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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to Methods and Observation in
+History, by Calvin Olin Davis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Guide to Methods and Observation in History
+       Studies in High School Observation
+
+Author: Calvin Olin Davis
+
+Release Date: March 24, 2007 [EBook #20893]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK METHODS AND OBSERVATION IN HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Brian Janes and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A GUIDE TO METHODS AND OBSERVATION IN HISTORY
+
+
+STUDIES IN HIGH SCHOOL OBSERVATION
+
+
+
+By
+
+CALVIN OLIN DAVIS
+
+_Assistant Professor of Education
+in the University of Michigan_
+
+
+
+RAND McNALLY & COMPANY
+NEW YORK       CHICAGO
+
+
+_Copyright, 1914_,
+By Rand, McNally & Company
+
+The Rand-McNally Press
+_Chicago_
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The outlines herewith presented have grown out of the necessities of a
+course conducted by the writer in the training of teachers in the
+University of Michigan. The course has been styled "Methods and High
+School Observations in History." It has been open only to seniors and
+graduate students who have specialized in history and who expect to
+teach that subject in high schools. The work has consisted of one class
+meeting per week for eighteen weeks, and of twenty hour-observations of
+history teaching in the Ann Arbor High School. The outlines, therefore,
+were designed to serve as a guide to these observations and as a basis
+for subsequent discussions.
+
+In order that the students might have a deeper appreciation of the
+meaning of history and the various conceptions that have been held
+regarding it, and in order that they might possess at least a general
+knowledge of the place history has occupied in the schools, the
+elements composing historical events, and the values attributed to
+historical study, it seemed appropriate to preface the special queries
+respecting method by some introductory suggestions of a general
+character. This fact explains the inclusion of such material as is
+found in the first few pages of the present booklet.
+
+In the hope, therefore, that students of Education in other colleges,
+universities, and normal schools may find suggestions in the material
+here brought together, and that teachers in active school work may also
+receive some practical help therefrom, the writer has been encouraged
+to place the outlines at the disposal of the public. If they shall
+prove of service to his colleagues and their students elsewhere, his
+aim and purpose will be fully met.
+
+CALVIN OLIN DAVIS
+
+_University of Michigan_
+_April, 1914_
+
+
+
+
+THE CONTENTS
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+_Introduction_                                                iii
+
+    I. DEFINITIONS                                              1
+
+   II. ASPECTS OF HISTORY                                       1
+
+  III. SOURCE MATERIAL FOR HISTORY                              2
+
+   IV. CONCEPTIONS OF THE PURPOSE AND CONTENT OF HISTORY        6
+
+    V. NOTABLE INFLUENCES AND PERSONS THAT HAVE MODIFIED
+       THE CONCEPTION OF THE MEANING OF HISTORY IN THE
+       LAST CENTURY                                             7
+
+   VI. HISTORY IN THE CURRICULUM                                9
+
+  VII. VALUE AND AIMS OF HISTORY                               11
+
+ VIII. ELEMENTS OF HISTORY                                     18
+
+   IX. METHODS OF APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF HISTORY             22
+
+    X. THE PROCESS OF LEARNING HISTORY                         23
+
+   XI. THE ORGANIZATION OF HISTORY IN HIGH SCHOOLS             25
+
+  XII. THE HISTORY TEACHER'S PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT         26
+
+ XIII. THE PUPIL'S PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT                   27
+
+  XIV. THE CLASSROOM                                           28
+
+   XV. THE ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON                            29
+
+  XVI. THE STUDY LESSON                                        30
+
+ XVII. THE RECITATION LESSON                                   31
+
+XVIII. THE REVIEW LESSON                                       35
+
+  XIX. THE LESSON IN CIVICS                                    35
+
+   XX. SOME PRINCIPLES OF HISTORY DOGMATICALLY STATED          36
+
+  XXI. SOME POSITIVE GUIDES AND SUGGESTIONS                    37
+
+_Bibliography on Methods_                                      40
+
+_A Selected List of American Historical Fiction_               42
+
+
+
+
+A GUIDE TO METHODS AND OBSERVATION IN HISTORY
+
+
+STUDIES IN HIGH SCHOOL OBSERVATION
+
+
+
+
+I. _Definitions._
+
+
+1. History is the science of the development of men in their
+activity as social beings.--_Bernheim._
+
+2. History is the biography of a political society or
+commonwealth.--_Arnold._
+
+3. History is the story of man living in social relations in the
+world.--_Hinsdale._
+
+4. History is a record of the actions of men.--_Anon._
+
+5. History is past politics.--_Freeman._
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+1. Which of the above definitions appeals to you most? Why?
+
+2. Are there any criticisms to be made respecting any of the above
+definitions?
+
+3. What common idea runs through all the above definitions?
+
+4. Quote at least one other definition of history.
+
+5. Formulate for yourself a thoroughly satisfying definition of
+history.
+
+
+
+
+II. _Aspects of History._
+
+1. Military.
+
+2. Political and Constitutional.
+
+3. Ecclesiastical.
+
+4. Economic, Industrial, and Commercial.
+
+5. Educational.
+
+6. Literary.
+
+7. Social.
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+1. Which of the above mentioned aspects should receive the chief
+emphasis in the elementary school? In the high school?
+
+2. Would the constituency of the schools affect the answer?
+
+3. Would the year in which the course is offered in the high school
+affect the answer?
+
+4. Can you name other factors that would affect the answer?
+
+5. Precisely what phases of history would be included under each of the
+above aspects?
+
+6. Do the aspects mentioned exhaust the categories?
+
+7. So far as you have observed, are the practices in the high school,
+respecting the aspects of history to be taught, in accord with your
+ideals and theories?
+
+
+
+
+III. _Source Material for History._
+
+
+1. Primary Source Material.
+
+   (_a_) Monuments, inscriptions, buildings, tablets, columns, coins,
+   tools and utensils, tapestries, pottery, implements, and all
+   archaeological and antiquarian material.
+
+   (_b_) Legal documents, e.g., statute books, charters, petitions,
+   declarations, decrees, orders, court records, proclamations,
+   treaties.
+
+   (_c_) Literary forms, e.g., manuscripts, notes, books, diaries,
+   letters, paper money, newspapers.
+
+   (_d_) Narrative material, e.g., biographies, chronicles, memoirs,
+   and accounts of customs, superstitions, ceremonials, etc.
+
+2. Quasi-Primary Source Material, or the Auxiliary Sources of History.
+
+   (_a_) Historical geography, involving a consideration of the
+   "origin, meaning, distribution, and changes of geographical names."
+
+   (_b_) Ethnology and sociology.
+
+   (_c_) Geology, paleontology, and physical geography.
+
+   (_d_) Paleography, or the science of ancient writings.
+
+   (_e_) Diplomatics, or treatises on official documents.
+
+   (_f_) Epigraphy, or the science of inscriptions.
+
+   (_g_) Numismatics, or the study of coins.
+
+   (_h_) Languages.
+
+3. Secondary Authorities.
+
+   (_a_) Textbooks.
+
+   (_b_) Large historical works, e.g., Parkman's, Bancroft's,
+   McMaster's, Fiske's.
+
+   (_c_) Biographies of historical personages, e.g., _The Life of
+   Cavour_; _The True George Washington_; _Bismarck_.
+
+   (_d_) Compendiums of History, e.g., Green's _Short History of the
+   English People_.
+
+   (_e_) Special treatises of historical epochs, e.g., Thwaites' _The
+   Colonies_; Wilson's _Division and Reunion_.
+
+   (_f_) Encyclopaedic articles, e.g., "Waterloo" in _Encyclopaedia
+   Britannica_; Cyclopedias of History; Paul Monroe's _Cyclopaedia of
+   Education_.
+
+   (_g_) Dictionaries of historical names and references, e.g., Low's
+   _Dictionary of English History_ or Larned's _History for Ready
+   Reference_, 6 vols.
+
+   (_h_) Philosophical, legal, and constitutional treatises bearing on
+   history, e.g., Bryce's _American Commonwealth_; Ostrogorski's
+   _Democracy_ and _The Party System_; Montesquieu's _The Spirit of
+   the Laws_.
+
+   (_i_) Historical novels, e.g., Hugo's _Les Miserables_; historical
+   dramas, e.g., Shakespeare's _Merchant of Venice_; historical poems,
+   e.g., Longfellow's _Courtship of Miles Standish_; historical essays
+   and monographs, e.g., articles in the _Historical Review_ and other
+   contemporary magazines.
+
+   (_j_) Writings on local history, e.g., Cooley's _History of
+   Michigan_; Putnam's _Primary and Secondary Education in Michigan_;
+   Michigan Pioneer Collection Articles.
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+1. How can primary source material be employed by teachers of history
+in the elementary and high school?
+
+2. To what extent ought it to be employed?
+
+3. Would the course of history offered, the year in which it is taught,
+and the character of the school and its pupils, affect the answer? If
+so, how?
+
+4. What place in the high school has such a book as Hill's _Liberty
+Documents_?
+
+5. To what extent do the observations made by you coincide with your
+views respecting the use of primary source material?
+
+6. Make a list of ten or more "source materials" you personally could
+use in your teaching of history. Why would you select the "material"
+you have?
+
+
+1. How can the quasi-primary source material be used in elementary
+schools and high schools?
+
+2. What phases of such material do you plan to use?
+
+3. What is the basis for your selection?
+
+4. Could every high school teacher of history make effective use of the
+material you mention?
+
+5. What deduction follows from your answer?
+
+6. What have been your observations respecting the employment of
+material of this kind? Would such material lend itself to use in every
+recitation period?
+
+
+ 1. Should more than one textbook be used in a given course in history?
+Why?
+
+ 2. Does the grade in which the subject is taught affect the answer?
+
+ 3. How can the larger historical works, biographies, and compendiums of
+history be used in the high school?
+
+ 4. Is it practicable to have "special reports" from such sources made
+daily?
+
+ 5. Should the teacher expect all pupils to make frequent "special
+reports"?
+
+ 6. In how far is it feasible to supplement the textbook by means of
+definite class-readings?
+
+ 7. Should class-readings be assigned on a page basis, or on a topical
+basis, or be left to individual selection and spontaneous effort?
+
+ 8. Should exact references be given or should pupils be encouraged to
+master the art of finding for themselves, _within given_ limits, the
+supplementary data sought?
+
+ 9. Precisely how can a high school teacher make use of such a treatise
+as Montesquieu's _The Spirit of the Laws_?
+
+10. Make a list of at least twenty selections from historical novels,
+historical dramas, poems, essays, and monographs that you, as a teacher
+of history, could employ in the high school. What fact or event would
+you attempt to illustrate by each of these selections?
+
+11. What use should high school teachers and pupils make of material
+dealing with local history?
+
+12. What constitutes a good textbook in history for high school use?
+
+13. Make a list of some of the modern textbooks on each of the
+following phases of history: (_a_) Ancient; (_b_) Mediaeval and Modern;
+(_c_) English; (_d_) French; (_e_) American; (_f_) Civil Government.
+What would be your first and your second choices of texts in each of
+these six divisions, and why, specifically, would you make those
+choices?
+
+14. What texts are used in the high schools you have observed?
+
+15. What school authorities ought to select the texts to be used in the
+high school? 16. How far have your observations in the high school been
+in accord with your ideals and theories with respect to the kinds and
+uses of historical "material" of all kinds?
+
+
+
+
+IV. _Conceptions of the Purpose and Content of History._[1]
+
+
+1. As polite literature: the Greek and Roman idea, e.g., Herodotus,
+Thucydides, Xenophon, Livy, Sallust, Caesar, Tacitus.
+
+2. As annals and chronicles only: the Mediaeval idea, e.g., Gregory of
+Tours, Froissart, Einhard.
+
+3. As a basis for governmental policies and as a means of interpreting
+literature: the Renaissance idea, e.g., Machiavelli, Petrarch,
+Boccaccio.
+
+4. As a basis for theological dogma and religious practices: the
+Reformation idea, e.g., Luther, Melanchthon, and the Jesuits.
+
+5. As a basis for interpreting legal institutions and practices: the
+idea of the 17th century, e.g., the Jurists.
+
+6. As a foundation for philosophical speculation and a means of
+discovering the deeper influences that affect humanity and hence
+influence action and produce events: the idea of the 18th century,
+e.g., Voltaire and Montesquieu. [Voltaire held that human nature is the
+same under all circumstances and at all times, and hence sought to
+judge historical events by abstract universal standards. The "natural
+man" was his ideal man. Montesquieu, in _The Spirit of the Laws_,
+sought to show that events in history are but the manifestation of
+spiritual law, as revealed in conditions of climate, geography, soil,
+natural resources, racial temperament, etc.]
+
+7. As a foundation for personal reactions, e.g., criticisms,
+interpretation, moralizing, personal philosophizing, or as mere facts
+entertainingly told: the idea of the early 19th century.
+
+8. History as science, i.e., as explanatory of existing social
+institutions, customs, beliefs: the idea of the 20th century.
+
+      [1] The fundamental purpose of historical writing has ever been
+      the recording of events. In addition, however, different ages
+      have stressed other aims.
+
+
+
+
+V. _Some Notable Influences and Persons that have modified the
+Conception of the Meaning of History in the Last Century._
+
+
+ 1. Romantic School (late 18th century and early 19th century), with its
+deep reverence for the Middle Ages. Hence sympathetic treatment of
+history.
+
+ 2. Herder (1744-1803), with his philosophy of "becoming" or
+development. Herder sought to show that all events are but the
+manifestation of a deity striving to work out an ideal universe. Hence
+all events must be judged by the standards of the time and country in
+which they appear, i.e., be judged by the characteristics of the age
+and people affected.
+
+ 3. Hegel (1770-1831) carried the theory of Herder to more complete
+conclusions.
+
+ 4. Niebuhr (1776-1831), "one of the most acute historical critics and
+philologists of modern times." Niebuhr was among the first to emphasize
+the need of a critical examination of source material, and of the
+building up the past out of these data.
+
+ 5. Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886). His aim was to set before the reader
+the entire picture of events "with their causes, relations, and
+consequences."
+
+ 6. Guizot, Francois P. G. (1787-1874). His great influence was in
+extending the scope of history so as to include universal history, not
+merely national history, or the history of isolated and local events.
+
+ 7. Carlyle (1795-1881), through his keen insight into character and his
+love of hero-worship, introduced the vividly realistic and picturesque
+element.
+
+ 8. Buckle (1821-1862) included economic forces in his studies and
+sought the spirit of history apart from particular men and events.
+
+ 9. Macaulay (1800-1859) presented historical philosophy and the laws
+and theories of government in eloquent and fascinating style, thus
+bringing to the popular mind an interest that had heretofore been
+slight.
+
+10. Froude (1818-1894), in charming literary style but with
+carelessness of detail, emphasized the personal element in history and
+set himself the ideal of "simply recording human actions without
+theorizing theron."
+
+11. Stubbs (1825-1901) "introduced the critical study of mediaeval
+sources into England," employed exact methods of work, and gave impetus
+to constitutional history.
+
+12. Green (1837-1883) depicted the progress of the life of the people
+and dealt only incidentally with the political history of the state.
+
+13. Schmoller (1838- ) emphasized the economic aspects of history.
+
+
+
+
+VI. _History in the Curriculum._
+
+
+1. Pre-Renaissance Period: Incidental historical study made in
+connection with the study of biography and literature.
+
+2. Renaissance Period: Historical studies pursued as auxiliary to the
+interpretation of the classics.
+
+3. Post-Renaissance Period in Europe.
+
+   (_a_) Heraldry and local, contemporary historical incidents and
+   events taught in Ritterakedemien after 1648.
+
+   (_b_) In Germany, the systematic study of history in schools really
+   dates from about 1806, though an independent status was given
+   history in the universities (particularly in Goettingen) in the 18th
+   century.
+
+   (_c_) In France, historical study was introduced by Guizot (about
+   1833) but received no great attention until after 1860, though
+   there was nominally a chair of history in the College de France
+   after 1769.
+
+   (_d_) In England, none but incidental attention was given
+   historical study until after the middle of the 19th century, though
+   there was a professorship of ancient history at Oxford in 1622, and
+   professorships of modern history were found at both Oxford and
+   Cambridge in 1724.
+
+4. Historical Study in America.
+
+   (_a_) History was taught incidentally by professors of philosophy
+   in most of the universities from their founding.
+
+   (_b_) Yale had a professorship of ecclesiastical history in
+   1778-1795.
+
+   (_c_) Harvard established the first professorship in history (in
+   the general sense of the term) in 1839, Jared Sparks being the
+   first incumbent.
+
+   (_d_) Columbia University and the University of Michigan
+   established chairs of history in 1857.
+
+   (_e_) Yale established a chair of history in 1865.
+
+   (_f_) The first seminary in history was established at the
+   University of Michigan in 1869 by Prof. C. K. Adams.
+
+   (_g_) General history and ancient history were found in normal
+   schools after about 1850.
+
+   (_h_) In secondary schools (first in academies, then later in high
+   schools) history was taught as a separate study from about 1830.
+   General history or ancient history received almost the sole
+   emphasis, though English history was sometimes taught. In 1847
+   Harvard first began the practice of requiring history for
+   admission.
+
+   (_i_) History work in elementary schools grew out of the study of
+   geography, and became a separate study about 1845.
+
+   (_j_) Until about 1893 the only course given really serious
+   attention in the high school was that of Ancient History in the
+   classical course. The courses in General History, English History
+   and American History were, for the most part, bookish, superficial,
+   and devitalized.
+
+   (_k_) The Madison Conference (instituted by the N. E. A. in 1892)
+   gave the first concerted impetus to the serious study of history in
+   American public schools.
+
+   (_l_) The Report of the Committee of Ten of the N. E. A. in 1893
+   contains extensive and almost revolutionizing suggestions for
+   improving the organization, study, and presentation of history in
+   the schools.
+
+   (_m_) The Report of the Committee of Seven of the American
+   Historical Association in 1896 supplemented the contemporary
+   efforts at reform.
+
+   (_n_) The Report of the Committee of Five of the American
+   Historical Association in 1907 embodied the best ideas which the
+   decade had developed looking to further improvement of historical
+   study and teaching.
+
+   (_o_) The Committee of Eight has still more recently sought to
+   perfect the art of studying and teaching the subject.
+
+
+
+
+VII. _Values and Aims of History._
+
+
+1. Psychological.
+
+   (_a_) It develops the power of constructive imagination through the
+   visualizing of scenes, events, and characters, and the effort to
+   put oneself back into the past.
+
+   (_b_) It trains the reasoning faculty through the necessity of
+   analyzing data, seeking causes and effects, and following
+   historical development wherever it may lead.
+
+   (_c_) It develops the power of associative memory through the
+   necessity of bringing facts into their essential and definite
+   relations.
+
+   (_d_) It trains the judgment, through requiring the mind to make
+   estimates respecting
+
+         (1) The probability of the fact recorded.
+
+         (2) The possibility and probability of accurate statement on
+         the part of the one recording the event.
+
+         (3) The efficiency of the adjustment of means to ends.
+
+         (4) The righteousness of the act.
+
+         (5) The motives and ideals that dominated the act.
+
+   (_e_) It develops the power of comparison through demanding
+   attention to similarities and differences in motives, agents,
+   means, processes, events, places, dates, and results.
+
+   (_f_) It develops the power of classification--of cooerdinating and
+   subordinating data.
+
+   (_g_) It develops the habit of forming generalizations from
+   detailed facts.
+
+   (_h_) It gives a real conception of the meaning of time, through
+   the considerations of man's slow evolution in social relations.
+
+   (_i_) It gives ability to take a large view of life's affairs and
+   interests,--to see things in their essential relations.
+
+2. Social, Political, and Civic.
+
+   (_a_) It gives habits of analyzing the aims and motives of men, and
+   the means they employ to attain their ends, i.e., it gives insight
+   into character and hence makes social adjustment easier.
+
+   (_b_) It develops tolerance for the opinions, convictions, and
+   ideals of others, and tends to prevent hard, dogmatic, and
+   uncompromising judgments and attitudes.
+
+   (_c_) It gives appreciation of the civic and political institutions
+   of to-day--their origin, development, and purposes--and hence
+   teaches the rights and obligations that are inherent in
+   citizenship.
+
+   (_d_) It inspires patriotism "through arousing noble emotions that
+   revolve about inherited responsibilities." ["A study of the times
+   that tried men's souls tends to form souls that are capable of
+   enduring trial."--_Hinsdale._]
+
+   (_e_) It reveals the slow evolutionary processes that operate in
+   social life, and hence tends to encourage one to put himself in
+   harmony with the laws of social evolution and to strive for social
+   betterment while he at the same time is patient with existing
+   conditions.
+
+   (_f_) It breaks down provincialism through revealing the relations,
+   common traits, and interdependence of one community with another,
+   and one nation with all other nations.
+
+3. Moral and Religious.
+
+   (_a_) It habituates to weighing motives and actions as regards
+   their righteousness.
+
+   (_b_) It implants ideals of personal character by disclosing the
+   personal qualities and moral accomplishments of men and women who
+   have, in large ways, affected history, and who have in consequence
+   received lasting honor and renown.
+
+   (_c_) It teaches us to see something of the intangible forces that
+   override personal preferences and hinder the direct application of
+   principles sincerely held.
+
+   (_d_) It inspires a love of truth.
+
+   (_e_) It develops charity for the past; forbearance for the
+   present; and faith and hope for the future.
+
+4. AEsthetic (appealing to the sense of order, beauty, and proportion).
+
+   (_a_) It stirs to an appreciation of the beauties of man's handwork
+   in sculpture, architecture, painting, musical and literary form,
+   industry and commerce.
+
+   (_b_) It reveals the beauties of human genius in adapting
+   institutions and governmental forms and processes to desired ends.
+
+   (_c_) It refines and enriches the emotions by bringing them into
+   contact with the emotional expressions of the race.
+
+   (_d_) It develops literary expression, and a taste for good
+   reading.
+
+   (_e_) It thrills and inspires, and incites to more thorough-going
+   efforts to attain ideals of proportion and order.
+
+5. Practical.
+
+   (_a_) It aids in interpreting many allusions in literature and
+   current expressions.
+
+   (_b_) It vitalizes geography.
+
+   (_c_) It gives a perspective for viewing all other branches of
+   study, and hence for a fairer comprehension of them.
+
+   (_d_) It makes the experiences of travel intelligible.
+
+   (_e_) It gives a fund of information for use in conversation and
+   public utterances.
+
+   (_f_) It breaks down provincialism; develops toleration, sympathy,
+   and human interest; and hence makes intercourse with fellowmen more
+   frictionless and cordial. (See Social Value.)
+
+   (_g_) It creates an interest in the resources, raw materials,
+   tools, and processes of one's vocation, and fosters pride and
+   contentment with labor.
+
+   (_h_) It explains racial, economic, religious, and social cleavages
+   and prejudices, and makes for a truer democracy of feeling.
+
+   (_i_) It gives insight into legal, governmental, and business
+   institutions and forms, and hence makes easier the adjustment to
+   governmental and business requirements. (See Social Value.)
+
+6. Cultural or Personal.
+
+   (_a_) It gives an elevated viewpoint from which better to observe
+   all aspects of civilization to-day and thereby to comprehend them
+   more fully.
+
+   (_b_) It furnishes an inexhaustible source of pleasure and
+   satisfaction for leisure hours and for the consolation of old age.
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+ 1. Can you name any other "values" that should be included in the study
+of history?
+
+ 2. Does the study of history yield equal value in each of the groups
+mentioned?
+
+ 3. Which one of the groups of "values" seems to you most important and
+hence should receive greatest emphasis?
+
+ 4. Can you suggest other items under each group of values?
+
+ 5. Illustrate how a teacher might proceed to exercise the power of
+(_a_) imagination; (_b_) reasoning; (_c_) memory; (_d_) judgment; (_e_)
+comparison; (_f_) classification; (_g_) generalization.
+
+ 6. From your observations do the teachers consciously strive to realize
+these values in the class?
+
+ 7. Do the teachers seek to get back of the records of events and to
+discover the motives, ideas, and ideals that produced those events?
+What is the method used to do so?
+
+ 8. Do the teachers assume "hard, dogmatic, and uncompromising"
+attitudes toward the interpretation of the facts, or do they give
+students opportunity to use their own judgment?
+
+ 9. Does it seem to you that students really do put themselves back in
+imagination and live through the period they are studying? What is the
+secret of attaining this ideal?
+
+10. Are students constantly seeking for "causes" of the historical
+events? How does the teacher secure this effort?
+
+11. Are the textbook facts remembered largely as words, or do the
+students really enter into the spirit and significance of them? What
+evidences have you for your conclusions?
+
+12. Does rote memory or associative memory receive the emphasis?
+
+13. Does the teacher correlate the history lesson with other subjects
+of study? If so, how is this done?
+
+14. Does the teacher correlate the history lesson with the life
+interests of the pupils? If so, how is this done?
+
+15. Does the teacher explain the institutions, forms, and procedures of
+the past by reference to their counterparts of to-day? Are such
+interpretative means employed with sufficient frequency, completeness,
+variety, and clearness?
+
+16. Does the teacher inspire patriotism? If so, how is this
+accomplished?
+
+17. Is the work of such a character that students are infused with a
+spirit of toleration, sympathy, and respect for others outside their
+immediate circle of interest?
+
+18. Does the teacher encourage the weighing of motives and actions with
+reference to their righteousness? Do you approve of this practice?
+
+19. Does the teacher seek to have the students "be like" noble
+characters in history? What can you say for and against this practice?
+
+20. Ought the teacher to strive consciously to use history to develop
+ethical ideas in pupils?
+
+21. How does history exert a religious influence on its students?
+
+22. Does history "inspire a love of truth" to any different degree than
+does any other subject of study?
+
+23. Does the teacher seek to bring out the aesthetic values of history?
+How does she do so?
+
+24. Should appeal be made frequently to the emotional side of pupils'
+natures?
+
+25. Is adequate opportunity given pupils to develop literary
+expression? How is this done?
+
+26. Are you satisfied that a taste for historical reading is being
+developed in the pupils? What observations make you think as you do?
+
+27. Does the teacher so conduct the class work that the "practical
+values" of history are realized?
+
+28. Does the class really appear to enjoy the work? What evidences have
+you of this?
+
+29. Does the class feel that the recitation period is a delight or a
+bore? What evidences have you that this is so?
+
+30. Which phases of the work receive the greatest emphasis: (_a_)
+acquisition of facts, (_b_) mental training, (_c_) moral training,
+(_d_) arousing interest in independent historical study, (_e_)
+development of patriotism and public spirit, or (_f_) power of judging
+men? Do you approve of this distribution of emphasis?
+
+31. Which of the following aims should the teaching of history in the
+high school emphasize, viz., (_a_) giving to youths the knowledge and
+power for the right interpretation of the civilizations of the past,
+(_b_) assisting youths to an understanding of the development and
+significance of present-day civilizations and aiding them to adjust
+themselves to these civilizations; (_c_) giving a perspective from
+which to pre-view, in part, the trend of the future and to plan one's
+career accordingly?
+
+32. From your observations do the teachers stress the events, or the
+motives, the ideals, and the ideas that gave rise to the events? What
+would be your aim here?
+
+33. Of what does thinking consist?
+
+34. Are pupils in the classes observed expected to think for
+themselves? Are they encouraged to express their personal reactions to
+the facts presented?
+
+35. What guiding principle should a high school teacher or textbook
+writer set for himself in selecting from the infinite mass of data
+recorded the material to be used in the high school, (_a_) that which
+reveals the development of personal liberty--political, religious,
+economic; (_b_) that which reveals the development of democratic
+institutions; (_c_) that which reveals the growth of altruism or the
+humanitarian spirit; (_d_) that which reveals the development of
+commerce, industry, and finance; (_e_) that which reveals the
+development of thought and the institutions that aim to develop and
+train it; or (_f_) that which reveals the development of social
+relations and activities?
+
+
+
+
+VIII. _Elements of History._
+
+
+1. Time Element: The when, or chronology.
+
+   (_a_) Units of measurement: day, month, year, decade, century,
+   administration, sovereignty, ministry, epoch, era, and the unit
+   determined by the movement of the events themselves as they
+   naturally cohere.
+
+   (_b_) Dates as agencies for assigning definite position in time.
+
+2. Place Element: The where, or geography.
+
+   (_a_) Units of location: continent, nation, empire, kingdom, state,
+   section, region, district, town, city, county, and the geographical
+   groups or centers formed by the events themselves as they cohere.
+
+3. Physical Element:
+
+   (_a_) Climate and meteorology affecting
+
+         (1) Character of the people.
+
+         (2) Occupations.
+
+   (_b_) Topography, affecting
+
+         (1) Movement of races, armies, productions, etc.
+
+         (2) Size and boundaries of states.
+
+         (3) Location and character of cities.
+
+         (4) Industries.
+
+         (5) Trade and transportation.
+
+   (_c_) Natural resources, soil, and products, affecting
+
+         (1) Livelihood.
+
+         (2) Character of people.
+
+   (_d_) Violent and infrequent phenomena of nature, earthquakes,
+   storms, eclipses, comets, volcanic eruptions, etc., affecting
+
+         (1) Beliefs and actions of people.
+
+4. Human Element.
+
+   (_a_) The national or race spirit.
+
+   (_b_) The religious emotions and aspirations.
+
+   (_c_) The sentimental interests.
+
+   (_d_) The _Zeitgeist_ or spirit of the age.
+
+   (_e_) The genius of individuals.
+
+5. Superhuman Element.
+
+   (_a_) The moral order in the universe, or the seeming law that
+   rules thoughts, feelings, and actions of men--the law of cause and
+   effect.
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+ 1. Which time-units are most commonly used in the classes you have
+observed? Do you approve of the custom?
+
+ 2. What advantage is gained from the use of such units over what is
+gained in using other units?
+
+ 3. Are there any of the units mentioned that ought to be used
+sparingly, if at all?
+
+ 4. Does the teacher observed stress dates sufficiently? Does she
+over-stress them?
+
+ 5. Under what circumstances should a date be learned?
+
+ 6. What is the best method of getting pupils to remember dates?
+
+ 7. How many dates ought to be required in any course in history in the
+high school?
+
+ 8. What principle of selection ought to guide in the choice?
+
+ 9. Is it wise to require the learning of some dates for the recitation
+period only with the expectation that they shall then fade from the
+mind?
+
+10. Is it wise to drill on dates frequently?
+
+11. What is the value of memorized dates?
+
+12. What would be your views respecting the following list of dates
+(learned in their full significance) as the only fixed required dates
+for the entire high school course: B.C. 1000; 776; 594; 500; 459; 323;
+264; 146; 59; 31; A.D. 313; 395; 476; 527; 622; 732; 800; 843; 962;
+1066; 1095; 1215; 1400; 1453; 1492; 1517; 1588; 1598; 1603; 1609; 1620;
+1648; 1688; 1776; 1789: 1815; 1830; 1848; 1861; 1867; 1871; 1898.
+
+13. Does the teacher always seek to connect historical events with
+geography?
+
+14. Is such connection real or merely verbal?
+
+15. What methods are used to bring about this permanent association of
+event and place in the minds of the pupils?
+
+16. What "unit of location" is chiefly used? Is this wise?
+
+17. What is the real importance of stressing geography while studying
+history?
+
+18. Are students expected to make use of outline maps?
+
+19. How many such maps does each student make during the semester?
+
+20. Are the maps made during given recitation periods under the
+supervision of the teacher, or at the convenience of the students?
+Which is the better plan?
+
+21. Do the students devote much time to map-making?
+
+22. Do they merely "color" the map, or do they fill in all important
+geographical and historical items?
+
+23. Are maps ever drawn, roughly, on the blackboards by either teacher
+or pupils? If so, is there decided merit in so doing?
+
+24. Are wall maps used frequently? If so, who indicates
+locations--teacher or pupils?
+
+25. Is it advisable to conduct the class in person to near-by historic
+places?
+
+26. Would it be wise to employ analogously formed geographical
+territory that is familiar to the students to vivify and interpret
+far-distant historical places?
+
+27. Does the teacher seek to impress the importance of "physical
+elements" in shaping history?
+
+28. Does the teacher emphasize this element of history sufficiently?
+
+29. How, in detail, can such influences be revealed to high school
+students so that their real significance can be recognized?
+
+30. Is the significance of national or race spirit in producing history
+sufficiently emphasized by the teacher?
+
+31. Can you give an illustration of its notable operation?
+
+32. Has the influence of religious emotions and aspirations been shown
+by the teacher in its full significance?
+
+33. Can you give an illustration of the complete modification of
+history because of "sentimental interests"?
+
+34. Are such modifications somewhat common and important?
+
+35. Does the teacher impress this fact upon his pupils?
+
+36. Does the teacher make clear the significance of the _Zeitgeist_, or
+spirit of the age, in shaping history?
+
+37. How much attention is given to the study of notable characters in
+history?
+
+38. Ought biography to occupy a more important place in the high school
+course in history?
+
+39. How is such study secured in the school you have observed,--through
+collateral readings by the class, individual reports, or incidental
+classroom discussions?
+
+40. Does the teacher sufficiently stress the fact that all history is
+but the operation of cause and effect?
+
+41. Are students _required_ to seek for causes back of the events?
+
+42. Are students encouraged and expected to _trace causes_ through the
+various sequences of effects?
+
+
+
+
+IX. _Methods of Approach to the Study of History._
+
+
+1. Chronologically, since there is a continuity in the subject, and
+cause precedes effect. "The childhood of history is best for the child,
+the boyhood of history for the boy, the youthhood of history for the
+youth, and the manhood of history for the man."--_S. S. Laurie_,
+Sch. Rev. 4:650.
+
+2. Counter-chronologically, i.e., from the present time and immediate
+surroundings to remote ages and distant peoples.
+
+3. Spirally, i.e., covering the entire field of study in an elementary
+manner; then repeating the course on a more advanced plane; then taking
+up the work a third and fourth time, supplementing and expanding with
+each new attack.
+
+4. Biographically, i.e., by means of biographies only.
+
+5. Topically, i.e., tracing the development of particular elements in
+history, continuously and uninterruptedly, from the early stages to
+complete forms.
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+1. Which, to you, seems the best approach to the study of history?
+
+2. May several of the above-mentioned modes be employed simultaneously?
+
+3. Is it largely true that the personal or biographic appeals most to
+the child; the speculative, to the boy; the vitally and concretely
+constructive, to the youth; and the critical and philosophical to the
+adult? If so, what should be the character of the work in history in
+the high school?
+
+
+
+
+X. _The Process of Learning History._
+
+
+1. Acquiring and relating detailed facts.
+
+2. Formulating a mental picture of the events.
+
+3. Analyzing the conditions and determining the vital, distinguishing
+characteristics.
+
+4. Getting back of the outer forms, visible expression, or the vital
+facts to the real life of the people--their ideals, ideas, emotions,
+and beliefs.
+
+5. Discovering the motives that produced the events considered.
+
+6. Deducing the principles that operate in human relations.
+
+7. Applying those principles to contemporary civilization to-day, and
+foreshadowing the probable trend of society in the future.
+
+8. Holding consciously to the fact that history is dynamic, not static,
+i.e., that all historical material constitutes a unity that is revealed
+under the two laws of continuity and differentiation.
+
+   "There are no breaks or leaps in the life of a people. Development
+   may hasten or may slacken, and may seem to cease for a time, but
+   it is always continuous; it always proceeds out of antecedent
+   conditions, and if it be arrested for a time it begins again at
+   the point where it ended."
+
+   "Since the essence of history is the real life of a people--their
+   ideas and feelings--history develops as ideas and feelings develop.
+   But thoughts and feelings never exhibit themselves repeatedly in
+   the same forms, but take on new modes of expression in the very
+   process of growth."--_Mace._
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+ 1. Does the teacher observed lay emphasis on details as ends in
+themselves or as means to other ends?
+
+ 2. Is there a "richness" of details or is there a dearth of them?
+
+ 3. Are details presented in a vivid manner, with many gripping
+tentacles, or are they set forth in bold, uninteresting forms only?
+
+ 4. Are the details intimately fused or correlated?
+
+ 5. Is effort made to get each pupil to develop a mental picture of the
+scene represented by the details?
+
+ 6. When the image is fashioned, is an effort made to discriminate and
+to abstract the dominant characteristics?
+
+ 7. Is effort made to get at the spirit of the historical fact, and to
+discover the motives that operated to produce it?
+
+ 8. Are generalizations and principles of human thought, feeling, and
+conduct deduced from the study?
+
+ 9. Is effort made to test the validity of such principles among social
+relationships of to-day?
+
+10. Does the teacher make history appear what it is, i.e., a ceaseless
+development, a unity, or does she leave the impression among the pupils
+that history is a mass of disconnected dead facts?
+
+
+
+
+XI. _The Organization of History in High Schools._
+
+
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+|    PLAN 1                      |    PLAN  2        |    PLAN  3        |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+| 9th grade} General History     |Ancient History    |                   |
+|10th grade}                     |Med. & Mod. History|Anc. & Med. Hist.  |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+|11th grade} American History    |English History    |Modern History     |
+|12th grade}                     |U.S. Hist. & Civics|U.S. Hist. & Civics|
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+|                                |                   |                   |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+|    PLAN 4                      |    PLAN 5         |    PLAN 6         |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+| 9th grade  Loc. Hist., Civics  |Ancient History    |Recent history     |
+|             and Industries     |                   | Local Civics      |
+|                                |                   | Local Indust.     |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+|10th grade  Ancient History     |Med. & Mod. Hist.  |{Indust. Hist. 1/2 |
+|                                |                   |{Commer. Hist. 1/2 |
+|                                |                   | Ancient History   |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+|11th grade  Med. & Mod. Hist.   |{Eng. History 1/2  |Mod. & Med. or     |
+|                                |{U. S. History 1/2 | Eng. History      |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+|12th grade  U. S. Hist. & Civics|{U. S. History 1/2 |U. S. History      |
+|                                |{Civics 1/2        | Civics            |
++--------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+
+
+
+QUERIES
+
+ 1. Which of the above plans appeals to you most? Why so?
+
+ 2. What is the plan of organization in the school observed?
+
+ 3. What courses are prescribed, and what are elective? Do you approve?
+
+ 4. How many recitation periods per week are allotted to the work in
+each course? Is this wise?
+
+ 5. Is there one period per week devoted to "unassigned" or "unprepared"
+class work?
+
+ 6. If so, how is the period employed?
+
+ 7. Do you approve of such a period as a regular feature of the course?
+
+ 8. What justification is there in making the first year's work consist
+of "Local History, Civics, and Industries"?
+
+ 9. What argument is there for placing Ancient History in the 12th
+grade, and making it an elective study?
+
+10. Is the work in Advanced Civics presented in a separate course, or
+is it correlated and interwoven with the work in U. S. History?
+
+11. What arguments can you give for and against the practice?
+
+12. What is the scope and aim of each of the courses Of history you
+have observed?
+
+
+
+
+XII. _The History Teacher's Preparation and Equipment._
+
+
+ 1. Has the teacher the kind of personality you could wish for yourself?
+
+ 2. Is her voice melodious and pleasing?
+
+ 3. Has she winsome manners?
+
+ 4. Is she sympathetic with her students?
+
+ 5. Does she show distinctive qualities of leadership?
+
+ 6. Has she evidently had a good general training in literature,
+sociology, philosophy, biology, and psychology?
+
+ 7. Has she evidently had extensive and special training in history and
+political science?
+
+ 8. Has she had professional training in educational psychology, history
+of education, methods, and general administration of school work?
+
+ 9. Is she tied to the textbook?
+
+10. Does she have a fund of explanatory and illustrative material at
+her command?
+
+11. Is she accurate, positive, and confident?
+
+12. Has she a sense of humor and of the fitness of things? Has she
+self-control, or does she, for example, use sarcasm and ridicule?
+
+13. Has she clearly prepared herself anew for the lesson in hand? What
+evidences have you of this?
+
+14. Does she inspire her pupils? How?
+
+15. Is there good discipline? If so, how is it secured?
+
+16. Does the teacher seem to be familiar with local history, local
+geography, and both local and general industrial, political, and social
+conditions?
+
+17. Does she seem to be familiar with the local library and its
+equipment?
+
+18. Does she know her pupils--their interests, home life, and
+ambitions?
+
+19. Does she possess enthusiasm, energy, optimism, sympathy,
+imagination, force, incisiveness, tact, judgment, geniality, social
+graces, courtesy, and kindliness?
+
+20. Does she grasp the subject in its unity and entirety?
+
+21. Can she tell a tale simply and pleasingly?
+
+22. Is she interested in current events?
+
+23. Does she possess a clear insight into character and life?
+
+24. Has she traveled?
+
+
+
+
+XIII. _The Pupil's Preparation and Equipment._
+
+
+ 1. Have the pupils evidently had a good elementary school training?
+
+ 2. Do the pupils give evidence of having had previous historical
+training in the high school? What is the basis of your conclusion?
+
+ 3. Have the pupils thoroughly prepared for the day's recitation?
+
+ 4. Have they apparently confined themselves to the text, or have they
+gone outside this for material?
+
+ 5. Have they "studied the lesson together"? Do you approve of such
+study?
+
+ 6. If pupils show they have not sought to prepare the lesson well, what
+procedure does the teacher follow? Do you approve?
+
+ 7. Have the pupils "outlined the lesson"? Is it well that they should
+do so?
+
+ 8. Apparently, have the pupils been shown _how_ to study, i.e., how to
+ prepare the work most advantageously? What was the mode of doing this?
+
+ 9. Have the pupils attacked the lesson because it was made to appear
+vital to the solution of some really interesting problem?
+
+10. Have the pupils really gotten behind the facts to the spirit of the
+movement?
+
+11. Have the pupils apparently attempted to correlate geography with
+the history? What evidences have you of this?
+
+12. Have the pupils acquainted themselves with all unusual words and
+phrases used in the text?
+
+
+
+
+XIV. _The Classroom._
+
+
+ 1. Is there anything distinctive about the classrooms you have observed
+that suggests their special uses?
+
+ 2. Are sittings arranged in fixed and regular forms, or is it possible
+for the class to gather about the teacher's chair in a "social" group?
+
+ 3. Are there good wall maps in the room?
+
+ 4. Are there atlases, globes, and geographical dictionaries at hand?
+
+ 5. Are there reference books of common use?
+
+ 6. Does the teacher's desk contain copies of textbooks other than the
+text in chief?
+
+ 7. Are there sufficient good blackboards?
+
+ 8. Is there a stereopticon?
+
+ 9. Does the school provide an adequate number of stereopticon slides?
+
+10. Are the walls adorned with historical pictures or other historical
+materials? Is there a "museum of history" in the room?
+
+11. Are pupils encouraged to beautify the room with significant objects
+of historical interest?
+
+
+
+
+XV. _The Assignment of the Lesson._
+
+
+ 1. Is the assignment given sufficient attention by the teacher?
+
+ 2. Is it made at the beginning of the recitation period or near the
+close? What advantages and disadvantages does each practice offer?
+
+ 3. Does the assignment take into consideration the character of the
+work to be studied? In what ways is this true?
+
+ 4. Does the assignment vary with the stage of advancement of the
+students? How?
+
+ 5. Does it "blaze a way," so to speak, through the mass of facts so
+that the pupils really glimpse the significance of the material before
+them, and are stimulated to attack it?
+
+ 6. Does it raise real problems for the students to solve?
+
+ 7. Does it suggest too much or too little?
+
+ 8. Does it take individual differences sufficiently into account?
+
+ 9. Does it include material outside the textbook?
+
+10. If so, is the material well chosen and clearly indicated?
+
+11. Does the assignment correlate the textbook material with
+contemporary life and with the experiences of the pupils?
+
+12. Is the assignment made so clearly and definitely that _all_ pupils
+thoroughly understand what it is? What evidences have you that such is
+the case?
+
+13. Is the assignment too long for adequate preparation?
+
+14. Does it contemplate that the pupils will devote "home study" to it?
+
+15. How much time ought the assignment to require of a moderately good
+student? Is this adequate?
+
+16. Does the assignment suggest what portions of the text are to be
+touched upon lightly, what to be studied for appreciation only, what to
+be critically studied and mastered?
+
+17. Does the assignment include a "review" of previous work? How much?
+
+18. Does the assignment stress dates too much?
+
+19. Is the assignment made with enthusiasm and interest, and does it
+thus at once strike a responsive chord in the pupils?
+
+
+
+
+XVI. _The Study Lesson._
+
+
+ 1. Are pupils encouraged to follow a definite daily schedule in
+studying their lessons? Do you advise this?
+
+ 2. Is there supervised study in the school?
+
+ 3. What is the nature of the supervision given in such a period?
+
+ 4. Judging from results, have the pupils made good use of their study
+periods?
+
+ 5. Is there in the school a weekly period for consultation and advice?
+
+ 6. If pupils are absent from school, is opportunity given for "making
+up work"? How is this administered so far as the study of history is
+concerned?
+
+ 7. Is there ever provided a period for "unassigned work"?
+
+ 8. If so, how is the period employed?
+
+ 9. Just what is the secret of getting pupils to study their lessons?
+
+10. Are pupils encouraged to outline the lesson?
+
+11. Are they encouraged to make personal notes on the margin of the
+textbook pages? Are they shown how to annotate?
+
+12. Are they advised to use notebooks? If so, what is the character of
+these?
+
+13. Do pupils seem merely to try to "learn the text" or really to
+comprehend the spirit?
+
+14. Can you suggest ways and means of making the study-lesson more
+beneficial?
+
+15. Does the teacher sometimes require abstracts to be made in order to
+teach selection of important points?
+
+
+
+
+XVII. _The Recitation Lesson._
+
+
+ 1. Does the class enter the room in a happy, expectant state of mind,
+or does it appear as though it were about to undergo a disagreeable
+operation?
+
+ 2. Does the class come to "attention" as soon as the signal is given?
+
+ 3. Is the aim of the day clearly set forth? Who does it, the teacher or
+the pupils?
+
+ 4. Does the work of the day seem to grow out of some previous
+discussions or conclusions?
+
+ 5. Are the "five formal steps" followed?
+
+ 6. Is emphasis placed on information, drill, review, testing, or
+historical mindedness?
+
+ 7. Does the work have balance and proportion?
+
+ 8. Is there interest and attention? What is the secret of it?
+
+ 9. Are questions clear, concrete, and definite?
+
+10. Is appeal made to more than one sense, i.e., audile, visual,
+tactile, muscular?
+
+11. Does the teacher really guide and lead, or does she carry most of
+the burden?
+
+12. Do the pupils cooeperate as a team--each seeking to contribute his
+portion freely and all aiming to attain a definite goal?
+
+13. Does the recitation take on the spirit of comradeship, i.e., of
+courteous and familiar discussion?
+
+14. Is the lesson enlivened by means of anecdotes, illustrations,
+stories, dramatic postures, readings, etc.?
+
+15. Is the history lesson correlated with geography, English, foreign
+language study, science, manual training, and other school studies?
+
+16. Is it correlated with the common life experiences of the pupils,
+and with the important contemporary institutions and interests of
+to-day?
+
+17. Are criticisms by the teacher made sufficiently frequent and direct
+to make pupils careful, but not so frequently and pointedly as to
+discourage pupils?
+
+18. Are pupils expected to present a connected account of the topics
+studied and to do this in a clear, forceful, logical manner?
+
+19. Are dates and other mere facts properly subordinated to the real
+ideas for which they stand?
+
+20. Are the salient points of the lesson collected and tabulated as the
+lesson proceeds?
+
+21. Is this done by the teacher, or by the pupils, or by both?
+
+22. Do pupils show by their attitude, facial expression, and
+responsiveness that they are satisfied with the recitation as it
+progresses?
+
+23. Are formal debates and informal discussions ever permitted in the
+class?
+
+24. Is use made of the dramatic powers of pupils to interpret and
+assimilate history?
+
+25. Are visits with the class made to places and institutions of
+historic interest?
+
+26. Are mock elections and other civic procedures allowed?
+
+27. Is map drawing required? If so, is the work done in class under the
+supervision of the teacher, or at the pleasure and convenience of the
+pupils?
+
+28. Is the stress laid on artistic effects in map drawing, or on a
+graphic presentation of the facts in their relations?
+
+29. Is any use made of genealogical tables or historical charts? What
+value is there in so doing?
+
+30. Does the teacher demand thoroughness, completeness, and clearness
+in the recitation of the pupils, or does she accept vague, incomplete,
+and general statements?
+
+31. Does she interrupt the pupils while they are reciting, or wait
+until they are through before commenting or criticizing? Does she ask
+other pupils to criticize?
+
+32. Is the teacher alert, vivacious, enthusiastic?
+
+33. Is she herself thoroughly interested in the work of the day?
+
+34. Is there unexpected variety in the class procedure?
+
+35. Does the teacher seem to enjoy clean, harmless jokes and amusing
+incidents with her pupils?
+
+36. Is everybody "into the game" all the time?
+
+37. Is the aim of the recitation kept constantly before the class?
+
+38. Is there steady progress toward it?
+
+39. Does the teacher praise discriminatingly the good efforts of the
+pupils?
+
+40. Is the teacher at all times a friend of the pupils?
+
+41. Is a definite, clear summary of the significant points of the
+lesson made by the teacher at the close of the period?
+
+42. Are important generalizations formed, and valid principles deduced?
+
+43. Is the fifth formal step (that of application) taken? If so, how is
+it done?
+
+44. Has the recitation period seemed short or has it been a long,
+tedious hour?
+
+45. Do pupils leave the room with faces aglow and minds keyed to
+earnest thought, or do they seem to go as if freed from a prison?
+
+46. Do pupils comment on the day's work as they pass out? Are such
+comments favorable or unfavorable?
+
+47. Is the pupil's judgment here of any great weight?
+
+48. How does the teacher busy herself between the change of classes?
+
+49. Has the work been such as to make pupils interested in pursuing the
+study of history for themselves?
+
+50. Has the work been such as to help pupils to think for themselves,
+to be accurate, to be resourceful, to develop the historical habit of
+mind?
+
+51. What was the chief weakness of the recitation period?
+
+52. Did pupils rise and recite by topic?
+
+53. Did pupils outline the lesson and then talk from their outlines?
+What value has this?
+
+54. Were mnemonic devices used? If so, was advantage gained thereby?
+
+
+
+
+XVIII. _The Review Lesson._
+
+
+ 1. Is there a stated time for "reviews"? If so, how long is the time
+devoted to reviews? Is this wise?
+
+ 2. Is the review lesson really a _new_ view of the subject matter,
+or merely a going over the material a second time?
+
+ 3. Are definite unifying questions given out for guidance of pupils in
+preparing for the review lesson?
+
+ 4. Is the review lesson conducted orally or in written form?
+
+ 5. Is there interest and enthusiasm in the review lesson?
+
+ 6. What seems to be the purpose of the review lesson--to drill, to
+test, or to organize the material in new connections?
+
+ 7. Is the final review worth while, or can the same results be obtained
+by constant daily reviewing?
+
+ 8. Do pupils make comparisons, judgments, reactions?
+
+ 9. Does the teacher employ any but the large organizing questions while
+carrying on the review?
+
+10. Are review questions of the kind that will confront the pupils in
+real life?
+
+
+
+
+XIX. _The Lesson in Civics._
+
+
+ 1. Does instruction in civics occupy a separate period or separate term
+in the history work?
+
+ 2. Is a special textbook used?
+
+ 3. How much time is devoted to civics?
+
+ 4. On what phase of civics is emphasis laid--national, state, or local?
+
+ 5. Is the civics instruction closely correlated with history?
+
+ 6. Is it vitalized by visits to contemporary governmental institutions?
+
+ 7. Are current political events employed to illustrate the course?
+
+ 8. Is the class encouraged to organize as a civic or political body?
+
+ 9. Are governmental forms and practices brought into the school work?
+
+10. Is emphasis placed too much on details or is effort made to get
+back of practices to discover the origin, development, and purpose of
+such practices?
+
+11. Are there mock elections, court trials, debates?
+
+
+
+
+XX. _Some Principles of History Dogmatically Stated._
+
+
+1. "A people's life of thought and feeling obeys the law of continuity
+and of differentiation. The law of continuity means there are no breaks
+or leaps in the life of a people. Development may hasten or slacken and
+may cease for a time, but it is always continuous; the law of
+differentiation means that thoughts and feelings of a people take on
+new forms in the process of growth."--_Mace._
+
+2. History is an evolution--a continuous movement, and causes always
+precede effects.
+
+3. The historical attitude is this: Ascertainment of facts,
+interpretation of actions, investigation of motives, but regarding all
+events as "portions of human life."
+
+4. The notable characteristics of the 19th century are:
+
+   (_a_) Rise of nationality.
+
+   (_b_) Struggle for constitutional government.
+
+   (_c_) Enthusiasm for natural science.
+
+   (_d_) Development of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+   (_e_) Industrial changes.
+
+   (_f_) Economic theory and reform.
+
+Hence, the study of history demands that such items shall be discovered
+as explain and support these elements.
+
+5. It is desirable to develop the historic sense by working outward
+from the industrial activities of the community.
+
+6. It is necessary to reduce diversity to unity.
+
+7. "What is logically first in a subject, i.e., the law or principle,
+comes last into the possession of the unfolding mind."
+
+8. "The worst possible form of education is an abortive education--one
+that falls back on some mysterious disciplinary claim for its
+justification--as if there were any true discipline in failing to
+master a subject."
+
+9. "History shows that men's actions are governed by some kind of
+calculable law." The problem is to discover these laws.
+
+
+
+
+XXI. _Some Positive Guides and Suggestions._
+
+
+ 1. Clearly set forth the problem to be investigated.
+
+ 2. Discover the facts that bear upon this problem--but only the
+significant facts.
+
+ 3. Relate the facts to each other.
+
+ 4. Formulate a mental picture of the events or scenes.
+
+ 5. Seek to discover the causes that lie back of the facts--the
+geographical, meteorological, geological, biological, physiographic,
+and human.
+
+ 6. Seek to discover the motives, interests, and intentions of men and
+societies in producing the events.
+
+ 7. Seek to discover the means employed to realize or attain the ideal,
+motive, or purpose.
+
+ 8. Seek to trace the results--both immediate and remote, and both
+subjective and objective--of the actions thus made.
+
+ 9. Seek for principles of unity and diversity in interpreting the
+events.
+
+10. Make use of time-wholes, space-wholes, and organic-wholes, but
+avoid making artificial divisions.
+
+11. Guide the pupils, but do not dictate their reactions.
+
+12. Make the study stimulate the intellect, the emotions, the will.
+
+13. Force the pupils to think for themselves--to analyze, compare,
+reason, judge, and apply.
+
+14. Show that all history,--battles, institutions, constitutions,
+etc.,--are the result of conflicts of ideas, emotions, ideals, and
+wills.
+
+15. Correlate constantly.
+
+16. Show that institutions of to-day strike their roots deep in the
+past, and are but the complex development of simpler forms.
+
+17. Put life into the dead facts; be interested and enthusiastic.
+
+18. Be honest with the facts and with the pupils; confess ignorance
+rather than endeavor to "bluff."
+
+19. Be free from the textbook.
+
+20. Adapt the work to the pupils' capacities.
+
+21. Arouse, stir, stimulate the pupils and fill with a burning zeal to
+study history.
+
+22. Have variety.
+
+23. Feed the interest once it is aroused.
+
+24. Drill--but by means of use, not by precept.
+
+25. Do not do for pupils what they should do for themselves.
+
+26. Multiply associations.
+
+27. Anticipate for the pupils what is to come, i.e., stimulate interest
+by giving a bird's-eye view of the movement before it is analyzed.
+
+28. Emphasize the operation of cause and effect--what a nation or a
+people sows, so it also reaps.
+
+29. Avoid rote memorizing.
+
+30. Employ recapitulation, summary, and review frequently.
+
+31. Always have a lesson plan.
+
+32. Have "everybody into the game."
+
+33. Shape the work so that it presents the appearance of a real, vital,
+personal problem.
+
+34. Appear to be a learner with the pupils.
+
+35. Make much use of blackboards and concrete material.
+
+36. Emphasize the value of written work, outlines, map study, and
+personal reactions.
+
+37. Illustrate, expound, vivify.
+
+38. Keep pupils looking for resemblances.
+
+39. Teach with reference to applications.
+
+40. Show pupils how to study history.
+
+41. Keep in touch with current events and devote some time each week to
+such events.
+
+42. Have frequent written work, as,
+
+   (_a_) Condensation of a few pages of notable historical works.
+
+   (_b_) Abstracts of accounts of definite events.
+
+   (_c_) Tests, examinations, written lessons.
+
+   (_d_) Notebooks.
+
+   (_e_) Outline maps.
+
+43. Occasionally read selections of historical material before the
+class.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY ON METHODS
+
+
+Allen, J. W. _Place of History in Education._
+
+Barnes, M. S. _Studies in Historical Methods._
+
+Bourne, H. E. _Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and
+Secondary School._
+
+Burstall, Sara A. _Impressions of American Education._ (Chap. on
+Method. Edition of 1908.)
+
+Bernheim, E. _Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode._
+
+Committee of Ten. _Report_, pp. 162-203.
+
+Committee of Seven. _Study of History in Schools._
+
+Committee of Five. _Study of History in Secondary Schools._
+
+Freeman, E. A. _Methods of Historical Study._
+
+Hall, G. S. _Methods of Teaching History._
+
+Hinsdale, B. A. _How to Study and Teach History._
+
+Hartwell, E. C. _The Teaching of History._
+
+Jaeger, O. _Teaching of History._ (Tr. by H. J. Clayton.)
+
+Keatinge, M. W. _Studies in the Teaching of History._
+
+Langlois, C. V. and Seignobos, C. _Introduction to the Study of
+History._
+
+Mace, W. H. _Methods in History._
+
+McMurry, C. A. _Special Method in History._
+
+Maitland, et al. _Essays on the Teaching of History._
+
+Robinson, J. H. _The New History_; also, _Introduction to the History
+of Western Europe._
+
+Seignobos, Charles. _La Methode Historique Applique._
+
+
+PERIODICAL ARTICLES ON METHODS
+
+Barrows, A. C. _Teaching History._ Ed. 29:140.
+
+Below, G. _Die neue historische Methode._ In Historische Zeitschrift,
+N. T. V. 45, pp. 193-273.
+
+Cheyney, E. P. _What is History?_ History Teachers' Magazine, Dec.,
+1910, p. 75 ff.
+
+Clark, L. A. _A Good Way to Teach History._ Sch. Rev. 17:255.
+
+Davison, Ellen S. _History in German Secondary Schools._ Ed. Rev.
+40:356.
+
+Ellwood, C. A. _How History can be Taught from a Sociological Point of
+View._ Ed. 30:300.
+
+Hall, G. S. _The Pedagogy of History._ Ped. Sem. 12:339.
+
+Hart, A. B. _How to Teach History in Secondary Schools._ Syracuse
+Academy, II, Sept., Oct., 1887, pp. 256-265, 306-315.
+
+Howard, G. E. _Study of History in Schools._ Ed. Rev. 19:257.
+
+McMahon, E. _History in our Public Schools._ Ed. 23:109.
+
+Robinson, J. H. _Relation of History to the Newer Sciences of Man._ Jr.
+Phil. Psych. Sc. Methods. 8:141.
+
+Salmon, L. _The Historical Museum._ Ed. Rev., Feb. 1911.
+
+Smith, G. _Is History a Science?_ Amer. Hist. Rev., Apr., 1905.
+
+Thorndike, L. _Scientific Presentation of History._ Pop. Sc. Mo.
+74:170.
+
+Thompson, A. _How to Study History._ Ed. Rev. 17:167.
+
+Tucker, M. A. _Modern Methods of Teaching History._ Ed. 20:220.
+
+Welch, C. _Outlook in Teaching History._ Ed. 31:370.
+
+    Note: See _History Teachers' Magazine_, Philadelphia, a monthly
+    journal devoted entirely to history study.
+
+
+SOME GUIDES FOR TEACHERS
+
+Allen, J. G. _Topical Studies in American History._
+
+Bacheler, A. _American History--Library Method._
+
+Baker, E. A. _A Guide to Historical Fiction._
+
+Brigham, P. _Geographical Influences in American History._
+
+Botsford, G. W. _Source-book of Ancient History._
+
+Burdick, W. L. _Topical Outlines of Roman History._
+
+Channing-Hart-Turner. _Guide to the Study of American History._ (Every
+teacher should own this.)
+
+Dixon, Z. A. _Guide to Fiction._
+
+Freeman, E. A. _Historical Geography of Europe._
+
+Hart, A. B. _Source-book of American History._
+
+Hart, A. B. _American History Told by Contemporaries._ 4 vols.
+
+Hill, Mabel. _Liberty Documents._
+
+Kendall, E. K. _Source-book of English History._
+
+Lee, Guy C. _Source-book of English History._
+
+Major, J. R. _Guide to the Choice of Classical Books._
+
+Sonnenschein, W. S. _Best Books._
+
+Stephens, H. M. _Syllabus of Modern European History._
+
+    Note: For lists of bibliography on history see Channing-Hart-Turner,
+    _op. cit._; Bourne, _op. cit._; and Johnston and others in _High
+    School Education_, p. 500 ff.
+
+
+
+
+A SELECTED LIST OF AMERICAN HISTORICAL FICTION
+
+(Copied from _Journal of Education_ for March 27, 1913)
+
+
+This list attempts to cover American history from colonial times to the
+close of the Civil War. Not all the books are of literary merit; they
+have been chosen primarily with regard to their historical interest,
+although many of them are of the first rank as literature. As the list
+is not exhaustive, many good historical novels have probably been
+omitted:
+
+
+I. COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+Austin. _Standish of Standish; Betty Alden._
+
+Cooper. _The Water Witch; Leatherstocking Tales._
+
+Devereux. _From Kingdom to Colony._
+
+Hawthorne. _The Scarlet Letter._
+
+Johnston. _To Have and to Hold; Prisoners of Hope; Audrey._
+
+Rayner. _Free to Serve._
+
+
+II. REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
+
+Altsheler. _In Hostile Red; The Sun of Saratoga._
+
+Brady. _The Grip of Honor; For Love of Country._
+
+Chambers. _Cardigan; The Reckoning._
+
+Churchill. _Richard Carvel._
+
+Cooper. _The Spy; The Pilot._
+
+Ford. _Janice Meredith._
+
+Mitchell. _Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker._
+
+Simms. _The Partisan._
+
+Stephens. _The Continental Dragoon._
+
+
+III. FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR
+
+Bacheller. _D'ri and I._
+
+Brady. _For the Freedom of the Sea._
+
+Catherwood. _Lazarre._
+
+Churchill. _The Crossing._
+
+Dillon. _The Rose of Old St. Louis._
+
+Hough. _The Mississippi Bubble._
+
+Johnston. _Lewis Rand._
+
+Pidgin. _Blennerhassett._
+
+Thompson. _Alice of Old Vincennes; The King of Honey Island._
+
+
+IV. CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+Brady. _A Little Traitor to the South; The Southerners._
+
+Cable. _The Cavalier; Kincaid's Battery._
+
+Churchill. _The Crisis._
+
+Dixon. _Leopard's Spots; The Clansman._
+
+Eggleston. _Dorothy South; The Warrens of Virginia._
+
+Fox. _The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come_.
+
+Johnston. _The Long Roll; Cease Firing._
+
+Page. _Red Rock._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to Methods and Observation in
+History, by Calvin Olin Davis
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