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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Children: Some Educational Problems, by 
+Alexander Darroch
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Children: Some Educational Problems
+
+Author: Alexander Darroch
+
+Release Date: May 11, 2007 [EBook #21419]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILDREN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Martin Pettit and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_The Social Problems Series_
+
+EDITED BY
+
+OLIPHANT SMEATON, M.A., F.S.A.
+
+THE CHILDREN
+
+
+_The Social Problems Series_
+
+
+THE CHILDREN
+
+SOME EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS
+
+
+BY
+
+ALEXANDER DARROCH, M.A.
+
+PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
+
+
+LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK
+16 HENRIETTA STREET, W.C.
+AND EDINBURGH
+1907
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+
+CHAP.                                                            PAGE
+
+   I. INTRODUCTION--THE PRESENT UNREST IN EDUCATION                 1
+
+  II. THE MEANING AND PROCESS OF EDUCATION                         13
+
+ III. THE END OF EDUCATION                                         22
+
+  IV. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE PROVISION
+      OF EDUCATION                                                 31
+
+   V. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE COST OF
+      EDUCATION                                                    46
+
+  VI. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE MEDICAL
+      EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THE MEDICAL
+      INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS                                        54
+
+ VII. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE FEEDING OF
+      SCHOOL CHILDREN                                              66
+
+VIII. THE ORGANISATION OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION                   77
+
+  IX. THE AIM OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION                                85
+
+   X. THE AIM OF THE INFANT SCHOOL                                 98
+
+  XI. THE AIM OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL                               107
+
+ XII. THE AIM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL                             118
+
+XIII. THE AIM OF THE UNIVERSITY                                   126
+
+ XIV. CONCLUSION--THE PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION               131
+
+
+
+
+THE CHILDREN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION--THE PRESENT UNREST IN EDUCATION
+
+
+The problems as to the end or ends at which our educational agencies
+should aim in the training and instruction of the children of the
+nation, and of the right methods of attaining these ends once they have
+been definitely and clearly recognised, are at the present day receiving
+greater and greater attention not only from professed educationalists,
+but also from statesmen and the public generally. For, in spite of all
+that has been done during the past thirty years to increase the
+facilities for education and to improve the means of instruction, there
+is a deep-seated and widely spread feeling that, somehow or other,
+matters educationally are not well with us, as a nation, and that in
+this particular line of social development other countries have pushed
+forward, whilst we have been content to lag behind in the educational
+rear.
+
+The faults in our present educational structure are many, and in some
+cases obvious to all. In the first place, it is said, and with much
+truth, that there is no systematic coherence between the different parts
+of our educational machinery, and no thorough-going correlation between
+the various aims which the separate parts of the system are intended to
+realise. As Mr. De Montmorency has recently pointed out, we have always
+had a national group of educational facilities, more or less efficient,
+but we have never had, nor do we yet possess, a national system of
+education so differentiated in its aims and so correlated as to its
+parts as to form "an organic part of the life of the nation."[1] An
+educational system should subserve and foster the life of the whole: it
+should be so organised as to maintain a sufficient and efficient supply
+of all the services which a nation requires at the hands of its adult
+members. For it is only in so far as the educational system of any
+country fulfils this end that it can be "organic," and can be entitled
+to the claim of being called a national system.
+
+This lack of coherence between the different parts of our educational
+system and the want of any systematic plan or unity running through the
+whole is due to many causes. As a nation, we are little inclined to
+system-making, and as a consequence the problem of education as a whole
+and in its total relation to the life and well-being of the State has
+received but scant attention from politicians. Educational questions, in
+this country, are rarely treated on their own merits and apart from
+considerations of a party, political, or denominational character, and
+hence the problems which have received attention in the past and evoke
+discussion at the present are concerned with the nature of the
+constitution, and limits of the power of the bodies to whom should be
+entrusted the local control of the educational agencies of the country,
+rather than with the problems as to the aims which we should seek to
+realise through our educational organisation, and of the methods by
+which these aims may be best realised. Hence, as a nation, we have
+rarely considered for its own sake and as a whole the problem of the
+education of the children. And until we have done so--until we have made
+clear to ourselves the kind of future citizen which as a State we desire
+to rear up--our educational agencies must manifest a like
+indefiniteness, a like inconsistency, and a like want of connection as
+do our educational aims and ideals.
+
+Again, closely connected with this first-named defect in our educational
+organisation, and in fact following from it as a logical consequence, is
+our fatal method of developing this or that part of our educational
+system and of leaving the other parts to develop, if at all, without any
+central guidance or control, until at length we realise that the
+neglected parts also require attention, and must somehow or other be
+refitted into the whole. _E.g._, since 1870 there has been a great
+advance in the extent and intent of elementary education in both England
+and Scotland, but this progress has been of a one-sided nature, and
+there has been no corresponding advance either in the perfecting of the
+educational system as a whole, or in the co-ordination of the various
+grades of education. In Scotland, since the passing into law of the
+Education Bill of 1872, the means of elementary education have been
+widely extended and the methods of teaching have been greatly improved,
+but there has been no corresponding advance in the provision of the
+means of higher education, and as a consequence, at the present day, we
+find many districts without adequate provision for carrying on the
+education of the youth of the country beyond the Primary School stage.
+Secondary education has been provided in some centres by means of
+endowments; in others through the extension of the term "elementary" so
+as to include education of a more extended nature than was originally
+intended to be covered by that term. In England until 1902, very much
+the same conditions prevailed, but since then, mainly in order to remedy
+the state of things created by the judgment in the Cockerton Case, the
+control of primary, secondary, and technical education has been placed
+in the hands of the County and Borough Councils, who are empowered "to
+consider the educational needs of their area, and to take such steps as
+seem to them desirable, after consultation with the Board of Education,
+to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary, and to
+promote the general co-ordination of all forms of education." Tinder the
+powers so granted much has been done throughout England during the past
+few years to extend and make efficient the means of higher education; to
+erect schools which shall provide training for the future services
+required by the community and the State of the more highly gifted of its
+members, and to co-ordinate the work of the various agencies entrusted
+with the care and education of the children of the nation.
+
+Through the failure of the Education Bills of 1904 and 1905 to pass into
+law, Scotland still awaits the creation of local authorities charged
+with the control and direction of all grades of education, and in this
+respect her educational organisation is much more loosely compacted than
+the system which now exists in England.
+
+Further, in Scotland, on account of the absence of one controlling
+authority, we often find in those districts in which the provision for
+higher education is ample, imperfect co-ordination between the aims and
+work, on the one hand, of the Primary School, and on the other, of
+schools providing higher education. From this cause also it follows
+that, unlike our German neighbours, we have made little progress in
+determining the different functions which each particular type of Higher
+School shall perform in the social organism, and have not assigned the
+particular services which the State requires of each particular type of
+Higher School. It is surely manifest that the service which the modern
+industrial State looks for from its members is not the same in kind and
+is much more complex in its nature than that which was required during
+the mediæval period, and that if this service is to be efficiently
+supplied, then there is need for Higher Schools varied in type and
+having various aims.
+
+This want of unity between the various parts of our educational system
+manifests itself again in the indefiniteness of aim of many of our
+Higher Schools, and in the lack of co-ordination between the Higher
+School on the one hand, and institutions providing university and
+advanced instruction on the other. Up till quite recently, the sole aim
+of our Secondary Schools was to provide students for the Universities
+and to supply the needs of the learned professions. But with the
+economic development of the country, and as a consequence of the keen
+international competition between nation and nation in the economic
+sphere, there has arisen a demand for a higher education different in
+kind from that provided by the older Universities, and a need for a type
+of Secondary School different in aim and curriculum from that which
+looks mainly to the provision of students intending to enter upon some
+one or other of the so-called well recognised learned professions. It is
+here, when compared and contrasted with the educational systems of some
+of our Continental neighbours, that we find the weakest point in our own
+system, and at the present time our most urgent need is for the
+extension and better equipment of the central institutions of the
+country which provide higher technical and commercial instruction.
+
+This unsatisfactory condition of things is due in large measure, as we
+have already pointed out, to our innate dislike as a nation of all
+system-making, and to the distrust felt by many minds of any and every
+form of State control of education. Hence, partly from these causes,
+partly as a result of historical conditions, it has followed that
+various authorities have in this country the guidance and control of
+education, with the usual result of want of unity of aim, of lack of
+correlation of means, and in some cases of overlapping and waste of the
+means of higher education.
+
+In the second place, while much has been done since the advent of
+compulsory elementary education to better the means of education and to
+increase the facilities for the higher instruction of the youth of the
+country, there is a widespread belief that all the hopes held out by
+the early advocates of universal compulsory education have not been
+realised, and that our Primary Schools in large measure have failed to
+turn out the type of citizen which a State such as ours requires for her
+after-service.
+
+Universal education has not proved a panacea for all the social evils of
+the Commonwealth, and while it must be admitted that much good has
+resulted from the adoption of universal and compulsory education, yet at
+the same time certain evils have followed in its train.
+
+Since the institution of universal education, it may be argued that the
+children of the nation have received a better training in the use of the
+more mechanical arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic, but the
+tendency has been to look upon the acquisition of these arts as _ends in
+themselves_, rather than as mere instruments for the further extension
+and development of knowledge and practice, and hence our Primary School
+system, to a large extent, has failed to cultivate the imagination of
+the child, and has also failed to train the reason and to develop
+initiative on the part of the pupil. There has been more instruction, it
+has been said, during the last thirty years, but less education; for the
+process of education consists in the building up within the child's mind
+of permanent and stable systems of ideas which shall hereafter function
+in the attainment and realisation of the various ends of life. Now, our
+school practice is still largely dominated by the old conception that
+mere memory knowledge is all-important, and as a consequence much of the
+so-called knowledge acquired during the school period is found valueless
+in after life to realise any definite purpose, for it is only in so far
+as the knowledge acquired has been systematised that it can afterwards
+be turned to use in the furtherance of the aims of adult life.
+
+From this it follows that, since much of the knowledge acquired during
+the school period has no bearing on the real and practical needs of
+life, the Primary School in many cases fails to create any permanent or
+real interest in the works either of nature or of society.
+
+But a much more serious charge is laid at times against our Primary
+School system. It is contended that during the past thirty years it has
+done little to raise the moral tone of the community, and it has done
+still less to develop that sense of civic and national responsibility
+without which the moral and social progress of a nation is impossible.
+Our huge city schools are manufactories rather than educational
+institutions--places where yearly a certain number of the youth of the
+country are turned out able to some extent to make use of the mechanical
+arts of reading and writing, and with a smattering of many branches of
+knowledge, but with little or no training for the moral and civic
+responsibilities of life. This is evident, it is urged, if we consider
+how little the school does to counteract and to supplant the evil
+influences of a bad home or social environment. What truth there may be
+in these charges and what must be done to remedy this state of matters
+will be discussed when we consider later the existing Elementary School
+system. Here it is sufficient to point out that one of the causes at
+work to-day tending to arouse a renewed interest in educational problems
+is the feeling now beginning to find expression that the kind of
+universal elementary education provided somehow or other fails, and has
+failed, to produce all that was in the beginning expected of it--that it
+has in the past been too much divorced from the real interests of life,
+and that it must be remodelled if it is to fit the individual to perform
+his duty to society.
+
+A third fault often found with our existing school system is that in the
+case of the majority of the children the process of education stops at
+too early an age. The belief is slowly spreading that if we are to
+educate thoroughly the children of the nation so as to fit them to
+perform efficiently the after duties of life, something of a more
+systematic character than has as yet been done is required, in order to
+carry on and to extend the education of the child after the Elementary
+school stage has been passed. For it is evident that during the Primary
+School period all that can be expected in the case of the larger number
+of children is that the school should lay a sound basis in the knowledge
+of the elementary arts necessary for all social intercourse, and for the
+realisation of the simpler needs of life. A beginning may be made,
+during this period, in the formation and establishment of systems of
+knowledge which have for their aim the realisation of the more complex
+theoretical and practical interests of after life, but unless these are
+furthered and extended in the years in which the boy is passing from
+youth to manhood, then as a consequence much of what has been acquired
+during the early period fails to be of use either to the individual or
+to society.
+
+Again, it is surely unwise to give no heed to the systematic education
+of the majority of the children during the years when they are most
+susceptible to moral and social influences, and to leave the moral and
+social education of the youth during the adolescent period to the
+unregulated and uncertain forces of society.
+
+Lastly, in this connection it is economically wasteful for the nation to
+spend largely in laying the mere foundations of knowledge, and then to
+adopt the policy of non-interference, and to leave to the individual
+parent the right of determining whether the foundation so laid shall be
+further utilised or not.
+
+A fourth criticism urged against our educational system is that in the
+past we have paid too little attention to the technical education of
+those destined in after life to become the leaders of industry and the
+captains of commerce. Our Higher School system has been too
+predominantly of one type--it has taken too narrow a view of the higher
+services required by the State of its members, and our educational
+system has not been so organised as to maintain and farther the economic
+efficiency of the State. For it may be contended that the economic
+efficiency of the individual and of the nation is fundamental in the
+sense that without this, the attainment of the other goods of life can
+not or can be only imperfectly realised, and it is obvious that
+according to the measure in which the economic welfare of the individual
+and of the State is secured, in like measure is secured the opportunity
+for the development and realisation of the other aims of the individual
+and of the nation.
+
+Thus the present unrest as regards our educational affairs may be
+largely traced to the four causes enumerated. We have begun to realise
+that our educational system lacks definiteness of aim, and that its
+various parts are badly co-ordinated; that, in short, we do not as yet
+possess a national system of education which ministers to and subserves
+the life of the State as a whole. We are further beginning to perceive
+that the provision of the means of higher education is too important a
+matter to be left to the care of the private individual, and that
+education must be the concern of the whole body of the people. Hence it
+has been said that on the creation of a national system of education,
+fitted to meet the needs of the modern State, depends largely the future
+of Britain as a nation.
+
+Again, all that was hoped for as the result of universal compulsory
+education has not been realised, and the feeling is growing that there
+is something defective in the aims of our Primary School system, and
+that it fails, and has failed, to develop in the individual the moral
+and social qualities required by a State such as ours, which is becoming
+increasingly democratic in character. Further, we are learning, partly
+through experience, partly from the example of other countries, that the
+period during which our children must be under the regulated control of
+the school and of society must be lengthened, if we are to realise the
+final aim of all education, which is to enable the individual on the
+intellectual side to apply the knowledge gained to the furtherance and
+extension of the various purposes of life, and on the moral side to
+enable him to use his freedom rightly.
+
+Lastly, as a nation, we are beginning to discover that without the
+better technical training of our workmen, and especially of those to
+whom in after-life will be entrusted the control and direction of our
+industries and commerce, we are likely to fall behind the other advanced
+nations in the race for economic supremacy.
+
+But, in addition to these negative forces at work, tending to produce
+dissatisfaction with our educational position, the opinion is growing
+stronger and clearer that the education, physical, intellectual, and
+moral, of the children of the nation is a matter of supreme importance
+for the future well-being and the future supremacy of the nation, and
+that it is the duty of the State to see that the opportunity is
+furnished to each individual to realise to the full all the
+potentialities of his nature which make for good, so that he may be
+enabled to render that service to the community for which by nature he
+is best fitted. Compulsory elementary education is but one stage in the
+process. We must, as a nation, at least see that no insuperable
+obstacles are placed in the path of those who have the requisite ability
+and desire to advance farther in the development of their powers.
+Moreover, if need be, we must, in the words of Rousseau, compel those
+who from various causes are unwilling to realise themselves, to attain
+their full freedom.
+
+This demand for the better and fuller education of the children of the
+nation is motived partly by the growing conviction that the freedom,
+political, civil, and religious, which we as a nation enjoy, can only be
+maintained, furthered, and strengthened in so far as we have educated
+our children rightly to understand and rightly to use this freedom to
+which they are heirs. Democracy, as a form of government and as a power
+for good, is only possible when the mass of the people have been wisely
+and fully educated, so that they are enabled to take an intelligent and
+comprehensive interest in all that pertains to the good and future
+welfare of the State. A democracy of ill or partially educated people
+sooner or later becomes an ochlocracy,[2] ruled not by the best, but by
+those who can work upon the self-interest of the badly or one-sidedly
+educated. A true democracy is in fact ever aristocratic, in the original
+sense of that term. A false democracy ever tends to become ochlocratic,
+and the only safeguard against such a state of conditions arising in a
+country where representative government exists is the spread of higher
+education, and the inculcation of a right conception of the nature and
+functions of the State and of the duties of citizenship.
+
+But further, the demand for increased facilities for higher and
+technical education is motived largely by the conviction that in the
+education of our children we must in the future more than we have done
+in the past take means to secure the fitness of the individual to
+perform efficiently some specific function in the economic organisation
+of society. And the demand proceeds, not from any desire to narrow down
+the aims of education, to place it on a purely utilitarian basis, but
+from the belief that the securing of the physical and economic
+efficiency of the individual is of fundamental and primary importance
+both for his own welfare and the well-being and progress of the State,
+and that in proportion as we secure the higher economic efficiency of a
+larger and larger number of the people we also secure the essential
+condition for the development and extension of those other goods of life
+which can be attained by the majority of a nation only after a certain
+measure of economic prosperity and economic security is assured.
+
+The social evils of our own or of any time cannot, of course, be removed
+by any one remedy, but an education which endeavours to secure that each
+individual shall have the opportunity to develop himself and to fit
+himself for the after performance of the service for which by nature he
+is suited may do much to mitigate the evils incident upon the
+industrial organisation of society. If this end is to be realised, then
+three things at least are necessary. We must seek by some means or other
+to check the large number of our boys and girls who, after leaving the
+Primary School, drift year by year, either through the ignorance or the
+cupidity or the poverty of their parents, into the ranks of untrained
+labour, and who in the course of two or three years go to swell the
+ranks of the unskilled, casual workers, and become in many cases, in the
+course of time, the unemployed and the unemployable. In the second
+place, we must endeavour to secure the better technical training of the
+youth during their years of apprenticeship, and so tend to raise the
+general efficiency of the workers of the nation whatever the
+nature--manual or mental--of their employment. In the third place, we
+must endeavour, by means of our system of education, to increase the
+mobility of labour. In the modern State, where changes in the industrial
+organisation are frequent, the worker who can most easily adapt himself
+to changing circumstances is best assured of constant employment, and a
+great part of the social evils of our time may be traced to this want of
+mobility on the part of a large number of our workers.
+
+The mobility of labour is of course always determined within certain
+limits, but much may and could be done by pursuing from the beginning a
+right method in educating the child to develop its power of
+self-adaptation to the needs of a changing environment.
+
+If these results are to be attained, then we shall have, as a nation, to
+make clear to ourselves the real meaning and purpose of education; we
+shall have to make explicit the nature of the ends which we desire to
+secure as the result of our educational efforts, and we shall have to
+organise our educational agencies so that the ends desired shall be
+secured.
+
+Let us now consider the question of the meaning, purpose, and ends of
+education.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _National Education and National Life_, p. 1.
+
+[2] _Ochlos_, a mob.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE MEANING AND PROCESS OF EDUCATION
+
+
+"Of all the animals with which the globe is peopled, there is none
+towards whom nature seems, at first sight, to have exercised more
+cruelty than towards man, in the numberless wants and necessities with
+which she has loaded him, and in the slender means which she affords to
+the relieving of these necessities. In other creatures these two
+particulars generally compensate each other. If we consider the lion as
+a voracious and carnivorous animal, we shall easily discover him to be
+very necessitous, but if we turn our eye to his make and temper, his
+agility, his courage, his arms, and his force, we shall find that his
+advantages hold proportion with his wants.... In man alone this
+unnatural conjunction of infirmity and of necessity may be observed in
+the greatest perfection. Not only the food which is required for his
+sustenance flies his search and approach, or at least requires his
+labour to be produced, but he must be possessed of clothes and lodging
+to defend him against the injuries of the weather: though to consider
+him only in himself, he is provided neither with arms, nor force, nor
+other natural abilities which are in any degree answerable to so many
+'necessities.' 'Tis by society alone he is able to supply his defects
+and raise himself up to an equality with his fellow-creatures, and even
+acquires a superiority over them."[3] In these terms Hume draws the
+distinction between man and the animals, and if, for the term Society,
+we substitute the word Education, then we shall more truly describe the
+means by which man overcomes his natural infirmities and meets his
+necessities.
+
+But we have to ask, Wherein does man differ from the animals? what power
+or faculty does he possess over and above those possessed by himself and
+the animals in common? and how does it happen that as his wants and
+needs increase and multiply the means to satisfy them also tend to
+increase? Now, the animal is guided wholly or mainly by instinct. In the
+case of many animals the whole conduct of their life from birth to death
+is governed by this means. In the case, indeed, of some of the higher
+animals, there is a limited power of modifying this government by
+instinct through the experience acquired during the lifetime of the
+individual. But man alone possesses the power or faculty of reason. And
+it is through the possession of this power that he alone of all
+creatures can be educated; it is the possession of this power which
+places him above the rest of creation, and it is in the possession of
+this power that the possibility of his greatness, and also of his
+baseness, lies. Now, an instinct may be defined as an inborn and
+inherited system of means for the attainment of a definite end of such a
+nature that once the appropriate external stimulus is applied the system
+tends to work itself out in an automatic manner until the end is
+attained, and independently of any control exercised by the individual.
+The working out of such an action may be accompanied by consciousness,
+but the power of memory would only be valuable in so far as the instinct
+was imperfect, and in so far as the better attainment of the end was
+fostered by direct individual experience. Thus the greater the range of
+instinct the less the scope of and the less the need for
+education--_i.e._, for acquiring experiences that will function in
+rendering more efficient future action; and conversely, the less the
+range of instinct the greater the need for education, for acquiring
+experiences that may function in the guidance and direction of future
+action.
+
+Now, in man the range of instinct is small. In fact, it is questionable
+whether in the strict usage of the term he possesses any one perfect
+instinct. But to overcome this weakness of his nature he possesses the
+power or faculty of reason, and this consists in the ability to
+self-find, to self-adapt, and to self-establish systems of means for the
+attainment of definite ends. "Man's splendid power of learning through
+experience and of applying the contents of his memory to forecast and
+mould the future is his peculiar glory. It is this which distinguishes
+him from and raises him above all other animals. This it is that makes
+him man. This it is that has enabled him to conquer the whole world and
+to adapt himself to a million conditions of life."[4] This it is that
+also makes possible the education of the child, and raises the hope that
+by a truer and deeper conception of the process of education we shall be
+enabled to mould the character of the children to worthy ends.
+
+But although man is pre-eminently the rational animal, yet reason only
+operates, and can only operate, in so far as it is called into activity
+by the need of satisfying some inborn or acquired desire. That is, man
+possesses not only reason, but also certain instinctive tendencies to
+action. In early life, the instincts of curiosity, of imitation, of
+emulation, and the various forms of the play instinct are ever inciting
+the child to action, and ever evoking his reason-activity to acquire new
+experiences which shall function in the more efficient performance of
+future action. At a later stage other instinctive tendencies make their
+appearance, as _e.g._ the parental instinct, and serve as motives for
+the further acquisition of new experiences--for the establishment of
+other systems of means for the attainment of desired ends. But as the
+child passes from infancy to youth and manhood, these instinctive
+tendencies, although ever present, alter their character, and acquired
+ends or interests become the motives of actions. But these acquired ends
+or interests are not something created out of nothing: they are grafted
+upon and arise out of the innate and inherited instinctive tendencies of
+man's nature. Thus, _e.g._, the instinct of mere self-preservation may
+pass into the desire to attain a certain standard of life, or to
+maintain a certain social status; the instinct of curiosity into the
+desire to find out and to systematise knowledge for its own sake. But
+for the realisation of these instinctive ends, whether in their crude or
+acquired forms, the finding and the establishment of systems of means in
+every case is necessary, and in order that they may be realised man must
+acquire the requisite capacities for action. In the case of the animal
+the instinct or impulse to action is inherited, but the capacity for
+action is also inborn or innate. Man possesses all the innate ends or
+interests which the animal possesses. Moreover, upon these innate ends
+or interests can be grafted ends or interests innumerable and varied in
+character, but in order that they may be satisfied he must through the
+evoking into activity of reason find and adapt means for their
+attainment. Thus the general nature of our conscious human life is that
+throughout we are striving to attain ends of a more or less explicit
+nature, and endeavouring to find out and to establish means for their
+attainment. Whether in the performance of some simple, practical act, or
+in trying to observe accurately what is presented to us through the
+senses, or in endeavouring to realise imaginatively something not
+directly presented to the senses, or in performing an abstract process
+of thought, the activity of reason in its formal aspect is ever one and
+the same. Hence in education we have not to do with the development of
+many powers or faculties but with the development or the evolution of
+the one power or faculty of reason, and the process of development in
+its general nature is always the same in kind--viz., the process of
+systematically building up knowledge which shall function in the future
+determination of conduct. What varies in each case, at each stage of
+development, is the nature of the material which goes to form this or
+that system, and the character of the identity or link of connection
+which binds part to part within any given system. A system of knowledge
+may be built up of perceptual elements, of ideas derived directly
+through the medium of the senses. Of such a character are the systems of
+knowledge possessed by the artist and the musician. Again, a system of
+knowledge may be composed wholly or mainly of images--of remembered
+ideas, so altered and so modified as to form and fit into a new whole.
+Lastly, the elements which go to form the component parts of the system
+may be of a conceptual character. Thus we may select the number aspect
+of things for consideration and treatment, and so build up and establish
+within the mind of the child a number system. But in each and every case
+the power at work is the activity of reason, and the end ever in view in
+the selection and in the formation of the system is the satisfaction of
+some end or interest desired either for its own sake or as a means to
+some further and remoter end.
+
+Further, a system of knowledge may differ not only in the nature of the
+materials of which it is composed, but also in the mode of its
+formation; _i.e._, the nature of the identity which binds part to part
+within the system may vary in character. Now it is upon the nature of
+the systems which we ultimately form in the mind of the child and upon
+the method which we pursue in our process of system or knowledge making
+that the resultant character of our education depends.
+
+A system of knowledge may be related as regards its parts by some
+qualitative or quantitative bond of identity. All sciences of mere
+classification are formed in this way, and the formation of such systems
+is in some cases a necessary preliminary to the evolution of the higher
+forms of system. But the important point to note is that all such
+systems are valuable only as a means to the further recognition, the
+further classification, of similar instances. An individual whose mind
+was wholly formed in this way might be compared to a well-arranged
+museum, where everything is classified and arranged on the basis of
+qualitative identity. But manifestly this mere arranging and classifying
+of knowledge has only a limited value. Such systems can never be used as
+means for the realisation of any practical need of life, can never by
+themselves lead us to intrinsically connected knowledge.
+
+A second and higher form of system is established whenever the bond of
+connection between part and part is an identity of function or of law.
+All language systems are of this nature, and the more highly synthetic
+the language the more intrinsic the connection there is between the
+parts of the system. Further, it should be noted that systems of this
+character can be used for the attainment of other ends than those of
+mere recognition and classification. They, of course, can be used as
+instruments of intercourse, of culture, and of commerce. But they may
+further be utilised in education in the training of the pupil to
+self-apply a system of knowledge to the solution of relatively new
+problems, and it is for this reason mainly that the ancient languages
+possess their value as educational instruments.
+
+Lastly, systems of knowledge may be formed in which the inter-relation
+of part to part within the system is that of identity of cause and
+effect. In the establishment of scientific knowledge the aim is to show
+the causal inter-relation of part to part within a systematic whole or
+unity. Hence also, as in the case of language systems, systems of this
+nature are capable of being used to train the pupil to self-apply
+knowledge in the solution of practical and theoretical problems, and in
+the realising of the practical ends of life. Once again it must be noted
+that in the establishment of the various systems of knowledge the one
+activity ever present is that of reason seeking ever to connect part to
+part in order that some end or interest may be attained. Moreover, we
+may misuse the power of reason, and employ it in the attainment of ends
+which are valueless in the sense that they further no real interest or
+end in life. This is done whenever knowledge is crammed, whenever the
+bond of connection between one part of knowledge and the other is
+extrinsic, and whenever facts are connected and remembered by bonds of a
+more or less accidental or factitious nature. And since such knowledge
+can further no direct interest or end in life, its acquisition must, as
+a rule, be motived by some strong indirect interest. As a consequence,
+whenever the indirect interest, whatever its nature may be,--the fear of
+punishment, or the passing of an examination,--ceases to operate, then
+the desire for further acquisition also ceases. Hence it follows that
+the establishment of any such system is of comparatively little value.
+It may pave the way at a later period for the formation of a system of
+intrinsically connected knowledge, but as a general rule such systems,
+because they cannot be used, tend soon to drop out of mind, and to be of
+no further consequence in the determination of conduct. But further,
+this misuse of reason, this inciting of the mind to memorise facts
+unrelated except by their mere accidental time or space relations, will
+if persisted in tend to render the individual dull, stupid, and
+unimaginative.
+
+The systems of knowledge, then, of most value are those which establish
+intrinsic connections between part and part; for it is only by means of
+systems of this character that action can be determined and knowledge
+extended. In this sense we may agree with Herbert Spencer[5] that
+science or systematised knowledge is of chiefest value both for the
+guidance of conduct and for the discipline of mind. At the same time we
+must not fall into the Spencerian error of identifying science "with the
+study of surrounding phenomena," and in making the antithesis between
+science and linguistic studies one between dealing with real things on
+the one hand, and mere words on the other.
+
+Further, since the establishment of a system of means is always through
+the self-finding and the self-forming of the system, this furnishes the
+key to the only sound method of education--viz., that the child must be
+trained in the self-discovering and the self-connecting of knowledge.
+This does not mean that the method should be heuristic in Rousseau's
+sense, that the child should be told nothing, but be left to rediscover
+all knowledge for himself. But it does mean that in the imparting of the
+garnered experience of the race the child must be trained in the methods
+by which the race has slowly and gradually built up a knowledge of the
+means necessary for the realisation of the many and complex ends of
+civilised life.
+
+Before passing on to consider the ends at which we should aim in the
+education of the child, it may be well briefly to summarise the
+conclusions reached.
+
+
+     1. Man is distinguished from the rest of creation by the possession
+     of reason: the animal life is mainly or wholly guided by instinct.
+
+     2. Man like the animals possesses instincts or instinctive
+     tendencies, but for their realisation he must seek out and
+     establish systems of means for their attainment. Bereft of these
+     instinctive tendencies of his nature, man would have no incentive
+     to acquire experiences for the more efficient guidance of his
+     future conduct.
+
+     3. In the course of the development and extension of experience
+     there gradually becomes grafted upon these innate instincts,
+     interests or ends of an acquired nature, and one of the main
+     functions of education is to create, foster, and establish on a
+     permanent and stable basis, interests of ethical and social worth.
+
+     4. The power of reason is no occult power: it is simply the
+     capacity for finding and establishing systems of means for the
+     attainment of ends; or it may be defined as the power of acquiring
+     experience and of self-applying this experience in the future
+     guidance of conduct.
+
+     5. The evolution of intelligence in man is the evolution of this
+     reason-activity to the attainment of new and more complex
+     theoretical and practical ends or interests. At an early stage the
+     systems of knowledge established are for the attainment of the
+     relatively simple needs of life, and are composed of perceptual and
+     imagined elements. At a later stage the systems formed may be of
+     the most complex nature, and are composed of conceptual elements.
+
+     6. Man is the only being capable of education in the strict usage
+     of the term. He alone must acquire the means for the realisation of
+     the various desired ends of life.
+
+     7. The process of education is a process which, utilising as
+     motives to acquirement the instinctive tendencies of the child's
+     nature, seeks to establish systems of means for their realisation,
+     and upon these innate or inborn instincts to graft acquired ends or
+     interests which shall hereafter function in the attainment of ends
+     of economic, ethical, and social worth.
+
+     8. The only truly educative method is the method which trains the
+     pupil to find, establish, and apply systems of knowledge in the
+     attainment of ends of felt value.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] Hume's _Treatise of Human Nature_, Bk. III. part ii. sec. 2.
+
+[4] _Principles of Heredity_, by G. Archdall Reid, p. 235.
+
+[5] Cf. Herbert Spencer, _Education_, especially chap. i.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE END OF EDUCATION
+
+
+We have seen that the process of education is the process of acquiring
+and organising experiences that will function in the determination of
+future conduct and ensure the more efficient performance of future
+action; or we may say that the process is one by which means are
+gradually established and fixed in the mind for the attainment of ends
+of value for the realisation of the varied and complex interests of
+life.
+
+Now, this acquisition and organisation of experience is never entirely
+"left to the blind control of inherited impulse," nor is the child
+wholly left to gather and organise his experiences upon the incentive of
+any innate or acquired interest that may for the time engage his will.
+The various agencies of society--the home, the school, the shop and
+yard--are ever constantly seeking to establish such or such systems of
+ideas, and to prevent the formation of other systems. Hence it follows
+that education is not a mere natural process--not a process of acquiring
+experience in response to the demands of this or that natural need, but
+that it is a regulated process, controlled with the view of finally
+leading the child to acquire certain experiences, to organise certain
+systems of means for the attainment of such or such ends.
+
+Moreover, at various periods in history, the end or ends of education,
+the kinds of experience thought necessary and valuable for the child to
+acquire have varied, and still vary, and must vary according to the
+nature of the civilisation into which the child is born and to which his
+education must somehow or other adjust him; _i.e._, there is no one
+type of experience, no one kind of education, which is equally suited to
+meet the needs of the child born in a modern industrial State and the
+child whose education must fit him hereafter to fulfil his duties as a
+member of a savage tribe.
+
+Further, in determining the nature of the experiences useful to acquire,
+we must take into account not only the civilisation to which the child
+is to be adjusted, but we must also take note of the nature of the
+services which the given society requires of its adult members. These
+services vary in character, and there can be no one kind of education
+which equally fits the individual to perform efficiently any and every
+service. To postulate this would be to affirm that there is a kind of
+experience useful for the realisation indifferently of any and every
+purpose of adult life, and to affirm that a system of knowledge acquired
+and organised for the attainment of certain definite ends can be used
+for the furtherance of ends different in character and having no
+intrinsic connection with each other. Further, to assert that there is
+one type of education equally suited to train and to develop the
+reason-activity of the individual in every direction is to neglect the
+fact that individuals differ in innate capacity. These differences are
+due in part to differences in the extent and character of the receptive
+powers of individuals, and are to be traced, probably, to differences in
+the size and constitution of the sensory areas of the brain, and are due
+also in part to inborn differences in the capacity for acquiring and
+utilising experiences. As a consequence of these differences one
+individual will acquire and organise certain kinds of experience more
+readily than others.
+
+But not only have the ends sought to be realised through the educational
+agencies of society varied in the past--not only do we find that the
+ideals at present vary in character according to the stage of
+civilisation which the particular country has reached--we also find that
+the agencies of society determining the character and end of education
+also vary. For in the discussion of the ends sought to be attained by
+means of education, we must remember that these are not determined by
+the teacher, but by "the adult portion of the Community organised in the
+forms of the Family, the State, the Church, and various miscellaneous
+associations"[6] desirous of promoting the welfare of the community. At
+one time the Church largely determined the character and ends of
+education, but the tendency at the present time is for the State to
+control more and more the education of the rising generation. In some
+countries the entire control of all forms of education, primary,
+secondary, and technical, has come under the guidance of the State, and
+in our own country elementary education is now largely under the control
+of the State authorities, and the other forms of education tend
+increasingly to come under this control. Not only is this so, but the
+period during which the State exercises its control over the education
+of the child is gradually being lengthened.
+
+Many causes are at work tending to produce these results in the first
+place, it is being clearly realised that there can be no thorough-going
+co-ordination of the various grades of instruction until all the
+agencies of education in each area are placed under one authority acting
+under the guidance of some central body responsible for the organisation
+and direction of the education of the district as a whole. Further,
+there can be no satisfactory settlement of the problem as to what
+particular function each distinct type of Higher School shall perform
+until the whole means of education are under one determining authority.
+
+In the second place, the higher education of the children of the nation
+is too important a matter to be left entirely to the care of the private
+individual, and its cost is too great in many cases to be wholly borne
+by each individual parent. But this provision, organisation, and control
+of the means of higher education by the State does not necessarily
+imply that it should be free--that the whole burden should be laid on
+the shoulders of the general taxpayer. Yet unless means are provided by
+which the poor but clever boy can realise himself, then there is so much
+loss to the community.
+
+In the third place, the organisation of all forms of education and the
+more extended provision of higher and especially of technical training
+is necessary, if for no other reason than as a means of economic
+protection and economic security.
+
+Lastly, the better organisation of our educational agencies is necessary
+as a means of securing a democracy capable of understanding the meaning
+of moral and civic freedom and of using this rightly.
+
+But while the concrete nature of the ends to which our educational
+efforts are directed may vary in accordance with the needs of a changing
+and progressive civilisation, nevertheless the general nature of the
+ends sought to be attained by the education of the children of a nation
+is permanent and unchangeable. That is, we have to recognise a universal
+as well as a particular element in our educational ideals. Now, the
+universal aim of all education is, or rather should be, to correlate the
+child with the civilisation of his time; to lead him to acquire those
+experiences which will in after-life enable him to perform ably and
+rightly his duties as a worker, as a citizen, and as a member of an
+ethical and spiritual community organised for the securing of the
+well-being of the individual. And the higher the civilisation, the more
+difficult, the more complex, and the more lengthened must be this
+process of acquiring experiences necessary to fit the individual to his
+environment. Hence, whatever the particular nature of the environment
+may be, the aim of education must be the fitting of the individual to
+his natural and social environments. Hence also any organisation of the
+means of education must have as its threefold object the securing of the
+physical efficiency, of the economic efficiency, and the ethical
+efficiency of the rising generation. In short, as Mr. Bagley[7] puts
+it, the securing of the social efficiency of the individual must be the
+ultimate aim of all education. To be socially efficient implies that as
+the result of the process of education certain experiences, and the
+power of applying them, have been acquired by each individual, so that
+by this means he is enabled to perform some particular social service
+for the community of a directly or indirectly economic nature. For if,
+as the result of the educative process, we establish systems of means
+for the realisation of ends which have no social value, then so far we
+have failed to make the individual socially efficient. "The youth we
+would train has little time to spare; he owes but the first fifteen or
+sixteen years of his life to his tutor, the remainder is due to action.
+Let us employ this short time in necessary instruction. Away with your
+crabbed, logical subtleties; they are abuses, things by which our lives
+can never be made better."[8] In these words Montaigne writes against
+the false ideal that the mere accumulation of knowledge apart from any
+purpose it may serve in enabling us better to understand either the
+world of nature or of history should be the aim of education, and
+throughout all education we must ever keep in mind that knowledge
+acquired must be capable of being used and applied for the realisation
+of some social purpose, otherwise it is so much useless lumber, to the
+individual a burden, soon dropped, to society valueless, since it can
+maintain and further no real interest of the community.
+
+But to be socially efficient implies not merely that the individual
+should be fitted to perform some service economically useful to the
+community, it further implies that as the result of the process of
+education there should have been acquired certain capacities of action
+which restrain him from unduly interfering with the freedom of others.
+He must acquire certain experiences which restrain him from hindering
+the full and free development of others; he must be trained to use his
+freedom rightly, to acquire those capacities for action which fit him to
+take his place in the moral cosmos of his time and generation. Further,
+as Mr. Bagley also points out, to be socially efficient implies in
+addition that the individual should contribute something further to the
+advancement of the civilisation into which he is born, and thus pass on
+to his successors an increasing heritage.
+
+The threefold aim of all education, then, is to secure the physical, the
+economic, and the ethical efficiency of the future members of the
+community; and our educational agencies must throughout keep this
+threefold aspect in view.
+
+To secure the physical efficiency of the child is necessary, in the
+first place, because a strong, healthy, vigorous body is a good in
+itself, apart from the fact that without sound health the other ends of
+life cannot, or can be only imperfectly realised. It is an erroneous
+point of view to maintain that many men have done good intellectual work
+in spite of physical ill-health, and even in cases where there was
+present some physical defect. The real thing to keep in mind is that
+these individuals do not represent the average, and that for the normal
+individual weak health or the presence of physical defect lessens his
+intellectual and moral vigour. We can, in the light of modern
+psychology, no longer regard mind and body as separate entities having a
+development independent of each other, but must regard them as
+conditioning and conditioned by each other.
+
+In the second place, the care of the physical health of the child is
+important, because any impairment or defect in the sense organs--the
+avenues of experience--implies a corresponding defect or want in mental
+growth, and as a consequence tends to render the individual economically
+and socially less efficient in after-life.
+
+In the third place, and this truth is being gradually put into practice
+in the education of the weak-minded and of the physically defective,
+sound physical health is one of the conditions of right moral activity.
+This truth Rousseau emphasised when he declared: "that the weaker the
+body, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the better it obeys. All
+the sensual passions find lodgment in effeminate bodies, and the less
+they are satisfied the more irritable they become. The body must needs
+be vigorous to obey the soul: a good servant ought to be robust."
+
+We shall inquire further into this question when we come to treat of the
+physical education of the child, but what we wish to point out is that
+one aim of all our educational efforts must be to secure the physical
+efficiency of the rising generation, on the grounds that sound physical
+health is a good in itself; is a means to the securing of the economic
+efficiency of the individual and of society; and is a condition of
+securing the ethical efficiency of the individual.
+
+In the second place, the securing of the economic efficiency of the
+individual must be one of the aims of our educational efforts. This does
+not imply that our educational curriculum should be based on purely
+utilitarian lines, and that all subjects whose utilitarian value is not
+immediately apparent should be banished from the schoolroom. But it does
+imply that whether in the education of the professional man or of the
+industrial worker all instruction either directly or indirectly must
+have as its final result the efficiency of the individual as a worker.
+An education which fits the individual to use his leisure rightly may
+have as much effect in increasing the productive powers of the
+individual as that which looks more narrowly to his technical training.
+Further, we must remember that the larger number by far of the children
+of the modern State must in after-life become industrial workers, and
+that any system of education which neglects this fact, which makes no
+provision for the technical training of the children of the working
+classes, and has no adequate system of selecting and training those who
+by innate capacity are fitted to become the leaders in industry, is a
+system not in harmony with the characteristics of modern life, and that
+unless this economic efficiency is secured, then the opportunity for the
+development of the other ends of life cannot be secured.
+
+Lastly, the securing of the ethical efficiency of the future members of
+the State must be one of our ultimate aims. The ethical aim of education
+may be said to be the supreme end, in the sense that it is the essential
+condition for the security, the stability, and the progress of society;
+and also from the fact that the ethical spirit of doing the work for the
+sake of the work should permeate all education.
+
+In concluding this chapter what needs to be emphasised is that while the
+process of education remains ever the same, ever consists in acquiring
+and organising experience, in and through the working of reason incited
+to activity by the need of satisfying some natural or acquired interest,
+in order that future action may be rendered more efficient, and whilst
+the general nature of the ends to be attained may be said to be
+permanent and unchangeable, yet the particular and concrete ends at
+which we should aim in the education of our children is a practical
+question which every nation has, from time to time, to ask and answer
+afresh in the light of her national ideals and in view of her national
+aspirations. Nay, further, it is a question which with every necessary
+change in her internal organisation, and with every fundamental
+alteration in her relation to her external neighbours, has to be asked
+and answered anew by each and every State desirous of retaining her
+place amongst the nations of the world and of securing the welfare and
+happiness of her individual members. It is mainly because we as a nation
+have not realised this truth that our educational organisation has,
+neither in the explicitness and clearness of its aims, nor in the
+distinction, gradation, and co-ordination of its means, attained the
+same thoroughness and self-consistency as that possessed by the
+educational systems of some of our Continental neighbours.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] Cf. Professor Findlay, _Journal of Education_ (Sept. 1899), also
+"_Principles of Class Teaching_," p. 2.
+
+[7] Cf. _The Educative Process_, chap. iii., esp. pp. 59, 60
+(Macmillan).
+
+[8] Montaigne, _The Education of Children_, L. E. Rector, Ph.D.
+(_International Education Series_), Appleton, New York.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION
+
+
+The end of education is, as we have seen, the securing of the future
+social efficiency of the rising generation, and the method in every case
+is through the evoking of the reason-activity of the individual to
+organise and establish in the minds of the young and immature, systems
+of ideas which will hereafter function as means in the attainment of
+ends of definite social worth.
+
+The question now arises as to whether the provision and organisation of
+the agencies of education may be safely left to the care and
+self-interest of the individual parent, or whether on principle such
+provision is a duty which devolves upon the State.
+
+The principle of the State provision of the means of elementary
+education has now practically been admitted, and whether wisely or
+unwisely, the larger part by far of the cost of this provision now falls
+upon the shoulders of the general and local taxpayer. _E.g._, in England
+in 1902 there were six hundred and thirty-three thousand fee-paying
+children in the Public Elementary Schools, and over five millions
+receiving their education free.[9] Further, by the Education Act
+(England) of 1902 and by the Education and Local Taxation Account
+(Scotland) Act of the same year the principle of the State aid for the
+provision of the means of secondary and technical education may be said
+also practically to have been recognised. By the former Act certain
+Imperial funds derived from the income on Probate and Licence duties
+were handed over to the Councils of counties and boroughs for
+expenditure on the provision of the means of education other than
+elementary, and at the same time these bodies were empowered, if they
+thought it necessary, to impose a limited rate for the same purpose. In
+Scotland at the same time a certain part of Scotland's share of the
+"whisky" money was set aside for the provision of secondary education in
+urban and rural districts, and Secondary Education Committees were
+appointed in the counties and principal boroughs charged with the
+allocation of the funds towards the aid and increase of the provision of
+higher education in their respective districts.
+
+But while this has been done, the question as to whether and to what
+extent the State should undertake the provision of the means of higher
+education is still one on which there is no general agreement. If it is
+the duty of the State to see that the provision of the means of
+education, elementary, secondary, technical, and university, is adequate
+to the attainment of the end of securing the future social efficiency of
+all the members of the community, then it must be admitted that the
+means at present provided for this purpose are totally inadequate, and
+that the method followed in furnishing this provision is not of a kind
+to ensure that the funds granted are spent in the manner best calculated
+to extend the agencies and to increase the efficiency of the higher
+education of the children of the nation. This latter objection applies
+more especially in the case of Scotland. In that country certain
+nominated bodies who are responsible only to themselves and to the
+Scotch Education Department are entrusted with the expenditure of the
+monies received for the extension of the means of higher education, and
+since these bodies stand in no intimate connection with the
+representative bodies entrusted with the control of elementary
+education, no efficient co-ordination of the two grades of education is
+possible. Further, in some cases sectional interests rather than the
+educational interests of the district as a whole are the main motives at
+work in determining the distribution of the funds amongst the various
+bodies claiming to participate in its benefits. The uncertainty of the
+amount of income available for this purpose, and the limitation in
+England of the power of rating, might also be urged in objection to this
+peculiarly English method of providing the means for the higher
+education of the youth of the country.
+
+Similar reasons to those urged prior to 1870 in favour of the State
+provision of elementary education may be urged in favour of the
+extension of the principle to higher education. These reasons are
+nowhere more clearly stated than in the writings of John Stuart Mill.
+
+In discussing the functions of government, Mill lays down that education
+is one of those things which it is admissible on principle that a
+Government should provide for the people, and although in adducing the
+reasons for the State undertaking this duty he is concerned mainly with
+the provision of the means of elementary education, yet looking to the
+altered social conditions of our own time, and taking into account the
+difference in the economic relations which exist now between Great
+Britain and her Continental rivals, the arguments advanced by Mill are
+no less applicable now to the extension of the principle of State
+provision. Let us consider these arguments.
+
+In the first place, Mill declares that there are "certain primary
+elements and means of knowledge that all human beings born into the
+community must acquire during childhood." If their parents have the
+power of obtaining for them this instruction and fail to do so, they
+commit a double breach of duty. The child grows up an imperfect being,
+socially inefficient, and members of the community are liable to suffer
+seriously from the consequences of this ignorance and want of education
+in their fellow-citizens.
+
+In the second place, Mill urges that unlike that the giving of other
+forms of help, the provision of education is not one of the things in
+which the tender of help perpetuates the state of things which renders
+help necessary. Instruction strengthens and enlarges the active
+faculties; its effect is favourable to the growth of the spirit of
+independence--it is help towards doing without help.
+
+In the third place, he declares that the question of the provision of
+elementary education is not one between its provision by the Government
+on the one hand, and its provision through voluntary agencies on the
+other. The full cost of the education of the children of the lower
+working classes in Great Britain as in other countries has never been
+wholly paid for out of the wages of the labourer, and hence the question
+lies between the State provision of education and its provision by
+certain charitable agencies. As a rule, when provided by the latter, it
+is both inefficient in quantity and poor in quality.
+
+Lastly, Mill lays down that in the matter of education the intervention
+of Government is necessary, because neither the interest nor the
+judgment of the consumer is a sufficient security for the goodness of
+the commodity.
+
+But at the same time he strenuously insists that there should be no
+monopoly of education by the State. It is not desirable, he declares,
+that a government should have complete control over the education of the
+people. To possess such a control and actually to exert it would be
+despotic. The State may, however, require that all its people shall have
+received a certain measure of education, but it may not prescribe from
+whom or where they may obtain it.
+
+At the present day, and under the changed economic conditions which now
+prevail, it can no longer be asserted that the imparting of the mere
+elements of knowledge is adequate either to secure the future social
+efficiency of the children of the lower classes of society or that such
+a modicum of instruction as is provided by our Elementary Schools is
+sufficient to protect the community from the ignorance of its ill
+educated and badly trained members. The "hooliganism" of many of our
+large cities is due to our system of half educating, half training the
+children of the slums, of laying too much stress on the acquisition of
+certain mechanical arts in our Primary Schools and in conceiving them as
+ends in themselves. Further, our system of primary education fails on
+its moral side, and this in two ways. It seems unaware of the fact that
+all moral education is an endeavour to implant in the minds of the young
+desires that shall impel them hereafter to good rather than to evil, and
+that this end can only be attained in so far as the natural instinctive
+tendencies of the child's nature which make for good are cultivated and
+trained, and in so far as those other instinctive tendencies which make
+for social destruction are inhibited by having their character altered
+so as to be directed into channels which make for the social welfare. In
+the second place, we leave off the education of the children at too
+early an age. We hand over the children of the poorer classes during the
+most critical period of their lives to the influences of the streets and
+of the bad home, counteracted only by the efforts of the slum visitor or
+the missionary. After furnishing them with the mere instruments of
+knowledge, we entrust either to them or their parents the liberty of
+using, misusing, or non-using the instruments provided. Moreover, we do
+nothing of a systematic nature to instil into the youth of our poorer
+citizens the fact that they are members of a corporate community and
+future citizens of a State, and that hereafter they have duties towards
+that State the performance of which is the only rational ground of their
+possession of rights as against the State. _E.g._, in many of our slums
+we have the best examples of individualism run mad, of the conception
+that the individual is a law unto his private self, and that all
+government is something alien, something forced upon the individual from
+the outside and impinging upon his private will, instead of law being
+what it really is, an expression of the social conditions under which
+the welfare of the individual and of society may be attained.
+
+Further, it must be maintained that our present policy in education is
+economically wasteful. To spend, as we do yearly, larger and larger sums
+of money on the elementary education of our children, and then, in a
+large number of cases, to fail to reach the ends of securing either the
+social efficiency of the individual or the protection of society against
+the ignorance of its members, is surely, to say the least, unwise.
+Again, if we really set before us this aim of the social efficiency of
+the future individual, we must do something to carry on the education of
+the children of the poorer classes after the Elementary School stage has
+been passed.
+
+One of the strongest points in the German system of education, as
+compared and contrasted with our own, is the care which is taken of the
+higher education of the children of the working classes during the
+period when it is most important that some control should be exercised
+over the youth of the country, throughout the time when the boy is most
+open to temptation, and when the moral forces of society are potent for
+good and evil in shaping and forming his character. The great majority
+of the children in a modern State are and must be destined for
+industrial service; the great majority of the children of the working
+classes must, at or about the age of fourteen, leave the Primary School
+and enter upon the learning of some trade. But manifestly at this early
+stage the larger number are not fitted to guide and control their own
+lives; and if moral education aims, as it ought to aim, at fitting the
+individual for freedom, at fitting him to guide and direct his own life
+in the light of a self-accepted and a self-directed ideal, then some
+measure of control, of guidance, and of regulation is necessary in the
+years when the child is passing from youth to manhood. Now, it is this
+fact, this truth, which the Germans as a nation have realised. They
+declare that it is neither wise nor prudent nor for the ultimate benefit
+of the State to leave the vast majority of the youth without guidance,
+and sometimes even without proper moral control exercised over them
+during the great formative period of their lives. Nay, further, they
+believe that a State which neglects its duty here is not doing what it
+ought to do for the future moral good, for the future economic welfare,
+and for the future happiness of its individual members. Hence, in
+several of the German States, the State control over the child does not
+cease when at fourteen years of age he leaves the Elementary School, but
+is continued until the age of seventeen; and this is effected by the
+establishment of compulsory Evening Schools. In particular, by a law
+which came into force in Berlin on the 1st April 1905, every boy and
+girl in that city, with certain definitely specified exceptions, must
+attend at an Evening Continuation School for a minimum of not less than
+four hours and a maximum of not more than six hours per week. Moreover,
+this enactment has been rendered necessary not to level up the majority,
+but to level up the minority. This development is a development for
+which the voluntary Evening Continuation School prepared the way; and
+compulsory attendance has become possible on account of the willingness
+of the German youth to learn, and of his desire to make himself
+proficient in his particular trade or profession. Further, the school
+authorities, in this matter of compulsory attendance at an Evening
+Continuation School, have with them the hearty co-operation of the great
+body of employers; and the burden of seeing that the pupil attends
+regularly is not put upon the parent but upon the employer. By these
+means, and by other agencies of a voluntary character, every care is
+taken that the Berlin youth shall have the opportunity of finding that
+employment for which by nature he is best suited, and that thereafter he
+shall learn thoroughly the particular trade or calling he may enter
+upon.
+
+Contrast what we do, or rather what we do not do, in this matter of
+providing higher education for the sons and daughters of the working
+classes. In our large towns the great majority of our boys and girls
+leave the Elementary School at or before the age of fourteen. In many
+cases the instruction given during this period soon passes away, and
+leaves little permanent result behind. Evening Continuation Schools are
+indeed provided, but only a small proportion of our youth takes
+advantage of this means of further instruction. The larger number of the
+children of the lower working classes drift, for a year or two, into
+various forms of unskilled employment, chosen in most cases because the
+immediate pecuniary reward is here greater than in the case of learning
+a trade; and after spending two or three years in employments which do
+nothing to educate them, some drift, by accident, into this or that
+particular trade, while the others remain behind to swell the number of
+the unskilled. During this period nothing of an organised nature is done
+to secure the physical efficiency of the youth of our working classes;
+nothing or almost nothing is done to secure his future industrial
+efficiency; and, as a consequence, year after year, as a nation, we go
+on fostering an army of loafers, increasing the ranks of the unskilled
+workers, and even in our skilled trades adding to the number of those
+who are mere process workers, at the expense of producing workers
+acquainted both theoretically and practically with every department of
+their particular calling. No wonder that the delegates of the
+brass-workers[10] of Birmingham, contrasting what they have seen in
+Berlin with what they daily see in their own trade at home and in their
+own city, bitterly declare that the Berlin youth has from infancy been
+under better care and training at home, at school, at the works, and in
+the Army; and consequently, as a man, he is more fitted to be entrusted
+with the liberty which the Birmingham youth has perhaps from childhood
+only abused.
+
+Space does not permit me to go at fuller length into this question, but
+before leaving the particular problem let me put the issue plainly,
+because it is an issue which we as a nation must soon clearly realise,
+and must answer in either one or other of two ways. We may go on as at
+present, insisting that a certain amount of elementary education is
+compulsory for all, and leaving it a matter for the individual parent
+and the individual youth to take advantage of the means of higher
+education provided voluntarily, and as a rule without any great direct
+cost to them. In this way, trusting to the voluntary agencies at work in
+society, we may hope that either through enlightened self-interest, or
+through a higher conception of the duty of the individual to the State,
+or through a loftier moral ideal becoming prevalent and actual in
+society, an increasing number of parents will see that the means
+provided for the higher education of their children are duly taken
+advantage of, and that the majority of the youth will make it their aim
+to use these means to secure their physical and industrial efficiency.
+If we adopt this course, then it must be the duty of the school
+authorities of the various districts to see that Evening Schools of
+various types suited to the needs of the various classes of students are
+duly provided, and that no insurmountable obstacles are placed in the
+way of those desirous and anxious to take advantage of the means of
+higher education. Further, it must become the duty of the employers of
+the country to see that the youth are encouraged in every way to take
+advantage of instruction designed with the above-named end in view, and
+moreover the general public must do all in their power to co-operate
+with and to aid the endeavours of school authorities and employers of
+labour. In this way, as has been the case in Berlin, the voluntary
+system of Evening Continuation and Trade Schools may gradually and in
+time pave the way for the compulsory Evening School. Without doubt this
+were the better way, if it could be effected and that quickly.
+
+But if in this matter we have delayed too long--if we have allowed our
+educational policy in the past to be guided by a one-sided and narrow
+individualism--if for too lengthened a period we have permitted our
+political action to be determined by the false ideal that, in the
+matter of providing for and furthering his education as a citizen and as
+an industrial worker, liberty for each individual consists in allowing
+him to choose for himself, regardless of whether or not that choice is
+for his own and the State's ultimate good, then it may be necessary in
+the immediate future to take steps to remove or remedy this defect in
+our present educational organisation. For it is necessary--essentially
+necessary--on various grounds that the education of the boys and girls
+of our working classes should not cease absolutely at the Elementary
+School stage,[11] but that, with certain definite and well-considered
+exceptions, all should continue for several years thereafter to fit
+themselves for industrial and social service. If this result can be
+effected by moral means, good and well; if not, legal compulsion must,
+sooner or later, be resorted to. For it is, as it has always been, a
+fundamental maxim of political action that the State should and must
+compel her members to utilise the means by which they may be raised to
+freedom.
+
+
+The second line of argument which Mill follows in his advocacy of the
+State provision of education is that instruction is one of the cases in
+which the aid given does not foster and re-create the evil which it
+seeks to remedy. Education which is really such does not tend to
+enervate but to strengthen the individual. Its effect is favourable to
+the growth of independence. "It is a help towards doing without help."
+
+On similar grounds, we may urge that it is the duty of the State to see
+that the means for the higher education of the youth of the country are
+adequate in quantity and efficient in quality. The better technical
+training of our workmen is necessary if we are to secure their economic
+self-sufficiency and fit them to become socially useful as members of a
+community. One aim therefore underlying any future organisation of
+education must be to secure the industrial efficiency of the worker and
+to ensure that the results of science shall be utilised in the
+furtherance of the arts and industries of life. This can only be
+effected by the better scientific training, by the more intensive and
+the more thorough education of those children of the nation who by
+natural ability and industry are fitted in after-life to guide and
+control the industries of the country.
+
+Mr. Haldane,[12] during the past few years, in season and out of season,
+has called the attention of the public of Great Britain to the fact that
+in the organisation and equipment of their system of technical education
+Germany is much in advance of this country, and that the German people
+have thoroughly and practically realised that, if they are to compete
+successfully with other nations, then one of the aims of their
+educational system must be to teach the youth how to apply knowledge in
+the furtherance and advancement of the economic interests of life. With
+this end in view we have the establishment throughout the German States
+of numerous schools and colleges having as their chief aim the
+application of knowledge to the arts and industries. In our own country
+this branch--this very important branch--of education has been left, for
+the most part, to the care of private individuals, and although the
+State has done something in recent years to encourage and develop this
+side of education, yet much more requires to be done; and, above all, it
+is desirable that whatever is done in the future should be done in a
+regular, systematic, and organised manner and with definite aims in
+view.
+
+But it is not merely in the higher reaches of German education that the
+industrial aim is kept in view. It pervades and permeates the whole
+system from the lowest to the highest stages. Even in the Primary School
+the requirements of practical life are not left out of sight. In school,
+said a former Prussian Director of Education, "children are to learn how
+to perform duties, they are to be habituated to work, to gain pleasure
+in work, and thus become efficient for future industrial pursuits. This
+has been the aim from the earliest times of Prussian education; and to
+this day it is plainly understood by all State and local administrative
+officers, as well as by all teachers and the majority of the parents,
+that the people's school has more to do than merely teach the vehicles
+of culture--reading, writing, and arithmetic"--that the chief aim is
+rather "the preparation of citizens who can and will cheerfully serve
+their God and their native country as well as themselves."
+
+In the third place, the question of the provision of the means of higher
+education is not one between its provision on the one hand by means of
+the Government, and on the other by means of purely voluntary agencies.
+Higher education, _e.g._, in Scotland has rarely been provided and paid
+for at its full cost by the individual parent or by associations of
+individual parents, but has been maintained, in some cases in a high
+degree of efficiency, by endowments left for this purpose. These
+endowments are now in many cases insufficient to meet the demand made
+for education, and the stream of private benevolence in providing the
+means of education has either ceased to flow or flows in an irregular
+and uncertain fashion. Further, the incomes of even the moderately
+well-to-do of our middle classes are not sufficient to bear the whole
+cost of the more expensive education required to fit their sons and
+daughters for the after-service of the community. Hence, just as in
+Mill's time the question of the provision of elementary education lay
+between the State provision and the provision by means of charitable
+agencies, so to-day the problem of the provision of secondary and
+technical education is between its adequate provision and organisation
+by the State, and its inadequate, uncertain provision by means of the
+endowments of the past and by the charitable agencies of the present.
+Manifestly, in the light of modern conditions, with the economic
+competition between nation and nation becoming keener and keener, and
+knowing full well that the future belongs to the nation with the best
+equipped and the best trained army of industrial workers, we can no
+longer rest content with any haphazard method of providing the means of
+higher education: whatever the cost may be, we must realise that the
+time has come to put our educational house in order and to establish and
+organise our system of higher education so that it will subserve each
+and every interest of the State. This can only be effected in so far as
+the nation as a whole realises the need for the better education of the
+children, and takes steps to secure that this shall be provided, and
+that there shall be afforded to each the opportunity of fitting himself
+by education to put his talents to the best use both for his own
+individual good and the good of the community. Lastly, as Mill urges,
+the self-interest of the individual is neither sufficient to ensure that
+the education will be provided, nor in many cases is his judgment
+sufficient to ensure the goodness of the education provided by voluntary
+means.
+
+But, in addition to the reasons urged by Mill for the State provision
+and control of the means of elementary education, and these reasons are,
+as we have seen, as urgent and as cogent to-day for the extension of the
+principle to the provision of the means of secondary and technical
+education, still further reasons may be advanced.
+
+In the first place, there can be no co-ordination of the different
+stages of education until all the agencies of instruction in each area
+or district are placed under one central control. Until this is effected
+we must have at times overlapping of the agencies of instruction. In
+some cases there may also be waste of the means of education. In every
+case there will be a general want of balance between the various parts
+of the system.
+
+In the second place, one object of any organisation of the means of
+education should be the selection of the best ability from amongst the
+children of our Elementary Schools and the further education of this
+ability at some one or other type of Intermediate or Secondary School.
+In order that this may be economically and efficiently effected, the
+instruction of the Elementary School should enable the pupil at a
+certain age to fit himself into the work of the High School, and our
+High Schools' system should be so differentiated in type as to furnish
+not one type of such education but several in accordance with the main
+classes of service required by the community of its adult members.
+Manifestly such a co-ordination of the means and such a grading of the
+agencies of education, if not impossible on the voluntary principle, is
+at least difficult of complete realisation.
+
+Hence, on the ground that the higher education of the young is necessary
+for the securing of their after social efficiency, on the ground that it
+is necessary for the economic and social security of the community, on
+the ground that aid in higher education is a help towards doing without
+help and that its provision in many cases cannot be fully met by the
+voluntary contribution of the individual, we may urge the need for the
+State's undertaking its adequate and efficient provision.
+
+Further, we must remember that the State must take a "longer" view of
+the problem of education than is possible for the individual. At best
+the latter looks but one generation ahead. He is content to secure the
+education and the future welfare of his children. In the life of the
+State this is not sufficient. She must look to the needs of the remote
+future as well as of the immediate present, and hence her educational
+outlook must be wider and go farther than that of any mere private
+individual. Lastly, if we understand the true nature and function of the
+State, we need have no fear that the State should control the education
+of all the people. What we have to fear on the one side is the
+bureaucratic control of education, and on the other its control and
+direction by one class in the interests of itself. The State exists
+for--the reason of its very being is to secure--the welfare of the
+individual, and the State approaches its perfection when its
+organisation is fitted to secure and ensure the widest scope for the
+full and free development of each individual.
+
+The evil of bureaucracy can be removed only by our representative bodies
+becoming more effective voices of the social and moral will of the
+community, just as the evil of class control can only be effectually
+abolished by the rise and spread of the true democratic spirit, ever
+seeking that the agencies of the State shall be directed towards the
+removing of the obstacles which hinder the full realisation of the life
+of each of its members.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] Cf. Graham Balfour, _Educational System of Great Britain_, p. 27,
+2nd ed.
+
+[10] _Brass-workers of Berlin and Birmingham_ (King).
+
+[11] "It must not be forgotten that the instruction of the common
+schools (_Volksschule_), closing with the pupil's fourteenth year, ends
+too soon, that the period most susceptible to aid, most in need of
+education, the years from fifteen to twenty ... are now not only allowed
+to lie perfectly fallow, but to lose and waste what has been so
+laboriously acquired during the preceding period at school." In the
+rural parts of Northern Germany efforts are being made to remedy this
+evil by the institution of schools providing half-year winter courses.
+Cf. Professor Paulsen's _The German Universities and University Study_,
+p. 117 (English translation).
+
+[12] Cf. _Education and Empire_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE COST OF EDUCATION
+
+
+But while we may hold that it is the duty of the State to see that the
+means for the education of the children of the nation is both adequate
+in extent and efficient in quality, and so organised that it affords
+opportunities for each to secure the education which is needed to equip
+him for his after-work in life, it by no means follows as a logical
+consequence that the whole cost of this provision should be borne by the
+community in its corporate capacity and that the individual parent
+should, if he so chooses, be relieved from any direct payment for the
+education of his children. To assert this would be implicitly to affirm
+that the education of a man's children is no part of his duty--that it
+is an obligation which does not fall upon him as an individual, but only
+as a member of a community, and that so long as he pays willingly the
+proportion of the cost of education assigned to him by taxes and rates,
+he has fulfilled his obligation. Education, on such a view, becomes a
+matter of national concern in which as a private individual the parent
+has no direct interest. This position carried out to its logical
+conclusion would imply that the child and his future belong wholly to
+the State, and it would also involve the establishment of a communal
+system of education such as is set forth in the _Republic_ of Plato.
+Further, such a position logically leads to the contention that the
+other necessities of life requisite for securing the social efficiency
+of the future members of the State should also be provided by the State
+in its corporate capacity acting as the guardian of the young, and from
+this we are but a short way from the position that it belongs to the
+community to superintend the propagation of the species, and to regulate
+the marriages of its individual members. This is State socialism in its
+most extreme form, and is contrary to the spirit of a true liberalism, a
+true democracy, and a true Christianity.
+
+The opposing position--the position of liberalism untainted by
+socialism--is that it is the duty of the State to see that as far as
+possible the social inequalities which arise through the individualistic
+organisation of society are removed or remedied, and that equality of
+opportunity is secured to each to make the best of his own individual
+life. In the educational sphere this implies that any obstacles in the
+way of a man's educating his children should be removed, if and in so
+far as these obstacles are irremovable by any private effort of his own,
+and that the opportunity of obtaining the best possible education should
+be open to the children of the poor if they are fitted by nature to
+profit by such an education. It further implies that the means of higher
+education, provided at the public expense, should not be wasted on the
+children of any class if by nature they are unfitted to benefit by the
+means placed at their disposal; _i.e._, a national system of education
+must be democratic in the sense that the means of higher education shall
+be open to all, rich and poor, in order that each individual may be
+enabled to fit himself for the particular service for which by nature he
+is best suited. It must see, further, that any obstacles which prevent
+the full use of these means by particular individuals are, as far as may
+be possible, removed. A national system of education, on the other hand,
+must be aristocratic in the sense that it is selective of the best
+ability. Lastly, it must be restrictive, in order that the means of
+higher education may be utilised to the best advantage, and not misused
+on those who are unfitted to benefit therefrom.
+
+Closely connected with the position that it is the duty of the State to
+see not merely to the adequate and efficient provision of the means of
+education, but also that the whole cost of the provision should be borne
+by the State, is the contention that because the State imposes a legal
+obligation upon the individual parent to provide a certain measure of
+education for his children, it is also a logical conclusion from this
+step that education should be free. "The object of public education is
+the protection of society, and society must pay for its protection,
+whether it takes the form of a policeman or a pedagogue."[13]
+
+But the provision of the means of elementary education, and the imposing
+of a legal obligation upon each individual parent to utilise the means
+provided, is not merely or solely for the protection of society.
+Education confers not only a social benefit upon the community, but a
+particular benefit upon the individual. Its provision falls not within
+the merely negative benefits conferred by the State by its protection of
+the majority against the ignorance and wickedness of the minority, but
+it belongs to the positive benefits conferred by Government upon its
+individual members. The State in part undertakes the provision of the
+means of education, as Mill pointed out, in order to protect the
+majority against the evil consequences likely to result from the
+ignorance and want of education of the minority. As this provision
+confers a common benefit on all, so far, but only in so far, as
+education is protective, can its cost be laid upon the shoulders of the
+general taxpayer.
+
+But the provision by the State of the means of education is not merely
+undertaken for the protection of any given society against the ignorance
+and the lawlessness of its own individual members, it is also undertaken
+in order to secure the increased efficiency of the nation as an economic
+and military unit in antagonism, more or less, with similar units. At
+the present day this is one main motive at work in the demand made for
+the better and more intensive training of the industrial classes. To
+secure the industrial and military efficiency of the nation is
+explicitly set forth as the main aim of the German organisation of the
+means of education. We may deplore this tendency of our times. We may
+condemn the rise of the intensely national spirit of the modern world,
+and regret that the ideal of universal peace and universal harmony
+between the nations of the earth seems to fade for ever and for ever as
+we move. But we have to look the facts in the face, and to realise that
+the educational system of a nation must endeavour to secure the
+industrial and military efficiency of its future members as a means of
+security and protection against other competing nations and as one of
+the essential conditions for the self-preservation of the particular
+State in that war of nation against nation which Hobbes so eloquently
+describes: "For the nature of war, consists not in actual fighting; but
+in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no
+assurance to the contrary."[14]
+
+In so far, then, as the provision of education by the State is
+undertaken with this end in view, it may be maintained that part, at
+least, of the cost of its provision should be borne by the general
+taxpayer in return for the greater national and economic security which
+he enjoys through the greater efficiency of the nation as an economic
+and military unit.
+
+But the spread and the higher efficiency of education confers in
+addition both a local and an individual benefit. It confers a local
+benefit, in so far as by its means advantages accrue to any particular
+district. It confers an individual benefit, in so far as through the
+means of education placed at his disposal the individual is enabled to
+attain to a higher degree of social efficiency than would otherwise have
+been possible.
+
+Further, if we look at this question not from the point of view of
+benefit received, but from that of the obligation imposed, we reach a
+similar result. It is an obligation upon the State to see that the
+means of education and their due co-ordination and organisation are of
+such a nature both in extent and in quality as to furnish a complete
+system of means for the training up of the youth of the country to
+perform efficiently all the services required by such a complex
+community as the modern State. This duty devolves upon the State chiefly
+for the reason set forth by Adam Smith in his discussion of the
+functions of government. It is the duty of the sovereign, he declares,
+to erect and maintain certain "public institutions which it can never be
+for the interest of any individual to erect and maintain, because the
+profit could never repay the expense to the individual, or small number
+of individuals, though it may frequently do much more than repay it to a
+great society."[15]
+
+It becomes further an obligation placed upon the local authority to aid
+the central authority of the State in the establishment and distribution
+of the means of education. The local authority by its more intimate
+knowledge of local circumstances is the most competent to judge of the
+nature of the education suited to serve its own particular needs, and is
+best qualified to undertake the distribution of the means.
+
+But the obligation to take advantage of the means for the future benefit
+of his children is a moral obligation placed upon the shoulders of the
+individual parent. It becomes a legal obligation only when, and in so
+far as, the moral obligation is not realised by a certain number of the
+community. Certainly one reason for the making of the education of a
+man's children a legal obligation is the protection of society against
+the ignorance and wickedness of the minority, but the other and
+principal aim is to endeavour to secure that what at first was imposed
+as a merely external or legal obligation may pass into a moral and
+inherent obligation, so that the individual from being governed by
+outward restraint may in time be governed by an inward and self-imposed
+ideal.
+
+It is no doubt difficult in any particular case to determine exactly
+what precise part of the cost should be allocated to each of the three
+benefiting parties, but in any national organisation of the means of
+education this threefold distribution of cost should somehow or other be
+undertaken.
+
+From this it follows, that while it may legitimately be laid down that
+upon the State must fall the obligation of securing the adequate
+provision and the due distribution of the means of education, yet the
+further duty of the State in this respect is limited to the removing of
+obstacles which stand in the way of the fulfilment of the parent's
+obligation to educate his children, and to the securing to each child
+equality of opportunity to obtain an education in kind and quality which
+will serve to fit him hereafter to perform his special duty to society.
+
+Although since 1891 elementary education has been practically free in
+this country and the whole cost of its provision is now undertaken at
+the public expense, yet except from the socialistic position that the
+provision of education is a communal and not a personal and moral
+obligation, this public provision of the funds for elementary education
+can be upheld from the individualistic point of view only on two
+grounds. In the first place, it might be maintained that the protective
+benefit derived from the imparting of the elements of education is so
+great to all that its cost may legitimately be laid upon the community
+in its corporate capacity. It is on this ground of education being
+beneficial to the whole society that Adam Smith declares that the
+expense of the institutions for education may, without injustice, be
+defrayed by the general contributions of the whole society. But at the
+same time Adam Smith recognises that education provides an immediate and
+personal benefit, and that the expense might with equal propriety be
+laid upon the shoulders of those benefited.
+
+In the second place, it may be maintained that the imposition of school
+fees created such a hindrance in a large number of cases to the
+fulfilment of the moral obligation that it was expedient on the part of
+the State to remove this obstacle by freeing education as a whole. In
+support of this, it might be further urged that the difficulty of
+discriminating between the marginal cases in which the imposition of
+school fees really proved a hindrance and those in which it did not is
+great, and that the partial relief of payment of school fees laid the
+stigma of pauperism upon many who from unpreventable causes were unable
+to meet the direct cost of the education of their children.
+
+But, except on the grounds that either the protective benefit to society
+is so great and so important, or that the charging of any part of the
+cost directly to the parent imposes a hindrance in a large number of
+cases, there is no justification for the contention that because the
+State compels the individual to educate his children, therefore the
+State should fully provide the means.
+
+If this be so, then the further contention that the means of education
+from the elementary to the university stage should be provided at the
+public expense, and that no part of the cost should be laid directly
+upon the individual parent's shoulders, must also be judged to be
+erroneous.
+
+The first duty of the State, in the matter of the provision of higher
+education, is limited to seeing that the provision of the means of
+higher education is adequate to the demand made for it; further, it may
+endeavour to encourage and to stimulate this demand in various ways. The
+means being provided, the second duty of the State is to endeavour to
+secure that any hindrance which might reasonably prevent the use of
+these means by those fitted to benefit therefrom should be removed. But
+the only justification for the interference of the State is that the
+compulsion exacted in the matter of taxes or otherwise is of small
+moment compared with the capacity for freedom and intellectual
+development set free in the individuals benefited. In other words, the
+cost involved by the removal of the hindrance must be reckoned as small
+compared with the ultimate good to the community as manifested in the
+higher development--in the higher welfare of its individual members.
+
+But the practical realisation of the ideal need not involve that
+education should be free from the lowest to the topmost rung of the
+so-called educational ladder. It is indeed questionable whether the
+ladder simile has not been a potent instrument in giving a wrong
+direction to our ideals of the essential nature of what an educational
+organisation should aim at. Education should indeed provide a system of
+advancing means, but the system of means may lead to many and various
+aims instead of one. However that may be, what we wish to insist upon is
+that the State's duty in this matter can be fulfilled not by freeing
+education as a whole, but by establishing a system of bursaries or
+allowances, enabling each individual who otherwise would be hindered
+from using the means to take advantage of the higher education provided.
+
+In the awarding of aid of this nature, the two tests of ability to
+profit from the education and of need of material means must both be
+employed. If the former test only is applied, then the result is that in
+many cases the advantage is secured by those best able to pay for higher
+education. If the objection be made that the granting of aid on mere
+need shown is to place the stigma of pauperism upon the recipient, then
+the only answer is that in so thinking the individual misconceives the
+real nature of the aid, fails to understand that it is help towards
+doing without help--aid to enable the individual to reach a higher and
+fuller development of his powers, both for his own future welfare and
+for the betterment of society.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] _National Education and National Life_, ibid. p. 101.
+
+[14] Hobbes, _Leviathan_, p. 1. chap. xiii.
+
+[15] Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, ed. J. Shield Nicholson (Nelsons).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--MEDICAL EXAMINATION AND
+INSPECTION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
+
+
+In considering the question of the relation of the State to education,
+we have adopted the position that it is the duty of the State to see to
+the adequate provision of the means of education, to their due
+distribution and to their proper organisation. At the same time we found
+that the obligation of the State in this respect did not necessarily
+involve that the whole cost of this provision should be borne at the
+public expense, and that no part of the burden should be placed on the
+shoulders of the individual parents. As regards the provision of
+elementary education, we indeed found that the whole burden might be
+legitimately laid upon the general taxpayer, upon the grounds either
+that the protective benefit of elementary education to the community was
+great, or that the hindrance opposed by the imposition of school fees to
+the fulfilment of a man's moral obligation to provide for the education
+of his children was so general that a case might be made out for freeing
+elementary education as a whole. But except from the position that the
+provision of education was a communal and not a personal obligation, we
+found no grounds for the contention that education throughout its
+various stages should be a charge upon the community as a whole.
+
+But the provision of the means of education may involve much more than
+the mere provision of adequately equipped school buildings and of fully
+trained teachers, and we have now to inquire what other provision is
+necessary in order to secure the after social efficiency of the children
+of the nation, and what part of this provision rightly may be included
+within the scope of the duties of the State.
+
+Is the medical inspection of children attending Public Elementary
+Schools one of these duties, and, if so, what action on the part of the
+State does this involve?
+
+The importance of the thorough and systematic medical examination of
+children attending school as a necessary measure to secure their after
+physical and economic efficiency as well as for their intellectual
+development and welfare during the school period has been recognised by
+many Continental countries. To take but one or two illustrative
+examples, we may note that in Brussels every place of public instruction
+is visited at least once in every ten weeks by one of the sixteen
+doctors appointed for this purpose. The school doctor amongst other
+duties has to report on the state of the various classrooms, their
+heating, lighting and ventilation, and also upon the condition in which
+he has found the playgrounds, lavatories and cloakrooms attached to the
+school. Cases of illness involving temporary absence from school are
+reported to him as well as the cases involving prolonged absence from
+school.
+
+Children are medically examined upon admission to school, and a record
+is made of their age, height, weight, chest measurement, etc. "Any
+natural or accidental infirmity is chronicled, state of eyes and teeth,
+dental operations performed at school, etc. This examination is repeated
+annually, so as to keep a record of each child's physical development."
+Great attention, moreover, is paid to the cleanliness of the children
+attending school, and the children are examined daily by the teacher
+upon their entrance to school.[16]
+
+In most of the large towns of Germany a system of periodical medical
+examination and inspection of children attending school has also been
+established. _E.g._, in 1901 Berlin appointed ten doctors for this
+purpose, with the following amongst other duties:--
+
+
+     1. To examine children on their first admission as to their fitness
+     to attend school.
+
+     2. To examine children with the co-operation of a specialist for
+     the presence of defect in the particular sense organs (sight,
+     hearing).
+
+     3. To examine children who are supposed to be defective and who may
+     require special treatment.
+
+     4. To examine periodically the school buildings and arrangements
+     and to report on any hygienic defects.[17]
+
+
+In England, although there is no specific provision for the incurring of
+the expense of conducting the medical inspection of children attending
+the Public Elementary Schools, it is generally held that the expense may
+be legitimately included in the general powers assigned to educational
+authorities under the Act of 1870; and, especially since 1892, in
+several areas, a definite system of medical inspection has been
+established, and in many others there is a likelihood that some system
+of medical inspection will be organised in the immediate future.
+According to the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on the
+Medical Inspection and Feeding of School Children, published in November
+1905, out of 328 local education authorities, 48 had established a more
+or less definitely organised system of medical examination, whilst in
+eighteen other districts teachers and sanitary officers had undertaken
+organised work for the amelioration of the physical condition of
+children attending Public Elementary Schools. As a rule, this inspection
+is limited "to the examination of the children and to the discovering of
+defects of eyesight, hearing, or physical development." When the
+existence of the defect is discovered, the parent is notified, but as a
+general rule the public authority does not include within its duties the
+treatment of the ailments and defects or the provision of remedial
+instruments when required.
+
+Further, in no case has there been carried out a thorough anthropometric
+record, such as that in vogue in the schools of Brussels, of the
+condition of the physical nature of the child upon admission to school
+and his subsequent physical development.
+
+In Scotland we find no general or adequate system of medical inspection
+carried out by the local school authorities. The Report of the Royal
+Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), issued in March 1903,
+declares, however, that such a system is urgently needed, mainly for
+remedial purposes. By this means defects in the organs of sight or
+hearing, in mental development, in physical weakness, or in state of
+nutrition, such as demand special treatment in connection with school
+work, might be detected, and by simple means removed or mitigated. But
+although in the Education (Scotland) Bill of 1905 provision was made for
+the institution of medical inspection at the public expense, yet through
+the failure of the Bill to pass nothing of a systematic nature has been
+done to organise the medical inspection of Elementary School children in
+any district in Scotland.
+
+From this brief account of what either has been already done or is
+proposed to be done, it is apparent that there is a gradual awakening of
+the nation to the fact that the care of the physical nature of the child
+during the school period is of fundamental importance from the point of
+view of the future welfare and efficiency of the nation. In the
+endeavour to reach this aim it is necessary that the examination of the
+child should be undertaken in a systematic manner, and that means should
+be adopted for the remedy of any defects. In particular every child on
+admission to school should be examined in order to discover whether
+there is any defect present in the special organs of sense,[18] and
+periodical examinations should be made in order to discover whether the
+school work is tending to produce any injury to the various senses. For
+it is a well-known fact that often cases of seeming stupidity and
+seeming carelessness are not due either to the want of intelligence on
+the one hand or of inattention on the other, on the part of the child,
+but may be traced to slight defects of eyesight and of hearing. In order
+that they may discover these defects teachers ought to be trained in the
+observation of the main symptoms which imply defects, and should be
+practised in the art of applying the simpler and more obvious remedies
+for eye and ear defects. More difficult cases should be referred to the
+medical officer of the school. Again, it ought to be a matter of inquiry
+at the beginning of the school period as to whether the child possesses
+any physical defect which would make it difficult for him to undertake
+the full work of the school. In some cases it would be found that the
+child was altogether unable to undertake this work, and measures should
+be taken to remedy the defect before the child enters upon the school
+course. Lastly, it is now realised that more attention must be paid to
+the differences that exist between individual children, and that in the
+case of children with a low degree of intelligence it is much better
+both for themselves and for the school generally to institute special
+classes or special schools for their education.
+
+But in order that this medical examination may be thoroughly and
+systematically carried out, special legislative authority must be given
+to education authorities to incur expense under this head, and
+regulations must be laid down by the central authority for the carrying
+out of this inspection so as to secure something like a uniform system
+of examination throughout the country. For this purpose there should be
+attached to each school area a medical officer, or officers, charged
+with the sole duty of attending to the hygienic conditions under which
+the school work is carried on, and of periodically examining the
+children attending the schools of his district.
+
+That the duty of carrying out the medical examination of school
+children falls upon the State and should be met out of public funds may
+be justified on various grounds. In the first place, it is necessary as
+a measure of protection, in order to prevent the child's growing up
+imperfectly, and thus becoming in adult life a less efficient member of
+society. School work often accentuates certain troubles, and these if
+neglected tend gradually to render the individual more and more unfitted
+to undertake some special occupation in after-life. Any eye specialist
+could furnish evidence of numerous cases in which the eyes have been
+ruined through some slight defect becoming intensified through misuse.
+
+In the second place, the examination for physical and mental defect
+cannot in a large number of cases be left to the self-interest and
+judgment of the individual parent, and unless undertaken by the public
+authority will not be undertaken at all.
+
+In the third place, if it is left to merely voluntary agencies, it is
+imperfectly done, and in many cases recourse is had to the various
+voluntary agencies when the trouble has become acute, and in some cases
+impossible of remedy.
+
+On these three grounds--of its necessity for the future public welfare,
+that the self-interest of the parent often proves but a feeble motive
+power, and that the voluntary agencies placed at the disposal of the
+poor are unable systematically to undertake this work--we may maintain
+that the duty may legitimately be laid upon the State.
+
+But the further question as to how far it becomes the duty of the State
+to undertake the provision of remedial measures either in the way of
+supplying medical aid or in the provision in necessitous cases of
+remedial measures, as _e.g._ spectacles in the case of defective
+eyesight, is a question of much greater difficulty.
+
+At present any positive help of this nature is the exception rather than
+the rule, and is undertaken by agencies worked on the voluntary
+principle, and the remedial measures adopted are limited to the
+treatment of certain minor ailments. _E.g._, in Liverpool, Birmingham,
+and other places, Queen's nurses regularly visit the schools, and
+undertake either in school or at the homes of the children simple
+curative treatment of minor surgical cases. But while it may be held
+that the duty of the State is limited to the medical examination of
+school children in order to discover the presence of physical and mental
+defects, and that this being done, any further responsibility, whether
+in the way either of providing or procuring remedies, falls upon the
+individual parent, yet we have sufficient evidence to show that, in many
+cases, either through the poverty or the apathy and indifference of the
+parents, no steps are taken in the way of providing the necessary
+remedies, and as a consequence we have growing up in our midst children
+who in after-life will, through the lack of simple curative treatment
+undertaken at the proper time, become more or less socially inefficient.
+
+Moreover, it is to be noted that in this matter the State has already
+recognised its public obligation to provide remedial aid in its
+provision for the education and lodging of the blind, the deaf and the
+dumb, and in the measures taken within recent years for the special
+education of the defective and the epileptic. The provision for these
+purposes may indeed be justified on the grounds that the expense of the
+education of children of the industrial classes so afflicted is beyond
+the powers of any one individual, or group of individuals, to supply,
+and that unless undertaken by the State it would not be efficiently
+made, with the consequence of throwing the maintenance hereafter of
+these particular classes upon the community: on the ground, therefore,
+of the future protective benefit to society, such expense may be
+legitimately laid upon the community as a whole. Further, in these
+cases, the danger of the weakening of the sense of parental
+responsibility is not an extreme danger to the Commonwealth, since the
+aid is definitely limited to a restricted number of cases, and since
+the moral obligation imposed upon the individual to provide for the
+education of his children could in many cases not be fulfilled without
+the by far greater portion of the expense being provided by means of
+public or voluntary aid.
+
+In like manner, the expense of the special education of the morally
+defective in Industrial Schools and in other institutions may be
+justified on the ground of the present and future protective benefit to
+society. In these cases parental government has either altogether ceased
+or become too weak to act as an effective restraining force, and as a
+consequence the community for its own self-preservation has to undertake
+the control and education of the actual or incipient youthful criminal.
+In their Report the Royal Commissioners on Physical Training (Scotland)
+sadly declare that Industrial and similar institutions certainly give
+the boys and girls who come under their influence advantages in feeding
+and physical training which are not open to the children of independent
+and respectable though poor parents. _The contrast between the condition
+of children as seen in the poorer day schools and children in Industrial
+institutions, whose parents have altogether failed to do their duty, is
+both marked and painful._[19]
+
+And yet it might be urged that the protective benefit likely to be
+derived in the future by the provision of remedial means for the removal
+of the simpler defects in the case of the children of parents unable
+without great difficulty to supply these themselves is no less evident
+than in the more extreme cases. But here the only sound principle of
+guidance is to ask whether the remedial measures required are reasonably
+within the power of the parent to provide. If they are not, no community
+which exercises a wise forethought will suffer children to grow up
+gradually becoming more and more defective, more and more likely in
+after-life to be a burden upon its resources. But this question of the
+provision of remedial aid involves a much larger question, which we
+shall now discuss.
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+As showing the need for the systematic examination of the special sense
+organs, I append a summary of the results arrived at and the conclusions
+reached by Dr. Wright Thomson after examination of the eyesight of
+children attending the Public Elementary Schools under the Glasgow
+School Board:--
+
+
+     "The teachers tested the visual acuteness of 52,493 children, and
+     found 18,565, or 35 per cent., to be below what is regarded as the
+     normal standard.
+
+     "I examined the 18,565 defectives by retinoscopy, and found that
+     11,209, or 21 per cent. of the whole, had ocular defects.
+
+     "The percentage with ocular defects was fairly constant in all the
+     schools, but the percentage with defective vision was very
+     variable--_i.e._, many children with normal eyes were found to see
+     badly.
+
+     "The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor and
+     closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest in the
+     better class schools and in those near the outskirts of the city.
+
+     "The proportion of such cases in the country schools of Chryston
+     and Cumbernauld was much lower than in any of the city schools; and
+     in Industrial Schools, where the children are fed at school, the
+     proportion was lower than among Board School children of a
+     corresponding social class.
+
+     "Defective vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be due,
+     partly to want of training of the eyes for distant objects, and
+     partly to exhaustion of the eyes, which is easily induced when work
+     is carried on in bad light, or the nutrition of the children
+     defective from bad feeding and unhealthy surroundings.
+
+     "Regarding training of the eyes for distant objects, much might be
+     done in the infant department by the total abolition of sewing,
+     which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and the
+     substitution of competitive games involving the recognition of
+     small objects at a distance of 20 feet or more.
+
+     "Teachers can determine the visual acuteness, but they cannot
+     decide whether or not an ocular defect is present.
+
+     "Visual acuteness, especially among poor children, is variable at
+     different times.
+
+     "Teachers should have access to sight-testing materials at all
+     times, and should have the opportunity of referring suspected cases
+     for medical opinion.
+
+     "An annual testing by the teachers, followed by medical inspection
+     of the children found defective, would soon cause all existing
+     defects to be corrected, and would lead to the detection of those
+     which develop during school life."
+
+
+An examination of 502 children attending the Church of Scotland Training
+College School, Glasgow, as regards defects in eyesight and hearing, was
+made by Drs. Rowan and Fullerton respectively, with the following
+results:--
+
+
+     "As regards eyesight--
+
+     "61.55 per cent. were passed as normal, while of those defective
+     7.57 were aware of the fact; some few of these had already received
+     treatment, but 30.88 were quite unaware that there was anything
+     wrong, these unfortunates being expected to do the same work as,
+     and hold their own with, their more fortunate classmates.
+
+     "As regards hearing--
+       54.4 per cent. were found normal.
+       27.6  "   "    were defective.
+       18.   "   "    were distinctly defective."
+
+     I append the very valuable suggestions and conclusions of Dr.
+     Rowan, who conducted the examination on the eyesight of children:--
+
+     "After examining 502 children, which involved the examination of
+     1004 eyes, one is forced to certain conclusions. These children are
+     taken at random, and in this way they may be considered as a fair
+     sample of their age and class.
+
+     "I think one of the first things that force themselves on our
+     notice is the difficulties under which many of those children
+     labour, and of which they, their parents and teachers are quite
+     unaware. The children are considered dull, careless, or lazy, as
+     the case may be: they themselves, poor unfortunates, do not know
+     how to complain, and seem just to struggle along as best they can,
+     though this struggle, without adequate result, must discourage
+     them, and in this indirect way, too, make their future prospects
+     more hopeless.
+
+     "Some would be considerably benefited by treatment and operation,
+     or both, while for some little can be done. Some of those who could
+     be benefited are deprived of help by their parents' ignorance or
+     prejudice.
+
+     "In the case of those for whom little or nothing can be done, and
+     whose sight is very defective, it seems to me the question ought to
+     be raised as to whether their present mode of education should not
+     be replaced by some other, which would endeavour to develop their
+     abilities in other ways than through their eyesight; in short, they
+     should have special training with the view of fitting them for some
+     form of employment for which they are more fitted than the ordinary
+     occupations of everyday life. This raises a difficult question, and
+     each case would have to be settled on its merits. The difficulty
+     must be faced; otherwise the children will simply drift and become
+     idle and useless, while, if educated, at any rate partly, on the
+     system for the blind, they would become useful members of society.
+
+     "I think no one, after studying the result of this examination of
+     what may be by some considered a small number of children, can
+     doubt that a thorough medical examination of all school children
+     should be made when they enter school, and this examination
+     repeated at regular intervals.
+
+     "I hold this applies not only to the children of the poor, but to
+     children in all ranks of life, as one constantly, and that, too, in
+     private practice, meets with cases where children are considered
+     dull and lazy, while the real fault lies with the parents, who have
+     not taken the trouble to ascertain the physical fitness or
+     unfitness of their children.
+
+     "I am glad to say it is now becoming more common for children to be
+     taken to the family doctor, to a specialist, or to both, to be
+     thoroughly overhauled before starting school-life; and in many
+     cases with most satisfactory results, as their training can be
+     modified or treatment ordered which prevents the development of
+     those pathological conditions which, in many cases, would limit the
+     choice of occupation, or, if these are already present, they can at
+     least be modified or even overcome.
+
+     "I wish to emphasise the fact that those thorough medical
+     examinations should be repeated in the case of all children at
+     regular intervals, as in this way alone can a proper physical
+     standard be maintained, and deviations from the normal detected
+     promptly and in many cases cured before the sufferer is aware of
+     their presence.
+
+     "How often in examining our adult patients do we find them much
+     surprised when they are told and convinced by actual proof that all
+     their life they have depended on one eye only! This fact, of
+     course, they sometimes accidentally discover for themselves, and
+     come with the statement that the eye has suddenly gone blind. In
+     the majority of these cases the weaker eye is useless, and the
+     possibility of making it of any use is, at their age, practically
+     _nil_."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] Cf. _Special Report on Educational Subjects_, vol. ii.
+
+[17] Cf. _Report on Elementary Schools of Berlin and Charlottenburg_, by
+G. Andrew, Esq.
+
+[18] Cf. Appendix, pp. 62-65.
+
+[19] _Report Royal Commission on Physical Training_ (_Scotland_), vol.
+i. (Neill & Co,. Edinburgh).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE FEEDING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
+
+
+A much more important and far-reaching question than that of the State
+provision for the medical examination and inspection of children
+attending Public Elementary Schools is the question of whether, and to
+what extent, the State should undertake the provision of school meals
+for underfed children.
+
+Of the existence of the evil of under and improper feeding of children,
+especially in many of our large towns, there is no doubt. The numerous
+voluntary agencies which have been brought into existence to cope with
+the former are sufficient evidence that the evil exists and that it is
+of a widespread nature. Again, the high rate of infant mortality amongst
+the children of the lower classes is largely due to ignorance on the
+part of parents of the nature and proper preparation of food suitable
+for children. Further, the social conditions under which many of the
+poor live in our large towns is a contributing cause of this improper
+feeding. In many cases there is no adequate provision in the home for
+the cooking and preparation of food, and in others the absence of the
+mother at work during the day necessitates the children "fending" for
+themselves in the providing of their meals. However, in considering this
+question we must carefully distinguish between three distinct causes
+operating to produce the condition of underfeeding, and as a consequence
+resulting in three distinct classes of underfed children. As the causes
+or groups of causes are different in nature, so the remedies also vary
+in character. Moreover, in many cases we find all three causes
+operating, now one and now the other, to produce the chronic
+underfeeding of the child.
+
+In the first place, the underfeeding of the child may arise through the
+temporary poverty of the parent due to his temporary illness or
+temporary unemployment. In normal circumstances, in these cases relief
+is best afforded by means of the voluntary agencies of society. In
+abnormal circumstances, such as are caused by a widespread depression of
+industry, the evil may be met by a special effort on the part of the
+voluntary agencies or by municipalities or other bodies providing
+temporary relief-work.
+
+In the second place, the underfeeding of the child may be due to the
+chronic and permanent poverty of the parent. The wages of the
+breadwinner even when in full work may be insufficient to afford
+adequate support for a numerous family. This condition of things is not
+peculiar to Great Britain, but is a common characteristic in the life of
+the poor of all civilised nations. This is where the real sting of the
+problem of underfeeding lies, and the causes at work tending to produce
+this condition of things are too deep-seated and too widely spread to be
+removed by any one remedy. Moreover, in endeavouring to cure this
+disease of the Commonwealth we are ever in danger of perpetuating and
+intensifying the causes at work tending to produce the evil.
+
+In the third place, the underfeeding of the child may arise through the
+indifference, the selfishness, or the vice of the parents. In such cases
+the parents could feed their children, but do not. Manifestly in cases
+of this character there is no obligation placed upon the State and no
+rightful claim upon any charitable agency to provide food for the
+children. To give aid simply weakens further the parental sense of
+responsibility, and leaves a wider margin to be spent on vicious
+pleasures. But while there is no obligation placed upon the State to
+provide the necessaries of life for the child, there is need and
+justification in such cases for the intervention of the State. There is
+need, for otherwise the child suffers through the criminal neglect of
+the parents, and the community must interfere for the sake of the future
+social efficiency of the individual and of the nation. There is
+justification, for here as in the case of the parents of the morally
+defective, parental responsibility has either ceased to act or become
+too weak a motive force to be effective in securing the welfare of the
+child. As the individual parent neglects his duty, so and to the
+corresponding degree to which this neglect extends, must the duty be
+enforced by the State. But in the enforcing of this or of any duty we
+must be quite sure that the neglect is really due to the weakened sense
+of responsibility of the parent, that it is a condition of things which
+he could remove if he had the moral will to do so, and that the neglect
+is not due to causes beyond the power of the parent to remove.
+
+Cases in which there is culpable neglect of the child due not to
+poverty, but to the fact that the money which should go to the proper
+nutrition of the child is squandered in drink, or on other enervating
+pleasures, are therefore cases in which recourse must be had to measures
+which enforce upon the parent the obligation to feed and clothe his
+children. The really difficult question is as to the best means of
+enforcing this obligation. Manifestly to punish by fine or imprisonment
+does little in many cases to alleviate the sufferings of the children.
+The punishment falls upon them as well as upon the parent, and where the
+latter is dead to, or careless of, the public opinion of his fellows, it
+fails to initiate that reform of conduct which ought to be the aim of
+all punishment. If indeed by imposition of fine, or by imprisonment, the
+individual realises his neglect of duty, repents, and as a consequence
+reforms, then good and well, but as a rule the neglect of the child is
+in such cases a moral disease of long standing and not easily cured, and
+so we find often that neither punishment by fine nor imprisonment, even
+when repeated several times, is effective in making the parent realise
+his responsibility and reform his conduct. All the while the child goes
+on suffering. He is no better fed during the period of fine or
+imprisonment, and the wrath of the parent is often visited upon his
+unoffending head.
+
+The second method of cure proposed is to feed the children at the public
+expense and to recover the cost by process of law. But the practical
+difficulties in carrying out this plan are similar in kind to those
+formerly experienced in the recovery of unpaid school fees. The cost of
+recovering is often greater than the expense involved, and as a
+consequence local authorities are not inclined to prosecute. Further,
+there is the difficulty of discriminating between underfeeding due to
+wilful and culpable neglect and underfeeding due to the actual chronic
+poverty of the parent. If this plan is to be effective, some simpler
+method of recovery of cost than that which now prevails must be adopted.
+_E.g._, it might be enacted that the sum decreed for should be deducted
+from the weekly wages of the parent by his employer. Here again many
+difficulties would present themselves in the carrying out of this plan.
+In the case of certain employments this could not be done. In other
+cases, employers would be unwilling to undertake the invidious task.
+Moreover, the cost of collection might equal or be greater than the cost
+incurred. Above all, such a method would do little to alleviate the
+sufferings and better the nutrition of the child. In most cases the
+school provides but one meal a day. Experience has shown that in the
+case of children of the dissolute the free meal at the school means less
+food at home. Were the cost deducted from the weekly wages of the
+parent, the result would be intensified. So great have been the
+difficulties felt in this matter that with one or two exceptions no
+foreign country has made the attempt to recover the cost of feeding from
+the parent. Yet the disease requires a remedy. The evil is too dangerous
+to the future social welfare of the community to be allowed to go on
+unchecked and unremedied. Moreover, to endeavour to educate the
+persistently underfed children of our slums is to do them a twofold
+injury. By the exercises of the school we use up, in many cases, with
+little result, the small store of energy lodged in the brain and nervous
+system of the child, and leave nothing either for the repair of the
+nervous system or for the growth of his body generally. We prematurely
+exhaust his nervous system, and by so doing we hinder his bodily growth
+and development. To make matters worse, we often insist that the child
+in order to aid his physical development must undergo an exhausting
+system of physical exercises when what is most wanted for this purpose
+is good and nourishing food and a sufficiency of sleep. At the same time
+that we are neglecting the nutrition of his body we are spending an
+increasing yearly sum on the so-called education of his mind. What,
+then, is the remedy? If fining and imprisonment of the parent only
+accentuate the sufferings of the child, if they fail to make the parent
+realise his responsibility and reform his conduct, if the provision of a
+free meal at school means less food at home, then there is only one
+thorough-going remedy for the evil, and that is to take the child away
+from the parent, to educate and feed him at the public expense, and to
+recover the cost as far as possible from the parent. In Norway this
+drastic method has been adopted. Under a law passed on the 6th January
+1896, the authorities are empowered "to place neglected children in
+suitable homes or families at the cost of the municipality, the parent,
+however, being liable, if called upon, to defray the cost."[20]
+
+The reasons for taking this extreme step are obvious. By no method of
+punishing the persistently dissolute and neglectful parent can you be
+assured of securing the proper nutrition and welfare of the child.
+Parental affection in these cases is dead, and parental responsibility
+for the present and future welfare of the child has ceased to act as a
+motive force. As a consequence, the child grows up to be, at best,
+socially inefficient, and liable in later life to be a burden upon the
+community. In many cases, the evil and sordid influences of his home and
+social environment soon check any springs of good in his nature, and
+more than likely he becomes in later life not merely a socially
+inefficient member of the community but an active socially destructive
+agent. Hence, on the ground of the future protective benefit to society,
+on the ground of securing the future social efficiency of the
+individual, on the ground that it is only by some such system we can
+ever hope to raise the moral efficiency of the rising generation of the
+slums, the method above advocated is worthy of consideration.
+
+Against the adoption of such a method of treatment of the dissolute
+parent many objections may be urged, and it would be foolish to minimise
+the dangers which might follow its systematic and thorough carrying into
+practice. But the possible injury to the community through the weakening
+of the sense of parental responsibility seems to me small in comparison
+with the future good likely to result from the increased physical,
+economic, and ethical efficiency of the next generation which might
+reasonably be expected to follow from the rigorous carrying out of such
+a plan for a time. The fear lest a larger and larger number of parents
+might endeavour to rid themselves of the direct care of their children,
+if this plan were adopted, need not deter us. If this plan were carried
+into practice, then some extension of the scope of the Industrial Acts
+would be rendered necessary, and some such extension seems to have been
+in the minds of the Select Committee in their Report on the Education
+(Provision of Meals) Bill, 1906, in considering their
+recommendations.[21]
+
+But the importance of the two classes of cases already considered sinks
+into comparative insignificance compared with the third class of cases.
+Temporary underfeeding caused by temporary poverty can be met in many
+ways without to any appreciable degree lessening the sense of the moral
+obligation of the parent to provide the personal necessities of food and
+clothing for his children. In the case, again, of the persistently
+dissolute and neglectful parent, moral considerations have ceased to
+operate, and so the individual by some method or other must be forced to
+perform whatever part of the obligation can be exacted from him.
+
+But in the third class of cases parental responsibility may be an active
+and willing force, yet the means available may be so limited in extent
+that the child is in the chronic condition of being underfed. No one who
+carefully considers the information recently supplied by the Board of
+Education as to the methods of feeding the children attending Public
+Elementary Schools in the great Continental cities and in America can
+arrive at any other conclusion than that here we are in the presence of
+an evil not local but general, and apparently incidental to the
+organisation of the modern industrial State. For whether by voluntary
+agencies, by municipal grants, or by State aid, every great Continental
+city has found it necessary to organise and institute some system of
+feeding school children.
+
+The only inference to be drawn from such a condition of things is that
+in a large number of cases the normal wages of the labourer are
+insufficient to maintain himself and his family in anything like a
+decent standard of comfort. How large a proportion of the population of
+our great cities is in this condition it is difficult exactly to
+estimate, but there is no doubt that a very considerable number of cases
+of the chronic underfeeding of school children may be traced to the
+insufficiency of the home income to support the family. The moral
+obligation to provide the personal necessities of food and clothing for
+his children is active, but the means for the realisation of the
+obligation cannot be provided in many cases the endeavour fully to meet
+the needs of the child results in the lessened efficiency of the
+breadwinner of the family.
+
+The real causes at work tending to keep the wages of the unskilled
+labourer ever hovering round a mere subsistence rate must be removed, if
+anything like a permanent cure of this social evil is to be effected. We
+must endeavour on the one hand to lessen the supply of unskilled labour.
+By so doing the reward of such labour will tend to be increased
+materially. On the other hand, we must during the next decade or two
+endeavour by every means in our power to ensure that a larger and larger
+number of the children of the very poor shall in the next generation
+pass into the ranks of skilled labour.
+
+But in the meantime something must be done. The children are there; they
+still suffer; and their wrongs cry aloud for redress. It is certainly
+true that any aid given to the child will tend meanwhile to keep the
+wages at bare subsistence rates. It is also true that the distribution
+of relief only tends to make the poor comfortable in their poverty,
+instead of helping them to rise out of it. All this and much more might
+be urged against the demand to institute and organise the systematic
+public feeding of school children. But these evils are evils which fall
+upon the present adult population. Education has, however, to do with
+the future, with the next generation and not with this. Its aim is to
+secure that as large a number as possible of the children of the present
+generation will grow up to be economically and ethically efficient
+members of the community. To secure this end the problem of underfeeding
+is only one of the problems that must be solved. If we adopt some
+systematic plan for securing the full nutrition of the children of the
+present, this must go hand in hand with other remedies. During the stage
+of transition we shall have to take into account that for a time the
+wages of the poorest class of labourer will tend to remain at their
+present low rate; we shall have to face the danger that by giving such
+aid we may in some cases still further weaken the sense of moral
+obligation of the parents of the present generation. If, on the other
+hand, we do nothing, or if we look to the present voluntary agencies to
+go on doing what they can to remedy the evil, what then? Will the evil
+be lessened in the next generation? Assuredly not, if the experience of
+the present and of the past are safe guides as to what we may expect in
+the future.
+
+Hence we have no hesitation in urging that the feeding of children
+attending the Public Elementary Schools should be organised on lines
+similar to the recommendations laid down in the _Special Report from the
+Special Committee on Education_ (_Provision of Meals_) _Bill_, 1906.[22]
+
+But if we carry out these recommendations and do nothing else, then it
+may be that we shall partially remedy the evil in the next generation,
+but we shall to a large extent perpetuate the present condition of
+things. Side by side with this, we must institute and set other agencies
+at work. By the institution of Free Kindergarten Schools in the poorer
+districts of our large towns, by postponing the beginning of the formal
+education of the child to a later age, by a scientific course of
+physical education, by better trade and technical schools, and if need
+be by the compulsory attendance of children at evening continuation
+schools, we must bend our every effort to secure that the ranks of the
+casual, the unskilled, and the unemployable shall be lessened, and the
+ranks of the skilled and intelligent worker increased.
+
+As the freeing of elementary education can be justified on the ground
+that the education of the child is necessary for the future protection
+of the State, so on similar grounds it may be urged that the nutrition
+of the child is also necessary. Without this our merely educational
+agencies can never adequately secure the social efficiency of the coming
+generation. At the same time, unless in the future the need for free
+education and free food becomes less and less, and unless by the means
+sketched above we rear up a generation economically and morally
+independent, then truly we have not discovered the method by which man
+can be raised to independence and rationality.
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+_Recommendations of the Select Committee on Education_ (_Provision of
+Meals_) _Bill_, 1906.
+
+
+     "The evidence, verbal and documentary, placed before the Committee
+     has led them to arrive at the following general conclusions:--
+
+     "1. That it is expedient that the Local Education Authority should
+     be empowered to organise and direct the provision of a midday meal
+     for children attending Public Elementary Schools, and that
+     statutory powers should be given to Local Authorities to establish
+     Committees to deal with school canteens.
+
+     "2. That such Committees should be composed of representatives of
+     the Local Education Authority, representatives of the Voluntary
+     Subscribers, and where thought desirable a representative of the
+     Board of Guardians, and of the local branch of the Society for the
+     Prevention of Cruelty to Children, where such exists. That the Head
+     Teacher, the School Attendance Officer, and the Relieving Officer
+     should work in association with such Committee.
+
+     "3. That power should be given for the Local Education Authorities,
+     when they deem it desirable, to raise loans and spend money on the
+     provision of suitable accommodation and officials, and for the
+     preparation, cooking, and serving of meals to the children
+     attending Public Elementary Schools.
+
+     "4. That only in extreme and exceptional cases, where it can be
+     shown that neither the parents' resources nor Local Voluntary Funds
+     are sufficient to cover the cost, and after the consent of the
+     Board of Education as to the necessity for such expenditure has
+     been obtained, a Local Authority may have recourse to the rates for
+     the provision of the cost of the actual food; the local rate for
+     this purpose to in no case exceed ½d. in the £.
+
+     "5. That the Local Education Authority should, as far as possible,
+     associate with itself, and encourage the continuance of, voluntary
+     agencies in connection with the work of feeding of children.
+
+     "6. That whatever steps may be necessary, by way of extension of
+     the Industrial Schools and the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
+     Acts or otherwise, should be taken to secure that parents able to
+     do so and neglecting to make proper provision for the feeding of
+     their children shall be proceeded against for the recovery of the
+     cost; and that the Guardians, or where available the Society for
+     the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, and not the Local Education
+     Authority, be empowered to prosecute in any cases coming under the
+     law in respect to the neglect of parents to make proper provision
+     for the feeding of their children.
+
+     "7. That payment for meals, prior to the meal, whenever possible,
+     should be insisted upon from the parents.
+
+     "8. That it is undesirable that meals should be served in rooms
+     habitually used for teaching purposes, and that the Regulations of
+     the Board of Education should carry this recommendation into
+     effect.
+
+     "9. That whilst strong testimony has been placed before the
+     Committee to the effect that the teachers have given and are giving
+     admirable service in the way of supervising the provision of meals
+     to the children, it is the opinion of the Committee that it ought
+     not to be made part of the conditions attaching to the appointment
+     of any teacher that he (or she) shall or shall not take part in
+     dispensing meals provided for the children, and that the Board of
+     Education should carry this recommendation into effect."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] Cf. Underfed Children in Continental and American Cities (presented
+to Parliament, April 1906).
+
+[21] Cf. _Report on Education_ (_Provision of Meals_) _Bill_, especially
+Recommendation 6, Appendix, p. 75.
+
+[22] Cf. Appendix, p. 75.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE ORGANISATION OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION
+
+
+Throughout we have assumed that it is the duty of the State to see to
+the adequate provision, to the due distribution, and to the proper
+co-ordination of all the agencies of education, and we have taken up
+this position mainly on the ground that neither the adequate provision
+nor the proper co-ordination of the means of education can be safely
+left to the self-interest of the individual or any group of individuals.
+If left to be accomplished by purely voluntary agencies, both the
+provision and the co-ordination will remain imperfect, and as a nation
+we can no longer neglect the systematic organisation and grading of the
+means of education.
+
+But a misapprehension must first be removed. In declaring that all the
+agencies of formal education should be under control of the State, it is
+not to be inferred that this control should be bureaucratic. In many
+minds State control is synonymous with government by inspectors and
+other officials of the central authority. But bureaucratic control in a
+nation whose government is founded on a representative basis is a
+disease rather than a normal condition of such government. In a country
+where the sovereign power is vested in an individual or in a limited
+number of individuals, bureaucratic control is and must be an essential
+feature of its government. On the other hand, where the government is
+founded upon the representative principle, the appearance of bureaucracy
+is an indication of some imperfection in the organisation of the State
+itself. The introduction of the representative principle may have been
+too premature or its extension too rapid, and as a consequence the
+government of the people by themselves is ineffective through the
+general want of an enlightened self-interest amongst the majority of the
+nation. In such a condition of affairs, if progress is to be made, it
+can only be accomplished effectively through an enlightened minority
+forcing its will upon the unenlightened and ignorant majority, and as a
+result we may have the creation of an army of official inspectors whose
+chief duty becomes to secure that the will of the central authority is
+realised. In such a condition of things the tendency ever is for more
+and more power to fall into the hands of the permanent officials.
+
+But this condition of things may arise in a government founded upon the
+representative principle in another way. The organs through which the
+will of the people makes itself known may be imperfect, so that as a
+consequence it fails to find adequate expression, or its expression is
+felt only at infrequent intervals. If, for example, the central
+authority is so overburdened with work that little or insufficient
+attention is given to many matters of supreme importance for the welfare
+of the nation, then it follows that more and more power will pass into
+the hands of its executive and advisory officers. This condition of
+things will be further intensified if the governing bodies charged with
+the local control of national affairs are too weak or too unenlightened
+to make their voice effective. Now, the tendency to the bureaucratic
+control of the educational affairs of our own country may be traced to
+all three causes. The want of an enlightened self-interest in the matter
+of education amongst a large number of the people, the ineffectiveness
+of Parliament to deal thoroughly with purely educational questions, and
+the weakness in many cases of the local governing bodies have all
+contributed to the gradual creation of the bureaucratic control of
+education in Great Britain. But this form of control is not entirely
+evil, and in certain cases it may be a necessary stage in the
+development of a democracy passing from unenlightenment to
+enlightenment. The remedies for this imperfection, this disease of
+representative government in the matter of educational control, are (1)
+the spread of a more enlightened self-interest as to the value of
+education as a means of securing the social efficiency of the nation and
+of the individual, (2) the effective control of education by the central
+authority, and (3) the strengthening of the local authorities by
+devolving upon them more and more important educational duties. By this
+means the control of education by the State will become more and more
+the control of the people by themselves and for themselves, and the
+chief function of officials and inspectors will then be to advise
+central and local authorities how best to realise the educational aims
+desired by the common will of the people.
+
+Let us now consider the main principles which should guide the State in
+her organisation of the means of education.
+
+In the first place, and upon this all are agreed, the control of all
+grades of education, primary, secondary, and technical, should be
+entrusted to one body in each area or district. For there can be no
+co-ordination established between the work of the various school
+agencies, and there can be no differentiation of the functions to be
+undertaken by the various types of school, until there has been
+established unity of control.
+
+In England, by the Act of 1902, a great step was taken towards the
+unification of all the agencies of education. According to its
+provisions, the School Board system was abolished. "Every County Council
+and County Borough Council, and the Borough Councils of every non-county
+borough with a population of over 10,000, and the District Council of
+every urban district with a population over 20,000, became the local
+education authority for elementary education, while the County Council
+and the County Borough Council became the authorities for higher
+education, _with the supplementary aid of the Councils of all non-county
+boroughs and urban districts_." By this means the unification of
+educational control has been realised, and already in many districts of
+England much has been done to further the means of higher education and
+to co-ordinate this stage with the preceding primary stage.
+
+In Scotland the question of the extension of the area of educational
+control and of the unification of the various agencies directing
+education still awaits solution. Several plans have been put forward to
+effect these ends.[23]
+
+In the first place, it has been proposed to retain the present parish
+School Boards for the purpose of elementary education, and to combine
+two or more School Boards for the purposes of providing secondary and
+technical education. This plan, however, meets with little favour. It
+would be difficult to carry into practice, and if realised would
+imperfectly fulfil the end of co-ordinating the work of the various
+school agencies. Its only recommendations are its apparent simplicity,
+and the fact that it could be carried out with the least possible change
+in the existing conditions.
+
+In the second place, it is proposed to retain the School Board system,
+but to extend the area over which any particular educational authority
+exerts its control, and to place under its direction all grades of
+education. In the practical carrying out of this plan the present
+district areas of counties selected for other purposes have been
+proposed as educational units. On the other hand, it has been declared
+that in many cases these areas are unsuitable for educational purposes,
+and it has been proposed that new areas should be delimited for this
+purpose.
+
+The chief merit, if it be a merit, of this plan is the retention in
+educational control of the _ad hoc_ principle--_i.e._, of the principle
+of entrusting one single national interest to a body charged with the
+sole duty of conserving and furthering the interest. The only reasons
+advanced are the great importance of the educational interest and the
+fear that if it is entrusted to bodies charged with other duties this
+interest may tend to be neglected. But although both sentiment and the
+interests of political parties are involved in the advocacy of the _ad
+hoc_ principle, it must be kept in mind that the School Board system in
+Scotland is universal and that the difficulties of the system which
+prevailed in England before its abolition do not exist in Scotland. As a
+consequence, it has been much more effective in Scotland than in
+England, and has a much firmer hold on the sentiments of the people.
+
+In the third place, it has been proposed to hand over the educational
+duties of the country to the County Councils and to the Burgh Councils
+of the more important towns, to adopt, in principle, a system of
+educational control similar to that established in England by the Act of
+1902.
+
+Many reasons may be urged for the adoption of the last-named plan, and
+we shall briefly state the more important.
+
+1. An _ad hoc_ authority by its very nature is necessarily weaker than
+an authority entrusted not merely with the care of a single interest but
+with the care of the public interests as a whole. If there is to be
+decentralisation of any part of the functions of the central authority,
+then any form of decentralisation which consists in the handing over of
+particular interests to different local bodies, however it may be for
+the advantage of the particular interest is radically bad for the
+general interests of the community. The calling into existence of a
+number of local authorities each having the care of one particular
+interest, each pursuing its own aim independently and without
+consideration of the differing and often conflicting aims of the other
+bodies, each having the power of rating for its own particular purpose
+without any regard for the general interest of the taxpayer, is
+radically an unsound form of decentralisation.
+
+2. The establishment of such a form of control fails, and must
+necessarily fail, in the local authorities securing the maximum of
+freedom and the minimum of interference from the executive officers of
+the central legislative authority. So long as the separate interests of
+the community are entrusted to different local authorities, so long must
+there remain to the central authority and to its executive officers the
+power of regulating and harmonising the various and often contending
+interests so as to secure that the general interest of the individual
+does not suffer, and the more keenly each particular body furthers the
+particular interest entrusted to its care the greater is the necessity
+for this central control and interference, and that the central control
+should be effective.
+
+3. The separation of the so-called educational interests from the other
+interests of the community is not for the good of education itself. The
+real educational interests which have to be determined by the adult
+portion of the community are the exact nature of the services which a
+nation such as ours requires of its future members. This determined, the
+method of their attainment is best entrusted to the educational expert.
+The first-named end will be better realised by a body composed of men of
+diverse interests than by one which is made up of men with one intense
+but often narrow interest.
+
+4. The larger the powers entrusted to any body and the more freedom
+possessed by it in devising and working out its schemes, the better
+chance there is of attracting the best men in the community to undertake
+the work.
+
+5. It is questionable whether the interests of the teacher would not be
+better furthered by a local authority entrusted with the care of the
+interests of the community as a whole than by a body having charge of
+education alone. Men entrusted with the larger interests of the
+community are usually more ready to take wider views than the man who is
+narrowed down to one interest. As a rule, they know the value of good
+work done, and are ready and willing to pay for it wherever they find
+it.
+
+6. Lastly, we may urge the test of practical experience. In England,
+and especially in London, since the control of education has passed into
+the hands of the County Councils a great advance has been made both in
+the furthering and in the co-ordination of the means of education.
+
+Whether ultimately the control of education be vested in District School
+Boards or in the County and Burgh Councils, one reform is urgently
+needed in Scotland, and this is the extension of the area of educational
+control, under a strong local authority, and with the entire control of
+elementary, secondary, and technical education.
+
+In the second place, whatever the area of control chosen it should be of
+such a nature as to admit within its bounds of schools of different
+grades and of different types, so that children may pass not only from
+the Elementary School to the Secondary, but may pass to the particular
+type of Secondary or Higher School which is best fitted to prepare them
+for their future life's work. In many cases, in Scotland, we cannot make
+the same clear distinction between the various types of school as they
+do in Germany, but must remain content with the division of a school
+into departments; yet in our large towns and in our most populous
+centres of industry we must establish schools of different types and
+with differing particular ends in view.
+
+The third principle of organisation follows from the second. We must see
+that our educational system is so organised as to provide an efficient
+and sufficient supply of all the services which the community requires
+of its individual members. In particular, our Higher School system must
+be designed not merely for the supply of the so-called learned
+professions, but must also make due and adequate provision for the
+training of those who in after-life are destined for the higher
+industrial and commercial posts. In particular, we must see that there
+is due provision of Trade and Technical Schools, where our future
+artisans may become acquainted with the theoretical principles
+underlying their particular art.
+
+Fourthly, we must endeavour to make our Elementary School system the
+basis and point of departure of all further and higher education. This
+would not involve that every child should be educated at a Primary and
+State-aided School, but it does mean and would involve that the
+Preparatory departments of our present Secondary Schools should model
+their curriculum on the lines laid down in our Elementary Schools.
+
+Fifthly, in the organisation of the means of education, our system, as
+we have already pointed out, must be democratic in the sense that the
+means of higher education shall be open to all, rich and poor, in order
+that each may be enabled to find and thereafter to fit himself for that
+particular employment for which by nature he is best suited. It must
+further be aristocratic in the sense that it is selective of the best
+ability; and finally, it must be restrictive in order that the means of
+higher education may be utilised to the best advantage, and not misused
+on those who are unfitted to benefit therefrom.
+
+Unity of control; adequacy of area; schools of various types, sufficient
+in number, and suited to meet the need for the supply of the various
+services required by the State; a common basis in elementary education;
+means of higher education open to all who can profit thereby; selection
+of the best; restriction of those unable to benefit from higher
+education--these are the principles which must in the future guide the
+State organisation of the means of education.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[23] For a fuller discussion of this question, see _Scotch Education
+Reform_, by Dr. Douglas and Professor Jones (Maclehose).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE AIM OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
+
+
+"A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description of a happy
+state in this world. He that has these two has little more to wish for,
+and he that wants either of them will be but little the better for
+anything else."[24] In these words Locke sets forth for all time what
+should be aimed at in the physical education of the child, and in the
+light of modern physiological psychology the position must be emphasised
+anew that one of the essential conditions of sound intellectual and
+moral vigour is sound physical health, and that body and mind are not
+things apart, but that the health of the one ever conditions and is
+conditioned by the health of the other.
+
+Moreover, at the present time, it is all the more necessary to insist
+upon the need for the systematic care of the physical culture of the
+child, since in many cases the conditions under which the children of
+the poor live in our great towns are most prejudicial to the full and
+free development of the organs of the body. The narrow, overbuilt
+streets in the poorer parts of our towns, the overcrowding of the people
+in tenements, the unhygienic conditions under which the vast majority of
+our very poor live and sleep, are all active forces in preventing the
+full and free development of the physical powers of the child. Thus the
+purely educational problem of how best to promote the physical health
+and development of the child by the systematic exercises of the school
+is involved in the much larger and more important social problem of how
+to better the conditions under which the very poor live. The agencies of
+the school can do little permanently to improve the physique of the
+children until, concurrently with the school, society endeavours to
+improve the social conditions under which the poorest of the population
+of our great cities herd together. For a similar reason much of the
+endeavour of the school to found and establish in the child's mind
+interests of social worth is counteracted by the evil influence of its
+home and social environment. If the physical, economic, and ethical
+efficiency of the children of the slums is ever to be secured, if we are
+ever to attain a permanent result, then concurrently with the creation
+of new and higher social interests must go hand in hand changes in the
+social environment of the child. Mere betterment of the physical
+conditions under which our slum population live is of no avail unless at
+the same time we have a corresponding change in the slum mind by the
+rise and prevalence of a higher ideal of the physical and material
+conditions under which their lives ought to be spent.
+
+For experience has shown in many cases that the mere betterment of the
+material conditions under which the poor live without any corresponding
+change of ideals soon results in the re-creation of the miserable
+conditions which formerly prevailed. On the other hand, the mere
+instilling of new ideals into the minds of the rising generation will
+effect little, if during the greater part of the school period and
+altogether afterwards we leave the child to overcome the evil influences
+of his environment as best he may. The ideals of the school are too
+weak, too feebly established, to prevail against the ever present and
+ever potent influences of the environment unless side by side with the
+rise of the new ideals we at the same time endeavour to lessen, if we
+cannot altogether remove, the obstacles which prevent their realisation
+and prevalence. This problem of how to raise by education and by means
+of the other social agencies at work the children of the slums to a
+higher ideal of life and conduct and to secure their future social
+efficiency is the most urgent problem of our day and generation. Mere
+school reforms in physical and intellectual education will effect little
+unless the other aspects of the problem are attacked at the same time.
+
+Further, our school system, which requires that the child should
+restrain his instinctive tendencies to action, and for certain hours
+each day assume a more or less passive and cramped attitude, is also
+prejudicial to the development and free play of the organs of the body
+which have entrusted to them the discharge of certain functional
+activities.
+
+Hence the evil effects of the school itself must be removed or remedied
+by some means having as their aim the increased functional activity of
+the respiratory and circulatory systems of the body. And therefore the
+aim of any system of physical exercises should be not merely increase of
+bone and development of muscle but also the sustaining and improving of
+the bodily health of the child by "expanding the lungs, quickening the
+circulation, and shaking the viscera." This, as we shall see later, is
+not the only aim of physical education. It may further aid in mental
+growth and development, and be instrumental in the production of certain
+mental and moral qualities of value both to the individual and to the
+community.
+
+Another cause operating in the school to prevent the full and free
+development of the body is the method of much of the teaching which
+prevails. A quite unnecessary strain is often put upon the nervous
+system of the child, and as a consequence a lassitude of body results
+which physical exercise not only does not tend to remove but actually
+tends to increase. Methods of teaching which fail to arouse any inherent
+interest in the attainment of an end of felt value to the child require
+for the evoking and maintaining of his active attention the operation of
+some powerful indirect interest, and if persisted in, such methods soon
+result in the overworking and exhaustion of some one particular system
+of nervous centres, and in the depletion through non-nutrition of other
+centres. As a consequence, the child is unable to take any part in
+physical exercises or in school games with profit to himself. He is
+content to loaf and do as little as he can. The evil is further
+intensified if there is also present under or improper nutrition of the
+child.
+
+Thus along with our schemes for the physical education of the child we
+must endeavour to improve the methods of our teachers, to make them
+understand that experiences acquired through the arousing of the direct
+interest of the child are acquired at the least physiological cost, and
+to make them realise under what conditions this direct interest can be
+aroused and maintained. No one indeed wishes to make everything in the
+school pleasant to the child, or to reduce self-effort to a minimum. But
+effort and interest are not opposed terms. The effort which is evoked in
+the realisation of an interest or end of felt value is the only kind of
+effort which possesses any educational value. The effort which is called
+forth in the finding and establishing of a system of means towards an
+end which the child fails to see, and which, as a consequence, rouses no
+direct interest in its attainment, is an effort which should for ever be
+banished from the schoolroom. Such, _e.g._, is the effort evoked in the
+mere cramming of empty lists of words or dates or facts. Little mental
+good results from such a process, and the physiological cost is often
+great.
+
+Let us now consider the conditions necessary for sound physical health,
+and inquire how far the school agencies can aid in the providing of
+these conditions: they are mainly four in number. In the first place, in
+order to secure the full growth and development of the bodily powers,
+there is needed a sufficiency of food. But mere sufficiency is not
+enough, the food must be varied in quality in order to meet the various
+needs of the body, and must be prepared in such a way as to be readily
+assimilated and rendered fit for the nutrition of both body and mind.
+Manifestly the home ought to be the chief agent in providing for this
+need. But, as we have seen in considering the problem of the feeding of
+school children, the home in many cases is unable adequately to provide
+for it, and, for a time at least, some method of public provision of
+good and wholesome food for the children of the poor may be rendered
+necessary. But much of the physical evil results from improper
+nutrition; and here the school agencies may do a great deal in the
+future by furthering the teaching of domestic science to the girls of
+the working classes. Such teaching, however, if it is to be effective,
+must be real and must take into account the actual conditions under
+which their future lives are to be spent. At the present time much of
+the teaching is valueless, through its neglect of the actual income and
+resources of the working man's home.
+
+The second condition necessary for bodily growth and development is a
+sufficiency of pure air. This is necessary, since the oxygen of the air
+is not only the active agent in the maintenance of life, but is also
+requisite for the combustion of the foodstuffs conveyed into the body.
+Much has been done within recent years in our schools to provide
+well-ventilated classrooms and to instruct teachers how to keep the air
+of the school pure. Here again the problem is to a large extent a social
+one, involving the better housing of our great town population.
+
+A third condition necessary for the physical development of the child is
+sleep sufficient in quantity and good in quality. The weak, puny
+children in arms to be seen in our crowded slums owe their condition, in
+many cases, to the want of sound sleep, to the fact that they never are
+allowed to rest, as much as to the under and improper feeding to which
+they are subjected. As we shall see in the next chapter, much might be
+done by the establishment of Free Kindergarten Schools in our
+overcrowded districts to alleviate the lot and to better the education
+of the very young children of the poor.
+
+But in addition to the three conditions already named, which may be
+classed together as the nutritive factors in bodily growth, there is a
+fourth condition essential for all development, whether bodily or
+mental--viz., exercise. For "development is produced by exercise of
+function, use of faculty.... If we wish to develop the hand, we must
+exercise the hand. If we wish to develop the body, we must exercise the
+body. If we wish to develop the mind, we must exercise the mind. If we
+wish to develop the whole human being, we must exercise the whole human
+being."[25]
+
+But any form of exercise will not do. The exercise which is given must
+be given at the right time, must be in harmony with the nature of the
+organ exercised, and must be proportioned to the strength of the organ,
+if true development is to be attained.
+
+In order to understand this in so far as it bears upon the aims which we
+should set before us in the physical education of the child, it is
+necessary that we should understand what modern physiological psychology
+has to teach us of the nature of the nervous system.
+
+If the reader will look back to an earlier chapter,[26] he will find
+that education was defined as the process by which experiences are
+acquired and organised in order that they may render the performance of
+future action more efficient, or alternatively it is the process by
+which systems of means are formed, organised, and established for the
+attainment of various ends of felt value. The establishment of these
+systems of means is only possible because in the human infant the
+nervous system is relatively unformed at birth, is relatively plastic,
+and so is capable of being organised in such and such a definite manner.
+On the other hand, in many animals the nervous system of each is
+definitely formed at birth; it is so organised that experience does
+little to add to or aid in its further development. Now, while the
+nervous system of the child at birth is not so definitely organised as
+that of many animals, yet on the other hand it is not wholly plastic,
+wholly unformed, so that, as many psychologists and educationalists once
+believed, it can be moulded into any shape we please.
+
+Rather, we have to conceive of the nervous system of the human infant as
+made up of a series of systems at different degrees of development and
+with varying degrees of organisation.[27] Some centres, as _e.g._ those
+which have to do with the regulation of certain reflex and automatic
+actions, start at once into full functional activity; others, as _e.g._
+those which have to do with purely intellectual functions, are
+relatively unformed and unorganised at birth, and become organised as
+the result of conscious effort, as the result of an educational process,
+as the result of acquiring, organising, and establishing experiences for
+the attainment of ends of acquired value.
+
+Between the systems at the lowest level and those at the highest we have
+centres of varying degrees of organisation at birth. Moreover, these
+centres of the middle level reach their full maturity at different
+rates. The centres, _e.g._, which have to do with the co-ordination of
+hand and eye and with the attainment of control over the limbs of the
+body reach their full functional activity before, _e.g._, the centres
+having control of the lips and speech. The centres, again, which have to
+do with the co-ordination of the sensory material derived through the
+particular senses are still longer in reaching their full functional
+activity, while the higher intellectual centres may not reach their
+highest power until well on in life. Hence, since education is the
+process of acquiring experiences that shall modify future activity, it
+can do little positively to aid the development of the lowest centres;
+it can do more to modify the development of the middle centres; while
+the highest centres of all are in great part organised as the result of
+direct individual experience.
+
+As regards the systems of the lowest level, what we have then to aim at
+is to allow them free room for growth, and to correct as far as possible
+faults due either to the imperfections of nature or to the unnatural
+conditions under which the child lives. So long as these systems are
+provided with nutrition and allowed freedom in performing their
+functions, we are unaware of their existence. We, _e.g._, only become
+aware that we possess a circulatory system or a respiratory or a
+digestive system when the functional activity of these organs is
+impeded. The opinion, therefore, that physical exercise has for its
+chief aim the sustaining and improving of the bodily health is no doubt
+true and correct, but it is not the only aim. On this view we are
+considering only the lowest system of centres, and devising means by
+which we may maintain and improve their functional activity. Moreover,
+it is necessary to endeavour to secure the free development of these
+centres and their unimpeded functional activity, because otherwise the
+development of the higher centres is hindered, and the whole nervous
+system rendered unstable and insecure.
+
+But a wise system of physical education must take into account the fact
+that a carefully selected and organised system of exercises can do much
+for the development of the centres of the middle level which have to do
+with the proper co-ordination of various bodily movements. These are
+only partly organised at birth, and education--the acquiring and
+organising of experiences--is necessary for their due organisation and
+their adaptation as systems of means for the attainment of definite
+ends. It is for this reason that the beginning of the formal education
+of the child at too early an age is physiologically and psychologically
+erroneous. In doing this we are neglecting the lower centres at the time
+when by nature they are reaching their full functional activity, and
+exercising the higher which are at an unripe stage of development.
+Moreover, lower centres not exercised during the period when they are
+attaining their full development never attain the same functional
+development if exercised later. Hence the difficulty of acquiring a
+manual dexterity later in life. Again, it is on this theory of lower and
+higher centres maturing at different rates and attaining their full
+functional activity at different times that we now base our education of
+the mentally defective. We must organise the lower centres; we must
+educate the mentally defective child to get control over these already
+partially organised centres, before we begin to educate the higher and
+less organised centres. Moreover, it is only in so far as we can secure
+this end that we can stably build up and organise the higher centres of
+the nervous system. Hence also such qualities as alertness in receiving
+orders and promptness and accuracy in carrying them out are, at first,
+best learned through the organising and training of the centres of the
+middle level. What we really endeavour to do here is to organise and
+establish systems of means for the attainment of definite ends, which
+through their systematic organisation can be brought into action when
+required promptly and quickly, and once aroused work themselves out with
+a minimum of effort and with a low degree of attention, so that their
+performance involves the least possible physiological cost.
+
+From this the reader will understand that the aim of physical education
+is the aim of all education, viz., to acquire and organise experiences
+that will render future action more efficient.
+
+Moreover, the early training of the centres of the middle level is
+important for the after technical training of our workmen. The boy or
+girl who has never been educated in early life to co-ordinate and carry
+out bodily movements promptly and accurately is not likely to succeed in
+after-life in any employment which requires the ready and exact
+co-ordination of many movements for the attainment of a definite end.
+The proper physical education of the child is therefore necessary for
+the securing of the after economic efficiency of the individual, and it
+can also by the development of certain mental and moral qualities be
+made instrumental in the development of the ethically efficient person.
+
+We must now briefly note two other educational agencies which may be
+employed in the securing of the physical and mental efficiency of the
+child--play and games. Psychologically, games stand midway between play
+and work. In play we have an inherited system of means evoked into
+activity and carried out to an end for the pure pleasure derived from
+the activity itself. Such systems at first are imperfectly organised,
+but through the experience derived the systems become more and better
+adapted for the attainment of the ends which they are intended to
+realise. In games, on the other hand, the activity is undertaken for an
+end only partially connected with the means by which it is attained,
+whilst in work the means may have no intrinsic connection with the end
+desired. Hence the effort of a disagreeable nature which work often
+evokes.
+
+In animals fully equipped at birth by means of instinct for the
+performance of actions the play-activity is altogether absent. Their
+lives are wholly business-like. On the other hand, in the higher
+animals, whose young have a period of infancy, play is nature's
+instrument of education. By means of it the systems of the middle level
+which form the larger part of the brain equipment of the higher animals
+are gradually organised and fitted for the attainment of the ends which
+in mature life they are intended to realise. Play is their education--is
+the means by which nature works in order that experiences may be
+acquired and organised that shall render future action more efficient.
+Without this power, "the higher animals could not reach their full
+development; the stimulus necessary for the growth of their bodies and
+minds would be lacking."[28]
+
+Play also is nature's instrument in the education of the young child.
+The first and most important part of his education is obtained by this
+means, and, on the basis thus laid, must all after-education be built.
+Hence the importance in early life of allowing full freedom for the
+manifestation of this activity. Hence also the very great importance of
+securing that the children of the poor should be provided with the means
+of realising the playful activities of their nature and of being
+stimulated and encouraged to play. Hence one aim of the Kindergarten
+School is to utilise the play-activity of the child in the development
+of his body and mind.[29]
+
+The third agency which we may employ in developing the physical powers
+of the child is that of games. Games, however, are not merely useful as
+means for the attainment of the physical development of the boy or girl;
+they also may be made instrumental in the creation and fostering of
+certain mental and moral qualities of the greatest after-value to the
+community. No one acquainted with the important part which games perform
+in the life of the Public School boy can doubt their great educational
+value. By means of them the boy acquires experiences which in after-life
+tend to make more efficient certain classes of actions essential for any
+corporate or communal life. In the playing-fields he learns what it is
+to be a member of a corporate body whose good and not the attainment of
+his own private ends must be the first consideration. Through the medium
+of the games of the school he may get to know the meaning of
+self-sacrifice, of working with his fellows for a common end or purpose,
+and of sinking his own individuality for the sake of his side. In
+addition he learns the habits of ready obedience to superior knowledge
+and ability; to submit to discipline; and to undergo fatigue for the
+common good. If found worthy, he may learn how to command as well as to
+obey, to think out means for the attainment of ends, and to know and
+feel that the good name of the school rests upon his shoulders. These
+and other qualities similar in character may be created and established
+by means of the games of the school. And just as the utilising of the
+play-instinct is nature's method of education in the fitting of the
+young animal and the young child to adapt itself in the future to its
+physical environment, so we may lay down that the games of the school
+may be largely utilised as society's method of fitting the individual to
+his after social environment, and in training him to understand the true
+meaning and the real purport of corporate life.
+
+On account, however, of the vast size of many of our Public Elementary
+Schools and for other reasons, such as the limited playground
+accommodation in many cases and the want of playing-fields, organised
+games play but a small part in the physical and moral education of the
+children attending such schools. But even here much more might be done
+than is done at present by the teachers in the playground to encourage
+the simpler playground games, and "to replace the disorganised rough and
+tumble exercises which characterise the activities of so many of our
+poorer population by some form of organised activity."[30] The aimless
+parading of our streets by the sons and daughters of the working and
+lower middle classes in their leisure time, the rough horseplay of the
+youth of the lowest classes, are due in large measure to the fact that
+during the school period they have not been habituated to take part with
+their fellows in any form of organised activity, have never realised
+what a corporate life means, and as a consequence are devoid of any
+social interests.
+
+One other question must be briefly considered, viz., How far should we
+in the physical education of the youth keep in view the end of securing
+the military efficiency of the nation? As Adam Smith pointed out, the
+defence of any society against the violence and invasion of other
+independent societies is the first duty of the sovereign. "An
+industrious, and upon that account a wealthy nation is of all nations
+the most likely to be attacked, and unless the State takes some measures
+for the public defence, the natural habits of the people render them
+altogether incapable of defending themselves."[31] He further asserts
+that "even though the martial spirit of the people were of no use
+towards the defence of the society, yet to prevent that sort of mental
+mutilation, deformity, and wretchedness which cowardice necessarily
+involves in it, from spreading themselves through the great body of the
+people, it would still deserve the most serious attention of
+Government."[32]
+
+On these three grounds, then, that the defence of the country is the
+first duty of every Government and therefore the first duty of every
+citizen, that a nation engaged in commerce tends to render itself unfit
+to defend itself unless means are devised to keep alive the patriotic
+spirit, and that the keeping alive of the patriotic spirit is useful for
+the cultivation of certain necessary social qualities, we may maintain
+that the military efficiency of the youth should be included amongst the
+aims of any national system of physical education. If the emphasis which
+is laid upon the securing of the after military efficiency of the youth
+of the nation occupies too prominent a place in the schemes of physical
+education of some Continental countries, we on the other hand have
+almost wholly neglected this aspect of the question. Every encouragement
+therefore should be given to the formation of cadet and rifle corps in
+the Secondary Schools of the country and in the Evening Continuation
+Schools attended by the sons of the working classes. The time when
+systematic instruction in military exercises and in the use of arms
+shall form part of every youth's education has not yet arrived, but the
+necessity for some such step looms already on the horizon.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24] Locke's _Thoughts on Education_.
+
+[25] Bowen's Froebel (Great Educator Series), p. 48.
+
+[26] Cf. chap. ii.
+
+[27] Cf. MacDougall's _Physiological Psychology_ (Dent); _also_ Sir
+James Crichton Browne's article on "Education and the Nervous System,"
+in Cassell's _Book of Health_.
+
+[28] _Principles of Heredity_, ibid. p. 242.
+
+[29] Cf. next chapter.
+
+[30] _Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers_ (English Board of
+Education), chapter on Physical Education.
+
+[31] Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, p. 292.
+
+[32] _Ibid._ p. 329.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE AIM OF THE INFANT SCHOOL
+
+
+It is needless to point out that the method of educating the infant mind
+is the method of all education--viz., the regulation of the process by
+which experiences are acquired and organised so as to render the
+performance of future action more efficient. This, as we shall see
+later, is the fundamental truth at the foundation of the Kindergarten
+method of Froebel, and it must guide and control our conduct not only
+during the earlier stages but throughout the whole process of education.
+
+Moreover, since the early acquisitions of the child are the bases upon
+which all further knowledge and practice are founded, we must realise
+how important these first experiences are for the whole future
+development of the child. Further, we have seen that all education--all
+acquiring and organising of experience in early life--must be motived by
+the felt desire to satisfy some instinctive need of the child's nature,
+and that it is these instinctive needs which determine the nature and
+scope of his early activities.
+
+Later, indeed, acquired interests may be grafted upon the innate and
+instinctive needs, but at the beginning and during his first years the
+child's whole life is determined by the primitive desires of human
+nature.
+
+Now, the first instinctive need which requires the aid of education is
+the need felt by the child to acquire some measure of control over his
+bodily movements and over the things in his immediate physical
+environment. Hence the first stage in education is the regulation of the
+process by which the child acquires and organises those experiences
+which shall give him this control. Nature herself indeed provides the
+means for the attainment of this end, but education can do much to aid
+in the attainment and to shorten the period of incomplete attainment. By
+means of the assistance given, the control exercised and the direction
+afforded, we enable the child to organise the lower centres of the
+nervous system which have to do with the control of the larger bodily
+movements, and thus establish organised systems of means for the
+attainment of certain definite ends.
+
+The second stage supervenes when the need is felt by the child for some
+measure of control over his social environment. For the young child soon
+realises that it is only in so far as he can exert some influence over
+the persons intimately connected with his welfare that he can make his
+wants known and find means for the satisfaction of his desires. Hence
+arises the need for some method of communication with his fellows, and
+from this springs the desire for some system of signs and for a language
+to enable him to make his wants known. Chiefly by means of the educative
+process of imitating the experiences of others, he gradually acquires a
+language and finds himself at home in his social world.
+
+During this period the centres called into activity, developed, and
+organised are mainly those connected with the lip and speech centres,
+and a certain stage of organisation having been attained, the
+opportunity is now afforded for the fuller functional development of the
+higher centres entrusted with the duty of receiving, discriminating, and
+co-ordinating the data of the special organs of sense.
+
+The period during which the child is gradually acquiring control over
+his immediate physical and social environments may roughly be said to
+extend to the end of his third year.
+
+From that time onwards the worlds of nature and of society for their own
+sake become objects of curiosity to the child. Every new object presents
+him with a variety of fresh sensations. He feels, tastes, and bites
+everything that comes within his reach, and so acquires a world of new
+experiences. Hence for "the first six years of his life a child has
+quite enough to do in learning its place in the universe and the nature
+of its surroundings, and to compel it during any part of that period to
+give its attention to mere words and symbols is to stint it of the best
+part of its education for that which is only of secondary importance,
+and to weaken the foundations of its whole mental fabric."[33]
+
+If, then, during this period the child is left wholly to gather his
+experiences as he may, he no doubt acquires by his own self-activity a
+world of new ideas, but the result of this unregulated process will be
+that the knowledge gained will be largely unsystematised, and much of
+the experience acquired may be of a nature which may give a false
+direction to his whole after-development. Hence arise three needs. In
+the first place, we must endeavour to see that new experiences are
+presented to the child in some systematic manner, in order that the
+knowledge may be so organised that it may serve as means to the
+attainment of ends, and so render future activity more accurate and more
+efficient. In the second place, we must endeavour to prevent the
+acquisition of experiences which if allowed to be organised would give
+an immoral direction to conduct; and in the third place, we must
+endeavour to establish early in the mind of the child organised systems
+of means which may hereafter result in the prevalence of activities
+socially useful to the community.
+
+Now, these three aims are or should be the aims of the Kindergarten
+School, and we shall now inquire into the ends which the Kindergarten
+School sets before it, and for this purpose we shall state the
+fundamental principles which Froebel himself laid down as the guiding
+principles of this stage of education.
+
+On its intellectual side the Kindergarten as conceived by Froebel has
+four distinct aims in view. The first aim is by means of comparing and
+contrasting a series of objects presented in some regular and systematic
+manner to lead the child to note the likenesses and differences between
+the things, and so through and by means of his own self-activity to
+build up coherent and connected systems of ideas. By this method the
+teacher builds up in the mind of the young child systems of ideas
+regarding the colours, forms, and other sense qualities of the more
+common objects of his environment. The second aim is by means of some
+form of concrete construction to give expression to the knowledge so
+gained, to make this knowledge more accurate and definite, and thus by a
+dialectical return to make the experiences of the child definite and
+accurate, so as to render future action more efficient, and thus pave
+the way for further progress. The third aim is to utilise the
+play-activity of the child in the acquisition of new experiences and in
+their outward concrete expression. The fourth is to engage the child in
+the production of something socially useful, something which engages his
+genuine work-activity. In short, what Froebel clearly realised was that
+the mere taking in of new experiences by the child mind in any order was
+not sufficient. Experiences to be useful for efficient action must be
+assimilated--must be organised into a system--and in order that this may
+be possible the experiences must be presented in such a manner as will
+render them capable of being organised. Moreover, this mere taking in of
+new experiences is not enough. There must be a giving out or expression
+of the knowledge acquired, for it is only in so far as we can turn to
+use new experiences that we can be sure that they are really ours. Now,
+since the forms of expression natural to the young child are those which
+evoke his practical constructive efforts, all outward expression in its
+earlier stages must assume a concrete form. The aim of the so-called
+"Gifts" in Froebel's scheme is to build up an organised system of
+sense-knowledge; the aim of the "Occupations" of the Kindergarten is to
+develop the power of concrete expression of the child. The "Gifts" and
+the "Occupations" are correlative methods,--the one concerned with the
+taking in, the other with the outward expression of the same
+experience,--and throughout either aspect of the process the
+reason-activity of the child must be evoked both in the acquisition and
+in the expression of the new experience. Physiologically, this twofold
+process implies that during the Kindergarten period the sensory areas of
+the brain are being exercised and organised and that the associative
+activity evoked is concerned with the co-ordination of the impressions
+derived through these areas. Psychologically, it implies that during
+this period we are mainly concerned with the formation of perceptual
+systems of knowledge composed of data derived through the special senses
+and through the active movements of the hands and limbs. Such a process,
+moreover, is a necessary preliminary for the full after-development of
+the higher association centres of the brain and for the formation by the
+mind of conceptual systems of knowledge.
+
+For if we attempt prematurely to exercise the higher centres before the
+lower have reached a certain measure of development, if we attempt to
+form conceptual systems of knowledge, such as all language and number
+systems are, without first laying a sound perceptual basis, then we may
+do much to hinder future mental growth, if we do not even inflict a
+positive injury to the child. For the education of the senses neglected,
+"all after-education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, and an
+insufficiency which it is impossible to cure."[34]
+
+On its moral and social side the aims of the Kindergarten School are no
+less important. If left to follow the naive instinctive needs of his
+nature and to gather experiences where and how he may, the child is
+likely to make acquisitions which later may issue in wrong conduct.
+Hence one aim of the Kindergarten is to present experiences which may
+eventually issue in right conduct, and to prevent the acquisition of
+experiences of an immoral kind. Hence also its insistence upon the need
+of carefully selecting the environment of the young child, so that as
+far as possible its early experiences--its first acquisitions--shall be
+of a healthy nature. Moreover, by means of the organised activities of
+the school, and by utilising the play-instinct of the child, it seeks to
+form and establish certain habits of future social worth to the
+community and to the individual. For, by means of the games and
+occupations of the Kindergarten School, the child may first of all learn
+what it means to co-operate with his fellows for a common end or
+purpose; may learn to submit to authority which he dimly and
+imperfectly, it may be, perceives to be reasonable; may be trained to
+habits of accuracy, of order, and of obedience. Above all, the
+Kindergarten system may rouse and foster in the mind of the child that
+sense of a corporate life and of a common social spirit the prevalence
+of which in after-life is the only secure foundation of society.
+
+In England the extreme importance of the education of the infant mind
+has been, in recent years, clearly acknowledged. The new regulations of
+the Board of Education no longer allow children under five years of age
+to be included as "an integral part of a three-R grant-earning
+Elementary School." A special curriculum has been set forth for their
+education. They are to have opportunities provided "for the free
+development of their bodies and minds and for the formation of habits of
+obedience and attention."[35] What are known as "Kindergarten
+Occupations are not merely pleasant pastimes for children: if so
+regarded, they are not intelligently used by the teacher. Their purpose
+is to stimulate intelligent individual effort, to furnish training of
+the senses of sight and touch, to promote accurate co-ordination of hand
+movements with sense impressions, and, not least important, to implant a
+habit of obedience."
+
+"Formal teaching, even by means of Kindergarten Occupations, is
+undesirable for children under five. At this stage it is sufficient to
+give the child opportunity to use his senses freely. To attempt formal
+teaching will almost inevitably mean, with some of the children, either
+restraint or over-stimulation, with constant danger to mental growth and
+health."[36]
+
+From these extracts from the _Suggestions for the Consideration of
+Teachers_ of the Head of the English Board of Education, it will be
+evident that the spirit of the "Kindergarten" now largely enters into
+the curriculum of the infant classes. In the future we may hope to see
+it carried further and that no formal teaching of the child will be
+undertaken during the first six years of his life. Further, we may hope
+to see in the future the infant departments of our schools more
+thoroughly organised than they are at present on the Kindergarten
+principle, and the curriculum of the Infant School so devised that it
+shall fit into and pave the way for the curriculum of the Elementary
+School. For at the earlier stage much may be done by the methods of the
+Kindergarten to lay the basis for the teaching of the arts of reading,
+writing, and arithmetic which it is the main business of the Primary
+School to lead the child to acquire. _E.g._, at the earlier stage, by
+the breaking up and reconstructing of concrete groups of things, the
+child can be initiated into the meaning of a number system. By means of
+pictures and of concrete forms he can be made gradually acquainted with
+alphabetic forms, and this teaching lays the basis for the future
+acquisition of the abstract symbols of printed and written words.
+
+But while much has been done in England to recognise the importance of
+the early education of the child for the after moral and social good
+both of the individual and of the community, and to place the
+instruction of the infant classes in the Public Elementary Schools upon
+a rational basis, little attention has been paid in Scotland to this
+subject. As a rule, children in that country do not enter school before
+the age of five, and there is no separate provision made for the
+teaching of children under that age; in fact, all scholars under seven
+years of age are classified together and form the Junior Division of the
+school.
+
+Such a state of matters reflects but little credit on the educational
+leaders of Scotland, and indicates an imperfect conception of the real
+nature of the educative process. For if education is the process of
+acquiring and organising experiences in order to render future action
+more efficient, it is surely the height of folly to allow the young
+child to gather his early experiences as he may. Moreover, in the case
+of the children of the slums, to allow them during their early years to
+gather into their brain without any correcting agency "all the sights
+and scenes of a slum is sheer social madness." "The child must be
+removed, or partially removed, from such an atmosphere, since it has
+reached the imitative stage, and is nearing the selective stage of life.
+For the moment he imitates anything; presently he will imitate what
+pleases him, what gives him momentary pleasure. Before the unmoral
+selective stage is reached, the stage which inevitably precedes the
+moral and immoral selective stage, it is essential that children should
+receive definite and deliberate guidance, that the imitative faculty
+should be controlled."[37] In the case of the children of the poorer
+districts this can be done only through the agency of the Infant School.
+Much may be done by making the instruction of the school attractive, to
+counteract the evil influences of the home and social environment, and
+to lead the child to acquire and organise experiences which will issue
+in moral and not in immoral conduct.
+
+Hence what we need in the poorer districts of our large towns is Free
+Kindergarten Schools from which all formal teaching of the three R's is
+abolished, where for several hours in each day the child may be trained
+to use his senses in the accurate discrimination and accurate
+systematisation of sense knowledge; where he may have his constructive
+activities evoked by the expression in concrete form of what he has been
+led to perceive through the medium of the senses; where he may be
+trained to habits of order, of cleanliness, of submission to authority;
+and where for a time, at least, he may be accustomed to live in a purer
+and healthier atmosphere than he can find at home or in the street, and
+where for a brief space he may have that feeling of home which he cannot
+find at home.[38]
+
+The establishment in the poorer districts of our great towns of schools
+whose education follows the method of the Kindergarten if accompanied by
+some system of feeding the child would do much to secure the after
+social efficiency of the rising generation, and would by its reaction on
+the home-life tend gradually to raise the ideals of the very poor.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] _The Nervous System and Education_, by Sir James Crichton Browne,
+_ibid._ p. 345.
+
+[34] _The Nervous System and Education_, by Sir James Crichton Browne,
+_ibid._ p. 345.
+
+[35] Cf. on this subject the chapter on "School Nurseries" in _National
+Education and National Life_, ibid.
+
+[36] _Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers_, chap. iii. (issued
+by the English Board of Education).
+
+[37] Montmorency's _National Education and National Life_, ibid. p. 143.
+The chapter on "School Nurseries" should be read by everyone, and
+especially by every Scotsman interested in the education of young
+children.
+
+[38] Cf. Charles Lamb's Essay on _Popular Fallacies_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE AIM OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL
+
+
+During the past thirty years no part of our educational system has
+received so much attention as the Elementary Schools of the country. If
+we compare the condition of things which prevails at the present time
+with that which existed previous to 1870, there can be no doubt that a
+great advance has been made both in the better provision of the means of
+education and in the efficiency of the instruction given. Previous to
+1870 a large number of the children of the poor received no
+education.[39] Of those attending school many left with but a scanty
+knowledge. Now practically every child[40] receives a training in the
+primary arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic; and with the gradual
+extension of the period during which the child must attend school, it
+has become possible to ensure that a larger and larger number of
+children leaving our Elementary Schools have received an education which
+may be of value for the after-fulfilment of the simpler practical ends
+of life. Again, previous to 1870 the school buildings were in many cases
+unfit for their purpose; now the Elementary Schools of the country both
+in their building arrangements and equipment are as a rule much superior
+to the voluntary and endowed schools providing secondary education.
+Previous to 1870 anyone was thought good enough to undertake the work of
+teaching; since that time more and more attention has been paid to the
+qualifications of the teacher and to securing that he shall have
+attained a certain standard of education, and have received a certain
+measure of training before engaging upon the work of the instruction of
+the young. We, _e.g._, no longer entrust the instruction of the younger
+children in the school to the older, as was the custom under the
+monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster, and with the abolition of the
+pupil-teacher the last remnant of a system introduced at the beginning
+of the nineteenth century, as the only remedy to meet the dire
+educational necessities of the time, will have been removed.
+
+But in spite of the great advances which have been made, there is a
+deep-seated feeling now beginning to find expression, that somehow or
+other the Elementary School has not realised all the expectations that
+were once thought likely to result from the universal education of the
+children of the nation, and that in particular the Primary School has
+failed to foster and to establish the moral and social qualities
+necessary for the welfare of a State whose government is founded on the
+representative principle.
+
+This, it seems to me, is largely due to the wrong conception of the aims
+which the Primary School is intended to realise--a conception which
+prevailed for many years after the introduction of compulsory elementary
+education. For some time now, and especially during the past few years,
+a counter-reaction has set in against the narrowness of the aims of the
+preceding period, and like all reactions it tends to go to the opposite
+extreme, and so to broaden the aims of the Primary School as to be in
+danger of failing to realise efficiently any one of the ends which it
+sets before it.
+
+The state of things immediately preceding 1870 not unnaturally gave rise
+to the idea that the acquisition of the arts of reading, writing, and
+arithmetic was the one indispensable object to be attained in the
+elementary education of the child. This conviction was strengthened by
+the system of Government grants introduced into both English and Scotch
+schools, payments to school managers being largely based upon the
+successes obtained in passes in the three elementary subjects.
+
+Certain results naturally followed. In the first place, no provision was
+made for the special education of the infant classes. Since the
+after-success of the child was measured by his attainments in the three
+R's, the sooner the infant mind was introduced to these subjects the
+better the after-result might be expected to be. Thus the grant-earning
+capacity of the child became the teacher's chief consideration. In the
+second place, the energies of the teacher were directed to secure a
+certain mechanical accuracy in the use of the three elementary arts
+rather than their intelligent apprehension. As a consequence, these
+subjects came in time to be thought of as subjects worthy of attainment
+for their own sake and their acquisition as an end in itself. Hence it
+was forgotten that the acquisition and organisation of these systems of
+elementary knowledge are only valuable because they are the
+indispensable means of all intercourse, of all commerce, and of all
+culture. Hence also their use as instruments for the after-realisation
+of many purposes in life tended to be neglected, or at least to fall
+into the background. Individual teachers, no doubt, in many cases
+realised the partial error in this conception of the aims of the Primary
+School, but the demands of Government inspectors and of school
+authorities, with their rule-of-thumb methods of testing the success of
+the teacher's work by the percentage of passes gained, tended often to
+make the teacher, in spite of his better judgment, look upon the child
+mainly as a three-R grant-earning subject and to consider the chief aim
+of primary education to be the securing of a certain mechanical
+proficiency in the use of the three elementary arts.
+
+Under such a method of examination it was certainly necessary for the
+teacher to pay some attention to the individuality of the child. If his
+efforts were to be at all successful it was incumbent upon him to
+discover as early as possible the range of the child's previous
+knowledge in the three grant-earning subjects and to find out in which
+of the three the power of acquisition of the child was naturally weak or
+naturally strong. Where the number of children in a class was large,
+little individual attention could, of course, be paid to the child, and
+in such cases the acquisition of the subject was aided by the mechanical
+drilling of sections of the class and by recourse to all manner of
+devices for ensuring the accurate acquisition of the essential subjects.
+
+As a result of this partial and one-sided conception little attention
+was paid to the use to which these subjects may be put in the
+realisation of the practical ends of life. Arithmetic, _e.g._, seemed to
+the child to be made up of a number of kinds of arithmetic, each process
+having its own rules and methods of procedure; but it never entered into
+his mind, and but seldom into that of his teacher, that the various
+arithmetical processes are at bottom but diverse forms of the one
+fundamental process of adding to or subtracting from a group. Proportion
+was one kind of arithmetic, simple interest another, but that these
+processes symbolised real group-forming processes, or that they had to
+do with any of the realities of life, was apprehended, if at all, in the
+most imperfect and hazy manner.
+
+In a similar manner, the overcoming of the mechanical difficulties of
+language construction occupied the major portion of the attention of the
+child during the school period, and the function of language in
+conveying a knowledge of things and persons and events received but a
+small share of his attention. Meanings of words were indeed tabulated
+and learnt by heart, and as a rule the child on examination-day could
+make a fair show in deluding the inspector that the passage read was
+intelligently apprehended. In very much the same way, the overcoming of
+the mechanical difficulties of writing and the drilling of the child to
+form his letters in a uniform style received the chief share of the
+school-time devoted to the subject.
+
+The interest and attention of the child having been thus mainly occupied
+in the overcoming of the mechanical difficulties involved in the
+learning of the three grant-earning subjects, and little attention
+having been paid to the use of these arts, it followed that upon the
+conclusion of the school period the child left the school without any
+real interests having been established as the result of the educative
+process.
+
+Moreover, except in so far as by their teaching we may establish habits
+of order and of accuracy, the three elementary subjects in themselves
+possess no moral or social intent; hence unless we can make the child
+realise their value as instruments for the attainment of ends of social
+worth they in themselves fail to play any important part in the building
+up of character.
+
+Let me put this in another way. We have defined education as the process
+of acquiring and systematising experiences that will render future
+action more efficient, or alternatively it is the process by which we
+organise and establish in the mind systems of ideas for the attainment
+of ends. But if we make the acquisition of these elementary arts ends in
+themselves, then it follows that the more efficient action we seek to
+realise is the more efficient manipulation of a number system or a
+language system. If, however, we realise that these arts are but means
+to the realisation of other ends, then we shall understand that it is
+the character of the latter which mainly determines the resulting
+character of the education given.
+
+Partly to this erroneous conception of the real function of the
+elementary arts, and partly to another cause which we shall mention
+later, may be attributed the poor results which our Elementary School
+system has attained in the establishment of interests of moral and
+social worth. If, moreover, we realise how large a proportion of the
+children left and still do leave school at an early age, before such
+interests can be permanently established, and in some cases with
+anything but an adequate knowledge of the elementary arts necessary for
+all further progress, we may rather be astonished that so much has been
+done than so little.
+
+But in the reaction against the narrowness and formalism of our early
+aims in elementary education, there is a tendency--a strong tendency--at
+the present time to go to the opposite extreme, and to make the
+elementary instrumental arts the vehicles for the fostering of real
+interests at too early a stage. This manifests itself on the one hand in
+the desire to make all instruction interesting to the child, and on the
+other to introduce the child prematurely to a knowledge of the real
+conditions of life, before he can have any intelligent understanding of
+these conditions. From the barrenness and formalism of the earlier
+period, we now have the demand made that the school should throughout
+take into account the real and practical necessities of life.
+
+The former tendency--the tendency to make everything interesting to the
+child by lessening or minimising the mechanical difficulties and by
+endeavouring in every way to incite the child to become interested in
+the content of the lesson--is best exemplified by the character of the
+school books which we now place in the hands of our children. The latter
+tendency--the tendency to the premature use of the elementary arts--is
+exemplified by the craving to make our teaching of arithmetic practical
+and real from the very beginning.
+
+In the former case, instead of endeavouring to make the process of
+language construction interesting in itself, we divert the child's
+attention from the acquiring and organising of the system of language
+forms to the premature acquirement of the content of language. What
+results is obvious: the main interest being in the content, the
+interest in the mechanical construction of the form suffers, and as a
+consequence the child never attains a full mastery over the instrumental
+art.
+
+In the latter case we attempt to do two things at the same time in our
+teaching of arithmetic. In every concrete application of arithmetic
+there are two interests involved: in the first place, there is the
+number interest--the interest in the analysing and recombining of a
+group, undertaken for the sake of the reconstruction itself; in the
+second place, there is the business or real interest, which the number
+interest indeed subserves, but the two interests are in no case
+identical. If we attempt to teach the two together, we as a rule teach
+both badly. The pupil will have but a hazy idea of the business
+relation, and will run the risk of imperfectly organising the pure
+number system. Hence all kinds of impossible problems may be given to
+the child without raising any suspicion of error in his mind, and such
+cases furnish certain evidence that the business relation does not
+really concern him, but that his whole attention is engaged with the
+purely constructive aspect of number. Another example of the same error
+of confounding two separate things is the "blind mixture we make of
+arithmetic and measuring." Because arithmetic is involved in all
+measuring we assume that when the child can add together feet and
+inches, therefore he has a complete knowledge of these spatial
+magnitudes. But manifestly, if spatial magnitude is to be taught
+intelligently, it must at first be taught independently of the number
+relation, which is a general system instrumental in the realisation of
+many concrete interests.
+
+From these considerations, certain general results follow. On the one
+hand, the earlier conception of the aim of the Primary School as being
+mainly concerned with the acquirement and organisation of the three
+elementary arts as ends in themselves must be condemned. Language and
+number systems are means to the realisation of certain concrete ends of
+after-life, and the school during the later stages of education must
+endeavour to lead the child to perceive how these systems may be
+utilised in the furtherance of these real concrete interests. On the
+other hand, the attempt to combine prematurely these two aims will
+result in the imperfect attainment of both. During the earlier stages of
+education the main interest must be in the construction for its own sake
+of the language system or the number system, and while the real interest
+may be introduced it must always be kept subsidiary to the main
+interest--must first of all be taught for its own sake, and the
+instrumental art only used for its furtherance in so far as the
+acquirement of the former is not obstructed. _E.g._, the placing of
+geography and history Readers in the hands of the child while he is
+still struggling with the difficulties of language construction can only
+result in the history and geography being imperfectly understood and the
+organisation of the language system being delayed and hindered.
+
+Once the elementary and subsidiary systems have been fairly well
+organised and established, their function as means for the furtherance
+of real interests should occupy a larger share of the child's attention
+and of the time of the school. These real interests, however, must in
+every case and at every stage be taught at first for their own sake, and
+thereafter their relation to the instrumental art explained and applied.
+Gradually, as they become better organised and more firmly established,
+the elementary arts occupy a smaller and smaller share of attention,
+until finally they function automatically, and the whole attention can
+be directed to the furtherance of the real interests to which the
+elementary arts are the indispensable means.
+
+Hence we note three stages in the elementary education of the child--the
+stage preceding the formal instruction in the elementary arts; the stage
+in which the formal instruction should predominate and receive the
+greater share of the child's attention; the stage in which the
+elementary systems having been in great measure organised and
+established, they may be utilised as means to the furtherance of the
+real interests. The first stage corresponds to the Infant or
+Kindergarten age: here the main object is to build up in the mind of the
+child systems of ideas about the things of his environment; to extend,
+by conversation and by reading to the child, the vocabulary of his own
+language; to give him practice in the combining and recombining of
+concrete groups of things, and to introduce him to a knowledge of the
+various language forms in a concrete shape.
+
+In the second stage, and here the work of the Primary School begins, the
+main emphasis at the beginning must be laid on the acquirement and
+establishment of the language and number systems for their own sake. If
+right methods are followed, the child can be interested in these
+processes of construction without the need of calling into use at every
+point some real interest. In the concluding stage the use of these
+instruments as means to the realisation of the simpler practical ends of
+life should receive more attention.
+
+One reason, then, for the poor moral and social results effected in the
+past by our Elementary School system has been the undue emphasis placed
+upon the acquisition of the merely formal arts to the neglect of the
+real interests to which the former are but the means. Another cause,
+however, has been operative in producing this negative result. In the
+Elementary Schools, in the past, little attention has been paid to the
+individuality of the child, and little heed given to the differences
+between children as regards their different rates of intellectual growth
+and their differing aptitudes for various branches of study. Under a
+system of classification which compelled each individual, whether
+intellectually well or moderately or poorly equipped, to advance at an
+equal rate, attention to the individual with any other aim than to raise
+the weak to the standard of the average child in acquiring the three R's
+was impossible. Again, our huge city schools, partly on account of their
+vast size, partly on the ground that they are unable to organise school
+games, partly on account of their lack of any common school interests,
+do not and cannot foster any sense of a corporate life, any feeling of a
+common social spirit. Where our English Public School system is strong,
+our Elementary and sometimes even our Day Secondary School systems are
+weak. If the home fails to foster these qualities, and the school does
+not or cannot fill the gap, then as a rule we turn out our boys and
+girls poorly equipped to fulfil their duties in after-life as members of
+a corporate community and as citizens of a State. Mere teaching of
+history or of civics in our schools will do little to attain this end,
+unless by some method or other we can foster by means of the school-life
+the real civic spirit. It is, of course, easy to point out the nature of
+the disease; it is more difficult to prescribe a remedy. But much might
+be done to strengthen and increase the moral influence of the school by
+a better system of classification, which took into account the
+differences in intellectual capacity and in natural aptitude, and which
+as a consequence, in the education of the child, paid more attention to
+each child's individuality. This would involve much smaller classes than
+exist at present, and would further involve that the children should be
+under the care of one teacher for a longer time than is now the rule. At
+the present time, in many cases, the teacher is employed in teaching the
+same subjects, at the same stage, year after year, to a yearly fresh
+batch of sixty or seventy children. Consequently he learns to look upon
+his pupils as mere subjects to whom must be imparted the required
+measure of instruction. Of the children in themselves, of their
+home-life, of their interests outside school, he knows nothing, and as a
+rule cares less.
+
+If in addition to this we ceased erecting barracks for the instruction
+of children and erected schools for their education, we should make even
+a further advance in this direction. If it is impossible for other
+reasons to lessen the size of our city Elementary Schools, then the
+remedy lies in the division of the schools into departments in which the
+Head should be entrusted with the supervision of the education of the
+children during several years. In this way it would be possible for the
+teacher to get to know each child individually, to direct his education
+in accordance with his aptitudes, and to exert an influence over him.
+Thus, by giving more attention to the organised games of the school and
+by the creation of school interests, much might be done to remedy the
+defects of the school on the side of moral and social education. At
+best, however, when the home fails, the Elementary School can do little,
+and we must put our trust in the ethical agencies of society to assist
+and promote the efforts of the school in the furthering of a right
+social spirit and in the creation of a common corporate feeling.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39] _E.g._, in 1861 it was calculated that only 6 per cent. of the
+children of the poor in England were receiving a satisfactory elementary
+education. Cf. Balfour Graham's _Educational System of Great Britain and
+Ireland_, p. 14.
+
+[40] _E.g._, in 1872 in Scotland school places were provided for only
+8.3 per cent. of the population. In 1905 places were provided for 21.22
+of the population. Cf. _Report on Scotch Education_, 1905, p. 6.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE AIM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL
+
+
+We have seen that on its intellectual side the Primary School has two
+main functions to perform in the education of the child. In the first
+place, the school must endeavour to secure that the elementary arts of
+reading, writing, and arithmetic are well organised and well established
+in the mind of the child. The more effectively the language and number
+systems are organised and established the more efficiently will they
+function in the performance of future action. Moreover, it is only when
+they have become so organised as to function automatically that they
+reach their highest efficiency as instruments for the further extension
+of knowledge or of practice.
+
+In the second place, the Primary School must train the pupil to the use
+of these systems as instruments for the realisation of other and
+concrete ends or interests. _E.g._, the number system may be used in the
+furtherance of the measuring interest, the weighing interest, and so on.
+The two dangers we have to avoid are on the one hand the barren
+formalism of treating the acquisition of these arts as ends in
+themselves, and on the other of supposing that the real interests can be
+intelligently understood merely through the instrumentality of the
+elementary arts and that they do not require independent treatment of
+themselves.
+
+If the child is destined to go no farther than the Elementary School
+stage, then at least the concluding year of the school should be mainly
+devoted to training him to the use of the primary instrumental arts in
+the establishment of systems of knowledge necessary for the realisation
+of the simpler practical ends of life.
+
+If, however, the child is selected for a course of higher education, the
+educative process becomes different in nature. In the first-named case
+we are content to give the child practice in the application of an
+already established system to concrete problems. In the second case we
+endeavour, using the elementary systems as means, to establish other
+systems of knowledge as means to the attainment of still further ends.
+We may, _e.g._, on the basis of the vernacular language build up a
+foreign language system as a means either to commercial intercourse or
+to literary culture. In short, the aim of the Secondary School is, using
+the elementary systems as the basal means, to organise and establish
+other systems of means for the attainment of the more complex interests
+of after-life, practical and theoretical. The object of establishing a
+system of knowledge is not to pass examinations,--this is the
+schoolmaster's error,--but to render future action more efficient, to
+further in after-life some complex interest of a practical or
+theoretical nature. To the few, indeed, the establishment and
+systematisation of knowledge may be an end in itself. To the many, the
+systematisation and establishment is and ought to be undertaken as a
+means to the more efficient furtherance of some practical end. Further,
+the only justification for the seeking of knowledge for its own sake is
+that thereby it may be better understood, better established and better
+systematised, and so become better fitted to make practice more
+efficient.
+
+Hence the question as regards secondary education resolves itself into
+the question as to the nature of the systems of knowledge which we
+should endeavour to establish systematically in the mind of the child,
+and before we can answer this question we must know the length of time
+which the child can afford to spend at the Higher School and his
+possible vocation in after-life. For if education is the process by
+which the child is led to acquire and organise experiences so as to
+render future action more efficient, we must know something of the
+nature of this action, something of the nature of the future social
+services for which his education is to train him, and the school period
+must be of sufficient length to enable the required systems to be
+established permanently and thoroughly.
+
+Neglect of these two obvious considerations has led in the past and even
+in the present leads to two errors in our organisation of the means of
+secondary education. In the first place, until quite recently, we have
+been too much inclined to the opinion that secondary education was all
+of one type, and even where this error has been recognised, as in
+Germany, the tendency still exists to emphasise unduly the particular
+type of education which has as its main ingredients the ancient
+classical languages. We spend years in the attempt to reconstruct and
+establish in the mind of the youth a knowledge of these language
+systems, and in a large number of cases we fail to attain adequately
+even this end. We build up laboriously systems of means which in
+after-life function _directly_ in the attainment of no end, and as a
+consequence, in many cases, the dissolution of the system is as rapid as
+its acquisition was slow. At the time of the Renascence and when first
+introduced into the curriculum of the Secondary School, these languages,
+and especially Latin, did then possess a high functional value, since
+they were the indispensable means to the furtherance of knowledge and to
+social intercourse. To-day they possess little functional value, and
+their claim for admission into the school curriculum is chiefly based
+upon their so-called training and disciplinary values.
+
+Let us consider this for a moment: in the reconstruction of, say, the
+Latin language, the pupil is being trained in the reconstruction and
+re-establishment of a language system whose methods and rules of
+construction are much more complex and intricate than those of any
+living language, and whose forms are so designed as to bring out
+exactly varied shades of meaning. Hence, in its acquisition the pupil
+receives practice in the exact discrimination of the meaning of words,
+and in their accurate placing and reconstruction within the
+sentence--the unit of expression--in order to bring out the exact
+interpretation of the thought or statement of fact intended by the
+writer.
+
+Further, we may train the pupil during the school period to self-apply
+the language system in the further interpretation of relatively unknown
+passages. In short, we can train him in the processes of language
+construction and of language application. Moreover, in considering this
+question, we must take into account that during the school period the
+main interest must necessarily be directed to the acquisition and
+establishment of the system itself, that little attention can be
+directed towards the content for its own sake, and that the
+establishment of the system so that it shall function automatically in
+the interpretation of the content is a stage which is attained in
+comparatively few cases, and then only after many years of study.
+
+If we then take into account, and we must take into account, the fact
+that the chief value of the ancient languages as Secondary School
+subjects lies in their use as training and disciplinary
+instruments--that in after-life they function directly in the attainment
+of no practical end, and only indirectly in so far as the habits
+acquired of the exact weighing of the meaning of words and of the
+accurate placing of words are carried over for the attainment of
+practical ends in which these qualities of exact interpretation and
+exact expression of language are the chief requisites--we shall
+understand that while they may be of value in securing the efficient
+after-performance of certain social services, they play but a small part
+in the furthering of any service which requires an exact knowledge of
+the qualities of things and an accurate knowledge of the laws governing
+the operations of nature.
+
+In the second place, neglect of the fact that the aim of education is to
+establish systems of means for the efficient after-performance of
+actions has led us to neglect the fact that in the acquisition and
+establishment of systems of knowledge we require to limit the scope of
+our aims and to carry on the process of education during a period
+sufficiently extended to admit of the stable establishment of the
+systems. If, _e.g._, we attempt to establish too many systems, then as a
+result we often stably establish none, with the further result that
+after the school period has passed the knowledge gained soon disappears.
+If, again, we attempt in too limited a time to establish an elaborate
+and complex system of knowledge, as _e.g._ that of the Latin language,
+then we never reach the stage when it can be self-applied intelligently
+in the furtherance of any end. Hence, if a boy leaves the Elementary
+School and enters upon a High School course with the intention of
+leaving at the age of fifteen or sixteen and entering upon some
+employment, the systems of knowledge which can be established during the
+school period must be different from those of the boy whose education is
+intended to be extended until twenty-one. If, then, a national system of
+education is to make adequate provision for the efficient
+after-performance of the various social services which the nation
+requires at the hands of its adult members; if, in short, it is to be
+organic to the life of the State as a whole, then there must be not one
+type of higher education but several; for it is to her Higher Schools
+that a nation must principally look for the preparation of citizens who
+in after-life will discharge the more important services of the
+community. This truth has already been realised in other countries,
+notably Germany. We are only beginning to realise it, and to take
+measures to carry it into practice.
+
+Moreover, in a national system of education we shall need not one system
+of advancing means but several; not merely an educational ladder that
+may carry the boy to the University, but also educational steps by which
+the individual may mount to the Technical or the Commercial or the Art
+College.
+
+Hence our aims in the higher education of the youth, and as a
+consequence the nature of the systems of knowledge which we should
+endeavour to organise and to establish in their minds, will vary in
+accordance with the nature of the service which in adult life the boy is
+likely to perform. Now, these services may be divided into four main
+classes.
+
+In the first place, every nation requires an army of efficient
+industrial workers. Partly, in some cases, owing to the decline of the
+apprenticeship system, partly owing to the fact that where apprentices
+are still employed no systematic measures are taken to instruct the
+youth in the principles underlying his particular art, it is becoming
+increasingly necessary that the school should supply and supplement the
+knowledge required for the efficient after-performance of the industrial
+and technical arts. Hence one kind of Higher School urgently required is
+the Trade or Technical School. In a large number of cases this need
+could be supplied by Evening Continuation Schools. At present, however,
+our Evening Schools are too predominantly commercial and literary, and
+do not make adequate provision for the trade and technical needs of the
+community. Further, we must endeavour to secure that the boy or girl
+enters the Evening Continuation School as soon after he leaves the
+Elementary School as possible. For in many cases at the present time the
+boy after leaving the Primary School loafs at night about the streets,
+and in a short time through disuse forgets much of what he learned at
+school, and often in addition acquires habits which tend to unfit him
+for any future strenuous effort. When, therefore, he feels the need for
+more knowledge in order to advance in his trade, the Evening School has
+too frequently to begin by doing over again the work of the Elementary
+School before it can enter upon the work of establishing the higher
+system of knowledge.
+
+In the second place, a nation such as ours requires a trained body of
+servants for the efficient carrying on of her commerce. Preparation for
+the simpler forms of service could be furnished by the commercial
+classes of the Evening Continuation Schools. For preparation for the
+higher services, we require a type of school which beginning after the
+Elementary School stage has been completed, carries on the boy's
+education until the fifteenth or sixteenth year, whose chief aim should
+be to lay a sound basis in the acquisition and organisation of one or
+two modern languages and in the acquirement of the arts instrumental for
+the carrying on of commercial transactions. Further means of advance in
+these studies should be provided by the day or evening Commercial
+College.
+
+In the third place, every modern nation requires a trained body of
+scientific workers for the after carrying on of her industrial and
+technical arts. Hence we need a type of school which by making the
+physical sciences their chief object of study prepare the way for the
+future training of the student in the application of scientific
+knowledge to the furtherance of the industrial and technical arts.
+
+Lastly, we require a type of secondary education which shall prepare the
+boy for the efficient discharge of the duties which the State requires
+at the hands of her physicians, her theologians, her jurists.
+
+Thus, since all education is the acquisition of experiences that will
+render future action more efficient, the nature of the secondary
+education given must depend on the nature of the services to which the
+systems of knowledge are the means. A classical education may be a good
+preparation for the after-discharge of the duties of the theologian or
+the jurist; it certainly will not do much for the efficient discharge of
+the duties of the mechanical engineer and the practical chemist.
+
+But one error must be avoided. Whilst the various types of Secondary
+School must fashion their curricula according to the nature of the
+services for which they prepare, we must not forget that the school has
+other duties to perform than the mere preparation for the social
+services by which a man hereafter earns his living. It must in every
+case endeavour to organise and establish those systems of means
+necessary for the after-discharge of the civic duties of life and
+instrumental for the right use of leisure.
+
+Practically we need three types of Higher School--one in which modern
+languages form the basal subjects of the curriculum; one in which the
+physical sciences are the main systems organised and established; one in
+which the classical languages form the main staple of education.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE AIM OF THE UNIVERSITY
+
+
+"All public institutions of learning are called into existence by social
+needs, and first of all by technical practical necessities. Theoretical
+interests may lead to the founding of private associations such as the
+Greek philosophers' schools; public schools owe their origin to the
+social need for professional training. Thus during the Middle Ages the
+first schools were called into being by the need of professional
+training for ecclesiastics, the first learned profession, and a calling
+whose importance seemed to demand such training. Essentially the same
+necessity called into being the Universities of the Parisian type, with
+their artistic and theological faculties. The two other types of
+professional schools, the law school and the medical school, which were
+first developed in Italy, then united with the former. The Universities
+therefore originated as a union of 'technical' schools for
+ecclesiastics, jurists, and physicians, to which division the faculty of
+Arts was related as a general preparatory school, until during the
+nineteenth century it also assumed something of the character of a
+professional institution for the training of teachers for the Secondary
+School."[41]
+
+Thus the early aim of the University was, as it still continues to be,
+to provide the training for the after-supply of those services which the
+State requires at the hands of her theologians, her jurists, and her
+physicians. In Germany, and to some extent even in our own country, the
+Arts faculty of the University is ceasing to perform the function of a
+General Preparatory School to the professional schools, and is becoming
+an independent school, having for its aim the preparation of teachers
+for the Intermediate and Secondary Schools of the country. In Scotland,
+indeed, it serves at the present time as a Preparatory School mainly to
+the theological faculty. As the Secondary Schools of the country become
+more efficient, better differentiated, and better organised, the need of
+a Preparatory School within our Universities will gradually become less,
+and the University will be able to devote more of her energies to the
+training of students preparing for some one or other of the above-named
+professions. With this change the philosophical studies of the Arts
+faculty will become increasingly important, and the method of teaching
+the linguistic and scientific studies receive a larger share of
+attention than they do at present.
+
+But the other and perhaps the more important function of the University
+is to carry on and to extend the work of scientific and literary
+research for its own sake. This is the dominant note of the German and
+American Universities of to-day. The emphasis is laid not so much upon
+their function as schools for the supply of certain professional
+services, but upon them as great national laboratories for the extension
+of knowledge and the betterment of practice. In Great Britain, and
+especially in Scotland, this conception of the function of the
+University has not received the same prominence as, _e.g._, in Germany,
+where the intimate union of scientific investigation and professional
+instruction gives the German Universities their peculiar character.
+Indeed, in the latter country the tendency at the present time is rather
+to over-emphasise the function of the Universities in furthering
+scientific and literary research to the neglect of the other and no less
+important aim. Two dangers must be avoided. In the first place, whenever
+the chief emphasis is laid upon the Universities as mainly schools for
+professional training, the teaching tends to become narrow and dogmatic.
+The teacher ceasing to be an investigator, gradually loses touch with
+the spirit of the age, and as a consequence he fails adequately to
+perform the duty of efficiently training his students for their after
+life-work. In the second place, when the emphasis is laid strongly upon
+the function of the University as an institution for the carrying on of
+scientific and literary research there is the danger of again lapsing
+into the old fallacy that knowledge for knowledge' sake is an end in
+itself, that the object of education is to acquire and organise systems
+of means which function in the attainment of no practical end, and that
+the acquisition of knowledge is valuable for the culture of the
+individual mind apart from any social purpose which the knowledge
+subserves.
+
+The University must therefore ever keep in view the two aims, of
+advancing knowledge not for its own sake but in order that future action
+may be rendered more efficient, and of adequately training for
+professional services.
+
+But to the older professions for which the University prepares there
+have been added during the past century other vocations or professions
+which need and demand an education no less important and no less
+thorough than the education for the well established recognised
+professions. The need for the higher training of the future leaders of
+industry and the future captains of commerce has been provided by the
+organisation and establishment of technological schools and colleges.
+The establishment and organisation of the "Technical University" has
+been more thorough in Germany than in this country. There we find
+established newer institutions, of which the Charlottenburg College is
+the best known and most important, for the higher education of those
+intended in after-life to perform the more important industrial services
+of the community. These institutions both in their organisation and
+instruction are constantly approximating in type to the older
+Universities.
+
+The recently established Universities in the North of England attempt,
+with what success it is too early yet to declare, to combine both aims
+of training for the older and newer professions. In Scotland the latter
+work is largely undertaken by the Technical Colleges, and in these
+institutions the increasing need is for the extension and development of
+the Day-school course.
+
+One other question of some importance remains for brief consideration.
+In our own country, but more especially in Germany, there is a tendency
+at the present time to effect a complete separation between the work of
+the University and the work of the Technical College.
+
+This separation has arisen partly through the operation of external
+historical conditions, but it has also arisen partly through the
+tendency in certain academic circles to look down upon technical
+knowledge and ability as something inferior. The exclusiveness and the
+torpor of the older Universities in many cases has been a further cause
+tending to the creation of the Technical College separated from the
+University.
+
+Such a separation, however, is good neither for the University nor for
+the Technical College. The former in carrying out the aim of scientific
+research and of the extension of knowledge requires ever the vivifying
+touch of actual concrete experience, and this it can only obtain by
+keeping in close contact with those whose chief function is the
+application of scientific knowledge to practice. The latter in carrying
+out its more practical aims requires, if it is to be saved from the
+narrowness of mere specialisation and from degenerating into empirical
+methods, the constant co-operation of those whose outlook is not
+narrowed down to the immediate practical end, but takes in the subject
+as a whole, and whose chief function is the better systematisation of
+knowledge.
+
+Hence, while the aim of the University is different from that of the
+Technical College, they are so intimately correlated that neither can
+reach its fullest development without the aid and co-operation of the
+other. The Technical Colleges should be the professional schools
+attached to the scientific side of the Universities. Moreover, this
+division and separation is economically wasteful, since the general
+training in science which must precede the practical training has to be
+carried on both in the University and in the Technical College.
+
+In Scotland this separation has not advanced to such a stage as is the
+case in Germany. In any further reorganisation of university and higher
+education it is earnestly to be hoped that the Day Technical College
+will find its rightful place as an integral part of the University, and
+that the latter may realise that her function is to further and extend
+the bounds of knowledge in order that practice in every sphere of life
+may be rendered more efficient.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[41] Cf. Prof. Paulsen, _The German Universities_, p. 111 (Eng. Trans.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CONCLUSION--THE PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION
+
+
+The first necessity of the present for teachers and for all concerned
+with the upbringing of children is to realise the true meaning of
+education--that it is the process by which we lead the child to acquire
+and organise experiences that will render future action more efficient;
+that by our educational agencies we seek to establish systems of
+knowledge that shall hereafter function in the efficient performance of
+services of social value; and that the only method which really educates
+and can educate is the method which evokes the constructive activity of
+reason in the establishment of the various systems of means. Education
+does not aim at culture nor at knowledge for its own sake, but at
+fitting the individual for social service. Our school system tends ever
+to forget this truth. It is in constant danger of losing sight of this
+ultimate aim of education by keeping its attention too narrowly fixed on
+some nearer and proximate aim. It tends often to lay too much stress on
+mere examinations and examination results. It forgets that the only true
+test of knowledge gained lies in the pupil's ability to use it
+intelligently in the furtherance of some purpose--and of some social
+purpose, and that the ultimate test of a system of education is the kind
+of social individual it turns out. If our educational system turns out
+boys and girls who in after-life become efficient workers, efficient
+citizens, and men and women who have learned how to use their leisure
+rightly, then it has fulfilled its function. If, on the other hand, it
+fails in a large number of cases to attain these three ends or any one
+of them, however it may satisfy the other tests applied, it has not
+performed its function, is not a system which is "organic" to the
+welfare of the State.
+
+The second necessity is to realise the true place of the school as the
+formal agent in the education of the child. Mankind by a long and
+laborious process has discovered and established many systems of
+knowledge. He has created language and invented arts for the realisation
+of the many purposes of life. It is the business of the school to impart
+this knowledge to the child--to put him in possession at least of some
+part of this heritage which has come down to him, and to do so in such a
+manner that while acquiring the experience he shall also be trained in
+the method of finding and establishing systems of means for himself and
+by himself. If, however, we lay the emphasis on the mere imparting of
+the garnered experiences of the ages, the danger to be feared is lest
+our teaching degenerate into mere dogmatism or mere cram. If, on the
+other hand, we lay too much emphasis on the ability to self-find and
+self-establish systems, we are in danger of losing sight of the social
+purpose of all knowledge--of forgetting that the only justification for
+establishing a system of knowledge is that it may efficiently function
+in the attainment of some purpose of life.
+
+Of the more important of the practical problems of our own day and
+generation the first and most important is to realise that our
+educational system as it exists at present is not fitted to produce and
+maintain an efficient and sufficient supply of all the social services
+which the modern State requires of its adult members, and that we must
+consider this question of education as a whole and in all its parts, and
+quite clear of mere party interests. Above all, we must get over the
+fatal habit of reforming one part of the system and leaving the other
+parts alone. The whole problem of education from the Primary School to
+the University requires consideration and organisation. We reform now
+our Universities, then after a period our Secondary School system, and
+so we proceed, advancing here, retrograding there, but of education as
+an organically connected whole we have no thought.
+
+But apart from the want of organisation as a whole our educational
+system in its parts is at present defective. We require to reconsider
+the question of how best to educate the children of the very poor. At
+present we fail in a large number of cases to train up the children of
+this class to be socially efficient. Economically and morally we fail to
+reach any high standard. No doubt the home and social environment is all
+against the school influence; but by a more rational system of early
+education, by taking more care of the physical development of the child,
+and, if need be, for a time, making public provision for the feeding of
+the children of the very poor, we might do much to remove this defect.
+Above all, we must endeavour to stem the yearly flow of boys and girls
+at the conclusion of the Primary School period into mere casual and
+unskilled employments, and must endeavour by some means or other to
+continue the education of the child for some years further.
+
+Again, we require to make better provision for the technical training of
+our workmen. By a system of Evening Continuation Schools having as their
+aim the instruction of the youth in the arts underlying or subsidiary to
+his particular calling, we might do much to amend this defect. Moreover,
+the Evening Continuation Schools might play a much more important part
+than they now do in the securing of the future moral and civic
+efficiency of the individual and of the nation.
+
+Lastly, and this need is clearly felt by all acquainted with the
+subject, we require the development and extension of our Technical
+Colleges, in order that we may adequately train those whose duty in
+after-life will be the application of advanced scientific knowledge in
+the furtherance of the arts and industries of life.
+
+
+                            _Printed by_
+                       MORRISON & GIBB LIMITED,
+                             _Edinburgh_
+
+
+
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Children: Some Educational Problems, by Alexander Darroch.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Children: Some Educational Problems, by 
+Alexander Darroch
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Children: Some Educational Problems
+
+Author: Alexander Darroch
+
+Release Date: May 11, 2007 [EBook #21419]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILDREN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Martin Pettit and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h2><i>The Social Problems Series</i></h2>
+
+<h4>EDITED BY</h4>
+
+<h3>OLIPHANT SMEATON, M.A., F.S.A.</h3>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>THE CHILDREN</h1>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><i>The Social Problems Series</i></h2>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>THE CHILDREN</h1>
+
+<h3>SOME EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS</h3>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>ALEXANDER DARROCH, M.A.</h2>
+
+<h4>PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF<br />EDINBURGH</h4>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4>LONDON: T. C. &amp; E. C. JACK<br />
+16 HENRIETTA STREET, W.C.<br />AND EDINBURGH<br />1907</h4>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;INTRODUCTION&mdash;THE PRESENT UNREST IN EDUCATION</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE MEANING AND PROCESS OF EDUCATION</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE END OF EDUCATION</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;THE COST OF EDUCATION</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;THE MEDICAL
+EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THE MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;THE FEEDING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE ORGANISATION OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE AIM OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE AIM OF THE INFANT SCHOOL</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE AIM OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE AIM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;THE AIM OF THE UNIVERSITY</li>
+<li><span class="mono">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></span>&nbsp;&nbsp;CONCLUSION&mdash;THE PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>THE CHILDREN</h1>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTION&mdash;THE PRESENT UNREST IN EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>The problems as to the end or ends at which our educational agencies
+should aim in the training and instruction of the children of the
+nation, and of the right methods of attaining these ends once they have
+been definitely and clearly recognised, are at the present day receiving
+greater and greater attention not only from professed educationalists,
+but also from statesmen and the public generally. For, in spite of all
+that has been done during the past thirty years to increase the
+facilities for education and to improve the means of instruction, there
+is a deep-seated and widely spread feeling that, somehow or other,
+matters educationally are not well with us, as a nation, and that in
+this particular line of social development other countries have pushed
+forward, whilst we have been content to lag behind in the educational
+rear.</p>
+
+<p>The faults in our present educational structure are many, and in some
+cases obvious to all. In the first place, it is said, and with much
+truth, that there is no systematic coherence between the different parts
+of our educational machinery, and no thorough-going correlation between
+the various aims which the separate parts of the system are intended to
+realise. As Mr. De Montmorency<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> has recently pointed out, we have always
+had a national group of educational facilities, more or less efficient,
+but we have never had, nor do we yet possess, a national system of
+education so differentiated in its aims and so correlated as to its
+parts as to form "an organic part of the life of the nation."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> An
+educational system should subserve and foster the life of the whole: it
+should be so organised as to maintain a sufficient and efficient supply
+of all the services which a nation requires at the hands of its adult
+members. For it is only in so far as the educational system of any
+country fulfils this end that it can be "organic," and can be entitled
+to the claim of being called a national system.</p>
+
+<p>This lack of coherence between the different parts of our educational
+system and the want of any systematic plan or unity running through the
+whole is due to many causes. As a nation, we are little inclined to
+system-making, and as a consequence the problem of education as a whole
+and in its total relation to the life and well-being of the State has
+received but scant attention from politicians. Educational questions, in
+this country, are rarely treated on their own merits and apart from
+considerations of a party, political, or denominational character, and
+hence the problems which have received attention in the past and evoke
+discussion at the present are concerned with the nature of the
+constitution, and limits of the power of the bodies to whom should be
+entrusted the local control of the educational agencies of the country,
+rather than with the problems as to the aims which we should seek to
+realise through our educational organisation, and of the methods by
+which these aims may be best realised. Hence, as a nation, we have
+rarely considered for its own sake and as a whole the problem of the
+education of the children. And until we have done so&mdash;until we have made
+clear to ourselves the kind of future citizen which as a State we desire
+to rear up&mdash;our educational agencies must manifest a like
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>indefiniteness, a like inconsistency, and a like want of connection as
+do our educational aims and ideals.</p>
+
+<p>Again, closely connected with this first-named defect in our educational
+organisation, and in fact following from it as a logical consequence, is
+our fatal method of developing this or that part of our educational
+system and of leaving the other parts to develop, if at all, without any
+central guidance or control, until at length we realise that the
+neglected parts also require attention, and must somehow or other be
+refitted into the whole. <i>E.g.</i>, since 1870 there has been a great
+advance in the extent and intent of elementary education in both England
+and Scotland, but this progress has been of a one-sided nature, and
+there has been no corresponding advance either in the perfecting of the
+educational system as a whole, or in the co-ordination of the various
+grades of education. In Scotland, since the passing into law of the
+Education Bill of 1872, the means of elementary education have been
+widely extended and the methods of teaching have been greatly improved,
+but there has been no corresponding advance in the provision of the
+means of higher education, and as a consequence, at the present day, we
+find many districts without adequate provision for carrying on the
+education of the youth of the country beyond the Primary School stage.
+Secondary education has been provided in some centres by means of
+endowments; in others through the extension of the term "elementary" so
+as to include education of a more extended nature than was originally
+intended to be covered by that term. In England until 1902, very much
+the same conditions prevailed, but since then, mainly in order to remedy
+the state of things created by the judgment in the Cockerton Case, the
+control of primary, secondary, and technical education has been placed
+in the hands of the County and Borough Councils, who are empowered "to
+consider the educational needs of their area, and to take such steps as
+seem to them desirable, after consultation with the Board of Education,
+to supply or aid the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> supply of education other than elementary, and to
+promote the general co-ordination of all forms of education." Tinder the
+powers so granted much has been done throughout England during the past
+few years to extend and make efficient the means of higher education; to
+erect schools which shall provide training for the future services
+required by the community and the State of the more highly gifted of its
+members, and to co-ordinate the work of the various agencies entrusted
+with the care and education of the children of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Through the failure of the Education Bills of 1904 and 1905 to pass into
+law, Scotland still awaits the creation of local authorities charged
+with the control and direction of all grades of education, and in this
+respect her educational organisation is much more loosely compacted than
+the system which now exists in England.</p>
+
+<p>Further, in Scotland, on account of the absence of one controlling
+authority, we often find in those districts in which the provision for
+higher education is ample, imperfect co-ordination between the aims and
+work, on the one hand, of the Primary School, and on the other, of
+schools providing higher education. From this cause also it follows
+that, unlike our German neighbours, we have made little progress in
+determining the different functions which each particular type of Higher
+School shall perform in the social organism, and have not assigned the
+particular services which the State requires of each particular type of
+Higher School. It is surely manifest that the service which the modern
+industrial State looks for from its members is not the same in kind and
+is much more complex in its nature than that which was required during
+the medi&aelig;val period, and that if this service is to be efficiently
+supplied, then there is need for Higher Schools varied in type and
+having various aims.</p>
+
+<p>This want of unity between the various parts of our educational system
+manifests itself again in the indefiniteness of aim of many of our
+Higher Schools, and in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> lack of co-ordination between the Higher
+School on the one hand, and institutions providing university and
+advanced instruction on the other. Up till quite recently, the sole aim
+of our Secondary Schools was to provide students for the Universities
+and to supply the needs of the learned professions. But with the
+economic development of the country, and as a consequence of the keen
+international competition between nation and nation in the economic
+sphere, there has arisen a demand for a higher education different in
+kind from that provided by the older Universities, and a need for a type
+of Secondary School different in aim and curriculum from that which
+looks mainly to the provision of students intending to enter upon some
+one or other of the so-called well recognised learned professions. It is
+here, when compared and contrasted with the educational systems of some
+of our Continental neighbours, that we find the weakest point in our own
+system, and at the present time our most urgent need is for the
+extension and better equipment of the central institutions of the
+country which provide higher technical and commercial instruction.</p>
+
+<p>This unsatisfactory condition of things is due in large measure, as we
+have already pointed out, to our innate dislike as a nation of all
+system-making, and to the distrust felt by many minds of any and every
+form of State control of education. Hence, partly from these causes,
+partly as a result of historical conditions, it has followed that
+various authorities have in this country the guidance and control of
+education, with the usual result of want of unity of aim, of lack of
+correlation of means, and in some cases of overlapping and waste of the
+means of higher education.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, while much has been done since the advent of
+compulsory elementary education to better the means of education and to
+increase the facilities for the higher instruction of the youth of the
+country, there is a widespread belief that all the hopes held out by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+the early advocates of universal compulsory education have not been
+realised, and that our Primary Schools in large measure have failed to
+turn out the type of citizen which a State such as ours requires for her
+after-service.</p>
+
+<p>Universal education has not proved a panacea for all the social evils of
+the Commonwealth, and while it must be admitted that much good has
+resulted from the adoption of universal and compulsory education, yet at
+the same time certain evils have followed in its train.</p>
+
+<p>Since the institution of universal education, it may be argued that the
+children of the nation have received a better training in the use of the
+more mechanical arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic, but the
+tendency has been to look upon the acquisition of these arts as <i>ends in
+themselves</i>, rather than as mere instruments for the further extension
+and development of knowledge and practice, and hence our Primary School
+system, to a large extent, has failed to cultivate the imagination of
+the child, and has also failed to train the reason and to develop
+initiative on the part of the pupil. There has been more instruction, it
+has been said, during the last thirty years, but less education; for the
+process of education consists in the building up within the child's mind
+of permanent and stable systems of ideas which shall hereafter function
+in the attainment and realisation of the various ends of life. Now, our
+school practice is still largely dominated by the old conception that
+mere memory knowledge is all-important, and as a consequence much of the
+so-called knowledge acquired during the school period is found valueless
+in after life to realise any definite purpose, for it is only in so far
+as the knowledge acquired has been systematised that it can afterwards
+be turned to use in the furtherance of the aims of adult life.</p>
+
+<p>From this it follows that, since much of the knowledge acquired during
+the school period has no bearing on the real and practical needs of
+life, the Primary School in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> many cases fails to create any permanent or
+real interest in the works either of nature or of society.</p>
+
+<p>But a much more serious charge is laid at times against our Primary
+School system. It is contended that during the past thirty years it has
+done little to raise the moral tone of the community, and it has done
+still less to develop that sense of civic and national responsibility
+without which the moral and social progress of a nation is impossible.
+Our huge city schools are manufactories rather than educational
+institutions&mdash;places where yearly a certain number of the youth of the
+country are turned out able to some extent to make use of the mechanical
+arts of reading and writing, and with a smattering of many branches of
+knowledge, but with little or no training for the moral and civic
+responsibilities of life. This is evident, it is urged, if we consider
+how little the school does to counteract and to supplant the evil
+influences of a bad home or social environment. What truth there may be
+in these charges and what must be done to remedy this state of matters
+will be discussed when we consider later the existing Elementary School
+system. Here it is sufficient to point out that one of the causes at
+work to-day tending to arouse a renewed interest in educational problems
+is the feeling now beginning to find expression that the kind of
+universal elementary education provided somehow or other fails, and has
+failed, to produce all that was in the beginning expected of it&mdash;that it
+has in the past been too much divorced from the real interests of life,
+and that it must be remodelled if it is to fit the individual to perform
+his duty to society.</p>
+
+<p>A third fault often found with our existing school system is that in the
+case of the majority of the children the process of education stops at
+too early an age. The belief is slowly spreading that if we are to
+educate thoroughly the children of the nation so as to fit them to
+perform efficiently the after duties of life, something of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> more
+systematic character than has as yet been done is required, in order to
+carry on and to extend the education of the child after the Elementary
+school stage has been passed. For it is evident that during the Primary
+School period all that can be expected in the case of the larger number
+of children is that the school should lay a sound basis in the knowledge
+of the elementary arts necessary for all social intercourse, and for the
+realisation of the simpler needs of life. A beginning may be made,
+during this period, in the formation and establishment of systems of
+knowledge which have for their aim the realisation of the more complex
+theoretical and practical interests of after life, but unless these are
+furthered and extended in the years in which the boy is passing from
+youth to manhood, then as a consequence much of what has been acquired
+during the early period fails to be of use either to the individual or
+to society.</p>
+
+<p>Again, it is surely unwise to give no heed to the systematic education
+of the majority of the children during the years when they are most
+susceptible to moral and social influences, and to leave the moral and
+social education of the youth during the adolescent period to the
+unregulated and uncertain forces of society.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, in this connection it is economically wasteful for the nation to
+spend largely in laying the mere foundations of knowledge, and then to
+adopt the policy of non-interference, and to leave to the individual
+parent the right of determining whether the foundation so laid shall be
+further utilised or not.</p>
+
+<p>A fourth criticism urged against our educational system is that in the
+past we have paid too little attention to the technical education of
+those destined in after life to become the leaders of industry and the
+captains of commerce. Our Higher School system has been too
+predominantly of one type&mdash;it has taken too narrow a view of the higher
+services required by the State of its members, and our educational
+system has not been so organised as to maintain and farther the economic
+efficiency of the State.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> For it may be contended that the economic
+efficiency of the individual and of the nation is fundamental in the
+sense that without this, the attainment of the other goods of life can
+not or can be only imperfectly realised, and it is obvious that
+according to the measure in which the economic welfare of the individual
+and of the State is secured, in like measure is secured the opportunity
+for the development and realisation of the other aims of the individual
+and of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the present unrest as regards our educational affairs may be
+largely traced to the four causes enumerated. We have begun to realise
+that our educational system lacks definiteness of aim, and that its
+various parts are badly co-ordinated; that, in short, we do not as yet
+possess a national system of education which ministers to and subserves
+the life of the State as a whole. We are further beginning to perceive
+that the provision of the means of higher education is too important a
+matter to be left to the care of the private individual, and that
+education must be the concern of the whole body of the people. Hence it
+has been said that on the creation of a national system of education,
+fitted to meet the needs of the modern State, depends largely the future
+of Britain as a nation.</p>
+
+<p>Again, all that was hoped for as the result of universal compulsory
+education has not been realised, and the feeling is growing that there
+is something defective in the aims of our Primary School system, and
+that it fails, and has failed, to develop in the individual the moral
+and social qualities required by a State such as ours, which is becoming
+increasingly democratic in character. Further, we are learning, partly
+through experience, partly from the example of other countries, that the
+period during which our children must be under the regulated control of
+the school and of society must be lengthened, if we are to realise the
+final aim of all education, which is to enable the individual on the
+intellectual side to apply the knowledge gained to the furtherance and
+extension of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> various purposes of life, and on the moral side to
+enable him to use his freedom rightly.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, as a nation, we are beginning to discover that without the
+better technical training of our workmen, and especially of those to
+whom in after-life will be entrusted the control and direction of our
+industries and commerce, we are likely to fall behind the other advanced
+nations in the race for economic supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>But, in addition to these negative forces at work, tending to produce
+dissatisfaction with our educational position, the opinion is growing
+stronger and clearer that the education, physical, intellectual, and
+moral, of the children of the nation is a matter of supreme importance
+for the future well-being and the future supremacy of the nation, and
+that it is the duty of the State to see that the opportunity is
+furnished to each individual to realise to the full all the
+potentialities of his nature which make for good, so that he may be
+enabled to render that service to the community for which by nature he
+is best fitted. Compulsory elementary education is but one stage in the
+process. We must, as a nation, at least see that no insuperable
+obstacles are placed in the path of those who have the requisite ability
+and desire to advance farther in the development of their powers.
+Moreover, if need be, we must, in the words of Rousseau, compel those
+who from various causes are unwilling to realise themselves, to attain
+their full freedom.</p>
+
+<p>This demand for the better and fuller education of the children of the
+nation is motived partly by the growing conviction that the freedom,
+political, civil, and religious, which we as a nation enjoy, can only be
+maintained, furthered, and strengthened in so far as we have educated
+our children rightly to understand and rightly to use this freedom to
+which they are heirs. Democracy, as a form of government and as a power
+for good, is only possible when the mass of the people have been wisely
+and fully educated, so that they are enabled to take an intelligent and
+comprehensive interest in all that pertains to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> good and future
+welfare of the State. A democracy of ill or partially educated people
+sooner or later becomes an ochlocracy,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> ruled not by the best, but by
+those who can work upon the self-interest of the badly or one-sidedly
+educated. A true democracy is in fact ever aristocratic, in the original
+sense of that term. A false democracy ever tends to become ochlocratic,
+and the only safeguard against such a state of conditions arising in a
+country where representative government exists is the spread of higher
+education, and the inculcation of a right conception of the nature and
+functions of the State and of the duties of citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>But further, the demand for increased facilities for higher and
+technical education is motived largely by the conviction that in the
+education of our children we must in the future more than we have done
+in the past take means to secure the fitness of the individual to
+perform efficiently some specific function in the economic organisation
+of society. And the demand proceeds, not from any desire to narrow down
+the aims of education, to place it on a purely utilitarian basis, but
+from the belief that the securing of the physical and economic
+efficiency of the individual is of fundamental and primary importance
+both for his own welfare and the well-being and progress of the State,
+and that in proportion as we secure the higher economic efficiency of a
+larger and larger number of the people we also secure the essential
+condition for the development and extension of those other goods of life
+which can be attained by the majority of a nation only after a certain
+measure of economic prosperity and economic security is assured.</p>
+
+<p>The social evils of our own or of any time cannot, of course, be removed
+by any one remedy, but an education which endeavours to secure that each
+individual shall have the opportunity to develop himself and to fit
+himself for the after performance of the service for which by nature he
+is suited may do much to mitigate the evils incident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> upon the
+industrial organisation of society. If this end is to be realised, then
+three things at least are necessary. We must seek by some means or other
+to check the large number of our boys and girls who, after leaving the
+Primary School, drift year by year, either through the ignorance or the
+cupidity or the poverty of their parents, into the ranks of untrained
+labour, and who in the course of two or three years go to swell the
+ranks of the unskilled, casual workers, and become in many cases, in the
+course of time, the unemployed and the unemployable. In the second
+place, we must endeavour to secure the better technical training of the
+youth during their years of apprenticeship, and so tend to raise the
+general efficiency of the workers of the nation whatever the
+nature&mdash;manual or mental&mdash;of their employment. In the third place, we
+must endeavour, by means of our system of education, to increase the
+mobility of labour. In the modern State, where changes in the industrial
+organisation are frequent, the worker who can most easily adapt himself
+to changing circumstances is best assured of constant employment, and a
+great part of the social evils of our time may be traced to this want of
+mobility on the part of a large number of our workers.</p>
+
+<p>The mobility of labour is of course always determined within certain
+limits, but much may and could be done by pursuing from the beginning a
+right method in educating the child to develop its power of
+self-adaptation to the needs of a changing environment.</p>
+
+<p>If these results are to be attained, then we shall have, as a nation, to
+make clear to ourselves the real meaning and purpose of education; we
+shall have to make explicit the nature of the ends which we desire to
+secure as the result of our educational efforts, and we shall have to
+organise our educational agencies so that the ends desired shall be
+secured.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider the question of the meaning, purpose, and ends of
+education.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>National Education and National Life</i>, p. 1.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Ochlos</i>, a mob.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE MEANING AND PROCESS OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>"Of all the animals with which the globe is peopled, there is none
+towards whom nature seems, at first sight, to have exercised more
+cruelty than towards man, in the numberless wants and necessities with
+which she has loaded him, and in the slender means which she affords to
+the relieving of these necessities. In other creatures these two
+particulars generally compensate each other. If we consider the lion as
+a voracious and carnivorous animal, we shall easily discover him to be
+very necessitous, but if we turn our eye to his make and temper, his
+agility, his courage, his arms, and his force, we shall find that his
+advantages hold proportion with his wants.... In man alone this
+unnatural conjunction of infirmity and of necessity may be observed in
+the greatest perfection. Not only the food which is required for his
+sustenance flies his search and approach, or at least requires his
+labour to be produced, but he must be possessed of clothes and lodging
+to defend him against the injuries of the weather: though to consider
+him only in himself, he is provided neither with arms, nor force, nor
+other natural abilities which are in any degree answerable to so many
+'necessities.' 'Tis by society alone he is able to supply his defects
+and raise himself up to an equality with his fellow-creatures, and even
+acquires a superiority over them."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> In these terms Hume draws the
+distinction between man and the animals, and if, for the term Society,
+we substitute the word Education, then we shall more truly describe the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+means by which man overcomes his natural infirmities and meets his
+necessities.</p>
+
+<p>But we have to ask, Wherein does man differ from the animals? what power
+or faculty does he possess over and above those possessed by himself and
+the animals in common? and how does it happen that as his wants and
+needs increase and multiply the means to satisfy them also tend to
+increase? Now, the animal is guided wholly or mainly by instinct. In the
+case of many animals the whole conduct of their life from birth to death
+is governed by this means. In the case, indeed, of some of the higher
+animals, there is a limited power of modifying this government by
+instinct through the experience acquired during the lifetime of the
+individual. But man alone possesses the power or faculty of reason. And
+it is through the possession of this power that he alone of all
+creatures can be educated; it is the possession of this power which
+places him above the rest of creation, and it is in the possession of
+this power that the possibility of his greatness, and also of his
+baseness, lies. Now, an instinct may be defined as an inborn and
+inherited system of means for the attainment of a definite end of such a
+nature that once the appropriate external stimulus is applied the system
+tends to work itself out in an automatic manner until the end is
+attained, and independently of any control exercised by the individual.
+The working out of such an action may be accompanied by consciousness,
+but the power of memory would only be valuable in so far as the instinct
+was imperfect, and in so far as the better attainment of the end was
+fostered by direct individual experience. Thus the greater the range of
+instinct the less the scope of and the less the need for
+education&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, for acquiring experiences that will function in
+rendering more efficient future action; and conversely, the less the
+range of instinct the greater the need for education, for acquiring
+experiences that may function in the guidance and direction of future
+action.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in man the range of instinct is small. In fact, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> is questionable
+whether in the strict usage of the term he possesses any one perfect
+instinct. But to overcome this weakness of his nature he possesses the
+power or faculty of reason, and this consists in the ability to
+self-find, to self-adapt, and to self-establish systems of means for the
+attainment of definite ends. "Man's splendid power of learning through
+experience and of applying the contents of his memory to forecast and
+mould the future is his peculiar glory. It is this which distinguishes
+him from and raises him above all other animals. This it is that makes
+him man. This it is that has enabled him to conquer the whole world and
+to adapt himself to a million conditions of life."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> This it is that
+also makes possible the education of the child, and raises the hope that
+by a truer and deeper conception of the process of education we shall be
+enabled to mould the character of the children to worthy ends.</p>
+
+<p>But although man is pre-eminently the rational animal, yet reason only
+operates, and can only operate, in so far as it is called into activity
+by the need of satisfying some inborn or acquired desire. That is, man
+possesses not only reason, but also certain instinctive tendencies to
+action. In early life, the instincts of curiosity, of imitation, of
+emulation, and the various forms of the play instinct are ever inciting
+the child to action, and ever evoking his reason-activity to acquire new
+experiences which shall function in the more efficient performance of
+future action. At a later stage other instinctive tendencies make their
+appearance, as <i>e.g.</i> the parental instinct, and serve as motives for
+the further acquisition of new experiences&mdash;for the establishment of
+other systems of means for the attainment of desired ends. But as the
+child passes from infancy to youth and manhood, these instinctive
+tendencies, although ever present, alter their character, and acquired
+ends or interests become the motives of actions. But these acquired ends
+or interests are not something created out of nothing:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> they are grafted
+upon and arise out of the innate and inherited instinctive tendencies of
+man's nature. Thus, <i>e.g.</i>, the instinct of mere self-preservation may
+pass into the desire to attain a certain standard of life, or to
+maintain a certain social status; the instinct of curiosity into the
+desire to find out and to systematise knowledge for its own sake. But
+for the realisation of these instinctive ends, whether in their crude or
+acquired forms, the finding and the establishment of systems of means in
+every case is necessary, and in order that they may be realised man must
+acquire the requisite capacities for action. In the case of the animal
+the instinct or impulse to action is inherited, but the capacity for
+action is also inborn or innate. Man possesses all the innate ends or
+interests which the animal possesses. Moreover, upon these innate ends
+or interests can be grafted ends or interests innumerable and varied in
+character, but in order that they may be satisfied he must through the
+evoking into activity of reason find and adapt means for their
+attainment. Thus the general nature of our conscious human life is that
+throughout we are striving to attain ends of a more or less explicit
+nature, and endeavouring to find out and to establish means for their
+attainment. Whether in the performance of some simple, practical act, or
+in trying to observe accurately what is presented to us through the
+senses, or in endeavouring to realise imaginatively something not
+directly presented to the senses, or in performing an abstract process
+of thought, the activity of reason in its formal aspect is ever one and
+the same. Hence in education we have not to do with the development of
+many powers or faculties but with the development or the evolution of
+the one power or faculty of reason, and the process of development in
+its general nature is always the same in kind&mdash;viz., the process of
+systematically building up knowledge which shall function in the future
+determination of conduct. What varies in each case, at each stage of
+development, is the nature of the material which goes to form this or
+that system, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> the character of the identity or link of connection
+which binds part to part within any given system. A system of knowledge
+may be built up of perceptual elements, of ideas derived directly
+through the medium of the senses. Of such a character are the systems of
+knowledge possessed by the artist and the musician. Again, a system of
+knowledge may be composed wholly or mainly of images&mdash;of remembered
+ideas, so altered and so modified as to form and fit into a new whole.
+Lastly, the elements which go to form the component parts of the system
+may be of a conceptual character. Thus we may select the number aspect
+of things for consideration and treatment, and so build up and establish
+within the mind of the child a number system. But in each and every case
+the power at work is the activity of reason, and the end ever in view in
+the selection and in the formation of the system is the satisfaction of
+some end or interest desired either for its own sake or as a means to
+some further and remoter end.</p>
+
+<p>Further, a system of knowledge may differ not only in the nature of the
+materials of which it is composed, but also in the mode of its
+formation; <i>i.e.</i>, the nature of the identity which binds part to part
+within the system may vary in character. Now it is upon the nature of
+the systems which we ultimately form in the mind of the child and upon
+the method which we pursue in our process of system or knowledge making
+that the resultant character of our education depends.</p>
+
+<p>A system of knowledge may be related as regards its parts by some
+qualitative or quantitative bond of identity. All sciences of mere
+classification are formed in this way, and the formation of such systems
+is in some cases a necessary preliminary to the evolution of the higher
+forms of system. But the important point to note is that all such
+systems are valuable only as a means to the further recognition, the
+further classification, of similar instances. An individual whose mind
+was wholly formed in this way might be compared to a well-arranged
+museum, where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> everything is classified and arranged on the basis of
+qualitative identity. But manifestly this mere arranging and classifying
+of knowledge has only a limited value. Such systems can never be used as
+means for the realisation of any practical need of life, can never by
+themselves lead us to intrinsically connected knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>A second and higher form of system is established whenever the bond of
+connection between part and part is an identity of function or of law.
+All language systems are of this nature, and the more highly synthetic
+the language the more intrinsic the connection there is between the
+parts of the system. Further, it should be noted that systems of this
+character can be used for the attainment of other ends than those of
+mere recognition and classification. They, of course, can be used as
+instruments of intercourse, of culture, and of commerce. But they may
+further be utilised in education in the training of the pupil to
+self-apply a system of knowledge to the solution of relatively new
+problems, and it is for this reason mainly that the ancient languages
+possess their value as educational instruments.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, systems of knowledge may be formed in which the inter-relation
+of part to part within the system is that of identity of cause and
+effect. In the establishment of scientific knowledge the aim is to show
+the causal inter-relation of part to part within a systematic whole or
+unity. Hence also, as in the case of language systems, systems of this
+nature are capable of being used to train the pupil to self-apply
+knowledge in the solution of practical and theoretical problems, and in
+the realising of the practical ends of life. Once again it must be noted
+that in the establishment of the various systems of knowledge the one
+activity ever present is that of reason seeking ever to connect part to
+part in order that some end or interest may be attained. Moreover, we
+may misuse the power of reason, and employ it in the attainment of ends
+which are valueless in the sense that they further no real interest or
+end in life. This is done whenever knowledge is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> crammed, whenever the
+bond of connection between one part of knowledge and the other is
+extrinsic, and whenever facts are connected and remembered by bonds of a
+more or less accidental or factitious nature. And since such knowledge
+can further no direct interest or end in life, its acquisition must, as
+a rule, be motived by some strong indirect interest. As a consequence,
+whenever the indirect interest, whatever its nature may be,&mdash;the fear of
+punishment, or the passing of an examination,&mdash;ceases to operate, then
+the desire for further acquisition also ceases. Hence it follows that
+the establishment of any such system is of comparatively little value.
+It may pave the way at a later period for the formation of a system of
+intrinsically connected knowledge, but as a general rule such systems,
+because they cannot be used, tend soon to drop out of mind, and to be of
+no further consequence in the determination of conduct. But further,
+this misuse of reason, this inciting of the mind to memorise facts
+unrelated except by their mere accidental time or space relations, will
+if persisted in tend to render the individual dull, stupid, and
+unimaginative.</p>
+
+<p>The systems of knowledge, then, of most value are those which establish
+intrinsic connections between part and part; for it is only by means of
+systems of this character that action can be determined and knowledge
+extended. In this sense we may agree with Herbert Spencer<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> that
+science or systematised knowledge is of chiefest value both for the
+guidance of conduct and for the discipline of mind. At the same time we
+must not fall into the Spencerian error of identifying science "with the
+study of surrounding phenomena," and in making the antithesis between
+science and linguistic studies one between dealing with real things on
+the one hand, and mere words on the other.</p>
+
+<p>Further, since the establishment of a system of means is always through
+the self-finding and the self-forming of the system, this furnishes the
+key to the only sound<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> method of education&mdash;viz., that the child must be
+trained in the self-discovering and the self-connecting of knowledge.
+This does not mean that the method should be heuristic in Rousseau's
+sense, that the child should be told nothing, but be left to rediscover
+all knowledge for himself. But it does mean that in the imparting of the
+garnered experience of the race the child must be trained in the methods
+by which the race has slowly and gradually built up a knowledge of the
+means necessary for the realisation of the many and complex ends of
+civilised life.</p>
+
+<p>Before passing on to consider the ends at which we should aim in the
+education of the child, it may be well briefly to summarise the
+conclusions reached.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1. Man is distinguished from the rest of creation by the possession
+of reason: the animal life is mainly or wholly guided by instinct.</p>
+
+<p>2. Man like the animals possesses instincts or instinctive
+tendencies, but for their realisation he must seek out and
+establish systems of means for their attainment. Bereft of these
+instinctive tendencies of his nature, man would have no incentive
+to acquire experiences for the more efficient guidance of his
+future conduct.</p>
+
+<p>3. In the course of the development and extension of experience
+there gradually becomes grafted upon these innate instincts,
+interests or ends of an acquired nature, and one of the main
+functions of education is to create, foster, and establish on a
+permanent and stable basis, interests of ethical and social worth.</p>
+
+<p>4. The power of reason is no occult power: it is simply the
+capacity for finding and establishing systems of means for the
+attainment of ends; or it may be defined as the power of acquiring
+experience and of self-applying this experience in the future
+guidance of conduct.</p>
+
+<p>5. The evolution of intelligence in man is the evolution of this
+reason-activity to the attainment of new and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> more complex
+theoretical and practical ends or interests. At an early stage the
+systems of knowledge established are for the attainment of the
+relatively simple needs of life, and are composed of perceptual and
+imagined elements. At a later stage the systems formed may be of
+the most complex nature, and are composed of conceptual elements.</p>
+
+<p>6. Man is the only being capable of education in the strict usage
+of the term. He alone must acquire the means for the realisation of
+the various desired ends of life.</p>
+
+<p>7. The process of education is a process which, utilising as
+motives to acquirement the instinctive tendencies of the child's
+nature, seeks to establish systems of means for their realisation,
+and upon these innate or inborn instincts to graft acquired ends or
+interests which shall hereafter function in the attainment of ends
+of economic, ethical, and social worth.</p>
+
+<p>8. The only truly educative method is the method which trains the
+pupil to find, establish, and apply systems of knowledge in the
+attainment of ends of felt value.</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Hume's <i>Treatise of Human Nature</i>, Bk. III. part ii. sec.
+2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Principles of Heredity</i>, by G. Archdall Reid, p. 235.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Cf. Herbert Spencer, <i>Education</i>, especially chap. i.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE END OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>We have seen that the process of education is the process of acquiring
+and organising experiences that will function in the determination of
+future conduct and ensure the more efficient performance of future
+action; or we may say that the process is one by which means are
+gradually established and fixed in the mind for the attainment of ends
+of value for the realisation of the varied and complex interests of
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Now, this acquisition and organisation of experience is never entirely
+"left to the blind control of inherited impulse," nor is the child
+wholly left to gather and organise his experiences upon the incentive of
+any innate or acquired interest that may for the time engage his will.
+The various agencies of society&mdash;the home, the school, the shop and
+yard&mdash;are ever constantly seeking to establish such or such systems of
+ideas, and to prevent the formation of other systems. Hence it follows
+that education is not a mere natural process&mdash;not a process of acquiring
+experience in response to the demands of this or that natural need, but
+that it is a regulated process, controlled with the view of finally
+leading the child to acquire certain experiences, to organise certain
+systems of means for the attainment of such or such ends.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, at various periods in history, the end or ends of education,
+the kinds of experience thought necessary and valuable for the child to
+acquire have varied, and still vary, and must vary according to the
+nature of the civilisation into which the child is born and to which his
+education<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> must somehow or other adjust him; <i>i.e.</i>, there is no one
+type of experience, no one kind of education, which is equally suited to
+meet the needs of the child born in a modern industrial State and the
+child whose education must fit him hereafter to fulfil his duties as a
+member of a savage tribe.</p>
+
+<p>Further, in determining the nature of the experiences useful to acquire,
+we must take into account not only the civilisation to which the child
+is to be adjusted, but we must also take note of the nature of the
+services which the given society requires of its adult members. These
+services vary in character, and there can be no one kind of education
+which equally fits the individual to perform efficiently any and every
+service. To postulate this would be to affirm that there is a kind of
+experience useful for the realisation indifferently of any and every
+purpose of adult life, and to affirm that a system of knowledge acquired
+and organised for the attainment of certain definite ends can be used
+for the furtherance of ends different in character and having no
+intrinsic connection with each other. Further, to assert that there is
+one type of education equally suited to train and to develop the
+reason-activity of the individual in every direction is to neglect the
+fact that individuals differ in innate capacity. These differences are
+due in part to differences in the extent and character of the receptive
+powers of individuals, and are to be traced, probably, to differences in
+the size and constitution of the sensory areas of the brain, and are due
+also in part to inborn differences in the capacity for acquiring and
+utilising experiences. As a consequence of these differences one
+individual will acquire and organise certain kinds of experience more
+readily than others.</p>
+
+<p>But not only have the ends sought to be realised through the educational
+agencies of society varied in the past&mdash;not only do we find that the
+ideals at present vary in character according to the stage of
+civilisation which the particular country has reached&mdash;we also find that
+the agencies of society determining the character and end of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> education
+also vary. For in the discussion of the ends sought to be attained by
+means of education, we must remember that these are not determined by
+the teacher, but by "the adult portion of the Community organised in the
+forms of the Family, the State, the Church, and various miscellaneous
+associations"<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> desirous of promoting the welfare of the community. At
+one time the Church largely determined the character and ends of
+education, but the tendency at the present time is for the State to
+control more and more the education of the rising generation. In some
+countries the entire control of all forms of education, primary,
+secondary, and technical, has come under the guidance of the State, and
+in our own country elementary education is now largely under the control
+of the State authorities, and the other forms of education tend
+increasingly to come under this control. Not only is this so, but the
+period during which the State exercises its control over the education
+of the child is gradually being lengthened.</p>
+
+<p>Many causes are at work tending to produce these results in the first
+place, it is being clearly realised that there can be no thorough-going
+co-ordination of the various grades of instruction until all the
+agencies of education in each area are placed under one authority acting
+under the guidance of some central body responsible for the organisation
+and direction of the education of the district as a whole. Further,
+there can be no satisfactory settlement of the problem as to what
+particular function each distinct type of Higher School shall perform
+until the whole means of education are under one determining authority.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, the higher education of the children of the nation
+is too important a matter to be left entirely to the care of the private
+individual, and its cost is too great in many cases to be wholly borne
+by each individual parent. But this provision, organisation, and control
+of the means of higher education by the State does<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> not necessarily
+imply that it should be free&mdash;that the whole burden should be laid on
+the shoulders of the general taxpayer. Yet unless means are provided by
+which the poor but clever boy can realise himself, then there is so much
+loss to the community.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, the organisation of all forms of education and the
+more extended provision of higher and especially of technical training
+is necessary, if for no other reason than as a means of economic
+protection and economic security.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the better organisation of our educational agencies is necessary
+as a means of securing a democracy capable of understanding the meaning
+of moral and civic freedom and of using this rightly.</p>
+
+<p>But while the concrete nature of the ends to which our educational
+efforts are directed may vary in accordance with the needs of a changing
+and progressive civilisation, nevertheless the general nature of the
+ends sought to be attained by the education of the children of a nation
+is permanent and unchangeable. That is, we have to recognise a universal
+as well as a particular element in our educational ideals. Now, the
+universal aim of all education is, or rather should be, to correlate the
+child with the civilisation of his time; to lead him to acquire those
+experiences which will in after-life enable him to perform ably and
+rightly his duties as a worker, as a citizen, and as a member of an
+ethical and spiritual community organised for the securing of the
+well-being of the individual. And the higher the civilisation, the more
+difficult, the more complex, and the more lengthened must be this
+process of acquiring experiences necessary to fit the individual to his
+environment. Hence, whatever the particular nature of the environment
+may be, the aim of education must be the fitting of the individual to
+his natural and social environments. Hence also any organisation of the
+means of education must have as its threefold object the securing of the
+physical efficiency, of the economic efficiency, and the ethical
+efficiency of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> the rising generation. In short, as Mr. Bagley<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> puts
+it, the securing of the social efficiency of the individual must be the
+ultimate aim of all education. To be socially efficient implies that as
+the result of the process of education certain experiences, and the
+power of applying them, have been acquired by each individual, so that
+by this means he is enabled to perform some particular social service
+for the community of a directly or indirectly economic nature. For if,
+as the result of the educative process, we establish systems of means
+for the realisation of ends which have no social value, then so far we
+have failed to make the individual socially efficient. "The youth we
+would train has little time to spare; he owes but the first fifteen or
+sixteen years of his life to his tutor, the remainder is due to action.
+Let us employ this short time in necessary instruction. Away with your
+crabbed, logical subtleties; they are abuses, things by which our lives
+can never be made better."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> In these words Montaigne writes against
+the false ideal that the mere accumulation of knowledge apart from any
+purpose it may serve in enabling us better to understand either the
+world of nature or of history should be the aim of education, and
+throughout all education we must ever keep in mind that knowledge
+acquired must be capable of being used and applied for the realisation
+of some social purpose, otherwise it is so much useless lumber, to the
+individual a burden, soon dropped, to society valueless, since it can
+maintain and further no real interest of the community.</p>
+
+<p>But to be socially efficient implies not merely that the individual
+should be fitted to perform some service economically useful to the
+community, it further implies that as the result of the process of
+education there should have been acquired certain capacities of action
+which restrain him from unduly interfering with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> freedom of others.
+He must acquire certain experiences which restrain him from hindering
+the full and free development of others; he must be trained to use his
+freedom rightly, to acquire those capacities for action which fit him to
+take his place in the moral cosmos of his time and generation. Further,
+as Mr. Bagley also points out, to be socially efficient implies in
+addition that the individual should contribute something further to the
+advancement of the civilisation into which he is born, and thus pass on
+to his successors an increasing heritage.</p>
+
+<p>The threefold aim of all education, then, is to secure the physical, the
+economic, and the ethical efficiency of the future members of the
+community; and our educational agencies must throughout keep this
+threefold aspect in view.</p>
+
+<p>To secure the physical efficiency of the child is necessary, in the
+first place, because a strong, healthy, vigorous body is a good in
+itself, apart from the fact that without sound health the other ends of
+life cannot, or can be only imperfectly realised. It is an erroneous
+point of view to maintain that many men have done good intellectual work
+in spite of physical ill-health, and even in cases where there was
+present some physical defect. The real thing to keep in mind is that
+these individuals do not represent the average, and that for the normal
+individual weak health or the presence of physical defect lessens his
+intellectual and moral vigour. We can, in the light of modern
+psychology, no longer regard mind and body as separate entities having a
+development independent of each other, but must regard them as
+conditioning and conditioned by each other.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, the care of the physical health of the child is
+important, because any impairment or defect in the sense organs&mdash;the
+avenues of experience&mdash;implies a corresponding defect or want in mental
+growth, and as a consequence tends to render the individual economically
+and socially less efficient in after-life.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p><p>In the third place, and this truth is being gradually put into practice
+in the education of the weak-minded and of the physically defective,
+sound physical health is one of the conditions of right moral activity.
+This truth Rousseau emphasised when he declared: "that the weaker the
+body, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the better it obeys. All
+the sensual passions find lodgment in effeminate bodies, and the less
+they are satisfied the more irritable they become. The body must needs
+be vigorous to obey the soul: a good servant ought to be robust."</p>
+
+<p>We shall inquire further into this question when we come to treat of the
+physical education of the child, but what we wish to point out is that
+one aim of all our educational efforts must be to secure the physical
+efficiency of the rising generation, on the grounds that sound physical
+health is a good in itself; is a means to the securing of the economic
+efficiency of the individual and of society; and is a condition of
+securing the ethical efficiency of the individual.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, the securing of the economic efficiency of the
+individual must be one of the aims of our educational efforts. This does
+not imply that our educational curriculum should be based on purely
+utilitarian lines, and that all subjects whose utilitarian value is not
+immediately apparent should be banished from the schoolroom. But it does
+imply that whether in the education of the professional man or of the
+industrial worker all instruction either directly or indirectly must
+have as its final result the efficiency of the individual as a worker.
+An education which fits the individual to use his leisure rightly may
+have as much effect in increasing the productive powers of the
+individual as that which looks more narrowly to his technical training.
+Further, we must remember that the larger number by far of the children
+of the modern State must in after-life become industrial workers, and
+that any system of education which neglects this fact,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> which makes no
+provision for the technical training of the children of the working
+classes, and has no adequate system of selecting and training those who
+by innate capacity are fitted to become the leaders in industry, is a
+system not in harmony with the characteristics of modern life, and that
+unless this economic efficiency is secured, then the opportunity for the
+development of the other ends of life cannot be secured.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the securing of the ethical efficiency of the future members of
+the State must be one of our ultimate aims. The ethical aim of education
+may be said to be the supreme end, in the sense that it is the essential
+condition for the security, the stability, and the progress of society;
+and also from the fact that the ethical spirit of doing the work for the
+sake of the work should permeate all education.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding this chapter what needs to be emphasised is that while the
+process of education remains ever the same, ever consists in acquiring
+and organising experience, in and through the working of reason incited
+to activity by the need of satisfying some natural or acquired interest,
+in order that future action may be rendered more efficient, and whilst
+the general nature of the ends to be attained may be said to be
+permanent and unchangeable, yet the particular and concrete ends at
+which we should aim in the education of our children is a practical
+question which every nation has, from time to time, to ask and answer
+afresh in the light of her national ideals and in view of her national
+aspirations. Nay, further, it is a question which with every necessary
+change in her internal organisation, and with every fundamental
+alteration in her relation to her external neighbours, has to be asked
+and answered anew by each and every State desirous of retaining her
+place amongst the nations of the world and of securing the welfare and
+happiness of her individual members. It is mainly because we as a nation
+have not realised this truth that our educational organisation has,
+neither in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> explicitness and clearness of its aims, nor in the
+distinction, gradation, and co-ordination of its means, attained the
+same thoroughness and self-consistency as that possessed by the
+educational systems of some of our Continental neighbours.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Cf. Professor Findlay, <i>Journal of Education</i> (Sept. 1899),
+also "<i>Principles of Class Teaching</i>," p. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Cf. <i>The Educative Process</i>, chap. iii., esp. pp. 59, 60
+(Macmillan).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Montaigne, <i>The Education of Children</i>, L. E. Rector, Ph.D.
+(<i>International Education Series</i>), Appleton, New York.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>The end of education is, as we have seen, the securing of the future
+social efficiency of the rising generation, and the method in every case
+is through the evoking of the reason-activity of the individual to
+organise and establish in the minds of the young and immature, systems
+of ideas which will hereafter function as means in the attainment of
+ends of definite social worth.</p>
+
+<p>The question now arises as to whether the provision and organisation of
+the agencies of education may be safely left to the care and
+self-interest of the individual parent, or whether on principle such
+provision is a duty which devolves upon the State.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the State provision of the means of elementary
+education has now practically been admitted, and whether wisely or
+unwisely, the larger part by far of the cost of this provision now falls
+upon the shoulders of the general and local taxpayer. <i>E.g.</i>, in England
+in 1902 there were six hundred and thirty-three thousand fee-paying
+children in the Public Elementary Schools, and over five millions
+receiving their education free.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Further, by the Education Act
+(England) of 1902 and by the Education and Local Taxation Account
+(Scotland) Act of the same year the principle of the State aid for the
+provision of the means of secondary and technical education may be said
+also practically to have been recognised. By the former Act certain
+Imperial funds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> derived from the income on Probate and Licence duties
+were handed over to the Councils of counties and boroughs for
+expenditure on the provision of the means of education other than
+elementary, and at the same time these bodies were empowered, if they
+thought it necessary, to impose a limited rate for the same purpose. In
+Scotland at the same time a certain part of Scotland's share of the
+"whisky" money was set aside for the provision of secondary education in
+urban and rural districts, and Secondary Education Committees were
+appointed in the counties and principal boroughs charged with the
+allocation of the funds towards the aid and increase of the provision of
+higher education in their respective districts.</p>
+
+<p>But while this has been done, the question as to whether and to what
+extent the State should undertake the provision of the means of higher
+education is still one on which there is no general agreement. If it is
+the duty of the State to see that the provision of the means of
+education, elementary, secondary, technical, and university, is adequate
+to the attainment of the end of securing the future social efficiency of
+all the members of the community, then it must be admitted that the
+means at present provided for this purpose are totally inadequate, and
+that the method followed in furnishing this provision is not of a kind
+to ensure that the funds granted are spent in the manner best calculated
+to extend the agencies and to increase the efficiency of the higher
+education of the children of the nation. This latter objection applies
+more especially in the case of Scotland. In that country certain
+nominated bodies who are responsible only to themselves and to the
+Scotch Education Department are entrusted with the expenditure of the
+monies received for the extension of the means of higher education, and
+since these bodies stand in no intimate connection with the
+representative bodies entrusted with the control of elementary
+education, no efficient co-ordination of the two grades of education is
+possible. Further, in some cases sectional interests rather than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> the
+educational interests of the district as a whole are the main motives at
+work in determining the distribution of the funds amongst the various
+bodies claiming to participate in its benefits. The uncertainty of the
+amount of income available for this purpose, and the limitation in
+England of the power of rating, might also be urged in objection to this
+peculiarly English method of providing the means for the higher
+education of the youth of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Similar reasons to those urged prior to 1870 in favour of the State
+provision of elementary education may be urged in favour of the
+extension of the principle to higher education. These reasons are
+nowhere more clearly stated than in the writings of John Stuart Mill.</p>
+
+<p>In discussing the functions of government, Mill lays down that education
+is one of those things which it is admissible on principle that a
+Government should provide for the people, and although in adducing the
+reasons for the State undertaking this duty he is concerned mainly with
+the provision of the means of elementary education, yet looking to the
+altered social conditions of our own time, and taking into account the
+difference in the economic relations which exist now between Great
+Britain and her Continental rivals, the arguments advanced by Mill are
+no less applicable now to the extension of the principle of State
+provision. Let us consider these arguments.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, Mill declares that there are "certain primary
+elements and means of knowledge that all human beings born into the
+community must acquire during childhood." If their parents have the
+power of obtaining for them this instruction and fail to do so, they
+commit a double breach of duty. The child grows up an imperfect being,
+socially inefficient, and members of the community are liable to suffer
+seriously from the consequences of this ignorance and want of education
+in their fellow-citizens.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, Mill urges that unlike that the giving of other
+forms of help, the provision of education is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> one of the things in
+which the tender of help perpetuates the state of things which renders
+help necessary. Instruction strengthens and enlarges the active
+faculties; its effect is favourable to the growth of the spirit of
+independence&mdash;it is help towards doing without help.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, he declares that the question of the provision of
+elementary education is not one between its provision by the Government
+on the one hand, and its provision through voluntary agencies on the
+other. The full cost of the education of the children of the lower
+working classes in Great Britain as in other countries has never been
+wholly paid for out of the wages of the labourer, and hence the question
+lies between the State provision of education and its provision by
+certain charitable agencies. As a rule, when provided by the latter, it
+is both inefficient in quantity and poor in quality.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, Mill lays down that in the matter of education the intervention
+of Government is necessary, because neither the interest nor the
+judgment of the consumer is a sufficient security for the goodness of
+the commodity.</p>
+
+<p>But at the same time he strenuously insists that there should be no
+monopoly of education by the State. It is not desirable, he declares,
+that a government should have complete control over the education of the
+people. To possess such a control and actually to exert it would be
+despotic. The State may, however, require that all its people shall have
+received a certain measure of education, but it may not prescribe from
+whom or where they may obtain it.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, and under the changed economic conditions which now
+prevail, it can no longer be asserted that the imparting of the mere
+elements of knowledge is adequate either to secure the future social
+efficiency of the children of the lower classes of society or that such
+a modicum of instruction as is provided by our Elementary Schools is
+sufficient to protect the community from the ignorance of its ill
+educated and badly trained members. The "hooliganism" of many of our
+large cities is due to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> our system of half educating, half training the
+children of the slums, of laying too much stress on the acquisition of
+certain mechanical arts in our Primary Schools and in conceiving them as
+ends in themselves. Further, our system of primary education fails on
+its moral side, and this in two ways. It seems unaware of the fact that
+all moral education is an endeavour to implant in the minds of the young
+desires that shall impel them hereafter to good rather than to evil, and
+that this end can only be attained in so far as the natural instinctive
+tendencies of the child's nature which make for good are cultivated and
+trained, and in so far as those other instinctive tendencies which make
+for social destruction are inhibited by having their character altered
+so as to be directed into channels which make for the social welfare. In
+the second place, we leave off the education of the children at too
+early an age. We hand over the children of the poorer classes during the
+most critical period of their lives to the influences of the streets and
+of the bad home, counteracted only by the efforts of the slum visitor or
+the missionary. After furnishing them with the mere instruments of
+knowledge, we entrust either to them or their parents the liberty of
+using, misusing, or non-using the instruments provided. Moreover, we do
+nothing of a systematic nature to instil into the youth of our poorer
+citizens the fact that they are members of a corporate community and
+future citizens of a State, and that hereafter they have duties towards
+that State the performance of which is the only rational ground of their
+possession of rights as against the State. <i>E.g.</i>, in many of our slums
+we have the best examples of individualism run mad, of the conception
+that the individual is a law unto his private self, and that all
+government is something alien, something forced upon the individual from
+the outside and impinging upon his private will, instead of law being
+what it really is, an expression of the social conditions under which
+the welfare of the individual and of society may be attained.</p>
+
+<p>Further, it must be maintained that our present policy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> in education is
+economically wasteful. To spend, as we do yearly, larger and larger sums
+of money on the elementary education of our children, and then, in a
+large number of cases, to fail to reach the ends of securing either the
+social efficiency of the individual or the protection of society against
+the ignorance of its members, is surely, to say the least, unwise.
+Again, if we really set before us this aim of the social efficiency of
+the future individual, we must do something to carry on the education of
+the children of the poorer classes after the Elementary School stage has
+been passed.</p>
+
+<p>One of the strongest points in the German system of education, as
+compared and contrasted with our own, is the care which is taken of the
+higher education of the children of the working classes during the
+period when it is most important that some control should be exercised
+over the youth of the country, throughout the time when the boy is most
+open to temptation, and when the moral forces of society are potent for
+good and evil in shaping and forming his character. The great majority
+of the children in a modern State are and must be destined for
+industrial service; the great majority of the children of the working
+classes must, at or about the age of fourteen, leave the Primary School
+and enter upon the learning of some trade. But manifestly at this early
+stage the larger number are not fitted to guide and control their own
+lives; and if moral education aims, as it ought to aim, at fitting the
+individual for freedom, at fitting him to guide and direct his own life
+in the light of a self-accepted and a self-directed ideal, then some
+measure of control, of guidance, and of regulation is necessary in the
+years when the child is passing from youth to manhood. Now, it is this
+fact, this truth, which the Germans as a nation have realised. They
+declare that it is neither wise nor prudent nor for the ultimate benefit
+of the State to leave the vast majority of the youth without guidance,
+and sometimes even without proper moral control exercised over them
+during the great formative<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> period of their lives. Nay, further, they
+believe that a State which neglects its duty here is not doing what it
+ought to do for the future moral good, for the future economic welfare,
+and for the future happiness of its individual members. Hence, in
+several of the German States, the State control over the child does not
+cease when at fourteen years of age he leaves the Elementary School, but
+is continued until the age of seventeen; and this is effected by the
+establishment of compulsory Evening Schools. In particular, by a law
+which came into force in Berlin on the 1st April 1905, every boy and
+girl in that city, with certain definitely specified exceptions, must
+attend at an Evening Continuation School for a minimum of not less than
+four hours and a maximum of not more than six hours per week. Moreover,
+this enactment has been rendered necessary not to level up the majority,
+but to level up the minority. This development is a development for
+which the voluntary Evening Continuation School prepared the way; and
+compulsory attendance has become possible on account of the willingness
+of the German youth to learn, and of his desire to make himself
+proficient in his particular trade or profession. Further, the school
+authorities, in this matter of compulsory attendance at an Evening
+Continuation School, have with them the hearty co-operation of the great
+body of employers; and the burden of seeing that the pupil attends
+regularly is not put upon the parent but upon the employer. By these
+means, and by other agencies of a voluntary character, every care is
+taken that the Berlin youth shall have the opportunity of finding that
+employment for which by nature he is best suited, and that thereafter he
+shall learn thoroughly the particular trade or calling he may enter
+upon.</p>
+
+<p>Contrast what we do, or rather what we do not do, in this matter of
+providing higher education for the sons and daughters of the working
+classes. In our large towns the great majority of our boys and girls
+leave the Elementary School at or before the age of fourteen. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> many
+cases the instruction given during this period soon passes away, and
+leaves little permanent result behind. Evening Continuation Schools are
+indeed provided, but only a small proportion of our youth takes
+advantage of this means of further instruction. The larger number of the
+children of the lower working classes drift, for a year or two, into
+various forms of unskilled employment, chosen in most cases because the
+immediate pecuniary reward is here greater than in the case of learning
+a trade; and after spending two or three years in employments which do
+nothing to educate them, some drift, by accident, into this or that
+particular trade, while the others remain behind to swell the number of
+the unskilled. During this period nothing of an organised nature is done
+to secure the physical efficiency of the youth of our working classes;
+nothing or almost nothing is done to secure his future industrial
+efficiency; and, as a consequence, year after year, as a nation, we go
+on fostering an army of loafers, increasing the ranks of the unskilled
+workers, and even in our skilled trades adding to the number of those
+who are mere process workers, at the expense of producing workers
+acquainted both theoretically and practically with every department of
+their particular calling. No wonder that the delegates of the
+brass-workers<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> of Birmingham, contrasting what they have seen in
+Berlin with what they daily see in their own trade at home and in their
+own city, bitterly declare that the Berlin youth has from infancy been
+under better care and training at home, at school, at the works, and in
+the Army; and consequently, as a man, he is more fitted to be entrusted
+with the liberty which the Birmingham youth has perhaps from childhood
+only abused.</p>
+
+<p>Space does not permit me to go at fuller length into this question, but
+before leaving the particular problem let me put the issue plainly,
+because it is an issue which we as a nation must soon clearly realise,
+and must answer in either one or other of two ways. We may go on as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> at
+present, insisting that a certain amount of elementary education is
+compulsory for all, and leaving it a matter for the individual parent
+and the individual youth to take advantage of the means of higher
+education provided voluntarily, and as a rule without any great direct
+cost to them. In this way, trusting to the voluntary agencies at work in
+society, we may hope that either through enlightened self-interest, or
+through a higher conception of the duty of the individual to the State,
+or through a loftier moral ideal becoming prevalent and actual in
+society, an increasing number of parents will see that the means
+provided for the higher education of their children are duly taken
+advantage of, and that the majority of the youth will make it their aim
+to use these means to secure their physical and industrial efficiency.
+If we adopt this course, then it must be the duty of the school
+authorities of the various districts to see that Evening Schools of
+various types suited to the needs of the various classes of students are
+duly provided, and that no insurmountable obstacles are placed in the
+way of those desirous and anxious to take advantage of the means of
+higher education. Further, it must become the duty of the employers of
+the country to see that the youth are encouraged in every way to take
+advantage of instruction designed with the above-named end in view, and
+moreover the general public must do all in their power to co-operate
+with and to aid the endeavours of school authorities and employers of
+labour. In this way, as has been the case in Berlin, the voluntary
+system of Evening Continuation and Trade Schools may gradually and in
+time pave the way for the compulsory Evening School. Without doubt this
+were the better way, if it could be effected and that quickly.</p>
+
+<p>But if in this matter we have delayed too long&mdash;if we have allowed our
+educational policy in the past to be guided by a one-sided and narrow
+individualism&mdash;if for too lengthened a period we have permitted our
+political action to be determined by the false ideal that,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> in the
+matter of providing for and furthering his education as a citizen and as
+an industrial worker, liberty for each individual consists in allowing
+him to choose for himself, regardless of whether or not that choice is
+for his own and the State's ultimate good, then it may be necessary in
+the immediate future to take steps to remove or remedy this defect in
+our present educational organisation. For it is necessary&mdash;essentially
+necessary&mdash;on various grounds that the education of the boys and girls
+of our working classes should not cease absolutely at the Elementary
+School stage,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> but that, with certain definite and well-considered
+exceptions, all should continue for several years thereafter to fit
+themselves for industrial and social service. If this result can be
+effected by moral means, good and well; if not, legal compulsion must,
+sooner or later, be resorted to. For it is, as it has always been, a
+fundamental maxim of political action that the State should and must
+compel her members to utilise the means by which they may be raised to
+freedom.</p>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The second line of argument which Mill follows in his advocacy of the
+State provision of education is that instruction is one of the cases in
+which the aid given does not foster and re-create the evil which it
+seeks to remedy. Education which is really such does not tend to
+enervate but to strengthen the individual. Its effect is favourable to
+the growth of independence. "It is a help towards doing without help."</p>
+
+<p>On similar grounds, we may urge that it is the duty of the State to see
+that the means for the higher education<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> of the youth of the country are
+adequate in quantity and efficient in quality. The better technical
+training of our workmen is necessary if we are to secure their economic
+self-sufficiency and fit them to become socially useful as members of a
+community. One aim therefore underlying any future organisation of
+education must be to secure the industrial efficiency of the worker and
+to ensure that the results of science shall be utilised in the
+furtherance of the arts and industries of life. This can only be
+effected by the better scientific training, by the more intensive and
+the more thorough education of those children of the nation who by
+natural ability and industry are fitted in after-life to guide and
+control the industries of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Haldane,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> during the past few years, in season and out of season,
+has called the attention of the public of Great Britain to the fact that
+in the organisation and equipment of their system of technical education
+Germany is much in advance of this country, and that the German people
+have thoroughly and practically realised that, if they are to compete
+successfully with other nations, then one of the aims of their
+educational system must be to teach the youth how to apply knowledge in
+the furtherance and advancement of the economic interests of life. With
+this end in view we have the establishment throughout the German States
+of numerous schools and colleges having as their chief aim the
+application of knowledge to the arts and industries. In our own country
+this branch&mdash;this very important branch&mdash;of education has been left, for
+the most part, to the care of private individuals, and although the
+State has done something in recent years to encourage and develop this
+side of education, yet much more requires to be done; and, above all, it
+is desirable that whatever is done in the future should be done in a
+regular, systematic, and organised manner and with definite aims in
+view.</p>
+
+<p>But it is not merely in the higher reaches of German<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> education that the
+industrial aim is kept in view. It pervades and permeates the whole
+system from the lowest to the highest stages. Even in the Primary School
+the requirements of practical life are not left out of sight. In school,
+said a former Prussian Director of Education, "children are to learn how
+to perform duties, they are to be habituated to work, to gain pleasure
+in work, and thus become efficient for future industrial pursuits. This
+has been the aim from the earliest times of Prussian education; and to
+this day it is plainly understood by all State and local administrative
+officers, as well as by all teachers and the majority of the parents,
+that the people's school has more to do than merely teach the vehicles
+of culture&mdash;reading, writing, and arithmetic"&mdash;that the chief aim is
+rather "the preparation of citizens who can and will cheerfully serve
+their God and their native country as well as themselves."</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, the question of the provision of the means of higher
+education is not one between its provision on the one hand by means of
+the Government, and on the other by means of purely voluntary agencies.
+Higher education, <i>e.g.</i>, in Scotland has rarely been provided and paid
+for at its full cost by the individual parent or by associations of
+individual parents, but has been maintained, in some cases in a high
+degree of efficiency, by endowments left for this purpose. These
+endowments are now in many cases insufficient to meet the demand made
+for education, and the stream of private benevolence in providing the
+means of education has either ceased to flow or flows in an irregular
+and uncertain fashion. Further, the incomes of even the moderately
+well-to-do of our middle classes are not sufficient to bear the whole
+cost of the more expensive education required to fit their sons and
+daughters for the after-service of the community. Hence, just as in
+Mill's time the question of the provision of elementary education lay
+between the State provision and the provision by means of charitable
+agencies, so to-day<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> the problem of the provision of secondary and
+technical education is between its adequate provision and organisation
+by the State, and its inadequate, uncertain provision by means of the
+endowments of the past and by the charitable agencies of the present.
+Manifestly, in the light of modern conditions, with the economic
+competition between nation and nation becoming keener and keener, and
+knowing full well that the future belongs to the nation with the best
+equipped and the best trained army of industrial workers, we can no
+longer rest content with any haphazard method of providing the means of
+higher education: whatever the cost may be, we must realise that the
+time has come to put our educational house in order and to establish and
+organise our system of higher education so that it will subserve each
+and every interest of the State. This can only be effected in so far as
+the nation as a whole realises the need for the better education of the
+children, and takes steps to secure that this shall be provided, and
+that there shall be afforded to each the opportunity of fitting himself
+by education to put his talents to the best use both for his own
+individual good and the good of the community. Lastly, as Mill urges,
+the self-interest of the individual is neither sufficient to ensure that
+the education will be provided, nor in many cases is his judgment
+sufficient to ensure the goodness of the education provided by voluntary
+means.</p>
+
+<p>But, in addition to the reasons urged by Mill for the State provision
+and control of the means of elementary education, and these reasons are,
+as we have seen, as urgent and as cogent to-day for the extension of the
+principle to the provision of the means of secondary and technical
+education, still further reasons may be advanced.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, there can be no co-ordination of the different
+stages of education until all the agencies of instruction in each area
+or district are placed under one central control. Until this is effected
+we must have at times overlapping of the agencies of instruction. In
+some cases there may also be waste of the means of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> education. In every
+case there will be a general want of balance between the various parts
+of the system.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, one object of any organisation of the means of
+education should be the selection of the best ability from amongst the
+children of our Elementary Schools and the further education of this
+ability at some one or other type of Intermediate or Secondary School.
+In order that this may be economically and efficiently effected, the
+instruction of the Elementary School should enable the pupil at a
+certain age to fit himself into the work of the High School, and our
+High Schools' system should be so differentiated in type as to furnish
+not one type of such education but several in accordance with the main
+classes of service required by the community of its adult members.
+Manifestly such a co-ordination of the means and such a grading of the
+agencies of education, if not impossible on the voluntary principle, is
+at least difficult of complete realisation.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, on the ground that the higher education of the young is necessary
+for the securing of their after social efficiency, on the ground that it
+is necessary for the economic and social security of the community, on
+the ground that aid in higher education is a help towards doing without
+help and that its provision in many cases cannot be fully met by the
+voluntary contribution of the individual, we may urge the need for the
+State's undertaking its adequate and efficient provision.</p>
+
+<p>Further, we must remember that the State must take a "longer" view of
+the problem of education than is possible for the individual. At best
+the latter looks but one generation ahead. He is content to secure the
+education and the future welfare of his children. In the life of the
+State this is not sufficient. She must look to the needs of the remote
+future as well as of the immediate present, and hence her educational
+outlook must be wider and go farther than that of any mere private
+individual. Lastly, if we understand the true nature and function of the
+State, we need have no fear that the State should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> control the education
+of all the people. What we have to fear on the one side is the
+bureaucratic control of education, and on the other its control and
+direction by one class in the interests of itself. The State exists
+for&mdash;the reason of its very being is to secure&mdash;the welfare of the
+individual, and the State approaches its perfection when its
+organisation is fitted to secure and ensure the widest scope for the
+full and free development of each individual.</p>
+
+<p>The evil of bureaucracy can be removed only by our representative bodies
+becoming more effective voices of the social and moral will of the
+community, just as the evil of class control can only be effectually
+abolished by the rise and spread of the true democratic spirit, ever
+seeking that the agencies of the State shall be directed towards the
+removing of the obstacles which hinder the full realisation of the life
+of each of its members.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Cf. Graham Balfour, <i>Educational System of Great Britain</i>,
+p. 27, 2nd ed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Brass-workers of Berlin and Birmingham</i> (King).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> "It must not be forgotten that the instruction of the
+common schools (<i>Volksschule</i>), closing with the pupil's fourteenth
+year, ends too soon, that the period most susceptible to aid, most in
+need of education, the years from fifteen to twenty ... are now not only
+allowed to lie perfectly fallow, but to lose and waste what has been so
+laboriously acquired during the preceding period at school." In the
+rural parts of Northern Germany efforts are being made to remedy this
+evil by the institution of schools providing half-year winter courses.
+Cf. Professor Paulsen's <i>The German Universities and University Study</i>,
+p. 117 (English translation).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Cf. <i>Education and Empire</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;THE COST OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>But while we may hold that it is the duty of the State to see that the
+means for the education of the children of the nation is both adequate
+in extent and efficient in quality, and so organised that it affords
+opportunities for each to secure the education which is needed to equip
+him for his after-work in life, it by no means follows as a logical
+consequence that the whole cost of this provision should be borne by the
+community in its corporate capacity and that the individual parent
+should, if he so chooses, be relieved from any direct payment for the
+education of his children. To assert this would be implicitly to affirm
+that the education of a man's children is no part of his duty&mdash;that it
+is an obligation which does not fall upon him as an individual, but only
+as a member of a community, and that so long as he pays willingly the
+proportion of the cost of education assigned to him by taxes and rates,
+he has fulfilled his obligation. Education, on such a view, becomes a
+matter of national concern in which as a private individual the parent
+has no direct interest. This position carried out to its logical
+conclusion would imply that the child and his future belong wholly to
+the State, and it would also involve the establishment of a communal
+system of education such as is set forth in the <i>Republic</i> of Plato.
+Further, such a position logically leads to the contention that the
+other necessities of life requisite for securing the social efficiency
+of the future members of the State should also be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>provided by the State
+in its corporate capacity acting as the guardian of the young, and from
+this we are but a short way from the position that it belongs to the
+community to superintend the propagation of the species, and to regulate
+the marriages of its individual members. This is State socialism in its
+most extreme form, and is contrary to the spirit of a true liberalism, a
+true democracy, and a true Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>The opposing position&mdash;the position of liberalism untainted by
+socialism&mdash;is that it is the duty of the State to see that as far as
+possible the social inequalities which arise through the individualistic
+organisation of society are removed or remedied, and that equality of
+opportunity is secured to each to make the best of his own individual
+life. In the educational sphere this implies that any obstacles in the
+way of a man's educating his children should be removed, if and in so
+far as these obstacles are irremovable by any private effort of his own,
+and that the opportunity of obtaining the best possible education should
+be open to the children of the poor if they are fitted by nature to
+profit by such an education. It further implies that the means of higher
+education, provided at the public expense, should not be wasted on the
+children of any class if by nature they are unfitted to benefit by the
+means placed at their disposal; <i>i.e.</i>, a national system of education
+must be democratic in the sense that the means of higher education shall
+be open to all, rich and poor, in order that each individual may be
+enabled to fit himself for the particular service for which by nature he
+is best suited. It must see, further, that any obstacles which prevent
+the full use of these means by particular individuals are, as far as may
+be possible, removed. A national system of education, on the other hand,
+must be aristocratic in the sense that it is selective of the best
+ability. Lastly, it must be restrictive, in order that the means of
+higher education may be utilised to the best advantage, and not misused
+on those who are unfitted to benefit therefrom.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p><p>Closely connected with the position that it is the duty of the State to
+see not merely to the adequate and efficient provision of the means of
+education, but also that the whole cost of the provision should be borne
+by the State, is the contention that because the State imposes a legal
+obligation upon the individual parent to provide a certain measure of
+education for his children, it is also a logical conclusion from this
+step that education should be free. "The object of public education is
+the protection of society, and society must pay for its protection,
+whether it takes the form of a policeman or a pedagogue."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the provision of the means of elementary education, and the imposing
+of a legal obligation upon each individual parent to utilise the means
+provided, is not merely or solely for the protection of society.
+Education confers not only a social benefit upon the community, but a
+particular benefit upon the individual. Its provision falls not within
+the merely negative benefits conferred by the State by its protection of
+the majority against the ignorance and wickedness of the minority, but
+it belongs to the positive benefits conferred by Government upon its
+individual members. The State in part undertakes the provision of the
+means of education, as Mill pointed out, in order to protect the
+majority against the evil consequences likely to result from the
+ignorance and want of education of the minority. As this provision
+confers a common benefit on all, so far, but only in so far, as
+education is protective, can its cost be laid upon the shoulders of the
+general taxpayer.</p>
+
+<p>But the provision by the State of the means of education is not merely
+undertaken for the protection of any given society against the ignorance
+and the lawlessness of its own individual members, it is also undertaken
+in order to secure the increased efficiency of the nation as an economic
+and military unit in antagonism, more or less, with similar units. At
+the present day this is one main motive at work in the demand made for
+the better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> and more intensive training of the industrial classes. To
+secure the industrial and military efficiency of the nation is
+explicitly set forth as the main aim of the German organisation of the
+means of education. We may deplore this tendency of our times. We may
+condemn the rise of the intensely national spirit of the modern world,
+and regret that the ideal of universal peace and universal harmony
+between the nations of the earth seems to fade for ever and for ever as
+we move. But we have to look the facts in the face, and to realise that
+the educational system of a nation must endeavour to secure the
+industrial and military efficiency of its future members as a means of
+security and protection against other competing nations and as one of
+the essential conditions for the self-preservation of the particular
+State in that war of nation against nation which Hobbes so eloquently
+describes: "For the nature of war, consists not in actual fighting; but
+in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no
+assurance to the contrary."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>In so far, then, as the provision of education by the State is
+undertaken with this end in view, it may be maintained that part, at
+least, of the cost of its provision should be borne by the general
+taxpayer in return for the greater national and economic security which
+he enjoys through the greater efficiency of the nation as an economic
+and military unit.</p>
+
+<p>But the spread and the higher efficiency of education confers in
+addition both a local and an individual benefit. It confers a local
+benefit, in so far as by its means advantages accrue to any particular
+district. It confers an individual benefit, in so far as through the
+means of education placed at his disposal the individual is enabled to
+attain to a higher degree of social efficiency than would otherwise have
+been possible.</p>
+
+<p>Further, if we look at this question not from the point of view of
+benefit received, but from that of the obligation imposed, we reach a
+similar result. It is an obligation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> upon the State to see that the
+means of education and their due co-ordination and organisation are of
+such a nature both in extent and in quality as to furnish a complete
+system of means for the training up of the youth of the country to
+perform efficiently all the services required by such a complex
+community as the modern State. This duty devolves upon the State chiefly
+for the reason set forth by Adam Smith in his discussion of the
+functions of government. It is the duty of the sovereign, he declares,
+to erect and maintain certain "public institutions which it can never be
+for the interest of any individual to erect and maintain, because the
+profit could never repay the expense to the individual, or small number
+of individuals, though it may frequently do much more than repay it to a
+great society."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>It becomes further an obligation placed upon the local authority to aid
+the central authority of the State in the establishment and distribution
+of the means of education. The local authority by its more intimate
+knowledge of local circumstances is the most competent to judge of the
+nature of the education suited to serve its own particular needs, and is
+best qualified to undertake the distribution of the means.</p>
+
+<p>But the obligation to take advantage of the means for the future benefit
+of his children is a moral obligation placed upon the shoulders of the
+individual parent. It becomes a legal obligation only when, and in so
+far as, the moral obligation is not realised by a certain number of the
+community. Certainly one reason for the making of the education of a
+man's children a legal obligation is the protection of society against
+the ignorance and wickedness of the minority, but the other and
+principal aim is to endeavour to secure that what at first was imposed
+as a merely external or legal obligation may pass into a moral and
+inherent obligation, so that the individual from being governed by
+outward restraint may in time be governed by an inward and self-imposed
+ideal.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p><p>It is no doubt difficult in any particular case to determine exactly
+what precise part of the cost should be allocated to each of the three
+benefiting parties, but in any national organisation of the means of
+education this threefold distribution of cost should somehow or other be
+undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>From this it follows, that while it may legitimately be laid down that
+upon the State must fall the obligation of securing the adequate
+provision and the due distribution of the means of education, yet the
+further duty of the State in this respect is limited to the removing of
+obstacles which stand in the way of the fulfilment of the parent's
+obligation to educate his children, and to the securing to each child
+equality of opportunity to obtain an education in kind and quality which
+will serve to fit him hereafter to perform his special duty to society.</p>
+
+<p>Although since 1891 elementary education has been practically free in
+this country and the whole cost of its provision is now undertaken at
+the public expense, yet except from the socialistic position that the
+provision of education is a communal and not a personal and moral
+obligation, this public provision of the funds for elementary education
+can be upheld from the individualistic point of view only on two
+grounds. In the first place, it might be maintained that the protective
+benefit derived from the imparting of the elements of education is so
+great to all that its cost may legitimately be laid upon the community
+in its corporate capacity. It is on this ground of education being
+beneficial to the whole society that Adam Smith declares that the
+expense of the institutions for education may, without injustice, be
+defrayed by the general contributions of the whole society. But at the
+same time Adam Smith recognises that education provides an immediate and
+personal benefit, and that the expense might with equal propriety be
+laid upon the shoulders of those benefited.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, it may be maintained that the imposition of school
+fees created such a hindrance in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> large number of cases to the
+fulfilment of the moral obligation that it was expedient on the part of
+the State to remove this obstacle by freeing education as a whole. In
+support of this, it might be further urged that the difficulty of
+discriminating between the marginal cases in which the imposition of
+school fees really proved a hindrance and those in which it did not is
+great, and that the partial relief of payment of school fees laid the
+stigma of pauperism upon many who from unpreventable causes were unable
+to meet the direct cost of the education of their children.</p>
+
+<p>But, except on the grounds that either the protective benefit to society
+is so great and so important, or that the charging of any part of the
+cost directly to the parent imposes a hindrance in a large number of
+cases, there is no justification for the contention that because the
+State compels the individual to educate his children, therefore the
+State should fully provide the means.</p>
+
+<p>If this be so, then the further contention that the means of education
+from the elementary to the university stage should be provided at the
+public expense, and that no part of the cost should be laid directly
+upon the individual parent's shoulders, must also be judged to be
+erroneous.</p>
+
+<p>The first duty of the State, in the matter of the provision of higher
+education, is limited to seeing that the provision of the means of
+higher education is adequate to the demand made for it; further, it may
+endeavour to encourage and to stimulate this demand in various ways. The
+means being provided, the second duty of the State is to endeavour to
+secure that any hindrance which might reasonably prevent the use of
+these means by those fitted to benefit therefrom should be removed. But
+the only justification for the interference of the State is that the
+compulsion exacted in the matter of taxes or otherwise is of small
+moment compared with the capacity for freedom and intellectual
+development set free in the individuals benefited. In other words, the
+cost involved by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> removal of the hindrance must be reckoned as small
+compared with the ultimate good to the community as manifested in the
+higher development&mdash;in the higher welfare of its individual members.</p>
+
+<p>But the practical realisation of the ideal need not involve that
+education should be free from the lowest to the topmost rung of the
+so-called educational ladder. It is indeed questionable whether the
+ladder simile has not been a potent instrument in giving a wrong
+direction to our ideals of the essential nature of what an educational
+organisation should aim at. Education should indeed provide a system of
+advancing means, but the system of means may lead to many and various
+aims instead of one. However that may be, what we wish to insist upon is
+that the State's duty in this matter can be fulfilled not by freeing
+education as a whole, but by establishing a system of bursaries or
+allowances, enabling each individual who otherwise would be hindered
+from using the means to take advantage of the higher education provided.</p>
+
+<p>In the awarding of aid of this nature, the two tests of ability to
+profit from the education and of need of material means must both be
+employed. If the former test only is applied, then the result is that in
+many cases the advantage is secured by those best able to pay for higher
+education. If the objection be made that the granting of aid on mere
+need shown is to place the stigma of pauperism upon the recipient, then
+the only answer is that in so thinking the individual misconceives the
+real nature of the aid, fails to understand that it is help towards
+doing without help&mdash;aid to enable the individual to reach a higher and
+fuller development of his powers, both for his own future welfare and
+for the betterment of society.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>National Education and National Life</i>, ibid. p. 101.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Hobbes, <i>Leviathan</i>, p. 1. chap. xiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Adam Smith, <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, ed. J. Shield Nicholson
+(Nelsons).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;MEDICAL EXAMINATION AND
+INSPECTION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN</h3>
+
+<p>In considering the question of the relation of the State to education,
+we have adopted the position that it is the duty of the State to see to
+the adequate provision of the means of education, to their due
+distribution and to their proper organisation. At the same time we found
+that the obligation of the State in this respect did not necessarily
+involve that the whole cost of this provision should be borne at the
+public expense, and that no part of the burden should be placed on the
+shoulders of the individual parents. As regards the provision of
+elementary education, we indeed found that the whole burden might be
+legitimately laid upon the general taxpayer, upon the grounds either
+that the protective benefit of elementary education to the community was
+great, or that the hindrance opposed by the imposition of school fees to
+the fulfilment of a man's moral obligation to provide for the education
+of his children was so general that a case might be made out for freeing
+elementary education as a whole. But except from the position that the
+provision of education was a communal and not a personal obligation, we
+found no grounds for the contention that education throughout its
+various stages should be a charge upon the community as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>But the provision of the means of education may involve much more than
+the mere provision of adequately equipped school buildings and of fully
+trained teachers, and we have now to inquire what other provision is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+necessary in order to secure the after social efficiency of the children
+of the nation, and what part of this provision rightly may be included
+within the scope of the duties of the State.</p>
+
+<p>Is the medical inspection of children attending Public Elementary
+Schools one of these duties, and, if so, what action on the part of the
+State does this involve?</p>
+
+<p>The importance of the thorough and systematic medical examination of
+children attending school as a necessary measure to secure their after
+physical and economic efficiency as well as for their intellectual
+development and welfare during the school period has been recognised by
+many Continental countries. To take but one or two illustrative
+examples, we may note that in Brussels every place of public instruction
+is visited at least once in every ten weeks by one of the sixteen
+doctors appointed for this purpose. The school doctor amongst other
+duties has to report on the state of the various classrooms, their
+heating, lighting and ventilation, and also upon the condition in which
+he has found the playgrounds, lavatories and cloakrooms attached to the
+school. Cases of illness involving temporary absence from school are
+reported to him as well as the cases involving prolonged absence from
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Children are medically examined upon admission to school, and a record
+is made of their age, height, weight, chest measurement, etc. "Any
+natural or accidental infirmity is chronicled, state of eyes and teeth,
+dental operations performed at school, etc. This examination is repeated
+annually, so as to keep a record of each child's physical development."
+Great attention, moreover, is paid to the cleanliness of the children
+attending school, and the children are examined daily by the teacher
+upon their entrance to school.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>In most of the large towns of Germany a system of periodical medical
+examination and inspection of children attending school has also been
+established. <i>E.g.</i>, in 1901<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> Berlin appointed ten doctors for this
+purpose, with the following amongst other duties:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1. To examine children on their first admission as to their fitness
+to attend school.</p>
+
+<p>2. To examine children with the co-operation of a specialist for
+the presence of defect in the particular sense organs (sight,
+hearing).</p>
+
+<p>3. To examine children who are supposed to be defective and who may
+require special treatment.</p>
+
+<p>4. To examine periodically the school buildings and arrangements
+and to report on any hygienic defects.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In England, although there is no specific provision for the incurring of
+the expense of conducting the medical inspection of children attending
+the Public Elementary Schools, it is generally held that the expense may
+be legitimately included in the general powers assigned to educational
+authorities under the Act of 1870; and, especially since 1892, in
+several areas, a definite system of medical inspection has been
+established, and in many others there is a likelihood that some system
+of medical inspection will be organised in the immediate future.
+According to the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on the
+Medical Inspection and Feeding of School Children, published in November
+1905, out of 328 local education authorities, 48 had established a more
+or less definitely organised system of medical examination, whilst in
+eighteen other districts teachers and sanitary officers had undertaken
+organised work for the amelioration of the physical condition of
+children attending Public Elementary Schools. As a rule, this inspection
+is limited "to the examination of the children and to the discovering of
+defects of eyesight, hearing, or physical development." When the
+existence of the defect is discovered, the parent is notified, but as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+general rule the public authority does not include within its duties the
+treatment of the ailments and defects or the provision of remedial
+instruments when required.</p>
+
+<p>Further, in no case has there been carried out a thorough anthropometric
+record, such as that in vogue in the schools of Brussels, of the
+condition of the physical nature of the child upon admission to school
+and his subsequent physical development.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland we find no general or adequate system of medical inspection
+carried out by the local school authorities. The Report of the Royal
+Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), issued in March 1903,
+declares, however, that such a system is urgently needed, mainly for
+remedial purposes. By this means defects in the organs of sight or
+hearing, in mental development, in physical weakness, or in state of
+nutrition, such as demand special treatment in connection with school
+work, might be detected, and by simple means removed or mitigated. But
+although in the Education (Scotland) Bill of 1905 provision was made for
+the institution of medical inspection at the public expense, yet through
+the failure of the Bill to pass nothing of a systematic nature has been
+done to organise the medical inspection of Elementary School children in
+any district in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>From this brief account of what either has been already done or is
+proposed to be done, it is apparent that there is a gradual awakening of
+the nation to the fact that the care of the physical nature of the child
+during the school period is of fundamental importance from the point of
+view of the future welfare and efficiency of the nation. In the
+endeavour to reach this aim it is necessary that the examination of the
+child should be undertaken in a systematic manner, and that means should
+be adopted for the remedy of any defects. In particular every child on
+admission to school should be examined in order to discover whether
+there is any defect present in the special organs of sense,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and
+periodical examinations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> should be made in order to discover whether the
+school work is tending to produce any injury to the various senses. For
+it is a well-known fact that often cases of seeming stupidity and
+seeming carelessness are not due either to the want of intelligence on
+the one hand or of inattention on the other, on the part of the child,
+but may be traced to slight defects of eyesight and of hearing. In order
+that they may discover these defects teachers ought to be trained in the
+observation of the main symptoms which imply defects, and should be
+practised in the art of applying the simpler and more obvious remedies
+for eye and ear defects. More difficult cases should be referred to the
+medical officer of the school. Again, it ought to be a matter of inquiry
+at the beginning of the school period as to whether the child possesses
+any physical defect which would make it difficult for him to undertake
+the full work of the school. In some cases it would be found that the
+child was altogether unable to undertake this work, and measures should
+be taken to remedy the defect before the child enters upon the school
+course. Lastly, it is now realised that more attention must be paid to
+the differences that exist between individual children, and that in the
+case of children with a low degree of intelligence it is much better
+both for themselves and for the school generally to institute special
+classes or special schools for their education.</p>
+
+<p>But in order that this medical examination may be thoroughly and
+systematically carried out, special legislative authority must be given
+to education authorities to incur expense under this head, and
+regulations must be laid down by the central authority for the carrying
+out of this inspection so as to secure something like a uniform system
+of examination throughout the country. For this purpose there should be
+attached to each school area a medical officer, or officers, charged
+with the sole duty of attending to the hygienic conditions under which
+the school work is carried on, and of periodically examining the
+children attending the schools of his district.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p><p>That the duty of carrying out the medical examination of school
+children falls upon the State and should be met out of public funds may
+be justified on various grounds. In the first place, it is necessary as
+a measure of protection, in order to prevent the child's growing up
+imperfectly, and thus becoming in adult life a less efficient member of
+society. School work often accentuates certain troubles, and these if
+neglected tend gradually to render the individual more and more unfitted
+to undertake some special occupation in after-life. Any eye specialist
+could furnish evidence of numerous cases in which the eyes have been
+ruined through some slight defect becoming intensified through misuse.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, the examination for physical and mental defect
+cannot in a large number of cases be left to the self-interest and
+judgment of the individual parent, and unless undertaken by the public
+authority will not be undertaken at all.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, if it is left to merely voluntary agencies, it is
+imperfectly done, and in many cases recourse is had to the various
+voluntary agencies when the trouble has become acute, and in some cases
+impossible of remedy.</p>
+
+<p>On these three grounds&mdash;of its necessity for the future public welfare,
+that the self-interest of the parent often proves but a feeble motive
+power, and that the voluntary agencies placed at the disposal of the
+poor are unable systematically to undertake this work&mdash;we may maintain
+that the duty may legitimately be laid upon the State.</p>
+
+<p>But the further question as to how far it becomes the duty of the State
+to undertake the provision of remedial measures either in the way of
+supplying medical aid or in the provision in necessitous cases of
+remedial measures, as <i>e.g.</i> spectacles in the case of defective
+eyesight, is a question of much greater difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>At present any positive help of this nature is the exception rather than
+the rule, and is undertaken by agencies worked on the voluntary
+principle, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> remedial measures adopted are limited to the
+treatment of certain minor ailments. <i>E.g.</i>, in Liverpool, Birmingham,
+and other places, Queen's nurses regularly visit the schools, and
+undertake either in school or at the homes of the children simple
+curative treatment of minor surgical cases. But while it may be held
+that the duty of the State is limited to the medical examination of
+school children in order to discover the presence of physical and mental
+defects, and that this being done, any further responsibility, whether
+in the way either of providing or procuring remedies, falls upon the
+individual parent, yet we have sufficient evidence to show that, in many
+cases, either through the poverty or the apathy and indifference of the
+parents, no steps are taken in the way of providing the necessary
+remedies, and as a consequence we have growing up in our midst children
+who in after-life will, through the lack of simple curative treatment
+undertaken at the proper time, become more or less socially inefficient.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it is to be noted that in this matter the State has already
+recognised its public obligation to provide remedial aid in its
+provision for the education and lodging of the blind, the deaf and the
+dumb, and in the measures taken within recent years for the special
+education of the defective and the epileptic. The provision for these
+purposes may indeed be justified on the grounds that the expense of the
+education of children of the industrial classes so afflicted is beyond
+the powers of any one individual, or group of individuals, to supply,
+and that unless undertaken by the State it would not be efficiently
+made, with the consequence of throwing the maintenance hereafter of
+these particular classes upon the community: on the ground, therefore,
+of the future protective benefit to society, such expense may be
+legitimately laid upon the community as a whole. Further, in these
+cases, the danger of the weakening of the sense of parental
+responsibility is not an extreme danger to the Commonwealth, since the
+aid is definitely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> limited to a restricted number of cases, and since
+the moral obligation imposed upon the individual to provide for the
+education of his children could in many cases not be fulfilled without
+the by far greater portion of the expense being provided by means of
+public or voluntary aid.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, the expense of the special education of the morally
+defective in Industrial Schools and in other institutions may be
+justified on the ground of the present and future protective benefit to
+society. In these cases parental government has either altogether ceased
+or become too weak to act as an effective restraining force, and as a
+consequence the community for its own self-preservation has to undertake
+the control and education of the actual or incipient youthful criminal.
+In their Report the Royal Commissioners on Physical Training (Scotland)
+sadly declare that Industrial and similar institutions certainly give
+the boys and girls who come under their influence advantages in feeding
+and physical training which are not open to the children of independent
+and respectable though poor parents. <i>The contrast between the condition
+of children as seen in the poorer day schools and children in Industrial
+institutions, whose parents have altogether failed to do their duty, is
+both marked and painful.</i><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>And yet it might be urged that the protective benefit likely to be
+derived in the future by the provision of remedial means for the removal
+of the simpler defects in the case of the children of parents unable
+without great difficulty to supply these themselves is no less evident
+than in the more extreme cases. But here the only sound principle of
+guidance is to ask whether the remedial measures required are reasonably
+within the power of the parent to provide. If they are not, no community
+which exercises a wise forethought will suffer children to grow up
+gradually becoming more and more defective, more and more likely in
+after-life to be a burden upon its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> resources. But this question of the
+provision of remedial aid involves a much larger question, which we
+shall now discuss.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></h3>
+
+<p>As showing the need for the systematic examination of the special sense
+organs, I append a summary of the results arrived at and the conclusions
+reached by Dr. Wright Thomson after examination of the eyesight of
+children attending the Public Elementary Schools under the Glasgow
+School Board:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The teachers tested the visual acuteness of 52,493 children, and
+found 18,565, or 35 per cent., to be below what is regarded as the
+normal standard.</p>
+
+<p>"I examined the 18,565 defectives by retinoscopy, and found that
+11,209, or 21 per cent. of the whole, had ocular defects.</p>
+
+<p>"The percentage with ocular defects was fairly constant in all the
+schools, but the percentage with defective vision was very
+variable&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, many children with normal eyes were found to see
+badly.</p>
+
+<p>"The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor and
+closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest in the
+better class schools and in those near the outskirts of the city.</p>
+
+<p>"The proportion of such cases in the country schools of Chryston
+and Cumbernauld was much lower than in any of the city schools; and
+in Industrial Schools, where the children are fed at school, the
+proportion was lower than among Board School children of a
+corresponding social class.</p>
+
+<p>"Defective vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be due,
+partly to want of training of the eyes for distant objects, and
+partly to exhaustion of the eyes, which is easily induced when work
+is carried on in bad light, or the nutrition of the children
+defective from bad feeding and unhealthy surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>"Regarding training of the eyes for distant objects,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> much might be
+done in the infant department by the total abolition of sewing,
+which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and the
+substitution of competitive games involving the recognition of
+small objects at a distance of 20 feet or more.</p>
+
+<p>"Teachers can determine the visual acuteness, but they cannot
+decide whether or not an ocular defect is present.</p>
+
+<p>"Visual acuteness, especially among poor children, is variable at
+different times.</p>
+
+<p>"Teachers should have access to sight-testing materials at all
+times, and should have the opportunity of referring suspected cases
+for medical opinion.</p>
+
+<p>"An annual testing by the teachers, followed by medical inspection
+of the children found defective, would soon cause all existing
+defects to be corrected, and would lead to the detection of those
+which develop during school life."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>An examination of 502 children attending the Church of Scotland Training
+College School, Glasgow, as regards defects in eyesight and hearing, was
+made by Drs. Rowan and Fullerton respectively, with the following
+results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"As regards eyesight&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"61.55 per cent. were passed as normal, while of those defective
+7.57 were aware of the fact; some few of these had already received
+treatment, but 30.88 were quite unaware that there was anything
+wrong, these unfortunates being expected to do the same work as,
+and hold their own with, their more fortunate classmates.</p>
+
+<p>"As regards hearing&mdash;<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 54.4 per cent. were found normal.<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 27.6&nbsp; &nbsp;"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;were defective.<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 18. &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;were distinctly defective."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>I append the very valuable suggestions and conclusions of Dr.
+Rowan, who conducted the examination on the eyesight of children:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"After examining 502 children, which involved the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> examination of
+1004 eyes, one is forced to certain conclusions. These children are
+taken at random, and in this way they may be considered as a fair
+sample of their age and class.</p>
+
+<p>"I think one of the first things that force themselves on our
+notice is the difficulties under which many of those children
+labour, and of which they, their parents and teachers are quite
+unaware. The children are considered dull, careless, or lazy, as
+the case may be: they themselves, poor unfortunates, do not know
+how to complain, and seem just to struggle along as best they can,
+though this struggle, without adequate result, must discourage
+them, and in this indirect way, too, make their future prospects
+more hopeless.</p>
+
+<p>"Some would be considerably benefited by treatment and operation,
+or both, while for some little can be done. Some of those who could
+be benefited are deprived of help by their parents' ignorance or
+prejudice.</p>
+
+<p>"In the case of those for whom little or nothing can be done, and
+whose sight is very defective, it seems to me the question ought to
+be raised as to whether their present mode of education should not
+be replaced by some other, which would endeavour to develop their
+abilities in other ways than through their eyesight; in short, they
+should have special training with the view of fitting them for some
+form of employment for which they are more fitted than the ordinary
+occupations of everyday life. This raises a difficult question, and
+each case would have to be settled on its merits. The difficulty
+must be faced; otherwise the children will simply drift and become
+idle and useless, while, if educated, at any rate partly, on the
+system for the blind, they would become useful members of society.</p>
+
+<p>"I think no one, after studying the result of this examination of
+what may be by some considered a small number of children, can
+doubt that a thorough medical examination of all school children
+should be made when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> they enter school, and this examination
+repeated at regular intervals.</p>
+
+<p>"I hold this applies not only to the children of the poor, but to
+children in all ranks of life, as one constantly, and that, too, in
+private practice, meets with cases where children are considered
+dull and lazy, while the real fault lies with the parents, who have
+not taken the trouble to ascertain the physical fitness or
+unfitness of their children.</p>
+
+<p>"I am glad to say it is now becoming more common for children to be
+taken to the family doctor, to a specialist, or to both, to be
+thoroughly overhauled before starting school-life; and in many
+cases with most satisfactory results, as their training can be
+modified or treatment ordered which prevents the development of
+those pathological conditions which, in many cases, would limit the
+choice of occupation, or, if these are already present, they can at
+least be modified or even overcome.</p>
+
+<p>"I wish to emphasise the fact that those thorough medical
+examinations should be repeated in the case of all children at
+regular intervals, as in this way alone can a proper physical
+standard be maintained, and deviations from the normal detected
+promptly and in many cases cured before the sufferer is aware of
+their presence.</p>
+
+<p>"How often in examining our adult patients do we find them much
+surprised when they are told and convinced by actual proof that all
+their life they have depended on one eye only! This fact, of
+course, they sometimes accidentally discover for themselves, and
+come with the statement that the eye has suddenly gone blind. In
+the majority of these cases the weaker eye is useless, and the
+possibility of making it of any use is, at their age, practically
+<i>nil</i>."</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Cf. <i>Special Report on Educational Subjects</i>, vol. ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Cf. <i>Report on Elementary Schools of Berlin and
+Charlottenburg</i>, by G. Andrew, Esq.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Cf. Appendix, pp. <a href="#Page_62">62-65</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Report Royal Commission on Physical Training</i>
+(<i>Scotland</i>), vol. i. (Neill &amp; Co,. Edinburgh).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION&mdash;THE FEEDING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN</h3>
+
+<p>A much more important and far-reaching question than that of the State
+provision for the medical examination and inspection of children
+attending Public Elementary Schools is the question of whether, and to
+what extent, the State should undertake the provision of school meals
+for underfed children.</p>
+
+<p>Of the existence of the evil of under and improper feeding of children,
+especially in many of our large towns, there is no doubt. The numerous
+voluntary agencies which have been brought into existence to cope with
+the former are sufficient evidence that the evil exists and that it is
+of a widespread nature. Again, the high rate of infant mortality amongst
+the children of the lower classes is largely due to ignorance on the
+part of parents of the nature and proper preparation of food suitable
+for children. Further, the social conditions under which many of the
+poor live in our large towns is a contributing cause of this improper
+feeding. In many cases there is no adequate provision in the home for
+the cooking and preparation of food, and in others the absence of the
+mother at work during the day necessitates the children "fending" for
+themselves in the providing of their meals. However, in considering this
+question we must carefully distinguish between three distinct causes
+operating to produce the condition of underfeeding, and as a consequence
+resulting in three distinct classes of underfed children. As the causes
+or groups of causes are different in nature,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> so the remedies also vary
+in character. Moreover, in many cases we find all three causes
+operating, now one and now the other, to produce the chronic
+underfeeding of the child.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the underfeeding of the child may arise through the
+temporary poverty of the parent due to his temporary illness or
+temporary unemployment. In normal circumstances, in these cases relief
+is best afforded by means of the voluntary agencies of society. In
+abnormal circumstances, such as are caused by a widespread depression of
+industry, the evil may be met by a special effort on the part of the
+voluntary agencies or by municipalities or other bodies providing
+temporary relief-work.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, the underfeeding of the child may be due to the
+chronic and permanent poverty of the parent. The wages of the
+breadwinner even when in full work may be insufficient to afford
+adequate support for a numerous family. This condition of things is not
+peculiar to Great Britain, but is a common characteristic in the life of
+the poor of all civilised nations. This is where the real sting of the
+problem of underfeeding lies, and the causes at work tending to produce
+this condition of things are too deep-seated and too widely spread to be
+removed by any one remedy. Moreover, in endeavouring to cure this
+disease of the Commonwealth we are ever in danger of perpetuating and
+intensifying the causes at work tending to produce the evil.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, the underfeeding of the child may arise through the
+indifference, the selfishness, or the vice of the parents. In such cases
+the parents could feed their children, but do not. Manifestly in cases
+of this character there is no obligation placed upon the State and no
+rightful claim upon any charitable agency to provide food for the
+children. To give aid simply weakens further the parental sense of
+responsibility, and leaves a wider margin to be spent on vicious
+pleasures. But while there is no obligation placed upon the State to
+provide the necessaries of life for the child, there is need and
+justification in such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> cases for the intervention of the State. There is
+need, for otherwise the child suffers through the criminal neglect of
+the parents, and the community must interfere for the sake of the future
+social efficiency of the individual and of the nation. There is
+justification, for here as in the case of the parents of the morally
+defective, parental responsibility has either ceased to act or become
+too weak a motive force to be effective in securing the welfare of the
+child. As the individual parent neglects his duty, so and to the
+corresponding degree to which this neglect extends, must the duty be
+enforced by the State. But in the enforcing of this or of any duty we
+must be quite sure that the neglect is really due to the weakened sense
+of responsibility of the parent, that it is a condition of things which
+he could remove if he had the moral will to do so, and that the neglect
+is not due to causes beyond the power of the parent to remove.</p>
+
+<p>Cases in which there is culpable neglect of the child due not to
+poverty, but to the fact that the money which should go to the proper
+nutrition of the child is squandered in drink, or on other enervating
+pleasures, are therefore cases in which recourse must be had to measures
+which enforce upon the parent the obligation to feed and clothe his
+children. The really difficult question is as to the best means of
+enforcing this obligation. Manifestly to punish by fine or imprisonment
+does little in many cases to alleviate the sufferings of the children.
+The punishment falls upon them as well as upon the parent, and where the
+latter is dead to, or careless of, the public opinion of his fellows, it
+fails to initiate that reform of conduct which ought to be the aim of
+all punishment. If indeed by imposition of fine, or by imprisonment, the
+individual realises his neglect of duty, repents, and as a consequence
+reforms, then good and well, but as a rule the neglect of the child is
+in such cases a moral disease of long standing and not easily cured, and
+so we find often that neither punishment by fine nor imprisonment, even
+when repeated several times, is effective in making the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> parent realise
+his responsibility and reform his conduct. All the while the child goes
+on suffering. He is no better fed during the period of fine or
+imprisonment, and the wrath of the parent is often visited upon his
+unoffending head.</p>
+
+<p>The second method of cure proposed is to feed the children at the public
+expense and to recover the cost by process of law. But the practical
+difficulties in carrying out this plan are similar in kind to those
+formerly experienced in the recovery of unpaid school fees. The cost of
+recovering is often greater than the expense involved, and as a
+consequence local authorities are not inclined to prosecute. Further,
+there is the difficulty of discriminating between underfeeding due to
+wilful and culpable neglect and underfeeding due to the actual chronic
+poverty of the parent. If this plan is to be effective, some simpler
+method of recovery of cost than that which now prevails must be adopted.
+<i>E.g.</i>, it might be enacted that the sum decreed for should be deducted
+from the weekly wages of the parent by his employer. Here again many
+difficulties would present themselves in the carrying out of this plan.
+In the case of certain employments this could not be done. In other
+cases, employers would be unwilling to undertake the invidious task.
+Moreover, the cost of collection might equal or be greater than the cost
+incurred. Above all, such a method would do little to alleviate the
+sufferings and better the nutrition of the child. In most cases the
+school provides but one meal a day. Experience has shown that in the
+case of children of the dissolute the free meal at the school means less
+food at home. Were the cost deducted from the weekly wages of the
+parent, the result would be intensified. So great have been the
+difficulties felt in this matter that with one or two exceptions no
+foreign country has made the attempt to recover the cost of feeding from
+the parent. Yet the disease requires a remedy. The evil is too dangerous
+to the future social welfare of the community to be allowed to go on
+unchecked and unremedied. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>Moreover, to endeavour to educate the
+persistently underfed children of our slums is to do them a twofold
+injury. By the exercises of the school we use up, in many cases, with
+little result, the small store of energy lodged in the brain and nervous
+system of the child, and leave nothing either for the repair of the
+nervous system or for the growth of his body generally. We prematurely
+exhaust his nervous system, and by so doing we hinder his bodily growth
+and development. To make matters worse, we often insist that the child
+in order to aid his physical development must undergo an exhausting
+system of physical exercises when what is most wanted for this purpose
+is good and nourishing food and a sufficiency of sleep. At the same time
+that we are neglecting the nutrition of his body we are spending an
+increasing yearly sum on the so-called education of his mind. What,
+then, is the remedy? If fining and imprisonment of the parent only
+accentuate the sufferings of the child, if they fail to make the parent
+realise his responsibility and reform his conduct, if the provision of a
+free meal at school means less food at home, then there is only one
+thorough-going remedy for the evil, and that is to take the child away
+from the parent, to educate and feed him at the public expense, and to
+recover the cost as far as possible from the parent. In Norway this
+drastic method has been adopted. Under a law passed on the 6th January
+1896, the authorities are empowered "to place neglected children in
+suitable homes or families at the cost of the municipality, the parent,
+however, being liable, if called upon, to defray the cost."<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>The reasons for taking this extreme step are obvious. By no method of
+punishing the persistently dissolute and neglectful parent can you be
+assured of securing the proper nutrition and welfare of the child.
+Parental affection in these cases is dead, and parental responsibility
+for the present and future welfare of the child has ceased<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> to act as a
+motive force. As a consequence, the child grows up to be, at best,
+socially inefficient, and liable in later life to be a burden upon the
+community. In many cases, the evil and sordid influences of his home and
+social environment soon check any springs of good in his nature, and
+more than likely he becomes in later life not merely a socially
+inefficient member of the community but an active socially destructive
+agent. Hence, on the ground of the future protective benefit to society,
+on the ground of securing the future social efficiency of the
+individual, on the ground that it is only by some such system we can
+ever hope to raise the moral efficiency of the rising generation of the
+slums, the method above advocated is worthy of consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Against the adoption of such a method of treatment of the dissolute
+parent many objections may be urged, and it would be foolish to minimise
+the dangers which might follow its systematic and thorough carrying into
+practice. But the possible injury to the community through the weakening
+of the sense of parental responsibility seems to me small in comparison
+with the future good likely to result from the increased physical,
+economic, and ethical efficiency of the next generation which might
+reasonably be expected to follow from the rigorous carrying out of such
+a plan for a time. The fear lest a larger and larger number of parents
+might endeavour to rid themselves of the direct care of their children,
+if this plan were adopted, need not deter us. If this plan were carried
+into practice, then some extension of the scope of the Industrial Acts
+would be rendered necessary, and some such extension seems to have been
+in the minds of the Select Committee in their Report on the Education
+(Provision of Meals) Bill, 1906, in considering their
+recommendations.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the importance of the two classes of cases already considered sinks
+into comparative insignificance compared with the third class of cases.
+Temporary underfeeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> caused by temporary poverty can be met in many
+ways without to any appreciable degree lessening the sense of the moral
+obligation of the parent to provide the personal necessities of food and
+clothing for his children. In the case, again, of the persistently
+dissolute and neglectful parent, moral considerations have ceased to
+operate, and so the individual by some method or other must be forced to
+perform whatever part of the obligation can be exacted from him.</p>
+
+<p>But in the third class of cases parental responsibility may be an active
+and willing force, yet the means available may be so limited in extent
+that the child is in the chronic condition of being underfed. No one who
+carefully considers the information recently supplied by the Board of
+Education as to the methods of feeding the children attending Public
+Elementary Schools in the great Continental cities and in America can
+arrive at any other conclusion than that here we are in the presence of
+an evil not local but general, and apparently incidental to the
+organisation of the modern industrial State. For whether by voluntary
+agencies, by municipal grants, or by State aid, every great Continental
+city has found it necessary to organise and institute some system of
+feeding school children.</p>
+
+<p>The only inference to be drawn from such a condition of things is that
+in a large number of cases the normal wages of the labourer are
+insufficient to maintain himself and his family in anything like a
+decent standard of comfort. How large a proportion of the population of
+our great cities is in this condition it is difficult exactly to
+estimate, but there is no doubt that a very considerable number of cases
+of the chronic underfeeding of school children may be traced to the
+insufficiency of the home income to support the family. The moral
+obligation to provide the personal necessities of food and clothing for
+his children is active, but the means for the realisation of the
+obligation cannot be provided in many cases the endeavour fully to meet
+the needs of the child results<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> in the lessened efficiency of the
+breadwinner of the family.</p>
+
+<p>The real causes at work tending to keep the wages of the unskilled
+labourer ever hovering round a mere subsistence rate must be removed, if
+anything like a permanent cure of this social evil is to be effected. We
+must endeavour on the one hand to lessen the supply of unskilled labour.
+By so doing the reward of such labour will tend to be increased
+materially. On the other hand, we must during the next decade or two
+endeavour by every means in our power to ensure that a larger and larger
+number of the children of the very poor shall in the next generation
+pass into the ranks of skilled labour.</p>
+
+<p>But in the meantime something must be done. The children are there; they
+still suffer; and their wrongs cry aloud for redress. It is certainly
+true that any aid given to the child will tend meanwhile to keep the
+wages at bare subsistence rates. It is also true that the distribution
+of relief only tends to make the poor comfortable in their poverty,
+instead of helping them to rise out of it. All this and much more might
+be urged against the demand to institute and organise the systematic
+public feeding of school children. But these evils are evils which fall
+upon the present adult population. Education has, however, to do with
+the future, with the next generation and not with this. Its aim is to
+secure that as large a number as possible of the children of the present
+generation will grow up to be economically and ethically efficient
+members of the community. To secure this end the problem of underfeeding
+is only one of the problems that must be solved. If we adopt some
+systematic plan for securing the full nutrition of the children of the
+present, this must go hand in hand with other remedies. During the stage
+of transition we shall have to take into account that for a time the
+wages of the poorest class of labourer will tend to remain at their
+present low rate; we shall have to face the danger that by giving such
+aid we may in some cases still further weaken the sense of moral
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>obligation of the parents of the present generation. If, on the other
+hand, we do nothing, or if we look to the present voluntary agencies to
+go on doing what they can to remedy the evil, what then? Will the evil
+be lessened in the next generation? Assuredly not, if the experience of
+the present and of the past are safe guides as to what we may expect in
+the future.</p>
+
+<p>Hence we have no hesitation in urging that the feeding of children
+attending the Public Elementary Schools should be organised on lines
+similar to the recommendations laid down in the <i>Special Report from the
+Special Committee on Education</i> (<i>Provision of Meals</i>) <i>Bill</i>, 1906.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>But if we carry out these recommendations and do nothing else, then it
+may be that we shall partially remedy the evil in the next generation,
+but we shall to a large extent perpetuate the present condition of
+things. Side by side with this, we must institute and set other agencies
+at work. By the institution of Free Kindergarten Schools in the poorer
+districts of our large towns, by postponing the beginning of the formal
+education of the child to a later age, by a scientific course of
+physical education, by better trade and technical schools, and if need
+be by the compulsory attendance of children at evening continuation
+schools, we must bend our every effort to secure that the ranks of the
+casual, the unskilled, and the unemployable shall be lessened, and the
+ranks of the skilled and intelligent worker increased.</p>
+
+<p>As the freeing of elementary education can be justified on the ground
+that the education of the child is necessary for the future protection
+of the State, so on similar grounds it may be urged that the nutrition
+of the child is also necessary. Without this our merely educational
+agencies can never adequately secure the social efficiency of the coming
+generation. At the same time, unless in the future the need for free
+education and free food becomes less and less, and unless by the means
+sketched above we rear up a generation economically and morally
+independent, then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> truly we have not discovered the method by which man
+can be raised to independence and rationality.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></h3>
+
+<p><i>Recommendations of the Select Committee on Education</i> (<i>Provision of
+Meals</i>) <i>Bill</i>, 1906.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The evidence, verbal and documentary, placed before the Committee
+has led them to arrive at the following general conclusions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"1. That it is expedient that the Local Education Authority should
+be empowered to organise and direct the provision of a midday meal
+for children attending Public Elementary Schools, and that
+statutory powers should be given to Local Authorities to establish
+Committees to deal with school canteens.</p>
+
+<p>"2. That such Committees should be composed of representatives of
+the Local Education Authority, representatives of the Voluntary
+Subscribers, and where thought desirable a representative of the
+Board of Guardians, and of the local branch of the Society for the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children, where such exists. That the Head
+Teacher, the School Attendance Officer, and the Relieving Officer
+should work in association with such Committee.</p>
+
+<p>"3. That power should be given for the Local Education Authorities,
+when they deem it desirable, to raise loans and spend money on the
+provision of suitable accommodation and officials, and for the
+preparation, cooking, and serving of meals to the children
+attending Public Elementary Schools.</p>
+
+<p>"4. That only in extreme and exceptional cases, where it can be
+shown that neither the parents' resources nor Local Voluntary Funds
+are sufficient to cover the cost, and after the consent of the
+Board of Education as to the necessity for such expenditure has
+been obtained, a Local Authority may have recourse to the rates for
+the provision<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> of the cost of the actual food; the local rate for
+this purpose to in no case exceed 1/2d. in the &pound;.</p>
+
+<p>"5. That the Local Education Authority should, as far as possible,
+associate with itself, and encourage the continuance of, voluntary
+agencies in connection with the work of feeding of children.</p>
+
+<p>"6. That whatever steps may be necessary, by way of extension of
+the Industrial Schools and the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
+Acts or otherwise, should be taken to secure that parents able to
+do so and neglecting to make proper provision for the feeding of
+their children shall be proceeded against for the recovery of the
+cost; and that the Guardians, or where available the Society for
+the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, and not the Local Education
+Authority, be empowered to prosecute in any cases coming under the
+law in respect to the neglect of parents to make proper provision
+for the feeding of their children.</p>
+
+<p>"7. That payment for meals, prior to the meal, whenever possible,
+should be insisted upon from the parents.</p>
+
+<p>"8. That it is undesirable that meals should be served in rooms
+habitually used for teaching purposes, and that the Regulations of
+the Board of Education should carry this recommendation into
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>"9. That whilst strong testimony has been placed before the
+Committee to the effect that the teachers have given and are giving
+admirable service in the way of supervising the provision of meals
+to the children, it is the opinion of the Committee that it ought
+not to be made part of the conditions attaching to the appointment
+of any teacher that he (or she) shall or shall not take part in
+dispensing meals provided for the children, and that the Board of
+Education should carry this recommendation into effect."</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Cf. Underfed Children in Continental and American Cities
+(presented to Parliament, April 1906).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Cf. <i>Report on Education</i> (<i>Provision of Meals</i>) <i>Bill</i>,
+especially Recommendation 6, Appendix, p. 75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Cf. Appendix, p. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ORGANISATION OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>Throughout we have assumed that it is the duty of the State to see to
+the adequate provision, to the due distribution, and to the proper
+co-ordination of all the agencies of education, and we have taken up
+this position mainly on the ground that neither the adequate provision
+nor the proper co-ordination of the means of education can be safely
+left to the self-interest of the individual or any group of individuals.
+If left to be accomplished by purely voluntary agencies, both the
+provision and the co-ordination will remain imperfect, and as a nation
+we can no longer neglect the systematic organisation and grading of the
+means of education.</p>
+
+<p>But a misapprehension must first be removed. In declaring that all the
+agencies of formal education should be under control of the State, it is
+not to be inferred that this control should be bureaucratic. In many
+minds State control is synonymous with government by inspectors and
+other officials of the central authority. But bureaucratic control in a
+nation whose government is founded on a representative basis is a
+disease rather than a normal condition of such government. In a country
+where the sovereign power is vested in an individual or in a limited
+number of individuals, bureaucratic control is and must be an essential
+feature of its government. On the other hand, where the government is
+founded upon the representative principle, the appearance of bureaucracy
+is an indication of some imperfection in the organisation of the State
+itself. The introduction of the representative<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> principle may have been
+too premature or its extension too rapid, and as a consequence the
+government of the people by themselves is ineffective through the
+general want of an enlightened self-interest amongst the majority of the
+nation. In such a condition of affairs, if progress is to be made, it
+can only be accomplished effectively through an enlightened minority
+forcing its will upon the unenlightened and ignorant majority, and as a
+result we may have the creation of an army of official inspectors whose
+chief duty becomes to secure that the will of the central authority is
+realised. In such a condition of things the tendency ever is for more
+and more power to fall into the hands of the permanent officials.</p>
+
+<p>But this condition of things may arise in a government founded upon the
+representative principle in another way. The organs through which the
+will of the people makes itself known may be imperfect, so that as a
+consequence it fails to find adequate expression, or its expression is
+felt only at infrequent intervals. If, for example, the central
+authority is so overburdened with work that little or insufficient
+attention is given to many matters of supreme importance for the welfare
+of the nation, then it follows that more and more power will pass into
+the hands of its executive and advisory officers. This condition of
+things will be further intensified if the governing bodies charged with
+the local control of national affairs are too weak or too unenlightened
+to make their voice effective. Now, the tendency to the bureaucratic
+control of the educational affairs of our own country may be traced to
+all three causes. The want of an enlightened self-interest in the matter
+of education amongst a large number of the people, the ineffectiveness
+of Parliament to deal thoroughly with purely educational questions, and
+the weakness in many cases of the local governing bodies have all
+contributed to the gradual creation of the bureaucratic control of
+education in Great Britain. But this form of control is not entirely
+evil, and in certain cases it may be a necessary stage in the
+development of a democracy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> passing from unenlightenment to
+enlightenment. The remedies for this imperfection, this disease of
+representative government in the matter of educational control, are (1)
+the spread of a more enlightened self-interest as to the value of
+education as a means of securing the social efficiency of the nation and
+of the individual, (2) the effective control of education by the central
+authority, and (3) the strengthening of the local authorities by
+devolving upon them more and more important educational duties. By this
+means the control of education by the State will become more and more
+the control of the people by themselves and for themselves, and the
+chief function of officials and inspectors will then be to advise
+central and local authorities how best to realise the educational aims
+desired by the common will of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider the main principles which should guide the State in
+her organisation of the means of education.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, and upon this all are agreed, the control of all
+grades of education, primary, secondary, and technical, should be
+entrusted to one body in each area or district. For there can be no
+co-ordination established between the work of the various school
+agencies, and there can be no differentiation of the functions to be
+undertaken by the various types of school, until there has been
+established unity of control.</p>
+
+<p>In England, by the Act of 1902, a great step was taken towards the
+unification of all the agencies of education. According to its
+provisions, the School Board system was abolished. "Every County Council
+and County Borough Council, and the Borough Councils of every non-county
+borough with a population of over 10,000, and the District Council of
+every urban district with a population over 20,000, became the local
+education authority for elementary education, while the County Council
+and the County Borough Council became the authorities for higher
+education, <i>with the supplementary aid of the Councils of all non-county
+boroughs and urban districts</i>." By this means the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> unification of
+educational control has been realised, and already in many districts of
+England much has been done to further the means of higher education and
+to co-ordinate this stage with the preceding primary stage.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland the question of the extension of the area of educational
+control and of the unification of the various agencies directing
+education still awaits solution. Several plans have been put forward to
+effect these ends.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it has been proposed to retain the present parish
+School Boards for the purpose of elementary education, and to combine
+two or more School Boards for the purposes of providing secondary and
+technical education. This plan, however, meets with little favour. It
+would be difficult to carry into practice, and if realised would
+imperfectly fulfil the end of co-ordinating the work of the various
+school agencies. Its only recommendations are its apparent simplicity,
+and the fact that it could be carried out with the least possible change
+in the existing conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, it is proposed to retain the School Board system,
+but to extend the area over which any particular educational authority
+exerts its control, and to place under its direction all grades of
+education. In the practical carrying out of this plan the present
+district areas of counties selected for other purposes have been
+proposed as educational units. On the other hand, it has been declared
+that in many cases these areas are unsuitable for educational purposes,
+and it has been proposed that new areas should be delimited for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The chief merit, if it be a merit, of this plan is the retention in
+educational control of the <i>ad hoc</i> principle&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, of the principle
+of entrusting one single national interest to a body charged with the
+sole duty of conserving and furthering the interest. The only reasons
+advanced are the great importance of the educational interest and the
+fear that if it is entrusted to bodies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> charged with other duties this
+interest may tend to be neglected. But although both sentiment and the
+interests of political parties are involved in the advocacy of the <i>ad
+hoc</i> principle, it must be kept in mind that the School Board system in
+Scotland is universal and that the difficulties of the system which
+prevailed in England before its abolition do not exist in Scotland. As a
+consequence, it has been much more effective in Scotland than in
+England, and has a much firmer hold on the sentiments of the people.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, it has been proposed to hand over the educational
+duties of the country to the County Councils and to the Burgh Councils
+of the more important towns, to adopt, in principle, a system of
+educational control similar to that established in England by the Act of
+1902.</p>
+
+<p>Many reasons may be urged for the adoption of the last-named plan, and
+we shall briefly state the more important.</p>
+
+<p>1. An <i>ad hoc</i> authority by its very nature is necessarily weaker than
+an authority entrusted not merely with the care of a single interest but
+with the care of the public interests as a whole. If there is to be
+decentralisation of any part of the functions of the central authority,
+then any form of decentralisation which consists in the handing over of
+particular interests to different local bodies, however it may be for
+the advantage of the particular interest is radically bad for the
+general interests of the community. The calling into existence of a
+number of local authorities each having the care of one particular
+interest, each pursuing its own aim independently and without
+consideration of the differing and often conflicting aims of the other
+bodies, each having the power of rating for its own particular purpose
+without any regard for the general interest of the taxpayer, is
+radically an unsound form of decentralisation.</p>
+
+<p>2. The establishment of such a form of control fails, and must
+necessarily fail, in the local authorities securing the maximum of
+freedom and the minimum of interference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> from the executive officers of
+the central legislative authority. So long as the separate interests of
+the community are entrusted to different local authorities, so long must
+there remain to the central authority and to its executive officers the
+power of regulating and harmonising the various and often contending
+interests so as to secure that the general interest of the individual
+does not suffer, and the more keenly each particular body furthers the
+particular interest entrusted to its care the greater is the necessity
+for this central control and interference, and that the central control
+should be effective.</p>
+
+<p>3. The separation of the so-called educational interests from the other
+interests of the community is not for the good of education itself. The
+real educational interests which have to be determined by the adult
+portion of the community are the exact nature of the services which a
+nation such as ours requires of its future members. This determined, the
+method of their attainment is best entrusted to the educational expert.
+The first-named end will be better realised by a body composed of men of
+diverse interests than by one which is made up of men with one intense
+but often narrow interest.</p>
+
+<p>4. The larger the powers entrusted to any body and the more freedom
+possessed by it in devising and working out its schemes, the better
+chance there is of attracting the best men in the community to undertake
+the work.</p>
+
+<p>5. It is questionable whether the interests of the teacher would not be
+better furthered by a local authority entrusted with the care of the
+interests of the community as a whole than by a body having charge of
+education alone. Men entrusted with the larger interests of the
+community are usually more ready to take wider views than the man who is
+narrowed down to one interest. As a rule, they know the value of good
+work done, and are ready and willing to pay for it wherever they find
+it.</p>
+
+<p>6. Lastly, we may urge the test of practical experience.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> In England,
+and especially in London, since the control of education has passed into
+the hands of the County Councils a great advance has been made both in
+the furthering and in the co-ordination of the means of education.</p>
+
+<p>Whether ultimately the control of education be vested in District School
+Boards or in the County and Burgh Councils, one reform is urgently
+needed in Scotland, and this is the extension of the area of educational
+control, under a strong local authority, and with the entire control of
+elementary, secondary, and technical education.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, whatever the area of control chosen it should be of
+such a nature as to admit within its bounds of schools of different
+grades and of different types, so that children may pass not only from
+the Elementary School to the Secondary, but may pass to the particular
+type of Secondary or Higher School which is best fitted to prepare them
+for their future life's work. In many cases, in Scotland, we cannot make
+the same clear distinction between the various types of school as they
+do in Germany, but must remain content with the division of a school
+into departments; yet in our large towns and in our most populous
+centres of industry we must establish schools of different types and
+with differing particular ends in view.</p>
+
+<p>The third principle of organisation follows from the second. We must see
+that our educational system is so organised as to provide an efficient
+and sufficient supply of all the services which the community requires
+of its individual members. In particular, our Higher School system must
+be designed not merely for the supply of the so-called learned
+professions, but must also make due and adequate provision for the
+training of those who in after-life are destined for the higher
+industrial and commercial posts. In particular, we must see that there
+is due provision of Trade and Technical Schools, where our future
+artisans may become acquainted with the theoretical principles
+underlying their particular art.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p><p>Fourthly, we must endeavour to make our Elementary School system the
+basis and point of departure of all further and higher education. This
+would not involve that every child should be educated at a Primary and
+State-aided School, but it does mean and would involve that the
+Preparatory departments of our present Secondary Schools should model
+their curriculum on the lines laid down in our Elementary Schools.</p>
+
+<p>Fifthly, in the organisation of the means of education, our system, as
+we have already pointed out, must be democratic in the sense that the
+means of higher education shall be open to all, rich and poor, in order
+that each may be enabled to find and thereafter to fit himself for that
+particular employment for which by nature he is best suited. It must
+further be aristocratic in the sense that it is selective of the best
+ability; and finally, it must be restrictive in order that the means of
+higher education may be utilised to the best advantage, and not misused
+on those who are unfitted to benefit therefrom.</p>
+
+<p>Unity of control; adequacy of area; schools of various types, sufficient
+in number, and suited to meet the need for the supply of the various
+services required by the State; a common basis in elementary education;
+means of higher education open to all who can profit thereby; selection
+of the best; restriction of those unable to benefit from higher
+education&mdash;these are the principles which must in the future guide the
+State organisation of the means of education.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> For a fuller discussion of this question, see <i>Scotch
+Education Reform</i>, by Dr. Douglas and Professor Jones (Maclehose).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE AIM OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>"A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description of a happy
+state in this world. He that has these two has little more to wish for,
+and he that wants either of them will be but little the better for
+anything else."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> In these words Locke sets forth for all time what
+should be aimed at in the physical education of the child, and in the
+light of modern physiological psychology the position must be emphasised
+anew that one of the essential conditions of sound intellectual and
+moral vigour is sound physical health, and that body and mind are not
+things apart, but that the health of the one ever conditions and is
+conditioned by the health of the other.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, at the present time, it is all the more necessary to insist
+upon the need for the systematic care of the physical culture of the
+child, since in many cases the conditions under which the children of
+the poor live in our great towns are most prejudicial to the full and
+free development of the organs of the body. The narrow, overbuilt
+streets in the poorer parts of our towns, the overcrowding of the people
+in tenements, the unhygienic conditions under which the vast majority of
+our very poor live and sleep, are all active forces in preventing the
+full and free development of the physical powers of the child. Thus the
+purely educational problem of how best to promote the physical health
+and development of the child by the systematic exercises of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> the school
+is involved in the much larger and more important social problem of how
+to better the conditions under which the very poor live. The agencies of
+the school can do little permanently to improve the physique of the
+children until, concurrently with the school, society endeavours to
+improve the social conditions under which the poorest of the population
+of our great cities herd together. For a similar reason much of the
+endeavour of the school to found and establish in the child's mind
+interests of social worth is counteracted by the evil influence of its
+home and social environment. If the physical, economic, and ethical
+efficiency of the children of the slums is ever to be secured, if we are
+ever to attain a permanent result, then concurrently with the creation
+of new and higher social interests must go hand in hand changes in the
+social environment of the child. Mere betterment of the physical
+conditions under which our slum population live is of no avail unless at
+the same time we have a corresponding change in the slum mind by the
+rise and prevalence of a higher ideal of the physical and material
+conditions under which their lives ought to be spent.</p>
+
+<p>For experience has shown in many cases that the mere betterment of the
+material conditions under which the poor live without any corresponding
+change of ideals soon results in the re-creation of the miserable
+conditions which formerly prevailed. On the other hand, the mere
+instilling of new ideals into the minds of the rising generation will
+effect little, if during the greater part of the school period and
+altogether afterwards we leave the child to overcome the evil influences
+of his environment as best he may. The ideals of the school are too
+weak, too feebly established, to prevail against the ever present and
+ever potent influences of the environment unless side by side with the
+rise of the new ideals we at the same time endeavour to lessen, if we
+cannot altogether remove, the obstacles which prevent their realisation
+and prevalence. This problem of how to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> raise by education and by means
+of the other social agencies at work the children of the slums to a
+higher ideal of life and conduct and to secure their future social
+efficiency is the most urgent problem of our day and generation. Mere
+school reforms in physical and intellectual education will effect little
+unless the other aspects of the problem are attacked at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>Further, our school system, which requires that the child should
+restrain his instinctive tendencies to action, and for certain hours
+each day assume a more or less passive and cramped attitude, is also
+prejudicial to the development and free play of the organs of the body
+which have entrusted to them the discharge of certain functional
+activities.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the evil effects of the school itself must be removed or remedied
+by some means having as their aim the increased functional activity of
+the respiratory and circulatory systems of the body. And therefore the
+aim of any system of physical exercises should be not merely increase of
+bone and development of muscle but also the sustaining and improving of
+the bodily health of the child by "expanding the lungs, quickening the
+circulation, and shaking the viscera." This, as we shall see later, is
+not the only aim of physical education. It may further aid in mental
+growth and development, and be instrumental in the production of certain
+mental and moral qualities of value both to the individual and to the
+community.</p>
+
+<p>Another cause operating in the school to prevent the full and free
+development of the body is the method of much of the teaching which
+prevails. A quite unnecessary strain is often put upon the nervous
+system of the child, and as a consequence a lassitude of body results
+which physical exercise not only does not tend to remove but actually
+tends to increase. Methods of teaching which fail to arouse any inherent
+interest in the attainment of an end of felt value to the child require
+for the evoking and maintaining of his active attention the operation of
+some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> powerful indirect interest, and if persisted in, such methods soon
+result in the overworking and exhaustion of some one particular system
+of nervous centres, and in the depletion through non-nutrition of other
+centres. As a consequence, the child is unable to take any part in
+physical exercises or in school games with profit to himself. He is
+content to loaf and do as little as he can. The evil is further
+intensified if there is also present under or improper nutrition of the
+child.</p>
+
+<p>Thus along with our schemes for the physical education of the child we
+must endeavour to improve the methods of our teachers, to make them
+understand that experiences acquired through the arousing of the direct
+interest of the child are acquired at the least physiological cost, and
+to make them realise under what conditions this direct interest can be
+aroused and maintained. No one indeed wishes to make everything in the
+school pleasant to the child, or to reduce self-effort to a minimum. But
+effort and interest are not opposed terms. The effort which is evoked in
+the realisation of an interest or end of felt value is the only kind of
+effort which possesses any educational value. The effort which is called
+forth in the finding and establishing of a system of means towards an
+end which the child fails to see, and which, as a consequence, rouses no
+direct interest in its attainment, is an effort which should for ever be
+banished from the schoolroom. Such, <i>e.g.</i>, is the effort evoked in the
+mere cramming of empty lists of words or dates or facts. Little mental
+good results from such a process, and the physiological cost is often
+great.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider the conditions necessary for sound physical health,
+and inquire how far the school agencies can aid in the providing of
+these conditions: they are mainly four in number. In the first place, in
+order to secure the full growth and development of the bodily powers,
+there is needed a sufficiency of food. But mere sufficiency is not
+enough, the food must be varied in quality in order to meet the various
+needs of the body,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> and must be prepared in such a way as to be readily
+assimilated and rendered fit for the nutrition of both body and mind.
+Manifestly the home ought to be the chief agent in providing for this
+need. But, as we have seen in considering the problem of the feeding of
+school children, the home in many cases is unable adequately to provide
+for it, and, for a time at least, some method of public provision of
+good and wholesome food for the children of the poor may be rendered
+necessary. But much of the physical evil results from improper
+nutrition; and here the school agencies may do a great deal in the
+future by furthering the teaching of domestic science to the girls of
+the working classes. Such teaching, however, if it is to be effective,
+must be real and must take into account the actual conditions under
+which their future lives are to be spent. At the present time much of
+the teaching is valueless, through its neglect of the actual income and
+resources of the working man's home.</p>
+
+<p>The second condition necessary for bodily growth and development is a
+sufficiency of pure air. This is necessary, since the oxygen of the air
+is not only the active agent in the maintenance of life, but is also
+requisite for the combustion of the foodstuffs conveyed into the body.
+Much has been done within recent years in our schools to provide
+well-ventilated classrooms and to instruct teachers how to keep the air
+of the school pure. Here again the problem is to a large extent a social
+one, involving the better housing of our great town population.</p>
+
+<p>A third condition necessary for the physical development of the child is
+sleep sufficient in quantity and good in quality. The weak, puny
+children in arms to be seen in our crowded slums owe their condition, in
+many cases, to the want of sound sleep, to the fact that they never are
+allowed to rest, as much as to the under and improper feeding to which
+they are subjected. As we shall see in the <a href="#CHAPTER_X">next chapter</a>, much might be
+done by the establishment of Free Kindergarten Schools in our
+overcrowded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> districts to alleviate the lot and to better the education
+of the very young children of the poor.</p>
+
+<p>But in addition to the three conditions already named, which may be
+classed together as the nutritive factors in bodily growth, there is a
+fourth condition essential for all development, whether bodily or
+mental&mdash;viz., exercise. For "development is produced by exercise of
+function, use of faculty.... If we wish to develop the hand, we must
+exercise the hand. If we wish to develop the body, we must exercise the
+body. If we wish to develop the mind, we must exercise the mind. If we
+wish to develop the whole human being, we must exercise the whole human
+being."<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>But any form of exercise will not do. The exercise which is given must
+be given at the right time, must be in harmony with the nature of the
+organ exercised, and must be proportioned to the strength of the organ,
+if true development is to be attained.</p>
+
+<p>In order to understand this in so far as it bears upon the aims which we
+should set before us in the physical education of the child, it is
+necessary that we should understand what modern physiological psychology
+has to teach us of the nature of the nervous system.</p>
+
+<p>If the reader will look back to an <a href="#CHAPTER_II">earlier chapter</a>,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> he will find
+that education was defined as the process by which experiences are
+acquired and organised in order that they may render the performance of
+future action more efficient, or alternatively it is the process by
+which systems of means are formed, organised, and established for the
+attainment of various ends of felt value. The establishment of these
+systems of means is only possible because in the human infant the
+nervous system is relatively unformed at birth, is relatively plastic,
+and so is capable of being organised in such and such a definite manner.
+On the other hand, in many animals the nervous system of each is
+definitely formed at birth; it is so organised that experience does
+little to add to or aid in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> its further development. Now, while the
+nervous system of the child at birth is not so definitely organised as
+that of many animals, yet on the other hand it is not wholly plastic,
+wholly unformed, so that, as many psychologists and educationalists once
+believed, it can be moulded into any shape we please.</p>
+
+<p>Rather, we have to conceive of the nervous system of the human infant as
+made up of a series of systems at different degrees of development and
+with varying degrees of organisation.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Some centres, as <i>e.g.</i> those
+which have to do with the regulation of certain reflex and automatic
+actions, start at once into full functional activity; others, as <i>e.g.</i>
+those which have to do with purely intellectual functions, are
+relatively unformed and unorganised at birth, and become organised as
+the result of conscious effort, as the result of an educational process,
+as the result of acquiring, organising, and establishing experiences for
+the attainment of ends of acquired value.</p>
+
+<p>Between the systems at the lowest level and those at the highest we have
+centres of varying degrees of organisation at birth. Moreover, these
+centres of the middle level reach their full maturity at different
+rates. The centres, <i>e.g.</i>, which have to do with the co-ordination of
+hand and eye and with the attainment of control over the limbs of the
+body reach their full functional activity before, <i>e.g.</i>, the centres
+having control of the lips and speech. The centres, again, which have to
+do with the co-ordination of the sensory material derived through the
+particular senses are still longer in reaching their full functional
+activity, while the higher intellectual centres may not reach their
+highest power until well on in life. Hence, since education is the
+process of acquiring experiences that shall modify future activity, it
+can do little positively to aid the development of the lowest centres;
+it can do more to modify the development of the middle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> centres; while
+the highest centres of all are in great part organised as the result of
+direct individual experience.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the systems of the lowest level, what we have then to aim at
+is to allow them free room for growth, and to correct as far as possible
+faults due either to the imperfections of nature or to the unnatural
+conditions under which the child lives. So long as these systems are
+provided with nutrition and allowed freedom in performing their
+functions, we are unaware of their existence. We, <i>e.g.</i>, only become
+aware that we possess a circulatory system or a respiratory or a
+digestive system when the functional activity of these organs is
+impeded. The opinion, therefore, that physical exercise has for its
+chief aim the sustaining and improving of the bodily health is no doubt
+true and correct, but it is not the only aim. On this view we are
+considering only the lowest system of centres, and devising means by
+which we may maintain and improve their functional activity. Moreover,
+it is necessary to endeavour to secure the free development of these
+centres and their unimpeded functional activity, because otherwise the
+development of the higher centres is hindered, and the whole nervous
+system rendered unstable and insecure.</p>
+
+<p>But a wise system of physical education must take into account the fact
+that a carefully selected and organised system of exercises can do much
+for the development of the centres of the middle level which have to do
+with the proper co-ordination of various bodily movements. These are
+only partly organised at birth, and education&mdash;the acquiring and
+organising of experiences&mdash;is necessary for their due organisation and
+their adaptation as systems of means for the attainment of definite
+ends. It is for this reason that the beginning of the formal education
+of the child at too early an age is physiologically and psychologically
+erroneous. In doing this we are neglecting the lower centres at the time
+when by nature they are reaching their full functional activity, and
+exercising the higher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> which are at an unripe stage of development.
+Moreover, lower centres not exercised during the period when they are
+attaining their full development never attain the same functional
+development if exercised later. Hence the difficulty of acquiring a
+manual dexterity later in life. Again, it is on this theory of lower and
+higher centres maturing at different rates and attaining their full
+functional activity at different times that we now base our education of
+the mentally defective. We must organise the lower centres; we must
+educate the mentally defective child to get control over these already
+partially organised centres, before we begin to educate the higher and
+less organised centres. Moreover, it is only in so far as we can secure
+this end that we can stably build up and organise the higher centres of
+the nervous system. Hence also such qualities as alertness in receiving
+orders and promptness and accuracy in carrying them out are, at first,
+best learned through the organising and training of the centres of the
+middle level. What we really endeavour to do here is to organise and
+establish systems of means for the attainment of definite ends, which
+through their systematic organisation can be brought into action when
+required promptly and quickly, and once aroused work themselves out with
+a minimum of effort and with a low degree of attention, so that their
+performance involves the least possible physiological cost.</p>
+
+<p>From this the reader will understand that the aim of physical education
+is the aim of all education, viz., to acquire and organise experiences
+that will render future action more efficient.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the early training of the centres of the middle level is
+important for the after technical training of our workmen. The boy or
+girl who has never been educated in early life to co-ordinate and carry
+out bodily movements promptly and accurately is not likely to succeed in
+after-life in any employment which requires the ready and exact
+co-ordination of many movements for the attainment of a definite end.
+The proper physical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> education of the child is therefore necessary for
+the securing of the after economic efficiency of the individual, and it
+can also by the development of certain mental and moral qualities be
+made instrumental in the development of the ethically efficient person.</p>
+
+<p>We must now briefly note two other educational agencies which may be
+employed in the securing of the physical and mental efficiency of the
+child&mdash;play and games. Psychologically, games stand midway between play
+and work. In play we have an inherited system of means evoked into
+activity and carried out to an end for the pure pleasure derived from
+the activity itself. Such systems at first are imperfectly organised,
+but through the experience derived the systems become more and better
+adapted for the attainment of the ends which they are intended to
+realise. In games, on the other hand, the activity is undertaken for an
+end only partially connected with the means by which it is attained,
+whilst in work the means may have no intrinsic connection with the end
+desired. Hence the effort of a disagreeable nature which work often
+evokes.</p>
+
+<p>In animals fully equipped at birth by means of instinct for the
+performance of actions the play-activity is altogether absent. Their
+lives are wholly business-like. On the other hand, in the higher
+animals, whose young have a period of infancy, play is nature's
+instrument of education. By means of it the systems of the middle level
+which form the larger part of the brain equipment of the higher animals
+are gradually organised and fitted for the attainment of the ends which
+in mature life they are intended to realise. Play is their education&mdash;is
+the means by which nature works in order that experiences may be
+acquired and organised that shall render future action more efficient.
+Without this power, "the higher animals could not reach their full
+development; the stimulus necessary for the growth of their bodies and
+minds would be lacking."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p><p>Play also is nature's instrument in the education of the young child.
+The first and most important part of his education is obtained by this
+means, and, on the basis thus laid, must all after-education be built.
+Hence the importance in early life of allowing full freedom for the
+manifestation of this activity. Hence also the very great importance of
+securing that the children of the poor should be provided with the means
+of realising the playful activities of their nature and of being
+stimulated and encouraged to play. Hence one aim of the Kindergarten
+School is to utilise the play-activity of the child in the development
+of his body and mind.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>The third agency which we may employ in developing the physical powers
+of the child is that of games. Games, however, are not merely useful as
+means for the attainment of the physical development of the boy or girl;
+they also may be made instrumental in the creation and fostering of
+certain mental and moral qualities of the greatest after-value to the
+community. No one acquainted with the important part which games perform
+in the life of the Public School boy can doubt their great educational
+value. By means of them the boy acquires experiences which in after-life
+tend to make more efficient certain classes of actions essential for any
+corporate or communal life. In the playing-fields he learns what it is
+to be a member of a corporate body whose good and not the attainment of
+his own private ends must be the first consideration. Through the medium
+of the games of the school he may get to know the meaning of
+self-sacrifice, of working with his fellows for a common end or purpose,
+and of sinking his own individuality for the sake of his side. In
+addition he learns the habits of ready obedience to superior knowledge
+and ability; to submit to discipline; and to undergo fatigue for the
+common good. If found worthy, he may learn how to command as well as to
+obey, to think out means for the attainment of ends, and to know and
+feel that the good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> name of the school rests upon his shoulders. These
+and other qualities similar in character may be created and established
+by means of the games of the school. And just as the utilising of the
+play-instinct is nature's method of education in the fitting of the
+young animal and the young child to adapt itself in the future to its
+physical environment, so we may lay down that the games of the school
+may be largely utilised as society's method of fitting the individual to
+his after social environment, and in training him to understand the true
+meaning and the real purport of corporate life.</p>
+
+<p>On account, however, of the vast size of many of our Public Elementary
+Schools and for other reasons, such as the limited playground
+accommodation in many cases and the want of playing-fields, organised
+games play but a small part in the physical and moral education of the
+children attending such schools. But even here much more might be done
+than is done at present by the teachers in the playground to encourage
+the simpler playground games, and "to replace the disorganised rough and
+tumble exercises which characterise the activities of so many of our
+poorer population by some form of organised activity."<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The aimless
+parading of our streets by the sons and daughters of the working and
+lower middle classes in their leisure time, the rough horseplay of the
+youth of the lowest classes, are due in large measure to the fact that
+during the school period they have not been habituated to take part with
+their fellows in any form of organised activity, have never realised
+what a corporate life means, and as a consequence are devoid of any
+social interests.</p>
+
+<p>One other question must be briefly considered, viz., How far should we
+in the physical education of the youth keep in view the end of securing
+the military efficiency of the nation? As Adam Smith pointed out, the
+defence of any society against the violence and invasion of other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+independent societies is the first duty of the sovereign. "An
+industrious, and upon that account a wealthy nation is of all nations
+the most likely to be attacked, and unless the State takes some measures
+for the public defence, the natural habits of the people render them
+altogether incapable of defending themselves."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> He further asserts
+that "even though the martial spirit of the people were of no use
+towards the defence of the society, yet to prevent that sort of mental
+mutilation, deformity, and wretchedness which cowardice necessarily
+involves in it, from spreading themselves through the great body of the
+people, it would still deserve the most serious attention of
+Government."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p>On these three grounds, then, that the defence of the country is the
+first duty of every Government and therefore the first duty of every
+citizen, that a nation engaged in commerce tends to render itself unfit
+to defend itself unless means are devised to keep alive the patriotic
+spirit, and that the keeping alive of the patriotic spirit is useful for
+the cultivation of certain necessary social qualities, we may maintain
+that the military efficiency of the youth should be included amongst the
+aims of any national system of physical education. If the emphasis which
+is laid upon the securing of the after military efficiency of the youth
+of the nation occupies too prominent a place in the schemes of physical
+education of some Continental countries, we on the other hand have
+almost wholly neglected this aspect of the question. Every encouragement
+therefore should be given to the formation of cadet and rifle corps in
+the Secondary Schools of the country and in the Evening Continuation
+Schools attended by the sons of the working classes. The time when
+systematic instruction in military exercises and in the use of arms
+shall form part of every youth's education has not yet arrived, but the
+necessity for some such step looms already on the horizon.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Locke's <i>Thoughts on Education</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Bowen's Froebel (Great Educator Series), p. 48.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Cf. <a href="#CHAPTER_II">chap. ii</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Cf. MacDougall's <i>Physiological Psychology</i> (Dent); <i>also</i>
+Sir James Crichton Browne's article on "Education and the Nervous
+System," in Cassell's <i>Book of Health</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Principles of Heredity</i>, ibid. p. 242.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Cf. <a href="#CHAPTER_X">next chapter</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers</i> (English
+Board of Education), chapter on Physical Education.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Adam Smith, <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, p. 292.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 329.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>THE AIM OF THE INFANT SCHOOL</h3>
+
+<p>It is needless to point out that the method of educating the infant mind
+is the method of all education&mdash;viz., the regulation of the process by
+which experiences are acquired and organised so as to render the
+performance of future action more efficient. This, as we shall see
+later, is the fundamental truth at the foundation of the Kindergarten
+method of Froebel, and it must guide and control our conduct not only
+during the earlier stages but throughout the whole process of education.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, since the early acquisitions of the child are the bases upon
+which all further knowledge and practice are founded, we must realise
+how important these first experiences are for the whole future
+development of the child. Further, we have seen that all education&mdash;all
+acquiring and organising of experience in early life&mdash;must be motived by
+the felt desire to satisfy some instinctive need of the child's nature,
+and that it is these instinctive needs which determine the nature and
+scope of his early activities.</p>
+
+<p>Later, indeed, acquired interests may be grafted upon the innate and
+instinctive needs, but at the beginning and during his first years the
+child's whole life is determined by the primitive desires of human
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the first instinctive need which requires the aid of education is
+the need felt by the child to acquire some measure of control over his
+bodily movements and over the things in his immediate physical
+environment. Hence the first stage in education is the regulation of the
+process by which the child acquires and organises those experiences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+which shall give him this control. Nature herself indeed provides the
+means for the attainment of this end, but education can do much to aid
+in the attainment and to shorten the period of incomplete attainment. By
+means of the assistance given, the control exercised and the direction
+afforded, we enable the child to organise the lower centres of the
+nervous system which have to do with the control of the larger bodily
+movements, and thus establish organised systems of means for the
+attainment of certain definite ends.</p>
+
+<p>The second stage supervenes when the need is felt by the child for some
+measure of control over his social environment. For the young child soon
+realises that it is only in so far as he can exert some influence over
+the persons intimately connected with his welfare that he can make his
+wants known and find means for the satisfaction of his desires. Hence
+arises the need for some method of communication with his fellows, and
+from this springs the desire for some system of signs and for a language
+to enable him to make his wants known. Chiefly by means of the educative
+process of imitating the experiences of others, he gradually acquires a
+language and finds himself at home in his social world.</p>
+
+<p>During this period the centres called into activity, developed, and
+organised are mainly those connected with the lip and speech centres,
+and a certain stage of organisation having been attained, the
+opportunity is now afforded for the fuller functional development of the
+higher centres entrusted with the duty of receiving, discriminating, and
+co-ordinating the data of the special organs of sense.</p>
+
+<p>The period during which the child is gradually acquiring control over
+his immediate physical and social environments may roughly be said to
+extend to the end of his third year.</p>
+
+<p>From that time onwards the worlds of nature and of society for their own
+sake become objects of curiosity to the child. Every new object presents
+him with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> variety of fresh sensations. He feels, tastes, and bites
+everything that comes within his reach, and so acquires a world of new
+experiences. Hence for "the first six years of his life a child has
+quite enough to do in learning its place in the universe and the nature
+of its surroundings, and to compel it during any part of that period to
+give its attention to mere words and symbols is to stint it of the best
+part of its education for that which is only of secondary importance,
+and to weaken the foundations of its whole mental fabric."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>If, then, during this period the child is left wholly to gather his
+experiences as he may, he no doubt acquires by his own self-activity a
+world of new ideas, but the result of this unregulated process will be
+that the knowledge gained will be largely unsystematised, and much of
+the experience acquired may be of a nature which may give a false
+direction to his whole after-development. Hence arise three needs. In
+the first place, we must endeavour to see that new experiences are
+presented to the child in some systematic manner, in order that the
+knowledge may be so organised that it may serve as means to the
+attainment of ends, and so render future activity more accurate and more
+efficient. In the second place, we must endeavour to prevent the
+acquisition of experiences which if allowed to be organised would give
+an immoral direction to conduct; and in the third place, we must
+endeavour to establish early in the mind of the child organised systems
+of means which may hereafter result in the prevalence of activities
+socially useful to the community.</p>
+
+<p>Now, these three aims are or should be the aims of the Kindergarten
+School, and we shall now inquire into the ends which the Kindergarten
+School sets before it, and for this purpose we shall state the
+fundamental principles which Froebel himself laid down as the guiding
+principles of this stage of education.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p><p>On its intellectual side the Kindergarten as conceived by Froebel has
+four distinct aims in view. The first aim is by means of comparing and
+contrasting a series of objects presented in some regular and systematic
+manner to lead the child to note the likenesses and differences between
+the things, and so through and by means of his own self-activity to
+build up coherent and connected systems of ideas. By this method the
+teacher builds up in the mind of the young child systems of ideas
+regarding the colours, forms, and other sense qualities of the more
+common objects of his environment. The second aim is by means of some
+form of concrete construction to give expression to the knowledge so
+gained, to make this knowledge more accurate and definite, and thus by a
+dialectical return to make the experiences of the child definite and
+accurate, so as to render future action more efficient, and thus pave
+the way for further progress. The third aim is to utilise the
+play-activity of the child in the acquisition of new experiences and in
+their outward concrete expression. The fourth is to engage the child in
+the production of something socially useful, something which engages his
+genuine work-activity. In short, what Froebel clearly realised was that
+the mere taking in of new experiences by the child mind in any order was
+not sufficient. Experiences to be useful for efficient action must be
+assimilated&mdash;must be organised into a system&mdash;and in order that this may
+be possible the experiences must be presented in such a manner as will
+render them capable of being organised. Moreover, this mere taking in of
+new experiences is not enough. There must be a giving out or expression
+of the knowledge acquired, for it is only in so far as we can turn to
+use new experiences that we can be sure that they are really ours. Now,
+since the forms of expression natural to the young child are those which
+evoke his practical constructive efforts, all outward expression in its
+earlier stages must assume a concrete form. The aim of the so-called
+"Gifts" in Froebel's scheme is to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> build up an organised system of
+sense-knowledge; the aim of the "Occupations" of the Kindergarten is to
+develop the power of concrete expression of the child. The "Gifts" and
+the "Occupations" are correlative methods,&mdash;the one concerned with the
+taking in, the other with the outward expression of the same
+experience,&mdash;and throughout either aspect of the process the
+reason-activity of the child must be evoked both in the acquisition and
+in the expression of the new experience. Physiologically, this twofold
+process implies that during the Kindergarten period the sensory areas of
+the brain are being exercised and organised and that the associative
+activity evoked is concerned with the co-ordination of the impressions
+derived through these areas. Psychologically, it implies that during
+this period we are mainly concerned with the formation of perceptual
+systems of knowledge composed of data derived through the special senses
+and through the active movements of the hands and limbs. Such a process,
+moreover, is a necessary preliminary for the full after-development of
+the higher association centres of the brain and for the formation by the
+mind of conceptual systems of knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>For if we attempt prematurely to exercise the higher centres before the
+lower have reached a certain measure of development, if we attempt to
+form conceptual systems of knowledge, such as all language and number
+systems are, without first laying a sound perceptual basis, then we may
+do much to hinder future mental growth, if we do not even inflict a
+positive injury to the child. For the education of the senses neglected,
+"all after-education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, and an
+insufficiency which it is impossible to cure."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>On its moral and social side the aims of the Kindergarten School are no
+less important. If left to follow the naive instinctive needs of his
+nature and to gather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> experiences where and how he may, the child is
+likely to make acquisitions which later may issue in wrong conduct.
+Hence one aim of the Kindergarten is to present experiences which may
+eventually issue in right conduct, and to prevent the acquisition of
+experiences of an immoral kind. Hence also its insistence upon the need
+of carefully selecting the environment of the young child, so that as
+far as possible its early experiences&mdash;its first acquisitions&mdash;shall be
+of a healthy nature. Moreover, by means of the organised activities of
+the school, and by utilising the play-instinct of the child, it seeks to
+form and establish certain habits of future social worth to the
+community and to the individual. For, by means of the games and
+occupations of the Kindergarten School, the child may first of all learn
+what it means to co-operate with his fellows for a common end or
+purpose; may learn to submit to authority which he dimly and
+imperfectly, it may be, perceives to be reasonable; may be trained to
+habits of accuracy, of order, and of obedience. Above all, the
+Kindergarten system may rouse and foster in the mind of the child that
+sense of a corporate life and of a common social spirit the prevalence
+of which in after-life is the only secure foundation of society.</p>
+
+<p>In England the extreme importance of the education of the infant mind
+has been, in recent years, clearly acknowledged. The new regulations of
+the Board of Education no longer allow children under five years of age
+to be included as "an integral part of a three-R grant-earning
+Elementary School." A special curriculum has been set forth for their
+education. They are to have opportunities provided "for the free
+development of their bodies and minds and for the formation of habits of
+obedience and attention."<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> What are known as "Kindergarten
+Occupations are not merely pleasant pastimes for children: if so
+regarded, they are not intelligently used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> by the teacher. Their purpose
+is to stimulate intelligent individual effort, to furnish training of
+the senses of sight and touch, to promote accurate co-ordination of hand
+movements with sense impressions, and, not least important, to implant a
+habit of obedience."</p>
+
+<p>"Formal teaching, even by means of Kindergarten Occupations, is
+undesirable for children under five. At this stage it is sufficient to
+give the child opportunity to use his senses freely. To attempt formal
+teaching will almost inevitably mean, with some of the children, either
+restraint or over-stimulation, with constant danger to mental growth and
+health."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>From these extracts from the <i>Suggestions for the Consideration of
+Teachers</i> of the Head of the English Board of Education, it will be
+evident that the spirit of the "Kindergarten" now largely enters into
+the curriculum of the infant classes. In the future we may hope to see
+it carried further and that no formal teaching of the child will be
+undertaken during the first six years of his life. Further, we may hope
+to see in the future the infant departments of our schools more
+thoroughly organised than they are at present on the Kindergarten
+principle, and the curriculum of the Infant School so devised that it
+shall fit into and pave the way for the curriculum of the Elementary
+School. For at the earlier stage much may be done by the methods of the
+Kindergarten to lay the basis for the teaching of the arts of reading,
+writing, and arithmetic which it is the main business of the Primary
+School to lead the child to acquire. <i>E.g.</i>, at the earlier stage, by
+the breaking up and reconstructing of concrete groups of things, the
+child can be initiated into the meaning of a number system. By means of
+pictures and of concrete forms he can be made gradually acquainted with
+alphabetic forms, and this teaching lays the basis for the future
+acquisition of the abstract symbols of printed and written words.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p><p>But while much has been done in England to recognise the importance of
+the early education of the child for the after moral and social good
+both of the individual and of the community, and to place the
+instruction of the infant classes in the Public Elementary Schools upon
+a rational basis, little attention has been paid in Scotland to this
+subject. As a rule, children in that country do not enter school before
+the age of five, and there is no separate provision made for the
+teaching of children under that age; in fact, all scholars under seven
+years of age are classified together and form the Junior Division of the
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Such a state of matters reflects but little credit on the educational
+leaders of Scotland, and indicates an imperfect conception of the real
+nature of the educative process. For if education is the process of
+acquiring and organising experiences in order to render future action
+more efficient, it is surely the height of folly to allow the young
+child to gather his early experiences as he may. Moreover, in the case
+of the children of the slums, to allow them during their early years to
+gather into their brain without any correcting agency "all the sights
+and scenes of a slum is sheer social madness." "The child must be
+removed, or partially removed, from such an atmosphere, since it has
+reached the imitative stage, and is nearing the selective stage of life.
+For the moment he imitates anything; presently he will imitate what
+pleases him, what gives him momentary pleasure. Before the unmoral
+selective stage is reached, the stage which inevitably precedes the
+moral and immoral selective stage, it is essential that children should
+receive definite and deliberate guidance, that the imitative faculty
+should be controlled."<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> In the case of the children of the poorer
+districts this can be done only through the agency of the Infant School.
+Much may be done by making the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> instruction of the school attractive, to
+counteract the evil influences of the home and social environment, and
+to lead the child to acquire and organise experiences which will issue
+in moral and not in immoral conduct.</p>
+
+<p>Hence what we need in the poorer districts of our large towns is Free
+Kindergarten Schools from which all formal teaching of the three R's is
+abolished, where for several hours in each day the child may be trained
+to use his senses in the accurate discrimination and accurate
+systematisation of sense knowledge; where he may have his constructive
+activities evoked by the expression in concrete form of what he has been
+led to perceive through the medium of the senses; where he may be
+trained to habits of order, of cleanliness, of submission to authority;
+and where for a time, at least, he may be accustomed to live in a purer
+and healthier atmosphere than he can find at home or in the street, and
+where for a brief space he may have that feeling of home which he cannot
+find at home.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>The establishment in the poorer districts of our great towns of schools
+whose education follows the method of the Kindergarten if accompanied by
+some system of feeding the child would do much to secure the after
+social efficiency of the rising generation, and would by its reaction on
+the home-life tend gradually to raise the ideals of the very poor.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>The Nervous System and Education</i>, by Sir James Crichton
+Browne, <i>ibid.</i> p. 345.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>The Nervous System and Education</i>, by Sir James Crichton
+Browne, <i>ibid.</i> p. 345.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Cf. on this subject the chapter on "School Nurseries" in
+<i>National Education and National Life</i>, ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers</i>, chap.
+iii. (issued by the English Board of Education).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Montmorency's <i>National Education and National Life</i>,
+ibid. p. 143. The chapter on "School Nurseries" should be read by
+everyone, and especially by every Scotsman interested in the education
+of young children.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Cf. Charles Lamb's Essay on <i>Popular Fallacies</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE AIM OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL</h3>
+
+<p>During the past thirty years no part of our educational system has
+received so much attention as the Elementary Schools of the country. If
+we compare the condition of things which prevails at the present time
+with that which existed previous to 1870, there can be no doubt that a
+great advance has been made both in the better provision of the means of
+education and in the efficiency of the instruction given. Previous to
+1870 a large number of the children of the poor received no
+education.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Of those attending school many left with but a scanty
+knowledge. Now practically every child<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> receives a training in the
+primary arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic; and with the gradual
+extension of the period during which the child must attend school, it
+has become possible to ensure that a larger and larger number of
+children leaving our Elementary Schools have received an education which
+may be of value for the after-fulfilment of the simpler practical ends
+of life. Again, previous to 1870 the school buildings were in many cases
+unfit for their purpose; now the Elementary Schools of the country both
+in their building arrangements and equipment are as a rule much superior
+to the voluntary and endowed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> schools providing secondary education.
+Previous to 1870 anyone was thought good enough to undertake the work of
+teaching; since that time more and more attention has been paid to the
+qualifications of the teacher and to securing that he shall have
+attained a certain standard of education, and have received a certain
+measure of training before engaging upon the work of the instruction of
+the young. We, <i>e.g.</i>, no longer entrust the instruction of the younger
+children in the school to the older, as was the custom under the
+monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster, and with the abolition of the
+pupil-teacher the last remnant of a system introduced at the beginning
+of the nineteenth century, as the only remedy to meet the dire
+educational necessities of the time, will have been removed.</p>
+
+<p>But in spite of the great advances which have been made, there is a
+deep-seated feeling now beginning to find expression, that somehow or
+other the Elementary School has not realised all the expectations that
+were once thought likely to result from the universal education of the
+children of the nation, and that in particular the Primary School has
+failed to foster and to establish the moral and social qualities
+necessary for the welfare of a State whose government is founded on the
+representative principle.</p>
+
+<p>This, it seems to me, is largely due to the wrong conception of the aims
+which the Primary School is intended to realise&mdash;a conception which
+prevailed for many years after the introduction of compulsory elementary
+education. For some time now, and especially during the past few years,
+a counter-reaction has set in against the narrowness of the aims of the
+preceding period, and like all reactions it tends to go to the opposite
+extreme, and so to broaden the aims of the Primary School as to be in
+danger of failing to realise efficiently any one of the ends which it
+sets before it.</p>
+
+<p>The state of things immediately preceding 1870 not unnaturally gave rise
+to the idea that the acquisition of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> the arts of reading, writing, and
+arithmetic was the one indispensable object to be attained in the
+elementary education of the child. This conviction was strengthened by
+the system of Government grants introduced into both English and Scotch
+schools, payments to school managers being largely based upon the
+successes obtained in passes in the three elementary subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Certain results naturally followed. In the first place, no provision was
+made for the special education of the infant classes. Since the
+after-success of the child was measured by his attainments in the three
+R's, the sooner the infant mind was introduced to these subjects the
+better the after-result might be expected to be. Thus the grant-earning
+capacity of the child became the teacher's chief consideration. In the
+second place, the energies of the teacher were directed to secure a
+certain mechanical accuracy in the use of the three elementary arts
+rather than their intelligent apprehension. As a consequence, these
+subjects came in time to be thought of as subjects worthy of attainment
+for their own sake and their acquisition as an end in itself. Hence it
+was forgotten that the acquisition and organisation of these systems of
+elementary knowledge are only valuable because they are the
+indispensable means of all intercourse, of all commerce, and of all
+culture. Hence also their use as instruments for the after-realisation
+of many purposes in life tended to be neglected, or at least to fall
+into the background. Individual teachers, no doubt, in many cases
+realised the partial error in this conception of the aims of the Primary
+School, but the demands of Government inspectors and of school
+authorities, with their rule-of-thumb methods of testing the success of
+the teacher's work by the percentage of passes gained, tended often to
+make the teacher, in spite of his better judgment, look upon the child
+mainly as a three-R grant-earning subject and to consider the chief aim
+of primary education to be the securing of a certain mechanical
+proficiency in the use of the three elementary arts.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p><p>Under such a method of examination it was certainly necessary for the
+teacher to pay some attention to the individuality of the child. If his
+efforts were to be at all successful it was incumbent upon him to
+discover as early as possible the range of the child's previous
+knowledge in the three grant-earning subjects and to find out in which
+of the three the power of acquisition of the child was naturally weak or
+naturally strong. Where the number of children in a class was large,
+little individual attention could, of course, be paid to the child, and
+in such cases the acquisition of the subject was aided by the mechanical
+drilling of sections of the class and by recourse to all manner of
+devices for ensuring the accurate acquisition of the essential subjects.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this partial and one-sided conception little attention
+was paid to the use to which these subjects may be put in the
+realisation of the practical ends of life. Arithmetic, <i>e.g.</i>, seemed to
+the child to be made up of a number of kinds of arithmetic, each process
+having its own rules and methods of procedure; but it never entered into
+his mind, and but seldom into that of his teacher, that the various
+arithmetical processes are at bottom but diverse forms of the one
+fundamental process of adding to or subtracting from a group. Proportion
+was one kind of arithmetic, simple interest another, but that these
+processes symbolised real group-forming processes, or that they had to
+do with any of the realities of life, was apprehended, if at all, in the
+most imperfect and hazy manner.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar manner, the overcoming of the mechanical difficulties of
+language construction occupied the major portion of the attention of the
+child during the school period, and the function of language in
+conveying a knowledge of things and persons and events received but a
+small share of his attention. Meanings of words were indeed tabulated
+and learnt by heart, and as a rule the child on examination-day could
+make a fair show in deluding the inspector that the passage read was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>intelligently apprehended. In very much the same way, the overcoming of
+the mechanical difficulties of writing and the drilling of the child to
+form his letters in a uniform style received the chief share of the
+school-time devoted to the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The interest and attention of the child having been thus mainly occupied
+in the overcoming of the mechanical difficulties involved in the
+learning of the three grant-earning subjects, and little attention
+having been paid to the use of these arts, it followed that upon the
+conclusion of the school period the child left the school without any
+real interests having been established as the result of the educative
+process.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, except in so far as by their teaching we may establish habits
+of order and of accuracy, the three elementary subjects in themselves
+possess no moral or social intent; hence unless we can make the child
+realise their value as instruments for the attainment of ends of social
+worth they in themselves fail to play any important part in the building
+up of character.</p>
+
+<p>Let me put this in another way. We have defined education as the process
+of acquiring and systematising experiences that will render future
+action more efficient, or alternatively it is the process by which we
+organise and establish in the mind systems of ideas for the attainment
+of ends. But if we make the acquisition of these elementary arts ends in
+themselves, then it follows that the more efficient action we seek to
+realise is the more efficient manipulation of a number system or a
+language system. If, however, we realise that these arts are but means
+to the realisation of other ends, then we shall understand that it is
+the character of the latter which mainly determines the resulting
+character of the education given.</p>
+
+<p>Partly to this erroneous conception of the real function of the
+elementary arts, and partly to another cause which we shall mention
+later, may be attributed the poor results which our Elementary School
+system has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> attained in the establishment of interests of moral and
+social worth. If, moreover, we realise how large a proportion of the
+children left and still do leave school at an early age, before such
+interests can be permanently established, and in some cases with
+anything but an adequate knowledge of the elementary arts necessary for
+all further progress, we may rather be astonished that so much has been
+done than so little.</p>
+
+<p>But in the reaction against the narrowness and formalism of our early
+aims in elementary education, there is a tendency&mdash;a strong tendency&mdash;at
+the present time to go to the opposite extreme, and to make the
+elementary instrumental arts the vehicles for the fostering of real
+interests at too early a stage. This manifests itself on the one hand in
+the desire to make all instruction interesting to the child, and on the
+other to introduce the child prematurely to a knowledge of the real
+conditions of life, before he can have any intelligent understanding of
+these conditions. From the barrenness and formalism of the earlier
+period, we now have the demand made that the school should throughout
+take into account the real and practical necessities of life.</p>
+
+<p>The former tendency&mdash;the tendency to make everything interesting to the
+child by lessening or minimising the mechanical difficulties and by
+endeavouring in every way to incite the child to become interested in
+the content of the lesson&mdash;is best exemplified by the character of the
+school books which we now place in the hands of our children. The latter
+tendency&mdash;the tendency to the premature use of the elementary arts&mdash;is
+exemplified by the craving to make our teaching of arithmetic practical
+and real from the very beginning.</p>
+
+<p>In the former case, instead of endeavouring to make the process of
+language construction interesting in itself, we divert the child's
+attention from the acquiring and organising of the system of language
+forms to the premature acquirement of the content of language. What
+results is obvious: the main interest being in the content,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> the
+interest in the mechanical construction of the form suffers, and as a
+consequence the child never attains a full mastery over the instrumental
+art.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter case we attempt to do two things at the same time in our
+teaching of arithmetic. In every concrete application of arithmetic
+there are two interests involved: in the first place, there is the
+number interest&mdash;the interest in the analysing and recombining of a
+group, undertaken for the sake of the reconstruction itself; in the
+second place, there is the business or real interest, which the number
+interest indeed subserves, but the two interests are in no case
+identical. If we attempt to teach the two together, we as a rule teach
+both badly. The pupil will have but a hazy idea of the business
+relation, and will run the risk of imperfectly organising the pure
+number system. Hence all kinds of impossible problems may be given to
+the child without raising any suspicion of error in his mind, and such
+cases furnish certain evidence that the business relation does not
+really concern him, but that his whole attention is engaged with the
+purely constructive aspect of number. Another example of the same error
+of confounding two separate things is the "blind mixture we make of
+arithmetic and measuring." Because arithmetic is involved in all
+measuring we assume that when the child can add together feet and
+inches, therefore he has a complete knowledge of these spatial
+magnitudes. But manifestly, if spatial magnitude is to be taught
+intelligently, it must at first be taught independently of the number
+relation, which is a general system instrumental in the realisation of
+many concrete interests.</p>
+
+<p>From these considerations, certain general results follow. On the one
+hand, the earlier conception of the aim of the Primary School as being
+mainly concerned with the acquirement and organisation of the three
+elementary arts as ends in themselves must be condemned. Language and
+number systems are means to the realisation of certain concrete ends of
+after-life, and the school during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> the later stages of education must
+endeavour to lead the child to perceive how these systems may be
+utilised in the furtherance of these real concrete interests. On the
+other hand, the attempt to combine prematurely these two aims will
+result in the imperfect attainment of both. During the earlier stages of
+education the main interest must be in the construction for its own sake
+of the language system or the number system, and while the real interest
+may be introduced it must always be kept subsidiary to the main
+interest&mdash;must first of all be taught for its own sake, and the
+instrumental art only used for its furtherance in so far as the
+acquirement of the former is not obstructed. <i>E.g.</i>, the placing of
+geography and history Readers in the hands of the child while he is
+still struggling with the difficulties of language construction can only
+result in the history and geography being imperfectly understood and the
+organisation of the language system being delayed and hindered.</p>
+
+<p>Once the elementary and subsidiary systems have been fairly well
+organised and established, their function as means for the furtherance
+of real interests should occupy a larger share of the child's attention
+and of the time of the school. These real interests, however, must in
+every case and at every stage be taught at first for their own sake, and
+thereafter their relation to the instrumental art explained and applied.
+Gradually, as they become better organised and more firmly established,
+the elementary arts occupy a smaller and smaller share of attention,
+until finally they function automatically, and the whole attention can
+be directed to the furtherance of the real interests to which the
+elementary arts are the indispensable means.</p>
+
+<p>Hence we note three stages in the elementary education of the child&mdash;the
+stage preceding the formal instruction in the elementary arts; the stage
+in which the formal instruction should predominate and receive the
+greater share of the child's attention; the stage in which the
+elementary systems having been in great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> measure organised and
+established, they may be utilised as means to the furtherance of the
+real interests. The first stage corresponds to the Infant or
+Kindergarten age: here the main object is to build up in the mind of the
+child systems of ideas about the things of his environment; to extend,
+by conversation and by reading to the child, the vocabulary of his own
+language; to give him practice in the combining and recombining of
+concrete groups of things, and to introduce him to a knowledge of the
+various language forms in a concrete shape.</p>
+
+<p>In the second stage, and here the work of the Primary School begins, the
+main emphasis at the beginning must be laid on the acquirement and
+establishment of the language and number systems for their own sake. If
+right methods are followed, the child can be interested in these
+processes of construction without the need of calling into use at every
+point some real interest. In the concluding stage the use of these
+instruments as means to the realisation of the simpler practical ends of
+life should receive more attention.</p>
+
+<p>One reason, then, for the poor moral and social results effected in the
+past by our Elementary School system has been the undue emphasis placed
+upon the acquisition of the merely formal arts to the neglect of the
+real interests to which the former are but the means. Another cause,
+however, has been operative in producing this negative result. In the
+Elementary Schools, in the past, little attention has been paid to the
+individuality of the child, and little heed given to the differences
+between children as regards their different rates of intellectual growth
+and their differing aptitudes for various branches of study. Under a
+system of classification which compelled each individual, whether
+intellectually well or moderately or poorly equipped, to advance at an
+equal rate, attention to the individual with any other aim than to raise
+the weak to the standard of the average child in acquiring the three R's
+was impossible. Again, our huge city schools, partly on account of their
+vast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> size, partly on the ground that they are unable to organise school
+games, partly on account of their lack of any common school interests,
+do not and cannot foster any sense of a corporate life, any feeling of a
+common social spirit. Where our English Public School system is strong,
+our Elementary and sometimes even our Day Secondary School systems are
+weak. If the home fails to foster these qualities, and the school does
+not or cannot fill the gap, then as a rule we turn out our boys and
+girls poorly equipped to fulfil their duties in after-life as members of
+a corporate community and as citizens of a State. Mere teaching of
+history or of civics in our schools will do little to attain this end,
+unless by some method or other we can foster by means of the school-life
+the real civic spirit. It is, of course, easy to point out the nature of
+the disease; it is more difficult to prescribe a remedy. But much might
+be done to strengthen and increase the moral influence of the school by
+a better system of classification, which took into account the
+differences in intellectual capacity and in natural aptitude, and which
+as a consequence, in the education of the child, paid more attention to
+each child's individuality. This would involve much smaller classes than
+exist at present, and would further involve that the children should be
+under the care of one teacher for a longer time than is now the rule. At
+the present time, in many cases, the teacher is employed in teaching the
+same subjects, at the same stage, year after year, to a yearly fresh
+batch of sixty or seventy children. Consequently he learns to look upon
+his pupils as mere subjects to whom must be imparted the required
+measure of instruction. Of the children in themselves, of their
+home-life, of their interests outside school, he knows nothing, and as a
+rule cares less.</p>
+
+<p>If in addition to this we ceased erecting barracks for the instruction
+of children and erected schools for their education, we should make even
+a further advance in this direction. If it is impossible for other
+reasons to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> lessen the size of our city Elementary Schools, then the
+remedy lies in the division of the schools into departments in which the
+Head should be entrusted with the supervision of the education of the
+children during several years. In this way it would be possible for the
+teacher to get to know each child individually, to direct his education
+in accordance with his aptitudes, and to exert an influence over him.
+Thus, by giving more attention to the organised games of the school and
+by the creation of school interests, much might be done to remedy the
+defects of the school on the side of moral and social education. At
+best, however, when the home fails, the Elementary School can do little,
+and we must put our trust in the ethical agencies of society to assist
+and promote the efforts of the school in the furthering of a right
+social spirit and in the creation of a common corporate feeling.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, in 1861 it was calculated that only 6 per cent. of
+the children of the poor in England were receiving a satisfactory
+elementary education. Cf. Balfour Graham's <i>Educational System of Great
+Britain and Ireland</i>, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, in 1872 in Scotland school places were provided
+for only 8.3 per cent. of the population. In 1905 places were provided
+for 21.22 of the population. Cf. <i>Report on Scotch Education</i>, 1905, p.
+6.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE AIM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL</h3>
+
+<p>We have seen that on its intellectual side the Primary School has two
+main functions to perform in the education of the child. In the first
+place, the school must endeavour to secure that the elementary arts of
+reading, writing, and arithmetic are well organised and well established
+in the mind of the child. The more effectively the language and number
+systems are organised and established the more efficiently will they
+function in the performance of future action. Moreover, it is only when
+they have become so organised as to function automatically that they
+reach their highest efficiency as instruments for the further extension
+of knowledge or of practice.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, the Primary School must train the pupil to the use
+of these systems as instruments for the realisation of other and
+concrete ends or interests. <i>E.g.</i>, the number system may be used in the
+furtherance of the measuring interest, the weighing interest, and so on.
+The two dangers we have to avoid are on the one hand the barren
+formalism of treating the acquisition of these arts as ends in
+themselves, and on the other of supposing that the real interests can be
+intelligently understood merely through the instrumentality of the
+elementary arts and that they do not require independent treatment of
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>If the child is destined to go no farther than the Elementary School
+stage, then at least the concluding year of the school should be mainly
+devoted to training him to the use of the primary instrumental arts in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+the establishment of systems of knowledge necessary for the realisation
+of the simpler practical ends of life.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the child is selected for a course of higher education, the
+educative process becomes different in nature. In the first-named case
+we are content to give the child practice in the application of an
+already established system to concrete problems. In the second case we
+endeavour, using the elementary systems as means, to establish other
+systems of knowledge as means to the attainment of still further ends.
+We may, <i>e.g.</i>, on the basis of the vernacular language build up a
+foreign language system as a means either to commercial intercourse or
+to literary culture. In short, the aim of the Secondary School is, using
+the elementary systems as the basal means, to organise and establish
+other systems of means for the attainment of the more complex interests
+of after-life, practical and theoretical. The object of establishing a
+system of knowledge is not to pass examinations,&mdash;this is the
+schoolmaster's error,&mdash;but to render future action more efficient, to
+further in after-life some complex interest of a practical or
+theoretical nature. To the few, indeed, the establishment and
+systematisation of knowledge may be an end in itself. To the many, the
+systematisation and establishment is and ought to be undertaken as a
+means to the more efficient furtherance of some practical end. Further,
+the only justification for the seeking of knowledge for its own sake is
+that thereby it may be better understood, better established and better
+systematised, and so become better fitted to make practice more
+efficient.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the question as regards secondary education resolves itself into
+the question as to the nature of the systems of knowledge which we
+should endeavour to establish systematically in the mind of the child,
+and before we can answer this question we must know the length of time
+which the child can afford to spend at the Higher School and his
+possible vocation in after-life. For if education is the process by
+which the child is led<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> to acquire and organise experiences so as to
+render future action more efficient, we must know something of the
+nature of this action, something of the nature of the future social
+services for which his education is to train him, and the school period
+must be of sufficient length to enable the required systems to be
+established permanently and thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p>Neglect of these two obvious considerations has led in the past and even
+in the present leads to two errors in our organisation of the means of
+secondary education. In the first place, until quite recently, we have
+been too much inclined to the opinion that secondary education was all
+of one type, and even where this error has been recognised, as in
+Germany, the tendency still exists to emphasise unduly the particular
+type of education which has as its main ingredients the ancient
+classical languages. We spend years in the attempt to reconstruct and
+establish in the mind of the youth a knowledge of these language
+systems, and in a large number of cases we fail to attain adequately
+even this end. We build up laboriously systems of means which in
+after-life function <i>directly</i> in the attainment of no end, and as a
+consequence, in many cases, the dissolution of the system is as rapid as
+its acquisition was slow. At the time of the Renascence and when first
+introduced into the curriculum of the Secondary School, these languages,
+and especially Latin, did then possess a high functional value, since
+they were the indispensable means to the furtherance of knowledge and to
+social intercourse. To-day they possess little functional value, and
+their claim for admission into the school curriculum is chiefly based
+upon their so-called training and disciplinary values.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider this for a moment: in the reconstruction of, say, the
+Latin language, the pupil is being trained in the reconstruction and
+re-establishment of a language system whose methods and rules of
+construction are much more complex and intricate than those of any
+living language, and whose forms are so designed as to bring out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+exactly varied shades of meaning. Hence, in its acquisition the pupil
+receives practice in the exact discrimination of the meaning of words,
+and in their accurate placing and reconstruction within the
+sentence&mdash;the unit of expression&mdash;in order to bring out the exact
+interpretation of the thought or statement of fact intended by the
+writer.</p>
+
+<p>Further, we may train the pupil during the school period to self-apply
+the language system in the further interpretation of relatively unknown
+passages. In short, we can train him in the processes of language
+construction and of language application. Moreover, in considering this
+question, we must take into account that during the school period the
+main interest must necessarily be directed to the acquisition and
+establishment of the system itself, that little attention can be
+directed towards the content for its own sake, and that the
+establishment of the system so that it shall function automatically in
+the interpretation of the content is a stage which is attained in
+comparatively few cases, and then only after many years of study.</p>
+
+<p>If we then take into account, and we must take into account, the fact
+that the chief value of the ancient languages as Secondary School
+subjects lies in their use as training and disciplinary
+instruments&mdash;that in after-life they function directly in the attainment
+of no practical end, and only indirectly in so far as the habits
+acquired of the exact weighing of the meaning of words and of the
+accurate placing of words are carried over for the attainment of
+practical ends in which these qualities of exact interpretation and
+exact expression of language are the chief requisites&mdash;we shall
+understand that while they may be of value in securing the efficient
+after-performance of certain social services, they play but a small part
+in the furthering of any service which requires an exact knowledge of
+the qualities of things and an accurate knowledge of the laws governing
+the operations of nature.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, neglect of the fact that the aim of education is to
+establish systems of means for the efficient after-performance of
+actions has led us to neglect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> the fact that in the acquisition and
+establishment of systems of knowledge we require to limit the scope of
+our aims and to carry on the process of education during a period
+sufficiently extended to admit of the stable establishment of the
+systems. If, <i>e.g.</i>, we attempt to establish too many systems, then as a
+result we often stably establish none, with the further result that
+after the school period has passed the knowledge gained soon disappears.
+If, again, we attempt in too limited a time to establish an elaborate
+and complex system of knowledge, as <i>e.g.</i> that of the Latin language,
+then we never reach the stage when it can be self-applied intelligently
+in the furtherance of any end. Hence, if a boy leaves the Elementary
+School and enters upon a High School course with the intention of
+leaving at the age of fifteen or sixteen and entering upon some
+employment, the systems of knowledge which can be established during the
+school period must be different from those of the boy whose education is
+intended to be extended until twenty-one. If, then, a national system of
+education is to make adequate provision for the efficient
+after-performance of the various social services which the nation
+requires at the hands of its adult members; if, in short, it is to be
+organic to the life of the State as a whole, then there must be not one
+type of higher education but several; for it is to her Higher Schools
+that a nation must principally look for the preparation of citizens who
+in after-life will discharge the more important services of the
+community. This truth has already been realised in other countries,
+notably Germany. We are only beginning to realise it, and to take
+measures to carry it into practice.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, in a national system of education we shall need not one system
+of advancing means but several; not merely an educational ladder that
+may carry the boy to the University, but also educational steps by which
+the individual may mount to the Technical or the Commercial or the Art
+College.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p><p>Hence our aims in the higher education of the youth, and as a
+consequence the nature of the systems of knowledge which we should
+endeavour to organise and to establish in their minds, will vary in
+accordance with the nature of the service which in adult life the boy is
+likely to perform. Now, these services may be divided into four main
+classes.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, every nation requires an army of efficient
+industrial workers. Partly, in some cases, owing to the decline of the
+apprenticeship system, partly owing to the fact that where apprentices
+are still employed no systematic measures are taken to instruct the
+youth in the principles underlying his particular art, it is becoming
+increasingly necessary that the school should supply and supplement the
+knowledge required for the efficient after-performance of the industrial
+and technical arts. Hence one kind of Higher School urgently required is
+the Trade or Technical School. In a large number of cases this need
+could be supplied by Evening Continuation Schools. At present, however,
+our Evening Schools are too predominantly commercial and literary, and
+do not make adequate provision for the trade and technical needs of the
+community. Further, we must endeavour to secure that the boy or girl
+enters the Evening Continuation School as soon after he leaves the
+Elementary School as possible. For in many cases at the present time the
+boy after leaving the Primary School loafs at night about the streets,
+and in a short time through disuse forgets much of what he learned at
+school, and often in addition acquires habits which tend to unfit him
+for any future strenuous effort. When, therefore, he feels the need for
+more knowledge in order to advance in his trade, the Evening School has
+too frequently to begin by doing over again the work of the Elementary
+School before it can enter upon the work of establishing the higher
+system of knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, a nation such as ours requires a trained body of
+servants for the efficient carrying on of her commerce. Preparation for
+the simpler forms of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> service could be furnished by the commercial
+classes of the Evening Continuation Schools. For preparation for the
+higher services, we require a type of school which beginning after the
+Elementary School stage has been completed, carries on the boy's
+education until the fifteenth or sixteenth year, whose chief aim should
+be to lay a sound basis in the acquisition and organisation of one or
+two modern languages and in the acquirement of the arts instrumental for
+the carrying on of commercial transactions. Further means of advance in
+these studies should be provided by the day or evening Commercial
+College.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, every modern nation requires a trained body of
+scientific workers for the after carrying on of her industrial and
+technical arts. Hence we need a type of school which by making the
+physical sciences their chief object of study prepare the way for the
+future training of the student in the application of scientific
+knowledge to the furtherance of the industrial and technical arts.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we require a type of secondary education which shall prepare the
+boy for the efficient discharge of the duties which the State requires
+at the hands of her physicians, her theologians, her jurists.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, since all education is the acquisition of experiences that will
+render future action more efficient, the nature of the secondary
+education given must depend on the nature of the services to which the
+systems of knowledge are the means. A classical education may be a good
+preparation for the after-discharge of the duties of the theologian or
+the jurist; it certainly will not do much for the efficient discharge of
+the duties of the mechanical engineer and the practical chemist.</p>
+
+<p>But one error must be avoided. Whilst the various types of Secondary
+School must fashion their curricula according to the nature of the
+services for which they prepare, we must not forget that the school has
+other duties to perform than the mere preparation for the social
+services<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> by which a man hereafter earns his living. It must in every
+case endeavour to organise and establish those systems of means
+necessary for the after-discharge of the civic duties of life and
+instrumental for the right use of leisure.</p>
+
+<p>Practically we need three types of Higher School&mdash;one in which modern
+languages form the basal subjects of the curriculum; one in which the
+physical sciences are the main systems organised and established; one in
+which the classical languages form the main staple of education.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE AIM OF THE UNIVERSITY</h3>
+
+<p>"All public institutions of learning are called into existence by social
+needs, and first of all by technical practical necessities. Theoretical
+interests may lead to the founding of private associations such as the
+Greek philosophers' schools; public schools owe their origin to the
+social need for professional training. Thus during the Middle Ages the
+first schools were called into being by the need of professional
+training for ecclesiastics, the first learned profession, and a calling
+whose importance seemed to demand such training. Essentially the same
+necessity called into being the Universities of the Parisian type, with
+their artistic and theological faculties. The two other types of
+professional schools, the law school and the medical school, which were
+first developed in Italy, then united with the former. The Universities
+therefore originated as a union of 'technical' schools for
+ecclesiastics, jurists, and physicians, to which division the faculty of
+Arts was related as a general preparatory school, until during the
+nineteenth century it also assumed something of the character of a
+professional institution for the training of teachers for the Secondary
+School."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus the early aim of the University was, as it still continues to be,
+to provide the training for the after-supply of those services which the
+State requires at the hands of her theologians, her jurists, and her
+physicians. In Germany, and to some extent even in our own country, the
+Arts faculty of the University is ceasing to perform<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> the function of a
+General Preparatory School to the professional schools, and is becoming
+an independent school, having for its aim the preparation of teachers
+for the Intermediate and Secondary Schools of the country. In Scotland,
+indeed, it serves at the present time as a Preparatory School mainly to
+the theological faculty. As the Secondary Schools of the country become
+more efficient, better differentiated, and better organised, the need of
+a Preparatory School within our Universities will gradually become less,
+and the University will be able to devote more of her energies to the
+training of students preparing for some one or other of the above-named
+professions. With this change the philosophical studies of the Arts
+faculty will become increasingly important, and the method of teaching
+the linguistic and scientific studies receive a larger share of
+attention than they do at present.</p>
+
+<p>But the other and perhaps the more important function of the University
+is to carry on and to extend the work of scientific and literary
+research for its own sake. This is the dominant note of the German and
+American Universities of to-day. The emphasis is laid not so much upon
+their function as schools for the supply of certain professional
+services, but upon them as great national laboratories for the extension
+of knowledge and the betterment of practice. In Great Britain, and
+especially in Scotland, this conception of the function of the
+University has not received the same prominence as, <i>e.g.</i>, in Germany,
+where the intimate union of scientific investigation and professional
+instruction gives the German Universities their peculiar character.
+Indeed, in the latter country the tendency at the present time is rather
+to over-emphasise the function of the Universities in furthering
+scientific and literary research to the neglect of the other and no less
+important aim. Two dangers must be avoided. In the first place, whenever
+the chief emphasis is laid upon the Universities as mainly schools for
+professional training, the teaching tends to become narrow and dogmatic.
+The teacher ceasing to be an investigator,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> gradually loses touch with
+the spirit of the age, and as a consequence he fails adequately to
+perform the duty of efficiently training his students for their after
+life-work. In the second place, when the emphasis is laid strongly upon
+the function of the University as an institution for the carrying on of
+scientific and literary research there is the danger of again lapsing
+into the old fallacy that knowledge for knowledge' sake is an end in
+itself, that the object of education is to acquire and organise systems
+of means which function in the attainment of no practical end, and that
+the acquisition of knowledge is valuable for the culture of the
+individual mind apart from any social purpose which the knowledge
+subserves.</p>
+
+<p>The University must therefore ever keep in view the two aims, of
+advancing knowledge not for its own sake but in order that future action
+may be rendered more efficient, and of adequately training for
+professional services.</p>
+
+<p>But to the older professions for which the University prepares there
+have been added during the past century other vocations or professions
+which need and demand an education no less important and no less
+thorough than the education for the well established recognised
+professions. The need for the higher training of the future leaders of
+industry and the future captains of commerce has been provided by the
+organisation and establishment of technological schools and colleges.
+The establishment and organisation of the "Technical University" has
+been more thorough in Germany than in this country. There we find
+established newer institutions, of which the Charlottenburg College is
+the best known and most important, for the higher education of those
+intended in after-life to perform the more important industrial services
+of the community. These institutions both in their organisation and
+instruction are constantly approximating in type to the older
+Universities.</p>
+
+<p>The recently established Universities in the North of England attempt,
+with what success it is too early yet to declare, to combine both aims
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> training for the older and newer professions. In Scotland the latter
+work is largely undertaken by the Technical Colleges, and in these
+institutions the increasing need is for the extension and development of
+the Day-school course.</p>
+
+<p>One other question of some importance remains for brief consideration.
+In our own country, but more especially in Germany, there is a tendency
+at the present time to effect a complete separation between the work of
+the University and the work of the Technical College.</p>
+
+<p>This separation has arisen partly through the operation of external
+historical conditions, but it has also arisen partly through the
+tendency in certain academic circles to look down upon technical
+knowledge and ability as something inferior. The exclusiveness and the
+torpor of the older Universities in many cases has been a further cause
+tending to the creation of the Technical College separated from the
+University.</p>
+
+<p>Such a separation, however, is good neither for the University nor for
+the Technical College. The former in carrying out the aim of scientific
+research and of the extension of knowledge requires ever the vivifying
+touch of actual concrete experience, and this it can only obtain by
+keeping in close contact with those whose chief function is the
+application of scientific knowledge to practice. The latter in carrying
+out its more practical aims requires, if it is to be saved from the
+narrowness of mere specialisation and from degenerating into empirical
+methods, the constant co-operation of those whose outlook is not
+narrowed down to the immediate practical end, but takes in the subject
+as a whole, and whose chief function is the better systematisation of
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, while the aim of the University is different from that of the
+Technical College, they are so intimately correlated that neither can
+reach its fullest development without the aid and co-operation of the
+other. The Technical Colleges should be the professional schools
+attached to the scientific side of the Universities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> Moreover, this
+division and separation is economically wasteful, since the general
+training in science which must precede the practical training has to be
+carried on both in the University and in the Technical College.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland this separation has not advanced to such a stage as is the
+case in Germany. In any further reorganisation of university and higher
+education it is earnestly to be hoped that the Day Technical College
+will find its rightful place as an integral part of the University, and
+that the latter may realise that her function is to further and extend
+the bounds of knowledge in order that practice in every sphere of life
+may be rendered more efficient.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Cf. Prof. Paulsen, <i>The German Universities</i>, p. 111 (Eng.
+Trans.).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>CONCLUSION&mdash;THE PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>The first necessity of the present for teachers and for all concerned
+with the upbringing of children is to realise the true meaning of
+education&mdash;that it is the process by which we lead the child to acquire
+and organise experiences that will render future action more efficient;
+that by our educational agencies we seek to establish systems of
+knowledge that shall hereafter function in the efficient performance of
+services of social value; and that the only method which really educates
+and can educate is the method which evokes the constructive activity of
+reason in the establishment of the various systems of means. Education
+does not aim at culture nor at knowledge for its own sake, but at
+fitting the individual for social service. Our school system tends ever
+to forget this truth. It is in constant danger of losing sight of this
+ultimate aim of education by keeping its attention too narrowly fixed on
+some nearer and proximate aim. It tends often to lay too much stress on
+mere examinations and examination results. It forgets that the only true
+test of knowledge gained lies in the pupil's ability to use it
+intelligently in the furtherance of some purpose&mdash;and of some social
+purpose, and that the ultimate test of a system of education is the kind
+of social individual it turns out. If our educational system turns out
+boys and girls who in after-life become efficient workers, efficient
+citizens, and men and women who have learned how to use their leisure
+rightly, then it has fulfilled its function. If, on the other hand,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> it
+fails in a large number of cases to attain these three ends or any one
+of them, however it may satisfy the other tests applied, it has not
+performed its function, is not a system which is "organic" to the
+welfare of the State.</p>
+
+<p>The second necessity is to realise the true place of the school as the
+formal agent in the education of the child. Mankind by a long and
+laborious process has discovered and established many systems of
+knowledge. He has created language and invented arts for the realisation
+of the many purposes of life. It is the business of the school to impart
+this knowledge to the child&mdash;to put him in possession at least of some
+part of this heritage which has come down to him, and to do so in such a
+manner that while acquiring the experience he shall also be trained in
+the method of finding and establishing systems of means for himself and
+by himself. If, however, we lay the emphasis on the mere imparting of
+the garnered experiences of the ages, the danger to be feared is lest
+our teaching degenerate into mere dogmatism or mere cram. If, on the
+other hand, we lay too much emphasis on the ability to self-find and
+self-establish systems, we are in danger of losing sight of the social
+purpose of all knowledge&mdash;of forgetting that the only justification for
+establishing a system of knowledge is that it may efficiently function
+in the attainment of some purpose of life.</p>
+
+<p>Of the more important of the practical problems of our own day and
+generation the first and most important is to realise that our
+educational system as it exists at present is not fitted to produce and
+maintain an efficient and sufficient supply of all the social services
+which the modern State requires of its adult members, and that we must
+consider this question of education as a whole and in all its parts, and
+quite clear of mere party interests. Above all, we must get over the
+fatal habit of reforming one part of the system and leaving the other
+parts alone. The whole problem of education from the Primary School<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> to
+the University requires consideration and organisation. We reform now
+our Universities, then after a period our Secondary School system, and
+so we proceed, advancing here, retrograding there, but of education as
+an organically connected whole we have no thought.</p>
+
+<p>But apart from the want of organisation as a whole our educational
+system in its parts is at present defective. We require to reconsider
+the question of how best to educate the children of the very poor. At
+present we fail in a large number of cases to train up the children of
+this class to be socially efficient. Economically and morally we fail to
+reach any high standard. No doubt the home and social environment is all
+against the school influence; but by a more rational system of early
+education, by taking more care of the physical development of the child,
+and, if need be, for a time, making public provision for the feeding of
+the children of the very poor, we might do much to remove this defect.
+Above all, we must endeavour to stem the yearly flow of boys and girls
+at the conclusion of the Primary School period into mere casual and
+unskilled employments, and must endeavour by some means or other to
+continue the education of the child for some years further.</p>
+
+<p>Again, we require to make better provision for the technical training of
+our workmen. By a system of Evening Continuation Schools having as their
+aim the instruction of the youth in the arts underlying or subsidiary to
+his particular calling, we might do much to amend this defect. Moreover,
+the Evening Continuation Schools might play a much more important part
+than they now do in the securing of the future moral and civic
+efficiency of the individual and of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, and this need is clearly felt by all acquainted with the
+subject, we require the development and extension of our Technical
+Colleges, in order that we may adequately train those whose duty in
+after-life will be the application of advanced scientific knowledge in
+the furtherance of the arts and industries of life.</p>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<h4><i>Printed by</i><br /><span class="smcap">Morrison &amp; Gibb Limited</span>,<br />
+<i>Edinburgh</i></h4>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Children: Some Educational Problems, by 
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Children: Some Educational Problems, by
+Alexander Darroch
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Children: Some Educational Problems
+
+Author: Alexander Darroch
+
+Release Date: May 11, 2007 [EBook #21419]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILDREN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Martin Pettit and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_The Social Problems Series_
+
+EDITED BY
+
+OLIPHANT SMEATON, M.A., F.S.A.
+
+THE CHILDREN
+
+
+_The Social Problems Series_
+
+
+THE CHILDREN
+
+SOME EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS
+
+
+BY
+
+ALEXANDER DARROCH, M.A.
+
+PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
+
+
+LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK
+16 HENRIETTA STREET, W.C.
+AND EDINBURGH
+1907
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+
+CHAP.                                                            PAGE
+
+   I. INTRODUCTION--THE PRESENT UNREST IN EDUCATION                 1
+
+  II. THE MEANING AND PROCESS OF EDUCATION                         13
+
+ III. THE END OF EDUCATION                                         22
+
+  IV. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE PROVISION
+      OF EDUCATION                                                 31
+
+   V. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE COST OF
+      EDUCATION                                                    46
+
+  VI. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE MEDICAL
+      EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THE MEDICAL
+      INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS                                        54
+
+ VII. THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE FEEDING OF
+      SCHOOL CHILDREN                                              66
+
+VIII. THE ORGANISATION OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION                   77
+
+  IX. THE AIM OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION                                85
+
+   X. THE AIM OF THE INFANT SCHOOL                                 98
+
+  XI. THE AIM OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL                               107
+
+ XII. THE AIM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL                             118
+
+XIII. THE AIM OF THE UNIVERSITY                                   126
+
+ XIV. CONCLUSION--THE PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION               131
+
+
+
+
+THE CHILDREN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION--THE PRESENT UNREST IN EDUCATION
+
+
+The problems as to the end or ends at which our educational agencies
+should aim in the training and instruction of the children of the
+nation, and of the right methods of attaining these ends once they have
+been definitely and clearly recognised, are at the present day receiving
+greater and greater attention not only from professed educationalists,
+but also from statesmen and the public generally. For, in spite of all
+that has been done during the past thirty years to increase the
+facilities for education and to improve the means of instruction, there
+is a deep-seated and widely spread feeling that, somehow or other,
+matters educationally are not well with us, as a nation, and that in
+this particular line of social development other countries have pushed
+forward, whilst we have been content to lag behind in the educational
+rear.
+
+The faults in our present educational structure are many, and in some
+cases obvious to all. In the first place, it is said, and with much
+truth, that there is no systematic coherence between the different parts
+of our educational machinery, and no thorough-going correlation between
+the various aims which the separate parts of the system are intended to
+realise. As Mr. De Montmorency has recently pointed out, we have always
+had a national group of educational facilities, more or less efficient,
+but we have never had, nor do we yet possess, a national system of
+education so differentiated in its aims and so correlated as to its
+parts as to form "an organic part of the life of the nation."[1] An
+educational system should subserve and foster the life of the whole: it
+should be so organised as to maintain a sufficient and efficient supply
+of all the services which a nation requires at the hands of its adult
+members. For it is only in so far as the educational system of any
+country fulfils this end that it can be "organic," and can be entitled
+to the claim of being called a national system.
+
+This lack of coherence between the different parts of our educational
+system and the want of any systematic plan or unity running through the
+whole is due to many causes. As a nation, we are little inclined to
+system-making, and as a consequence the problem of education as a whole
+and in its total relation to the life and well-being of the State has
+received but scant attention from politicians. Educational questions, in
+this country, are rarely treated on their own merits and apart from
+considerations of a party, political, or denominational character, and
+hence the problems which have received attention in the past and evoke
+discussion at the present are concerned with the nature of the
+constitution, and limits of the power of the bodies to whom should be
+entrusted the local control of the educational agencies of the country,
+rather than with the problems as to the aims which we should seek to
+realise through our educational organisation, and of the methods by
+which these aims may be best realised. Hence, as a nation, we have
+rarely considered for its own sake and as a whole the problem of the
+education of the children. And until we have done so--until we have made
+clear to ourselves the kind of future citizen which as a State we desire
+to rear up--our educational agencies must manifest a like
+indefiniteness, a like inconsistency, and a like want of connection as
+do our educational aims and ideals.
+
+Again, closely connected with this first-named defect in our educational
+organisation, and in fact following from it as a logical consequence, is
+our fatal method of developing this or that part of our educational
+system and of leaving the other parts to develop, if at all, without any
+central guidance or control, until at length we realise that the
+neglected parts also require attention, and must somehow or other be
+refitted into the whole. _E.g._, since 1870 there has been a great
+advance in the extent and intent of elementary education in both England
+and Scotland, but this progress has been of a one-sided nature, and
+there has been no corresponding advance either in the perfecting of the
+educational system as a whole, or in the co-ordination of the various
+grades of education. In Scotland, since the passing into law of the
+Education Bill of 1872, the means of elementary education have been
+widely extended and the methods of teaching have been greatly improved,
+but there has been no corresponding advance in the provision of the
+means of higher education, and as a consequence, at the present day, we
+find many districts without adequate provision for carrying on the
+education of the youth of the country beyond the Primary School stage.
+Secondary education has been provided in some centres by means of
+endowments; in others through the extension of the term "elementary" so
+as to include education of a more extended nature than was originally
+intended to be covered by that term. In England until 1902, very much
+the same conditions prevailed, but since then, mainly in order to remedy
+the state of things created by the judgment in the Cockerton Case, the
+control of primary, secondary, and technical education has been placed
+in the hands of the County and Borough Councils, who are empowered "to
+consider the educational needs of their area, and to take such steps as
+seem to them desirable, after consultation with the Board of Education,
+to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary, and to
+promote the general co-ordination of all forms of education." Tinder the
+powers so granted much has been done throughout England during the past
+few years to extend and make efficient the means of higher education; to
+erect schools which shall provide training for the future services
+required by the community and the State of the more highly gifted of its
+members, and to co-ordinate the work of the various agencies entrusted
+with the care and education of the children of the nation.
+
+Through the failure of the Education Bills of 1904 and 1905 to pass into
+law, Scotland still awaits the creation of local authorities charged
+with the control and direction of all grades of education, and in this
+respect her educational organisation is much more loosely compacted than
+the system which now exists in England.
+
+Further, in Scotland, on account of the absence of one controlling
+authority, we often find in those districts in which the provision for
+higher education is ample, imperfect co-ordination between the aims and
+work, on the one hand, of the Primary School, and on the other, of
+schools providing higher education. From this cause also it follows
+that, unlike our German neighbours, we have made little progress in
+determining the different functions which each particular type of Higher
+School shall perform in the social organism, and have not assigned the
+particular services which the State requires of each particular type of
+Higher School. It is surely manifest that the service which the modern
+industrial State looks for from its members is not the same in kind and
+is much more complex in its nature than that which was required during
+the mediaeval period, and that if this service is to be efficiently
+supplied, then there is need for Higher Schools varied in type and
+having various aims.
+
+This want of unity between the various parts of our educational system
+manifests itself again in the indefiniteness of aim of many of our
+Higher Schools, and in the lack of co-ordination between the Higher
+School on the one hand, and institutions providing university and
+advanced instruction on the other. Up till quite recently, the sole aim
+of our Secondary Schools was to provide students for the Universities
+and to supply the needs of the learned professions. But with the
+economic development of the country, and as a consequence of the keen
+international competition between nation and nation in the economic
+sphere, there has arisen a demand for a higher education different in
+kind from that provided by the older Universities, and a need for a type
+of Secondary School different in aim and curriculum from that which
+looks mainly to the provision of students intending to enter upon some
+one or other of the so-called well recognised learned professions. It is
+here, when compared and contrasted with the educational systems of some
+of our Continental neighbours, that we find the weakest point in our own
+system, and at the present time our most urgent need is for the
+extension and better equipment of the central institutions of the
+country which provide higher technical and commercial instruction.
+
+This unsatisfactory condition of things is due in large measure, as we
+have already pointed out, to our innate dislike as a nation of all
+system-making, and to the distrust felt by many minds of any and every
+form of State control of education. Hence, partly from these causes,
+partly as a result of historical conditions, it has followed that
+various authorities have in this country the guidance and control of
+education, with the usual result of want of unity of aim, of lack of
+correlation of means, and in some cases of overlapping and waste of the
+means of higher education.
+
+In the second place, while much has been done since the advent of
+compulsory elementary education to better the means of education and to
+increase the facilities for the higher instruction of the youth of the
+country, there is a widespread belief that all the hopes held out by
+the early advocates of universal compulsory education have not been
+realised, and that our Primary Schools in large measure have failed to
+turn out the type of citizen which a State such as ours requires for her
+after-service.
+
+Universal education has not proved a panacea for all the social evils of
+the Commonwealth, and while it must be admitted that much good has
+resulted from the adoption of universal and compulsory education, yet at
+the same time certain evils have followed in its train.
+
+Since the institution of universal education, it may be argued that the
+children of the nation have received a better training in the use of the
+more mechanical arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic, but the
+tendency has been to look upon the acquisition of these arts as _ends in
+themselves_, rather than as mere instruments for the further extension
+and development of knowledge and practice, and hence our Primary School
+system, to a large extent, has failed to cultivate the imagination of
+the child, and has also failed to train the reason and to develop
+initiative on the part of the pupil. There has been more instruction, it
+has been said, during the last thirty years, but less education; for the
+process of education consists in the building up within the child's mind
+of permanent and stable systems of ideas which shall hereafter function
+in the attainment and realisation of the various ends of life. Now, our
+school practice is still largely dominated by the old conception that
+mere memory knowledge is all-important, and as a consequence much of the
+so-called knowledge acquired during the school period is found valueless
+in after life to realise any definite purpose, for it is only in so far
+as the knowledge acquired has been systematised that it can afterwards
+be turned to use in the furtherance of the aims of adult life.
+
+From this it follows that, since much of the knowledge acquired during
+the school period has no bearing on the real and practical needs of
+life, the Primary School in many cases fails to create any permanent or
+real interest in the works either of nature or of society.
+
+But a much more serious charge is laid at times against our Primary
+School system. It is contended that during the past thirty years it has
+done little to raise the moral tone of the community, and it has done
+still less to develop that sense of civic and national responsibility
+without which the moral and social progress of a nation is impossible.
+Our huge city schools are manufactories rather than educational
+institutions--places where yearly a certain number of the youth of the
+country are turned out able to some extent to make use of the mechanical
+arts of reading and writing, and with a smattering of many branches of
+knowledge, but with little or no training for the moral and civic
+responsibilities of life. This is evident, it is urged, if we consider
+how little the school does to counteract and to supplant the evil
+influences of a bad home or social environment. What truth there may be
+in these charges and what must be done to remedy this state of matters
+will be discussed when we consider later the existing Elementary School
+system. Here it is sufficient to point out that one of the causes at
+work to-day tending to arouse a renewed interest in educational problems
+is the feeling now beginning to find expression that the kind of
+universal elementary education provided somehow or other fails, and has
+failed, to produce all that was in the beginning expected of it--that it
+has in the past been too much divorced from the real interests of life,
+and that it must be remodelled if it is to fit the individual to perform
+his duty to society.
+
+A third fault often found with our existing school system is that in the
+case of the majority of the children the process of education stops at
+too early an age. The belief is slowly spreading that if we are to
+educate thoroughly the children of the nation so as to fit them to
+perform efficiently the after duties of life, something of a more
+systematic character than has as yet been done is required, in order to
+carry on and to extend the education of the child after the Elementary
+school stage has been passed. For it is evident that during the Primary
+School period all that can be expected in the case of the larger number
+of children is that the school should lay a sound basis in the knowledge
+of the elementary arts necessary for all social intercourse, and for the
+realisation of the simpler needs of life. A beginning may be made,
+during this period, in the formation and establishment of systems of
+knowledge which have for their aim the realisation of the more complex
+theoretical and practical interests of after life, but unless these are
+furthered and extended in the years in which the boy is passing from
+youth to manhood, then as a consequence much of what has been acquired
+during the early period fails to be of use either to the individual or
+to society.
+
+Again, it is surely unwise to give no heed to the systematic education
+of the majority of the children during the years when they are most
+susceptible to moral and social influences, and to leave the moral and
+social education of the youth during the adolescent period to the
+unregulated and uncertain forces of society.
+
+Lastly, in this connection it is economically wasteful for the nation to
+spend largely in laying the mere foundations of knowledge, and then to
+adopt the policy of non-interference, and to leave to the individual
+parent the right of determining whether the foundation so laid shall be
+further utilised or not.
+
+A fourth criticism urged against our educational system is that in the
+past we have paid too little attention to the technical education of
+those destined in after life to become the leaders of industry and the
+captains of commerce. Our Higher School system has been too
+predominantly of one type--it has taken too narrow a view of the higher
+services required by the State of its members, and our educational
+system has not been so organised as to maintain and farther the economic
+efficiency of the State. For it may be contended that the economic
+efficiency of the individual and of the nation is fundamental in the
+sense that without this, the attainment of the other goods of life can
+not or can be only imperfectly realised, and it is obvious that
+according to the measure in which the economic welfare of the individual
+and of the State is secured, in like measure is secured the opportunity
+for the development and realisation of the other aims of the individual
+and of the nation.
+
+Thus the present unrest as regards our educational affairs may be
+largely traced to the four causes enumerated. We have begun to realise
+that our educational system lacks definiteness of aim, and that its
+various parts are badly co-ordinated; that, in short, we do not as yet
+possess a national system of education which ministers to and subserves
+the life of the State as a whole. We are further beginning to perceive
+that the provision of the means of higher education is too important a
+matter to be left to the care of the private individual, and that
+education must be the concern of the whole body of the people. Hence it
+has been said that on the creation of a national system of education,
+fitted to meet the needs of the modern State, depends largely the future
+of Britain as a nation.
+
+Again, all that was hoped for as the result of universal compulsory
+education has not been realised, and the feeling is growing that there
+is something defective in the aims of our Primary School system, and
+that it fails, and has failed, to develop in the individual the moral
+and social qualities required by a State such as ours, which is becoming
+increasingly democratic in character. Further, we are learning, partly
+through experience, partly from the example of other countries, that the
+period during which our children must be under the regulated control of
+the school and of society must be lengthened, if we are to realise the
+final aim of all education, which is to enable the individual on the
+intellectual side to apply the knowledge gained to the furtherance and
+extension of the various purposes of life, and on the moral side to
+enable him to use his freedom rightly.
+
+Lastly, as a nation, we are beginning to discover that without the
+better technical training of our workmen, and especially of those to
+whom in after-life will be entrusted the control and direction of our
+industries and commerce, we are likely to fall behind the other advanced
+nations in the race for economic supremacy.
+
+But, in addition to these negative forces at work, tending to produce
+dissatisfaction with our educational position, the opinion is growing
+stronger and clearer that the education, physical, intellectual, and
+moral, of the children of the nation is a matter of supreme importance
+for the future well-being and the future supremacy of the nation, and
+that it is the duty of the State to see that the opportunity is
+furnished to each individual to realise to the full all the
+potentialities of his nature which make for good, so that he may be
+enabled to render that service to the community for which by nature he
+is best fitted. Compulsory elementary education is but one stage in the
+process. We must, as a nation, at least see that no insuperable
+obstacles are placed in the path of those who have the requisite ability
+and desire to advance farther in the development of their powers.
+Moreover, if need be, we must, in the words of Rousseau, compel those
+who from various causes are unwilling to realise themselves, to attain
+their full freedom.
+
+This demand for the better and fuller education of the children of the
+nation is motived partly by the growing conviction that the freedom,
+political, civil, and religious, which we as a nation enjoy, can only be
+maintained, furthered, and strengthened in so far as we have educated
+our children rightly to understand and rightly to use this freedom to
+which they are heirs. Democracy, as a form of government and as a power
+for good, is only possible when the mass of the people have been wisely
+and fully educated, so that they are enabled to take an intelligent and
+comprehensive interest in all that pertains to the good and future
+welfare of the State. A democracy of ill or partially educated people
+sooner or later becomes an ochlocracy,[2] ruled not by the best, but by
+those who can work upon the self-interest of the badly or one-sidedly
+educated. A true democracy is in fact ever aristocratic, in the original
+sense of that term. A false democracy ever tends to become ochlocratic,
+and the only safeguard against such a state of conditions arising in a
+country where representative government exists is the spread of higher
+education, and the inculcation of a right conception of the nature and
+functions of the State and of the duties of citizenship.
+
+But further, the demand for increased facilities for higher and
+technical education is motived largely by the conviction that in the
+education of our children we must in the future more than we have done
+in the past take means to secure the fitness of the individual to
+perform efficiently some specific function in the economic organisation
+of society. And the demand proceeds, not from any desire to narrow down
+the aims of education, to place it on a purely utilitarian basis, but
+from the belief that the securing of the physical and economic
+efficiency of the individual is of fundamental and primary importance
+both for his own welfare and the well-being and progress of the State,
+and that in proportion as we secure the higher economic efficiency of a
+larger and larger number of the people we also secure the essential
+condition for the development and extension of those other goods of life
+which can be attained by the majority of a nation only after a certain
+measure of economic prosperity and economic security is assured.
+
+The social evils of our own or of any time cannot, of course, be removed
+by any one remedy, but an education which endeavours to secure that each
+individual shall have the opportunity to develop himself and to fit
+himself for the after performance of the service for which by nature he
+is suited may do much to mitigate the evils incident upon the
+industrial organisation of society. If this end is to be realised, then
+three things at least are necessary. We must seek by some means or other
+to check the large number of our boys and girls who, after leaving the
+Primary School, drift year by year, either through the ignorance or the
+cupidity or the poverty of their parents, into the ranks of untrained
+labour, and who in the course of two or three years go to swell the
+ranks of the unskilled, casual workers, and become in many cases, in the
+course of time, the unemployed and the unemployable. In the second
+place, we must endeavour to secure the better technical training of the
+youth during their years of apprenticeship, and so tend to raise the
+general efficiency of the workers of the nation whatever the
+nature--manual or mental--of their employment. In the third place, we
+must endeavour, by means of our system of education, to increase the
+mobility of labour. In the modern State, where changes in the industrial
+organisation are frequent, the worker who can most easily adapt himself
+to changing circumstances is best assured of constant employment, and a
+great part of the social evils of our time may be traced to this want of
+mobility on the part of a large number of our workers.
+
+The mobility of labour is of course always determined within certain
+limits, but much may and could be done by pursuing from the beginning a
+right method in educating the child to develop its power of
+self-adaptation to the needs of a changing environment.
+
+If these results are to be attained, then we shall have, as a nation, to
+make clear to ourselves the real meaning and purpose of education; we
+shall have to make explicit the nature of the ends which we desire to
+secure as the result of our educational efforts, and we shall have to
+organise our educational agencies so that the ends desired shall be
+secured.
+
+Let us now consider the question of the meaning, purpose, and ends of
+education.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _National Education and National Life_, p. 1.
+
+[2] _Ochlos_, a mob.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE MEANING AND PROCESS OF EDUCATION
+
+
+"Of all the animals with which the globe is peopled, there is none
+towards whom nature seems, at first sight, to have exercised more
+cruelty than towards man, in the numberless wants and necessities with
+which she has loaded him, and in the slender means which she affords to
+the relieving of these necessities. In other creatures these two
+particulars generally compensate each other. If we consider the lion as
+a voracious and carnivorous animal, we shall easily discover him to be
+very necessitous, but if we turn our eye to his make and temper, his
+agility, his courage, his arms, and his force, we shall find that his
+advantages hold proportion with his wants.... In man alone this
+unnatural conjunction of infirmity and of necessity may be observed in
+the greatest perfection. Not only the food which is required for his
+sustenance flies his search and approach, or at least requires his
+labour to be produced, but he must be possessed of clothes and lodging
+to defend him against the injuries of the weather: though to consider
+him only in himself, he is provided neither with arms, nor force, nor
+other natural abilities which are in any degree answerable to so many
+'necessities.' 'Tis by society alone he is able to supply his defects
+and raise himself up to an equality with his fellow-creatures, and even
+acquires a superiority over them."[3] In these terms Hume draws the
+distinction between man and the animals, and if, for the term Society,
+we substitute the word Education, then we shall more truly describe the
+means by which man overcomes his natural infirmities and meets his
+necessities.
+
+But we have to ask, Wherein does man differ from the animals? what power
+or faculty does he possess over and above those possessed by himself and
+the animals in common? and how does it happen that as his wants and
+needs increase and multiply the means to satisfy them also tend to
+increase? Now, the animal is guided wholly or mainly by instinct. In the
+case of many animals the whole conduct of their life from birth to death
+is governed by this means. In the case, indeed, of some of the higher
+animals, there is a limited power of modifying this government by
+instinct through the experience acquired during the lifetime of the
+individual. But man alone possesses the power or faculty of reason. And
+it is through the possession of this power that he alone of all
+creatures can be educated; it is the possession of this power which
+places him above the rest of creation, and it is in the possession of
+this power that the possibility of his greatness, and also of his
+baseness, lies. Now, an instinct may be defined as an inborn and
+inherited system of means for the attainment of a definite end of such a
+nature that once the appropriate external stimulus is applied the system
+tends to work itself out in an automatic manner until the end is
+attained, and independently of any control exercised by the individual.
+The working out of such an action may be accompanied by consciousness,
+but the power of memory would only be valuable in so far as the instinct
+was imperfect, and in so far as the better attainment of the end was
+fostered by direct individual experience. Thus the greater the range of
+instinct the less the scope of and the less the need for
+education--_i.e._, for acquiring experiences that will function in
+rendering more efficient future action; and conversely, the less the
+range of instinct the greater the need for education, for acquiring
+experiences that may function in the guidance and direction of future
+action.
+
+Now, in man the range of instinct is small. In fact, it is questionable
+whether in the strict usage of the term he possesses any one perfect
+instinct. But to overcome this weakness of his nature he possesses the
+power or faculty of reason, and this consists in the ability to
+self-find, to self-adapt, and to self-establish systems of means for the
+attainment of definite ends. "Man's splendid power of learning through
+experience and of applying the contents of his memory to forecast and
+mould the future is his peculiar glory. It is this which distinguishes
+him from and raises him above all other animals. This it is that makes
+him man. This it is that has enabled him to conquer the whole world and
+to adapt himself to a million conditions of life."[4] This it is that
+also makes possible the education of the child, and raises the hope that
+by a truer and deeper conception of the process of education we shall be
+enabled to mould the character of the children to worthy ends.
+
+But although man is pre-eminently the rational animal, yet reason only
+operates, and can only operate, in so far as it is called into activity
+by the need of satisfying some inborn or acquired desire. That is, man
+possesses not only reason, but also certain instinctive tendencies to
+action. In early life, the instincts of curiosity, of imitation, of
+emulation, and the various forms of the play instinct are ever inciting
+the child to action, and ever evoking his reason-activity to acquire new
+experiences which shall function in the more efficient performance of
+future action. At a later stage other instinctive tendencies make their
+appearance, as _e.g._ the parental instinct, and serve as motives for
+the further acquisition of new experiences--for the establishment of
+other systems of means for the attainment of desired ends. But as the
+child passes from infancy to youth and manhood, these instinctive
+tendencies, although ever present, alter their character, and acquired
+ends or interests become the motives of actions. But these acquired ends
+or interests are not something created out of nothing: they are grafted
+upon and arise out of the innate and inherited instinctive tendencies of
+man's nature. Thus, _e.g._, the instinct of mere self-preservation may
+pass into the desire to attain a certain standard of life, or to
+maintain a certain social status; the instinct of curiosity into the
+desire to find out and to systematise knowledge for its own sake. But
+for the realisation of these instinctive ends, whether in their crude or
+acquired forms, the finding and the establishment of systems of means in
+every case is necessary, and in order that they may be realised man must
+acquire the requisite capacities for action. In the case of the animal
+the instinct or impulse to action is inherited, but the capacity for
+action is also inborn or innate. Man possesses all the innate ends or
+interests which the animal possesses. Moreover, upon these innate ends
+or interests can be grafted ends or interests innumerable and varied in
+character, but in order that they may be satisfied he must through the
+evoking into activity of reason find and adapt means for their
+attainment. Thus the general nature of our conscious human life is that
+throughout we are striving to attain ends of a more or less explicit
+nature, and endeavouring to find out and to establish means for their
+attainment. Whether in the performance of some simple, practical act, or
+in trying to observe accurately what is presented to us through the
+senses, or in endeavouring to realise imaginatively something not
+directly presented to the senses, or in performing an abstract process
+of thought, the activity of reason in its formal aspect is ever one and
+the same. Hence in education we have not to do with the development of
+many powers or faculties but with the development or the evolution of
+the one power or faculty of reason, and the process of development in
+its general nature is always the same in kind--viz., the process of
+systematically building up knowledge which shall function in the future
+determination of conduct. What varies in each case, at each stage of
+development, is the nature of the material which goes to form this or
+that system, and the character of the identity or link of connection
+which binds part to part within any given system. A system of knowledge
+may be built up of perceptual elements, of ideas derived directly
+through the medium of the senses. Of such a character are the systems of
+knowledge possessed by the artist and the musician. Again, a system of
+knowledge may be composed wholly or mainly of images--of remembered
+ideas, so altered and so modified as to form and fit into a new whole.
+Lastly, the elements which go to form the component parts of the system
+may be of a conceptual character. Thus we may select the number aspect
+of things for consideration and treatment, and so build up and establish
+within the mind of the child a number system. But in each and every case
+the power at work is the activity of reason, and the end ever in view in
+the selection and in the formation of the system is the satisfaction of
+some end or interest desired either for its own sake or as a means to
+some further and remoter end.
+
+Further, a system of knowledge may differ not only in the nature of the
+materials of which it is composed, but also in the mode of its
+formation; _i.e._, the nature of the identity which binds part to part
+within the system may vary in character. Now it is upon the nature of
+the systems which we ultimately form in the mind of the child and upon
+the method which we pursue in our process of system or knowledge making
+that the resultant character of our education depends.
+
+A system of knowledge may be related as regards its parts by some
+qualitative or quantitative bond of identity. All sciences of mere
+classification are formed in this way, and the formation of such systems
+is in some cases a necessary preliminary to the evolution of the higher
+forms of system. But the important point to note is that all such
+systems are valuable only as a means to the further recognition, the
+further classification, of similar instances. An individual whose mind
+was wholly formed in this way might be compared to a well-arranged
+museum, where everything is classified and arranged on the basis of
+qualitative identity. But manifestly this mere arranging and classifying
+of knowledge has only a limited value. Such systems can never be used as
+means for the realisation of any practical need of life, can never by
+themselves lead us to intrinsically connected knowledge.
+
+A second and higher form of system is established whenever the bond of
+connection between part and part is an identity of function or of law.
+All language systems are of this nature, and the more highly synthetic
+the language the more intrinsic the connection there is between the
+parts of the system. Further, it should be noted that systems of this
+character can be used for the attainment of other ends than those of
+mere recognition and classification. They, of course, can be used as
+instruments of intercourse, of culture, and of commerce. But they may
+further be utilised in education in the training of the pupil to
+self-apply a system of knowledge to the solution of relatively new
+problems, and it is for this reason mainly that the ancient languages
+possess their value as educational instruments.
+
+Lastly, systems of knowledge may be formed in which the inter-relation
+of part to part within the system is that of identity of cause and
+effect. In the establishment of scientific knowledge the aim is to show
+the causal inter-relation of part to part within a systematic whole or
+unity. Hence also, as in the case of language systems, systems of this
+nature are capable of being used to train the pupil to self-apply
+knowledge in the solution of practical and theoretical problems, and in
+the realising of the practical ends of life. Once again it must be noted
+that in the establishment of the various systems of knowledge the one
+activity ever present is that of reason seeking ever to connect part to
+part in order that some end or interest may be attained. Moreover, we
+may misuse the power of reason, and employ it in the attainment of ends
+which are valueless in the sense that they further no real interest or
+end in life. This is done whenever knowledge is crammed, whenever the
+bond of connection between one part of knowledge and the other is
+extrinsic, and whenever facts are connected and remembered by bonds of a
+more or less accidental or factitious nature. And since such knowledge
+can further no direct interest or end in life, its acquisition must, as
+a rule, be motived by some strong indirect interest. As a consequence,
+whenever the indirect interest, whatever its nature may be,--the fear of
+punishment, or the passing of an examination,--ceases to operate, then
+the desire for further acquisition also ceases. Hence it follows that
+the establishment of any such system is of comparatively little value.
+It may pave the way at a later period for the formation of a system of
+intrinsically connected knowledge, but as a general rule such systems,
+because they cannot be used, tend soon to drop out of mind, and to be of
+no further consequence in the determination of conduct. But further,
+this misuse of reason, this inciting of the mind to memorise facts
+unrelated except by their mere accidental time or space relations, will
+if persisted in tend to render the individual dull, stupid, and
+unimaginative.
+
+The systems of knowledge, then, of most value are those which establish
+intrinsic connections between part and part; for it is only by means of
+systems of this character that action can be determined and knowledge
+extended. In this sense we may agree with Herbert Spencer[5] that
+science or systematised knowledge is of chiefest value both for the
+guidance of conduct and for the discipline of mind. At the same time we
+must not fall into the Spencerian error of identifying science "with the
+study of surrounding phenomena," and in making the antithesis between
+science and linguistic studies one between dealing with real things on
+the one hand, and mere words on the other.
+
+Further, since the establishment of a system of means is always through
+the self-finding and the self-forming of the system, this furnishes the
+key to the only sound method of education--viz., that the child must be
+trained in the self-discovering and the self-connecting of knowledge.
+This does not mean that the method should be heuristic in Rousseau's
+sense, that the child should be told nothing, but be left to rediscover
+all knowledge for himself. But it does mean that in the imparting of the
+garnered experience of the race the child must be trained in the methods
+by which the race has slowly and gradually built up a knowledge of the
+means necessary for the realisation of the many and complex ends of
+civilised life.
+
+Before passing on to consider the ends at which we should aim in the
+education of the child, it may be well briefly to summarise the
+conclusions reached.
+
+
+     1. Man is distinguished from the rest of creation by the possession
+     of reason: the animal life is mainly or wholly guided by instinct.
+
+     2. Man like the animals possesses instincts or instinctive
+     tendencies, but for their realisation he must seek out and
+     establish systems of means for their attainment. Bereft of these
+     instinctive tendencies of his nature, man would have no incentive
+     to acquire experiences for the more efficient guidance of his
+     future conduct.
+
+     3. In the course of the development and extension of experience
+     there gradually becomes grafted upon these innate instincts,
+     interests or ends of an acquired nature, and one of the main
+     functions of education is to create, foster, and establish on a
+     permanent and stable basis, interests of ethical and social worth.
+
+     4. The power of reason is no occult power: it is simply the
+     capacity for finding and establishing systems of means for the
+     attainment of ends; or it may be defined as the power of acquiring
+     experience and of self-applying this experience in the future
+     guidance of conduct.
+
+     5. The evolution of intelligence in man is the evolution of this
+     reason-activity to the attainment of new and more complex
+     theoretical and practical ends or interests. At an early stage the
+     systems of knowledge established are for the attainment of the
+     relatively simple needs of life, and are composed of perceptual and
+     imagined elements. At a later stage the systems formed may be of
+     the most complex nature, and are composed of conceptual elements.
+
+     6. Man is the only being capable of education in the strict usage
+     of the term. He alone must acquire the means for the realisation of
+     the various desired ends of life.
+
+     7. The process of education is a process which, utilising as
+     motives to acquirement the instinctive tendencies of the child's
+     nature, seeks to establish systems of means for their realisation,
+     and upon these innate or inborn instincts to graft acquired ends or
+     interests which shall hereafter function in the attainment of ends
+     of economic, ethical, and social worth.
+
+     8. The only truly educative method is the method which trains the
+     pupil to find, establish, and apply systems of knowledge in the
+     attainment of ends of felt value.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] Hume's _Treatise of Human Nature_, Bk. III. part ii. sec. 2.
+
+[4] _Principles of Heredity_, by G. Archdall Reid, p. 235.
+
+[5] Cf. Herbert Spencer, _Education_, especially chap. i.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE END OF EDUCATION
+
+
+We have seen that the process of education is the process of acquiring
+and organising experiences that will function in the determination of
+future conduct and ensure the more efficient performance of future
+action; or we may say that the process is one by which means are
+gradually established and fixed in the mind for the attainment of ends
+of value for the realisation of the varied and complex interests of
+life.
+
+Now, this acquisition and organisation of experience is never entirely
+"left to the blind control of inherited impulse," nor is the child
+wholly left to gather and organise his experiences upon the incentive of
+any innate or acquired interest that may for the time engage his will.
+The various agencies of society--the home, the school, the shop and
+yard--are ever constantly seeking to establish such or such systems of
+ideas, and to prevent the formation of other systems. Hence it follows
+that education is not a mere natural process--not a process of acquiring
+experience in response to the demands of this or that natural need, but
+that it is a regulated process, controlled with the view of finally
+leading the child to acquire certain experiences, to organise certain
+systems of means for the attainment of such or such ends.
+
+Moreover, at various periods in history, the end or ends of education,
+the kinds of experience thought necessary and valuable for the child to
+acquire have varied, and still vary, and must vary according to the
+nature of the civilisation into which the child is born and to which his
+education must somehow or other adjust him; _i.e._, there is no one
+type of experience, no one kind of education, which is equally suited to
+meet the needs of the child born in a modern industrial State and the
+child whose education must fit him hereafter to fulfil his duties as a
+member of a savage tribe.
+
+Further, in determining the nature of the experiences useful to acquire,
+we must take into account not only the civilisation to which the child
+is to be adjusted, but we must also take note of the nature of the
+services which the given society requires of its adult members. These
+services vary in character, and there can be no one kind of education
+which equally fits the individual to perform efficiently any and every
+service. To postulate this would be to affirm that there is a kind of
+experience useful for the realisation indifferently of any and every
+purpose of adult life, and to affirm that a system of knowledge acquired
+and organised for the attainment of certain definite ends can be used
+for the furtherance of ends different in character and having no
+intrinsic connection with each other. Further, to assert that there is
+one type of education equally suited to train and to develop the
+reason-activity of the individual in every direction is to neglect the
+fact that individuals differ in innate capacity. These differences are
+due in part to differences in the extent and character of the receptive
+powers of individuals, and are to be traced, probably, to differences in
+the size and constitution of the sensory areas of the brain, and are due
+also in part to inborn differences in the capacity for acquiring and
+utilising experiences. As a consequence of these differences one
+individual will acquire and organise certain kinds of experience more
+readily than others.
+
+But not only have the ends sought to be realised through the educational
+agencies of society varied in the past--not only do we find that the
+ideals at present vary in character according to the stage of
+civilisation which the particular country has reached--we also find that
+the agencies of society determining the character and end of education
+also vary. For in the discussion of the ends sought to be attained by
+means of education, we must remember that these are not determined by
+the teacher, but by "the adult portion of the Community organised in the
+forms of the Family, the State, the Church, and various miscellaneous
+associations"[6] desirous of promoting the welfare of the community. At
+one time the Church largely determined the character and ends of
+education, but the tendency at the present time is for the State to
+control more and more the education of the rising generation. In some
+countries the entire control of all forms of education, primary,
+secondary, and technical, has come under the guidance of the State, and
+in our own country elementary education is now largely under the control
+of the State authorities, and the other forms of education tend
+increasingly to come under this control. Not only is this so, but the
+period during which the State exercises its control over the education
+of the child is gradually being lengthened.
+
+Many causes are at work tending to produce these results in the first
+place, it is being clearly realised that there can be no thorough-going
+co-ordination of the various grades of instruction until all the
+agencies of education in each area are placed under one authority acting
+under the guidance of some central body responsible for the organisation
+and direction of the education of the district as a whole. Further,
+there can be no satisfactory settlement of the problem as to what
+particular function each distinct type of Higher School shall perform
+until the whole means of education are under one determining authority.
+
+In the second place, the higher education of the children of the nation
+is too important a matter to be left entirely to the care of the private
+individual, and its cost is too great in many cases to be wholly borne
+by each individual parent. But this provision, organisation, and control
+of the means of higher education by the State does not necessarily
+imply that it should be free--that the whole burden should be laid on
+the shoulders of the general taxpayer. Yet unless means are provided by
+which the poor but clever boy can realise himself, then there is so much
+loss to the community.
+
+In the third place, the organisation of all forms of education and the
+more extended provision of higher and especially of technical training
+is necessary, if for no other reason than as a means of economic
+protection and economic security.
+
+Lastly, the better organisation of our educational agencies is necessary
+as a means of securing a democracy capable of understanding the meaning
+of moral and civic freedom and of using this rightly.
+
+But while the concrete nature of the ends to which our educational
+efforts are directed may vary in accordance with the needs of a changing
+and progressive civilisation, nevertheless the general nature of the
+ends sought to be attained by the education of the children of a nation
+is permanent and unchangeable. That is, we have to recognise a universal
+as well as a particular element in our educational ideals. Now, the
+universal aim of all education is, or rather should be, to correlate the
+child with the civilisation of his time; to lead him to acquire those
+experiences which will in after-life enable him to perform ably and
+rightly his duties as a worker, as a citizen, and as a member of an
+ethical and spiritual community organised for the securing of the
+well-being of the individual. And the higher the civilisation, the more
+difficult, the more complex, and the more lengthened must be this
+process of acquiring experiences necessary to fit the individual to his
+environment. Hence, whatever the particular nature of the environment
+may be, the aim of education must be the fitting of the individual to
+his natural and social environments. Hence also any organisation of the
+means of education must have as its threefold object the securing of the
+physical efficiency, of the economic efficiency, and the ethical
+efficiency of the rising generation. In short, as Mr. Bagley[7] puts
+it, the securing of the social efficiency of the individual must be the
+ultimate aim of all education. To be socially efficient implies that as
+the result of the process of education certain experiences, and the
+power of applying them, have been acquired by each individual, so that
+by this means he is enabled to perform some particular social service
+for the community of a directly or indirectly economic nature. For if,
+as the result of the educative process, we establish systems of means
+for the realisation of ends which have no social value, then so far we
+have failed to make the individual socially efficient. "The youth we
+would train has little time to spare; he owes but the first fifteen or
+sixteen years of his life to his tutor, the remainder is due to action.
+Let us employ this short time in necessary instruction. Away with your
+crabbed, logical subtleties; they are abuses, things by which our lives
+can never be made better."[8] In these words Montaigne writes against
+the false ideal that the mere accumulation of knowledge apart from any
+purpose it may serve in enabling us better to understand either the
+world of nature or of history should be the aim of education, and
+throughout all education we must ever keep in mind that knowledge
+acquired must be capable of being used and applied for the realisation
+of some social purpose, otherwise it is so much useless lumber, to the
+individual a burden, soon dropped, to society valueless, since it can
+maintain and further no real interest of the community.
+
+But to be socially efficient implies not merely that the individual
+should be fitted to perform some service economically useful to the
+community, it further implies that as the result of the process of
+education there should have been acquired certain capacities of action
+which restrain him from unduly interfering with the freedom of others.
+He must acquire certain experiences which restrain him from hindering
+the full and free development of others; he must be trained to use his
+freedom rightly, to acquire those capacities for action which fit him to
+take his place in the moral cosmos of his time and generation. Further,
+as Mr. Bagley also points out, to be socially efficient implies in
+addition that the individual should contribute something further to the
+advancement of the civilisation into which he is born, and thus pass on
+to his successors an increasing heritage.
+
+The threefold aim of all education, then, is to secure the physical, the
+economic, and the ethical efficiency of the future members of the
+community; and our educational agencies must throughout keep this
+threefold aspect in view.
+
+To secure the physical efficiency of the child is necessary, in the
+first place, because a strong, healthy, vigorous body is a good in
+itself, apart from the fact that without sound health the other ends of
+life cannot, or can be only imperfectly realised. It is an erroneous
+point of view to maintain that many men have done good intellectual work
+in spite of physical ill-health, and even in cases where there was
+present some physical defect. The real thing to keep in mind is that
+these individuals do not represent the average, and that for the normal
+individual weak health or the presence of physical defect lessens his
+intellectual and moral vigour. We can, in the light of modern
+psychology, no longer regard mind and body as separate entities having a
+development independent of each other, but must regard them as
+conditioning and conditioned by each other.
+
+In the second place, the care of the physical health of the child is
+important, because any impairment or defect in the sense organs--the
+avenues of experience--implies a corresponding defect or want in mental
+growth, and as a consequence tends to render the individual economically
+and socially less efficient in after-life.
+
+In the third place, and this truth is being gradually put into practice
+in the education of the weak-minded and of the physically defective,
+sound physical health is one of the conditions of right moral activity.
+This truth Rousseau emphasised when he declared: "that the weaker the
+body, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the better it obeys. All
+the sensual passions find lodgment in effeminate bodies, and the less
+they are satisfied the more irritable they become. The body must needs
+be vigorous to obey the soul: a good servant ought to be robust."
+
+We shall inquire further into this question when we come to treat of the
+physical education of the child, but what we wish to point out is that
+one aim of all our educational efforts must be to secure the physical
+efficiency of the rising generation, on the grounds that sound physical
+health is a good in itself; is a means to the securing of the economic
+efficiency of the individual and of society; and is a condition of
+securing the ethical efficiency of the individual.
+
+In the second place, the securing of the economic efficiency of the
+individual must be one of the aims of our educational efforts. This does
+not imply that our educational curriculum should be based on purely
+utilitarian lines, and that all subjects whose utilitarian value is not
+immediately apparent should be banished from the schoolroom. But it does
+imply that whether in the education of the professional man or of the
+industrial worker all instruction either directly or indirectly must
+have as its final result the efficiency of the individual as a worker.
+An education which fits the individual to use his leisure rightly may
+have as much effect in increasing the productive powers of the
+individual as that which looks more narrowly to his technical training.
+Further, we must remember that the larger number by far of the children
+of the modern State must in after-life become industrial workers, and
+that any system of education which neglects this fact, which makes no
+provision for the technical training of the children of the working
+classes, and has no adequate system of selecting and training those who
+by innate capacity are fitted to become the leaders in industry, is a
+system not in harmony with the characteristics of modern life, and that
+unless this economic efficiency is secured, then the opportunity for the
+development of the other ends of life cannot be secured.
+
+Lastly, the securing of the ethical efficiency of the future members of
+the State must be one of our ultimate aims. The ethical aim of education
+may be said to be the supreme end, in the sense that it is the essential
+condition for the security, the stability, and the progress of society;
+and also from the fact that the ethical spirit of doing the work for the
+sake of the work should permeate all education.
+
+In concluding this chapter what needs to be emphasised is that while the
+process of education remains ever the same, ever consists in acquiring
+and organising experience, in and through the working of reason incited
+to activity by the need of satisfying some natural or acquired interest,
+in order that future action may be rendered more efficient, and whilst
+the general nature of the ends to be attained may be said to be
+permanent and unchangeable, yet the particular and concrete ends at
+which we should aim in the education of our children is a practical
+question which every nation has, from time to time, to ask and answer
+afresh in the light of her national ideals and in view of her national
+aspirations. Nay, further, it is a question which with every necessary
+change in her internal organisation, and with every fundamental
+alteration in her relation to her external neighbours, has to be asked
+and answered anew by each and every State desirous of retaining her
+place amongst the nations of the world and of securing the welfare and
+happiness of her individual members. It is mainly because we as a nation
+have not realised this truth that our educational organisation has,
+neither in the explicitness and clearness of its aims, nor in the
+distinction, gradation, and co-ordination of its means, attained the
+same thoroughness and self-consistency as that possessed by the
+educational systems of some of our Continental neighbours.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] Cf. Professor Findlay, _Journal of Education_ (Sept. 1899), also
+"_Principles of Class Teaching_," p. 2.
+
+[7] Cf. _The Educative Process_, chap. iii., esp. pp. 59, 60
+(Macmillan).
+
+[8] Montaigne, _The Education of Children_, L. E. Rector, Ph.D.
+(_International Education Series_), Appleton, New York.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION
+
+
+The end of education is, as we have seen, the securing of the future
+social efficiency of the rising generation, and the method in every case
+is through the evoking of the reason-activity of the individual to
+organise and establish in the minds of the young and immature, systems
+of ideas which will hereafter function as means in the attainment of
+ends of definite social worth.
+
+The question now arises as to whether the provision and organisation of
+the agencies of education may be safely left to the care and
+self-interest of the individual parent, or whether on principle such
+provision is a duty which devolves upon the State.
+
+The principle of the State provision of the means of elementary
+education has now practically been admitted, and whether wisely or
+unwisely, the larger part by far of the cost of this provision now falls
+upon the shoulders of the general and local taxpayer. _E.g._, in England
+in 1902 there were six hundred and thirty-three thousand fee-paying
+children in the Public Elementary Schools, and over five millions
+receiving their education free.[9] Further, by the Education Act
+(England) of 1902 and by the Education and Local Taxation Account
+(Scotland) Act of the same year the principle of the State aid for the
+provision of the means of secondary and technical education may be said
+also practically to have been recognised. By the former Act certain
+Imperial funds derived from the income on Probate and Licence duties
+were handed over to the Councils of counties and boroughs for
+expenditure on the provision of the means of education other than
+elementary, and at the same time these bodies were empowered, if they
+thought it necessary, to impose a limited rate for the same purpose. In
+Scotland at the same time a certain part of Scotland's share of the
+"whisky" money was set aside for the provision of secondary education in
+urban and rural districts, and Secondary Education Committees were
+appointed in the counties and principal boroughs charged with the
+allocation of the funds towards the aid and increase of the provision of
+higher education in their respective districts.
+
+But while this has been done, the question as to whether and to what
+extent the State should undertake the provision of the means of higher
+education is still one on which there is no general agreement. If it is
+the duty of the State to see that the provision of the means of
+education, elementary, secondary, technical, and university, is adequate
+to the attainment of the end of securing the future social efficiency of
+all the members of the community, then it must be admitted that the
+means at present provided for this purpose are totally inadequate, and
+that the method followed in furnishing this provision is not of a kind
+to ensure that the funds granted are spent in the manner best calculated
+to extend the agencies and to increase the efficiency of the higher
+education of the children of the nation. This latter objection applies
+more especially in the case of Scotland. In that country certain
+nominated bodies who are responsible only to themselves and to the
+Scotch Education Department are entrusted with the expenditure of the
+monies received for the extension of the means of higher education, and
+since these bodies stand in no intimate connection with the
+representative bodies entrusted with the control of elementary
+education, no efficient co-ordination of the two grades of education is
+possible. Further, in some cases sectional interests rather than the
+educational interests of the district as a whole are the main motives at
+work in determining the distribution of the funds amongst the various
+bodies claiming to participate in its benefits. The uncertainty of the
+amount of income available for this purpose, and the limitation in
+England of the power of rating, might also be urged in objection to this
+peculiarly English method of providing the means for the higher
+education of the youth of the country.
+
+Similar reasons to those urged prior to 1870 in favour of the State
+provision of elementary education may be urged in favour of the
+extension of the principle to higher education. These reasons are
+nowhere more clearly stated than in the writings of John Stuart Mill.
+
+In discussing the functions of government, Mill lays down that education
+is one of those things which it is admissible on principle that a
+Government should provide for the people, and although in adducing the
+reasons for the State undertaking this duty he is concerned mainly with
+the provision of the means of elementary education, yet looking to the
+altered social conditions of our own time, and taking into account the
+difference in the economic relations which exist now between Great
+Britain and her Continental rivals, the arguments advanced by Mill are
+no less applicable now to the extension of the principle of State
+provision. Let us consider these arguments.
+
+In the first place, Mill declares that there are "certain primary
+elements and means of knowledge that all human beings born into the
+community must acquire during childhood." If their parents have the
+power of obtaining for them this instruction and fail to do so, they
+commit a double breach of duty. The child grows up an imperfect being,
+socially inefficient, and members of the community are liable to suffer
+seriously from the consequences of this ignorance and want of education
+in their fellow-citizens.
+
+In the second place, Mill urges that unlike that the giving of other
+forms of help, the provision of education is not one of the things in
+which the tender of help perpetuates the state of things which renders
+help necessary. Instruction strengthens and enlarges the active
+faculties; its effect is favourable to the growth of the spirit of
+independence--it is help towards doing without help.
+
+In the third place, he declares that the question of the provision of
+elementary education is not one between its provision by the Government
+on the one hand, and its provision through voluntary agencies on the
+other. The full cost of the education of the children of the lower
+working classes in Great Britain as in other countries has never been
+wholly paid for out of the wages of the labourer, and hence the question
+lies between the State provision of education and its provision by
+certain charitable agencies. As a rule, when provided by the latter, it
+is both inefficient in quantity and poor in quality.
+
+Lastly, Mill lays down that in the matter of education the intervention
+of Government is necessary, because neither the interest nor the
+judgment of the consumer is a sufficient security for the goodness of
+the commodity.
+
+But at the same time he strenuously insists that there should be no
+monopoly of education by the State. It is not desirable, he declares,
+that a government should have complete control over the education of the
+people. To possess such a control and actually to exert it would be
+despotic. The State may, however, require that all its people shall have
+received a certain measure of education, but it may not prescribe from
+whom or where they may obtain it.
+
+At the present day, and under the changed economic conditions which now
+prevail, it can no longer be asserted that the imparting of the mere
+elements of knowledge is adequate either to secure the future social
+efficiency of the children of the lower classes of society or that such
+a modicum of instruction as is provided by our Elementary Schools is
+sufficient to protect the community from the ignorance of its ill
+educated and badly trained members. The "hooliganism" of many of our
+large cities is due to our system of half educating, half training the
+children of the slums, of laying too much stress on the acquisition of
+certain mechanical arts in our Primary Schools and in conceiving them as
+ends in themselves. Further, our system of primary education fails on
+its moral side, and this in two ways. It seems unaware of the fact that
+all moral education is an endeavour to implant in the minds of the young
+desires that shall impel them hereafter to good rather than to evil, and
+that this end can only be attained in so far as the natural instinctive
+tendencies of the child's nature which make for good are cultivated and
+trained, and in so far as those other instinctive tendencies which make
+for social destruction are inhibited by having their character altered
+so as to be directed into channels which make for the social welfare. In
+the second place, we leave off the education of the children at too
+early an age. We hand over the children of the poorer classes during the
+most critical period of their lives to the influences of the streets and
+of the bad home, counteracted only by the efforts of the slum visitor or
+the missionary. After furnishing them with the mere instruments of
+knowledge, we entrust either to them or their parents the liberty of
+using, misusing, or non-using the instruments provided. Moreover, we do
+nothing of a systematic nature to instil into the youth of our poorer
+citizens the fact that they are members of a corporate community and
+future citizens of a State, and that hereafter they have duties towards
+that State the performance of which is the only rational ground of their
+possession of rights as against the State. _E.g._, in many of our slums
+we have the best examples of individualism run mad, of the conception
+that the individual is a law unto his private self, and that all
+government is something alien, something forced upon the individual from
+the outside and impinging upon his private will, instead of law being
+what it really is, an expression of the social conditions under which
+the welfare of the individual and of society may be attained.
+
+Further, it must be maintained that our present policy in education is
+economically wasteful. To spend, as we do yearly, larger and larger sums
+of money on the elementary education of our children, and then, in a
+large number of cases, to fail to reach the ends of securing either the
+social efficiency of the individual or the protection of society against
+the ignorance of its members, is surely, to say the least, unwise.
+Again, if we really set before us this aim of the social efficiency of
+the future individual, we must do something to carry on the education of
+the children of the poorer classes after the Elementary School stage has
+been passed.
+
+One of the strongest points in the German system of education, as
+compared and contrasted with our own, is the care which is taken of the
+higher education of the children of the working classes during the
+period when it is most important that some control should be exercised
+over the youth of the country, throughout the time when the boy is most
+open to temptation, and when the moral forces of society are potent for
+good and evil in shaping and forming his character. The great majority
+of the children in a modern State are and must be destined for
+industrial service; the great majority of the children of the working
+classes must, at or about the age of fourteen, leave the Primary School
+and enter upon the learning of some trade. But manifestly at this early
+stage the larger number are not fitted to guide and control their own
+lives; and if moral education aims, as it ought to aim, at fitting the
+individual for freedom, at fitting him to guide and direct his own life
+in the light of a self-accepted and a self-directed ideal, then some
+measure of control, of guidance, and of regulation is necessary in the
+years when the child is passing from youth to manhood. Now, it is this
+fact, this truth, which the Germans as a nation have realised. They
+declare that it is neither wise nor prudent nor for the ultimate benefit
+of the State to leave the vast majority of the youth without guidance,
+and sometimes even without proper moral control exercised over them
+during the great formative period of their lives. Nay, further, they
+believe that a State which neglects its duty here is not doing what it
+ought to do for the future moral good, for the future economic welfare,
+and for the future happiness of its individual members. Hence, in
+several of the German States, the State control over the child does not
+cease when at fourteen years of age he leaves the Elementary School, but
+is continued until the age of seventeen; and this is effected by the
+establishment of compulsory Evening Schools. In particular, by a law
+which came into force in Berlin on the 1st April 1905, every boy and
+girl in that city, with certain definitely specified exceptions, must
+attend at an Evening Continuation School for a minimum of not less than
+four hours and a maximum of not more than six hours per week. Moreover,
+this enactment has been rendered necessary not to level up the majority,
+but to level up the minority. This development is a development for
+which the voluntary Evening Continuation School prepared the way; and
+compulsory attendance has become possible on account of the willingness
+of the German youth to learn, and of his desire to make himself
+proficient in his particular trade or profession. Further, the school
+authorities, in this matter of compulsory attendance at an Evening
+Continuation School, have with them the hearty co-operation of the great
+body of employers; and the burden of seeing that the pupil attends
+regularly is not put upon the parent but upon the employer. By these
+means, and by other agencies of a voluntary character, every care is
+taken that the Berlin youth shall have the opportunity of finding that
+employment for which by nature he is best suited, and that thereafter he
+shall learn thoroughly the particular trade or calling he may enter
+upon.
+
+Contrast what we do, or rather what we do not do, in this matter of
+providing higher education for the sons and daughters of the working
+classes. In our large towns the great majority of our boys and girls
+leave the Elementary School at or before the age of fourteen. In many
+cases the instruction given during this period soon passes away, and
+leaves little permanent result behind. Evening Continuation Schools are
+indeed provided, but only a small proportion of our youth takes
+advantage of this means of further instruction. The larger number of the
+children of the lower working classes drift, for a year or two, into
+various forms of unskilled employment, chosen in most cases because the
+immediate pecuniary reward is here greater than in the case of learning
+a trade; and after spending two or three years in employments which do
+nothing to educate them, some drift, by accident, into this or that
+particular trade, while the others remain behind to swell the number of
+the unskilled. During this period nothing of an organised nature is done
+to secure the physical efficiency of the youth of our working classes;
+nothing or almost nothing is done to secure his future industrial
+efficiency; and, as a consequence, year after year, as a nation, we go
+on fostering an army of loafers, increasing the ranks of the unskilled
+workers, and even in our skilled trades adding to the number of those
+who are mere process workers, at the expense of producing workers
+acquainted both theoretically and practically with every department of
+their particular calling. No wonder that the delegates of the
+brass-workers[10] of Birmingham, contrasting what they have seen in
+Berlin with what they daily see in their own trade at home and in their
+own city, bitterly declare that the Berlin youth has from infancy been
+under better care and training at home, at school, at the works, and in
+the Army; and consequently, as a man, he is more fitted to be entrusted
+with the liberty which the Birmingham youth has perhaps from childhood
+only abused.
+
+Space does not permit me to go at fuller length into this question, but
+before leaving the particular problem let me put the issue plainly,
+because it is an issue which we as a nation must soon clearly realise,
+and must answer in either one or other of two ways. We may go on as at
+present, insisting that a certain amount of elementary education is
+compulsory for all, and leaving it a matter for the individual parent
+and the individual youth to take advantage of the means of higher
+education provided voluntarily, and as a rule without any great direct
+cost to them. In this way, trusting to the voluntary agencies at work in
+society, we may hope that either through enlightened self-interest, or
+through a higher conception of the duty of the individual to the State,
+or through a loftier moral ideal becoming prevalent and actual in
+society, an increasing number of parents will see that the means
+provided for the higher education of their children are duly taken
+advantage of, and that the majority of the youth will make it their aim
+to use these means to secure their physical and industrial efficiency.
+If we adopt this course, then it must be the duty of the school
+authorities of the various districts to see that Evening Schools of
+various types suited to the needs of the various classes of students are
+duly provided, and that no insurmountable obstacles are placed in the
+way of those desirous and anxious to take advantage of the means of
+higher education. Further, it must become the duty of the employers of
+the country to see that the youth are encouraged in every way to take
+advantage of instruction designed with the above-named end in view, and
+moreover the general public must do all in their power to co-operate
+with and to aid the endeavours of school authorities and employers of
+labour. In this way, as has been the case in Berlin, the voluntary
+system of Evening Continuation and Trade Schools may gradually and in
+time pave the way for the compulsory Evening School. Without doubt this
+were the better way, if it could be effected and that quickly.
+
+But if in this matter we have delayed too long--if we have allowed our
+educational policy in the past to be guided by a one-sided and narrow
+individualism--if for too lengthened a period we have permitted our
+political action to be determined by the false ideal that, in the
+matter of providing for and furthering his education as a citizen and as
+an industrial worker, liberty for each individual consists in allowing
+him to choose for himself, regardless of whether or not that choice is
+for his own and the State's ultimate good, then it may be necessary in
+the immediate future to take steps to remove or remedy this defect in
+our present educational organisation. For it is necessary--essentially
+necessary--on various grounds that the education of the boys and girls
+of our working classes should not cease absolutely at the Elementary
+School stage,[11] but that, with certain definite and well-considered
+exceptions, all should continue for several years thereafter to fit
+themselves for industrial and social service. If this result can be
+effected by moral means, good and well; if not, legal compulsion must,
+sooner or later, be resorted to. For it is, as it has always been, a
+fundamental maxim of political action that the State should and must
+compel her members to utilise the means by which they may be raised to
+freedom.
+
+
+The second line of argument which Mill follows in his advocacy of the
+State provision of education is that instruction is one of the cases in
+which the aid given does not foster and re-create the evil which it
+seeks to remedy. Education which is really such does not tend to
+enervate but to strengthen the individual. Its effect is favourable to
+the growth of independence. "It is a help towards doing without help."
+
+On similar grounds, we may urge that it is the duty of the State to see
+that the means for the higher education of the youth of the country are
+adequate in quantity and efficient in quality. The better technical
+training of our workmen is necessary if we are to secure their economic
+self-sufficiency and fit them to become socially useful as members of a
+community. One aim therefore underlying any future organisation of
+education must be to secure the industrial efficiency of the worker and
+to ensure that the results of science shall be utilised in the
+furtherance of the arts and industries of life. This can only be
+effected by the better scientific training, by the more intensive and
+the more thorough education of those children of the nation who by
+natural ability and industry are fitted in after-life to guide and
+control the industries of the country.
+
+Mr. Haldane,[12] during the past few years, in season and out of season,
+has called the attention of the public of Great Britain to the fact that
+in the organisation and equipment of their system of technical education
+Germany is much in advance of this country, and that the German people
+have thoroughly and practically realised that, if they are to compete
+successfully with other nations, then one of the aims of their
+educational system must be to teach the youth how to apply knowledge in
+the furtherance and advancement of the economic interests of life. With
+this end in view we have the establishment throughout the German States
+of numerous schools and colleges having as their chief aim the
+application of knowledge to the arts and industries. In our own country
+this branch--this very important branch--of education has been left, for
+the most part, to the care of private individuals, and although the
+State has done something in recent years to encourage and develop this
+side of education, yet much more requires to be done; and, above all, it
+is desirable that whatever is done in the future should be done in a
+regular, systematic, and organised manner and with definite aims in
+view.
+
+But it is not merely in the higher reaches of German education that the
+industrial aim is kept in view. It pervades and permeates the whole
+system from the lowest to the highest stages. Even in the Primary School
+the requirements of practical life are not left out of sight. In school,
+said a former Prussian Director of Education, "children are to learn how
+to perform duties, they are to be habituated to work, to gain pleasure
+in work, and thus become efficient for future industrial pursuits. This
+has been the aim from the earliest times of Prussian education; and to
+this day it is plainly understood by all State and local administrative
+officers, as well as by all teachers and the majority of the parents,
+that the people's school has more to do than merely teach the vehicles
+of culture--reading, writing, and arithmetic"--that the chief aim is
+rather "the preparation of citizens who can and will cheerfully serve
+their God and their native country as well as themselves."
+
+In the third place, the question of the provision of the means of higher
+education is not one between its provision on the one hand by means of
+the Government, and on the other by means of purely voluntary agencies.
+Higher education, _e.g._, in Scotland has rarely been provided and paid
+for at its full cost by the individual parent or by associations of
+individual parents, but has been maintained, in some cases in a high
+degree of efficiency, by endowments left for this purpose. These
+endowments are now in many cases insufficient to meet the demand made
+for education, and the stream of private benevolence in providing the
+means of education has either ceased to flow or flows in an irregular
+and uncertain fashion. Further, the incomes of even the moderately
+well-to-do of our middle classes are not sufficient to bear the whole
+cost of the more expensive education required to fit their sons and
+daughters for the after-service of the community. Hence, just as in
+Mill's time the question of the provision of elementary education lay
+between the State provision and the provision by means of charitable
+agencies, so to-day the problem of the provision of secondary and
+technical education is between its adequate provision and organisation
+by the State, and its inadequate, uncertain provision by means of the
+endowments of the past and by the charitable agencies of the present.
+Manifestly, in the light of modern conditions, with the economic
+competition between nation and nation becoming keener and keener, and
+knowing full well that the future belongs to the nation with the best
+equipped and the best trained army of industrial workers, we can no
+longer rest content with any haphazard method of providing the means of
+higher education: whatever the cost may be, we must realise that the
+time has come to put our educational house in order and to establish and
+organise our system of higher education so that it will subserve each
+and every interest of the State. This can only be effected in so far as
+the nation as a whole realises the need for the better education of the
+children, and takes steps to secure that this shall be provided, and
+that there shall be afforded to each the opportunity of fitting himself
+by education to put his talents to the best use both for his own
+individual good and the good of the community. Lastly, as Mill urges,
+the self-interest of the individual is neither sufficient to ensure that
+the education will be provided, nor in many cases is his judgment
+sufficient to ensure the goodness of the education provided by voluntary
+means.
+
+But, in addition to the reasons urged by Mill for the State provision
+and control of the means of elementary education, and these reasons are,
+as we have seen, as urgent and as cogent to-day for the extension of the
+principle to the provision of the means of secondary and technical
+education, still further reasons may be advanced.
+
+In the first place, there can be no co-ordination of the different
+stages of education until all the agencies of instruction in each area
+or district are placed under one central control. Until this is effected
+we must have at times overlapping of the agencies of instruction. In
+some cases there may also be waste of the means of education. In every
+case there will be a general want of balance between the various parts
+of the system.
+
+In the second place, one object of any organisation of the means of
+education should be the selection of the best ability from amongst the
+children of our Elementary Schools and the further education of this
+ability at some one or other type of Intermediate or Secondary School.
+In order that this may be economically and efficiently effected, the
+instruction of the Elementary School should enable the pupil at a
+certain age to fit himself into the work of the High School, and our
+High Schools' system should be so differentiated in type as to furnish
+not one type of such education but several in accordance with the main
+classes of service required by the community of its adult members.
+Manifestly such a co-ordination of the means and such a grading of the
+agencies of education, if not impossible on the voluntary principle, is
+at least difficult of complete realisation.
+
+Hence, on the ground that the higher education of the young is necessary
+for the securing of their after social efficiency, on the ground that it
+is necessary for the economic and social security of the community, on
+the ground that aid in higher education is a help towards doing without
+help and that its provision in many cases cannot be fully met by the
+voluntary contribution of the individual, we may urge the need for the
+State's undertaking its adequate and efficient provision.
+
+Further, we must remember that the State must take a "longer" view of
+the problem of education than is possible for the individual. At best
+the latter looks but one generation ahead. He is content to secure the
+education and the future welfare of his children. In the life of the
+State this is not sufficient. She must look to the needs of the remote
+future as well as of the immediate present, and hence her educational
+outlook must be wider and go farther than that of any mere private
+individual. Lastly, if we understand the true nature and function of the
+State, we need have no fear that the State should control the education
+of all the people. What we have to fear on the one side is the
+bureaucratic control of education, and on the other its control and
+direction by one class in the interests of itself. The State exists
+for--the reason of its very being is to secure--the welfare of the
+individual, and the State approaches its perfection when its
+organisation is fitted to secure and ensure the widest scope for the
+full and free development of each individual.
+
+The evil of bureaucracy can be removed only by our representative bodies
+becoming more effective voices of the social and moral will of the
+community, just as the evil of class control can only be effectually
+abolished by the rise and spread of the true democratic spirit, ever
+seeking that the agencies of the State shall be directed towards the
+removing of the obstacles which hinder the full realisation of the life
+of each of its members.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] Cf. Graham Balfour, _Educational System of Great Britain_, p. 27,
+2nd ed.
+
+[10] _Brass-workers of Berlin and Birmingham_ (King).
+
+[11] "It must not be forgotten that the instruction of the common
+schools (_Volksschule_), closing with the pupil's fourteenth year, ends
+too soon, that the period most susceptible to aid, most in need of
+education, the years from fifteen to twenty ... are now not only allowed
+to lie perfectly fallow, but to lose and waste what has been so
+laboriously acquired during the preceding period at school." In the
+rural parts of Northern Germany efforts are being made to remedy this
+evil by the institution of schools providing half-year winter courses.
+Cf. Professor Paulsen's _The German Universities and University Study_,
+p. 117 (English translation).
+
+[12] Cf. _Education and Empire_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE COST OF EDUCATION
+
+
+But while we may hold that it is the duty of the State to see that the
+means for the education of the children of the nation is both adequate
+in extent and efficient in quality, and so organised that it affords
+opportunities for each to secure the education which is needed to equip
+him for his after-work in life, it by no means follows as a logical
+consequence that the whole cost of this provision should be borne by the
+community in its corporate capacity and that the individual parent
+should, if he so chooses, be relieved from any direct payment for the
+education of his children. To assert this would be implicitly to affirm
+that the education of a man's children is no part of his duty--that it
+is an obligation which does not fall upon him as an individual, but only
+as a member of a community, and that so long as he pays willingly the
+proportion of the cost of education assigned to him by taxes and rates,
+he has fulfilled his obligation. Education, on such a view, becomes a
+matter of national concern in which as a private individual the parent
+has no direct interest. This position carried out to its logical
+conclusion would imply that the child and his future belong wholly to
+the State, and it would also involve the establishment of a communal
+system of education such as is set forth in the _Republic_ of Plato.
+Further, such a position logically leads to the contention that the
+other necessities of life requisite for securing the social efficiency
+of the future members of the State should also be provided by the State
+in its corporate capacity acting as the guardian of the young, and from
+this we are but a short way from the position that it belongs to the
+community to superintend the propagation of the species, and to regulate
+the marriages of its individual members. This is State socialism in its
+most extreme form, and is contrary to the spirit of a true liberalism, a
+true democracy, and a true Christianity.
+
+The opposing position--the position of liberalism untainted by
+socialism--is that it is the duty of the State to see that as far as
+possible the social inequalities which arise through the individualistic
+organisation of society are removed or remedied, and that equality of
+opportunity is secured to each to make the best of his own individual
+life. In the educational sphere this implies that any obstacles in the
+way of a man's educating his children should be removed, if and in so
+far as these obstacles are irremovable by any private effort of his own,
+and that the opportunity of obtaining the best possible education should
+be open to the children of the poor if they are fitted by nature to
+profit by such an education. It further implies that the means of higher
+education, provided at the public expense, should not be wasted on the
+children of any class if by nature they are unfitted to benefit by the
+means placed at their disposal; _i.e._, a national system of education
+must be democratic in the sense that the means of higher education shall
+be open to all, rich and poor, in order that each individual may be
+enabled to fit himself for the particular service for which by nature he
+is best suited. It must see, further, that any obstacles which prevent
+the full use of these means by particular individuals are, as far as may
+be possible, removed. A national system of education, on the other hand,
+must be aristocratic in the sense that it is selective of the best
+ability. Lastly, it must be restrictive, in order that the means of
+higher education may be utilised to the best advantage, and not misused
+on those who are unfitted to benefit therefrom.
+
+Closely connected with the position that it is the duty of the State to
+see not merely to the adequate and efficient provision of the means of
+education, but also that the whole cost of the provision should be borne
+by the State, is the contention that because the State imposes a legal
+obligation upon the individual parent to provide a certain measure of
+education for his children, it is also a logical conclusion from this
+step that education should be free. "The object of public education is
+the protection of society, and society must pay for its protection,
+whether it takes the form of a policeman or a pedagogue."[13]
+
+But the provision of the means of elementary education, and the imposing
+of a legal obligation upon each individual parent to utilise the means
+provided, is not merely or solely for the protection of society.
+Education confers not only a social benefit upon the community, but a
+particular benefit upon the individual. Its provision falls not within
+the merely negative benefits conferred by the State by its protection of
+the majority against the ignorance and wickedness of the minority, but
+it belongs to the positive benefits conferred by Government upon its
+individual members. The State in part undertakes the provision of the
+means of education, as Mill pointed out, in order to protect the
+majority against the evil consequences likely to result from the
+ignorance and want of education of the minority. As this provision
+confers a common benefit on all, so far, but only in so far, as
+education is protective, can its cost be laid upon the shoulders of the
+general taxpayer.
+
+But the provision by the State of the means of education is not merely
+undertaken for the protection of any given society against the ignorance
+and the lawlessness of its own individual members, it is also undertaken
+in order to secure the increased efficiency of the nation as an economic
+and military unit in antagonism, more or less, with similar units. At
+the present day this is one main motive at work in the demand made for
+the better and more intensive training of the industrial classes. To
+secure the industrial and military efficiency of the nation is
+explicitly set forth as the main aim of the German organisation of the
+means of education. We may deplore this tendency of our times. We may
+condemn the rise of the intensely national spirit of the modern world,
+and regret that the ideal of universal peace and universal harmony
+between the nations of the earth seems to fade for ever and for ever as
+we move. But we have to look the facts in the face, and to realise that
+the educational system of a nation must endeavour to secure the
+industrial and military efficiency of its future members as a means of
+security and protection against other competing nations and as one of
+the essential conditions for the self-preservation of the particular
+State in that war of nation against nation which Hobbes so eloquently
+describes: "For the nature of war, consists not in actual fighting; but
+in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no
+assurance to the contrary."[14]
+
+In so far, then, as the provision of education by the State is
+undertaken with this end in view, it may be maintained that part, at
+least, of the cost of its provision should be borne by the general
+taxpayer in return for the greater national and economic security which
+he enjoys through the greater efficiency of the nation as an economic
+and military unit.
+
+But the spread and the higher efficiency of education confers in
+addition both a local and an individual benefit. It confers a local
+benefit, in so far as by its means advantages accrue to any particular
+district. It confers an individual benefit, in so far as through the
+means of education placed at his disposal the individual is enabled to
+attain to a higher degree of social efficiency than would otherwise have
+been possible.
+
+Further, if we look at this question not from the point of view of
+benefit received, but from that of the obligation imposed, we reach a
+similar result. It is an obligation upon the State to see that the
+means of education and their due co-ordination and organisation are of
+such a nature both in extent and in quality as to furnish a complete
+system of means for the training up of the youth of the country to
+perform efficiently all the services required by such a complex
+community as the modern State. This duty devolves upon the State chiefly
+for the reason set forth by Adam Smith in his discussion of the
+functions of government. It is the duty of the sovereign, he declares,
+to erect and maintain certain "public institutions which it can never be
+for the interest of any individual to erect and maintain, because the
+profit could never repay the expense to the individual, or small number
+of individuals, though it may frequently do much more than repay it to a
+great society."[15]
+
+It becomes further an obligation placed upon the local authority to aid
+the central authority of the State in the establishment and distribution
+of the means of education. The local authority by its more intimate
+knowledge of local circumstances is the most competent to judge of the
+nature of the education suited to serve its own particular needs, and is
+best qualified to undertake the distribution of the means.
+
+But the obligation to take advantage of the means for the future benefit
+of his children is a moral obligation placed upon the shoulders of the
+individual parent. It becomes a legal obligation only when, and in so
+far as, the moral obligation is not realised by a certain number of the
+community. Certainly one reason for the making of the education of a
+man's children a legal obligation is the protection of society against
+the ignorance and wickedness of the minority, but the other and
+principal aim is to endeavour to secure that what at first was imposed
+as a merely external or legal obligation may pass into a moral and
+inherent obligation, so that the individual from being governed by
+outward restraint may in time be governed by an inward and self-imposed
+ideal.
+
+It is no doubt difficult in any particular case to determine exactly
+what precise part of the cost should be allocated to each of the three
+benefiting parties, but in any national organisation of the means of
+education this threefold distribution of cost should somehow or other be
+undertaken.
+
+From this it follows, that while it may legitimately be laid down that
+upon the State must fall the obligation of securing the adequate
+provision and the due distribution of the means of education, yet the
+further duty of the State in this respect is limited to the removing of
+obstacles which stand in the way of the fulfilment of the parent's
+obligation to educate his children, and to the securing to each child
+equality of opportunity to obtain an education in kind and quality which
+will serve to fit him hereafter to perform his special duty to society.
+
+Although since 1891 elementary education has been practically free in
+this country and the whole cost of its provision is now undertaken at
+the public expense, yet except from the socialistic position that the
+provision of education is a communal and not a personal and moral
+obligation, this public provision of the funds for elementary education
+can be upheld from the individualistic point of view only on two
+grounds. In the first place, it might be maintained that the protective
+benefit derived from the imparting of the elements of education is so
+great to all that its cost may legitimately be laid upon the community
+in its corporate capacity. It is on this ground of education being
+beneficial to the whole society that Adam Smith declares that the
+expense of the institutions for education may, without injustice, be
+defrayed by the general contributions of the whole society. But at the
+same time Adam Smith recognises that education provides an immediate and
+personal benefit, and that the expense might with equal propriety be
+laid upon the shoulders of those benefited.
+
+In the second place, it may be maintained that the imposition of school
+fees created such a hindrance in a large number of cases to the
+fulfilment of the moral obligation that it was expedient on the part of
+the State to remove this obstacle by freeing education as a whole. In
+support of this, it might be further urged that the difficulty of
+discriminating between the marginal cases in which the imposition of
+school fees really proved a hindrance and those in which it did not is
+great, and that the partial relief of payment of school fees laid the
+stigma of pauperism upon many who from unpreventable causes were unable
+to meet the direct cost of the education of their children.
+
+But, except on the grounds that either the protective benefit to society
+is so great and so important, or that the charging of any part of the
+cost directly to the parent imposes a hindrance in a large number of
+cases, there is no justification for the contention that because the
+State compels the individual to educate his children, therefore the
+State should fully provide the means.
+
+If this be so, then the further contention that the means of education
+from the elementary to the university stage should be provided at the
+public expense, and that no part of the cost should be laid directly
+upon the individual parent's shoulders, must also be judged to be
+erroneous.
+
+The first duty of the State, in the matter of the provision of higher
+education, is limited to seeing that the provision of the means of
+higher education is adequate to the demand made for it; further, it may
+endeavour to encourage and to stimulate this demand in various ways. The
+means being provided, the second duty of the State is to endeavour to
+secure that any hindrance which might reasonably prevent the use of
+these means by those fitted to benefit therefrom should be removed. But
+the only justification for the interference of the State is that the
+compulsion exacted in the matter of taxes or otherwise is of small
+moment compared with the capacity for freedom and intellectual
+development set free in the individuals benefited. In other words, the
+cost involved by the removal of the hindrance must be reckoned as small
+compared with the ultimate good to the community as manifested in the
+higher development--in the higher welfare of its individual members.
+
+But the practical realisation of the ideal need not involve that
+education should be free from the lowest to the topmost rung of the
+so-called educational ladder. It is indeed questionable whether the
+ladder simile has not been a potent instrument in giving a wrong
+direction to our ideals of the essential nature of what an educational
+organisation should aim at. Education should indeed provide a system of
+advancing means, but the system of means may lead to many and various
+aims instead of one. However that may be, what we wish to insist upon is
+that the State's duty in this matter can be fulfilled not by freeing
+education as a whole, but by establishing a system of bursaries or
+allowances, enabling each individual who otherwise would be hindered
+from using the means to take advantage of the higher education provided.
+
+In the awarding of aid of this nature, the two tests of ability to
+profit from the education and of need of material means must both be
+employed. If the former test only is applied, then the result is that in
+many cases the advantage is secured by those best able to pay for higher
+education. If the objection be made that the granting of aid on mere
+need shown is to place the stigma of pauperism upon the recipient, then
+the only answer is that in so thinking the individual misconceives the
+real nature of the aid, fails to understand that it is help towards
+doing without help--aid to enable the individual to reach a higher and
+fuller development of his powers, both for his own future welfare and
+for the betterment of society.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] _National Education and National Life_, ibid. p. 101.
+
+[14] Hobbes, _Leviathan_, p. 1. chap. xiii.
+
+[15] Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, ed. J. Shield Nicholson (Nelsons).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--MEDICAL EXAMINATION AND
+INSPECTION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
+
+
+In considering the question of the relation of the State to education,
+we have adopted the position that it is the duty of the State to see to
+the adequate provision of the means of education, to their due
+distribution and to their proper organisation. At the same time we found
+that the obligation of the State in this respect did not necessarily
+involve that the whole cost of this provision should be borne at the
+public expense, and that no part of the burden should be placed on the
+shoulders of the individual parents. As regards the provision of
+elementary education, we indeed found that the whole burden might be
+legitimately laid upon the general taxpayer, upon the grounds either
+that the protective benefit of elementary education to the community was
+great, or that the hindrance opposed by the imposition of school fees to
+the fulfilment of a man's moral obligation to provide for the education
+of his children was so general that a case might be made out for freeing
+elementary education as a whole. But except from the position that the
+provision of education was a communal and not a personal obligation, we
+found no grounds for the contention that education throughout its
+various stages should be a charge upon the community as a whole.
+
+But the provision of the means of education may involve much more than
+the mere provision of adequately equipped school buildings and of fully
+trained teachers, and we have now to inquire what other provision is
+necessary in order to secure the after social efficiency of the children
+of the nation, and what part of this provision rightly may be included
+within the scope of the duties of the State.
+
+Is the medical inspection of children attending Public Elementary
+Schools one of these duties, and, if so, what action on the part of the
+State does this involve?
+
+The importance of the thorough and systematic medical examination of
+children attending school as a necessary measure to secure their after
+physical and economic efficiency as well as for their intellectual
+development and welfare during the school period has been recognised by
+many Continental countries. To take but one or two illustrative
+examples, we may note that in Brussels every place of public instruction
+is visited at least once in every ten weeks by one of the sixteen
+doctors appointed for this purpose. The school doctor amongst other
+duties has to report on the state of the various classrooms, their
+heating, lighting and ventilation, and also upon the condition in which
+he has found the playgrounds, lavatories and cloakrooms attached to the
+school. Cases of illness involving temporary absence from school are
+reported to him as well as the cases involving prolonged absence from
+school.
+
+Children are medically examined upon admission to school, and a record
+is made of their age, height, weight, chest measurement, etc. "Any
+natural or accidental infirmity is chronicled, state of eyes and teeth,
+dental operations performed at school, etc. This examination is repeated
+annually, so as to keep a record of each child's physical development."
+Great attention, moreover, is paid to the cleanliness of the children
+attending school, and the children are examined daily by the teacher
+upon their entrance to school.[16]
+
+In most of the large towns of Germany a system of periodical medical
+examination and inspection of children attending school has also been
+established. _E.g._, in 1901 Berlin appointed ten doctors for this
+purpose, with the following amongst other duties:--
+
+
+     1. To examine children on their first admission as to their fitness
+     to attend school.
+
+     2. To examine children with the co-operation of a specialist for
+     the presence of defect in the particular sense organs (sight,
+     hearing).
+
+     3. To examine children who are supposed to be defective and who may
+     require special treatment.
+
+     4. To examine periodically the school buildings and arrangements
+     and to report on any hygienic defects.[17]
+
+
+In England, although there is no specific provision for the incurring of
+the expense of conducting the medical inspection of children attending
+the Public Elementary Schools, it is generally held that the expense may
+be legitimately included in the general powers assigned to educational
+authorities under the Act of 1870; and, especially since 1892, in
+several areas, a definite system of medical inspection has been
+established, and in many others there is a likelihood that some system
+of medical inspection will be organised in the immediate future.
+According to the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on the
+Medical Inspection and Feeding of School Children, published in November
+1905, out of 328 local education authorities, 48 had established a more
+or less definitely organised system of medical examination, whilst in
+eighteen other districts teachers and sanitary officers had undertaken
+organised work for the amelioration of the physical condition of
+children attending Public Elementary Schools. As a rule, this inspection
+is limited "to the examination of the children and to the discovering of
+defects of eyesight, hearing, or physical development." When the
+existence of the defect is discovered, the parent is notified, but as a
+general rule the public authority does not include within its duties the
+treatment of the ailments and defects or the provision of remedial
+instruments when required.
+
+Further, in no case has there been carried out a thorough anthropometric
+record, such as that in vogue in the schools of Brussels, of the
+condition of the physical nature of the child upon admission to school
+and his subsequent physical development.
+
+In Scotland we find no general or adequate system of medical inspection
+carried out by the local school authorities. The Report of the Royal
+Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), issued in March 1903,
+declares, however, that such a system is urgently needed, mainly for
+remedial purposes. By this means defects in the organs of sight or
+hearing, in mental development, in physical weakness, or in state of
+nutrition, such as demand special treatment in connection with school
+work, might be detected, and by simple means removed or mitigated. But
+although in the Education (Scotland) Bill of 1905 provision was made for
+the institution of medical inspection at the public expense, yet through
+the failure of the Bill to pass nothing of a systematic nature has been
+done to organise the medical inspection of Elementary School children in
+any district in Scotland.
+
+From this brief account of what either has been already done or is
+proposed to be done, it is apparent that there is a gradual awakening of
+the nation to the fact that the care of the physical nature of the child
+during the school period is of fundamental importance from the point of
+view of the future welfare and efficiency of the nation. In the
+endeavour to reach this aim it is necessary that the examination of the
+child should be undertaken in a systematic manner, and that means should
+be adopted for the remedy of any defects. In particular every child on
+admission to school should be examined in order to discover whether
+there is any defect present in the special organs of sense,[18] and
+periodical examinations should be made in order to discover whether the
+school work is tending to produce any injury to the various senses. For
+it is a well-known fact that often cases of seeming stupidity and
+seeming carelessness are not due either to the want of intelligence on
+the one hand or of inattention on the other, on the part of the child,
+but may be traced to slight defects of eyesight and of hearing. In order
+that they may discover these defects teachers ought to be trained in the
+observation of the main symptoms which imply defects, and should be
+practised in the art of applying the simpler and more obvious remedies
+for eye and ear defects. More difficult cases should be referred to the
+medical officer of the school. Again, it ought to be a matter of inquiry
+at the beginning of the school period as to whether the child possesses
+any physical defect which would make it difficult for him to undertake
+the full work of the school. In some cases it would be found that the
+child was altogether unable to undertake this work, and measures should
+be taken to remedy the defect before the child enters upon the school
+course. Lastly, it is now realised that more attention must be paid to
+the differences that exist between individual children, and that in the
+case of children with a low degree of intelligence it is much better
+both for themselves and for the school generally to institute special
+classes or special schools for their education.
+
+But in order that this medical examination may be thoroughly and
+systematically carried out, special legislative authority must be given
+to education authorities to incur expense under this head, and
+regulations must be laid down by the central authority for the carrying
+out of this inspection so as to secure something like a uniform system
+of examination throughout the country. For this purpose there should be
+attached to each school area a medical officer, or officers, charged
+with the sole duty of attending to the hygienic conditions under which
+the school work is carried on, and of periodically examining the
+children attending the schools of his district.
+
+That the duty of carrying out the medical examination of school
+children falls upon the State and should be met out of public funds may
+be justified on various grounds. In the first place, it is necessary as
+a measure of protection, in order to prevent the child's growing up
+imperfectly, and thus becoming in adult life a less efficient member of
+society. School work often accentuates certain troubles, and these if
+neglected tend gradually to render the individual more and more unfitted
+to undertake some special occupation in after-life. Any eye specialist
+could furnish evidence of numerous cases in which the eyes have been
+ruined through some slight defect becoming intensified through misuse.
+
+In the second place, the examination for physical and mental defect
+cannot in a large number of cases be left to the self-interest and
+judgment of the individual parent, and unless undertaken by the public
+authority will not be undertaken at all.
+
+In the third place, if it is left to merely voluntary agencies, it is
+imperfectly done, and in many cases recourse is had to the various
+voluntary agencies when the trouble has become acute, and in some cases
+impossible of remedy.
+
+On these three grounds--of its necessity for the future public welfare,
+that the self-interest of the parent often proves but a feeble motive
+power, and that the voluntary agencies placed at the disposal of the
+poor are unable systematically to undertake this work--we may maintain
+that the duty may legitimately be laid upon the State.
+
+But the further question as to how far it becomes the duty of the State
+to undertake the provision of remedial measures either in the way of
+supplying medical aid or in the provision in necessitous cases of
+remedial measures, as _e.g._ spectacles in the case of defective
+eyesight, is a question of much greater difficulty.
+
+At present any positive help of this nature is the exception rather than
+the rule, and is undertaken by agencies worked on the voluntary
+principle, and the remedial measures adopted are limited to the
+treatment of certain minor ailments. _E.g._, in Liverpool, Birmingham,
+and other places, Queen's nurses regularly visit the schools, and
+undertake either in school or at the homes of the children simple
+curative treatment of minor surgical cases. But while it may be held
+that the duty of the State is limited to the medical examination of
+school children in order to discover the presence of physical and mental
+defects, and that this being done, any further responsibility, whether
+in the way either of providing or procuring remedies, falls upon the
+individual parent, yet we have sufficient evidence to show that, in many
+cases, either through the poverty or the apathy and indifference of the
+parents, no steps are taken in the way of providing the necessary
+remedies, and as a consequence we have growing up in our midst children
+who in after-life will, through the lack of simple curative treatment
+undertaken at the proper time, become more or less socially inefficient.
+
+Moreover, it is to be noted that in this matter the State has already
+recognised its public obligation to provide remedial aid in its
+provision for the education and lodging of the blind, the deaf and the
+dumb, and in the measures taken within recent years for the special
+education of the defective and the epileptic. The provision for these
+purposes may indeed be justified on the grounds that the expense of the
+education of children of the industrial classes so afflicted is beyond
+the powers of any one individual, or group of individuals, to supply,
+and that unless undertaken by the State it would not be efficiently
+made, with the consequence of throwing the maintenance hereafter of
+these particular classes upon the community: on the ground, therefore,
+of the future protective benefit to society, such expense may be
+legitimately laid upon the community as a whole. Further, in these
+cases, the danger of the weakening of the sense of parental
+responsibility is not an extreme danger to the Commonwealth, since the
+aid is definitely limited to a restricted number of cases, and since
+the moral obligation imposed upon the individual to provide for the
+education of his children could in many cases not be fulfilled without
+the by far greater portion of the expense being provided by means of
+public or voluntary aid.
+
+In like manner, the expense of the special education of the morally
+defective in Industrial Schools and in other institutions may be
+justified on the ground of the present and future protective benefit to
+society. In these cases parental government has either altogether ceased
+or become too weak to act as an effective restraining force, and as a
+consequence the community for its own self-preservation has to undertake
+the control and education of the actual or incipient youthful criminal.
+In their Report the Royal Commissioners on Physical Training (Scotland)
+sadly declare that Industrial and similar institutions certainly give
+the boys and girls who come under their influence advantages in feeding
+and physical training which are not open to the children of independent
+and respectable though poor parents. _The contrast between the condition
+of children as seen in the poorer day schools and children in Industrial
+institutions, whose parents have altogether failed to do their duty, is
+both marked and painful._[19]
+
+And yet it might be urged that the protective benefit likely to be
+derived in the future by the provision of remedial means for the removal
+of the simpler defects in the case of the children of parents unable
+without great difficulty to supply these themselves is no less evident
+than in the more extreme cases. But here the only sound principle of
+guidance is to ask whether the remedial measures required are reasonably
+within the power of the parent to provide. If they are not, no community
+which exercises a wise forethought will suffer children to grow up
+gradually becoming more and more defective, more and more likely in
+after-life to be a burden upon its resources. But this question of the
+provision of remedial aid involves a much larger question, which we
+shall now discuss.
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+As showing the need for the systematic examination of the special sense
+organs, I append a summary of the results arrived at and the conclusions
+reached by Dr. Wright Thomson after examination of the eyesight of
+children attending the Public Elementary Schools under the Glasgow
+School Board:--
+
+
+     "The teachers tested the visual acuteness of 52,493 children, and
+     found 18,565, or 35 per cent., to be below what is regarded as the
+     normal standard.
+
+     "I examined the 18,565 defectives by retinoscopy, and found that
+     11,209, or 21 per cent. of the whole, had ocular defects.
+
+     "The percentage with ocular defects was fairly constant in all the
+     schools, but the percentage with defective vision was very
+     variable--_i.e._, many children with normal eyes were found to see
+     badly.
+
+     "The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor and
+     closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest in the
+     better class schools and in those near the outskirts of the city.
+
+     "The proportion of such cases in the country schools of Chryston
+     and Cumbernauld was much lower than in any of the city schools; and
+     in Industrial Schools, where the children are fed at school, the
+     proportion was lower than among Board School children of a
+     corresponding social class.
+
+     "Defective vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be due,
+     partly to want of training of the eyes for distant objects, and
+     partly to exhaustion of the eyes, which is easily induced when work
+     is carried on in bad light, or the nutrition of the children
+     defective from bad feeding and unhealthy surroundings.
+
+     "Regarding training of the eyes for distant objects, much might be
+     done in the infant department by the total abolition of sewing,
+     which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and the
+     substitution of competitive games involving the recognition of
+     small objects at a distance of 20 feet or more.
+
+     "Teachers can determine the visual acuteness, but they cannot
+     decide whether or not an ocular defect is present.
+
+     "Visual acuteness, especially among poor children, is variable at
+     different times.
+
+     "Teachers should have access to sight-testing materials at all
+     times, and should have the opportunity of referring suspected cases
+     for medical opinion.
+
+     "An annual testing by the teachers, followed by medical inspection
+     of the children found defective, would soon cause all existing
+     defects to be corrected, and would lead to the detection of those
+     which develop during school life."
+
+
+An examination of 502 children attending the Church of Scotland Training
+College School, Glasgow, as regards defects in eyesight and hearing, was
+made by Drs. Rowan and Fullerton respectively, with the following
+results:--
+
+
+     "As regards eyesight--
+
+     "61.55 per cent. were passed as normal, while of those defective
+     7.57 were aware of the fact; some few of these had already received
+     treatment, but 30.88 were quite unaware that there was anything
+     wrong, these unfortunates being expected to do the same work as,
+     and hold their own with, their more fortunate classmates.
+
+     "As regards hearing--
+       54.4 per cent. were found normal.
+       27.6  "   "    were defective.
+       18.   "   "    were distinctly defective."
+
+     I append the very valuable suggestions and conclusions of Dr.
+     Rowan, who conducted the examination on the eyesight of children:--
+
+     "After examining 502 children, which involved the examination of
+     1004 eyes, one is forced to certain conclusions. These children are
+     taken at random, and in this way they may be considered as a fair
+     sample of their age and class.
+
+     "I think one of the first things that force themselves on our
+     notice is the difficulties under which many of those children
+     labour, and of which they, their parents and teachers are quite
+     unaware. The children are considered dull, careless, or lazy, as
+     the case may be: they themselves, poor unfortunates, do not know
+     how to complain, and seem just to struggle along as best they can,
+     though this struggle, without adequate result, must discourage
+     them, and in this indirect way, too, make their future prospects
+     more hopeless.
+
+     "Some would be considerably benefited by treatment and operation,
+     or both, while for some little can be done. Some of those who could
+     be benefited are deprived of help by their parents' ignorance or
+     prejudice.
+
+     "In the case of those for whom little or nothing can be done, and
+     whose sight is very defective, it seems to me the question ought to
+     be raised as to whether their present mode of education should not
+     be replaced by some other, which would endeavour to develop their
+     abilities in other ways than through their eyesight; in short, they
+     should have special training with the view of fitting them for some
+     form of employment for which they are more fitted than the ordinary
+     occupations of everyday life. This raises a difficult question, and
+     each case would have to be settled on its merits. The difficulty
+     must be faced; otherwise the children will simply drift and become
+     idle and useless, while, if educated, at any rate partly, on the
+     system for the blind, they would become useful members of society.
+
+     "I think no one, after studying the result of this examination of
+     what may be by some considered a small number of children, can
+     doubt that a thorough medical examination of all school children
+     should be made when they enter school, and this examination
+     repeated at regular intervals.
+
+     "I hold this applies not only to the children of the poor, but to
+     children in all ranks of life, as one constantly, and that, too, in
+     private practice, meets with cases where children are considered
+     dull and lazy, while the real fault lies with the parents, who have
+     not taken the trouble to ascertain the physical fitness or
+     unfitness of their children.
+
+     "I am glad to say it is now becoming more common for children to be
+     taken to the family doctor, to a specialist, or to both, to be
+     thoroughly overhauled before starting school-life; and in many
+     cases with most satisfactory results, as their training can be
+     modified or treatment ordered which prevents the development of
+     those pathological conditions which, in many cases, would limit the
+     choice of occupation, or, if these are already present, they can at
+     least be modified or even overcome.
+
+     "I wish to emphasise the fact that those thorough medical
+     examinations should be repeated in the case of all children at
+     regular intervals, as in this way alone can a proper physical
+     standard be maintained, and deviations from the normal detected
+     promptly and in many cases cured before the sufferer is aware of
+     their presence.
+
+     "How often in examining our adult patients do we find them much
+     surprised when they are told and convinced by actual proof that all
+     their life they have depended on one eye only! This fact, of
+     course, they sometimes accidentally discover for themselves, and
+     come with the statement that the eye has suddenly gone blind. In
+     the majority of these cases the weaker eye is useless, and the
+     possibility of making it of any use is, at their age, practically
+     _nil_."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] Cf. _Special Report on Educational Subjects_, vol. ii.
+
+[17] Cf. _Report on Elementary Schools of Berlin and Charlottenburg_, by
+G. Andrew, Esq.
+
+[18] Cf. Appendix, pp. 62-65.
+
+[19] _Report Royal Commission on Physical Training_ (_Scotland_), vol.
+i. (Neill & Co,. Edinburgh).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE RELATION OF THE STATE TO EDUCATION--THE FEEDING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
+
+
+A much more important and far-reaching question than that of the State
+provision for the medical examination and inspection of children
+attending Public Elementary Schools is the question of whether, and to
+what extent, the State should undertake the provision of school meals
+for underfed children.
+
+Of the existence of the evil of under and improper feeding of children,
+especially in many of our large towns, there is no doubt. The numerous
+voluntary agencies which have been brought into existence to cope with
+the former are sufficient evidence that the evil exists and that it is
+of a widespread nature. Again, the high rate of infant mortality amongst
+the children of the lower classes is largely due to ignorance on the
+part of parents of the nature and proper preparation of food suitable
+for children. Further, the social conditions under which many of the
+poor live in our large towns is a contributing cause of this improper
+feeding. In many cases there is no adequate provision in the home for
+the cooking and preparation of food, and in others the absence of the
+mother at work during the day necessitates the children "fending" for
+themselves in the providing of their meals. However, in considering this
+question we must carefully distinguish between three distinct causes
+operating to produce the condition of underfeeding, and as a consequence
+resulting in three distinct classes of underfed children. As the causes
+or groups of causes are different in nature, so the remedies also vary
+in character. Moreover, in many cases we find all three causes
+operating, now one and now the other, to produce the chronic
+underfeeding of the child.
+
+In the first place, the underfeeding of the child may arise through the
+temporary poverty of the parent due to his temporary illness or
+temporary unemployment. In normal circumstances, in these cases relief
+is best afforded by means of the voluntary agencies of society. In
+abnormal circumstances, such as are caused by a widespread depression of
+industry, the evil may be met by a special effort on the part of the
+voluntary agencies or by municipalities or other bodies providing
+temporary relief-work.
+
+In the second place, the underfeeding of the child may be due to the
+chronic and permanent poverty of the parent. The wages of the
+breadwinner even when in full work may be insufficient to afford
+adequate support for a numerous family. This condition of things is not
+peculiar to Great Britain, but is a common characteristic in the life of
+the poor of all civilised nations. This is where the real sting of the
+problem of underfeeding lies, and the causes at work tending to produce
+this condition of things are too deep-seated and too widely spread to be
+removed by any one remedy. Moreover, in endeavouring to cure this
+disease of the Commonwealth we are ever in danger of perpetuating and
+intensifying the causes at work tending to produce the evil.
+
+In the third place, the underfeeding of the child may arise through the
+indifference, the selfishness, or the vice of the parents. In such cases
+the parents could feed their children, but do not. Manifestly in cases
+of this character there is no obligation placed upon the State and no
+rightful claim upon any charitable agency to provide food for the
+children. To give aid simply weakens further the parental sense of
+responsibility, and leaves a wider margin to be spent on vicious
+pleasures. But while there is no obligation placed upon the State to
+provide the necessaries of life for the child, there is need and
+justification in such cases for the intervention of the State. There is
+need, for otherwise the child suffers through the criminal neglect of
+the parents, and the community must interfere for the sake of the future
+social efficiency of the individual and of the nation. There is
+justification, for here as in the case of the parents of the morally
+defective, parental responsibility has either ceased to act or become
+too weak a motive force to be effective in securing the welfare of the
+child. As the individual parent neglects his duty, so and to the
+corresponding degree to which this neglect extends, must the duty be
+enforced by the State. But in the enforcing of this or of any duty we
+must be quite sure that the neglect is really due to the weakened sense
+of responsibility of the parent, that it is a condition of things which
+he could remove if he had the moral will to do so, and that the neglect
+is not due to causes beyond the power of the parent to remove.
+
+Cases in which there is culpable neglect of the child due not to
+poverty, but to the fact that the money which should go to the proper
+nutrition of the child is squandered in drink, or on other enervating
+pleasures, are therefore cases in which recourse must be had to measures
+which enforce upon the parent the obligation to feed and clothe his
+children. The really difficult question is as to the best means of
+enforcing this obligation. Manifestly to punish by fine or imprisonment
+does little in many cases to alleviate the sufferings of the children.
+The punishment falls upon them as well as upon the parent, and where the
+latter is dead to, or careless of, the public opinion of his fellows, it
+fails to initiate that reform of conduct which ought to be the aim of
+all punishment. If indeed by imposition of fine, or by imprisonment, the
+individual realises his neglect of duty, repents, and as a consequence
+reforms, then good and well, but as a rule the neglect of the child is
+in such cases a moral disease of long standing and not easily cured, and
+so we find often that neither punishment by fine nor imprisonment, even
+when repeated several times, is effective in making the parent realise
+his responsibility and reform his conduct. All the while the child goes
+on suffering. He is no better fed during the period of fine or
+imprisonment, and the wrath of the parent is often visited upon his
+unoffending head.
+
+The second method of cure proposed is to feed the children at the public
+expense and to recover the cost by process of law. But the practical
+difficulties in carrying out this plan are similar in kind to those
+formerly experienced in the recovery of unpaid school fees. The cost of
+recovering is often greater than the expense involved, and as a
+consequence local authorities are not inclined to prosecute. Further,
+there is the difficulty of discriminating between underfeeding due to
+wilful and culpable neglect and underfeeding due to the actual chronic
+poverty of the parent. If this plan is to be effective, some simpler
+method of recovery of cost than that which now prevails must be adopted.
+_E.g._, it might be enacted that the sum decreed for should be deducted
+from the weekly wages of the parent by his employer. Here again many
+difficulties would present themselves in the carrying out of this plan.
+In the case of certain employments this could not be done. In other
+cases, employers would be unwilling to undertake the invidious task.
+Moreover, the cost of collection might equal or be greater than the cost
+incurred. Above all, such a method would do little to alleviate the
+sufferings and better the nutrition of the child. In most cases the
+school provides but one meal a day. Experience has shown that in the
+case of children of the dissolute the free meal at the school means less
+food at home. Were the cost deducted from the weekly wages of the
+parent, the result would be intensified. So great have been the
+difficulties felt in this matter that with one or two exceptions no
+foreign country has made the attempt to recover the cost of feeding from
+the parent. Yet the disease requires a remedy. The evil is too dangerous
+to the future social welfare of the community to be allowed to go on
+unchecked and unremedied. Moreover, to endeavour to educate the
+persistently underfed children of our slums is to do them a twofold
+injury. By the exercises of the school we use up, in many cases, with
+little result, the small store of energy lodged in the brain and nervous
+system of the child, and leave nothing either for the repair of the
+nervous system or for the growth of his body generally. We prematurely
+exhaust his nervous system, and by so doing we hinder his bodily growth
+and development. To make matters worse, we often insist that the child
+in order to aid his physical development must undergo an exhausting
+system of physical exercises when what is most wanted for this purpose
+is good and nourishing food and a sufficiency of sleep. At the same time
+that we are neglecting the nutrition of his body we are spending an
+increasing yearly sum on the so-called education of his mind. What,
+then, is the remedy? If fining and imprisonment of the parent only
+accentuate the sufferings of the child, if they fail to make the parent
+realise his responsibility and reform his conduct, if the provision of a
+free meal at school means less food at home, then there is only one
+thorough-going remedy for the evil, and that is to take the child away
+from the parent, to educate and feed him at the public expense, and to
+recover the cost as far as possible from the parent. In Norway this
+drastic method has been adopted. Under a law passed on the 6th January
+1896, the authorities are empowered "to place neglected children in
+suitable homes or families at the cost of the municipality, the parent,
+however, being liable, if called upon, to defray the cost."[20]
+
+The reasons for taking this extreme step are obvious. By no method of
+punishing the persistently dissolute and neglectful parent can you be
+assured of securing the proper nutrition and welfare of the child.
+Parental affection in these cases is dead, and parental responsibility
+for the present and future welfare of the child has ceased to act as a
+motive force. As a consequence, the child grows up to be, at best,
+socially inefficient, and liable in later life to be a burden upon the
+community. In many cases, the evil and sordid influences of his home and
+social environment soon check any springs of good in his nature, and
+more than likely he becomes in later life not merely a socially
+inefficient member of the community but an active socially destructive
+agent. Hence, on the ground of the future protective benefit to society,
+on the ground of securing the future social efficiency of the
+individual, on the ground that it is only by some such system we can
+ever hope to raise the moral efficiency of the rising generation of the
+slums, the method above advocated is worthy of consideration.
+
+Against the adoption of such a method of treatment of the dissolute
+parent many objections may be urged, and it would be foolish to minimise
+the dangers which might follow its systematic and thorough carrying into
+practice. But the possible injury to the community through the weakening
+of the sense of parental responsibility seems to me small in comparison
+with the future good likely to result from the increased physical,
+economic, and ethical efficiency of the next generation which might
+reasonably be expected to follow from the rigorous carrying out of such
+a plan for a time. The fear lest a larger and larger number of parents
+might endeavour to rid themselves of the direct care of their children,
+if this plan were adopted, need not deter us. If this plan were carried
+into practice, then some extension of the scope of the Industrial Acts
+would be rendered necessary, and some such extension seems to have been
+in the minds of the Select Committee in their Report on the Education
+(Provision of Meals) Bill, 1906, in considering their
+recommendations.[21]
+
+But the importance of the two classes of cases already considered sinks
+into comparative insignificance compared with the third class of cases.
+Temporary underfeeding caused by temporary poverty can be met in many
+ways without to any appreciable degree lessening the sense of the moral
+obligation of the parent to provide the personal necessities of food and
+clothing for his children. In the case, again, of the persistently
+dissolute and neglectful parent, moral considerations have ceased to
+operate, and so the individual by some method or other must be forced to
+perform whatever part of the obligation can be exacted from him.
+
+But in the third class of cases parental responsibility may be an active
+and willing force, yet the means available may be so limited in extent
+that the child is in the chronic condition of being underfed. No one who
+carefully considers the information recently supplied by the Board of
+Education as to the methods of feeding the children attending Public
+Elementary Schools in the great Continental cities and in America can
+arrive at any other conclusion than that here we are in the presence of
+an evil not local but general, and apparently incidental to the
+organisation of the modern industrial State. For whether by voluntary
+agencies, by municipal grants, or by State aid, every great Continental
+city has found it necessary to organise and institute some system of
+feeding school children.
+
+The only inference to be drawn from such a condition of things is that
+in a large number of cases the normal wages of the labourer are
+insufficient to maintain himself and his family in anything like a
+decent standard of comfort. How large a proportion of the population of
+our great cities is in this condition it is difficult exactly to
+estimate, but there is no doubt that a very considerable number of cases
+of the chronic underfeeding of school children may be traced to the
+insufficiency of the home income to support the family. The moral
+obligation to provide the personal necessities of food and clothing for
+his children is active, but the means for the realisation of the
+obligation cannot be provided in many cases the endeavour fully to meet
+the needs of the child results in the lessened efficiency of the
+breadwinner of the family.
+
+The real causes at work tending to keep the wages of the unskilled
+labourer ever hovering round a mere subsistence rate must be removed, if
+anything like a permanent cure of this social evil is to be effected. We
+must endeavour on the one hand to lessen the supply of unskilled labour.
+By so doing the reward of such labour will tend to be increased
+materially. On the other hand, we must during the next decade or two
+endeavour by every means in our power to ensure that a larger and larger
+number of the children of the very poor shall in the next generation
+pass into the ranks of skilled labour.
+
+But in the meantime something must be done. The children are there; they
+still suffer; and their wrongs cry aloud for redress. It is certainly
+true that any aid given to the child will tend meanwhile to keep the
+wages at bare subsistence rates. It is also true that the distribution
+of relief only tends to make the poor comfortable in their poverty,
+instead of helping them to rise out of it. All this and much more might
+be urged against the demand to institute and organise the systematic
+public feeding of school children. But these evils are evils which fall
+upon the present adult population. Education has, however, to do with
+the future, with the next generation and not with this. Its aim is to
+secure that as large a number as possible of the children of the present
+generation will grow up to be economically and ethically efficient
+members of the community. To secure this end the problem of underfeeding
+is only one of the problems that must be solved. If we adopt some
+systematic plan for securing the full nutrition of the children of the
+present, this must go hand in hand with other remedies. During the stage
+of transition we shall have to take into account that for a time the
+wages of the poorest class of labourer will tend to remain at their
+present low rate; we shall have to face the danger that by giving such
+aid we may in some cases still further weaken the sense of moral
+obligation of the parents of the present generation. If, on the other
+hand, we do nothing, or if we look to the present voluntary agencies to
+go on doing what they can to remedy the evil, what then? Will the evil
+be lessened in the next generation? Assuredly not, if the experience of
+the present and of the past are safe guides as to what we may expect in
+the future.
+
+Hence we have no hesitation in urging that the feeding of children
+attending the Public Elementary Schools should be organised on lines
+similar to the recommendations laid down in the _Special Report from the
+Special Committee on Education_ (_Provision of Meals_) _Bill_, 1906.[22]
+
+But if we carry out these recommendations and do nothing else, then it
+may be that we shall partially remedy the evil in the next generation,
+but we shall to a large extent perpetuate the present condition of
+things. Side by side with this, we must institute and set other agencies
+at work. By the institution of Free Kindergarten Schools in the poorer
+districts of our large towns, by postponing the beginning of the formal
+education of the child to a later age, by a scientific course of
+physical education, by better trade and technical schools, and if need
+be by the compulsory attendance of children at evening continuation
+schools, we must bend our every effort to secure that the ranks of the
+casual, the unskilled, and the unemployable shall be lessened, and the
+ranks of the skilled and intelligent worker increased.
+
+As the freeing of elementary education can be justified on the ground
+that the education of the child is necessary for the future protection
+of the State, so on similar grounds it may be urged that the nutrition
+of the child is also necessary. Without this our merely educational
+agencies can never adequately secure the social efficiency of the coming
+generation. At the same time, unless in the future the need for free
+education and free food becomes less and less, and unless by the means
+sketched above we rear up a generation economically and morally
+independent, then truly we have not discovered the method by which man
+can be raised to independence and rationality.
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+_Recommendations of the Select Committee on Education_ (_Provision of
+Meals_) _Bill_, 1906.
+
+
+     "The evidence, verbal and documentary, placed before the Committee
+     has led them to arrive at the following general conclusions:--
+
+     "1. That it is expedient that the Local Education Authority should
+     be empowered to organise and direct the provision of a midday meal
+     for children attending Public Elementary Schools, and that
+     statutory powers should be given to Local Authorities to establish
+     Committees to deal with school canteens.
+
+     "2. That such Committees should be composed of representatives of
+     the Local Education Authority, representatives of the Voluntary
+     Subscribers, and where thought desirable a representative of the
+     Board of Guardians, and of the local branch of the Society for the
+     Prevention of Cruelty to Children, where such exists. That the Head
+     Teacher, the School Attendance Officer, and the Relieving Officer
+     should work in association with such Committee.
+
+     "3. That power should be given for the Local Education Authorities,
+     when they deem it desirable, to raise loans and spend money on the
+     provision of suitable accommodation and officials, and for the
+     preparation, cooking, and serving of meals to the children
+     attending Public Elementary Schools.
+
+     "4. That only in extreme and exceptional cases, where it can be
+     shown that neither the parents' resources nor Local Voluntary Funds
+     are sufficient to cover the cost, and after the consent of the
+     Board of Education as to the necessity for such expenditure has
+     been obtained, a Local Authority may have recourse to the rates for
+     the provision of the cost of the actual food; the local rate for
+     this purpose to in no case exceed 1/2d. in the L.
+
+     "5. That the Local Education Authority should, as far as possible,
+     associate with itself, and encourage the continuance of, voluntary
+     agencies in connection with the work of feeding of children.
+
+     "6. That whatever steps may be necessary, by way of extension of
+     the Industrial Schools and the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
+     Acts or otherwise, should be taken to secure that parents able to
+     do so and neglecting to make proper provision for the feeding of
+     their children shall be proceeded against for the recovery of the
+     cost; and that the Guardians, or where available the Society for
+     the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, and not the Local Education
+     Authority, be empowered to prosecute in any cases coming under the
+     law in respect to the neglect of parents to make proper provision
+     for the feeding of their children.
+
+     "7. That payment for meals, prior to the meal, whenever possible,
+     should be insisted upon from the parents.
+
+     "8. That it is undesirable that meals should be served in rooms
+     habitually used for teaching purposes, and that the Regulations of
+     the Board of Education should carry this recommendation into
+     effect.
+
+     "9. That whilst strong testimony has been placed before the
+     Committee to the effect that the teachers have given and are giving
+     admirable service in the way of supervising the provision of meals
+     to the children, it is the opinion of the Committee that it ought
+     not to be made part of the conditions attaching to the appointment
+     of any teacher that he (or she) shall or shall not take part in
+     dispensing meals provided for the children, and that the Board of
+     Education should carry this recommendation into effect."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] Cf. Underfed Children in Continental and American Cities (presented
+to Parliament, April 1906).
+
+[21] Cf. _Report on Education_ (_Provision of Meals_) _Bill_, especially
+Recommendation 6, Appendix, p. 75.
+
+[22] Cf. Appendix, p. 75.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE ORGANISATION OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION
+
+
+Throughout we have assumed that it is the duty of the State to see to
+the adequate provision, to the due distribution, and to the proper
+co-ordination of all the agencies of education, and we have taken up
+this position mainly on the ground that neither the adequate provision
+nor the proper co-ordination of the means of education can be safely
+left to the self-interest of the individual or any group of individuals.
+If left to be accomplished by purely voluntary agencies, both the
+provision and the co-ordination will remain imperfect, and as a nation
+we can no longer neglect the systematic organisation and grading of the
+means of education.
+
+But a misapprehension must first be removed. In declaring that all the
+agencies of formal education should be under control of the State, it is
+not to be inferred that this control should be bureaucratic. In many
+minds State control is synonymous with government by inspectors and
+other officials of the central authority. But bureaucratic control in a
+nation whose government is founded on a representative basis is a
+disease rather than a normal condition of such government. In a country
+where the sovereign power is vested in an individual or in a limited
+number of individuals, bureaucratic control is and must be an essential
+feature of its government. On the other hand, where the government is
+founded upon the representative principle, the appearance of bureaucracy
+is an indication of some imperfection in the organisation of the State
+itself. The introduction of the representative principle may have been
+too premature or its extension too rapid, and as a consequence the
+government of the people by themselves is ineffective through the
+general want of an enlightened self-interest amongst the majority of the
+nation. In such a condition of affairs, if progress is to be made, it
+can only be accomplished effectively through an enlightened minority
+forcing its will upon the unenlightened and ignorant majority, and as a
+result we may have the creation of an army of official inspectors whose
+chief duty becomes to secure that the will of the central authority is
+realised. In such a condition of things the tendency ever is for more
+and more power to fall into the hands of the permanent officials.
+
+But this condition of things may arise in a government founded upon the
+representative principle in another way. The organs through which the
+will of the people makes itself known may be imperfect, so that as a
+consequence it fails to find adequate expression, or its expression is
+felt only at infrequent intervals. If, for example, the central
+authority is so overburdened with work that little or insufficient
+attention is given to many matters of supreme importance for the welfare
+of the nation, then it follows that more and more power will pass into
+the hands of its executive and advisory officers. This condition of
+things will be further intensified if the governing bodies charged with
+the local control of national affairs are too weak or too unenlightened
+to make their voice effective. Now, the tendency to the bureaucratic
+control of the educational affairs of our own country may be traced to
+all three causes. The want of an enlightened self-interest in the matter
+of education amongst a large number of the people, the ineffectiveness
+of Parliament to deal thoroughly with purely educational questions, and
+the weakness in many cases of the local governing bodies have all
+contributed to the gradual creation of the bureaucratic control of
+education in Great Britain. But this form of control is not entirely
+evil, and in certain cases it may be a necessary stage in the
+development of a democracy passing from unenlightenment to
+enlightenment. The remedies for this imperfection, this disease of
+representative government in the matter of educational control, are (1)
+the spread of a more enlightened self-interest as to the value of
+education as a means of securing the social efficiency of the nation and
+of the individual, (2) the effective control of education by the central
+authority, and (3) the strengthening of the local authorities by
+devolving upon them more and more important educational duties. By this
+means the control of education by the State will become more and more
+the control of the people by themselves and for themselves, and the
+chief function of officials and inspectors will then be to advise
+central and local authorities how best to realise the educational aims
+desired by the common will of the people.
+
+Let us now consider the main principles which should guide the State in
+her organisation of the means of education.
+
+In the first place, and upon this all are agreed, the control of all
+grades of education, primary, secondary, and technical, should be
+entrusted to one body in each area or district. For there can be no
+co-ordination established between the work of the various school
+agencies, and there can be no differentiation of the functions to be
+undertaken by the various types of school, until there has been
+established unity of control.
+
+In England, by the Act of 1902, a great step was taken towards the
+unification of all the agencies of education. According to its
+provisions, the School Board system was abolished. "Every County Council
+and County Borough Council, and the Borough Councils of every non-county
+borough with a population of over 10,000, and the District Council of
+every urban district with a population over 20,000, became the local
+education authority for elementary education, while the County Council
+and the County Borough Council became the authorities for higher
+education, _with the supplementary aid of the Councils of all non-county
+boroughs and urban districts_." By this means the unification of
+educational control has been realised, and already in many districts of
+England much has been done to further the means of higher education and
+to co-ordinate this stage with the preceding primary stage.
+
+In Scotland the question of the extension of the area of educational
+control and of the unification of the various agencies directing
+education still awaits solution. Several plans have been put forward to
+effect these ends.[23]
+
+In the first place, it has been proposed to retain the present parish
+School Boards for the purpose of elementary education, and to combine
+two or more School Boards for the purposes of providing secondary and
+technical education. This plan, however, meets with little favour. It
+would be difficult to carry into practice, and if realised would
+imperfectly fulfil the end of co-ordinating the work of the various
+school agencies. Its only recommendations are its apparent simplicity,
+and the fact that it could be carried out with the least possible change
+in the existing conditions.
+
+In the second place, it is proposed to retain the School Board system,
+but to extend the area over which any particular educational authority
+exerts its control, and to place under its direction all grades of
+education. In the practical carrying out of this plan the present
+district areas of counties selected for other purposes have been
+proposed as educational units. On the other hand, it has been declared
+that in many cases these areas are unsuitable for educational purposes,
+and it has been proposed that new areas should be delimited for this
+purpose.
+
+The chief merit, if it be a merit, of this plan is the retention in
+educational control of the _ad hoc_ principle--_i.e._, of the principle
+of entrusting one single national interest to a body charged with the
+sole duty of conserving and furthering the interest. The only reasons
+advanced are the great importance of the educational interest and the
+fear that if it is entrusted to bodies charged with other duties this
+interest may tend to be neglected. But although both sentiment and the
+interests of political parties are involved in the advocacy of the _ad
+hoc_ principle, it must be kept in mind that the School Board system in
+Scotland is universal and that the difficulties of the system which
+prevailed in England before its abolition do not exist in Scotland. As a
+consequence, it has been much more effective in Scotland than in
+England, and has a much firmer hold on the sentiments of the people.
+
+In the third place, it has been proposed to hand over the educational
+duties of the country to the County Councils and to the Burgh Councils
+of the more important towns, to adopt, in principle, a system of
+educational control similar to that established in England by the Act of
+1902.
+
+Many reasons may be urged for the adoption of the last-named plan, and
+we shall briefly state the more important.
+
+1. An _ad hoc_ authority by its very nature is necessarily weaker than
+an authority entrusted not merely with the care of a single interest but
+with the care of the public interests as a whole. If there is to be
+decentralisation of any part of the functions of the central authority,
+then any form of decentralisation which consists in the handing over of
+particular interests to different local bodies, however it may be for
+the advantage of the particular interest is radically bad for the
+general interests of the community. The calling into existence of a
+number of local authorities each having the care of one particular
+interest, each pursuing its own aim independently and without
+consideration of the differing and often conflicting aims of the other
+bodies, each having the power of rating for its own particular purpose
+without any regard for the general interest of the taxpayer, is
+radically an unsound form of decentralisation.
+
+2. The establishment of such a form of control fails, and must
+necessarily fail, in the local authorities securing the maximum of
+freedom and the minimum of interference from the executive officers of
+the central legislative authority. So long as the separate interests of
+the community are entrusted to different local authorities, so long must
+there remain to the central authority and to its executive officers the
+power of regulating and harmonising the various and often contending
+interests so as to secure that the general interest of the individual
+does not suffer, and the more keenly each particular body furthers the
+particular interest entrusted to its care the greater is the necessity
+for this central control and interference, and that the central control
+should be effective.
+
+3. The separation of the so-called educational interests from the other
+interests of the community is not for the good of education itself. The
+real educational interests which have to be determined by the adult
+portion of the community are the exact nature of the services which a
+nation such as ours requires of its future members. This determined, the
+method of their attainment is best entrusted to the educational expert.
+The first-named end will be better realised by a body composed of men of
+diverse interests than by one which is made up of men with one intense
+but often narrow interest.
+
+4. The larger the powers entrusted to any body and the more freedom
+possessed by it in devising and working out its schemes, the better
+chance there is of attracting the best men in the community to undertake
+the work.
+
+5. It is questionable whether the interests of the teacher would not be
+better furthered by a local authority entrusted with the care of the
+interests of the community as a whole than by a body having charge of
+education alone. Men entrusted with the larger interests of the
+community are usually more ready to take wider views than the man who is
+narrowed down to one interest. As a rule, they know the value of good
+work done, and are ready and willing to pay for it wherever they find
+it.
+
+6. Lastly, we may urge the test of practical experience. In England,
+and especially in London, since the control of education has passed into
+the hands of the County Councils a great advance has been made both in
+the furthering and in the co-ordination of the means of education.
+
+Whether ultimately the control of education be vested in District School
+Boards or in the County and Burgh Councils, one reform is urgently
+needed in Scotland, and this is the extension of the area of educational
+control, under a strong local authority, and with the entire control of
+elementary, secondary, and technical education.
+
+In the second place, whatever the area of control chosen it should be of
+such a nature as to admit within its bounds of schools of different
+grades and of different types, so that children may pass not only from
+the Elementary School to the Secondary, but may pass to the particular
+type of Secondary or Higher School which is best fitted to prepare them
+for their future life's work. In many cases, in Scotland, we cannot make
+the same clear distinction between the various types of school as they
+do in Germany, but must remain content with the division of a school
+into departments; yet in our large towns and in our most populous
+centres of industry we must establish schools of different types and
+with differing particular ends in view.
+
+The third principle of organisation follows from the second. We must see
+that our educational system is so organised as to provide an efficient
+and sufficient supply of all the services which the community requires
+of its individual members. In particular, our Higher School system must
+be designed not merely for the supply of the so-called learned
+professions, but must also make due and adequate provision for the
+training of those who in after-life are destined for the higher
+industrial and commercial posts. In particular, we must see that there
+is due provision of Trade and Technical Schools, where our future
+artisans may become acquainted with the theoretical principles
+underlying their particular art.
+
+Fourthly, we must endeavour to make our Elementary School system the
+basis and point of departure of all further and higher education. This
+would not involve that every child should be educated at a Primary and
+State-aided School, but it does mean and would involve that the
+Preparatory departments of our present Secondary Schools should model
+their curriculum on the lines laid down in our Elementary Schools.
+
+Fifthly, in the organisation of the means of education, our system, as
+we have already pointed out, must be democratic in the sense that the
+means of higher education shall be open to all, rich and poor, in order
+that each may be enabled to find and thereafter to fit himself for that
+particular employment for which by nature he is best suited. It must
+further be aristocratic in the sense that it is selective of the best
+ability; and finally, it must be restrictive in order that the means of
+higher education may be utilised to the best advantage, and not misused
+on those who are unfitted to benefit therefrom.
+
+Unity of control; adequacy of area; schools of various types, sufficient
+in number, and suited to meet the need for the supply of the various
+services required by the State; a common basis in elementary education;
+means of higher education open to all who can profit thereby; selection
+of the best; restriction of those unable to benefit from higher
+education--these are the principles which must in the future guide the
+State organisation of the means of education.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[23] For a fuller discussion of this question, see _Scotch Education
+Reform_, by Dr. Douglas and Professor Jones (Maclehose).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE AIM OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
+
+
+"A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description of a happy
+state in this world. He that has these two has little more to wish for,
+and he that wants either of them will be but little the better for
+anything else."[24] In these words Locke sets forth for all time what
+should be aimed at in the physical education of the child, and in the
+light of modern physiological psychology the position must be emphasised
+anew that one of the essential conditions of sound intellectual and
+moral vigour is sound physical health, and that body and mind are not
+things apart, but that the health of the one ever conditions and is
+conditioned by the health of the other.
+
+Moreover, at the present time, it is all the more necessary to insist
+upon the need for the systematic care of the physical culture of the
+child, since in many cases the conditions under which the children of
+the poor live in our great towns are most prejudicial to the full and
+free development of the organs of the body. The narrow, overbuilt
+streets in the poorer parts of our towns, the overcrowding of the people
+in tenements, the unhygienic conditions under which the vast majority of
+our very poor live and sleep, are all active forces in preventing the
+full and free development of the physical powers of the child. Thus the
+purely educational problem of how best to promote the physical health
+and development of the child by the systematic exercises of the school
+is involved in the much larger and more important social problem of how
+to better the conditions under which the very poor live. The agencies of
+the school can do little permanently to improve the physique of the
+children until, concurrently with the school, society endeavours to
+improve the social conditions under which the poorest of the population
+of our great cities herd together. For a similar reason much of the
+endeavour of the school to found and establish in the child's mind
+interests of social worth is counteracted by the evil influence of its
+home and social environment. If the physical, economic, and ethical
+efficiency of the children of the slums is ever to be secured, if we are
+ever to attain a permanent result, then concurrently with the creation
+of new and higher social interests must go hand in hand changes in the
+social environment of the child. Mere betterment of the physical
+conditions under which our slum population live is of no avail unless at
+the same time we have a corresponding change in the slum mind by the
+rise and prevalence of a higher ideal of the physical and material
+conditions under which their lives ought to be spent.
+
+For experience has shown in many cases that the mere betterment of the
+material conditions under which the poor live without any corresponding
+change of ideals soon results in the re-creation of the miserable
+conditions which formerly prevailed. On the other hand, the mere
+instilling of new ideals into the minds of the rising generation will
+effect little, if during the greater part of the school period and
+altogether afterwards we leave the child to overcome the evil influences
+of his environment as best he may. The ideals of the school are too
+weak, too feebly established, to prevail against the ever present and
+ever potent influences of the environment unless side by side with the
+rise of the new ideals we at the same time endeavour to lessen, if we
+cannot altogether remove, the obstacles which prevent their realisation
+and prevalence. This problem of how to raise by education and by means
+of the other social agencies at work the children of the slums to a
+higher ideal of life and conduct and to secure their future social
+efficiency is the most urgent problem of our day and generation. Mere
+school reforms in physical and intellectual education will effect little
+unless the other aspects of the problem are attacked at the same time.
+
+Further, our school system, which requires that the child should
+restrain his instinctive tendencies to action, and for certain hours
+each day assume a more or less passive and cramped attitude, is also
+prejudicial to the development and free play of the organs of the body
+which have entrusted to them the discharge of certain functional
+activities.
+
+Hence the evil effects of the school itself must be removed or remedied
+by some means having as their aim the increased functional activity of
+the respiratory and circulatory systems of the body. And therefore the
+aim of any system of physical exercises should be not merely increase of
+bone and development of muscle but also the sustaining and improving of
+the bodily health of the child by "expanding the lungs, quickening the
+circulation, and shaking the viscera." This, as we shall see later, is
+not the only aim of physical education. It may further aid in mental
+growth and development, and be instrumental in the production of certain
+mental and moral qualities of value both to the individual and to the
+community.
+
+Another cause operating in the school to prevent the full and free
+development of the body is the method of much of the teaching which
+prevails. A quite unnecessary strain is often put upon the nervous
+system of the child, and as a consequence a lassitude of body results
+which physical exercise not only does not tend to remove but actually
+tends to increase. Methods of teaching which fail to arouse any inherent
+interest in the attainment of an end of felt value to the child require
+for the evoking and maintaining of his active attention the operation of
+some powerful indirect interest, and if persisted in, such methods soon
+result in the overworking and exhaustion of some one particular system
+of nervous centres, and in the depletion through non-nutrition of other
+centres. As a consequence, the child is unable to take any part in
+physical exercises or in school games with profit to himself. He is
+content to loaf and do as little as he can. The evil is further
+intensified if there is also present under or improper nutrition of the
+child.
+
+Thus along with our schemes for the physical education of the child we
+must endeavour to improve the methods of our teachers, to make them
+understand that experiences acquired through the arousing of the direct
+interest of the child are acquired at the least physiological cost, and
+to make them realise under what conditions this direct interest can be
+aroused and maintained. No one indeed wishes to make everything in the
+school pleasant to the child, or to reduce self-effort to a minimum. But
+effort and interest are not opposed terms. The effort which is evoked in
+the realisation of an interest or end of felt value is the only kind of
+effort which possesses any educational value. The effort which is called
+forth in the finding and establishing of a system of means towards an
+end which the child fails to see, and which, as a consequence, rouses no
+direct interest in its attainment, is an effort which should for ever be
+banished from the schoolroom. Such, _e.g._, is the effort evoked in the
+mere cramming of empty lists of words or dates or facts. Little mental
+good results from such a process, and the physiological cost is often
+great.
+
+Let us now consider the conditions necessary for sound physical health,
+and inquire how far the school agencies can aid in the providing of
+these conditions: they are mainly four in number. In the first place, in
+order to secure the full growth and development of the bodily powers,
+there is needed a sufficiency of food. But mere sufficiency is not
+enough, the food must be varied in quality in order to meet the various
+needs of the body, and must be prepared in such a way as to be readily
+assimilated and rendered fit for the nutrition of both body and mind.
+Manifestly the home ought to be the chief agent in providing for this
+need. But, as we have seen in considering the problem of the feeding of
+school children, the home in many cases is unable adequately to provide
+for it, and, for a time at least, some method of public provision of
+good and wholesome food for the children of the poor may be rendered
+necessary. But much of the physical evil results from improper
+nutrition; and here the school agencies may do a great deal in the
+future by furthering the teaching of domestic science to the girls of
+the working classes. Such teaching, however, if it is to be effective,
+must be real and must take into account the actual conditions under
+which their future lives are to be spent. At the present time much of
+the teaching is valueless, through its neglect of the actual income and
+resources of the working man's home.
+
+The second condition necessary for bodily growth and development is a
+sufficiency of pure air. This is necessary, since the oxygen of the air
+is not only the active agent in the maintenance of life, but is also
+requisite for the combustion of the foodstuffs conveyed into the body.
+Much has been done within recent years in our schools to provide
+well-ventilated classrooms and to instruct teachers how to keep the air
+of the school pure. Here again the problem is to a large extent a social
+one, involving the better housing of our great town population.
+
+A third condition necessary for the physical development of the child is
+sleep sufficient in quantity and good in quality. The weak, puny
+children in arms to be seen in our crowded slums owe their condition, in
+many cases, to the want of sound sleep, to the fact that they never are
+allowed to rest, as much as to the under and improper feeding to which
+they are subjected. As we shall see in the next chapter, much might be
+done by the establishment of Free Kindergarten Schools in our
+overcrowded districts to alleviate the lot and to better the education
+of the very young children of the poor.
+
+But in addition to the three conditions already named, which may be
+classed together as the nutritive factors in bodily growth, there is a
+fourth condition essential for all development, whether bodily or
+mental--viz., exercise. For "development is produced by exercise of
+function, use of faculty.... If we wish to develop the hand, we must
+exercise the hand. If we wish to develop the body, we must exercise the
+body. If we wish to develop the mind, we must exercise the mind. If we
+wish to develop the whole human being, we must exercise the whole human
+being."[25]
+
+But any form of exercise will not do. The exercise which is given must
+be given at the right time, must be in harmony with the nature of the
+organ exercised, and must be proportioned to the strength of the organ,
+if true development is to be attained.
+
+In order to understand this in so far as it bears upon the aims which we
+should set before us in the physical education of the child, it is
+necessary that we should understand what modern physiological psychology
+has to teach us of the nature of the nervous system.
+
+If the reader will look back to an earlier chapter,[26] he will find
+that education was defined as the process by which experiences are
+acquired and organised in order that they may render the performance of
+future action more efficient, or alternatively it is the process by
+which systems of means are formed, organised, and established for the
+attainment of various ends of felt value. The establishment of these
+systems of means is only possible because in the human infant the
+nervous system is relatively unformed at birth, is relatively plastic,
+and so is capable of being organised in such and such a definite manner.
+On the other hand, in many animals the nervous system of each is
+definitely formed at birth; it is so organised that experience does
+little to add to or aid in its further development. Now, while the
+nervous system of the child at birth is not so definitely organised as
+that of many animals, yet on the other hand it is not wholly plastic,
+wholly unformed, so that, as many psychologists and educationalists once
+believed, it can be moulded into any shape we please.
+
+Rather, we have to conceive of the nervous system of the human infant as
+made up of a series of systems at different degrees of development and
+with varying degrees of organisation.[27] Some centres, as _e.g._ those
+which have to do with the regulation of certain reflex and automatic
+actions, start at once into full functional activity; others, as _e.g._
+those which have to do with purely intellectual functions, are
+relatively unformed and unorganised at birth, and become organised as
+the result of conscious effort, as the result of an educational process,
+as the result of acquiring, organising, and establishing experiences for
+the attainment of ends of acquired value.
+
+Between the systems at the lowest level and those at the highest we have
+centres of varying degrees of organisation at birth. Moreover, these
+centres of the middle level reach their full maturity at different
+rates. The centres, _e.g._, which have to do with the co-ordination of
+hand and eye and with the attainment of control over the limbs of the
+body reach their full functional activity before, _e.g._, the centres
+having control of the lips and speech. The centres, again, which have to
+do with the co-ordination of the sensory material derived through the
+particular senses are still longer in reaching their full functional
+activity, while the higher intellectual centres may not reach their
+highest power until well on in life. Hence, since education is the
+process of acquiring experiences that shall modify future activity, it
+can do little positively to aid the development of the lowest centres;
+it can do more to modify the development of the middle centres; while
+the highest centres of all are in great part organised as the result of
+direct individual experience.
+
+As regards the systems of the lowest level, what we have then to aim at
+is to allow them free room for growth, and to correct as far as possible
+faults due either to the imperfections of nature or to the unnatural
+conditions under which the child lives. So long as these systems are
+provided with nutrition and allowed freedom in performing their
+functions, we are unaware of their existence. We, _e.g._, only become
+aware that we possess a circulatory system or a respiratory or a
+digestive system when the functional activity of these organs is
+impeded. The opinion, therefore, that physical exercise has for its
+chief aim the sustaining and improving of the bodily health is no doubt
+true and correct, but it is not the only aim. On this view we are
+considering only the lowest system of centres, and devising means by
+which we may maintain and improve their functional activity. Moreover,
+it is necessary to endeavour to secure the free development of these
+centres and their unimpeded functional activity, because otherwise the
+development of the higher centres is hindered, and the whole nervous
+system rendered unstable and insecure.
+
+But a wise system of physical education must take into account the fact
+that a carefully selected and organised system of exercises can do much
+for the development of the centres of the middle level which have to do
+with the proper co-ordination of various bodily movements. These are
+only partly organised at birth, and education--the acquiring and
+organising of experiences--is necessary for their due organisation and
+their adaptation as systems of means for the attainment of definite
+ends. It is for this reason that the beginning of the formal education
+of the child at too early an age is physiologically and psychologically
+erroneous. In doing this we are neglecting the lower centres at the time
+when by nature they are reaching their full functional activity, and
+exercising the higher which are at an unripe stage of development.
+Moreover, lower centres not exercised during the period when they are
+attaining their full development never attain the same functional
+development if exercised later. Hence the difficulty of acquiring a
+manual dexterity later in life. Again, it is on this theory of lower and
+higher centres maturing at different rates and attaining their full
+functional activity at different times that we now base our education of
+the mentally defective. We must organise the lower centres; we must
+educate the mentally defective child to get control over these already
+partially organised centres, before we begin to educate the higher and
+less organised centres. Moreover, it is only in so far as we can secure
+this end that we can stably build up and organise the higher centres of
+the nervous system. Hence also such qualities as alertness in receiving
+orders and promptness and accuracy in carrying them out are, at first,
+best learned through the organising and training of the centres of the
+middle level. What we really endeavour to do here is to organise and
+establish systems of means for the attainment of definite ends, which
+through their systematic organisation can be brought into action when
+required promptly and quickly, and once aroused work themselves out with
+a minimum of effort and with a low degree of attention, so that their
+performance involves the least possible physiological cost.
+
+From this the reader will understand that the aim of physical education
+is the aim of all education, viz., to acquire and organise experiences
+that will render future action more efficient.
+
+Moreover, the early training of the centres of the middle level is
+important for the after technical training of our workmen. The boy or
+girl who has never been educated in early life to co-ordinate and carry
+out bodily movements promptly and accurately is not likely to succeed in
+after-life in any employment which requires the ready and exact
+co-ordination of many movements for the attainment of a definite end.
+The proper physical education of the child is therefore necessary for
+the securing of the after economic efficiency of the individual, and it
+can also by the development of certain mental and moral qualities be
+made instrumental in the development of the ethically efficient person.
+
+We must now briefly note two other educational agencies which may be
+employed in the securing of the physical and mental efficiency of the
+child--play and games. Psychologically, games stand midway between play
+and work. In play we have an inherited system of means evoked into
+activity and carried out to an end for the pure pleasure derived from
+the activity itself. Such systems at first are imperfectly organised,
+but through the experience derived the systems become more and better
+adapted for the attainment of the ends which they are intended to
+realise. In games, on the other hand, the activity is undertaken for an
+end only partially connected with the means by which it is attained,
+whilst in work the means may have no intrinsic connection with the end
+desired. Hence the effort of a disagreeable nature which work often
+evokes.
+
+In animals fully equipped at birth by means of instinct for the
+performance of actions the play-activity is altogether absent. Their
+lives are wholly business-like. On the other hand, in the higher
+animals, whose young have a period of infancy, play is nature's
+instrument of education. By means of it the systems of the middle level
+which form the larger part of the brain equipment of the higher animals
+are gradually organised and fitted for the attainment of the ends which
+in mature life they are intended to realise. Play is their education--is
+the means by which nature works in order that experiences may be
+acquired and organised that shall render future action more efficient.
+Without this power, "the higher animals could not reach their full
+development; the stimulus necessary for the growth of their bodies and
+minds would be lacking."[28]
+
+Play also is nature's instrument in the education of the young child.
+The first and most important part of his education is obtained by this
+means, and, on the basis thus laid, must all after-education be built.
+Hence the importance in early life of allowing full freedom for the
+manifestation of this activity. Hence also the very great importance of
+securing that the children of the poor should be provided with the means
+of realising the playful activities of their nature and of being
+stimulated and encouraged to play. Hence one aim of the Kindergarten
+School is to utilise the play-activity of the child in the development
+of his body and mind.[29]
+
+The third agency which we may employ in developing the physical powers
+of the child is that of games. Games, however, are not merely useful as
+means for the attainment of the physical development of the boy or girl;
+they also may be made instrumental in the creation and fostering of
+certain mental and moral qualities of the greatest after-value to the
+community. No one acquainted with the important part which games perform
+in the life of the Public School boy can doubt their great educational
+value. By means of them the boy acquires experiences which in after-life
+tend to make more efficient certain classes of actions essential for any
+corporate or communal life. In the playing-fields he learns what it is
+to be a member of a corporate body whose good and not the attainment of
+his own private ends must be the first consideration. Through the medium
+of the games of the school he may get to know the meaning of
+self-sacrifice, of working with his fellows for a common end or purpose,
+and of sinking his own individuality for the sake of his side. In
+addition he learns the habits of ready obedience to superior knowledge
+and ability; to submit to discipline; and to undergo fatigue for the
+common good. If found worthy, he may learn how to command as well as to
+obey, to think out means for the attainment of ends, and to know and
+feel that the good name of the school rests upon his shoulders. These
+and other qualities similar in character may be created and established
+by means of the games of the school. And just as the utilising of the
+play-instinct is nature's method of education in the fitting of the
+young animal and the young child to adapt itself in the future to its
+physical environment, so we may lay down that the games of the school
+may be largely utilised as society's method of fitting the individual to
+his after social environment, and in training him to understand the true
+meaning and the real purport of corporate life.
+
+On account, however, of the vast size of many of our Public Elementary
+Schools and for other reasons, such as the limited playground
+accommodation in many cases and the want of playing-fields, organised
+games play but a small part in the physical and moral education of the
+children attending such schools. But even here much more might be done
+than is done at present by the teachers in the playground to encourage
+the simpler playground games, and "to replace the disorganised rough and
+tumble exercises which characterise the activities of so many of our
+poorer population by some form of organised activity."[30] The aimless
+parading of our streets by the sons and daughters of the working and
+lower middle classes in their leisure time, the rough horseplay of the
+youth of the lowest classes, are due in large measure to the fact that
+during the school period they have not been habituated to take part with
+their fellows in any form of organised activity, have never realised
+what a corporate life means, and as a consequence are devoid of any
+social interests.
+
+One other question must be briefly considered, viz., How far should we
+in the physical education of the youth keep in view the end of securing
+the military efficiency of the nation? As Adam Smith pointed out, the
+defence of any society against the violence and invasion of other
+independent societies is the first duty of the sovereign. "An
+industrious, and upon that account a wealthy nation is of all nations
+the most likely to be attacked, and unless the State takes some measures
+for the public defence, the natural habits of the people render them
+altogether incapable of defending themselves."[31] He further asserts
+that "even though the martial spirit of the people were of no use
+towards the defence of the society, yet to prevent that sort of mental
+mutilation, deformity, and wretchedness which cowardice necessarily
+involves in it, from spreading themselves through the great body of the
+people, it would still deserve the most serious attention of
+Government."[32]
+
+On these three grounds, then, that the defence of the country is the
+first duty of every Government and therefore the first duty of every
+citizen, that a nation engaged in commerce tends to render itself unfit
+to defend itself unless means are devised to keep alive the patriotic
+spirit, and that the keeping alive of the patriotic spirit is useful for
+the cultivation of certain necessary social qualities, we may maintain
+that the military efficiency of the youth should be included amongst the
+aims of any national system of physical education. If the emphasis which
+is laid upon the securing of the after military efficiency of the youth
+of the nation occupies too prominent a place in the schemes of physical
+education of some Continental countries, we on the other hand have
+almost wholly neglected this aspect of the question. Every encouragement
+therefore should be given to the formation of cadet and rifle corps in
+the Secondary Schools of the country and in the Evening Continuation
+Schools attended by the sons of the working classes. The time when
+systematic instruction in military exercises and in the use of arms
+shall form part of every youth's education has not yet arrived, but the
+necessity for some such step looms already on the horizon.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24] Locke's _Thoughts on Education_.
+
+[25] Bowen's Froebel (Great Educator Series), p. 48.
+
+[26] Cf. chap. ii.
+
+[27] Cf. MacDougall's _Physiological Psychology_ (Dent); _also_ Sir
+James Crichton Browne's article on "Education and the Nervous System,"
+in Cassell's _Book of Health_.
+
+[28] _Principles of Heredity_, ibid. p. 242.
+
+[29] Cf. next chapter.
+
+[30] _Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers_ (English Board of
+Education), chapter on Physical Education.
+
+[31] Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, p. 292.
+
+[32] _Ibid._ p. 329.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE AIM OF THE INFANT SCHOOL
+
+
+It is needless to point out that the method of educating the infant mind
+is the method of all education--viz., the regulation of the process by
+which experiences are acquired and organised so as to render the
+performance of future action more efficient. This, as we shall see
+later, is the fundamental truth at the foundation of the Kindergarten
+method of Froebel, and it must guide and control our conduct not only
+during the earlier stages but throughout the whole process of education.
+
+Moreover, since the early acquisitions of the child are the bases upon
+which all further knowledge and practice are founded, we must realise
+how important these first experiences are for the whole future
+development of the child. Further, we have seen that all education--all
+acquiring and organising of experience in early life--must be motived by
+the felt desire to satisfy some instinctive need of the child's nature,
+and that it is these instinctive needs which determine the nature and
+scope of his early activities.
+
+Later, indeed, acquired interests may be grafted upon the innate and
+instinctive needs, but at the beginning and during his first years the
+child's whole life is determined by the primitive desires of human
+nature.
+
+Now, the first instinctive need which requires the aid of education is
+the need felt by the child to acquire some measure of control over his
+bodily movements and over the things in his immediate physical
+environment. Hence the first stage in education is the regulation of the
+process by which the child acquires and organises those experiences
+which shall give him this control. Nature herself indeed provides the
+means for the attainment of this end, but education can do much to aid
+in the attainment and to shorten the period of incomplete attainment. By
+means of the assistance given, the control exercised and the direction
+afforded, we enable the child to organise the lower centres of the
+nervous system which have to do with the control of the larger bodily
+movements, and thus establish organised systems of means for the
+attainment of certain definite ends.
+
+The second stage supervenes when the need is felt by the child for some
+measure of control over his social environment. For the young child soon
+realises that it is only in so far as he can exert some influence over
+the persons intimately connected with his welfare that he can make his
+wants known and find means for the satisfaction of his desires. Hence
+arises the need for some method of communication with his fellows, and
+from this springs the desire for some system of signs and for a language
+to enable him to make his wants known. Chiefly by means of the educative
+process of imitating the experiences of others, he gradually acquires a
+language and finds himself at home in his social world.
+
+During this period the centres called into activity, developed, and
+organised are mainly those connected with the lip and speech centres,
+and a certain stage of organisation having been attained, the
+opportunity is now afforded for the fuller functional development of the
+higher centres entrusted with the duty of receiving, discriminating, and
+co-ordinating the data of the special organs of sense.
+
+The period during which the child is gradually acquiring control over
+his immediate physical and social environments may roughly be said to
+extend to the end of his third year.
+
+From that time onwards the worlds of nature and of society for their own
+sake become objects of curiosity to the child. Every new object presents
+him with a variety of fresh sensations. He feels, tastes, and bites
+everything that comes within his reach, and so acquires a world of new
+experiences. Hence for "the first six years of his life a child has
+quite enough to do in learning its place in the universe and the nature
+of its surroundings, and to compel it during any part of that period to
+give its attention to mere words and symbols is to stint it of the best
+part of its education for that which is only of secondary importance,
+and to weaken the foundations of its whole mental fabric."[33]
+
+If, then, during this period the child is left wholly to gather his
+experiences as he may, he no doubt acquires by his own self-activity a
+world of new ideas, but the result of this unregulated process will be
+that the knowledge gained will be largely unsystematised, and much of
+the experience acquired may be of a nature which may give a false
+direction to his whole after-development. Hence arise three needs. In
+the first place, we must endeavour to see that new experiences are
+presented to the child in some systematic manner, in order that the
+knowledge may be so organised that it may serve as means to the
+attainment of ends, and so render future activity more accurate and more
+efficient. In the second place, we must endeavour to prevent the
+acquisition of experiences which if allowed to be organised would give
+an immoral direction to conduct; and in the third place, we must
+endeavour to establish early in the mind of the child organised systems
+of means which may hereafter result in the prevalence of activities
+socially useful to the community.
+
+Now, these three aims are or should be the aims of the Kindergarten
+School, and we shall now inquire into the ends which the Kindergarten
+School sets before it, and for this purpose we shall state the
+fundamental principles which Froebel himself laid down as the guiding
+principles of this stage of education.
+
+On its intellectual side the Kindergarten as conceived by Froebel has
+four distinct aims in view. The first aim is by means of comparing and
+contrasting a series of objects presented in some regular and systematic
+manner to lead the child to note the likenesses and differences between
+the things, and so through and by means of his own self-activity to
+build up coherent and connected systems of ideas. By this method the
+teacher builds up in the mind of the young child systems of ideas
+regarding the colours, forms, and other sense qualities of the more
+common objects of his environment. The second aim is by means of some
+form of concrete construction to give expression to the knowledge so
+gained, to make this knowledge more accurate and definite, and thus by a
+dialectical return to make the experiences of the child definite and
+accurate, so as to render future action more efficient, and thus pave
+the way for further progress. The third aim is to utilise the
+play-activity of the child in the acquisition of new experiences and in
+their outward concrete expression. The fourth is to engage the child in
+the production of something socially useful, something which engages his
+genuine work-activity. In short, what Froebel clearly realised was that
+the mere taking in of new experiences by the child mind in any order was
+not sufficient. Experiences to be useful for efficient action must be
+assimilated--must be organised into a system--and in order that this may
+be possible the experiences must be presented in such a manner as will
+render them capable of being organised. Moreover, this mere taking in of
+new experiences is not enough. There must be a giving out or expression
+of the knowledge acquired, for it is only in so far as we can turn to
+use new experiences that we can be sure that they are really ours. Now,
+since the forms of expression natural to the young child are those which
+evoke his practical constructive efforts, all outward expression in its
+earlier stages must assume a concrete form. The aim of the so-called
+"Gifts" in Froebel's scheme is to build up an organised system of
+sense-knowledge; the aim of the "Occupations" of the Kindergarten is to
+develop the power of concrete expression of the child. The "Gifts" and
+the "Occupations" are correlative methods,--the one concerned with the
+taking in, the other with the outward expression of the same
+experience,--and throughout either aspect of the process the
+reason-activity of the child must be evoked both in the acquisition and
+in the expression of the new experience. Physiologically, this twofold
+process implies that during the Kindergarten period the sensory areas of
+the brain are being exercised and organised and that the associative
+activity evoked is concerned with the co-ordination of the impressions
+derived through these areas. Psychologically, it implies that during
+this period we are mainly concerned with the formation of perceptual
+systems of knowledge composed of data derived through the special senses
+and through the active movements of the hands and limbs. Such a process,
+moreover, is a necessary preliminary for the full after-development of
+the higher association centres of the brain and for the formation by the
+mind of conceptual systems of knowledge.
+
+For if we attempt prematurely to exercise the higher centres before the
+lower have reached a certain measure of development, if we attempt to
+form conceptual systems of knowledge, such as all language and number
+systems are, without first laying a sound perceptual basis, then we may
+do much to hinder future mental growth, if we do not even inflict a
+positive injury to the child. For the education of the senses neglected,
+"all after-education partakes of a drowsiness, a haziness, and an
+insufficiency which it is impossible to cure."[34]
+
+On its moral and social side the aims of the Kindergarten School are no
+less important. If left to follow the naive instinctive needs of his
+nature and to gather experiences where and how he may, the child is
+likely to make acquisitions which later may issue in wrong conduct.
+Hence one aim of the Kindergarten is to present experiences which may
+eventually issue in right conduct, and to prevent the acquisition of
+experiences of an immoral kind. Hence also its insistence upon the need
+of carefully selecting the environment of the young child, so that as
+far as possible its early experiences--its first acquisitions--shall be
+of a healthy nature. Moreover, by means of the organised activities of
+the school, and by utilising the play-instinct of the child, it seeks to
+form and establish certain habits of future social worth to the
+community and to the individual. For, by means of the games and
+occupations of the Kindergarten School, the child may first of all learn
+what it means to co-operate with his fellows for a common end or
+purpose; may learn to submit to authority which he dimly and
+imperfectly, it may be, perceives to be reasonable; may be trained to
+habits of accuracy, of order, and of obedience. Above all, the
+Kindergarten system may rouse and foster in the mind of the child that
+sense of a corporate life and of a common social spirit the prevalence
+of which in after-life is the only secure foundation of society.
+
+In England the extreme importance of the education of the infant mind
+has been, in recent years, clearly acknowledged. The new regulations of
+the Board of Education no longer allow children under five years of age
+to be included as "an integral part of a three-R grant-earning
+Elementary School." A special curriculum has been set forth for their
+education. They are to have opportunities provided "for the free
+development of their bodies and minds and for the formation of habits of
+obedience and attention."[35] What are known as "Kindergarten
+Occupations are not merely pleasant pastimes for children: if so
+regarded, they are not intelligently used by the teacher. Their purpose
+is to stimulate intelligent individual effort, to furnish training of
+the senses of sight and touch, to promote accurate co-ordination of hand
+movements with sense impressions, and, not least important, to implant a
+habit of obedience."
+
+"Formal teaching, even by means of Kindergarten Occupations, is
+undesirable for children under five. At this stage it is sufficient to
+give the child opportunity to use his senses freely. To attempt formal
+teaching will almost inevitably mean, with some of the children, either
+restraint or over-stimulation, with constant danger to mental growth and
+health."[36]
+
+From these extracts from the _Suggestions for the Consideration of
+Teachers_ of the Head of the English Board of Education, it will be
+evident that the spirit of the "Kindergarten" now largely enters into
+the curriculum of the infant classes. In the future we may hope to see
+it carried further and that no formal teaching of the child will be
+undertaken during the first six years of his life. Further, we may hope
+to see in the future the infant departments of our schools more
+thoroughly organised than they are at present on the Kindergarten
+principle, and the curriculum of the Infant School so devised that it
+shall fit into and pave the way for the curriculum of the Elementary
+School. For at the earlier stage much may be done by the methods of the
+Kindergarten to lay the basis for the teaching of the arts of reading,
+writing, and arithmetic which it is the main business of the Primary
+School to lead the child to acquire. _E.g._, at the earlier stage, by
+the breaking up and reconstructing of concrete groups of things, the
+child can be initiated into the meaning of a number system. By means of
+pictures and of concrete forms he can be made gradually acquainted with
+alphabetic forms, and this teaching lays the basis for the future
+acquisition of the abstract symbols of printed and written words.
+
+But while much has been done in England to recognise the importance of
+the early education of the child for the after moral and social good
+both of the individual and of the community, and to place the
+instruction of the infant classes in the Public Elementary Schools upon
+a rational basis, little attention has been paid in Scotland to this
+subject. As a rule, children in that country do not enter school before
+the age of five, and there is no separate provision made for the
+teaching of children under that age; in fact, all scholars under seven
+years of age are classified together and form the Junior Division of the
+school.
+
+Such a state of matters reflects but little credit on the educational
+leaders of Scotland, and indicates an imperfect conception of the real
+nature of the educative process. For if education is the process of
+acquiring and organising experiences in order to render future action
+more efficient, it is surely the height of folly to allow the young
+child to gather his early experiences as he may. Moreover, in the case
+of the children of the slums, to allow them during their early years to
+gather into their brain without any correcting agency "all the sights
+and scenes of a slum is sheer social madness." "The child must be
+removed, or partially removed, from such an atmosphere, since it has
+reached the imitative stage, and is nearing the selective stage of life.
+For the moment he imitates anything; presently he will imitate what
+pleases him, what gives him momentary pleasure. Before the unmoral
+selective stage is reached, the stage which inevitably precedes the
+moral and immoral selective stage, it is essential that children should
+receive definite and deliberate guidance, that the imitative faculty
+should be controlled."[37] In the case of the children of the poorer
+districts this can be done only through the agency of the Infant School.
+Much may be done by making the instruction of the school attractive, to
+counteract the evil influences of the home and social environment, and
+to lead the child to acquire and organise experiences which will issue
+in moral and not in immoral conduct.
+
+Hence what we need in the poorer districts of our large towns is Free
+Kindergarten Schools from which all formal teaching of the three R's is
+abolished, where for several hours in each day the child may be trained
+to use his senses in the accurate discrimination and accurate
+systematisation of sense knowledge; where he may have his constructive
+activities evoked by the expression in concrete form of what he has been
+led to perceive through the medium of the senses; where he may be
+trained to habits of order, of cleanliness, of submission to authority;
+and where for a time, at least, he may be accustomed to live in a purer
+and healthier atmosphere than he can find at home or in the street, and
+where for a brief space he may have that feeling of home which he cannot
+find at home.[38]
+
+The establishment in the poorer districts of our great towns of schools
+whose education follows the method of the Kindergarten if accompanied by
+some system of feeding the child would do much to secure the after
+social efficiency of the rising generation, and would by its reaction on
+the home-life tend gradually to raise the ideals of the very poor.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] _The Nervous System and Education_, by Sir James Crichton Browne,
+_ibid._ p. 345.
+
+[34] _The Nervous System and Education_, by Sir James Crichton Browne,
+_ibid._ p. 345.
+
+[35] Cf. on this subject the chapter on "School Nurseries" in _National
+Education and National Life_, ibid.
+
+[36] _Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers_, chap. iii. (issued
+by the English Board of Education).
+
+[37] Montmorency's _National Education and National Life_, ibid. p. 143.
+The chapter on "School Nurseries" should be read by everyone, and
+especially by every Scotsman interested in the education of young
+children.
+
+[38] Cf. Charles Lamb's Essay on _Popular Fallacies_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE AIM OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL
+
+
+During the past thirty years no part of our educational system has
+received so much attention as the Elementary Schools of the country. If
+we compare the condition of things which prevails at the present time
+with that which existed previous to 1870, there can be no doubt that a
+great advance has been made both in the better provision of the means of
+education and in the efficiency of the instruction given. Previous to
+1870 a large number of the children of the poor received no
+education.[39] Of those attending school many left with but a scanty
+knowledge. Now practically every child[40] receives a training in the
+primary arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic; and with the gradual
+extension of the period during which the child must attend school, it
+has become possible to ensure that a larger and larger number of
+children leaving our Elementary Schools have received an education which
+may be of value for the after-fulfilment of the simpler practical ends
+of life. Again, previous to 1870 the school buildings were in many cases
+unfit for their purpose; now the Elementary Schools of the country both
+in their building arrangements and equipment are as a rule much superior
+to the voluntary and endowed schools providing secondary education.
+Previous to 1870 anyone was thought good enough to undertake the work of
+teaching; since that time more and more attention has been paid to the
+qualifications of the teacher and to securing that he shall have
+attained a certain standard of education, and have received a certain
+measure of training before engaging upon the work of the instruction of
+the young. We, _e.g._, no longer entrust the instruction of the younger
+children in the school to the older, as was the custom under the
+monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster, and with the abolition of the
+pupil-teacher the last remnant of a system introduced at the beginning
+of the nineteenth century, as the only remedy to meet the dire
+educational necessities of the time, will have been removed.
+
+But in spite of the great advances which have been made, there is a
+deep-seated feeling now beginning to find expression, that somehow or
+other the Elementary School has not realised all the expectations that
+were once thought likely to result from the universal education of the
+children of the nation, and that in particular the Primary School has
+failed to foster and to establish the moral and social qualities
+necessary for the welfare of a State whose government is founded on the
+representative principle.
+
+This, it seems to me, is largely due to the wrong conception of the aims
+which the Primary School is intended to realise--a conception which
+prevailed for many years after the introduction of compulsory elementary
+education. For some time now, and especially during the past few years,
+a counter-reaction has set in against the narrowness of the aims of the
+preceding period, and like all reactions it tends to go to the opposite
+extreme, and so to broaden the aims of the Primary School as to be in
+danger of failing to realise efficiently any one of the ends which it
+sets before it.
+
+The state of things immediately preceding 1870 not unnaturally gave rise
+to the idea that the acquisition of the arts of reading, writing, and
+arithmetic was the one indispensable object to be attained in the
+elementary education of the child. This conviction was strengthened by
+the system of Government grants introduced into both English and Scotch
+schools, payments to school managers being largely based upon the
+successes obtained in passes in the three elementary subjects.
+
+Certain results naturally followed. In the first place, no provision was
+made for the special education of the infant classes. Since the
+after-success of the child was measured by his attainments in the three
+R's, the sooner the infant mind was introduced to these subjects the
+better the after-result might be expected to be. Thus the grant-earning
+capacity of the child became the teacher's chief consideration. In the
+second place, the energies of the teacher were directed to secure a
+certain mechanical accuracy in the use of the three elementary arts
+rather than their intelligent apprehension. As a consequence, these
+subjects came in time to be thought of as subjects worthy of attainment
+for their own sake and their acquisition as an end in itself. Hence it
+was forgotten that the acquisition and organisation of these systems of
+elementary knowledge are only valuable because they are the
+indispensable means of all intercourse, of all commerce, and of all
+culture. Hence also their use as instruments for the after-realisation
+of many purposes in life tended to be neglected, or at least to fall
+into the background. Individual teachers, no doubt, in many cases
+realised the partial error in this conception of the aims of the Primary
+School, but the demands of Government inspectors and of school
+authorities, with their rule-of-thumb methods of testing the success of
+the teacher's work by the percentage of passes gained, tended often to
+make the teacher, in spite of his better judgment, look upon the child
+mainly as a three-R grant-earning subject and to consider the chief aim
+of primary education to be the securing of a certain mechanical
+proficiency in the use of the three elementary arts.
+
+Under such a method of examination it was certainly necessary for the
+teacher to pay some attention to the individuality of the child. If his
+efforts were to be at all successful it was incumbent upon him to
+discover as early as possible the range of the child's previous
+knowledge in the three grant-earning subjects and to find out in which
+of the three the power of acquisition of the child was naturally weak or
+naturally strong. Where the number of children in a class was large,
+little individual attention could, of course, be paid to the child, and
+in such cases the acquisition of the subject was aided by the mechanical
+drilling of sections of the class and by recourse to all manner of
+devices for ensuring the accurate acquisition of the essential subjects.
+
+As a result of this partial and one-sided conception little attention
+was paid to the use to which these subjects may be put in the
+realisation of the practical ends of life. Arithmetic, _e.g._, seemed to
+the child to be made up of a number of kinds of arithmetic, each process
+having its own rules and methods of procedure; but it never entered into
+his mind, and but seldom into that of his teacher, that the various
+arithmetical processes are at bottom but diverse forms of the one
+fundamental process of adding to or subtracting from a group. Proportion
+was one kind of arithmetic, simple interest another, but that these
+processes symbolised real group-forming processes, or that they had to
+do with any of the realities of life, was apprehended, if at all, in the
+most imperfect and hazy manner.
+
+In a similar manner, the overcoming of the mechanical difficulties of
+language construction occupied the major portion of the attention of the
+child during the school period, and the function of language in
+conveying a knowledge of things and persons and events received but a
+small share of his attention. Meanings of words were indeed tabulated
+and learnt by heart, and as a rule the child on examination-day could
+make a fair show in deluding the inspector that the passage read was
+intelligently apprehended. In very much the same way, the overcoming of
+the mechanical difficulties of writing and the drilling of the child to
+form his letters in a uniform style received the chief share of the
+school-time devoted to the subject.
+
+The interest and attention of the child having been thus mainly occupied
+in the overcoming of the mechanical difficulties involved in the
+learning of the three grant-earning subjects, and little attention
+having been paid to the use of these arts, it followed that upon the
+conclusion of the school period the child left the school without any
+real interests having been established as the result of the educative
+process.
+
+Moreover, except in so far as by their teaching we may establish habits
+of order and of accuracy, the three elementary subjects in themselves
+possess no moral or social intent; hence unless we can make the child
+realise their value as instruments for the attainment of ends of social
+worth they in themselves fail to play any important part in the building
+up of character.
+
+Let me put this in another way. We have defined education as the process
+of acquiring and systematising experiences that will render future
+action more efficient, or alternatively it is the process by which we
+organise and establish in the mind systems of ideas for the attainment
+of ends. But if we make the acquisition of these elementary arts ends in
+themselves, then it follows that the more efficient action we seek to
+realise is the more efficient manipulation of a number system or a
+language system. If, however, we realise that these arts are but means
+to the realisation of other ends, then we shall understand that it is
+the character of the latter which mainly determines the resulting
+character of the education given.
+
+Partly to this erroneous conception of the real function of the
+elementary arts, and partly to another cause which we shall mention
+later, may be attributed the poor results which our Elementary School
+system has attained in the establishment of interests of moral and
+social worth. If, moreover, we realise how large a proportion of the
+children left and still do leave school at an early age, before such
+interests can be permanently established, and in some cases with
+anything but an adequate knowledge of the elementary arts necessary for
+all further progress, we may rather be astonished that so much has been
+done than so little.
+
+But in the reaction against the narrowness and formalism of our early
+aims in elementary education, there is a tendency--a strong tendency--at
+the present time to go to the opposite extreme, and to make the
+elementary instrumental arts the vehicles for the fostering of real
+interests at too early a stage. This manifests itself on the one hand in
+the desire to make all instruction interesting to the child, and on the
+other to introduce the child prematurely to a knowledge of the real
+conditions of life, before he can have any intelligent understanding of
+these conditions. From the barrenness and formalism of the earlier
+period, we now have the demand made that the school should throughout
+take into account the real and practical necessities of life.
+
+The former tendency--the tendency to make everything interesting to the
+child by lessening or minimising the mechanical difficulties and by
+endeavouring in every way to incite the child to become interested in
+the content of the lesson--is best exemplified by the character of the
+school books which we now place in the hands of our children. The latter
+tendency--the tendency to the premature use of the elementary arts--is
+exemplified by the craving to make our teaching of arithmetic practical
+and real from the very beginning.
+
+In the former case, instead of endeavouring to make the process of
+language construction interesting in itself, we divert the child's
+attention from the acquiring and organising of the system of language
+forms to the premature acquirement of the content of language. What
+results is obvious: the main interest being in the content, the
+interest in the mechanical construction of the form suffers, and as a
+consequence the child never attains a full mastery over the instrumental
+art.
+
+In the latter case we attempt to do two things at the same time in our
+teaching of arithmetic. In every concrete application of arithmetic
+there are two interests involved: in the first place, there is the
+number interest--the interest in the analysing and recombining of a
+group, undertaken for the sake of the reconstruction itself; in the
+second place, there is the business or real interest, which the number
+interest indeed subserves, but the two interests are in no case
+identical. If we attempt to teach the two together, we as a rule teach
+both badly. The pupil will have but a hazy idea of the business
+relation, and will run the risk of imperfectly organising the pure
+number system. Hence all kinds of impossible problems may be given to
+the child without raising any suspicion of error in his mind, and such
+cases furnish certain evidence that the business relation does not
+really concern him, but that his whole attention is engaged with the
+purely constructive aspect of number. Another example of the same error
+of confounding two separate things is the "blind mixture we make of
+arithmetic and measuring." Because arithmetic is involved in all
+measuring we assume that when the child can add together feet and
+inches, therefore he has a complete knowledge of these spatial
+magnitudes. But manifestly, if spatial magnitude is to be taught
+intelligently, it must at first be taught independently of the number
+relation, which is a general system instrumental in the realisation of
+many concrete interests.
+
+From these considerations, certain general results follow. On the one
+hand, the earlier conception of the aim of the Primary School as being
+mainly concerned with the acquirement and organisation of the three
+elementary arts as ends in themselves must be condemned. Language and
+number systems are means to the realisation of certain concrete ends of
+after-life, and the school during the later stages of education must
+endeavour to lead the child to perceive how these systems may be
+utilised in the furtherance of these real concrete interests. On the
+other hand, the attempt to combine prematurely these two aims will
+result in the imperfect attainment of both. During the earlier stages of
+education the main interest must be in the construction for its own sake
+of the language system or the number system, and while the real interest
+may be introduced it must always be kept subsidiary to the main
+interest--must first of all be taught for its own sake, and the
+instrumental art only used for its furtherance in so far as the
+acquirement of the former is not obstructed. _E.g._, the placing of
+geography and history Readers in the hands of the child while he is
+still struggling with the difficulties of language construction can only
+result in the history and geography being imperfectly understood and the
+organisation of the language system being delayed and hindered.
+
+Once the elementary and subsidiary systems have been fairly well
+organised and established, their function as means for the furtherance
+of real interests should occupy a larger share of the child's attention
+and of the time of the school. These real interests, however, must in
+every case and at every stage be taught at first for their own sake, and
+thereafter their relation to the instrumental art explained and applied.
+Gradually, as they become better organised and more firmly established,
+the elementary arts occupy a smaller and smaller share of attention,
+until finally they function automatically, and the whole attention can
+be directed to the furtherance of the real interests to which the
+elementary arts are the indispensable means.
+
+Hence we note three stages in the elementary education of the child--the
+stage preceding the formal instruction in the elementary arts; the stage
+in which the formal instruction should predominate and receive the
+greater share of the child's attention; the stage in which the
+elementary systems having been in great measure organised and
+established, they may be utilised as means to the furtherance of the
+real interests. The first stage corresponds to the Infant or
+Kindergarten age: here the main object is to build up in the mind of the
+child systems of ideas about the things of his environment; to extend,
+by conversation and by reading to the child, the vocabulary of his own
+language; to give him practice in the combining and recombining of
+concrete groups of things, and to introduce him to a knowledge of the
+various language forms in a concrete shape.
+
+In the second stage, and here the work of the Primary School begins, the
+main emphasis at the beginning must be laid on the acquirement and
+establishment of the language and number systems for their own sake. If
+right methods are followed, the child can be interested in these
+processes of construction without the need of calling into use at every
+point some real interest. In the concluding stage the use of these
+instruments as means to the realisation of the simpler practical ends of
+life should receive more attention.
+
+One reason, then, for the poor moral and social results effected in the
+past by our Elementary School system has been the undue emphasis placed
+upon the acquisition of the merely formal arts to the neglect of the
+real interests to which the former are but the means. Another cause,
+however, has been operative in producing this negative result. In the
+Elementary Schools, in the past, little attention has been paid to the
+individuality of the child, and little heed given to the differences
+between children as regards their different rates of intellectual growth
+and their differing aptitudes for various branches of study. Under a
+system of classification which compelled each individual, whether
+intellectually well or moderately or poorly equipped, to advance at an
+equal rate, attention to the individual with any other aim than to raise
+the weak to the standard of the average child in acquiring the three R's
+was impossible. Again, our huge city schools, partly on account of their
+vast size, partly on the ground that they are unable to organise school
+games, partly on account of their lack of any common school interests,
+do not and cannot foster any sense of a corporate life, any feeling of a
+common social spirit. Where our English Public School system is strong,
+our Elementary and sometimes even our Day Secondary School systems are
+weak. If the home fails to foster these qualities, and the school does
+not or cannot fill the gap, then as a rule we turn out our boys and
+girls poorly equipped to fulfil their duties in after-life as members of
+a corporate community and as citizens of a State. Mere teaching of
+history or of civics in our schools will do little to attain this end,
+unless by some method or other we can foster by means of the school-life
+the real civic spirit. It is, of course, easy to point out the nature of
+the disease; it is more difficult to prescribe a remedy. But much might
+be done to strengthen and increase the moral influence of the school by
+a better system of classification, which took into account the
+differences in intellectual capacity and in natural aptitude, and which
+as a consequence, in the education of the child, paid more attention to
+each child's individuality. This would involve much smaller classes than
+exist at present, and would further involve that the children should be
+under the care of one teacher for a longer time than is now the rule. At
+the present time, in many cases, the teacher is employed in teaching the
+same subjects, at the same stage, year after year, to a yearly fresh
+batch of sixty or seventy children. Consequently he learns to look upon
+his pupils as mere subjects to whom must be imparted the required
+measure of instruction. Of the children in themselves, of their
+home-life, of their interests outside school, he knows nothing, and as a
+rule cares less.
+
+If in addition to this we ceased erecting barracks for the instruction
+of children and erected schools for their education, we should make even
+a further advance in this direction. If it is impossible for other
+reasons to lessen the size of our city Elementary Schools, then the
+remedy lies in the division of the schools into departments in which the
+Head should be entrusted with the supervision of the education of the
+children during several years. In this way it would be possible for the
+teacher to get to know each child individually, to direct his education
+in accordance with his aptitudes, and to exert an influence over him.
+Thus, by giving more attention to the organised games of the school and
+by the creation of school interests, much might be done to remedy the
+defects of the school on the side of moral and social education. At
+best, however, when the home fails, the Elementary School can do little,
+and we must put our trust in the ethical agencies of society to assist
+and promote the efforts of the school in the furthering of a right
+social spirit and in the creation of a common corporate feeling.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39] _E.g._, in 1861 it was calculated that only 6 per cent. of the
+children of the poor in England were receiving a satisfactory elementary
+education. Cf. Balfour Graham's _Educational System of Great Britain and
+Ireland_, p. 14.
+
+[40] _E.g._, in 1872 in Scotland school places were provided for only
+8.3 per cent. of the population. In 1905 places were provided for 21.22
+of the population. Cf. _Report on Scotch Education_, 1905, p. 6.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE AIM OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL
+
+
+We have seen that on its intellectual side the Primary School has two
+main functions to perform in the education of the child. In the first
+place, the school must endeavour to secure that the elementary arts of
+reading, writing, and arithmetic are well organised and well established
+in the mind of the child. The more effectively the language and number
+systems are organised and established the more efficiently will they
+function in the performance of future action. Moreover, it is only when
+they have become so organised as to function automatically that they
+reach their highest efficiency as instruments for the further extension
+of knowledge or of practice.
+
+In the second place, the Primary School must train the pupil to the use
+of these systems as instruments for the realisation of other and
+concrete ends or interests. _E.g._, the number system may be used in the
+furtherance of the measuring interest, the weighing interest, and so on.
+The two dangers we have to avoid are on the one hand the barren
+formalism of treating the acquisition of these arts as ends in
+themselves, and on the other of supposing that the real interests can be
+intelligently understood merely through the instrumentality of the
+elementary arts and that they do not require independent treatment of
+themselves.
+
+If the child is destined to go no farther than the Elementary School
+stage, then at least the concluding year of the school should be mainly
+devoted to training him to the use of the primary instrumental arts in
+the establishment of systems of knowledge necessary for the realisation
+of the simpler practical ends of life.
+
+If, however, the child is selected for a course of higher education, the
+educative process becomes different in nature. In the first-named case
+we are content to give the child practice in the application of an
+already established system to concrete problems. In the second case we
+endeavour, using the elementary systems as means, to establish other
+systems of knowledge as means to the attainment of still further ends.
+We may, _e.g._, on the basis of the vernacular language build up a
+foreign language system as a means either to commercial intercourse or
+to literary culture. In short, the aim of the Secondary School is, using
+the elementary systems as the basal means, to organise and establish
+other systems of means for the attainment of the more complex interests
+of after-life, practical and theoretical. The object of establishing a
+system of knowledge is not to pass examinations,--this is the
+schoolmaster's error,--but to render future action more efficient, to
+further in after-life some complex interest of a practical or
+theoretical nature. To the few, indeed, the establishment and
+systematisation of knowledge may be an end in itself. To the many, the
+systematisation and establishment is and ought to be undertaken as a
+means to the more efficient furtherance of some practical end. Further,
+the only justification for the seeking of knowledge for its own sake is
+that thereby it may be better understood, better established and better
+systematised, and so become better fitted to make practice more
+efficient.
+
+Hence the question as regards secondary education resolves itself into
+the question as to the nature of the systems of knowledge which we
+should endeavour to establish systematically in the mind of the child,
+and before we can answer this question we must know the length of time
+which the child can afford to spend at the Higher School and his
+possible vocation in after-life. For if education is the process by
+which the child is led to acquire and organise experiences so as to
+render future action more efficient, we must know something of the
+nature of this action, something of the nature of the future social
+services for which his education is to train him, and the school period
+must be of sufficient length to enable the required systems to be
+established permanently and thoroughly.
+
+Neglect of these two obvious considerations has led in the past and even
+in the present leads to two errors in our organisation of the means of
+secondary education. In the first place, until quite recently, we have
+been too much inclined to the opinion that secondary education was all
+of one type, and even where this error has been recognised, as in
+Germany, the tendency still exists to emphasise unduly the particular
+type of education which has as its main ingredients the ancient
+classical languages. We spend years in the attempt to reconstruct and
+establish in the mind of the youth a knowledge of these language
+systems, and in a large number of cases we fail to attain adequately
+even this end. We build up laboriously systems of means which in
+after-life function _directly_ in the attainment of no end, and as a
+consequence, in many cases, the dissolution of the system is as rapid as
+its acquisition was slow. At the time of the Renascence and when first
+introduced into the curriculum of the Secondary School, these languages,
+and especially Latin, did then possess a high functional value, since
+they were the indispensable means to the furtherance of knowledge and to
+social intercourse. To-day they possess little functional value, and
+their claim for admission into the school curriculum is chiefly based
+upon their so-called training and disciplinary values.
+
+Let us consider this for a moment: in the reconstruction of, say, the
+Latin language, the pupil is being trained in the reconstruction and
+re-establishment of a language system whose methods and rules of
+construction are much more complex and intricate than those of any
+living language, and whose forms are so designed as to bring out
+exactly varied shades of meaning. Hence, in its acquisition the pupil
+receives practice in the exact discrimination of the meaning of words,
+and in their accurate placing and reconstruction within the
+sentence--the unit of expression--in order to bring out the exact
+interpretation of the thought or statement of fact intended by the
+writer.
+
+Further, we may train the pupil during the school period to self-apply
+the language system in the further interpretation of relatively unknown
+passages. In short, we can train him in the processes of language
+construction and of language application. Moreover, in considering this
+question, we must take into account that during the school period the
+main interest must necessarily be directed to the acquisition and
+establishment of the system itself, that little attention can be
+directed towards the content for its own sake, and that the
+establishment of the system so that it shall function automatically in
+the interpretation of the content is a stage which is attained in
+comparatively few cases, and then only after many years of study.
+
+If we then take into account, and we must take into account, the fact
+that the chief value of the ancient languages as Secondary School
+subjects lies in their use as training and disciplinary
+instruments--that in after-life they function directly in the attainment
+of no practical end, and only indirectly in so far as the habits
+acquired of the exact weighing of the meaning of words and of the
+accurate placing of words are carried over for the attainment of
+practical ends in which these qualities of exact interpretation and
+exact expression of language are the chief requisites--we shall
+understand that while they may be of value in securing the efficient
+after-performance of certain social services, they play but a small part
+in the furthering of any service which requires an exact knowledge of
+the qualities of things and an accurate knowledge of the laws governing
+the operations of nature.
+
+In the second place, neglect of the fact that the aim of education is to
+establish systems of means for the efficient after-performance of
+actions has led us to neglect the fact that in the acquisition and
+establishment of systems of knowledge we require to limit the scope of
+our aims and to carry on the process of education during a period
+sufficiently extended to admit of the stable establishment of the
+systems. If, _e.g._, we attempt to establish too many systems, then as a
+result we often stably establish none, with the further result that
+after the school period has passed the knowledge gained soon disappears.
+If, again, we attempt in too limited a time to establish an elaborate
+and complex system of knowledge, as _e.g._ that of the Latin language,
+then we never reach the stage when it can be self-applied intelligently
+in the furtherance of any end. Hence, if a boy leaves the Elementary
+School and enters upon a High School course with the intention of
+leaving at the age of fifteen or sixteen and entering upon some
+employment, the systems of knowledge which can be established during the
+school period must be different from those of the boy whose education is
+intended to be extended until twenty-one. If, then, a national system of
+education is to make adequate provision for the efficient
+after-performance of the various social services which the nation
+requires at the hands of its adult members; if, in short, it is to be
+organic to the life of the State as a whole, then there must be not one
+type of higher education but several; for it is to her Higher Schools
+that a nation must principally look for the preparation of citizens who
+in after-life will discharge the more important services of the
+community. This truth has already been realised in other countries,
+notably Germany. We are only beginning to realise it, and to take
+measures to carry it into practice.
+
+Moreover, in a national system of education we shall need not one system
+of advancing means but several; not merely an educational ladder that
+may carry the boy to the University, but also educational steps by which
+the individual may mount to the Technical or the Commercial or the Art
+College.
+
+Hence our aims in the higher education of the youth, and as a
+consequence the nature of the systems of knowledge which we should
+endeavour to organise and to establish in their minds, will vary in
+accordance with the nature of the service which in adult life the boy is
+likely to perform. Now, these services may be divided into four main
+classes.
+
+In the first place, every nation requires an army of efficient
+industrial workers. Partly, in some cases, owing to the decline of the
+apprenticeship system, partly owing to the fact that where apprentices
+are still employed no systematic measures are taken to instruct the
+youth in the principles underlying his particular art, it is becoming
+increasingly necessary that the school should supply and supplement the
+knowledge required for the efficient after-performance of the industrial
+and technical arts. Hence one kind of Higher School urgently required is
+the Trade or Technical School. In a large number of cases this need
+could be supplied by Evening Continuation Schools. At present, however,
+our Evening Schools are too predominantly commercial and literary, and
+do not make adequate provision for the trade and technical needs of the
+community. Further, we must endeavour to secure that the boy or girl
+enters the Evening Continuation School as soon after he leaves the
+Elementary School as possible. For in many cases at the present time the
+boy after leaving the Primary School loafs at night about the streets,
+and in a short time through disuse forgets much of what he learned at
+school, and often in addition acquires habits which tend to unfit him
+for any future strenuous effort. When, therefore, he feels the need for
+more knowledge in order to advance in his trade, the Evening School has
+too frequently to begin by doing over again the work of the Elementary
+School before it can enter upon the work of establishing the higher
+system of knowledge.
+
+In the second place, a nation such as ours requires a trained body of
+servants for the efficient carrying on of her commerce. Preparation for
+the simpler forms of service could be furnished by the commercial
+classes of the Evening Continuation Schools. For preparation for the
+higher services, we require a type of school which beginning after the
+Elementary School stage has been completed, carries on the boy's
+education until the fifteenth or sixteenth year, whose chief aim should
+be to lay a sound basis in the acquisition and organisation of one or
+two modern languages and in the acquirement of the arts instrumental for
+the carrying on of commercial transactions. Further means of advance in
+these studies should be provided by the day or evening Commercial
+College.
+
+In the third place, every modern nation requires a trained body of
+scientific workers for the after carrying on of her industrial and
+technical arts. Hence we need a type of school which by making the
+physical sciences their chief object of study prepare the way for the
+future training of the student in the application of scientific
+knowledge to the furtherance of the industrial and technical arts.
+
+Lastly, we require a type of secondary education which shall prepare the
+boy for the efficient discharge of the duties which the State requires
+at the hands of her physicians, her theologians, her jurists.
+
+Thus, since all education is the acquisition of experiences that will
+render future action more efficient, the nature of the secondary
+education given must depend on the nature of the services to which the
+systems of knowledge are the means. A classical education may be a good
+preparation for the after-discharge of the duties of the theologian or
+the jurist; it certainly will not do much for the efficient discharge of
+the duties of the mechanical engineer and the practical chemist.
+
+But one error must be avoided. Whilst the various types of Secondary
+School must fashion their curricula according to the nature of the
+services for which they prepare, we must not forget that the school has
+other duties to perform than the mere preparation for the social
+services by which a man hereafter earns his living. It must in every
+case endeavour to organise and establish those systems of means
+necessary for the after-discharge of the civic duties of life and
+instrumental for the right use of leisure.
+
+Practically we need three types of Higher School--one in which modern
+languages form the basal subjects of the curriculum; one in which the
+physical sciences are the main systems organised and established; one in
+which the classical languages form the main staple of education.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE AIM OF THE UNIVERSITY
+
+
+"All public institutions of learning are called into existence by social
+needs, and first of all by technical practical necessities. Theoretical
+interests may lead to the founding of private associations such as the
+Greek philosophers' schools; public schools owe their origin to the
+social need for professional training. Thus during the Middle Ages the
+first schools were called into being by the need of professional
+training for ecclesiastics, the first learned profession, and a calling
+whose importance seemed to demand such training. Essentially the same
+necessity called into being the Universities of the Parisian type, with
+their artistic and theological faculties. The two other types of
+professional schools, the law school and the medical school, which were
+first developed in Italy, then united with the former. The Universities
+therefore originated as a union of 'technical' schools for
+ecclesiastics, jurists, and physicians, to which division the faculty of
+Arts was related as a general preparatory school, until during the
+nineteenth century it also assumed something of the character of a
+professional institution for the training of teachers for the Secondary
+School."[41]
+
+Thus the early aim of the University was, as it still continues to be,
+to provide the training for the after-supply of those services which the
+State requires at the hands of her theologians, her jurists, and her
+physicians. In Germany, and to some extent even in our own country, the
+Arts faculty of the University is ceasing to perform the function of a
+General Preparatory School to the professional schools, and is becoming
+an independent school, having for its aim the preparation of teachers
+for the Intermediate and Secondary Schools of the country. In Scotland,
+indeed, it serves at the present time as a Preparatory School mainly to
+the theological faculty. As the Secondary Schools of the country become
+more efficient, better differentiated, and better organised, the need of
+a Preparatory School within our Universities will gradually become less,
+and the University will be able to devote more of her energies to the
+training of students preparing for some one or other of the above-named
+professions. With this change the philosophical studies of the Arts
+faculty will become increasingly important, and the method of teaching
+the linguistic and scientific studies receive a larger share of
+attention than they do at present.
+
+But the other and perhaps the more important function of the University
+is to carry on and to extend the work of scientific and literary
+research for its own sake. This is the dominant note of the German and
+American Universities of to-day. The emphasis is laid not so much upon
+their function as schools for the supply of certain professional
+services, but upon them as great national laboratories for the extension
+of knowledge and the betterment of practice. In Great Britain, and
+especially in Scotland, this conception of the function of the
+University has not received the same prominence as, _e.g._, in Germany,
+where the intimate union of scientific investigation and professional
+instruction gives the German Universities their peculiar character.
+Indeed, in the latter country the tendency at the present time is rather
+to over-emphasise the function of the Universities in furthering
+scientific and literary research to the neglect of the other and no less
+important aim. Two dangers must be avoided. In the first place, whenever
+the chief emphasis is laid upon the Universities as mainly schools for
+professional training, the teaching tends to become narrow and dogmatic.
+The teacher ceasing to be an investigator, gradually loses touch with
+the spirit of the age, and as a consequence he fails adequately to
+perform the duty of efficiently training his students for their after
+life-work. In the second place, when the emphasis is laid strongly upon
+the function of the University as an institution for the carrying on of
+scientific and literary research there is the danger of again lapsing
+into the old fallacy that knowledge for knowledge' sake is an end in
+itself, that the object of education is to acquire and organise systems
+of means which function in the attainment of no practical end, and that
+the acquisition of knowledge is valuable for the culture of the
+individual mind apart from any social purpose which the knowledge
+subserves.
+
+The University must therefore ever keep in view the two aims, of
+advancing knowledge not for its own sake but in order that future action
+may be rendered more efficient, and of adequately training for
+professional services.
+
+But to the older professions for which the University prepares there
+have been added during the past century other vocations or professions
+which need and demand an education no less important and no less
+thorough than the education for the well established recognised
+professions. The need for the higher training of the future leaders of
+industry and the future captains of commerce has been provided by the
+organisation and establishment of technological schools and colleges.
+The establishment and organisation of the "Technical University" has
+been more thorough in Germany than in this country. There we find
+established newer institutions, of which the Charlottenburg College is
+the best known and most important, for the higher education of those
+intended in after-life to perform the more important industrial services
+of the community. These institutions both in their organisation and
+instruction are constantly approximating in type to the older
+Universities.
+
+The recently established Universities in the North of England attempt,
+with what success it is too early yet to declare, to combine both aims
+of training for the older and newer professions. In Scotland the latter
+work is largely undertaken by the Technical Colleges, and in these
+institutions the increasing need is for the extension and development of
+the Day-school course.
+
+One other question of some importance remains for brief consideration.
+In our own country, but more especially in Germany, there is a tendency
+at the present time to effect a complete separation between the work of
+the University and the work of the Technical College.
+
+This separation has arisen partly through the operation of external
+historical conditions, but it has also arisen partly through the
+tendency in certain academic circles to look down upon technical
+knowledge and ability as something inferior. The exclusiveness and the
+torpor of the older Universities in many cases has been a further cause
+tending to the creation of the Technical College separated from the
+University.
+
+Such a separation, however, is good neither for the University nor for
+the Technical College. The former in carrying out the aim of scientific
+research and of the extension of knowledge requires ever the vivifying
+touch of actual concrete experience, and this it can only obtain by
+keeping in close contact with those whose chief function is the
+application of scientific knowledge to practice. The latter in carrying
+out its more practical aims requires, if it is to be saved from the
+narrowness of mere specialisation and from degenerating into empirical
+methods, the constant co-operation of those whose outlook is not
+narrowed down to the immediate practical end, but takes in the subject
+as a whole, and whose chief function is the better systematisation of
+knowledge.
+
+Hence, while the aim of the University is different from that of the
+Technical College, they are so intimately correlated that neither can
+reach its fullest development without the aid and co-operation of the
+other. The Technical Colleges should be the professional schools
+attached to the scientific side of the Universities. Moreover, this
+division and separation is economically wasteful, since the general
+training in science which must precede the practical training has to be
+carried on both in the University and in the Technical College.
+
+In Scotland this separation has not advanced to such a stage as is the
+case in Germany. In any further reorganisation of university and higher
+education it is earnestly to be hoped that the Day Technical College
+will find its rightful place as an integral part of the University, and
+that the latter may realise that her function is to further and extend
+the bounds of knowledge in order that practice in every sphere of life
+may be rendered more efficient.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[41] Cf. Prof. Paulsen, _The German Universities_, p. 111 (Eng. Trans.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CONCLUSION--THE PRESENT PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION
+
+
+The first necessity of the present for teachers and for all concerned
+with the upbringing of children is to realise the true meaning of
+education--that it is the process by which we lead the child to acquire
+and organise experiences that will render future action more efficient;
+that by our educational agencies we seek to establish systems of
+knowledge that shall hereafter function in the efficient performance of
+services of social value; and that the only method which really educates
+and can educate is the method which evokes the constructive activity of
+reason in the establishment of the various systems of means. Education
+does not aim at culture nor at knowledge for its own sake, but at
+fitting the individual for social service. Our school system tends ever
+to forget this truth. It is in constant danger of losing sight of this
+ultimate aim of education by keeping its attention too narrowly fixed on
+some nearer and proximate aim. It tends often to lay too much stress on
+mere examinations and examination results. It forgets that the only true
+test of knowledge gained lies in the pupil's ability to use it
+intelligently in the furtherance of some purpose--and of some social
+purpose, and that the ultimate test of a system of education is the kind
+of social individual it turns out. If our educational system turns out
+boys and girls who in after-life become efficient workers, efficient
+citizens, and men and women who have learned how to use their leisure
+rightly, then it has fulfilled its function. If, on the other hand, it
+fails in a large number of cases to attain these three ends or any one
+of them, however it may satisfy the other tests applied, it has not
+performed its function, is not a system which is "organic" to the
+welfare of the State.
+
+The second necessity is to realise the true place of the school as the
+formal agent in the education of the child. Mankind by a long and
+laborious process has discovered and established many systems of
+knowledge. He has created language and invented arts for the realisation
+of the many purposes of life. It is the business of the school to impart
+this knowledge to the child--to put him in possession at least of some
+part of this heritage which has come down to him, and to do so in such a
+manner that while acquiring the experience he shall also be trained in
+the method of finding and establishing systems of means for himself and
+by himself. If, however, we lay the emphasis on the mere imparting of
+the garnered experiences of the ages, the danger to be feared is lest
+our teaching degenerate into mere dogmatism or mere cram. If, on the
+other hand, we lay too much emphasis on the ability to self-find and
+self-establish systems, we are in danger of losing sight of the social
+purpose of all knowledge--of forgetting that the only justification for
+establishing a system of knowledge is that it may efficiently function
+in the attainment of some purpose of life.
+
+Of the more important of the practical problems of our own day and
+generation the first and most important is to realise that our
+educational system as it exists at present is not fitted to produce and
+maintain an efficient and sufficient supply of all the social services
+which the modern State requires of its adult members, and that we must
+consider this question of education as a whole and in all its parts, and
+quite clear of mere party interests. Above all, we must get over the
+fatal habit of reforming one part of the system and leaving the other
+parts alone. The whole problem of education from the Primary School to
+the University requires consideration and organisation. We reform now
+our Universities, then after a period our Secondary School system, and
+so we proceed, advancing here, retrograding there, but of education as
+an organically connected whole we have no thought.
+
+But apart from the want of organisation as a whole our educational
+system in its parts is at present defective. We require to reconsider
+the question of how best to educate the children of the very poor. At
+present we fail in a large number of cases to train up the children of
+this class to be socially efficient. Economically and morally we fail to
+reach any high standard. No doubt the home and social environment is all
+against the school influence; but by a more rational system of early
+education, by taking more care of the physical development of the child,
+and, if need be, for a time, making public provision for the feeding of
+the children of the very poor, we might do much to remove this defect.
+Above all, we must endeavour to stem the yearly flow of boys and girls
+at the conclusion of the Primary School period into mere casual and
+unskilled employments, and must endeavour by some means or other to
+continue the education of the child for some years further.
+
+Again, we require to make better provision for the technical training of
+our workmen. By a system of Evening Continuation Schools having as their
+aim the instruction of the youth in the arts underlying or subsidiary to
+his particular calling, we might do much to amend this defect. Moreover,
+the Evening Continuation Schools might play a much more important part
+than they now do in the securing of the future moral and civic
+efficiency of the individual and of the nation.
+
+Lastly, and this need is clearly felt by all acquainted with the
+subject, we require the development and extension of our Technical
+Colleges, in order that we may adequately train those whose duty in
+after-life will be the application of advanced scientific knowledge in
+the furtherance of the arts and industries of life.
+
+
+                            _Printed by_
+                       MORRISON & GIBB LIMITED,
+                             _Edinburgh_
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Children: Some Educational Problems, by
+Alexander Darroch
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