And because the Hebrew and Greek phrases,
+which are hard to render in other tongues, and also short, should not be
+so hard, I have sometimes interpreted them without any whit diminishing
+the _grace_ of the sense, as our language doth use them";[196] "Now as
+we have chiefly observed the sense, and labored always to restore it to
+all integrity, so have we most reverently kept the propriety of the
+words, considering that the Apostles who spoke and wrote to the Gentiles
+in the Greek tongue, rather constrained them to the lively phrase of the
+Hebrew, than enterprised far by mollifying their language to speak as
+the Gentiles did. And for this and other causes we have in many places
+reserved the Hebrew phrases, notwithstanding that they may seem somewhat
+hard in their ears that are not well practised and also _delight in the
+sweet sounding phrases_ of the holy Scriptures."[197] On the other hand
+the Rhemish translators defend the retention of these Hebrew phrases on
+the ground of stylistic beauty: "There is a certain majesty and more
+signification in these speeches, and therefore both Greek and Latin keep
+them, although it is no more the Greek or Latin phrase, than it is the
+English."[198] Of peculiar interest is Tyndale's estimate of the
+relative possibilities of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English. Of the
+Bible he writes: "They will say it cannot be translated into our tongue,
+it is so rude. It is not so rude as they are false liars. For the Greek
+tongue agreeth more with the English than with the Latin. And the
+properties of the Hebrew tongue agreeth a thousand times more with the
+English than with the Latin. The manner of speaking is both one; so that
+in a thousand places thou needest not but to translate it into the
+English word for word; when thou must seek a compass in the Latin, and
+yet shalt have much work to translate it well-favoredly, so that it have
+the same grace and sweetness, sense and pure understanding with it in
+the Latin, and as it hath in the Hebrew."[199] The implication that the
+English version might possess the "grace and sweetness" of the Hebrew
+original suggests that Tyndale was not entirely unconscious of the charm
+which his own work possessed, and which it was to transmit to later
+renderings.
+
+The questions most definitely discussed by those concerned in the
+translation of the Bible were questions of vocabulary. Primarily most of
+these discussions centered around points of doctrine and were concerned
+as largely with the meaning of the word in the original as with its
+connotation in English. Yet though not in their first intention
+linguistic, these discussions of necessity had their bearing on the
+general problems debated by rhetoricians of the day and occasionally
+resulted in definite comment on English usage, as when, for example,
+More says: "And in our English tongue this word senior signifieth
+nothing at all, but is a French word used in English more than half in
+mockage, when one will call another my lord in scorn." With the
+exception of Sir John Cheke few of the translators say anything which
+can be construed as advocacy of the employment of native English words.
+Of Cheke's attitude there can, of course, be no doubt. His theory is
+thus described by Strype: "And moreover, in writing any discourse, he
+would allow no words, but such as were pure English, or of Saxon
+original; suffering no adoption of any foreign word into the English
+speech, which he thought was copious enough of itself, without borrowing
+words of other countries. Thus in his own translations into English, he
+would not use any but pure English phrase and expression, which indeed
+made his style here and there a little affected and hard: and forced him
+to use sometimes odd and uncouth words."[200] His Biblical translation
+was a conscious attempt at carrying out these ideas. "Upon this
+account," writes Strype, "Cheke seemed to dislike the English
+translation of the Bible, because in it there were so many foreign
+words. Which made him once attempt a new translation of the New
+Testament, and he completed the gospel of St. Matthew. And made an
+entrance into St. Mark; wherein all along he labored to use only true
+Anglo-Saxon words."[201] Since Cheke's translation remained in
+manuscript till long after the Elizabethan period, its influence was
+probably not far-reaching, but his uncompromising views must have had
+their effect on his contemporaries. Taverner's Bible, a less extreme
+example of the same tendency, seemingly had no influence on later
+renderings.[202]
+
+Regarding the value of synonyms there is considerable comment, the
+prevailing tendency of which is not favorable to unnecessary
+discrimination between pairs of words. This seems to be the attitude of
+Coverdale in two somewhat confused passages in which he attempts to
+consider at the same time the signification of the original word, the
+practice of other translators, and the facts of English usage. Defending
+diversities of translations, he says, "For that one interpreteth
+something obscurely in one place, the same translateth another, or else
+he himself, more manifestly by a more plain vocable of the same meaning
+in another place."[203] As illustrations Coverdale mentions scribe and
+lawyer; elders, and father and mother; repentance, penance, and
+amendment; and continues: "And in this manner have I used in my
+translation, calling it in one place penance that in another place I
+call repentance; and that not only because the interpreters have done so
+before me, but that the adversaries of the truth may see, how that we
+abhor not this word penance as they untruly report of us, no more than
+the interpreters of Latin abhor poenitare, when they read rescipiscere."
+In the preface to the Latin-English Testament of 1535 he says: "And
+though I seem to be all too scrupulous calling it in one place penance,
+that in another I call repentance: and gelded that another calleth
+chaste, this methinks ought not to offend the saying that the holy ghost
+(I trust) is the author of both our doings ... and therefore I heartily
+require thee think no more harm in me for calling it in one place
+penance that in another I call repentance, than I think harm in him that
+calleth it chaste, which by the nature of this word _Eunuchus_ I call
+gelded ... And for my part I ensure thee I am indifferent to call it as
+well with one term as with the other, so long as I know that it is no
+prejudice nor injury to the meaning of the holy ghost."[204] Fulke in
+his answer to Gregory Martin shows the same tendency to ignore
+differences in meaning. Martin says: "Note also that they put the word
+'just,' when faith is joined withal, as Rom. i, 'the just shall live by
+faith,' to signify that justification is by faith. But if works be
+joined withal and keeping the commandments, as in the place alleged,
+Luke i, there they say 'righteous' to suppose justification by works."
+Fulke replies: "This is a marvellous difference, never heard of (I
+think) in the English tongue before, between 'just' and 'righteous,'
+'justice' and 'righteousness.' I am sure there is none of our
+translators, no, nor any professor of justification by faith only, that
+esteemeth it the worth of one hair, whether you say in any place of
+scripture 'just' or 'righteous,' 'justice' or 'righteousness'; and
+therefore freely have they used sometimes the one word, sometimes the
+other.... Certain it is that no Englishman knoweth the difference
+between 'just' and 'righteous,' 'unjust' and 'unrighteous,' saving that
+'righteousness' and 'righteous' are the more familiar English
+words."[205] Martin and Fulke differ in the same way over the use of the
+words "deeds" and "works." The question whether the same English word
+should always be used to represent the same word in the original was
+frequently a matter of discussion. It was probably in the mind of the
+Archbishop of Ely when he wrote to Archbishop Parker, "And if ye
+translate bonitas or misericordiam, to use it likewise in all places of
+the Psalms."[206] The surprising amount of space devoted by the preface
+to the version of 1611 to explaining the usage followed by the
+translators gives some idea of the importance attaching to the matter.
+"We have not tied ourselves," they say, "to an uniformity of phrasing,
+or to an identity of words, as some peradventure would wish that we had
+done, because they observe, that some learned men somewhere, have been
+as exact as they could that way. Truly, that we might not vary from the
+sense of that which we had translated before, if the word signified the
+same in both places (for there be some words that be not of the same
+sense everywhere) we were especially careful, and made a conscience,
+according to our duty. But that we should express the same notion in the
+same particular word; as for example, if we translate the _Hebrew_ or
+_Greek_ word once by _Purpose_, never to call it _Intent_; if one where
+_Journeying_, never _Travelling_; if one where _Think_, never _Suppose_;
+if one where _Pain_, never _Ache_; if one where _Joy_, never _Gladness_,
+etc. Thus to mince the matter, we thought to savor more of curiosity
+than wisdom.... For is the kingdom of God become words or syllables? why
+should we be in bondage to them if we may be free, use one precisely
+when we may use another no less fit, as commodiously?"[207]
+
+It was seldom, however, that the translator felt free to interchange
+words indiscriminately. Of his treatment of the original Purvey writes:
+"But in translating of words equivocal, that is, that hath many
+significations under one letter, may lightly be peril, for Austin saith
+in the 2nd. book of Christian Teaching, that if equivocal words be not
+translated into the sense, either understanding, of the author, it is
+error; as in that place of the Psalm, _the feet of them be swift to shed
+out blood_, the Greek word is equivocal to _sharp_ and _swift_, and he
+that translated _sharp feet_ erred, and a book that hath _sharp feet_ is
+false, and must be amended; as that sentence _unkind young trees shall
+not give deep roots_ oweth to be thus, _the plantings of adultery shall
+not give deep roots_.... Therefore a translator hath great need to
+study well the sentence, both before and after, and look that such
+equivocal words accord with the sentence."[208] Consideration of the
+connotation of English words is required of the translators of the
+Bishops' Bible. "Item that all such words as soundeth in the Old
+Testament to any offence of lightness or obscenity be expressed with
+more convenient terms and phrases."[209] Generally, however, it was the
+theological connotation of words that was at issue, especially the
+question whether words were to be taken in their ecclesiastical or their
+profane sense, that is, whether certain words which through long
+association with the church had come to have a peculiar technical
+meaning should be represented in English by such words as the church
+habitually employed, generally words similar in form to the Latin. The
+question was a large one, and affected other languages than English.
+Foxe, for example, has difficulty in turning into Latin the controversy
+between Archbishop Cranmer and Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. "The
+English style also stuck with him; which having so many ecclesiastical
+phrases and manners of speech, no good Latin expressions could be found
+to answer them."[210] In England trouble arose with the appearance of
+Tyndale's New Testament. More accused him of mistranslating "three words
+of great weight,"[211] priests, church, and charity, for which he had
+substituted _seniors_, _congregation_, and _love_. Robert Ridley,
+chaplain to the Bishop of London, wrote of Tyndale's version: "By this
+translation we shall lose all these Christian words, penance, charity,
+confession, grace, priest, church, which he always calleth a
+congregation.--Idolatria calleth he worshipping of images."[212] Much
+longer is the list of words presented to Convocation some years later by
+the Bishop of Winchester "which he desired for their germane and native
+meaning and for the majesty of their matter might be retained as far as
+possible in their own nature or be turned into English speech as closely
+as possible."[213] It goes so far as to include words like Pontifex,
+Ancilla, Lites, Egenus, Zizania. This theory was largely put into
+practice by the translators of the Rhemish New Testament, who say, "We
+are very precise and religious in following our copy, the old vulgar
+approved Latin: not only in sense, which we hope we always do, but
+sometimes in the very words also and phrases,"[214] and give as
+illustrations of their usage the retention of Corbana, Parasceve,
+Pasche, Azymes, and similar words. Between the two extreme positions
+represented by Tyndale on the one hand and the Rhemish translators on
+the other, is the attitude of Grindal, who thus advises Foxe in the case
+previously mentioned: "In all these matters, as also in most others, it
+will be safe to hold a middle course. My judgment is the same with
+regard to style. For neither is the ecclesiastical style to be
+fastidiously neglected, as it is by some, especially when the heads of
+controversies cannot sometimes be perspicuously explained without it,
+nor, on the other hand, is it to be so superstitiously followed as to
+prevent us sometimes from sprinkling it with the ornaments of
+language."[215] The Authorized Version, following its custom, approves
+the middle course: "We have on the one side avoided the scrupulosity of
+the Puritans, who leave the old Ecclesiastical words, and betake
+themselves to other, as when they put _washing_ for _Baptism_, and
+_Congregation_ instead of _Church_: as also on the other side we have
+shunned the obscurity of the Papists, in their _Azimes_, _Tunike_,
+_Rational_, _Holocausts_, _Praepuce_, _Pasche_, and a number of such
+like."[216]
+
+In the interval between Tyndale's translation and the appearance of the
+Authorized Version the two parties shifted their ground rather
+amusingly. More accuses Tyndale of taking liberties with the prevailing
+English usage, especially when he substitutes congregation for church,
+and insists that the people understand by _church_ what they ought to
+understand. "This is true," he says, "of the usual signification of
+these words themselves in the English tongue, by the common custom of us
+English people, that either now do use these words in our language, or
+that have used before our days. And I say that this common custom and
+usage of speech is the only thing by which we know the right and proper
+signification of any word, in so much that if a word were taken out of
+Latin, French, or Spanish, and were for lack of understanding of the
+tongue from whence it came, used for another thing in English than it
+was in the former tongue: then signifieth it in England none other thing
+than as we use it and understand thereby, whatsoever it signify anywhere
+else. Then say I now that in England this word congregation did never
+signify the number of Christian people with a connotation or
+consideration of their faith or christendom, no more than this word
+assemble, which hath been taken out of the French, and now is by custom
+become English, as congregation is out of the Latin."[217] Later he
+returns to the charge with the words, "And then must he with his
+translation make us an English vocabulary too."[218] In the later
+period, however, the positions are reversed. The conservative party,
+represented by the Rhemish translators, admit that they are employing
+unfamiliar words, but say that it is a question of faithfulness to
+originals, and that the new words "will easily grow to be current and
+familiar,"[219] a contention not without basis when one considers how
+much acceptance or rejection by the English Bible could affect the
+status of a word. Moreover the introduction of new words into the
+Scriptures had its parallel in the efforts being made elsewhere to
+enrich the language. The Rhemish preface, published in 1582, almost
+contemporaneously with Lyly's _Euphues_ and Sidney's _Arcadia_,
+justifies its practice thus: "And why should we be squamish at new words
+or phrases in the Scripture, which are necessary: when we do easily
+admit and follow new words coined in court and in courtly or other
+secular writings?"[220]
+
+The points at issue received their most thorough consideration in the
+controversy between Gregory Martin and William Fulke. Martin, one of the
+translators of the Rhemish Testament, published, in 1582, _A Discovery
+of the Manifold Corruptions of the Holy Scriptures by the Heretics of
+our Days_, a book in which apparently he attacked all the Protestant
+translations with which he was familiar, including Beza's Latin
+Testament and even attempting to involve the English translators in the
+same condemnation with Castalio. Fulke, in his _Defence of the Sincere
+and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures_, reprinted Martin's
+_Discovery_ and replied to it section by section. Both discussions are
+fragmentary and inconsecutive, but there emerges from them at intervals
+a clear statement of principles. Fundamentally the positions of the two
+men are very different. Martin is not concerned with questions of
+abstract scholarship, but with matters of religious belief. "But because
+these places concern no controversy," he says, "I say no more."[221] He
+does not hesitate to place the authority of the Fathers before the
+results of contemporary scholarship. "For were not he a wise man, that
+would prefer one Master Humfrey, Master Fulke, Master Whitakers, or some
+of us poor men, because we have a little smack of the three tongues,
+before St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, St. Augustine, St. Gregory, or St.
+Thomas, that understood well none but one?"[222] Since his field is thus
+narrowed, he finds it easy to lay down definite rules for translation.
+Fulke, on the other hand, believes that translation may be dissociated
+from matters of belief. "If the translator's purpose were evil, yet so
+long as the words and sense of the original tongue will bear him, he
+cannot justly be called a false and heretical translator, albeit he have
+a false and heretical meaning."[223] He is not willing to accept
+unsupported authority, even that of the leaders of his own party. "If
+Luther misliked the Tigurine translation," he says in another attack on
+the Rhemish version, "it is not sufficient to discredit it, seeing
+truth, and not the opinion or authority of men is to be followed in such
+matters,"[224] and again, in the _Defence_, "The Geneva bibles do not
+profess to translate out of Beza's Latin, but out of the Hebrew and
+Greek; and if they agree not always with Beza, what is that to the
+purpose, if they agree with the truth of the original text?"[225]
+Throughout the _Defence_ he is on his guard against Martin's attempts to
+drive him into unqualified acceptance of any set formula of translation.
+
+The crux of the controversy was the treatment of ecclesiastical words.
+Martin accuses the English translators of interpreting such words in
+their "etymological" sense, and consulting profane writers, Homer,
+Pliny, Tully, Virgil,[226] for their meaning, instead of observing the
+ecclesiastical use, which he calls "the usual taking thereof in all
+vulgar speech and writing."[227] Fulke admits part of Martin's claim:
+"We have also answered before that words must not always be translated
+according to their original and general signification, but according to
+such signification as by use they are appropried to be taken. We agree
+also, that words taken by custom of speech into an ecclesiastical
+meaning are not to be altered into a strange or profane
+signification."[228] But ecclesiastical authority is not always a safe
+guide. "How the fathers of the church have used words, it is no rule for
+translators of the scriptures to follow; who oftentimes used words as
+the people did take them, and not as they signified in the apostles'
+time."[229] In difficult cases there is a peculiar advantage in
+consulting profane writers, "who used the words most indifferently in
+respect of our controversies of which they were altogether
+ignorant."[230] Fulke refuses to be reduced to accept entirely either
+the "common" or the "etymological" interpretation. "A translator that
+hath regard to interpret for the ignorant people's instruction, may
+sometimes depart from the etymology or common signification or precise
+turning of word for word, and that for divers causes."[231] To one
+principle, however, he will commit himself: the translator must observe
+common English usage. "We are not lords of the common speech of men," he
+writes, "for if we were, we would teach them to use their terms more
+properly; but seeing we cannot change the use of speech, we follow
+Aristotle's counsel, which is to speak and use words as the common
+people useth."[232] Consequently ecclesiastical must always give way to
+popular usage. "Our meaning is not, that if any Greek terms, or words of
+any other language, have of long time been usurped in our English
+language, the true meaning of which is unknown at this day to the common
+people, but that the same terms may be either in translation or
+exposition set out plainly, to inform the simplicity of the ignorant, by
+such words as of them are better understood. Also when those terms are
+abused by custom of speech, to signify some other thing than they were
+first appointed for, or else to be taken ambiguously for divers things,
+we ought not to be superstitious in these cases, but to avoid
+misunderstanding we may use words according to their original
+signification, as they were taken in such time as they were written by
+the instruments of the Holy Ghost."[233]
+
+Fulke's support of the claims of the English language is not confined to
+general statements. Acquaintance with other languages has given him a
+definite conception of the properties of his own, even in matters of
+detail. He resents the importation of foreign idiom. "If you ask for the
+readiest and most proper English of these words, I must answer you, 'an
+image, a worshipper of images, and worshipping of images,' as we have
+sometimes translated. The other that you would have, 'idol, idolater,
+and idolatry,' be rather Greekish than English words; which though they
+be used by many Englishmen, yet are they not understood of all as the
+other be."[234] "You ... avoid the names of elders, calling them
+ancients, and the wise men sages, as though you had rather speak French
+than English, as we do; like as you translate _confide_, 'have a good
+heart,' after the French phrase, rather than you would say as we do, 'be
+of good comfort.'"[235] Though he admits that English as compared with
+older languages is defective in vocabulary, he insists that this cannot
+be remedied by unwarranted coinage of words. "That we have no greater
+change of words to answer so many of the Hebrew tongue, it is of the
+riches of that tongue, and the poverty of our mother language, which
+hath but two words, image and idol, and both of them borrowed of the
+Latin and Greek: as for other words equivalent, we know not any, and we
+are loth to make any new words of that signification, except the
+multitude of Hebrew words of the same sense coming together do sometimes
+perhaps seem to require it. Therefore as the Greek hath fewer words to
+express this thing than the Hebrew, so hath the Latin fewer than the
+Greek, and the English fewest of all, as will appear if you would
+undertake to give us English words for the thirteen Hebrew words:
+except you would coin such ridiculous inkhorn terms, as you do in the
+New Testament, Azymes, prepuce, neophyte, sandale, parasceve, and such
+like."[236] "When you say 'evangelized,' you do not translate, but feign
+a new word, which is not understood of mere English ears."[237]
+
+Fulke describes himself as never having been "of counsel with any that
+translated the scriptures into English,"[238] but his works were
+regarded with respect, and probably had considerable influence on the
+version of 1611.[239] Ironically enough, they did much to familiarize
+the revisers with the Rhemish version and its merits. On the other hand,
+Fulke's own views had a distinct value. Though on some points he is
+narrowly conservative, and though some of the words which he condemns
+have established themselves in the language nevertheless most of his
+ideas regarding linguistic usage are remarkably sound, and, like those
+of More, commend themselves to modern opinion.
+
+Between the translators of the Bible and the translators of other works
+there were few points of contact. Though similar problems confronted
+both groups, they presented themselves in different guises. The question
+of increasing the vocabulary, for example, is in the case of biblical
+translation so complicated by the theological connotation of words as to
+require a treatment peculiar to itself. Translators of the Bible were
+scarcely ever translators of secular works and vice versa. The chief
+link between the two kinds of translation is supplied by the metrical
+versions of the Psalms. Such verse translations were counted of
+sufficient importance to engage the efforts of men like Parker and
+Coverdale, influential in the main course of Bible translation. Men like
+Thomas Norton, the translator of Calvin's _Institutes_, Richard
+Stanyhurst, the translator of _Virgil_, and others of greater literary
+fame, Wyatt, Surrey, Sidney, Milton, Bacon, experimented, as time went
+on, with these metrical renderings. The list even includes the name of
+King James.[240]
+
+At first there was some idea of creating for such songs a vogue in
+England like that which the similar productions of Marot had enjoyed at
+the French court. Translators felt free to choose what George Wither
+calls "easy and passionate Psalms," and, if they desired, create
+"elegant-seeming paraphrases ... trimmed ... up with rhetorical
+illustrations (suitable to their fancies, and the changeable garb of
+affected language)."[241] The expectations of courtly approbation were,
+however, largely disappointed, but the metrical Psalms came, in time, to
+have a wider and more democratic employment. Complete versions of the
+Psalms in verse came to be regarded as a suitable accompaniment to the
+Bible, until in the Scottish General Assembly of 1601 the proposition
+for a new translation of the Bible was accompanied by a parallel
+proposition for a correction of the Psalms in metre.[242]
+
+Besides this general realization of the practical usefulness of these
+versions in divine service, there was in some quarters an appreciation
+of the peculiar literary quality of the Psalms which tended to express
+itself in new attempts at translation. Arthur Golding, though not
+himself the author of a metrical version, makes the following comment:
+"For whereas the other parts of holy writ (whether they be historical,
+moral, judicial, ceremonial, or prophetical) do commonly set down their
+treatises in open and plain declaration: this part consisting of them
+all, wrappeth up things in types and figures, describing them under
+borrowed personages, and oftentimes winding in matters of prevention,
+speaking of things to come as if they were past or present, and of
+things past as if they were in doing, and every man is made a betrayer
+of the secrets of his own heart. And forasmuch as it consisteth chiefly
+of prayer and thanksgiving, or (which comprehendeth them both) of
+invocation, which is a communication with God, and requireth rather an
+earnest and devout lifting up of the mind than a loud or curious
+utterance of the voice: there be many imperfect sentences, many broken
+speeches, and many displaced words: according as the party that prayed,
+was either prevented with the swiftness of his thoughts, or interrupted
+with vehemency of joy or grief, or forced to surcease through infirmity,
+that he might recover more strength and cheerfulness by interminding
+God's former promises and benefits."[243] George Wither finds that the
+style of the Psalms demands a verse translation. "The language of the
+Muses," he declares, "in which the Psalms were originally written, is
+not so properly expressed in the prose dialect as in verse." "I have
+used some variety of verse," he explains, "because prayers, praises,
+lamentations, triumphs, and subjects which are pastoral, heroical,
+elegiacal, and mixed (all which are found in the Psalms) are not
+properly expressed in one sort of measure."[244]
+
+Besides such perception of the general poetic quality of the Psalms as
+is found in Wither's comment, there was some realization that metrical
+elements were present in various books of Scripture. Jerome, in his
+_Preface to Job_, had called attention to this,[245] but the regular
+translators, whose references to Jerome, though frequent, are somewhat
+vague, apparently made nothing of the suggestion. Elsewhere, however,
+there was an attempt to justify the inclusion of translations of the
+Psalms among other metrical experiments. Googe, defending the having of
+the Psalms in metre, declares that Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other parts of
+the Bible "were written by the first authors in perfect and pleasant
+hexameter verses."[246] Stanyhurst[247] and Fraunce[248] both tried
+putting the Psalms into English hexameters. There was, however, no
+accurate knowledge of the Hebrew verse system. The preface to the
+American _Bay Psalm Book_, published in 1640,[249] explains that "The
+psalms are penned in such verses as are suitable to the poetry of the
+Hebrew language, and not in the common style of such other books of the
+Old Testament as are not poetical.... Then, as all our English songs
+(according to the course of our English poetry) do run in metre, so
+ought David's psalms to be translated into metre, that we may sing the
+Lord's songs, as in our English tongue so in such verses as are familiar
+to an English ear, which are commonly metrical." It is not possible to
+reproduce the Hebrew metres. "As the Lord hath hid from us the Hebrew
+tunes, lest we should think ourselves bound to imitate them; so also the
+course and frame (for the most part) of their Hebrew poetry, that we
+might not think ourselves bound to imitate that, but that every nation
+without scruple might follow as the grave sort of tunes of their own
+country, so the graver sort of verses of their own country's poetry."
+This had already become the common solution of the difficulty, so that
+even Wither keeps to the kinds of verse used in the old Psalm books in
+order that the old tunes may be used.
+
+But though the metrical versions of the Psalms often inclined to
+doggerel, and though they probably had little, if any, influence on the
+Authorized Version, they made their own claims to accuracy, and even
+after the appearance of the King James Bible sometimes demanded
+attention as improved renderings. George Wither, for example, believes
+that in using verse he is being more faithful to the Hebrew than are the
+prose translations. "There is," he says, "a poetical emphasis in many
+places, which requires such an alteration in the grammatical expression,
+as will seem to make some difference in the judgment of the common
+reader; whereas it giveth best life to the author's intention; and makes
+that perspicuous which was made obscure by those mere grammatical
+interpreters, who were not acquainted with the proprieties and liberties
+of this kind of writing." His version is, indeed, "so easy to be
+understood, that some readers have confessed, it hath been instead of a
+comment unto them in sundry hard places." His rendering is not based
+merely on existing English versions; he has "the warrant of best Hebrew
+grammarians, the authority of the Septuagint, and Chaldean paraphrase,
+the example of the ancient and of the best modern prose translators,
+together with the general practice and allowance of all orthodox
+expositors." Like Wither, other translators went back to original
+sources and made their verse renderings real exercises in translation
+rather than mere variations on the accepted English text. From this
+point of view their work had perhaps some value; and though it seems
+regrettable that practically nothing of permanent literary importance
+should have resulted from such repeated experiments, they are
+interesting at least as affording some connection between the sphere of
+the regular translators and the literary world outside.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[155] _Preface to Genesis_, in Pollard, _Records of the English Bible_, p.
+94.
+
+[156] Pollard, p. 266.
+
+[157] _Ibid._, p. 112.
+
+[158] _Ibid._, p. 187.
+
+[159] _Ibid._, p. 205.
+
+[160] Coverdale, _Prologue_ to Bible of 1535.
+
+[161] Pollard, p. 196.
+
+[162] _Ibid._, p. 259.
+
+[163] _Ibid._, p. 365.
+
+[164] _Ibid._, p. 360.
+
+[165] Pollard, p. 220.
+
+[166] _Ibid._, p. 239.
+
+[167] _Ibid._, p. 163.
+
+[168] _Ibid._, p. 126.
+
+[169] _Ibid._, p. 203.
+
+[170] _Ibid._, p. 371.
+
+[171] Pollard, p. 280.
+
+[172] Pollard, p. 241.
+
+[173] Strype, _Life of Parker_, London, 1711, p. 536.
+
+[174] For a further account of Aelfric's theories, see Chapter I.
+
+[175] _The Psalter translated by Richard Rolle of Hampole_, ed. Bramley,
+Oxford, 1884.
+
+[176] Chapter 15, in Pollard, _Fifteenth Century Prose and Verse_.
+
+[177] _Prologue_, Chapter 15.
+
+[178] _Prologue to the New Testament_, printed in Matthew's Bible, 1551.
+
+[179] Strype, _Life of Parker_, p. 208.
+
+[180] Pollard, p. 116.
+
+[181] Preface to _The Obedience of a Christian Man_, in _Doctrinal
+Treatises_, Parker Society, 1848, p. 390.
+
+[182] Pollard, p. 211.
+
+[183] _Ibid._, p. 277.
+
+[184] _Ibid._, p. 306.
+
+[185] _Life of Cheke_, p. 212.
+
+[186] Strype, _Life of Parker_, p. 404.
+
+[187] Pollard, p. 361.
+
+[188] Fulke, _Defence_, Parker Society, p. 552.
+
+[189] _Defence_, p. 552.
+
+[190] _Ibid._, p. 97.
+
+[191] _Ibid._, p. 408.
+
+[192] Pollard, p. 375.
+
+[193] E.g., Fulke, _Defence_, p. 163.
+
+[194] Pollard, p. 349.
+
+[195] _Ibid._, p. 303.
+
+[196] _Ibid._, p. 277.
+
+[197] Pollard, p. 281.
+
+[198] _Ibid._, p. 309.
+
+[199] Preface to _The Obedience of a Christian Man, Doctrinal Treatises_,
+pp. 148-9.
+
+[200] _Life of Cheke_, p. 212.
+
+[201] _Ibid._, p. 212.
+
+[202] An interesting comment of later date than the Authorized Version is
+found in the preface to William L'Isle's _Divers Ancient Monuments of the
+Saxon Tongue_, published in 1638. L'Isle writes: "These monuments of
+reverend antiquity, I mean the Saxon Bibles, to him that understandingly
+reads and well considers the time wherein they were written, will in many
+places convince of affected obscurity some late translations." After
+criticizing the inkhorn terms of the Rhemish translators, he says, "The
+Saxon hath words for Trinity, Unity, and all such foreign words as we are
+now fain to use, because we have forgot better of our own." (In J. L.
+Moore, _Tudor-Stuart Views on the Growth, Status, and Destiny of the
+English Language_.)
+
+[203] _Prologue_ to Bible of 1535.
+
+[204] Pollard, p. 212.
+
+[205] Fulke, pp. 337-8.
+
+[206] Pollard, p. 291.
+
+[207] _Ibid._, p. 374.
+
+[208] _Prologue_, Chapter 15.
+
+[209] Pollard, p. 298.
+
+[210] Strype, _Life of Grindal_, Oxford, 1821, p. 19.
+
+[211] Pollard, p. 127.
+
+[212] _Ibid._, p. 124.
+
+[213] Pollard, p. 274.
+
+[214] _Ibid._, p. 305.
+
+[215] Translated in _Remains of Archbishop Grindal_, Parker Society, 1843,
+p. 234.
+
+[216] Pollard, pp. 375-6.
+
+[217] More, _Confutation of Tyndale_, _Works_, p. 417.
+
+[218] _Ibid._, p. 427.
+
+[219] Pollard, p. 307.
+
+[220] Pollard, p. 291.
+
+[221] _Defence_, p. 42.
+
+[222] _Ibid._, p. 507.
+
+[223] _Defence_, p. 210.
+
+[224] _Confutation of the Rhemish Testament_, New York, 1834, p. 21.
+
+[225] _Defence_, p. 118.
+
+[226] _Ibid._, p. 160.
+
+[227] _Ibid._, p. 217.
+
+[228] _Defence_, p. 217.
+
+[229] _Ibid._, p. 162.
+
+[230] _Ibid._, p. 161.
+
+[231] _Ibid._, p. 58.
+
+[232] _Ibid._, p. 267.
+
+[233] _Defence_, p. 217.
+
+[234] _Ibid._, p. 179.
+
+[235] _Ibid._, p. 90.
+
+[236] _Defence_, p. 206.
+
+[237] _Ibid._, p. 549.
+
+[238] _Ibid._, p. 89.
+
+[239] Pollard, _Introduction_, p. 37.
+
+[240] See Holland, _The Psalmists of Britain_, London, 1843, for a detailed
+account of such translations.
+
+[241] Preface to _The Psalms of David translated into lyric verse_, 1632,
+reprinted by the Spenser Society, 1881.
+
+[242] Holland, p. 251.
+
+[243] _Epistle Dedicatory_, to _The Psalms with M. John Calvin's
+Commentaries_, 1571.
+
+[244] _Op. cit._
+
+[245] See _The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, ed. Schaff and Wace, New
+York, 1893, p. 491.
+
+[246] Holland, Note, p. 89.
+
+[247] Published at the end of his _Virgil_.
+
+[248] In _The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell_, 1591.
+
+[249] Reprinted, New York, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+III. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+The Elizabethan period presents translations in astonishing number and
+variety. As the spirit of the Renaissance began to inspire England,
+translators responded to its stimulus with an enthusiasm denied to later
+times. It was work that appealed to persons of varying ranks and of
+varying degrees of learning. In the early part of the century, according
+to Nash, "every private scholar, William Turner and who not, began to
+vaunt their smattering of Latin in English impressions."[250] Thomas
+Nicholls, the goldsmith, translated Thucydides; Queen Elizabeth
+translated Boethius. The mention of women in this connection suggests
+how widely the impulse was diffused. Richard Hyrde says of the
+translation of Erasmus's _Treatise on the Lord's Prayer_, made by
+Margaret Roper, the daughter of Sir Thomas More, "And as for the
+translation thereof, I dare be bold to say it, that whoso list and well
+can confer and examine the translation with the original, he shall not
+fail to find that she hath showed herself not only erudite and elegant
+in either tongue, but hath also used such wisdom, such discreet and
+substantial judgment, in expressing lively the Latin, as a man may
+peradventure miss in many things translated and turned by them that bear
+the name of right wise and very well learned men."[251] Nicholas Udall
+writes to Queen Katherine that there are a number of women in England
+who know Greek and Latin and are "in the holy scriptures and theology
+so ripe that they are able aptly, cunningly, and with much grace either
+to endite or translate into the vulgar tongue for the public instruction
+and edifying of the unlearned multitude."[252]
+
+The greatness of the field was fitted to arouse and sustain the ardor of
+English translators. In contrast with the number of manuscripts at
+command in earlier days, the sixteenth century must have seemed
+endlessly rich in books. Printing was making the Greek and Latin
+classics newly accessible, and France and Italy, awake before England to
+the new life, were storing the vernacular with translations and with new
+creations. Translators might find their tasks difficult enough and they
+might flag by the way, as Hoby confesses to have done at the end of the
+third book of _The Courtier_, but plucking up courage, they went on to
+the end. Hoby declares, with a vigor that suggests Bunyan's Pilgrim, "I
+whetted my style and settled myself to take in hand the other three
+books";[253] Edward Hellowes, after the hesitation which he describes in
+the Dedication to the 1574 edition of Guevara's _Familiar Epistles_,
+"began to call to mind my God, my Prince, my country, and also your
+worship," and so adequately upheld, went on with his undertaking; Arthur
+Golding, with a breath of relief, sees his rendering of Ovid's
+_Metamorphoses_ at last complete.
+
+    Through Ovid's work of turned shapes I have with painful pace
+    Passed on, until I had attained the end of all my race.
+    And now I have him made so well acquainted with our tongue,
+    As that he may in English verse as in his own be sung.[254]
+
+Sometimes the toilsomeness of the journey was lightened by
+companionship. Now and then, especially in the case of religious works,
+there was collaboration. Luther's _Commentary on Galatians_ was
+undertaken by "certain godly men," of whom "some began it according to
+such skill as they had. Others godly affected, not suffering so good a
+matter in handling to be marred, put to their helping hands for the
+better framing and furthering of so worthy a work."[255] From Thomas
+Norton's record of the conditions under which he translated Calvin's
+_Institution of the Christian Religion_, it is not difficult to feel the
+atmosphere of sympathy and encouragement in which he worked. "Therefore
+in the very beginning of the Queen's Majesty's most blessed reign," he
+writes, "I translated it out of Latin into English, for the commodity of
+the Church of Christ, at the special request of my dear friends of
+worthy memory, Reginald Wolfe and Edward Whitchurch, the one Her
+Majesty's Printer for the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin tongues, the other
+her Highness' Printer of the books of Common Prayer. I performed my work
+in the house of my said friend, Edward Whitchurch, a man well known of
+upright heart and dealing, an ancient zealous Gospeller, as plain and
+true a friend as ever I knew living, and as desirous to do anything to
+common good, specially to the advancement of true religion.... In the
+doing hereof I did not only trust mine own wit or ability, but examined
+my whole doing from sentence to sentence throughout the whole book with
+conference and overlooking of such learned men, as my translation being
+allowed by their judgment, I did both satisfy mine own conscience that I
+had done truly, and their approving of it might be a good warrant to the
+reader that nothing should herein be delivered him but sound, unmingled
+and uncorrupted doctrine, even in such sort as the author himself had
+first framed it. All that I wrote, the grave, learned, and virtuous man,
+M. David Whitehead (whom I name with honorable remembrance) did among
+others, compare with the Latin, examining every sentence throughout the
+whole book. Beside all this, I privately required many, and generally
+all men with whom I ever had any talk of this matter, that if they found
+anything either not truly translated or not plainly Englished, they
+would inform me thereof, promising either to satisfy them or to amend
+it."[256] Norton's next sentence, "Since which time I have not been
+advertised by any man of anything which they would require to be
+altered" probably expresses the fate of most of the many requests for
+criticism that accompany translations, but does not essentially modify
+the impression he conveys of unusually favorable conditions for such
+work. One remembers that Tyndale originally anticipated with some
+confidence a residence in the Bishop of London's house while he
+translated the Bible. Thomas Wilson, again, says of his translation of
+some of the orations of Demosthenes that "even in these my small
+travails both Cambridge and Oxford men have given me their learned
+advice and in some things have set to their helping hand,"[257] and
+Florio declares that it is owing to the help and encouragement of "two
+supporters of knowledge and friendship," Theodore Diodati and Dr.
+Gwinne, that "upheld and armed" he has "passed the pikes."[258]
+
+The translator was also sustained by a conception of the importance of
+his work, a conception sometimes exaggerated, but becoming, as the
+century progressed, clearly and truly defined. Between the lines of the
+dedication which Henry Parker, Lord Morley, prefixes to his translation
+of Petrarch's _Triumphs_,[259] one reads a pathetic story of an
+appreciation which can hardly have equaled the hopes of the author. He
+writes of "one of late days that was groom of the chamber with that
+renowned and valiant prince of high memory, Francis the French king,
+whose name I have forgotten, that did translate these triumphs to that
+said king, which he took so thankfully that he gave to him for his pains
+an hundred crowns, to him and to his heirs of inheritance to enjoy to
+that value in land forever, and took such pleasure in it that
+wheresoever he went, among his precious jewels that book always carried
+with him for his pastime to look upon, and as much esteemed by him as
+the richest diamond he had." Moved by patriotic emulation, Lord Morley
+"translated the said book to that most worthy king, our late sovereign
+lord of perpetual memory, King Henry the Eighth, who as he was a prince
+above all others most excellent, so took he the work very thankfully,
+marvelling much that I could do it, and thinking verily I had not done
+it without help of some other, better knowing in the Italian tongue than
+I; but when he knew the very truth, that I had translated the work
+myself, he was more pleased therewith than he was before, and so what
+his highness did with it is to me unknown."
+
+Hyperbole in estimating the value of the translator's work is not common
+among Lord Morley's successors, but their very recognition of the
+secondary importance of translation often resulted in a modest yet
+dignified insistence on its real value. Richard Eden says that he has
+labored "not as an author but as a translator, lest I be injurious to
+any man in ascribing to myself the travail of other."[260] Nicholas
+Grimald qualifies a translation of Cicero as "my work," and immediately
+adds, "I call it mine as Plautus and Terence called the comedies theirs
+which they made out of Greek."[261] Harrington, the translator of
+_Orlando Furioso_, says of his work: "I had rather men should see and
+know that I borrow at all than that I steal any, and I would wish to be
+called rather one of the worst translators than one of the meaner
+makers, specially since the Earl of Surrey and Sir Thomas Wiat, that are
+yet called the first refiners of the English tongue, were both
+translators out of the Italian. Now for those that count it such a
+contemptible and trifling matter to translate, I will but say to them as
+M. Bartholomew Clarke, an excellent learned man and a right good
+translator, said in a manner of pretty challenge, in his Preface (as I
+remember) upon the Courtier, which book he translated out of Italian
+into Latin. 'You,' saith he, 'that think it such a toy, lay aside my
+book, and take my author in hand, and try a leaf or such a matter, and
+compare it with mine.'"[262] Philemon Holland, the "translator general"
+of his time, writes of his art: "As for myself, since it is neither my
+hap nor hope to attain to such perfection as to bring forth something of
+mine own which may quit the pains of a reader, and much less to perform
+any action that might minister matter to a writer, and yet so far bound
+unto my native country and the blessed state wherein I have lived, as to
+render an account of my years passed and studies employed, during this
+long time of peace and tranquillity, wherein (under the most gracious
+and happy government of a peerless princess, assisted with so prudent,
+politic, and learned Counsel) all good literature hath had free progress
+and flourished in no age so much: methought I owed this duty, to leave
+for my part also (after many others) some small memorial, that might
+give testimony another day what fruits generally this peaceable age of
+ours hath produced. Endeavored I have therefore to stand in the third
+rank, and bestowed those hours which might be spared from the practice
+of my profession and the necessary cares of life, to satisfy my
+countrymen now living and to gratify the age ensuing in this
+kind."[263] To Holland's simple acceptance of his rightful place, it is
+pleasant to add the lines of the poet Daniel, whose imagination was
+stirred in true Elizabethan fashion by the larger relations of the
+translator. Addressing Florio, the interpreter of Montaigne to the
+English people, he thanks him on behalf of both author and readers for
+
+    ... his studious care
+    Who both of him and us doth merit much,
+    Having as sumptuously as he is rare
+    Placed him in the best lodging of our speech,
+    And made him now as free as if born here,
+    And as well ours as theirs, who may be proud
+    To have the franchise of his worth allowed.
+    It being the proportion of a happy pen,
+    Not to b'invassal'd to one monarchy,
+    But dwell with all the better world of men
+    Whose spirits are of one community,
+    Whom neither Ocean, Deserts, Rocks, nor Sands
+    Can keep from th' intertraffic of the mind.[264]
+
+In a less exalted strain come suggestions that the translator's work is
+valuable enough to deserve some tangible recognition. Thomas Fortescue
+urges his reader to consider the case of workmen like himself, "assuring
+thyself that none in any sort do better deserve of their country, that
+none swink or sweat with like pain and anguish, that none in like sort
+hazard or adventure their credit, that none desire less stipend or
+salary for their travail, that none in fine are worse in this age
+recompensed."[265] Nicholas Udall presents detailed reasons why it is to
+be desired that "some able, worthy, and meet persons for doing such
+public benefit to the commonweal as translating of good works and
+writing of chronicles might by some good provision and means have some
+condign sustentation in the same."[266] "Besides," he argues, "that such
+a translator travaileth not to his own private commodity, but to the
+benefit and public use of his country: besides that the thing is such as
+must so thoroughly occupy and possess the doer, and must have him so
+attent to apply that same exercise only, that he may not during that
+season take in hand any other trade of business whereby to purchase his
+living: besides that the thing cannot be done without bestowing of long
+time, great watching, much pains, diligent study, no small charges, as
+well of meat, drink, books, as also of other necessaries, the labor self
+is of itself a more painful and more tedious thing than for a man to
+write or prosecute any argument of his own invention. A man hath his own
+invention ready at his own pleasure without lets or stops, to make such
+discourse as his argument requireth: but a translator must ... at every
+other word stay, and suspend both his cogitation and his pen to look
+upon his author, so that he might in equal time make thrice as much as
+he can be able to translate."
+
+The belief present in the comment of both Fortescue and Udall that the
+work of the translator is of peculiar service to the state is expressed
+in connection with translations of every sort. Richard Taverner declares
+that he has been incited to put into English part of the _Chiliades_ of
+Erasmus by "the love I bear to the furtherance and adornment of my
+native country."[267] William Warde translates _The Secrets of Maister
+Alexis of Piemont_ in order that "as well Englishmen as Italians,
+Frenchmen, or Dutchmen may suck knowledge and profit hereof."[268] John
+Brende, in the Dedication of his _History of Quintus Curtius_, insists
+on the importance of historical knowledge, his appreciation of which has
+made him desire "that we Englishmen might be found as forward in that
+behalf as other nations, which have brought all worthy histories into
+their natural language."[269] Patriotic emulation of what has been done
+in other countries is everywhere present as a motive. Occasionally the
+Englishman shows that he has studied foreign translations for his own
+guidance. Adlington, in his preface to his rendering of _The Golden Ass_
+of Apuleius, says that he does not follow the original in certain
+respects, "for so the French and Spanish translators have not
+done";[270] Hoby says of his translation of _The Courtier_, "I have
+endeavored myself to follow the very meaning and words of the author,
+without being misled by fantasy or leaving out any parcel one or other,
+whereof I know not how some interpreters of this book into other
+languages can excuse themselves, and the more they be conferred, the
+more it will perchance appear."[271] On the whole, however, the comment
+confines itself to general statements like that of Grimald, who in
+translating Cicero is endeavoring "to do likewise for my countrymen as
+Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Dutchmen, and other foreigners have
+liberally done for theirs."[272] In spite of the remarkable output
+England lagged behind other countries. Lord Morley complains that the
+printing of a merry jest is more profitable than the putting forth of
+such excellent works as those of Petrarch, of which England has "very
+few or none, which I do lament in my heart, considering that as well in
+French as in the Italian (in the which both tongues I have some little
+knowledge) there is no excellent work in the Latin, but that straightway
+they set it forth in the vulgar."[273] Morley wrote in the early days
+of the movement for translation, but later translators made similar
+complaints. Hoby says in the preface to _The Courtier_: "In this point
+(I know not by what destiny) Englishmen are most inferior to most of all
+other nations: for where they set their delight and bend themselves with
+an honest strife of matching others to turn into their mother tongue not
+only the witty writings of other languages but also of all philosophers,
+and all sciences both Greek and Latin, our men ween it sufficient to
+have a perfect knowledge to no other end but to profit themselves and
+(as it were) after much pains in breaking up a gap bestow no less to
+close it up again." To the end of the century translation is encouraged
+or defended on the ground that it is a public duty. Thomas Danett is
+urged to translate the _History_ of Philip de Comines by certain
+gentlemen who think it "a great dishonor to our native land that so
+worthy a history being extant in all languages almost in Christendom
+should be suppressed in ours";[274] Chapman writes indignantly of Homer,
+"And if Italian, French, and Spanish have not made it dainty, nor
+thought it any presumption to turn him into their languages, but a fit
+and honorable labor and (in respect of their country's profit and their
+prince's credit) almost necessary, what curious, proud, and poor
+shamefastness should let an English muse to traduce him?"[275]
+
+Besides all this, the translator's conception of his audience encouraged
+and guided his pen. While translations in general could not pretend to
+the strength and universality of appeal which belonged to the Bible,
+nevertheless taken in the mass and judged only by the comment associated
+with them, they suggest a varied public and a surprising contact with
+the essential interests of mankind. The appeals on title pages and in
+prefaces to all kinds of people, from ladies and gentlemen of rank to
+the common and simple sort, not infrequently resemble the calculated
+praises of the advertiser, but admitting this, there still remains much
+that implies a simple confidence in the response of friendly readers.
+Rightly or wrongly, the translator presupposes for himself in many cases
+an audience far removed from academic preoccupations. Richard Eden,
+translating from the Spanish Martin Cortes' _Arte de Navigar_, says,
+"Now therefore this work of the Art of Navigation being published in our
+vulgar tongue, you may be assured to have more store of skilful
+pilots."[276] Golding's translations of Pomponius Mela and Julius
+Solinus Polyhistor are described as, "Right pleasant and profitable for
+Gentlemen, Merchants, Mariners, and Travellers."[277] Hellowes, with an
+excess of rhetoric which takes from his convincingness, presents
+Guevara's _Familiar Epistles_ as teaching "rules for kings to rule,
+counselors to counsel, prelates to practise, captains to execute,
+soldiers to perform, the married to follow, the prosperous to prosecute,
+and the poor in adversity to be comforted, how to write and talk with
+all men in all matters at large."[278] Holland's honest simplicity gives
+greater weight to a similarly sweeping characterization of Pliny's
+_Natural History_ as "not appropriate to the learned only, but
+accommodate to the rude peasant of the country; fitted for the painful
+artisan in town or city; pertinent to the bodily health of man, woman,
+or child; and in one word suiting with all sorts of people living in a
+society and commonweal."[279] In the same preface the need for replying
+to those who oppose translation leads Holland to insist further on the
+practical applicability of his matter. Alternating his own with his
+critics' position, he writes: "It is a shame (quoth one) that _Livy_
+speaketh English as he doth; Latinists only owe to be acquainted with
+him: as who should say the soldier were to have recourse to the
+university for military skill and knowledge, or the scholar to put on
+arms and pitch a camp. What should _Pliny_ (saith another) be read in
+English and the mysteries couched in his books divulged; as if the
+husbandman, the mason, carpenter, goldsmith, lapidary, and engraver,
+with other artificers, were bound to seek unto great clerks or linguists
+for instructions in their several arts." Wilson's translation of
+Demosthenes, again, undertaken, it has been said, with a view to rousing
+a national resistance against Spain, is described on the title page as
+"most needful to be read in these dangerous days of all them that love
+their country's liberty."[280]
+
+Naturally enough, however, especially in the case of translations from
+the Latin and Greek, the academic interest bulks largely in the
+audience, and sometimes makes an unexpected demand for recognition in
+the midst of the more practical appeal. Holland's _Pliny_, for example,
+addresses itself not only to peasants and artisans but to young
+students, who "by the light of the English ... shall be able more
+readily to go away with the dark phrase and obscure constructions of the
+Latin." Chapman, refusing to be burdened with a popular audience, begins
+a preface with the insidious compliment, "I suppose you to be no mere
+reader, since you intend to read Homer."[281] On the other hand, the
+academic reader, whether student or critic, is, if one accepts the
+translator's view, very much on the alert, anxious to confer the English
+version with the original, either that he may improve his own knowledge
+of the foreign language or that he may pick faults in the new rendering.
+Wilson attacks the critics as "drones and no bees, lubbers and no
+learners," but the fault he finds in these "croaking paddocks and
+manifest overweeners of themselves" is that they are "out of reason
+curious judges over the travail and painstaking of others" instead of
+being themselves producers.[282] Apparently there was little fear of the
+indifference which is more discouraging than hostile criticism, and
+though, as is to be expected, it is the hostile criticism that is most
+often reflected in prefaces, there must have been much kindly comment
+like that of Webbe, who, after discussing the relations of Phaer's
+_Virgil_ to the Latin, concludes, "There is not one book among the
+twelve which will not yield you most excellent pleasure in conferring
+the translation with the copy and marking the gallant grace which our
+English speech affordeth."[283]
+
+Such encouragements and incentives are enough to awaken the envy of the
+modern translator. But the sixteenth century had also its peculiar
+difficulties. The English language was neither so rich in resources nor
+so carefully standardized as it has become of later times. It was often
+necessary, indeed, to defend it against the charge that it was not equal
+to translation. Pettie is driven to reply to those who oppose the use of
+the vernacular because "they count it barren, they count it barbarous,
+they count it unworthy to be accounted of."[284] Chapman says in his
+preface to _Achilles' Shield_: "Some will convey their imperfections
+under his Greek shield, and from thence bestow bitter arrows against the
+traduction, affirming their want of admiration grows from the defect of
+our language, not able to express the copiousness (coppie) and elegancy
+of the original." Richard Greenway, who translated the _Annals_ of
+Tacitus, admits cautiously that his medium is "perchance not so fit to
+set out a piece drawn with so curious a pencil."[285] One cannot,
+indeed, help recognizing that as compared with modern English
+Elizabethan English was weak in resources, limited in vocabulary, and
+somewhat uncertain in sentence structure. These disadvantages probably
+account in part for such explanations of the relative difficulty of
+translation as that of Nicholas Udall in his plea that translators
+should be suitably recompensed or that of John Brende in his preface to
+the translation of Quintus Curtius that "in translation a man cannot
+always use his own vein, but shall be compelled to tread in the author's
+steps, which is a harder and more difficult thing to do, than to walk
+his own pace."[286]
+
+Of his difficulties with sentence structure the translator says little,
+a fact rather surprising to the modern reader, conscious as he is of the
+awkwardness of the Elizabethan sentence. Now and then, however, he hints
+at the problems which have arisen in the handling of the Latin period.
+Udall writes of his translation of Erasmus: "I have in some places been
+driven to use mine own judgment in rendering the true sense of the book,
+to speak nothing of a great number of sentences, which by reason of so
+many members, or parentheses, or digressions as have come in places, are
+so long that unless they had been somewhat divided, they would have been
+too hard for an unlearned brain to conceive, much more hard to contain
+and keep it still."[287] Adlington, the translator of _The Golden Ass_
+of Apuleius, says, "I have not so exactly passed through the author as
+to point every sentence exactly as it is in the Latin."[288] A comment
+of Foxe on his difficulty in translating contemporary English into Latin
+suggests that he at least was conscious of the weakness of the English
+sentence as compared with the Latin. Writing to Peter Martyr of his
+Latin version of the controversy between Cranmer and Gardiner, he says
+of the latter: "In his periods, for the most part, he is so profuse,
+that he seems twice to forget himself, rather than to find his end. The
+whole phrase hath in effect that structure that consisting for the most
+part of relatives, it refuses almost all the grace of translation."[289]
+
+Though the question of sentence structure was not given prominence, the
+problem of rectifying deficiencies in vocabulary touched the translator
+very nearly. The possibility of augmenting the language was a vital
+issue in the reign of Elizabeth, but it had a peculiar significance
+where translation was concerned. Here, if anywhere, the need for a large
+vocabulary was felt, and in translations many new words first made their
+appearance. Sir Thomas Elyot early made the connection between
+translation and the movement for increase in vocabulary. In the
+_Proheme_ to _The Knowledge which maketh a wise man_ he explains that in
+_The Governor_ he intended "to augment the English tongue, whereby men
+should ... interpret out of Greek, Latin, or any other tongue into
+English."[290] Later in the century Peele praises the translator
+Harrington,
+
+    ... well-letter'd and discreet,
+    That hath so purely naturalized
+    Strange words, and made them all free denizens,[291]
+
+and--to go somewhat outside the period--the fourth edition of Bullokar's
+_English Expositor_, originally designed to teach "the interpretation of
+the hardest words used in our language," is recommended on the ground
+that those who know no language but the mother tongue, but "are yet
+studiously desirous to read those learned and elegant treatises which
+from their native original have been rendered English (of which sort,
+thanks to the company of painful translators we have not a few) have
+here a volume fit for their purposes, as carefully designed for their
+assistance."[292]
+
+Whether, however, the translator should be allowed to add to the
+vocabulary and what methods he should employ were questions by no means
+easy of settlement. As in Caxton's time, two possible means of acquiring
+new words were suggested, naturalization of foreign words and revival of
+words from older English sources. Against the first of these methods
+there was a good deal of prejudice. Grimald in his preface to his
+translation of Cicero's _De Officiis_, protests against the translation
+that is "uttered with inkhorn terms and not with usual words." Other
+critics are more specific in their condemnation of non-English words.
+Puttenham complains that Southern, in translating Ronsard's French
+rendering of Pindar's hymns and Anacreon's odes, "doth so impudently rob
+the French poet both of his praise and also of his French terms, that I
+cannot so much pity him as be angry with him for his injurious dealing,
+our said maker not being ashamed to use these French words, _freddon_,
+_egar_, _suberbous_, _filanding_, _celest_, _calabrois_, _thebanois_ and
+a number of others, which have no manner of conformity with our language
+either by custom or derivation which may make them tolerable."[293]
+Richard Willes, in his preface to the 1577 edition of Eden's _History of
+Travel in the West and East Indies_, says that though English literature
+owes a large debt to Eden, still "many of his English words cannot be
+excused in my opinion for smelling too much of the Latin."[294] The list
+appended is not so remote from the modern English vocabulary as that
+which Puttenham supplies. Willes cites "_dominators_, _ponderous_,
+_ditionaries_, _portentous_, _antiques_, _despicable_, _solicitate_,
+_obsequious_, _homicide_, _imbibed_, _destructive_, _prodigious_, with
+other such like, in the stead of _lords_, _weighty_, _subjects_,
+_wonderful_, _ancient_, _low_, _careful_, _dutiful_, _man-slaughter_,
+_drunken_, _noisome_, _monstrous_, &c." Yet there were some advocates of
+the use of foreign words. Florio admits with mock humility that he has
+employed "some uncouth terms as _entraine_, _conscientious_, _endear_,
+_tarnish_, _comport_, _efface_, _facilitate_, _amusing_, _debauching_,
+_regret_, _effort_, _emotion_, and such like," and continues, "If you
+like them not, take others most commonly set by them to expound them,
+since they were set to make such likely French words familiar with our
+English, which may well bear them,"[295] a contention which modern usage
+supports. Nicholas Udall pronounces judicially in favor of both methods
+of enriching the language. "Some there be," he says, "which have a mind
+to renew terms that are now almost worn clean out of use, which I do not
+disallow, so it be done with judgment. Some others would ampliate and
+enrich their native tongue with more vocables, which also I commend, if
+it be aptly and wittily assayed. So that if any other do innovate and
+bring up to me a word afore not used or not heard, I would not dispraise
+it: and that I do attempt to bring it into use, another man should not
+cavil at."[296] George Pettie also defends the use of inkhorn terms.
+"Though for my part," he says, "I use those words as little as any, yet
+I know no reason why I should not use them, for it is indeed the ready
+way to enrich our tongue and make it copious."[297] On the whole,
+however, it was safer to advocate the formation of words from
+Anglo-Saxon sources. Golding says of his translation of Philip of
+Mornay: "Great care hath been taken by forming and deriving of fit names
+and terms out of the fountains of our own tongue, though not altogether
+most usual yet always conceivable and easy to be understood; rather than
+by usurping Latin terms, or by borrowing the words of any foreign
+language, lest the matters, which in some cases are mystical enough of
+themselves by reason of their own profoundness, might have been made
+more obscure to the unlearned by setting them down in terms utterly
+unknown to them."[298] Holland says in the preface to his translation of
+Livy: "I framed my pen, not to any affected phrase, but to a mean and
+popular style. Wherein if I have called again into use some old words,
+let it be attributed to the love of my country's language." Even in this
+matter of vocabulary, it will be noted, there was something of the
+stimulus of patriotism, and the possibility of improving his native
+tongue must have appealed to the translator's creative power. Phaer,
+indeed, alleges as one of his motives for translating Virgil "defence of
+my country's language, which I have heard discommended of many, and
+esteemed of some to be more than barbarous."[299]
+
+Convinced, then, that his undertaking, though difficult, meant much both
+to the individual and to the state, the translator gladly set about
+making some part of the great field of foreign literature, ancient and
+modern, accessible to English readers. Of the technicalities of his art
+he has a good deal to say. At a time when prefaces and dedications so
+frequently established personal relations between author and audience,
+it was natural that the translator also should take his readers into his
+confidence regarding his aims and methods. His comment, however, is
+largely incidental. Generally it is applicable only to the work in hand;
+it does not profess to be a statement, even on a small scale, of what
+translation in general ought to be. There is no discussion in English
+corresponding to the small, but comprehensive treatise on _La maniere de
+bien traduire d'une langue en autre_ which Etienne Dolet published at
+Lyons in 1540. This casual quality is evidenced by the peculiar way in
+which prefaces in different editions of the same book appear and
+disappear for no apparent reason, possibly at the convenience of the
+printer. It is scarcely fair to interpret as considered, deliberate
+formulation of principles, utterances so unpremeditated and fragmentary.
+The theory which accompanies secular translation is much less clear and
+consecutive than that which accompanies the translation of the Bible.
+Though in the latter case the formulation of theories of translation was
+almost equally incidental, respect for the original, repeated
+experiment, and constant criticism and discussion united to make certain
+principles take very definite shape. Secular translation produced
+nothing so homogeneous. The existence of so many translators, working
+for the most part independently of each other, resulted in a confused
+mass of comment whose real value it is difficult to estimate. It is true
+that the new scholarship with its clearer estimate of literary values
+and its appreciation of the individual's proprietary rights in his own
+writings made itself strongly felt in the sphere of secular translation
+and introduced new standards of accuracy, new definitions of the
+latitude which might be accorded the translator; but much of the old
+freedom in handling material, with the accompanying vagueness as to the
+limits of the translator's function, persisted throughout the time of
+Elizabeth.
+
+In many cases the standards recognized by sixteenth-century translators
+were little more exacting than those of the medieval period. With many
+writers adequate recognition of source was a matter of choice rather
+than of obligation. The English translator might make suitable
+attribution of a work to its author and he might undertake to reproduce
+its substance in its entirety, but he might, on the other hand, fail to
+acknowledge any indebtedness to a predecessor or he might add or omit
+material, since he was governed apparently only by the extent of his own
+powers or by his conception of what would be most pleasing or edifying
+to his readers. To the theory of his art he gave little serious
+consideration. He did not attempt to analyse the style of the source
+which he had chosen. If he praised his author, it was in the
+conventional language of compliment, which showed no real discrimination
+and which, one suspects, often disguised mere advertising. His estimate
+of his own capabilities was only the repetition of the medieval formula,
+with its profession of inadequacy for the task and its claim to have
+used simple speech devoid of rhetorical ornament. That it was nothing
+but a formula was recognized at the time and is good-naturedly pointed
+out in the words of Harrington: "Certainly if I should confess or rather
+profess that my verse is unartificial, the style rude, the phrase
+barbarous, the metre unpleasant, many more would believe it to be so
+than would imagine that I thought them so."[300]
+
+This medieval quality, less excusable later in the century when the new
+learning had declared itself, appears with more justification in the
+comment of the early sixteenth century. Though the translator's field
+was widening and was becoming more broadly European, the works chosen
+for translation belonged largely to the types popular in the Middle Ages
+and the comment attached to them was a repetition of timeworn phrases.
+Alexander Barclay, who is best known as the author of _The Ship of
+Fools_, published in 1508, but who also has to his credit several other
+translations of contemporary moral and allegorical poems from Latin and
+French and even, in anticipation of the newer era, a version of
+Sallust's _Jugurthine War_, offers his translations of _The Ship of
+Fools_[301] and of Mancini's _Mirror of Good Manners_[302] not to the
+learned, who might judge of their correctness, but to "rude people," who
+may hope to be benefited morally by perusing them. He has written _The
+Ship of Fools_ in "common and rural terms"; he does not follow the
+author "word by word"; and though he professes to have reproduced for
+the most part the "sentence" of the original, he admits "sometimes
+adding, sometimes detracting and taking away such things as seemeth me
+unnecessary and superfluous."[303] His contemporary, Lord Berners,
+writes for a more courtly audience, but he professes much the same
+methods. He introduces his _Arthur of Little Britain_, "not presuming
+that I have reduced it into fresh, ornate, polished English, for I know
+myself insufficient in the facundious art of rhetoric, and also I am but
+a learner of the language of French: howbeit I trust my simple reason
+hath led me to the understanding of the true sentence of the
+matter."[304] Of his translation of Froissart he says, "And in that I
+have not followed mine author word by word, yet I trust I have ensued
+the true report of the sentence of the matter."[305] Sir Francis Bryan,
+under whose direction Berners' translation of _The Golden Book of Marcus
+Aurelius_ was issued in 1535, the year after its author's death,
+expresses his admiration of the "high and sweet styles"[306] of the
+versions in other languages which have preceded this English rendering,
+but similar phrases had been used so often in the characterization of
+undistinguished writings that this comment hardly suggests the new and
+peculiar quality of Guevara's style.
+
+As the century advanced, these older, easier standards were maintained
+especially among translators who chose material similar to that of
+Barclay and Berners, the popular work of edification, the novella, which
+took the place of the romance. The purveyors of entertaining narrative,
+indeed, realized in some degree the minor importance of their work as
+compared with that of more serious scholars and acted accordingly. The
+preface to Turbervile's _Tragical Tales_ throws some light on the
+author's idea of the comparative values of translations. He thought of
+translating Lucan, but Melpomene appeared to warn him against so
+ambitious an enterprise, and admitting his unfitness for the task, he
+applied himself instead to this translation "out of sundry
+Italians."[307] Anthony Munday apologizes for his "simple translation"
+of _Palmerin d'Oliva_ by remarking that "to translate allows little
+occasion of fine pen work,"[308] a comment which goes far to account for
+the doubtful quality of his productions in this field.
+
+Even when the translator of pleasant tales ranked his work high, it was
+generally on the ground that his readers would receive from it profit as
+well as amusement; he laid no claim to academic correctness. He
+mentioned or refrained from mentioning his sources at his own
+discretion. Painter, in inaugurating the vogue of the novella, is
+exceptionally careful in attributing each story to its author,[309] but
+Whetstone's _Rock of Regard_ contains no hint that it is translated, and
+_The Petit Palace of Pettie his Pleasure_ conveys the impression of
+original work. "I dare not compare," runs the prefatory _Letter to
+Gentlewomen Readers_ by R. B., "this work with the former Palaces of
+Pleasure, because comparisons are odious, and because they contain
+histories, translated out of grave authors and learned writers; and this
+containeth discourses devised by a green youthful capacity, and
+repeated in a manner extempore."[310] It was, again, the personal
+preference of the individual or the extent of his linguistic knowledge
+that determined whether the translator should employ the original
+Italian or Spanish versions of some collections or should content
+himself with an intermediary French rendering. Painter, accurate as he
+is in describing his sources, confesses that he has often used the
+French version of Boccaccio, though, or perhaps because, it is less
+finely written than its original. Thomas Fortescue uses the French
+version for his translation of _The Forest_, a collection of histories
+"written in three sundry tongues, in the Spanish first by Petrus Mexia,
+and thence done into the Italian, and last into the French by Claudius
+Gringet, late citizen of Paris."[311] The most regrettable latitude of
+all, judging by theoretic standards of translation, was the careless
+freedom which writers of this group were inclined to appropriate.
+Anthony Munday, to take an extreme case, translating _Palmerin of
+England_ from the French, makes a perfunctory apology in his Epistle
+Dedicatory for his inaccuracies: "If you find the translation altered,
+or the true sense in some place of a matter impaired, let this excuse
+answer in default in that case. A work so large is sufficient to tire so
+simple a workman in himself. Beside the printer may in some place let an
+error escape."[312] Fortescue justifies, adequately enough, his omission
+of various tales by the plea that "the lack of one annoyeth not or
+maimeth not the other," but incidentally he throws light on the practice
+of others, less conscientious, who "add or change at their pleasure."
+
+There is perhaps danger of underrating the value of the theory which
+accompanies translations of this sort. The translators have left
+comparatively little comment on their methods, and it may be that now
+and then more satisfactory principles were implicit. Yet even when the
+translator took his task seriously, his prefatory remarks almost always
+betrayed that there was something defective in his theory or careless in
+his execution. Bartholomew Young translates Montemayor's _Diana_ from
+the Spanish after a careful consideration of texts. "Having compared the
+French copies with the Spanish original," he writes, "I judge the first
+part to be exquisite, the other two corruptly done, with a confusion of
+verse into prose, and leaving out in many places divers hard sentences,
+and some leaves at the end of the third part, wherefore they are but
+blind guides of any to be imitated."[313] After this, unhappily, in the
+press of greater affairs he lets the work come from the printer
+unsupervised and presumably full of errors, "the copy being very dark
+and interlined, and I loath to write it out again." Robert Tofte
+addresses his _Honor's Academy or the Famous Pastoral of the Fair
+Shepherdess Julietta_ "to the courteous and judicious reader and to none
+other"; he explains that he refuses to write for "the sottish
+multitude," that monster "who knows not when aught well is or amiss";
+and blames "such idle thieves as do purloin from others' mint what's
+none of their own coin."[314] In spite of this, his preface makes no
+mention of Nicholas de Montreux, the original author, and if it were not
+for the phrase on the title page, "done into English," one would not
+suspect that the book was a translation. The apology of the printer,
+Thomas Creede, "Some faults no doubt there be, especially in the verses,
+and to speak truth, how could it be otherwise, when he wrote all this
+volume (as it were) cursorily and in haste, never having so much leisure
+as to overlook one leaf after he had scribbled the same," stamps Tofte
+as perhaps a facile, but certainly not a conscientious workman.
+
+Another fashionable form of literature, the popular religious or
+didactic work, was governed by standards of translation not unlike those
+which controlled the fictitious narrative. In the work of Lord Berners
+the romance had not yet made way for its more sophisticated rival, the
+novella. His translation from Guevara, however, marked the beginning of
+a new fashion. While Barclay's _Ship of Fools_ and _Mirror of Good
+Manners_ were addressed, like their medieval predecessors, to "lewd"
+people, with _The Golden Book_ began the vogue of a new type of didactic
+literature, similar in its moral purpose and in its frequent employment
+of narrative material to the religious works of the Middle Ages, but
+with new stylistic elements that made their appeal, as did the novella,
+not to the rustic and unlearned, but to courtly readers. The prefaces to
+_The Golden Book_ and to the translations which succeeded it throw
+little light on the theory of their authors, but what comment there is
+points to methods like those employed by the translators of the romance
+and the novella. Though later translators like Hellowes went to the
+original Spanish, Berners, Bryan, and North employ instead the
+intermediary French rendering. Praise of Guevara's style becomes a
+wearisome repetition of conventional phrases, a rhetorical exercise for
+the English writer rather than a serious attempt to analyze the
+peculiarities of the Spanish. Exaggeratedly typical is the comment of
+Hellowes in the 1574 edition of Guevara's _Epistles_, where he repeats
+with considerable complacency the commendation of the original work
+which was "contained in my former preface, as followeth. Being furnished
+so fully with sincere doctrine, so unused eloquence, so high a style, so
+apt similitudes, so excellent discourses, so convenient examples, so
+profound sentences, so old antiquities, so ancient histories, such
+variety of matter, so pleasant recreations, so strange things alleged,
+and certain parcels of Scripture with such dexterity handled, that it
+may hardly be discerned, whether shall be greater, either thy pleasure
+by reading, or profit by following the same."[315]
+
+Guevara himself was perhaps responsible for the failure of his
+translators to make any formal recognition of responsibility for
+reproducing his style. His fictitious account of the sources of _The
+Golden Book_ is medieval in tone. He has translated, not word for word,
+but thought for thought, and for the rudeness of his original he has
+substituted a more lofty style.[316] His English translators reverse the
+latter process. Hellowes affirms that his translation of the _Epistles_
+"goeth agreeable unto the Author thereof," but confesses that he wants
+"both gloss and hue of rare eloquence, used in the polishing of the rest
+of his works." North later translated from the French Amyot's
+epoch-making principle: "the office of a fit translator consisteth not
+only in the faithful expressing of his author's meaning, but also in a
+certain resembling and shadowing out of the form of his style and manner
+of his speaking,"[317] but all that he has to say of his _Dial of
+Princes_ is that he has reduced it into English "according to my small
+knowledge and tender years."[318] Here again, though the translator may
+sometimes have tried to adopt newer and more difficult standards, he
+does not make this explicit in his comment.
+
+Obviously, however, academic standards of accuracy were not likely to
+make their first appearance in connection with fashionable court
+literature; one expects to find them associated rather with the
+translations of the great classical literature, which Renaissance
+scholars approached with such enthusiasm and respect. One of the first
+of these, the translation of the _Aeneid_ made by the Scotch poet, Gavin
+Douglas, appeared, like the translations of Barclay and Berners, in the
+early sixteenth century. Douglas's comment,[319] which shows a good deal
+of conscious effort at definition of the translator's duties, is an odd
+mingling of the medieval and the modern. He begins with a eulogy of
+Virgil couched in the undiscriminating, exaggerated terms of the
+previous period. Unlike the many medieval redactors of the Troy story,
+however, he does not assume the historian's liberty of selection and
+combination from a variety of sources. He regards Virgil as "a per se,"
+and waxes indignant over Caxton's _Eneydos_, whose author represented it
+as based on a French rendering of the great poet. It is, says Douglas,
+"no more like than the devil and St. Austin." In proof of this he cites
+Caxton's treatment of proper names. Douglas claims, reasonably enough,
+that if he followed his original word for word, the result would be
+unintelligible, and he appeals to St. Gregory and Horace in support of
+this contention. All his plea, however, is for freedom rather than
+accuracy, and one scarcely knows how to interpret his profession of
+faithfulness:
+
+    And thus I am constrenyt, as neir I may,
+    To hald his vers & go nane other way,
+    Les sum history, subtill word, or the ryme
+    Causith me make digressione sum tyme.
+
+Yet whether or not Douglas's "digressions" are permissible, such
+renderings as he illustrates involve no more latitude than is sanctioned
+by the schoolboy's Latin Grammar. He is disturbed by the necessity for
+using more words in English than the Latin has, and he feels it
+incumbent upon him to explain,
+
+    ... sum tyme of a word I mon mak thre,
+    In witness of this term _oppetere_.
+
+English, he says in another place, cannot without the use of additional
+words reproduce the difference between synonymous terms like _animal_
+and _homo_; _genus_, _sexus_, and _species_; _objectum_ and _subjectum_;
+_arbor_ and _lignum_. Such comment, interesting because definite, is
+nevertheless no more significant than that which had appeared in the
+Purvey preface to the Bible more than a hundred years earlier. One is
+reminded that most of the material which the present-day translator
+finds in grammars of foreign languages was not yet in existence in any
+generally accessible form.
+
+Such elementary aids were, however, in process of formulation during the
+sixteenth century. Mr. Foster Watson quotes from an edition of Mancinus,
+published as early probably as 1520, the following directions for
+putting Latin into English: "Whoso will learn to turn Latin into
+English, let him first take of the easiest Latin, and when he
+understandeth clearly what the Latin meaneth, let him say the English of
+every Latin word that way, as the sentence may appear most clearly to
+his ear, and where the English of the Latin words of the text will not
+make the sentence fair, let him take the English of those Latin words by
+whom (which) the Latin words of the text should be expounded and if that
+(they) will not be enough to make the sentence perfect, let him add more
+English, and that not only words, but also when need requireth, whole
+clauses such as will agree best to the sentence."[320] By the new
+methods of study advocated by men like Cheke and Ascham translation as
+practiced by students must have become a much more intelligent process,
+and the literary man who had received such preparatory training must
+have realized that variations from the original such as had troubled
+Douglas needed no apology, but might be taken for granted.
+
+Further help was offered to students in the shape of various literal
+translations from the classics. The translator of Seneca's _Hercules
+Furens_ undertook the work "to conduct by some means to further
+understanding the unripened scholars of this realm to whom I thought it
+should be no less thankful for me to interpret some Latin work into this
+our own tongue than for Erasmus in Latin to expound the Greek."[321]
+"Neither could I satisfy myself," he continues, "till I had throughout
+this whole tragedy of Seneca so travailed that I had in English given
+verse for verse (as far as the English tongue permits) and word for word
+the Latin, whereby I might both make some trial of myself and as it were
+teach the little children to go that yet can but creep." Abraham
+Fleming, translating Virgil's _Georgics_ "grammatically," expresses his
+original "in plain words applied to blunt capacities, considering the
+expositor's drift to consist in delivering a direct order of
+construction for the relief of weak grammatists, not in attempting by
+curious device and disposition to content courtly humanists, whose
+desire he hath been more willing at this time to suspend, because he
+would in some exact sort satisfy such as need the supply of his
+travail."[322] William Bullokar prefaces his translation of Esop's
+_Fables_ with the words: "I have translated out of Latin into English,
+but not in the best phrase of English, though English be capable of the
+perfect sense thereof, and might be used in the best phrase, had not my
+care been to keep it somewhat nearer the Latin phrase, that the English
+learner of Latin, reading over these authors in both languages, might
+the more easily confer them together in their sense, and the better
+understand the one by the other: and for that respect of easy
+conference, I have kept the like course in my translation of Tully's
+_Offices_ out of Latin into English to be imprinted shortly also."[323]
+
+Text books like these, valuable and necessary as they were, can scarcely
+claim a place in the history of literature. Bullokar himself,
+recognizing this, promises that "if God lend me life and ability to
+translate any other author into English hereafter, I will bend myself to
+follow the excellency of English in the best phrase thereof, more than I
+will bend it to the phrases of the language to be translated." In
+avoiding the overliteral method, however, the translator of the classics
+sometimes assumed a regrettable freedom, not only with the words but
+with the substance of his source. With regard to his translation of the
+_Aeneid_ Phaer represents himself as "Trusting that you, my right
+worshipful masters and students of universities and such as be teachers
+of children and readers of this author in Latin, will not be too much
+offended though every verse answer not to your expectation. For (besides
+the diversity between a construction and a translation) you know there
+be many mystical secrets in this writer, which uttered in English would
+show little pleasure and in my opinion are better to be untouched than
+to diminish the grace of the rest with tediousness and darkness. I have
+therefore followed the counsel of Horace, touching the duty of a good
+interpreter, _Qui quae desperat nitescere posse, relinquit_, by which
+occasion somewhat I have in places omitted, somewhat altered, and some
+things I have expounded, and all to the ease of inferior readers, for
+you that are learned need not to be instructed."[324] Though Jasper
+Heywood's version of _Hercules Furens_ is an example of the literal
+translation for the use of students, most of the other members of the
+group of young men who in 1581 published their translations of Seneca
+protest that they have reproduced the meaning, not the words of their
+author. Alexander Neville, a precocious youth who translated the fifth
+tragedy in "this sixteenth year of mine age," determined "not to be
+precise in following the author word for word, but sometimes by
+addition, sometimes by subtraction, to use the aptest phrases in giving
+the sense that I could invent."[325] Neville's translation is
+"oftentimes rudely increased with mine own simple invention";[326] John
+Studley has changed the first chorus of the _Medea_, "because in it I
+saw nothing but an heap of profane stories and names of profane
+idols";[327] Heywood himself, since the existing text of the _Troas_ is
+imperfect, admits having "with addition of mine own pen supplied the
+want of some things,"[328] and says that he has also replaced the third
+chorus, because much of it is "heaped number of far and strange
+countries." Most radical of all is the theory according to which Thomas
+Drant translated the _Satires_ of Horace. That Drant could be faithful
+even to excess is evident from his preface to _The Wailings of Jeremiah_
+included in the same volume with his version of Horace. "That thou
+mightest have this rueful parcel of Scripture pure and sincere, not
+swerved or altered, I laid it to the touchstone, the native tongue. I
+weighed it with the Chaldee Targum and the Septuaginta. I desired to
+jump so nigh with the Hebrew, that it doth erewhile deform the vein of
+the English, the proprieties of that language and ours being in some
+speeches so much dissemblable." But with Horace Drant pursues a
+different course. As a moralist it is justifiable for him to translate
+Horace because the Latin poet satirizes that wickedness which Jeremiah
+mourned over. Horace's satire, however, is not entirely applicable to
+conditions in England; "he never saw that with the view of his eye which
+his pensive translator cannot but overview with the languish of his
+soul." Moreover Horace's style is capable of improvement, an improvement
+which Drant is quite ready to provide. "His eloquence is sometimes too
+sharp, and therefore I have blunted it, and sometimes too dull, and
+therefore I have whetted it, helping him to ebb and helping him to
+rise." With his reader Drant is equally high-handed. "I dare not warrant
+the reader to understand him in all places," he writes, "no more than he
+did me. Howbeit I have made him more lightsome well nigh by one half (a
+small accomplishment for one of my continuance) and if thou canst not
+now in all points perceive him (thou must bear with me) in sooth the
+default is thine own." After this one is somewhat prepared for Drant's
+remarkable summary of his methods. "First I have now done as the people
+of God were commanded to do with their captive women that were handsome
+and beautiful: I have shaved off his hair and pared off his nails, that
+is, I have wiped away all his vanity and superfluity of matter. Further,
+I have for the most part drawn his private carpings of this or that man
+to a general moral. I have Englished things not according to the vein of
+the Latin propriety, but of his own vulgar tongue. I have interfered (to
+remove his obscurity and sometimes to better his matter) much of mine
+own devising. I have pieced his reason, eked and mended his similitudes,
+mollified his hardness, prolonged his cortall kind of speeches, changed
+and much altered his words, but not his sentence, or at least (I dare
+say) not his purpose."[329] Even the novella does not afford examples of
+such deliberate justification of undue liberty with source.
+
+Why such a situation existed may be partially explained. The Elizabethan
+writer was almost as slow as his medieval predecessor to make
+distinctions between different kinds of literature. Both the novella and
+the epic might be classed as "histories," and "histories" were valuable
+because they aided the reader in the actual conduct of life. Arthur
+Golding tells in the preface to his translation of Justin the story of
+how Alexander the Great "coming into a school and finding not Homer's
+works there ... gave the master a buffet with his fist: meaning that the
+knowledge of _Histories_ was a thing necessary to all estates and
+degrees."[330] It was the content of a work that was most important, and
+comment like that of Drant makes us realize how persistent was the
+conception that such content was common property which might be adjusted
+to the needs of different readers. The lesser freedoms of the translator
+were probably largely due to the difficulties inherent in a metrical
+rendering. It is "ryme" that partially accounts for some of Douglas's
+"digressions." Seneca's _Hercules Furens_, literal as the translation
+purports to be, is reproduced "verse for verse, as far as the English
+tongue permits." Thomas Twyne, who completed the work which Phaer began,
+calls attention to the difficulty "in this kind of translation to
+enforce their rime to another man's meaning."[331] Edward Hake, it is
+not unlikely, expresses a common idea when he gives as one of his
+reasons for employing verse rather than prose "that prose requireth a
+more exact labor than metre doth."[332] If one is to believe Abraham
+Fleming, one of the adherents of Gabriel Harvey, matters may be improved
+by the adoption of classical metres. Fleming has translated Virgil's
+_Bucolics_ and _Georgics_ "not in foolish rhyme, the nice observance
+whereof many times darkeneth, corrupteth, perverteth, and falsifieth
+both the sense and the signification, but with due proportion and
+measure."[333]
+
+Seemingly, however, the translators who advocated the employment of the
+hexameter made little use of the argument that to do so made it possible
+to reproduce the original more faithfully. Stanyhurst, who says that in
+his translation of the first four books of the _Aeneid_ he is carrying
+out Ascham's wish that the university students should "apply their wits
+in beautifying our English language with heroical verses," chooses
+Virgil as the subject of his experiment for "his peerless style and
+matchless stuff,"[334] leaving his reader with the impression that the
+claims of his author were probably subordinate in the translator's mind
+to his interest in Ascham's theories. Possibly he shared his master's
+belief that "even the best translation is for mere necessity but an evil
+imped wing to fly withal, or a heavy stump leg of wood to go
+withal."[335] In discussion of the style to be employed in the metrical
+rendering there was the same failure to make explicit the connection
+between the original and the translation. Many critics accepted the
+principle that "decorum" of style was essential in the translation of
+certain kinds of poetry, but they based their demand for this quality on
+its extrinsic suitability much more than on its presence in the work to
+be translated. In Turbervile's elaborate comment on the style which he
+has used in his translation of the _Eclogues_ of Mantuan, there is the
+same baffling vagueness in his references to the quality of the original
+that is felt in the prefaces of Lydgate and Caxton. "Though I have
+altered the tongue," he says, "I trust I have not changed the author's
+meaning or sense in anything, but played the part of a true interpreter,
+observing that we call Decorum in each respect, as far as the poet's and
+our mother tongue will give me leave. For as the conference between
+shepherds is familiar stuff and homely, so have I shaped my style and
+tempered it with such common and ordinary phrase of speech as countrymen
+do use in their affairs; alway minding the saying of Horace, whose
+sentence I have thus Englished:
+
+    To set a manly head upon a horse's neck
+    And all the limbs with divers plumes of divers hue to deck,
+    Or paint a woman's face aloft to open show,
+    And make the picture end in fish with scaly skin below,
+    I think (my friends) would cause you laugh and smile to see
+    How ill these ill-compacted things and numbers would agree.
+
+For indeed he that shall translate a shepherd's tale and use the talk
+and style of an heroical personage, expressing the silly man's meaning
+with lofty thundering words, in my simple judgment joins (as Horace
+saith) a horse's neck and a man's head together. For as the one were
+monstrous to see, so were the other too fond and foolish to read.
+Wherefore I have (I say) used the common country phrase according to the
+person of the speakers in every Eclogue, as though indeed the man
+himself should tell his tale. If there be anything herein that thou
+shalt happen to mistake, neither blame the learned poet, nor control the
+clownish shepherd (good reader) but me that presumed rashly to offer so
+unworthy matter to thy survey."[336] Another phase of "decorum," the
+necessity for employing a lofty style in dealing with the affairs of
+great persons, comes in for discussion in connection with translations
+of Seneca and Virgil. Jasper Heywood makes his excuses in case his
+translation of the _Troas_ has "not kept the royalty of speech meet for
+a tragedy";[337] Stanyhurst praises Phaer for his "picked and lofty
+words";[338] but he himself is blamed by Puttenham because his own words
+lack dignity. "In speaking or writing of a prince's affairs and
+fortunes," writes Puttenham, "there is a certain decorum, that we may
+not use the same terms in their business as we might very well do in a
+meaner person's, the case being all one, such reverence is due to their
+estates."[339] He instances Stanyhurst's renderings, "Aeneas was fain to
+_trudge_ out of Troy" and "what moved Juno to _tug_ so great a captain
+as Aeneas," and declares that the term _trudge_ is "better to be spoken
+of a beggar, or of a rogue, or of a lackey," and that the word _tug_
+"spoken in this case is so undecent as none other could have been
+devised, and took his first original from the cart." A similar objection
+to the employment of a "plain" style in telling the Troy story was made,
+it will be remembered, in the early fifteenth century by Wyntoun.
+
+The matter of decorum was to receive further attention in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In general, however, the comment
+associated with verse translations does not anticipate that of later
+times and is scarcely more significant than that which accompanies the
+novella. So long, indeed, as the theory of translation was so largely
+concerned with the claims of the reader, there was little room for
+initiative. It was no mark of originality to say that the translation
+must be profitable or entertaining, clear and easily understood; these
+rules had already been laid down by generations of translators. The real
+opportunity for a fresh, individual approach to the problems of
+translation lay in consideration of the claims of the original author.
+Renaissance scholarship was bringing a new knowledge of texts and
+authors and encouraging a new alertness of mind in approaching texts
+written in foreign languages. It was now possible, while making
+faithfulness to source obligatory instead of optional, to put the matter
+on a reasonable basis. The most vigorous and suggestive comment came
+from a small number of men of scholarly tastes and of active minds, who
+brought to the subject both learning and enthusiasm, and who were not
+content with vague, conventional forms of words.
+
+It was prose rather than verse renderings that occupied the attention of
+these theorists, and in the works which they chose for translation the
+intellectual was generally stronger than the artistic appeal. Their
+translations, however, showed a variety peculiarly characteristic of the
+English Renaissance. Interest in classical scholarship was nearly always
+associated with interest in the new religious doctrines, and hence the
+new theories of translation were attached impartially either to
+renderings of the classics or to versions of contemporary theological
+works, valuable on account of the close, careful thinking which they
+contained, as contrasted with the more superficial charm of writings
+like those of Guevara. An Elizabethan scholar, indeed, might have
+hesitated if asked which was the more important, the Greek or Latin
+classic or the theological treatise. Nash praises Golding
+indiscriminately "for his industrious toil in Englishing Ovid's
+_Metamorphoses_, besides many other exquisite editions of divinity
+turned by him out of the French tongue into our own."[340] Golding
+himself, translating one of these "exquisite editions of divinity,"
+Calvin's _Sermons on the Book of Job_, insists so strongly on the
+"substance, importance, and travail"[341] which belong to the work that
+one is ready to believe that he ranked it higher than any of his other
+translations. Nor was the contribution from this field to be despised.
+Though the translation of the Bible was an isolated task which had few
+relations with other forms of translation, what few affiliations it
+developed were almost entirely with theological works like those of
+Erasmus, Melanchthon, Calvin, and to the translation of such writings
+Biblical standards of accuracy were transferred. On the other hand the
+translator of Erasmus or Calvin was likely to have other and very
+different interests, which did much to save him from a narrow pedantry.
+Nicholas Udall, for example, who had a large share in the translation of
+Erasmus's _Paraphrase on the New Testament_, also translated parts of
+Terence and is best known as the author of _Ralph Roister Doister_.
+Thomas Norton, who translated Calvin's _Institution of the Christian
+Religion_, has been credited with a share in _Gorboduc_.
+
+It was towards the middle of the century that these translators began to
+formulate their views, and probably the decades immediately before and
+after the accession of Elizabeth were more fruitful in theory than any
+other part of the period. Certain centers of influence may be rather
+clearly distinguished. In contemporary references to the early part of the
+century Sir Thomas Elyot and Sir Thomas More are generally coupled together
+as authorities on translation. Slightly later St. John's College,
+Cambridge, "that most famous and fortunate nurse of all learning,"[342]
+exerted through its masters and students a powerful influence. Much of the
+fame of the college was due to Sir John Cheke, "a man of men," according to
+Nash, "supernaturally traded in all tongues." Cheke is associated, in one
+way and another, with an odd variety of translations--Nicholls' translation
+of a French version of _Thucydides_,[343] Hoby's _Courtier_,[344] Wilson's
+_Demosthenes_[345]--suggesting something of the range of his sympathies.
+
+Though little of his own comment survives, the echoes of his opinions in
+Ascham's _Schoolmaster_ and the preface to Wilson's _Demosthenes_ make
+one suspect that his teaching was possibly the strongest force at work
+at the time to produce higher standards for translation. As the century
+progressed Sir William Cecil, in his early days a distinguished student
+at St. John's and an intimate associate of Cheke's, maintained, in spite
+of the cares of state, the tradition of his college as the patron of
+various translators and the recipient of numerous dedications prefixed
+to their productions. It is from the midcentury translators, however,
+that the most distinctive comment emanates. United in various
+combinations, now by religious sympathies, now by a common enthusiasm
+for learning, now by the influence of an individual, they form a group
+fairly homogeneous so far as their theories of translation are
+concerned, appreciative of academic correctness, but ready to consider
+also the claims of the reader and the nature of the vernacular.
+
+The earlier translators, Elyot and More, have left small but significant
+comment on methods. More's expression of theory was elicited by
+Tyndale's translation of the Bible; of the technical difficulties
+involved in his own translation of _The Life of Pico della Mirandola_ he
+says nothing. Elyot is one of the first translators to approach his task
+from a new angle. Translating from Greek to English, he observed, like
+Tyndale, the differences and correspondences between the two languages.
+His _Doctrinal of Princes_ was translated "to the intent only that I
+would assay if our English tongue might receive the quick and proper
+sentences pronounced by the Greeks."[346] The experiment had interesting
+results. "And in this experience," he continues, "I have found (if I be
+not much deceived) that the form of speaking, called in Greek and also
+in English _Phrasis_, much nearer approacheth to that which at this day
+we use, than the order of the Latin tongue. I mean in the sentences and
+not in the words."
+
+A peculiarly good exponent of the new vitality which was taking
+possession of the theory of translation is Nicholas Udall, whose
+opinions have been already cited in this chapter. The versatility of
+intellect evinced by the list of his varied interests, dramatic,
+academic, religious, showed itself also in his views regarding
+translation. In the various prefaces and dedications which he
+contributed to the translation of Erasmus's _Paraphrase_ he touches on
+problems of all sorts--stipends for translators, the augmentation of the
+English vocabulary, sentence structure in translation, the style of
+Erasmus, the individual quality in the style of every writer--but all
+these questions he treats lightly and undogmatically. Translation,
+according to Udall, should not conform to iron rules. He is not
+disturbed by the diversity of methods exhibited in the _Paraphrase_.
+"Though every translator," he writes, "follow his own vein in turning
+the Latin into English, yet doth none willingly swerve or dissent from
+the mind and sense of his author, albeit some go more near to the words
+of the author, and some use the liberty of translating at large, not so
+precisely binding themselves to the strait interpretation of every word
+and syllable."[347] In his own share of the translation Udall inclines
+rather to the free than to the literal method. He has not been able
+"fully to discharge the office of a good translator,"[348] partly
+because of the ornate quality of Erasmus's style, partly because he
+wishes to be understood by the unlearned. He does not feel so scrupulous
+as he would if he were translating the text of Scripture, though even in
+the latter connection he is guilty of the heretical opinion that "if the
+translators were not altogether so precise as they are, but had some
+more regard to expressing of the sense, I think in my judgment they
+should do better." It will be noted, however, that Udall's advocacy of
+freedom is an individual reaction, not the repetition of a formula. The
+preface to his translation of the _Apophthegmes_ of Erasmus helps to
+redress the balance in favor of accuracy. "I have labored," he says, "to
+discharge the duty of a translator, that is, keeping and following the
+sense of my book, to interpret and turn the Latin into English, with as
+much grace of our vulgar tongue as in my slender power and knowledge
+hath lain."[349] The rest of the preface shows that Udall, in his
+concern for the quality of the English, did not make "following the
+sense" an excuse for undue liberties. Writing "with a regard for young
+scholars and students, who get great value from comparing languages," he
+is most careful to note such slight changes and omissions as he has made
+in the text. Explanations and annotations have been printed "in a small
+letter with some directory mark," and "any Greek or Latin verse or word,
+whereof the pith and grace of the saying dependeth" has been retained, a
+sacrifice to scholarship for which he apologizes to the unlearned
+reader.
+
+Nicholas Grimald, who published his translation of Cicero's _Offices_
+shortly after the accession of Elizabeth, is much more dogmatic in his
+rules for translation than is Udall. "Howbeit look," runs the preface,
+"what rule the Rhetorician gives in precept, to be observed of an Orator
+in telling of his tale: that it be short, and without idle words: that
+it be plain, and without dark sense: that it be provable, and without
+any swerving from the truth: the same rule should be used in examining
+and judging of translation. For if it be not as brief as the very
+author's text requireth, what so is added to his perfect style shall
+appear superfluous, and to serve rather to the making of some paraphrase
+or commentary. Thereto if it be uttered with inkhorn terms, and not with
+usual words: or if it be phrased with wrested or far-fetched forms of
+speech, not fair but harsh, not easy but hard, not natural but violent
+it shall seem to be. Then also, in case it yield not the meaning of the
+author, but either following fancy or misled by error forsakes the true
+pattern, it cannot be approved for a faithful and sure interpretation,
+which ought to be taken for the greatest praise of all."[350] In
+Grimald's insistence on a brevity equal to that of the original and in
+his unmodified opposition to innovations in vocabulary, there is
+something of pedantic narrowness. His criticism of Cicero is not
+illuminating and his estimate, in this connection, of his own
+accomplishment is amusingly complacent. In Cicero's work "marvellous is
+the matter, flowing the eloquence, rich the store of stuff, and full
+artificial the enditing: but how I," he continues, "have expressed the
+same, the more the book be perused, the better it may chance to appear.
+None other translation in our tongue have I seen but one, which is of
+all men of any learning so well liked that they repute it and consider
+it as none: yet if ye list to compare this somewhat with that nothing,
+peradventure this somewhat will serve somewhat the more." Yet in spite
+of his limitations Grimald has some breadth of outlook. A work like his
+own, he believes, can help the reader to a greater command of the
+vernacular. "Here is for him occasion both to whet his wit and also to
+file his tongue. For although an Englishman hath his mother tongue and
+can talk apace as he learned of his dame, yet is it one thing to tittle
+tattle, I wot not how, or to chatter like a jay, and another to bestow
+his words wisely, orderly, pleasantly, and pithily." The writer knows
+men who could speak Latin "readily and well-favoredly, who to have done
+as much in our language and to have handled the same matter, would have
+been half black." Careful study of this translation will help a man "as
+well in the English as the Latin, to weigh well properties of words,
+fashions of phrases, and the ornaments of both."
+
+Another interesting document is the preface entitled _The Translator to
+the Reader_ which appeared in 1578 in the fourth edition of Thomas
+Norton's translation of Calvin's _Institution of the Christian
+Religion_. The opinions which it contains took shape some years earlier,
+for the author expressly states that the translation has not been
+changed at all from what it was in the first impression, published in
+1561, and that the considerations which he now formulates governed him
+in the beginning. Norton, like Grimald, insists on extreme accuracy in
+following the original, but he bases his demand on a truth largely
+ignored by translators up to this time, the essential relationship
+between thought and style. He makes the following surprisingly
+penetrative comment on the nature and significance of Calvin's Latin
+style: "I considered how the author thereof had of long time purposely
+labored to write the same most exactly, and to pack great plenty of
+matter in small room of words, yea and those so circumspectly and
+precisely ordered, to avoid the cavillations of such, as for enmity to
+the truth therein contained, would gladly seek and abuse all advantages
+which might be found by any oversight in penning of it, that the
+sentences were thereby become so full as nothing might well be added
+without idle superfluity, and again so nighly pared that nothing might
+be minished without taking away some necessary substance of matter
+therein expressed. This manner of writing, beside the peculiar terms of
+arts and figures, and the difficulty of the matters themselves, being
+throughout interlaced with the schoolmen's controversies, made a great
+hardness in the author's own book, in that tongue wherein otherwise he
+is both plentiful and easy, insomuch that it sufficeth not to read him
+once, unless you can be content to read in vain." Then follows Norton's
+estimate of the translator's duty in such a case: "I durst not presume
+to warrant myself to have his meaning without his words. And they that
+wot well what it is to translate well and faithfully, specially in
+matters of religion, do know that not only the grammatical construction
+of words sufficeth, but the very building and order to observe all
+advantages of vehemence or grace, by placing or accent of words, maketh
+much to the true setting forth of a writer's mind." Norton, however, did
+not entirely forget his readers. He approached his task with "great
+doubtfulness," fully conscious of the dilemma involved. "If I should
+follow the words, I saw that of necessity the hardness of the
+translation must needs be greater than was in the tongue wherein it was
+originally written. If I should leave the course of words, and grant
+myself liberty after the natural manner of my own tongue, to say that in
+English which I conceived to be his meaning in Latin, I plainly
+perceived how hardly I might escape error." In the end he determined "to
+follow the words so near as the phrase of the English tongue would
+suffer me." Unhappily Norton, like Grimald and like some of the
+translators of the Bible, has an exaggerated regard for brevity. He
+claims that "if the English book were printed in such paper and letter
+as the Latin is, it should not exceed the Latin in quantity," and that
+students "shall not find any more English than shall suffice to construe
+the Latin withal, except in such few places where the great difference
+of the phrases of the languages enforced me." Yet he believes that his
+version is not unnecessarily hard to understand, and he urges readers
+who have found it difficult to "read it ofter, in which doing you shall
+find (as many have confessed to me that they have found by experience)
+that those things which at first reading shall displease you for
+hardness shall be found so easy as so hard matter would suffer, and for
+the most part more easy than some other phrase which should with greater
+looseness and smoother sliding away deceive your understanding."
+
+Thomas Wilson, who dedicated his translation of Demosthenes to Sir
+William Cecil in 1570, links himself with the earlier group of
+translators by his detailed references to Cheke. Like Norton he is very
+conscious of the difficulty of translation. "I never found in my life,"
+he writes of this piece of work, "anything so hard for me to do." "Such
+a hard thing it is," he adds later, "to bring matter out of any one
+language into another." A vigorous advocate of translation, however, he
+does not despise his own tongue. "The cunning is no less," he declares,
+"and the praise as great in my judgment, to translate anything
+excellently into English, as into any other language," and he hopes
+that, if his own attempt proves unsuccessful, others will make the
+trial, "that such an orator as this is might be so framed to speak our
+tongue as none were able to amend him, and that he might be found to be
+most like himself." Wilson comes to his task with all the equipment that
+the period could afford; his preface gives evidence of a critical
+acquaintance with numerous Latin renderings of his author. From Cheke,
+however, he has gained something more valuable, the power to feel the
+vital, permanent quality in the work of Demosthenes. Cheke, he says,
+"was moved greatly to like Demosthenes above all others, for that he
+saw him so familiarly applying himself to the sense and understanding of
+the common people, that he sticked not to say that none ever was more
+fit to make an Englishman tell his tale praiseworthily in any open
+hearing either in parliament or in pulpit or otherwise, than this only
+orator was." Wilson shares this opinion and, representative of the
+changing standards of Elizabethan scholarship, prefers Demosthenes to
+Cicero. "Demosthenes used a plain, familiar manner of writing and
+speaking in all his actions," he says in his _Preface to the Reader_,
+"applying himself to the people's nature and to their understanding
+without using of proheme to win credit or devising conclusion to move
+affections and to purchase favor after he had done his matters.... And
+were it not better and more wisdom to speak plainly and nakedly after
+the common sort of men in few words, than to overflow with unnecessary
+and superfluous eloquence as Cicero is thought sometimes to do." "Never
+did glass so truly represent man's face," he writes later, "as
+Demosthenes doth show the world to us, and as it was then, so is it now,
+and will be so still, till the consummation and end of all things shall
+be." From Cheke Wilson has received also training in methods of
+translation and especially in the handling of the vernacular. "Master
+Cheke's judgment was great," he recalls, "in translating out of one
+tongue into another, and better skill he had in our English speech to
+judge of the phrases and properties of words and to divide sentences
+than any one else that I have known. And often he would English his
+matters out of the Latin or Greek upon the sudden, by looking of the
+book only, without reading or construing anything at all, an usage right
+worthy and very profitable for all men, as well for the understanding of
+the book, as also for the aptness of framing the author's meaning, and
+bettering thereby their judgment, and therewithal perfecting their
+tongue and utterance of speech." In speaking of his own methods,
+however, Wilson's emphasis is on his faithfulness to the original. "But
+perhaps," he writes, "whereas I have been somewhat curious to follow
+Demosthenes' natural phrase, it may be thought that I do speak over bare
+English. Well I had rather follow his vein, the which was to speak
+simply and plainly to the common people's understanding, than to
+overflourish with superfluous speech, although I might thereby be
+counted equal with the best that ever wrote English."
+
+Though now and then the comment of these men is slightly vague or
+inconsistent, in general they describe their methods clearly and fully.
+Other translators, expressing themselves with less sureness and
+adequacy, leave the impression that they have adopted similar
+standards. Translations, for example, of Calvin's _Commentary on
+Acts_[351] and Luther's _Commentary on Galatians_[352] are described on
+their title pages as "faithfully translated" from the Latin. B. R.'s
+preface to his translation of Herodotus, though its meaning is somewhat
+obscured by rhetoric, suggests a suitable regard for the original.
+"Neither of these," he writes of the two books which he has completed,
+"are braved out in their colors as the use is nowadays, and yet so
+seemly as either you will love them because they are modest, or not
+mislike them because they are not impudent, since in refusing idle
+pearls to make them seem gaudy, they reject not modest apparel to cause
+them to go comely. The truth is (Gentlemen) in making the new attire, I
+was fain to go by their old array, cutting out my cloth by another
+man's measure, being great difference whether we invent a fashion of
+our own, or imitate a pattern set down by another. Which I speak not to
+this end, for that myself could have done more eloquently than our
+author hath in Greek, but that the course of his writing being most
+sweet in Greek, converted into English loseth a great part of his
+grace."[353] Outside of the field of theology or of classical prose
+there were translators who strove for accuracy. Hoby, profiting
+doubtless by his association with Cheke, endeavored in translating _The
+Courtier_ "to follow the very meaning and words of the author, without
+being misled by fantasy, or leaving out any parcel one or other."[354]
+Robert Peterson claims that his version of Della Casa's _Galateo_ is
+"not cunningly but faithfully translated."[355] The printer of Carew's
+translation of Tasso explains: "In that which is done, I have caused
+the Italian to be printed together with the English, for the delight
+and benefit of those gentlemen that love that most lively language. And
+thereby the learned reader shall see how strict a course the translator
+hath tied himself in the whole work, usurping as little liberty as any
+whatsoever as ever wrote with any commendations."[356] Even translators
+who do not profess to be overfaithful display a consciousness of the
+existence of definite standards of accuracy. Thomas Chaloner, another
+of the friends of Cheke, translating Erasmus's _Praise of Folly_ for
+"mean men of baser wits and condition," chooses "to be counted a scant
+true interpreter." "I have not pained myself," he says, "to render word
+for word, nor proverb for proverb ... which may be thought by some
+cunning translators a deadly sin."[357] To the author of the _Menechmi_
+the word "translation" has a distinct connotation. The printer of the
+work has found him "very loath and unwilling to hazard this to the
+curious view of envious detraction, being (as he tells me) neither so
+exactly written as it may carry any name of translation, nor such
+liberty therein used as that he would notoriously differ from the
+poet's own order."[358] Richard Knolles, whose translation of Bodin's
+_Six Books of a Commonweal_ was published in 1606, employed both the
+French and the Latin versions of the treatise, and describes himself as
+on this account "seeking therein the true sense and meaning of the
+author, rather than precisely following the strict rules of a nice
+translator, in observing the very words of the author."[359] The
+translators of this later time, however, seldom put into words theories
+so scholarly as those formulated earlier in the period, when, even
+though the demand for accuracy might sometimes be exaggerated, it was
+nevertheless the result of thoughtful discrimination. There was some
+reason why a man like Gabriel Harvey, living towards the end of
+Elizabeth's reign, should look back with regret to the time when
+England produced men like Cheke and his contemporaries.[360]
+
+One must frequently remind oneself, however, that the absence of
+expressed theory need not involve the absence of standards. Among
+translators as among original writers a fondness for analyzing and
+describing processes did not necessarily accompany literary skill. Much
+more activity of mind and respect for originals may have existed among
+verse translators than is evident from their scanty comment. The most
+famous prose translators have little to say about their methods.
+Golding, who produced so much both in verse and prose, and who usually
+wrote prefaces to his translations, scarcely ever discusses
+technicalities. Now and then, however, he lets fall an incidental remark
+which suggests very definite ideals. In translating Caesar, for example,
+though at first he planned merely to complete Brend's translation, he
+ended by taking the whole work into his own hands, because, as he says,
+"I was desirous to have the body of the whole story compacted uniform
+and of one style throughout,"[361] a comment worthy of a much more
+modern critic. Philemon Holland, again, contributes almost nothing to
+theory, though his vigorous defense of his art and his appreciation of
+the stylistic qualities of his originals bear witness to true scholarly
+enthusiasm. On the whole, however, though the distinctive contribution
+of the period is the plea of the renaissance scholars that a reasonable
+faithfulness should be displayed, the comment of the mass of translators
+shows little grasp of the new principles. When one considers, in
+addition to their very inadequate expression of theory, the prevailing
+characteristics of their practice, the balance turns unmistakably in
+favor of a careless freedom in translation.
+
+Some of the deficiencies in sixteenth-century theory are supplied by
+Chapman, who applies himself with considerable zest to laying down the
+principles which in his opinion should govern poetical translations.
+Producing his versions of Homer in the last years of the sixteenth and
+early years of the seventeenth century, he forms a link between the two
+periods. In some respects he anticipates later critics. He attacks both
+the overstrict and the overloose methods of translation:
+
+                            the brake
+    That those translators stick in, that affect
+    Their word for word traductions (where they lose
+    The free grace of their natural dialect,
+    And shame their authors with a forced gloss)
+    I laugh to see; and yet as much abhor
+    More license from the words than may express
+    Their full compression, and make clear the author.[362]
+
+It is literalism, however, which bears the brunt of his attack. He is
+always conscious, "how pedantical and absurd an affectation it is in the
+interpretation of any author (much more of Homer) to turn him word for
+word, when (according to Horace and other best lawgivers to translators)
+it is the part of every knowing and judicial interpreter, not to follow
+the number and order of words, but the material things themselves, and
+sentences to weigh diligently, and to clothe and adorn them with words,
+and such a style and form of oration, as are most apt for the language
+in which they are converted."[363] Strangely enough, he thinks this
+literalism the prevailing fault of translators. He hardly dares present
+his work
+
+    To reading judgments, since so gen'rally,
+    Custom hath made ev'n th'ablest agents err
+    In these translations; all so much apply
+    Their pains and cunnings word for word to render
+    Their patient authors, when they may as well
+    Make fish with fowl, camels with whales, engender,
+    Or their tongues' speech in other mouths compell.[364]
+
+Chapman, however, believes that it is possible to overcome the
+difficulties of translation. Although the "sense and elegancy" of Greek
+and English are of "distinguished natures," he holds that it requires
+
+    Only a judgment to make both consent
+    In sense and elocution; and aspire,
+    As well to reach the spirit that was spent
+    In his example, as with art to pierce
+    His grammar, and etymology of words.
+
+This same theory was taken up by numerous seventeenth and eighteenth
+century translators. Avoiding as it does the two extremes, it easily
+commended itself to the reason. Unfortunately it was frequently
+appropriated by critics who were not inclined to labor strenuously with
+the problems of translation. One misses in much of the later comment the
+vigorous thinking of the early Renaissance translators. The theory of
+translation was not yet regarded as "a common work of building" to which
+each might contribute, and much that was valuable in sixteenth-century
+comment was lost by forgetfulness and neglect.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[250] Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. I, p. 313.
+
+[251] _Introduction_, in Foster Watson, _Vives and the Renaissance
+Education of Women_, 1912.
+
+[252] Letter prefixed to John, in _Paraphrase of Erasmus on the New
+Testament_, London, 1548.
+
+[253] _Dedication_, 1588.
+
+[254] _To the Reader_, in _Shakespeare's Ovid_, ed. W. H. D. Rouse, 1904.
+
+[255] Bishop of London's preface _To the Reader_, in _A Commentary of Dr.
+Martin Luther upon the Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians_, London, 1577.
+
+[256] Preface to _The Institution of the Christian Religion_, London, 1578.
+
+[257] Preface to _The Three Orations of Demosthenes_, London, 1570.
+
+[258] Dedication of _Montaigne's Essays_, London, 1603.
+
+[259] Reprinted, Roxburghe Club, 1887.
+
+[260] Preface to _The Book of Metals_, in Arber, _The First Three English
+Books on America_, 1885.
+
+[261] Dedication of _Marcus Tullius Cicero's Three Books of Duties_, 1558.
+
+[262] _A Brief Apology for Poetry_, in Gregory Smith, vol. 2, p. 219.
+
+[263] Preface to _The Natural History of C. Plinius Secundus_, London,
+1601.
+
+[264] _Letter to John Florio_, in _Florio's Montaigne_, Tudor Translations.
+
+[265] _To the Reader_, in _The Forest_, London, 1576.
+
+[266] Dedication to Edward VI, in _Paraphrase of Erasmus_.
+
+[267] _Prologue to Proverbs or Adagies with new additions gathered out of
+the Chiliades of Erasmus by Richard Taverner_, London, 1539.
+
+[268] _Epistle_ prefixed to translation, 1568.
+
+[269] Published, Tottell, 1561.
+
+[270] Reprinted, London, 1915.
+
+[271] _Dedication_, in edition of 1588.
+
+[272] _Op. cit._
+
+[273] _Dedication_, _op. cit._
+
+[274] _Dedication_, dated 1596, of _The History of Philip de Comines_,
+London, 1601.
+
+[275] _Dedication_ of _Achilles' Shield_ in Gregory Smith, vol. 2, p. 300.
+
+[276] _Preface_ in Arber, _op. cit._
+
+[277] _Preface_, dated 1584, to translation published 1590.
+
+[278] Title page, 1574.
+
+[279] _To the Reader_, _op. cit._
+
+[280] London, 1570.
+
+[281] Preface to _Seven Books of the Iliad of Homer_, in Gregory Smith,
+vol. 2, p. 293.
+
+[282] _Op. cit._
+
+[283] Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 262.
+
+[284] Preface to _Civile Conversation of Stephen Guazzo_, 1586.
+
+[285] Dedication of _The End of Nero and Beginning of Galba_, 1598.
+
+[286] _Op. cit._
+
+[287] _Address to Queen Katherine_, prefixed to Luke.
+
+[288] _Preface._
+
+[289] Translated in Strype, _Life of Grindal_, Oxford, 1821, p. 22.
+
+[290] Preface to _The Governor_, ed. Croft.
+
+[291] _Ad Maecenatem Prologus to Order of the Garter_, in _Works_, ed.
+Dyce, p. 584.
+
+[292] Quoted in J. L. Moore, _Tudor-Stuart Views on the Growth, Status, and
+Destiny of the English Language_.
+
+[293] In Gregory Smith, _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. 2, p. 171.
+
+[294] Quoted in Moore, _op. cit._
+
+[295] _To the Reader_, in 1603 edition of Montaigne's _Essays_.
+
+[296] _Address to Queen Katherine_, prefixed to Luke.
+
+[297] _To the Reader_ in _Civile Conversation of Stephen Guazzo_, 1586.
+
+[298] _Preface_, 1587.
+
+[299] _Master Phaer's Conclusion to his Interpretation of the Aeneidos of
+Virgil_, in edition of 1573.
+
+[300] _A Brief Apology for Poetry_, in Gregory Smith, vol. 1, pp. 217-18.
+
+[301] Ed. T. H. Jamieson, Edinburgh, 1874.
+
+[302] Reprinted, Spenser Society, 1885.
+
+[303] _The Argument._
+
+[304] Reprinted, London, 1814, _Prologue_.
+
+[305] Ed. E. V. Utterson, London, 1812, _Preface_.
+
+[306] _The Golden Book_, London, 1538, _Conclusion_.
+
+[307] Title page, in Turbervile, _Tragical Tales_, Edinburgh, 1837.
+
+[308] _To the Reader_, in _Palmerin d'Oliva_, London, 1637.
+
+[309] See Painter, _Palace of Pleasure_, ed. Jacobs, 1890.
+
+[310] _The Petit Palace of Pettie his Pleasure_, ed. Gollancz, 1908.
+
+[311] _Dedication._
+
+[312] _Palmerin of England_, ed. Southey, London, 1807.
+
+[313] _Preface to divers learned gentlemen_, in _Diana of George of
+Montemayor_, London, 1598.
+
+[314] _To the Reader_, in _Honor's Academy_, London, 1610.
+
+[315] _The Familiar Epistles of Sir Anthony of Guevara_, London, 1574, _To
+the Reader_.
+
+[316] _Prologue_ and _Argument_ of Guevara, translated in North, _Dial of
+Princes_, 1619.
+
+[317] In North, _The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans_, 1579.
+
+[318] _Dedication_ in edition of 1568.
+
+[319] _Prologue_ to Book I, _Aeneid_, reprinted Bannatyne Club.
+
+[320] Foster Watson, _The English Grammar Schools to 1660_, Cambridge,
+1908, pp. 405-6.
+
+[321] _Dedication_, in Spearing, _The Elizabethan Translations of Seneca's
+Tragedies_, Cambridge, 1912.
+
+[322] _To the Reader_, in _The Georgics translated by A. F._, London, 1589.
+
+[323] _Preface_, reprinted in Plessow, _Fabeldichtung in England_, Berlin,
+1906.
+
+[324] _Conclusion_, edition of 1573.
+
+[325] _Seneca His Ten Tragedies_, 1581, _Dedication_ of Fifth.
+
+[326] _To the Reader._
+
+[327] _Agamemnon and Medea_ from edition of 1556, ed. Spearing, 1913,
+_Preface_ of _Medea_.
+
+[328] _To the Readers_, prefixed to _Troas_, in Spearing, _The Elizabethan
+Translations of Seneca's Tragedies_.
+
+[329] _A Medicinable Moral, that is, the two books of Horace his satires
+Englished acccording to the prescription of St. Hierome_, London, 1566, _To
+the Reader_.
+
+[330] _Preface_ to the Earl of Oxford, in _The Abridgment of the Histories
+of Trogus Pompeius collected and written in the Latin tongue by Justin_,
+London, 1563.
+
+[331] _To the Gentle Reader_, in Phaer's Virgil, 1583.
+
+[332] _Epistle Dedicatory_ to _A Compendious Form of Living_, quoted in
+Introduction to _News out of Powles Churchyard_, reprinted London, 1872, p.
+xxx.
+
+[333] _The Bucolics of Virgil together with his Georgics_, London, 1589,
+_The Argument_.
+
+[334] _Preface_ in Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 137.
+
+[335] _The Schoolmaster_, in _Works_, London, 1864, vol. 3, p. 226.
+
+[336] _To the Reader_, prefixed to translation of _Eclogues_ of Mantuan,
+1567.
+
+[337] _To the Reader_, in _The Elizabethan Translations of Seneca's
+Tragedies_.
+
+[338] Stanyhurst's _Aeneid_, in _Arber's Scholar's Library_, p. 5.
+
+[339] _Ibid._, _Introduction_, p. xix, quoted from _The Art of English
+Poesy_.
+
+[340] Preface to Greene's _Menaphon_, in Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 315.
+
+[341] _Dedication_, dated 1573, in edition of 1584.
+
+[342] Gregory Smith, vol. 1, p. 313.
+
+[343] Dedicated to Cheke.
+
+[344] See Cheke's Letter in _The Courtier_, Tudor Translations, London,
+1900.
+
+[345] See _Epistle_ prefixed to translation.
+
+[346] Quoted in _Life_ prefixed to _The Governor_, ed. Croft.
+
+[347] _Address to Queen Katherine_ prefixed to _Paraphrase_.
+
+[348] _Address to Katharine_ prefixed to Luke.
+
+[349] _To the Reader_, in edition of 1564, literally reprinted Boston,
+Lincolnshire, 1877.
+
+[350] _To the Reader_, in _Marcus Tullius Cicero's Three Books of Duties_,
+1558.
+
+[351] Translated by Christopher Featherstone, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1844.
+
+[352] London, 1577.
+
+[353] _To the Gentlemen Readers_, in _Herodotus_, translated by B. R.,
+London, 1584.
+
+[354] _Op. cit._
+
+[355] _Dedication_, in edition of 1576, reprinted, ed. Spingarn, Boston,
+1914.
+
+[356] _Preface_, in _Godfrey of Bulloigne_, London, 1594, reprinted in
+Grosart, _Occasional Issues_, 1881.
+
+[357] _To the Reader_, in edition of 1549.
+
+[358] _The Printer to the Reader_, reprinted in _Shakespeare's Library_,
+1875.
+
+[359] _To the Reader._
+
+[360] See _Works_, ed. Grosart, II, 50.
+
+[361] _Dedication_, London, 1590.
+
+[362] _To the Reader_, in _The Iliads of Homer_, Charles Scribner's Sons,
+p. xvi.
+
+[363] P. xxv.
+
+[364] P. xv.
+
+
+
+
+IV. FROM COWLEY TO POPE
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+FROM COWLEY TO POPE
+
+
+Although the ardor of the Elizabethan translator as he approached the
+vast, almost unbroken field of foreign literature may well awaken the
+envy of his modern successor, in many respects the period of Dryden and
+Pope has more claim to be regarded as the Golden Age of the English
+translator. Patriotic enthusiasm had, it is true, lost something of its
+earlier fire, but national conditions were in general not unfavorable to
+translation. Though the seventeenth century, torn by civil discords, was
+very unlike the period which Holland had lovingly described as "this
+long time of peace and tranquillity, wherein ... all good literature
+hath had free course and flourished,"[365] yet, despite the rise and
+fall of governments, the stream of translation flowed on almost
+uninterruptedly. Sandys' _Ovid_ is presented by its author, after his
+visit to America, as "bred in the New World, of the rudeness whereof it
+cannot but participate; especially having wars and tumults to bring it
+to light instead of the Muses,"[366] but the more ordinary translation,
+bred at home in England during the seventeenth century, apparently
+suffered little from the political strife which surrounded it, while the
+eighteenth century afforded a "peace and tranquillity" even greater than
+that which had prevailed under Elizabeth.
+
+Throughout the period translation was regarded as an important labor,
+deserving of every encouragement. As in the sixteenth century, friends
+and patrons united to offer advice and aid to the author who engaged in
+this work. Henry Brome, dedicating a translation of Horace to Sir
+William Backhouse, writes of his own share of the volume, "to the
+translation whereof my pleasant retirement and conveniencies at your
+delightsome habitation have liberally contributed."[367] Doctor Barten
+Holiday includes in his preface to a version of Juvenal and Persius an
+interesting list of "worthy friends" who have assisted him. "My honored
+friend, Mr. John Selden (of such eminency in the studies of antiquities
+and languages) and Mr. Farnaby ... procured me a fair copy from the
+famous library of St. James's, and a manuscript copy from our herald of
+learning, Mr. Camden. My dear friend, the patriarch of our poets, Ben
+Jonson, sent in an ancient manuscript partly written in the Saxon
+character." Then follow names of less note, Casaubon, Anyan, Price.[368]
+Dryden tells the same story. He has been permitted to consult the Earl
+of Lauderdale's manuscript translation of Virgil. "Besides this help,
+which was not inconsiderable," he writes, "Mr. Congreve has done me the
+favor to review the _Aeneis_, and compare my version with the
+original."[369] Later comes his recognition of indebtedness of a more
+material character. "Being invited by that worthy gentleman, Sir William
+Bowyer, to Denham Court, I translated the First Georgic at his house,
+and the greatest part of the last Aeneid. A more friendly entertainment
+no man ever found.... The Seventh Aeneid was made English at Burleigh,
+the magnificent abode of the Earl of Exeter."[370]
+
+While private individuals thus rallied to the help of the translator,
+the world in general regarded his work with increasing respect. The
+great Dryden thought it not unworthy of his powers to engage in putting
+classical verse into English garb. His successor Pope early turned to
+the same pleasant and profitable task. Johnson, the literary dictator of
+the next age, described Rowe's version of Lucan as "one of the greatest
+productions of English poetry."[371] The comprehensive editions of the
+works of British poets which began to appear towards the end of the
+eighteenth century regularly included English renderings, generally
+contemporaneous, of the great poetry of other countries.
+
+The growing dignity of this department of literature and the Augustan
+fondness for literary criticism combined to produce a large body of
+comment on methods of translation. The more ambitious translations of
+the eighteenth century, for example, were accompanied by long prefaces,
+containing, in addition to the elaborate paraphernalia of contemporary
+scholarship, detailed discussion of the best rules for putting a foreign
+classic into English. Almost every possible phase of the art had been
+broached in one place and another before the century ended. In its last
+decade there appeared the first attempt in English at a complete and
+detailed treatment of the theory of translation as such, Tytler's _Essay
+on the Principles of Translation_.
+
+From the sixteenth-century theory of translation, so much of which is
+incidental and uncertain in expression, it is a pleasure to come to the
+deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and
+meaning, of the earlier critics of our period, men like Denham, Cowley,
+and Dryden. In contrast to the mass of unrelated individual opinions
+attached to the translations of Elizabeth's time, the criticism of the
+seventeenth century emanates, for the most part, from a small group of
+men, who supply standards for lesser commentators and who, if they do
+not invariably agree with one another, are yet thoroughly familiar with
+one another's views. The field of discussion also has narrowed
+considerably, and theory has gained by becoming less scattering.
+Translation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries showed certain
+new developments, the most marked of which was the tendency among
+translators who aspired to the highest rank to confine their efforts to
+verse renderings of the Greek and Latin classics. A favorite remark was
+that it is the greatest poet who suffers most in being turned from one
+language into another. In spite of this, or perhaps for this reason, the
+common ambition was to undertake Virgil, who was generally regarded as
+the greatest of epic poets, and attempts to translate at least a part of
+the _Aeneid_ were astonishingly frequent. As early as 1658 the Fourth
+Book is described as "translated ... in our day at least ten times into
+English."[372] Horace came next in popularity; by the beginning of the
+eighteenth century, according to one translator, he had been
+"translated, paraphrased, or criticized on by persons of all conditions
+and both sexes."[373] As the century progressed, Homer usurped the place
+formerly occupied by Virgil as the object of the most ambitious effort
+and the center of discussion. But there were other translations of the
+classics. Cooke, dedicating his translation of Hesiod to the Duke of
+Argyll, says to his patron: "You, my lord, know how the works of genius
+lift up the head of a nation above her neighbors, and give as much honor
+as success in arms; among these we must reckon our translations of the
+classics; by which when we have naturalized all Greece and Rome, we
+shall be so much richer than they by so many original productions as we
+have of our own."[374] Seemingly there was an attempt to naturalize "all
+Greece and Rome." Anacreon, Pindar, Apollonius Rhodius, Lucretius,
+Tibullus, Statius, Juvenal, Persius, Ovid, Lucan, are names taken almost
+at random from the list of seventeenth and eighteenth-century
+translations. Criticism, however, was ready to concern itself with the
+translation of any classic, ancient or modern. Denham's two famous
+pronouncements are connected, the one with his own translation of the
+Second Book of the _Aeneid_, the other with Sir Richard Fanshaw's
+rendering of _Il Pastor Fido_. In the later eighteenth century
+voluminous comment accompanied Hoole's _Ariosto_ and Mickle's _Camoens_.
+
+At present, however, we are concerned not with the number and variety of
+these translations, but with their homogeneity. As translators showed
+themselves less inclined to wander over the whole field of literature,
+the theory of translation assumed much more manageable proportions. A
+further limitation of the area of discussion was made by Denham, who
+expressly excluded from his consideration "them who deal in matters of
+fact or matters of faith,"[375] thus disposing of the theological
+treatises which had formerly divided attention with the classics.
+
+The aims of the translator were also clarified by definition of his
+audience. John Vicars, publishing in 1632 _The XII. Aeneids of Virgil
+translated into English decasyllables_, adduces as one of his motives
+"the common good and public utility which I hoped might accrue to young
+students and grammatical tyros,"[376] but later writers seldom repeat
+this appeal to the learner. The next year John Brinsley issued _Virgil's
+Eclogues, with his book De Apibus, translated grammatically, and also
+according to the propriety of our English tongue so far as Grammar and
+the verse will permit_. A significant comment in the "Directions" runs:
+"As for the fear of making truants by these translations, a conceit
+which arose merely upon the abuse of other translations, never intended
+for this end, I hope that happy experience of this kind will in time
+drive it and all like to it utterly out of schools and out of the minds
+of all." Apparently the schoolmaster's ban upon the unauthorized use of
+translations was establishing the distinction between the English
+version which might claim to be ranked as literature and that which
+Johnson later designated as "the clandestine refuge of schoolboys."[377]
+
+Another limitation of the audience was, however, less admirable. For the
+widely democratic appeal of the Elizabethan translator was substituted
+an appeal to a class, distinguished, if one may believe the philosopher
+Hobbes, as much by social position as by intellect. In discussing the
+vocabulary to be employed by the translator, Hobbes professes opinions
+not unlike those of the sixteenth-century critics. Like Puttenham, he
+makes a distinction between words as suited or unsuited for the epic
+style. "The names of instruments and tools of artificers, and words of
+art," he says in the preface to his _Homer_, "though of use in the
+schools, are far from being fit to be spoken by a hero. He may delight
+in the arts themselves, and have skill in some of them, but his glory
+lies not in that, but in courage, nobility, and other virtues of nature,
+or in the command he has over other men." In Hobbes' objection to the
+use of unfamiliar words, also, there is nothing new; but in the
+standards by which he tries such terms there is something amusingly
+characteristic of his time. In the choice of words, "the first
+indiscretion is in the use of such words as to the readers of poesy
+(which are commonly Persons of the best Quality)"--it is only fair to
+reproduce Hobbes' capitalization--"are not sufficiently known. For the
+work of an heroic poem is to raise admiration (principally) for three
+virtues, valor, beauty, and love; to the reading whereof women no less
+than men have a just pretence though their skill in language be not so
+universal. And therefore foreign words, till by long use they become
+vulgar, are unintelligible to them." Dryden is similarly restrained by
+the thought of his readers. He does not try to reproduce the "Doric
+dialect" of Theocritus, "for Theocritus writ to Sicilians, who spoke
+that dialect; and I direct this part of my translations to our ladies,
+who neither understand, nor will take pleasure in such homely
+expressions."[378] In translating the _Aeneid_ he follows what he
+conceives to have been Virgil's practice. "I will not give the reasons,"
+he declares, "why I writ not always in the proper terms of navigation,
+land-service, or in the cant of any profession. I will only say that
+Virgil has avoided those properties, because he writ not to mariners,
+soldiers, astronomers, gardeners, peasants, etc., but to all in general,
+and in particular to men and ladies of the first quality, who have been
+better bred than to be too nicely knowing in such things."[379]
+
+Another element in theory which displays the strength and weakness of
+the time is the treatment of the work of other countries and other
+periods. A changed attitude towards the achievements of foreign
+translators becomes evident early in the seventeenth century. In the
+prefaces to an edition of the works of Du Bartas in English there are
+signs of a growing satisfaction with the English language as a medium
+and an increasing conviction that England can surpass the rest of Europe
+in the work of translation. Thomas Hudson, in an address to James VI of
+Scotland, attached to his translation of _The History of Judith_, quotes
+an interesting conversation which he held on one occasion with that
+pedantic monarch. "It pleased your Highness," he recalls, "not only to
+esteem the peerless style of the Greek Homer and the Latin Virgil to be
+inimitable to us (whose tongue is barbarous and corrupted), but also to
+allege (partly through delight your majesty took in the haughty style of
+those most famous writers, and partly to sound the opinion of others)
+that also the lofty phrases, the grave inditement, the facund terms of
+the French Salust (for the like resemblance) could not be followed nor
+sufficiently expressed in our rough and unpolished English
+language."[380] It was to prove that he could reproduce the French poet
+"succinctly and sensibly in our vulgar speech" that Hudson undertook the
+_Judith_. According to the complimentary verses addressed to the famous
+Sylvester on his translations from the same author, the English tongue
+has responded nobly to the demands put upon it. Sylvester has shown
+
+    ... that French tongue's plenty to be such.
+    And yet that ours can utter full as much.[381]
+
+John Davies of Hereford, writing of another of Sylvester's translations,
+describes English as acquitting itself well when it competes with
+French, and continues
+
+    If French to English were so strictly bound
+    It would but passing lamely strive with it;
+    And soon be forc'd to lose both grace and ground,
+    Although they strove with equal skill and wit.[382]
+
+An opinion characteristic of the latter part of the century is that of
+the Earl of Roscommon, who, after praising the work of the earlier
+French translators, says,
+
+    From hence our generous emulation came,
+    We undertook, and we performed the same:
+    But now we show the world another way,
+    And in translated verse do more than they.[383]
+
+Dryden finds little to praise in the French and Italian renderings of
+Virgil. "Segrais ... is wholly destitute of elevation, though his
+version is much better than that of the two brothers, or any of the rest
+who have attempted Virgil. Hannibal Caro is a great name among the
+Italians; yet his translation is most scandalously mean."[384] "What I
+have said," he declares somewhat farther on, "though it has the face of
+arrogance, yet is intended for the honor of my country; and therefore I
+will boldly own that this English translation has more of Virgil's
+spirit in it than either the French or Italian."[385]
+
+On translators outside their own period seventeenth-century critics
+bestowed even less consideration than on their French or Italian
+contemporaries. Earlier writers were forgotten, or remembered only to be
+condemned. W. L., Gent., who in 1628 published a translation of Virgil's
+_Eclogues_, expresses his surprise that a poet like Virgil "should yet
+stand still as a _noli me tangere_, whom no man either durst or would
+undertake; only Master Spenser long since translated the _Gnat_ (a
+little fragment of Virgil's excellence), giving the world peradventure
+to conceive that he would at one time or other have gone through with
+the rest of this poet's work."[386] Vicars' translation of the _Aeneid_
+is accompanied by a letter in which the author's cousin, Thomas Vicars,
+congratulates him on his "great pains in transplanting this worthiest of
+Latin poets into a mellow and neat English soil (a thing not done
+before)."[387] Denham announces, "There are so few translations which
+deserve praise, that I scarce ever saw any which deserved pardon; those
+who travail in that kind being for the most part so unhappy as to rob
+others without enriching themselves, pulling down the fame of good
+authors without raising their own." Brome,[388] writing in 1666,
+rejoices in the good fortune of Horace's "good friend Virgil ... who
+being plundered of all his ornaments by the old translators, was
+restored to others with double lustre by those standard-bearers of wit
+and judgment, Denham and Waller,"[389] and in proof of his statements
+puts side by side translations of the same passage by Phaer and Denham.
+Later, in 1688, an anonymous writer recalls the work of Phaer and
+Stanyhurst only to disparage it. Introducing his translation of Virgil,
+"who has so long unhappily continued a stranger to tolerable English,"
+he says that he has "observed how _Player_ and _Stainhurst_ of old ...
+had murdered the most absolute of poets."[390] One dissenting note is
+found in Robert Gould's lines prefixed to a 1687 edition of Fairfax's
+_Godfrey of Bulloigne_.
+
+    See here, you dull translators, look with shame
+    Upon this stately monument of fame,
+    And to amaze you more, reflect how long
+    It is, since first 'twas taught the English tongue:
+    In what a dark age it was brought to light;
+    Dark? No, our age is dark, and that was bright.
+    Of all these versions which now brightest shine,
+    Most, Fairfax, are but foils to set off thine:
+    Ev'n Horace can't of too much justice boast,
+    His unaffected, easy style is lost:
+    And Ogilby's the lumber of the stall;
+    But thy translation does atone for all.[391]
+
+Dryden, too, approves of Fairfax, considered at least as a metrist. He
+includes him with Spenser among the "great masters of our language," and
+adds, "many besides myself have heard our famous Waller own that he
+derived the harmony of his numbers from _Godfrey of Bulloign_, which was
+turned into English by Mr. Fairfax."[392] But even Dryden, who sometimes
+saw beyond his own period, does not share the admiration which some of
+his friends entertain for Chapman. "The Earl of Mulgrave and Mr.
+Waller," he writes in the _Examen Poeticum_, "two of the best judges of
+our age, have assured me that they could never read over the translation
+of Chapman without incredible pleasure and extreme transport. This
+admiration of theirs must needs proceed from the author himself, for the
+translator has thrown him down as far as harsh numbers, improper
+English, and a monstrous length of verse could carry him."[393]
+
+In this satisfaction with their own country and their own era there
+lurked certain dangers for seventeenth-century writers. The quality
+becomes, as we shall see, more noticeable in the eighteenth century,
+when the shackles which English taste laid upon original poetry were
+imposed also upon translated verse. The theory of translation was
+hampered in its development by the narrow complacency of its exponents,
+and the record of this time is by no means one of uniform progress. The
+seventeenth century shows clearly marked alternations of opinion; now it
+sanctions extreme methods; now, by reaction, it inclines towards more
+moderate views. The eighteenth century, during the greater part of its
+course, produces little that is new in the way of theory, and adopts,
+without much attempt to analyze them, the formulas left by the preceding
+period. We may now resume the history of these developments at the point
+where it was dropped in Chapter III, at the end of Elizabeth's reign.
+
+In the first part of the new century the few minor translators who
+described their methods held theories much like those of Chapman. W. L.,
+Gent., in the extremely flowery and discursive preface to his version of
+Virgil's _Eclogues_, says, "Some readers I make no doubt they (the
+translations) will meet with in these dainty mouthed times, that will
+tax me with not coming resolved word for word and line for line with the
+author.... I used the freedom of a translator, not tying myself to the
+tyranny of a grammatical construction but breaking the shell into many
+pieces, was only careful to preserve the kernel safe and whole from the
+violence of a wrong or wrested interpretation." After a long simile
+drawn from the hunting field he concludes, "No more do I conceive my
+course herein to be faulty though I do not affect to follow my author so
+close as to tread upon his heels." John Vicars, who professes to have
+robed Virgil in "a homespun English gray-coat plain," says of his
+manner, "I have aimed at these three things, perspicuity of the matter,
+fidelity to the author, and facility or smoothness to recreate thee my
+reader. Now if any critical or curious wit tax me with a _Frustra fit
+per plura &c._ and blame my not curious confinement to my author line
+for line, I answer (and I hope this answer will satisfy the moderate and
+ingenuous) that though peradventure I could (as in my Babel's Balm I
+have done throughout the whole translation) yet in regard of the lofty
+majesty of this my author's style, I would not adventure so to pinch his
+spirits, as to make him seem to walk like a lifeless ghost. But on
+thinking on that of Horace, _Brevis esse laboro obscurus fio_, I
+presumed (yet still having an eye to the genuine sense as I was able)
+to expatiate with poetical liberty, where necessity of matter and phrase
+enforced." Vicars' warrant for his practice is the oftquoted caution of
+Horace, _Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere_.
+
+But the seventeenth century was not disposed to continue uninterruptedly
+the tradition of previous translators. In translated, as in original
+verse a new era was to begin, acclaimed as such in its own day, and
+associated like the new poetry, with the names of Denham and Cowley as
+both poets and critics and with that of Waller as poet. Peculiarly
+characteristic of the movement was its hostility towards literal
+translation, a hostility apparent also, as we have seen, in Chapman. "I
+consider it a vulgar error in translating poets," writes Denham in the
+preface to his _Destruction of Troy_, "to affect being Fidus Interpres,"
+and again in his lines to Fanshaw:
+
+    That servile path thou nobly dost decline
+    Of tracing word by word, and line by line.
+    Those are the labored births of slavish brains,
+    Not the effect of poetry but pains;
+    Cheap, vulgar arts, whose narrowness affords
+    No flight for thoughts, but poorly sticks at words.
+
+Sprat is anxious to claim for Cowley much of the credit for introducing
+"this way of leaving verbal translations and chiefly regarding the sense
+and genius of the author," which "was scarce heard of in England before
+this present age."[394]
+
+Why Chapman and later translators should have fixed upon extreme
+literalness as the besetting fault of their predecessors and
+contemporaries, it is hard to see. It is true that the recognition of
+the desirability of faithfulness to the original was the most
+distinctive contribution that sixteenth-century critics made to the
+theory of translation, but this principle was largely associated with
+prose renderings of a different type from that now under discussion.
+If, like Denham, one excludes "matters of fact and matters of faith,"
+the body of translation which remains is scarcely distinguished by
+slavish adherence to the letter. As a matter of fact, however,
+sixteenth-century translation was obviously an unfamiliar field to most
+seventeenth-century commentators, and although their generalizations
+include all who have gone before them, their illustrations are usually
+drawn from the early part of their own century. Ben Jonson, whose
+translation of Horace's _Art of Poetry_ is cited by Dryden as an
+example of "metaphrase, or turning an author word by word and line by
+line from one language to another,"[395] is perhaps largely responsible
+for the mistaken impression regarding the earlier translators. Thomas
+May and George Sandys are often included in the same category. Sandys'
+translation of Ovid is regarded by Dryden as typical of its time. Its
+literalism, its resulting lack of poetry, "proceeded from the wrong
+judgment of the age in which he lived. They neither knew good verse nor
+loved it; they were scholars, 'tis true, but they were pedants; and for
+all their pedantic pains, all their translations want to be translated
+into English."[396]
+
+But neither Jonson, Sandys, nor May has much to say with regard to the
+proper methods of translation. The most definite utterance of the group
+is found in the lines which Jonson addressed to May on his translation
+of Lucan:
+
+    But who hath them interpreted, and brought
+    Lucan's whole frame unto us, and so wrought
+    As not the smallest joint or gentlest word
+    In the great mass or machine there is stirr'd?
+    The self same genius! so the world will say
+    The sun translated, or the son of May.[397]
+
+May's own preface says nothing of his theories. Sandys says of his Ovid,
+"To the translation I have given what perfection my pen could bestow, by
+polishing, altering, or restoring the harsh, improper, or mistaken with
+a nicer exactness than perhaps is required in so long a labor,"[398] a
+comment open to various interpretations. His metrical version of the
+Psalms is described as "paraphrastically translated," and it is worthy
+of note that Cowley, in his attack on the practice of too literal
+translation, should have chosen this part of Sandys' work as
+illustrative of the methods which he condemns. For the translators of
+the new school, though professedly the foes of the word for word method,
+carried their hostility to existing theories of translation much
+farther. Cowley begins, reasonably enough, by pointing out the absurdity
+of translating a poet literally. "If a man should undertake to translate
+Pindar word for word, it would be thought that one madman had translated
+another; as may appear when a person who understands not the original
+reads the verbal traduction of him into Latin prose, than which nothing
+seems more raving.... And I would gladly know what applause our best
+pieces of English poesy could expect from a Frenchman or Italian, if
+converted faithfully and word for word into French or Italian
+prose."[399] But, ignoring the possibility of a reasonable regard for
+both the original and the English, such as had been advocated by Chapman
+or by minor translators like W. L. and Vicars, Cowley suggests a more
+radical method. Since of necessity much of the beauty of a poem is lost
+in translation, the translator must supply new beauties. "For men
+resolving in no case to shoot beyond the mark," he says, "it is a
+thousand to one if they shoot not short of it." "We must needs confess
+that after all these losses sustained by Pindar, all we can add to him
+by our wit or invention (not deserting still his subject) is not likely
+to make him a richer man than he was in his own country." Finally comes
+a definite statement of Cowley's method: "Upon this ground I have in
+these two Odes of Pindar taken, left out and added what I please; nor
+make it so much my aim to let the reader know precisely what he spoke as
+what was his way and manner of speaking, which has not been yet (that I
+know of) introduced into English, though it be the noblest and highest
+kind of writing in verse." Denham, in his lines on Fanshaw's translation
+of Guarini, had already approved of a similar method:
+
+    A new and nobler way thou dost pursue
+    To make translations and translators too.
+    They but preserve the ashes, thou the flame,
+    True to his sense, but truer to his fame.
+    Feeding his current, where thou find'st it low
+    Let'st in thine own to make it rise and flow;
+    Wisely restoring whatsoever grace
+    Is lost by change of times, or tongues, or place.
+
+Denham, however, justifies the procedure for reasons which must have had
+their appeal for the translator who was conscious of real creative
+power. "Poesy," he says in the preface to his translation from the
+_Aeneid_, "is of so subtle a spirit that in the pouring out of one
+language into another it will all evaporate; and if a new spirit be not
+added in transfusion, there will remain nothing but a _caput mortuum_."
+The new method, which Cowley is willing to designate as _imitation_ if
+the critics refuse to it the name of translation, is described by Dryden
+with his usual clearness. "I take imitation of an author in their
+sense," he says, "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one
+who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to
+translate his words, or be confined to his sense, but only to set him as
+a pattern, and to write as he supposes that author would have done, had
+he lived in our age, and in our country."[400]
+
+Yet, after all, the new fashion was far from revolutionizing either the
+theory or the practice of translation. Dryden says of Denham that "he
+advised more liberty than he took himself," and of both Denham and
+Cowley, "I dare not say that either of them have carried this libertine
+way of rendering authors (as Mr Cowley calls it) so far as my definition
+reaches; for in the _Pindaric Odes_ the customs and ceremonies of
+ancient Greece are still observed."[401] In the theory of the less
+distinguished translators of the second and third quarters of the
+century, the influence of Denham and Cowley shows itself, if at all, in
+the claim to have translated paraphrastically and the complacency with
+which translators describe their practice as "new," a condition of
+things which might have prevailed without the intervention of the method
+of imitation. About the year 1680 there comes a definite reaction
+against too great liberty in the treatment of foreign authors. Thomas
+Creech, defining what may justly be expected of the translator of
+Horace, says, "If the sense of the author is delivered, the variety of
+expression kept (which I must despair of after Quintillian hath assured
+us that he is most happily bold in his words) and his fancy not
+debauched (for I cannot think myself able to improve Horace) 'tis all
+that can be expected from a version."[402] After quoting with approval
+what Cowley has said of the inadequacy of any translation, he continues:
+"'Tis true he (Cowley) improves this consideration, and urges it as
+concluding against all strict and faithful versions, in which I must beg
+leave to dissent, thinking it better to convey down the learning of the
+ancients than their empty sound suited to the present times, and show
+the age their whole substance, rather than their ghost embodied in some
+light air of my own." An anonymous writer presents a group of critics
+who are disgusted with contemporary fashions in translation and wish to
+go back to those which prevailed in the early part of the century.[403]
+
+    Acer, incensed, exclaimed against the age,
+    Said some of our new poets had of late
+    Set up a lazy fashion to translate,
+    Speak authors how they please, and if they call
+    Stuff they make paraphrase, that answers all.
+    Pedantic verse, effeminately smooth,
+    Racked through all little rules of art to soothe,
+    The soft'ned age industriously compile,
+    Main wit and cripple fancy all the while.
+    A license far beyond poetic use
+    Not to translate old authors but abuse
+    The wit of Romans; and their lofty sense
+    Degrade into new poems made from thence,
+    Disguise old Rome in our new eloquence.
+
+Aesculape shares the opinion of Acer.
+
+    And thought it fit wits should be more confined
+    To author's sense, and to their periods too,
+    Must leave out nothing, every sense must do,
+    And though they cannot render verse for verse,
+    Yet every period's sense they must rehearse.
+
+Finally Metellus, speaking for the group, orders Laelius, one of their
+number, to translate the Fourth Book of the _Aeneid_, keeping himself in
+due subordination to Virgil.
+
+    We all bid then translate it the old way
+    Not a-la-mode, but like George Sandys or May;
+    Show Virgil's every period, not steal sense
+    To make up a new-fashioned poem thence.
+
+Other translators, though not defending the literal method, do not
+advocate imitation. Roscommon, in the _Essay on Translated Verse_,
+demands fidelity to the substance of the original when he says,
+
+    The genuine sense, intelligibly told,
+    Shows a translator both discreet and bold.
+    Excursions are inexpiably bad,
+    And 'tis much safer to leave out than add,
+
+but, unlike Phaer, he forbids the omission of difficult passages:
+
+    Abstruse and mystic thoughts you must express,
+    With painful care and seeming easiness.
+
+Dryden considers the whole situation in detail.[404] He admires Cowley's
+_Pindaric Odes_ and admits that both Pindar and his translator do not
+come under ordinary rules, but he fears the effect of Cowley's example
+"when writers of unequal parts to him shall imitate so bold an
+undertaking," and believes that only a poet so "wild and ungovernable"
+as Pindar justifies the method of Cowley. "If Virgil, or Ovid, or any
+regular intelligible authors be thus used, 'tis no longer to be called
+their work, when neither the thoughts nor words are drawn from the
+original; but instead of them there is something new produced, which is
+almost the creation of another hand.... He who is inquisitive to know an
+author's thoughts will be disappointed in his expectation; and 'tis not
+always that a man will be contented to have a present made him, when he
+expects the payment of a debt. To state it fairly; imitation is the most
+advantageous way for a translator to show himself, but the greatest
+wrong which can be done to the memory and reputation of the dead."
+
+Though imitation was not generally accepted as a standard method of
+translation, certain elements in the theory of Denham and Cowley
+remained popular throughout the seventeenth and even the eighteenth
+century. A favorite comment in the complimentary verses attached to
+translations is the assertion that the translator has not only equaled
+but surpassed his original. An extreme example of this is Dryden's
+fatuous reference to the Earl of Mulgrave's translation of Ovid:
+
+    How will sweet Ovid's ghost be pleased to hear
+    His fame augmented by an English peer,
+    How he embellishes his Helen's loves,
+    Outdoes his softness, and his sense improves.[405]
+
+His earlier lines to Sir Robert Howard on the latter's translation of
+the _Achilleis_ of Statius are somewhat less bald:
+
+    To understand how much we owe to you,
+    We must your numbers with your author's view;
+    Then shall we see his work was lamely rough,
+    Each figure stiff as if designed in buff;
+    His colours laid so thick on every place,
+    As only showed the paint, but hid the face;
+    But as in perspective we beauties see
+    Which in the glass, not in the picture be,
+    So here our sight obligingly mistakes
+    That wealth which his your bounty only makes.
+    Thus vulgar dishes are by cooks disguised,
+    More for their dressing than their substance prized.[406]
+
+It was especially in cases where the original lacked smoothness and
+perspicuity, the qualities which appealed most strongly to the century,
+that the claim to improvement was made. Often, however, it was
+associated with notably accurate versions. Cartwright calls upon the
+readers of Holiday's _Persius_,
+
+                who when they shall view
+    How truly with thine author thou dost pace,
+    How hand in hand ye go, what equal grace
+    Thou dost observe with him in every term,
+    They cannot but, if just, justly affirm
+    That did your times as do your lines agree,
+    He might be thought to have translated thee,
+    But that he's darker, not so strong; wherein
+    Thy greater art more clearly may be seen,
+    Which does thy Persius' cloudy storms display
+    With lightning and with thunder; both which lay
+    Couched perchance in him, but wanted force
+    To break, or light from darkness to divorce,
+    Till thine exhaled skill compressed it so,
+    That forced the clouds to break, the light to show,
+    The thunder to be heard. That now each child
+    Can prattle what was meant; whilst thou art styled
+    Of all, with titles of true dignity
+    For lofty phrase and perspicuity.[407]
+
+J. A. addresses Lucretius in lines prefixed to Creech's translation,
+
+    But Lord, how much you're changed, how much improv'd!
+    Your native roughness all is left behind,
+    But still the same good man tho' more refin'd,[408]
+
+and Otway says to the translator:
+
+    For when the rich original we peruse,
+    And by it try the metal you produce,
+    Though there indeed the purest ore we find,
+    Yet still by you it something is refined;
+    Thus when the great Lucretius gives a loose
+    And lashes to her speed his fiery Muse,
+    Still with him you maintain an equal pace,
+    And bear full stretch upon him all the race;
+    But when in rugged way we find him rein
+    His verse, and not so smooth a stroke maintain,
+    There the advantage he receives is found,
+    By you taught temper, and to choose his ground.[409]
+
+So authoritative a critic as Roscommon, however, seems to oppose
+attempts at improvement when he writes,
+
+    Your author always will the best advise,
+    Fall when he falls, and when he rises, rise,
+
+a precept which Tytler, writing at the end of the next century,
+considers the one doubtful rule in _The Essay on Translated Verse_. "Far
+from adopting the former part of this maxim," he declares, "I consider
+it to be the duty of a poetical translator, never to suffer his original
+to fall. He must maintain with him a perpetual contest of genius; he
+must attend him in his highest flights, and soar, if he can, beyond him:
+and when he perceives, at any time a diminution of his powers, when he
+sees a drooping wing, he must raise him on his own pinions."[410]
+
+The influence of Denham and Cowley is also seen in what is perhaps the
+most significant element in the seventeenth-century theory of
+translation. These men advocated freedom in translation, not because
+such freedom would give the translator a greater opportunity to display
+his own powers, but because it would enable him to reproduce more truly
+the spirit of the original. A good translator must, first of all, know
+his author intimately. Where Denham's expressions are fuller than
+Virgil's, they are, he says, "but the impressions which the often
+reading of him hath left upon my thoughts." Possessing this intimate
+acquaintance, the English writer must try to think and write as if he
+were identified with his author. Dryden, who, in spite of his general
+principles, sometimes practised something uncommonly like imitation,
+says in the preface to _Sylvae_: "I must acknowledge that I have many
+times exceeded my commission; for I have both added and omitted, and
+even sometimes very boldly made such expositions of my authors as no
+Dutch commentator will forgive me.... Where I have enlarged them, I
+desire the false critics would not always think that those thoughts are
+wholly mine, but either that they are secretly in the poet, or may be
+fairly deduced from him; or at least, if both these considerations
+should fail, that my own is of a piece with his, and that if he were
+living, and an Englishman, they are such as he would probably have
+written."[411]
+
+By a sort of irony the more faithful translator came in time to
+recognize this as one of the precepts of his art, and sometimes to use
+it as an argument against too much liberty. The Earl of Roscommon says
+in the preface to his translation of Horace's _Art of Poetry_, "I have
+kept as close as I could both to the meaning and the words of the
+author, and done nothing but what I believe he would forgive if he were
+alive; and I have often asked myself this question." Dryden follows his
+protest against imitation by saying: "Nor must we understand the
+language only of the poet, but his particular turn of thoughts and
+expression, which are the characters that distinguish, and, as it were,
+individuate him from all other writers. When we come thus far, 'tis
+time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his
+thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to
+vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance."[412] Such
+faithfulness, according to Dryden, involves the appreciation and the
+reproduction of the qualities in an author which distinguish him from
+others, or, to use his own words, "the maintaining the character of an
+author which distinguishes him from all others, and makes him appear
+that individual poet whom you would interpret."[413] Dryden thinks that
+English translators have not sufficiently recognized the necessity for
+this. "For example, not only the thoughts, but the style and
+versification of Virgil and Ovid are very different: yet I see, even in
+our best poets who have translated some parts of them, that they have
+confounded their several talents, and, by endeavoring only at the
+sweetness and harmony of numbers, have made them so much alike that, if
+I did not know the originals, I should never be able to judge by the
+copies which was Virgil and which was Ovid. It was objected against a
+late noble painter that he drew many graceful pictures, but few of them
+were like. And this happened because he always studied himself more than
+those who sat to him. In such translators I can easily distinguish the
+hand which performed the work, but I cannot distinguish their poet from
+another."
+
+But critics recognized that study and pains alone could not furnish the
+translator for his work. "To be a thorough translator," says Dryden, "he
+must be a thorough poet,"[414] or to put it, as does Roscommon, somewhat
+more mildly, he must by nature possess the more essential
+characteristics of his author. Admitting this, Creech writes with a
+slight air of apology, "I cannot choose but smile to think that I, who
+have ... too little ill nature (for that is commonly thought a
+necessary ingredient) to be a satirist, should venture upon
+Horace."[415] Dryden finds by experience that he can more easily
+translate a poet akin to himself. His translations of Ovid please him.
+"Whether it be the partiality of an old man to his youngest child I know
+not; but they appear to me the best of all my endeavors in this kind.
+Perhaps this poet is more easy to be translated than some others whom I
+have lately attempted; perhaps, too, he was more according to my
+genius."[416] He looks forward with pleasure to putting the whole of the
+_Iliad_ into English. "And this I dare assure the world beforehand, that
+I have found, by trial, Homer a more pleasing task than Virgil, though I
+say not the translation will be less laborious; for the Grecian is more
+according to my genius than the Latin poet."[417] The insistence on the
+necessity for kinship between the author and the translator is the
+principal idea in Roscommon's _Essay on Translated Verse_. According to
+Roscommon,
+
+    Each poet with a different talent writes,
+    One praises, one instructs, another bites.
+    Horace could ne'er aspire to epic bays,
+    Nor lofty Maro stoop to lyric lays.
+
+This, then, is his advice to the would-be translator:
+
+    Examine how your humour is inclined,
+    And which the ruling passion of your mind;
+    Then, seek a poet who your way does bend,
+    And choose an author as you choose a friend.
+    United by this sympathetic bond,
+    You grow familiar, intimate, and fond;
+    Your thoughts, your words, your styles, your souls agree,
+    No longer his interpreter but he.
+
+Though the plea of reproducing the spirit of the original was sometimes
+made a pretext for undue latitude, it is evident that there was here an
+important contribution to the theory of translation. In another respect,
+also, the consideration of metrical effects, the seventeenth century
+shows some advance,--an advance, however, which must be laid chiefly to
+the credit of Dryden. Apparently there was no tendency towards
+innovation and experiment in the matter of verse forms.
+Seventeenth-century translators, satisfied with the couplet and kindred
+measures, did not consider, as the Elizabethans had done, the
+possibility of introducing classical metres. Creech says of Horace,
+"'Tis certain our language is not capable of the numbers of the
+poet,"[418] and leaves the matter there. Holiday says of his translation
+of the same poet: "But many, no doubt, will say Horace is by me
+forsaken, his lyric softness and emphatical Muse maimed; that there is a
+general defection from his genuine harmony. Those I must tell, I have in
+this translation rather sought his spirit than numbers; yet the music of
+verse not neglected neither, since the English ear better heareth the
+distich, and findeth that sweetness and air which the Latin affecteth
+and (questionless) attaineth in sapphics or iambic measures."[419]
+Dryden frequently complains of the difficulty of translation into
+English metre, especially when the poet to be translated is Virgil. The
+use of rhyme causes trouble. It "is certainly a constraint even to the
+best poets, and those who make it with most ease.... What it adds to
+sweetness, it takes away from sense; and he who loses the least by it
+may be called a gainer. It often makes us swerve from an author's
+meaning; as, if a mark be set up for an archer at a great distance, let
+him aim as exactly as he can, the least wind will take his arrow, and
+divert it from the white."[420] The line of the heroic couplet is not
+long enough to reproduce the hexameter, and Virgil is especially
+succinct. "To make him copious is to alter his character; and to
+translate him line for line is impossible, because the Latin is
+naturally a more succinct language than either the Italian, Spanish,
+French, or even than the English, which, by reason of its monosyllables,
+is far the most compendious of them. Virgil is much the closest of any
+Roman poet, and the Latin hexameter has more feet than the English
+heroic."[421] Yet though Dryden admits that Caro, the Italian
+translator, who used blank verse, made his task easier thereby, he does
+not think of abandoning the couplet for any of the verse forms which
+earlier translators had tried. He finds Chapman's _Homer_ characterized
+by "harsh numbers ... and a monstrous length of verse," and thinks his
+own period "a much better age than was the last ... for versification
+and the art of numbers."[422] Roscommon, whose version of Horace's _Art
+of Poetry_ is in blank verse, says that Jonson's translation lacks
+clearness as a result not only of his literalness but of "the constraint
+of rhyme,"[423] but makes no further attack on the couplet as the
+regular vehicle for translation.
+
+Dryden, however, is peculiarly interested in the general effect of his
+verse as compared with that of his originals. "I have attempted," he
+says in the _Examen Poeticum_, "to restore Ovid to his native sweetness,
+easiness, and smoothness, and to give my poetry a kind of cadence and,
+as we call it, a run of verse, as like the original as the English can
+come to the Latin."[424] In his study of Virgil previous to translating
+the _Aeneid_ he observed "above all, the elegance of his expressions
+and the harmony of his numbers."[425] Elsewhere he says of his author,
+"His verse is everywhere sounding the very thing in your ears whose
+sense it bears, yet the numbers are perpetually varied to increase the
+delight of the reader; so that the same sounds are never repeated twice
+together."[426] These metrical effects he has tried to reproduce in
+English. "The turns of his verse, his breakings, his numbers, and his
+gravity, I have as far imitated as the poverty of our language and the
+hastiness of my performance would allow," he says in the preface to
+_Sylvae_.[427] In his translation of the whole _Aeneid_ he was guided by
+the same considerations. "Virgil ... is everywhere elegant, sweet, and
+flowing in his hexameters. His words are not only chosen, but the places
+in which he ranks them for the sound. He who removes them from the
+station wherein their master set them spoils the harmony. What he says
+of the Sibyl's prophecies may be as properly applied to every word of
+his: they must be read in order as they lie; the least breath
+discomposes them and somewhat of their divinity is lost. I cannot boast
+that I have been thus exact in my verses; but I have endeavored to
+follow the example of my master, and am the first Englishman, perhaps,
+who made it his design to copy him in his numbers, his choice of words,
+and his placing them for the sweetness of the sound. On this last
+consideration I have shunned the _caesura_ as much as possibly I could:
+for, wherever that is used, it gives a roughness to the verse; of which
+we have little need in a language which is overstocked with
+consonants."[428] Views like these contribute much to an adequate
+conception of what faithfulness in translation demands.
+
+From the lucid, intelligent comment of Dryden it is disappointing to
+turn to the body of doctrine produced by his successors. In spite of the
+widespread interest in translation during the eighteenth century, little
+progress was made in formulating the theory of the art, and many of the
+voluminous prefaces of translators deserve the criticism which Johnson
+applied to Garth, "his notions are half-formed." So far as concerns the
+general method of translation, the principles laid down by critics are
+often mere repetitions of the conclusions already reached in the
+preceding century. Most theorists were ready to adopt Dryden's view that
+the translator should strike a middle course between the very free and
+the very close method. Put into words by a recognized authority, so
+reasonable an opinion could hardly fail of acceptance. It appealed to
+the eighteenth-century mind as adequate, and more than one translator,
+professing to give rules for translation, merely repeated in his own
+words what Dryden had already said. Garth declares in the preface
+condemned by Johnson: "Translation is commonly either verbal, a
+paraphrase, or an imitation.... The manner that seems most suitable for
+this present undertaking is neither to follow the author too close out
+of a critical timorousness, nor abandon him too wantonly through a
+poetic boldness. The original should always be kept in mind, without too
+apparent a deviation from the sense. Where it is otherwise, it is not a
+version but an imitation."[429] Grainger says in the introduction to his
+_Tibullus_: "Verbal translations are always inelegant, because always
+destitute of beauty of idiom and language; for by their fidelity to an
+author's words, they become treacherous to his reputation; on the other
+hand, a too wanton departure from the letter often varies the sense and
+alters the manner. The translator chose the middle way, and meant
+neither to tread on the heels of Tibullus nor yet to lose sight of
+him."[430] The preface to Fawkes' _Theocritus_ harks back to Dryden: "A
+too faithful translation, Mr. Dryden says, must be a pedantic one....
+And as I have not endeavored to give a verbal translation, so neither
+have I indulged myself in a rash paraphrase, which always loses the
+spirit of an ancient by degenerating into the modern manners of
+expression."[431]
+
+Yet behind these well-sounding phrases there lay, one suspects, little
+vigorous thought. Both the clarity and the honesty which belong to
+Dryden's utterances are absent from much of the comment of the
+eighteenth century. The apparent judicial impartiality of Garth, Fawkes,
+Grainger, and their contemporaries disappears on closer examination. In
+reality the balance of opinion in the time of Pope and Johnson inclines
+very perceptibly in favor of freedom. Imitation, it is true, soon ceases
+to enter into the discussion of translation proper, but literalism is
+attacked again and again, till one is ready to ask, with Dryden, "Who
+defends it?" Mickle's preface to _The Lusiad_ states with unusual
+frankness what was probably the underlying idea in most of the theory of
+the time. Writing "not to gratify the dull few, whose greatest pleasure
+is to see what the author exactly says," but "to give a poem that might
+live in the English language," Mickle puts up a vigorous defense of his
+methods. "Literal translation of poetry," he insists, "is a solecism.
+You may construe your author, indeed, but if with some translators you
+boast that you have left your author to speak for himself, that you have
+neither added nor diminished, you have in reality grossly abused him,
+and deceived yourself. Your literal translations can have no claim to
+the original felicities of expression, the energy, elegance, and fire of
+the original poetry. It may bear, indeed, a resemblance, but such an
+one as a corpse in the sepulchre bears to the former man, when he moved
+in the bloom and vigor of life.
+
+    Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere, fidus
+    Interpres--
+
+was the taste of the Augustan age. None but a poet can translate a poet.
+The freedom which this precept gives will, therefore, in a poet's hands,
+not only infuse the energy, elegance, and fire of the author's poetry
+into his own version, but will give it also the spirit of an
+original."[432] A similarly clear statement of the real facts of the
+situation appears in Johnson's remarks on translators. His test for a
+translation is its readability, and to attain this quality he thinks it
+permissible for the translator to improve on his author. "To a thousand
+cavils," he writes in the course of his comments on Pope's _Homer_, "one
+answer is necessary; the purpose of a writer is to be read, and the
+criticism which would destroy the power of pleasing must be blown
+aside."[433] The same view comes forward in his estimate of Cowley's
+work. "The Anacreon of Cowley, like the Homer of Pope, has admitted the
+decoration of some modern graces, by which he is undoubtedly more
+amiable to common readers, and perhaps, if they would honestly declare
+their own perceptions, to far the greater part of those whom courtesy
+and ignorance are content to style the learned."[434]
+
+In certain matters, however, the translator claimed especial freedom. "A
+work of this nature," says Trapp of his translation of the _Aeneid_, "is
+to be regarded in two different views, both as a poem and as a
+translated poem." This gives the translator some latitude. "The thought
+and contrivance are his author's, but his language and the turn of his
+versification are his own."[435] Pope holds the same opinion. A
+translator must "give his author entire and unmaimed" but for the rest
+the diction and versification are his own province.[436] Such a dictum
+was sure to meet with approval, for dignity of language and smoothness
+of verse were the very qualities on which the period prided itself. It
+was in these respects that translators hoped to improve on the work of
+the preceding age. Fawkes, the translator of Theocritus, believes that
+many lines in Dryden's _Miscellany_ "will sound very harshly in the
+polished ears of the present age," and that Creech's translation of his
+author can be popular only with those who "having no ear for poetical
+numbers, are better pleased with the rough music of the last age than
+the refined harmony of this." Johnson, who strongly approved of Dryden's
+performance, accepts it as natural that there should be other attempts
+at the translation of Virgil, "since the English ear has been accustomed
+to the mellifluence of Pope's numbers, and the diction of poetry has
+become more splendid."[437] There was something of poetic justice in
+this attitude towards the seventeenth century, itself so unappreciative
+of the achievements of earlier translators, but exemplified in practice,
+it showed the peculiar limitations of the age of Pope.
+
+As in the seventeenth century, the heroic couplet was the predominant
+form in translations. Blank verse, when employed, was generally
+associated with a protest against the prevailing methods of translators.
+Trapp and Brady, both of whom early in the century attempted blank verse
+renderings of the _Aeneid_, justify their use of this form on the ground
+that it permits greater faithfulness to the original. Brady intends to
+avoid the rock upon which other translators have split, "and that seems
+to me to be their translating this noble and elegant poet into rhyme; by
+which they were sometimes forced to abandon the sense, and at other
+times to cramp it very much, which inconveniences may probably be
+avoided in blank verse."[438] Trapp makes a more violent onslaught upon
+earlier translations, which he finds "commonly so very licentious that
+they can scarce be called so much as paraphrases," and presents the
+employment of blank verse as in some degree a remedy for this. "The
+fetters of rhyme often cramp the expression and spoil the verse, and so
+you can both translate more closely and also more fully express the
+spirit of your author without it than with it."[439] Neither version
+however was kindly received, and though there continued to be occasional
+efforts to break away from what Warton calls "the Gothic shackles of
+rhyme"[440] or from the oversmoothness of Augustan verse, the more
+popular translators set the stamp of their approval on the couplet in
+its classical perfection. Grainger, who translated Tibullus, discusses
+the possibility of using the "alternate" stanza, but ends by saying that
+he has generally "preferred the heroic measure, which is not better
+suited to the lofty sound of the epic muse than to the complaining tone
+of the elegy."[441] Hoole chooses the couplet for his version of
+Ariosto, because it occupies the same place in English that the octave
+stanza occupies in Italian, and because it is capable of great variety.
+"Of all the various styles used by the best poets," he says, "none seems
+so well adapted to the mixed and familiar narrative as that of Dryden in
+his last production, known by the name of his _Fables_, which by their
+harmony, spirit, ease, and variety of versification, exhibit an
+admirable model for a translation of Ariosto."[442] It was, however, to
+the regularity of Pope's couplet that most translators aspired. Francis,
+the translator of Horace, who succeeded in pleasing his readers in spite
+of his failure to conform with popular standards, puts the situation
+well in a comment which recalls a similar utterance of Dryden. "The
+misfortune of our translators," he says, "is that they have only one
+style; and consequently all their authors, Homer, Virgil, Horace, and
+Ovid, are compelled to speak in the same numbers, and the same unvaried
+expression. The free-born spirit of poetry is confined in twenty
+constant syllables, and the sense regularly ends with every second line,
+as if the writer had not strength enough to support himself or courage
+enough to venture into a third."[443]
+
+Revolts against the couplet, then, were few and generally unsuccessful.
+Prose translations of the epic, such as have in our own day attained
+some popularity, were in the eighteenth century regarded with especial
+disfavor. It was known that they had some vogue in France, but that was
+not considered a recommendation. The English translation of Madame
+Dacier's prose Homer, issued by Ozell, Oldisworth, and Broome, was
+greeted with scorn. Trapp, in the preface to his Virgil, refers to the
+new French fashion with true insular contempt. Segrais' translation is
+"almost as good as the French language will allow, which is just as fit
+for an epic poem as an ambling nag is for a war horse.... Their language
+is excellent for prose, but quite otherwise for verse, especially
+heroic. And therefore tho' the translating of poems into prose is a
+strange modern invention, yet the French transprosers are so far in the
+right because their language will not bear verse." Mickle, mentioning in
+his _Dissertation on the Lusiad_ that "M. Duperron de Castera, in 1735,
+gave in French prose a loose unpoetical paraphrase of the Lusiad,"
+feels it necessary to append in a note his opinion that "a literal prose
+translation of poetry is an attempt as absurd as to translate fire into
+water."
+
+If there was little encouragement for the translator to experiment with
+new solutions of the problems of versification, there was equally little
+latitude allowed him in the other division of his peculiar province,
+diction. In accordance with existing standards, critics doubled their
+insistence on Decorum, a quality in which they found the productions of
+former times lacking. Johnson criticizes Dryden's _Juvenal_ on the
+ground that it wants the dignity of its original.[444] Fawkes finds
+Creech "more rustic than any of the rustics in the Sicilian bard," and
+adduces in proof many illustrations, from his calling a "noble pastoral
+cup a fine two-handled pot" to his dubbing his characters "Tawney Bess,
+Tom, Will, Dick" in vulgar English style.[445] Fanshaw, says Mickle in
+the preface to his translation of Camoens, had not "the least idea of
+the dignity of the epic style." The originals themselves, however,
+presented obstacles to suitable rendering. Preston finds this so in the
+case of Apollonius Rhodius, and offers this explanation of the matter:
+"Ancient terms of art, even if they can be made intelligible, cannot be
+rendered, with any degree of grace, into a modern language, where the
+corresponding terms are debased into vulgarity by low and familiar use.
+Many passages of this kind are to be found in Homer. They are frequent
+also in Apollonius Rhodius; particularly so, from the exactness which he
+affects in describing everything."[446] Warton, unusually tolerant of
+Augustan taste in this respect, finds the same difficulty in the
+_Eclogues_ and _Georgics_ of Virgil. "A poem whose excellence peculiarly
+consists in the graces of diction," his preface runs, "is far more
+difficult to be translated, than a work where sentiment, or passion, or
+imagination is chiefly displayed.... Besides, the meanness of the terms
+of husbandry is concealed and lost in a dead language, and they convey
+no low and despicable image to the mind; but the coarse and common words
+I was necessitated to use in the following translation, viz. _plough and
+sow_, _wheat_, _dung_, _ashes_, _horse and cow_, etc., will, I fear,
+unconquerably disgust many a delicate reader, if he doth not make proper
+allowance for a modern compared with an ancient language."[447]
+According to Hoole, the English language confines the translator within
+narrow limits. A translation of Berni's _Orlando Innamorato_ into
+English verse would be almost impossible, "the narrative descending to
+such familiar images and expressions as would by no means suit the
+genius of our language and poetry."[448] The task of translating
+Ariosto, though not so hopeless, is still arduous on this account.
+"There is a certain easy negligence in his muse that often assumes a
+playful mode of expression incompatible with the nature of our present
+poetry.... An English translator will have frequent reason to regret the
+more rigid genius of the language, that rarely permits him in this
+respect, to attempt even an imitation of his author."
+
+The comments quoted in the preceding pages make one realize that, while
+the translator was left astonishingly free as regarded his treatment of
+the original, it was at his peril that he ran counter to contemporary
+literary standards. The discussion centering around Pope's _Homer_, at
+once the most popular and the most typical translation of the period,
+may be taken as presenting the situation in epitome. Like other prefaces
+of the time, Pope's introductory remarks are, whether intentionally or
+unintentionally, misleading. He begins, in orthodox fashion, by
+advocating the middle course approved by Dryden. "It is certain," he
+writes, "no literal translation can be just to an excellent original in
+a superior language: but it is a great mistake to imagine (as many have
+done) that a rash paraphrase can make amends for this general defect;
+which is no less in danger to lose the spirit of an ancient, by
+deviating into the modern manners of expression." Continuing, however,
+he urges an unusual degree of faithfulness. The translator must not
+think of improving upon his author. "I will venture to say," he
+declares, "there have not been more men misled in former times by a
+servile, dull adherence to the letter, than have been deluded in ours by
+a chimerical insolent hope of raising and improving their author....
+'Tis a great secret in writing to know when to be plain, and when
+poetical and figurative; and it is what Homer will teach us, if we will
+but follow modestly in his footsteps. Where his diction is bold and
+lofty, let us raise ours as high as we can; but where his is plain and
+humble, we ought not to be deterred from imitating him by the fear of
+incurring the censure of a mere English critic." The translator ought to
+endeavor to "copy him in all the variations of his style, and the
+different modulations of his numbers; to preserve, in the more active or
+descriptive parts, a warmth and elevation; in the more sedate or
+narrative, a plainness and solemnity; in the speeches a fullness and
+perspicuity; in the sentences a shortness and gravity: not to neglect
+even the little figures and turns on the words, nor sometimes the very
+cast of the periods; neither to omit nor confound any rites and customs
+of antiquity."
+
+Declarations like this would, if taken alone, make one rate Pope as a
+pioneer in the art of translation. Unfortunately the comment of his
+critics, even of those who admired him, tells a different story. "To say
+of this noble work that it is the best which ever appeared of the kind,
+would be speaking in much lower terms than it deserves," writes
+Melmoth, himself a successful translator, in _Fitzosborne's Letters_.
+Melmoth's description of Pope's method is, however, very different from
+that offered by Pope himself. "Mr. Pope," he says, "seems, in most
+places, to have been inspired with the same sublime spirit that animates
+his original; as he often takes fire from a single hint in his author,
+and blazes out even with a stronger and brighter flame of poetry. Thus
+the character of Thersites, as it stands in the English _Iliad_, is
+heightened, I think, with more masterly strokes of satire than appear in
+the Greek; as many of those similes in Homer, which would appear,
+perhaps, to a modern eye too naked and unornamented, are painted by Pope
+in all the beautiful drapery of the most graceful metaphor"--a statement
+backed by citation of the famous moonlight passage, which Melmoth finds
+finer than the corresponding passage in the original. There is no doubt
+in the critic's mind as to the desirability of improving upon Homer.
+"There is no ancient author," he declares, "more likely to betray an
+injudicious interpreter into meannesses than Homer.... But a skilful
+artist knows how to embellish the most ordinary subject; and what would
+be low and spiritless from a less masterly pencil, becomes pleasing and
+graceful when worked up by Mr. Pope."[449]
+
+Melmoth's last comment suggests Matthew Arnold's remark, "Pope composes
+with his eye on his style, into which he translates his object, whatever
+it may be,"[450] but in intention the two criticisms are very different.
+To the average eighteenth-century reader Homer was entirely acceptable
+"when worked up by Mr. Pope." Slashing Bentley might declare that it
+"must not be called Homer," but he admitted that "it was a pretty poem."
+Less competent critics, unhampered by Bentley's scholarly doubts,
+thought the work adequate both as a poem and as a translated poem.
+Dennis, in his _Remarks upon Pope's Homer_, quotes from a recent review
+some characteristic phrases. "I know not which I should most admire,"
+says the reviewer, "the justness of the original, or the force and
+beauty of the language, or the sounding variety of the numbers."[451]
+Prior, with more honesty, refuses to bother his head over "the justness
+of the original," and gratefully welcomes the English version.
+
+    Hang Homer and Virgil; their meaning to seek,
+    A man must have pok'd into Latin and Greek;
+    Those who love their own tongue, we have reason to hope,
+    Have read them translated by Dryden and Pope.[452]
+
+In general, critics, whether men of letters or Grub Street reviewers,
+saw both Pope's _Iliad_ and Homer's _Iliad_ through the medium of
+eighteenth-century taste. Even Dennis's onslaught, which begins with a
+violent contradiction of the hackneyed tribute quoted above, leaves the
+impression that its vigor comes rather from personal animus than from
+distrust of existing literary standards or from any new and individual
+theory of translation.
+
+With the romantic movement, however, comes criticism which presents to
+us Pope's _Iliad_ as seen in the light of common day instead of through
+the flattering illusions which had previously veiled it. New translators
+like Macpherson and Cowper, though too courteous to direct their attack
+specifically against the great Augustan, make it evident that they have
+adopted new standards of faithfulness and that they no longer admire
+either the diction or the versification which made Pope supreme among
+his contemporaries. Macpherson gives it as his opinion that, although
+Homer has been repeatedly translated into most of the languages of
+modern Europe, "these versions were rather paraphrases than faithful
+translations, attempts to give the spirit of Homer, without the
+character and peculiarities of his poetry and diction," and that
+translators have failed especially in reproducing "the magnificent
+simplicity, if the epithet may be used, of the original, which can never
+be characteristically expressed in the antithetical quaintness of modern
+fine writing."[453] Cowper's prefaces show that he has given serious
+consideration to all the opinions of the theorists of his century, and
+that his own views are fundamentally opposed to those generally
+professed. His own basic principle is that of fidelity to his author,
+and, like every sensible critic, he sees that the translator must
+preserve a mean between the free and the close methods. This approval of
+compromise is not, however, a mere formula; Cowper attempts to throw
+light upon it from various angles. The couplet he immediately repudiates
+as an enemy to fidelity. "I will venture to assert that a just
+translation of any ancient poet in rhyme is impossible," he declares.
+"No human ingenuity can be equal to the task of closing every couplet
+with sounds homotonous, expressing at the same time the full sense of
+his original. The translator's ingenuity, indeed, in this case becomes
+itself a snare, and the readier he is at invention and expedient, the
+more likely he is to be betrayed into the wildest departures from the
+guide whom he professes to follow."[454] The popular idea that the
+translator should try to imagine to himself the style which his author
+would have used had he been writing in English is to Cowper "a direction
+which wants nothing but practicability to recommend it. For suppose six
+persons, equally qualified for the task, employed to translate the same
+Ancient into their own language, with this rule to guide them. In the
+event it would be found that each had fallen on a manner different from
+that of all the rest, and by probable inference it would follow that
+none had fallen on the right."[455]
+
+Cowper's advocacy of Miltonic blank verse as a suitable vehicle for a
+translation of Homer need not concern us here, but another innovation on
+which he lays considerable stress in his prefaces helps to throw light
+on the practice and the standards of his immediate predecessors. With
+more veracity than Pope, he represents himself as having followed his
+author even in his "plainer" passages. "The passages which will be least
+noticed, and possibly not at all, except by those who shall wish to find
+me at a fault," he writes in the preface to the first edition, "are
+those which have cost me abundantly the most labor. It is difficult to
+kill a sheep with dignity in a modern language, to slay and prepare it
+for the table, detailing every circumstance in the process. Difficult
+also, without sinking below the level of poetry, to harness mules to a
+wagon, particularizing every article of their furniture, straps, rings,
+staples, and even the tying of the knots that kept all together. Homer,
+who writes always to the eye with all his sublimity and grandeur, has
+the minuteness of a Flemish painter." In the preface to his second
+edition he recurs to this problem and makes a significant comment on
+Pope's method of solving it. "There is no end of passages in Homer," he
+repeats, "which must creep unless they be lifted; yet in all such, all
+embellishment is out of the question. The hero puts on his clothes, or
+refreshes himself with food and wine, or he yokes his steeds, takes a
+journey, and in the evening preparation is made for his repose. To give
+relief to subjects prosaic as these without seeming unseasonably tumid
+is extremely difficult. Mr. Pope abridges some of them, and others he
+omits; but neither of these liberties was compatible with the nature of
+my undertaking."[456]
+
+That Cowper's reaction against Pope's ideals was not a thing of sudden
+growth is evident from a letter more outspoken than the prefaces. "Not
+much less than thirty years since," he writes in 1788, "Alston and I
+read Homer through together. The result was a discovery that there is
+hardly a thing in the world of which Pope is so entirely destitute as a
+taste for Homer.... I remembered how we had been disgusted; how often we
+had sought the simplicity and majesty of Homer in his English
+representative, and had found instead of them puerile conceits,
+extravagant metaphors, and the tinsel of modern embellishment in every
+possible position."[457]
+
+Cowper's "discovery," startling, almost heretical at the time when it
+was made, is now little more than a commonplace. We have long recognized
+that Pope's Homer is not the real Homer; it is scarcely an exaggeration
+to say, as does Mr. Andrew Lang, "It is almost as if he had taken
+Homer's theme and written the poem himself."[458] Yet it is surprising
+to see how nearly the eighteenth-century ambition, "to write a poem that
+will live in the English language" has been answered in the case of
+Pope. Though the "tinsel" of his embellishment is no longer even
+"modern," his translation seems able to hold its own against later verse
+renderings based on sounder theories. The Augustan translator strove to
+give his work "elegance, energy, and fire," and despite the false
+elegance, we can still feel something of true energy and fire as we read
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_.
+
+The truth is that, in translated as in original literature the
+permanent and the transitory elements are often oddly mingled. The fate
+of Pope's Homer helps us to reconcile two opposed views regarding the
+future history of verse translations. Our whole study of the varying
+standards set for translators makes us feel the truth of Mr. Lang's
+conclusion: "There can be then, it appears, no final English translation
+of Homer. In each there must be, in addition to what is Greek and
+eternal, the element of what is modern, personal, and fleeting."[459]
+The translator, it is obvious, must speak in the dialect and move in the
+measures of his own day, thereby very often failing to attract the
+attention of a later day. Yet there must be some place in our scheme for
+the faith expressed by Matthew Arnold in his essays on translating
+Homer, that "the task of translating Homer into English verse both will
+be re-attempted, and may be re-attempted successfully."[460] For in
+translation there is involved enough of creation to supply the
+incalculable element which cheats the theorist. Possibly some day the
+miracle may be wrought, and, in spite of changing literary fashions, we
+may have our English version of Homer in a form sufficient not only for
+an age but for all time.
+
+It is this incalculable quality in creative work that has made
+theorizing on the methods of translation more than a mere academic
+exercise. Forced to adjust itself to the facts of actual production,
+theory has had to follow new paths as literature has followed new paths,
+and in the process it has acquired fresh vigor and flexibility. Even as
+we leave the period of Pope, we can see the dull inadequacy of a
+worn-out collection of rules giving way before the honest, individual
+approach of Cowper. "Many a fair precept in poetry," says Dryden apropos
+of Roscommon's rules for translation, "is like a seeming demonstration
+in the mathematics, very specious in the diagram, but failing in the
+mechanic operation."[461] Confronted by such discrepancies, the theorist
+has again and again had to modify his "specious" rules, with the result
+that the theory of translation, though a small, is yet a living and
+growing element in human thought.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[365] _Preface to the Reader_, in _The Natural History of C. Plinius
+Secundus_, London, 1601.
+
+[366] _Dedication_, in _Ovid's Metamorphosis, Englished by G. S._, London,
+1640.
+
+[367] _Dedication_, in _The Poems of Horace rendered into Verse by Several
+Persons_, London, 1666.
+
+[368] _Juvenal and Persius_, translated by Barten Holyday, Oxford, 1673
+(published posthumously).
+
+[369] _Dedication of the Aeneis_, in _Essays of John Dryden_, ed. W. P.
+Ker, v. 2, p. 235.
+
+[370] _Postscript to the Reader_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 243.
+
+[371] _Rowe_, in _Lives of the Poets_, Dublin, 1804, p. 284.
+
+[372] _The Argument_, in _The Passion of Dido for Aeneas_, translated by
+Edmund Waller and Sidney Godolphin, London, 1658.
+
+[373] _Dedication_, in _Translations of Horace_. John Hanway, 1730.
+
+[374] _Dedication_, dated 1728, reprinted in _The English Poets_, London,
+1810, v. 20.
+
+[375] _Preface_ to _The Destruction of Troy_, in Denham, _Poems and
+Translations_, London, 1709.
+
+[376] _To the courteous not curious reader._
+
+[377] Comment on Trapp's "blank version" of Virgil, in _Life of Dryden_.
+
+[378] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 266.
+
+[379] _Dedication of the Aeneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 236.
+
+[380] In _Du Bartas, His Divine Words and Works_, translated by Sylvester,
+London, 1641.
+
+[381] Lines by E. G., same edition.
+
+[382] Same edition, p. 322.
+
+[383] _An Essay on Translated Verse._
+
+[384] _Dedication of the Aeneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 220.
+
+[385] P. 222.
+
+[386] _To the worthy reader._
+
+[387] _To the courteous not curious reader_, in _The XII. Aeneids of
+Virgil_, 1632.
+
+[388] Preface to _The Destruction of Troy_.
+
+[389] Dedication of _The Poems of Horace_.
+
+[390] _To the Reader_, in _The First Book of Virgil's Aeneis_, London,
+1688.
+
+[391] Reprinted in _Godfrey of Bulloigne_, translated by Fairfax, New York,
+1849.
+
+[392] _Essays_, v. 2, p. 249.
+
+[393] _Essays_, v. 2, p. 14.
+
+[394] Sprat, _Life of Cowley_, in _Prose Works of Abraham Cowley_, London,
+1826.
+
+[395] _Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, v. 1, p.
+237.
+
+[396] _Dedication of Examen Poeticum_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 10. Johnson,
+writing of the latter part of the seventeenth century, says, "The authority
+of Jonson, Sandys, and Holiday had fixed the judgment of the nation" (_The
+Idler_, 69), and Tytler, in his _Essay on the Principles of Translation_,
+1791, says, "In poetical translation the English writers of the sixteenth,
+and the greatest part of the seventeenth century, seem to have had no other
+care than (in Denham's phrase) to translate language into language, and to
+have placed their whole merit in presenting a literal and servile
+transcript of their original."
+
+[397] In Lucan's _Pharsalia_, translated May, 1659.
+
+[398] _To the Reader_, in Ovid's _Metamorphosis_, translated Sandys,
+London, 1640.
+
+[399] _Preface_ to _Pindaric Odes_, reprinted in _Essays and other Prose
+Writings_, Oxford, 1915.
+
+[400] _Preface to Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 239.
+
+[401] Pp. 239-40.
+
+[402] Dedication to Dryden, 1684, in _The Odes, Satires, and Epistles of
+Horace done into English_, London, 1688.
+
+[403] _Metellus his Dialogues, Relation of a Journey to Tunbridge Wells,
+with the Fourth Book of Virgil's Aeneid in English_, London, 1693.
+
+[404] _Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, vol. 1, p.
+240.
+
+[405] _To the Earl of Roscommon on his excellent Essay on Translated
+Verse._
+
+[406] In Sir Robert Howard's _Poems_, London, 1660.
+
+[407] In Holiday's _Persius_, Fifth Edition, 1650.
+
+[408] In Creech's _Lucretius_, Third Edition, Oxford, 1683.
+
+[409] In Creech's _Lucretius_, Third Edition, Oxford, 1683.
+
+[410] _Essay on the Principles of Translation_, Everyman's Library, pp.
+45-6.
+
+[411] _Essays_, v. 1, p. 252.
+
+[412] _Preface to the Translation of Ovid's Epistles_, _Essays_, v. 1, p.
+241.
+
+[413] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 254.
+
+[414] _Ibid._, p. 264.
+
+[415] _Preface_, in Second Edition of _Odes of Horace_, London, 1688.
+
+[416] _Examen Poeticum_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 9.
+
+[417] _Preface to the Fables_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 251.
+
+[418] _To the Reader_, in _The Odes, Satires, and Epistles of Horace_,
+London, 1688.
+
+[419] _Preface_ to translation of Horace, 1652.
+
+[420] _Dedication of the Eneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, pp. 220-1.
+
+[421] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, pp. 256-7.
+
+[422] _Examen Poeticum_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 14.
+
+[423] _Preface._
+
+[424] _Essays_, v. 2, p. 10.
+
+[425] _Dedication of the Eneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 223.
+
+[426] _Preface to Sylvae_, _Essays_, v. 1, p. 255.
+
+[427] _Essays_, v. 1, p. 258.
+
+[428] _Dedication of the Eneis_, _Essays_, v. 2, p. 215.
+
+[429] In _Ovid's Metamorphoses translated by Dryden, Addison, Garth_, etc.,
+reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 20.
+
+[430] _Advertisement_ to _Elegies of Tibullus_, reprinted in same volume.
+
+[431] _Preface_ to _Idylliums of Theocritus_, reprinted in same volume.
+
+[432] _Dissertation on The Lusiad_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v.
+21.
+
+[433] _Pope_, in _Lives of the Poets_, p. 568.
+
+[434] _Cowley_, in _Lives_, p. 25.
+
+[435] Preface of 1718, reprinted in _The Works of Virgil translated into
+English blank verse by Joseph Trapp_, London, 1735.
+
+[436] _Preface to Homer's Iliad._
+
+[437] _Dryden_ in _Lives of the Poets_, p. 226.
+
+[438] _Proposals for a translation of Virgil's Aeneis in Blank Verse_,
+London, 1713.
+
+[439] _Preface_, _op. cit._
+
+[440] _Prefatory Dedication_, in _The Works of Virgil in English Verse_,
+London, 1763.
+
+[441] _Advertisement_, _op. cit._
+
+[442] _Preface_ to _Ariosto_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 21.
+
+[443] _Preface_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 19.
+
+[444] _Dryden_, in _Lives_, p. 226.
+
+[445] _Op. cit._
+
+[446] _Preface_, reprinted in _The British Poets_, Chiswick, 1822, v. 90.
+
+[447] _Prefatory Dedication_, in _The Works of Virgil in English Verse_,
+London, 1763.
+
+[448] _Preface_ to _Ariosto_, reprinted in _The English Poets_, v. 21.
+
+[449] Pp. 53-4.
+
+[450] _Essays_, Oxford Edition, p. 258.
+
+[451] _Mr. Dennis's Remarks upon Pope's Homer_, London, 1717, p. 9.
+
+[452] In _Down Hall, a Ballad_.
+
+[453] Preface to _The Iliad of Homer_, translated by James Macpherson,
+London, 1773.
+
+[454] Preface to first edition, taken from _The Iliad of Homer, translated
+by the late William Cowper_, London, 1802.
+
+[455] Preface to first edition, taken from _The Iliad of Homer, translated
+by the late William Cowper_, London, 1802.
+
+[456] _Preface prepared by Mr. Cowper for a Second Edition_, in edition of
+1802.
+
+[457] _Letters_, ed. Wright, London, 1904, v. 3, p. 233.
+
+[458] _History of English Literature_, p. 384.
+
+[459] Preface to _The Odyssey of Homer done into English Prose_.
+
+[460] Lecture, III, in _Essays_, p. 311.
+
+[461] _Preface to Sylvae_, in _Essays_, v. 1, p. 252.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Adlington, William, 89, 94.
+
+Aelfric, 4-5, 15, 55, 56, 58.
+
+Alfred, 3-4, 15, 17.
+
+_Alexander_, 10, 34.
+
+Amyot, Jacques, xii, 106.
+
+_Andreas_, 6, 7.
+
+Andrew of Wyntoun, 35-6, 39, 116.
+
+Arnold, Matthew, xi, 172, 177.
+
+_Arthur_, 45.
+
+Ascham, Roger, 109, 114.
+
+Augustine, St., 50, 55.
+
+_Authorized Version of 1611_, 51, 52, 54, 60, 61, 66, 68.
+
+
+Bacon, Francis, 75.
+
+Barbour, John, 36-7.
+
+Barclay, Alexander, 100-1.
+
+_Bay Psalm Book_, 77.
+
+Bentley, Richard, 172.
+
+Berners, Lord, 101, 105.
+
+_Bevis of Hamtoun_, 23, 24.
+
+_Birth of Jesus_, 43.
+
+_Bishops' Bible_, 58, 59, 67.
+
+_Blood of Hayles_, 40.
+
+Bokenam, Osbern, 8, 16, 40, 43-4, 46.
+
+_Book of the Knight of La Tour Landry_, 18.
+
+B. R., 127-8.
+
+Bradshaw, Henry, 8.
+
+Brady, N., 166-7.
+
+Brende, John, 88-9, 94, 129.
+
+Brinsley, John, 140.
+
+Brome, Henry, 136, 144.
+
+Bryan, Sir Francis, 101, 105.
+
+Bullokar, John, 95.
+
+Bullokar, William, 109-10.
+
+
+Caedmon, 6.
+
+_Canticum de Creatione_, 15, 20.
+
+Capgrave, John, 14, 19, 20-1, 22, 40, 45.
+
+Carew, Richard, 128.
+
+Cartwright, William, 155.
+
+Castalio, 51, 61, 70.
+
+_Castle of Love_, Grosseteste's, 9, 13.
+
+Caxton, William, 9, 12, 31, 44, 96, 115.
+
+  _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_, 38.
+
+  _Charles the Great_, 38, 46.
+
+  _Eneydos_, 35, 38, 39.
+
+  _Fayttes of Arms_, 12.
+
+  _Godfrey of Bullogne_, 33.
+
+  _Mirror of the World_, 12.
+
+  _Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_, 38.
+
+Cecil, Sir William, 119, 125.
+
+Chaloner, Sir Thomas, 128.
+
+Chapman, George, 90, 92, 93, 130-1, 145, 146, 147, 150, 161.
+
+Chaucer, Geoffrey, 9, 10, 30.
+
+  _Franklin's Tale_, 30.
+
+  _Knight's Tale_, 30.
+
+  _Legend of Good Women_, 8.
+
+  _Life of St. Cecilia_, 8.
+
+  _Man of Law's Tale_, 27, 28.
+
+  _Romance of the Rose_, 8.
+
+  _Sir Thopas_, 24.
+
+  _Troilus and Criseyde_, 6, 8, 30-1.
+
+Cheke, Sir John, 59, 63, 108, 119, 125-6, 128.
+
+_Child of Bristow_, 39-40.
+
+Chretien de Troyes, 30.
+
+Cooke, Thomas, 138-9.
+
+Coverdale, Miles, 50-1, 52, 59, 60, 64-5, 74.
+
+Cowley, Abraham, 137, 147, 149-50, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 165.
+
+Cowper, William, 173, 174 ff.
+
+Creech, Thomas, 151-2, 155-6, 158-9, 160, 166, 169.
+
+Cromwell, Thomas, 51.
+
+_Cursor Mundi_, 10.
+
+Cynewulf, 6.
+
+
+Dacier, Mme., 168.
+
+Danett, Thomas, 90.
+
+Daniel, Samuel, 87.
+
+Davies of Hereford, John, 142.
+
+Denham, Sir John, 137, 139, 144, 147, 150-1, 154, 156, 157.
+
+Dennis, John, 173.
+
+Dolet, Etienne, 99.
+
+Douglas, Gavin, 107-8.
+
+Drant, Thomas, 111 ff.
+
+Dryden, John, 136-7, 141, 143, 145, 148, 151, 153-4, 154-5, 157-8, 159,
+    160-1, 162, 163, 166, 169, 177-8.
+
+
+_Earl of Toulouse_, 23, 27.
+
+Eden, Richard, 85, 91, 96.
+
+_Elene_, 6.
+
+Ely, Bishop of, 65.
+
+Elyot, Sir Thomas, 11, 95, 118, 119-20.
+
+_Emare_, 21.
+
+
+Fairfax, Edward, 144-5.
+
+_Falls of Princes_, Boccaccio's, 7, 37.
+
+Fanshaw, Sir Richard, 139, 147, 169.
+
+Fawkes, Francis, 164, 166, 169.
+
+Fleming, Abraham, 109, 114.
+
+Florio, John, 84, 87, 97.
+
+_Floris and Blancheflor_, 45.
+
+Fortescue, Thomas, 87, 103.
+
+Foxe, John, 54, 67, 68, 94-5.
+
+Francis, Philip, 168.
+
+Fraunce, Abraham, 77.
+
+Fulke, William, 54, 60, 65, 70 ff.
+
+
+Garth, Sir Samuel, 163.
+
+_Geneva Bible_, 53, 60, 61.
+
+_Geneva New Testament_, 59, 61.
+
+_Gesta Romanorum_, 28.
+
+_Golagros and Gawain_, 21.
+
+_Golden Legend_, 41.
+
+Golding, Arthur, 75-6, 82, 91, 97-8, 113, 117-8, 129-30.
+
+Googe, Barnaby, 77.
+
+Gould, Robert, 144.
+
+Grainger, James, 163-4, 167.
+
+Greenway, Richard, 93.
+
+Grimald, Nicholas, 85, 89, 96, 121-3.
+
+Grindal, Archbishop, 68.
+
+Guevara, 106.
+
+Guido delle Colonne, 34.
+
+
+Hake, Edward, 113-4.
+
+_Handlyng Synne_, 42.
+
+Harrington, Sir John, 85-6, 95, 100.
+
+Harvey, Gabriel, 114, 129.
+
+Hellowes, Edward, 82, 91, 105-6.
+
+Heywood, Jasper, 111, 116.
+
+Hobbes, Thomas, 140-1.
+
+Hoby, Sir Thomas, 82, 89, 90, 119, 128.
+
+Holiday, Barten, 136, 155, 160.
+
+_Holy Grail_, 31.
+
+Holland, Philemon, 86, 91-2, 98, 130, 135.
+
+Hoole, John, 139, 167, 170.
+
+Howard, Sir Robert, 154.
+
+Hudson, Thomas, 142.
+
+Hue de Rotelande, 21.
+
+Hyrde, Richard, 81.
+
+
+_Incestuous Daughter_, 13.
+
+_Ipomadon_, 21.
+
+
+James VI of Scotland, 75, 142.
+
+Jerome, St., 5, 15, 55-6, 76.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 137, 140, 148, note, 163, 165, 166, 169.
+
+Jonson, Ben, 136, 148, 149, 161.
+
+Joye, George, 50.
+
+
+_King Alexander_, 34.
+
+_King Horn_, 26.
+
+Knolles, Richard, 129.
+
+
+Lang, Andrew, 176, 177.
+
+_Launfal_, 7.
+
+Laurent de Premierfait, 7.
+
+Layamon, 34.
+
+_Le Bone Florence of Rome_, 27, 28.
+
+_Life of St. Augustine_, 41-2.
+
+L'Isle, William, 63, note.
+
+Lonelich, Harry, 31.
+
+Love, Nicholas, 41, 43, 45.
+
+Lydgate, John, 7, 8, 16, 31, 37-8, 44, 115.
+
+
+Macpherson, James, 173-4.
+
+Malory, Sir Thomas, 26.
+
+Mancinus, 108.
+
+Marot, Clement, 75.
+
+Martin, Gregory, 65, 70-1.
+
+May, Thomas, 148, 149.
+
+Melmoth, William, 171, 172.
+
+_Menechmi_, trans. of, 128.
+
+_Metellus his Dialogues_, 152-3.
+
+Mickle, William Julius, 139, 164-5, 168-9.
+
+Milton, John, 75.
+
+Mirk, John, 10.
+
+More, Sir Thomas, 52, 53, 63, 67, 69, 118, 119.
+
+Morley, Lord, 84-5, 89.
+
+_Morte Arthur_, 33.
+
+Mulgrave, Earl of, 154.
+
+Munday, Anthony, 102, 103.
+
+
+Nash, Thomas, 81, 117.
+
+Neville, Alexander, 111.
+
+Nicholls, Thomas, 81, 119.
+
+North, Sir Thomas, 105, 106.
+
+_Northern Passion_, 45.
+
+Norton, Thomas, 74, 83-4, 118, 123-5.
+
+
+_Octavian_, 27, 28, 29.
+
+Orm, 17.
+
+Otway, Thomas, 156.
+
+
+Painter, William, 102, 103.
+
+Paris, William, 11.
+
+Parker, Archbishop, 54-5, 74.
+
+_Partonope of Blois_, 24, 32-3.
+
+Peele, George, 95.
+
+Peterson, Robert, 128.
+
+Pettie, George, 93, 97.
+
+Phaer, Thomas, 93, 98, 110-1, 116, 144, 153.
+
+_Polychronicon_, 16.
+
+Pope, Alexander, 137, 165, 166, 170 ff.
+
+Preston, W., 169.
+
+Prior, Matthew, 173.
+
+Purvey, John, 56, 57-8, 59, 66-7.
+
+Puttenham, (?) Richard, 96, 116, 140, 144, 153.
+
+
+_Rauf Coilyear_, 21.
+
+_Rhemish Testament_, 59, 61, 62, 68, 70.
+
+_Richard Coeur de Lion_, 9-10.
+
+Ridley, Robert, 67.
+
+Rivers, Earl, 10-1.
+
+_Roberd of Cisyle_, 22-3.
+
+Robert of Brunne, 22, 34-5, 42.
+
+Rolle, Richard, 56, 58-9.
+
+_Romance of Partenay_, 18, 24, 29, 31-2.
+
+Roscommon, Earl of, 12, 143, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 177.
+
+Rowe, Nicholas, 137.
+
+
+Sandys, George, 135, 148, 149.
+
+_Secreta Secretorum_, 15-16.
+
+_Sege of Melayne_, 24.
+
+Seneca's Tragedies, trans. of, 109, 111, 113.
+
+Sidney, Sir Philip, 75.
+
+_Sir Eglamour of Artois_, 23, 27.
+
+_Sir Percival of Galles_, 26.
+
+Southern, John, 96.
+
+Sprat, Thomas, 146.
+
+_St. Etheldred of Ely_, 10, 22.
+
+_St. Katherine of Alexandria_, 13.
+
+_St. Paula_, 41.
+
+Stanyhurst, Richard, 74, 77, 114, 116, 144.
+
+Studley, John, 111.
+
+Surrey, Earl of, 75.
+
+Sylvester, Joshua, 142.
+
+
+Taverner, Richard, 63, 88.
+
+Thomas de Cabham, 22.
+
+Tofte, Robert, 104.
+
+_Torrent of Portyngale_, 24, 27.
+
+Trapp, Joseph, 165, 167, 168.
+
+Trevisa, John de, 16-17, 18.
+
+Turbervile, George, 102, 115-6.
+
+Twyne, Thomas, 113.
+
+Tyndale, William, 49, 50, 58, 59, 62, 67, 84, 119.
+
+Tytler, Alexander, x, 137, 148, note, 156.
+
+
+Udall, Nicholas, 81-2, 87-8, 94, 97, 118, 120-1.
+
+
+Vicars, John, 139-40, 143-4, 146-7, 150.
+
+
+W. L., Gent., 143, 146, 150.
+
+Waller, Edmund, 144, 145.
+
+Warde, William, 88.
+
+_Wars of Alexander_, 23, 25.
+
+Warton, Joseph, 167, 169-70.
+
+Webbe, William, 93.
+
+Whetstone, George, 102.
+
+Willes, Richard, 96-7.
+
+_William of Palerne_, 30.
+
+Wilson, Thomas, 84, 92-3, 119, 125 ff.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of, 67-8.
+
+Wither, George, 75, 76, 77, 78.
+
+Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 75.
+
+
+Young, Bartholomew, 104.
+
+_Ypotis_, 43.
+
+_Ywain and Gawin_, 21, 23, 29, 30.
+
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Notes:                                       |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 14: Double quotes inside double quotes amended to     |
+    | single quotes.                                             |
+    | Page 26: Beween amended to between.                        |
+    | Page 43: Saint's legends _sic_.                            |
+    | Page 56: Insistance amended to insistence.                 |
+    | Page 82: Double quotes at the end of the Golding quote     |
+    | removed.                                                   |
+    | Page 87: Double quotes at the end of the Daniel quote      |
+    | removed.                                                   |
+    | Page 97: Comma added after _amusing_.                      |
+    | Page 109: Esop _sic_.                                      |
+    | Page 142: Facund _sic_.                                    |
+    | Page 144: Closing quotes added to the Denham quote.        |
+    | Page 184: Bartholemew corrected to Bartholomew.            |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Note 41: Comma at the end of the footnote removed. The     |
+    | comma might indicate that additional information is        |
+    | missing from the footnote.                                 |
+    | Note 329: Acccording _sic_.                                |
+    |                                                            |
+    | The variant spellings of Bulloign, Bulloigne and Bullogne  |
+    | have been retained.                                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | References in the notes to Ovid's _Metamormorphosis_       |
+    | are as per the original.                                   |
+    |                                                            |
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Early Theories of Translation, by Flora Ross Amos
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