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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Artillery Through the Ages, by Albert Manucy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Artillery Through the Ages
+       A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America
+
+Author: Albert Manucy
+
+Release Date: January 30, 2007 [EBook #20483]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARTILLERY THROUGH THE AGES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Christine P. Travers and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                              ARTILLERY
+
+                           THROUGH THE AGES
+
+
+                A Short Illustrated History of Cannon,
+                  Emphasizing Types Used in America
+
+
+
+
+                             UNITED STATES
+                       DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
+
+                       Fred A. Seaton, _Secretary_
+
+
+
+                          NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
+
+                       Conrad L. Wirth, _Director_
+
+
+
+
+              For sale by the Superintendent of Documents
+                   U. S. Government Printing Office
+                 Washington 25, D. C. -- Price 35 cents
+
+
+
+
+           (_Cover_) FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (1700-1750)
+
+
+
+
+                              ARTILLERY
+
+                           THROUGH THE AGES
+
+
+                A Short Illustrated History of Cannon,
+                  Emphasizing Types Used in America
+
+                                 _by_
+
+                            _ALBERT MANUCY_
+
+                              _Historian
+                    Southeastern National Monuments_
+
+
+
+                           Drawings by Author
+
+                 Technical Review by Harold L. Peterson
+
+
+
+
+              _National Park Service Interpretive Series
+                            History No. 3_
+
+
+               UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+                          _WASHINGTON: 1949_
+                            (Reprint 1956)
+
+
+
+
+Many of the types of cannon described in this booklet may be seen in
+areas of the National Park System throughout the country. Some parks
+with especially fine collections are:
+
+CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS NATIONAL MONUMENT, seventeenth and eighteenth
+century field and garrison guns.
+
+CHICKAMAUGA AND CHATTANOOGA NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field
+and siege guns.
+
+COLONIAL NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK, seventeenth and eighteenth century
+field and siege guns, eighteenth century naval guns.
+
+FORT MCHENRY NATIONAL MONUMENT AND HISTORIC SHRINE, early nineteenth
+century field guns and Civil War garrison guns.
+
+FORT PULASKI NATIONAL MONUMENT, Civil War garrison guns.
+
+GETTYSBURG NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field guns.
+
+PETERSBURG NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field and siege guns.
+
+SHILOH NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field guns.
+
+VICKSBURG NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field and siege guns.
+
+
+     The National Park System is dedicated to conserving the scenic,
+     scientific, and historic heritage of the United States for the
+     benefit and enjoyment of its people.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  THE ERA OF ARTILLERY
+    The Ancient Engines of War
+    Gunpowder Comes to Europe
+    The Bombards
+    Sixteenth Century Cannon
+    The Seventeenth Century and Gustavus Adolphus
+    The Eighteenth Century
+    United States Guns of the Early 1800's
+    Rifling
+    The War Between the States
+    The Change into Modern Artillery
+
+  GUNPOWDER
+    Primers
+    Modern Use of Black Powder
+
+  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CANNON
+    The Early Smoothbore Cannon
+    Smoothbores of the Later Period
+    Garrison and Ship Guns
+    Siege Cannon
+    Field Cannon
+    Howitzers
+    Mortars
+    Petards
+
+  PROJECTILES
+    Solid Shot
+    Explosive Shells
+    Fuzes
+    Scatter Projectiles
+    Incendiaries and Chemical Projectiles
+    Fixed Ammunition
+    Rockets
+
+  TOOLS
+
+  THE PRACTICE OF GUNNERY
+
+  GLOSSARY
+
+  SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+[Illustration: "PIERRIERS VULGARLY CALLED PATTEREROS,"
+from Francis Grose, Military Antiquities, 1796.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ERA OF ARTILLERY
+
+
+     _Looking at an old-time cannon, most people are sure of just one
+     thing: the shot came out of the front end. For that reason these
+     pages are written; people are curious about the fascinating
+     weapon that so prodigiously and powerfully lengthened the
+     warrior's arm. And theirs is a justifiable curiosity, because the
+     gunner and his "art" played a significant role in our history._
+
+
+THE ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR
+
+To compare a Roman catapult with a modern trench mortar seems absurd.
+Yet the only basic difference is the kind of energy that sends the
+projectile on its way.
+
+In the dawn of history, war engines were performing the function of
+artillery (which may be loosely defined as a means of hurling missiles
+too heavy to be thrown by hand), and with these crude weapons the
+basic principles of artillery were laid down. The Scriptures record
+the use of ingenious machines on the walls of Jerusalem eight
+centuries B.C.--machines that were probably predecessors of the
+catapult and ballista, getting power from twisted ropes made of hair,
+hide or sinew. The ballista had horizontal arms like a bow. The arms
+were set in rope; a cord, fastened to the arms like a bowstring, fired
+arrows, darts, and stones. Like a modern field gun, the ballista shot
+low and directly toward the enemy.
+
+The catapult was the howitzer, or mortar, of its day and could throw
+a hundred-pound stone 600 yards in a high arc to strike the enemy
+behind his wall or batter down his defenses. "In the middle of the
+ropes a wooden arm rises like a chariot pole," wrote the historian
+Marcellinus. "At the top of the arm hangs a sling. When battle is
+commenced, a round stone is set in the sling. Four soldiers on each
+side of the engine wind the arm down until it is almost level with the
+ground. When the arm is set free, it springs up and hurls the stone
+forth from its sling." In early times the weapon was called a
+"scorpion," for like this dreaded insect it bore its "sting" erect.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1--BALLISTA. Caesar covered his landing in
+Britain with fire from catapults and ballistas.]
+
+The trebuchet was another war machine used extensively during the
+Middle Ages. Essentially, it was a seesaw. Weights on the short arm
+swung the long throwing arm.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2--CATAPULT.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3--TREBUCHET. A heavy trebuchet could throw a
+300-pound stone 300 yards.]
+
+These weapons could be used with telling effect, as the Romans learned
+from Archimedes in the siege of Syracuse (214-212 B.C.). As Plutarch
+relates, "Archimedes soon began to play his engines upon the Romans
+and their ships, and shot stones of such an enormous size and with so
+incredible a noise and velocity that nothing could stand before them.
+At length the Romans were so terrified that, if they saw but a rope
+or a beam projecting over the walls of Syracuse, they cried out that
+Archimedes was leveling some machine at them, and turned their backs
+and fled."
+
+Long after the introduction of gunpowder, the old engines of war
+continued in use. Often they were side by side with cannon.
+
+
+GUNPOWDER COMES TO EUROPE
+
+Chinese "thunder of the earth" (an effect produced by filling a large
+bombshell with a gunpowder mixture) sounded faint reverberations
+amongst the philosophers of the western world as early as A.D. 300.
+Though the Chinese were first instructed in the scientific casting of
+cannon by missionaries during the 1600's, crude cannon seem to have
+existed in China during the twelfth century and even earlier.
+
+In Europe, a ninth century Latin manuscript contains a formula for
+gunpowder. But the first show of firearms in western Europe may have
+been by the Moors, at Saragossa, in A.D. 1118. In later years the
+Spaniards turned the new weapon against their Moorish enemies at the
+siege of Cordova (1280) and the capture of Gibraltar (1306).
+
+It therefore follows that the Arabian _madfaa_, which in turn had
+doubtless descended from an eastern predecessor, was the original
+cannon brought to western civilization. This strange weapon seems to
+have been a small, mortar-like instrument of wood. Like an egg in an
+egg cup, the ball rested on the muzzle end until firing of the charge
+tossed it in the general direction of the enemy. Another primitive
+cannon, with narrow neck and flared mouth, fired an iron dart. The
+shaft of the dart was wrapped with leather to fit tightly into the
+neck of the piece. A red-hot bar thrust through a vent ignited the
+charge. The range was about 700 yards. The bottle shape of the weapon
+perhaps suggested the name _pot de fer_ (iron jug) given early cannon,
+and in the course of evolution the narrow neck probably enlarged until
+the bottle became a straight tube.
+
+During the Hundred Years' War (1339-1453) cannon came into general
+use. Those early pieces were very small, made of iron or cast bronze,
+and fired lead or iron balls. They were laid directly on the ground,
+with muzzles elevated by mounding up the earth. Being cumbrous and
+inefficient, they played little part in battle, but were quite useful
+in a siege.
+
+
+THE BOMBARDS
+
+By the middle 1400's the little popguns that tossed one-or two-pound
+pellets had grown into enormous bombards. Dulle Griete, the giant
+bombard of Ghent, had a 25-inch caliber and fired a 700-pound granite
+ball. It was built in 1382. Edinburgh Castle's famous Mons Meg threw a
+19-1/2-inch iron ball some 1,400 yards (a mile is 1,760 yards), or a
+stone ball twice that far.
+
+The Scottish kings used Meg between 1455 and 1513 to reduce the
+castles of rebellious nobles. A baron's castle was easily knocked to
+pieces by the prince who owned, or could borrow, a few pieces of heavy
+ordnance. The towering walls of the old-time strongholds slowly gave
+way to the earthwork-protected Renaissance fortification, which is
+typified in the United States by Castillo de San Marcos, in Castillo
+de San Marcos National Monument, St. Augustine, Fla.
+
+Some of the most formidable bombards were those of the Turks, who used
+exceptionally large cast-bronze guns at the siege of Constantinople in
+1453. One of these monsters weighed 19 tons and hurled a 600-pound
+stone seven times a day. It took some 60 oxen and 200 men to move this
+piece, and the difficulty of transporting such heavy ordnance greatly
+reduced its usefulness. The largest caliber gun on record is the Great
+Mortar of Moscow. Built about 1525, it had a bore of 36 inches, was 18
+feet long, and fired a stone projectile weighing a ton. But by this
+time the big guns were obsolete, although some of the old Turkish
+ordnance survived the centuries to defend Constantinople against a
+British squadron in 1807. In that defense a great stone cut the
+mainmast of the British flagship, and another crushed through the
+English ranks to kill or wound 60 men.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4--EARLY SMALL BOMBARD (1330). It was made of
+wrought-iron bars, bound with hoops.]
+
+The ponderosity of the large bombards held them to level land, where
+they were laid on rugged mounts of the heaviest wood, anchored by
+stakes driven into the ground. A gunner would try to put his bombard
+100 yards from the wall he wanted to batter down. One would surmise
+that the gunner, being so close to a castle wall manned by expert
+Genoese cross-bowmen, was in a precarious position. He was; but
+earthworks or a massive wooden shield arranged like a seesaw over his
+gun gave him fair protection. Lowering the front end of the shield
+made a barricade behind which he could charge his muzzle loader (see
+fig. 49).
+
+In those days, and for many decades thereafter, neither gun crews nor
+transport were permanent. They had to be hired as they were needed.
+Master gunners were usually civilian "artists," not professional
+soldiers, and many of them had cannon built for rental to customers.
+Artillerists obtained the right to captured metals such as tools and
+town bells, and this loot would be cast into guns or ransomed for
+cash. The making of guns and gunpowder, the loading of bombs, and
+even the serving of cannon were jealously guarded trade secrets.
+Gunnery was a closed corporation, and the gunner himself a guildsman.
+The public looked upon him as something of a sorcerer in league with
+the devil, and a captured artilleryman was apt to be tortured and
+mutilated. At one time the Pope saw fit to excommunicate all gunners.
+Also since these specialists kept to themselves and did not drink or
+plunder, their behavior was ample proof to the good soldier of the old
+days that artillerists were hardly human.
+
+
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY CANNON
+
+After 1470 the art of casting greatly improved in Europe. Lighter
+cannon began to replace the bombards. Throughout the 1500's
+improvement was mainly toward lightening the enormous weights of guns
+and projectiles, as well as finding better ways to move the artillery.
+Thus, by 1556 Emperor Ferdinand was able to march against the Turks
+with 57 heavy and 127 light pieces of ordnance.
+
+At the beginning of the 1400's cast-iron balls had made an appearance.
+The greater efficiency of the iron ball, together with an improvement
+in gunpowder, further encouraged the building of smaller and stronger
+guns. Before 1500 the siege gun had been the predominant piece. Now
+forged-iron cannon for field, garrison, and naval service--and later,
+cast-iron pieces--were steadily developed along with cast-bronze guns,
+some of which were beautifully ornamented with Renaissance
+workmanship. The casting of trunnions on the gun made elevation and
+transportation easier, and the cumbrous beds of the early days gave
+way to crude artillery carriages with trails and wheels. The French
+invented the limber and about 1550 took a sizable forward step by
+standardizing the calibers of their artillery.
+
+Meanwhile, the first cannon had come to the New World with Columbus.
+As the _Pinta's_ lookout sighted land on the early morn of October 12,
+1492, the firing of a lombard carried the news over the moonlit waters
+to the flagship _Santa María_. Within the next century, not only the
+galleons, but numerous fortifications on the Spanish Main were armed
+with guns, thundering at the freebooters who disputed Spain's
+ownership of American treasure. Sometimes the adventurers seized
+cannon as prizes, as did Drake in 1586 when he made off with 14 bronze
+guns from St. Augustine's little wooden fort of San Juan de Pinos.
+Drake's loot no doubt included the ordnance of a 1578 list, which
+gives a fair idea of the armament for an important frontier
+fortification: three reinforced cannon, three demiculverins, two
+sakers (one broken), a demisaker and a falcon, all properly mounted on
+elevated platforms in the fort to cover every approach. Most of them
+were highly ornamented pieces founded between 1546 and 1555. The
+reinforced cannon, for instance, which seem to have been cast from the
+same mold, each bore the figure of a savage hefting a club in one hand
+and grasping a coin in the other. On a demiculverin, a bronze mermaid
+held a turtle, and the other guns were decorated with arms,
+escutcheons, the founder's name, and so on.
+
+In the English colonies during the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, lighter pieces seem to have been the more prevalent; there
+is no record of any "cannon." (In those days, "cannon" were a special
+class.) Culverins are mentioned occasionally and demiculverins rather
+frequently, but most common were the falconets, falcons, minions, and
+sakers. At Fort Raleigh, Jamestown, Plymouth, and some other
+settlements the breech-loading half-pounder perrier or "Patterero"
+mounted on a swivel was also in use. (See frontispiece.)
+
+It was during the sixteenth century that the science of ballistics had
+its beginning. In 1537, Niccolo Tartaglia published the first
+scientific treatise on gunnery. Principles of construction were tried
+and sometimes abandoned, only to reappear for successful application
+in later centuries. Breech-loading guns, for instance, had already
+been invented. They were unsatisfactory because the breech could not
+be sealed against escape of the powder gases, and the crude, chambered
+breechblocks, jammed against the bore with a wedge, often cracked
+under the shock of firing. Neither is spiral rifling new. It appeared
+in a few guns during the 1500's.
+
+Mobile artillery came on the field with the cart guns of John Zizka
+during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1419-24). Using light guns, hauled
+by the best of horses instead of the usual oxen, the French further
+improved field artillery, and maneuverable French guns proved to be an
+excellent means for breaking up heavy masses of pikemen in the Italian
+campaigns of the early 1500's. The Germans under Maximilian I,
+however, took the armament leadership away from the French with guns
+that ranged 1,500 yards and with men who had earned the reputation of
+being the best gunners in Europe.
+
+Then about 1525 the famous Spanish Square of heavily armed pikemen and
+musketeers began to dominate the battlefield. In the face of musketry,
+field artillery declined. Although artillery had achieved some
+mobility, carriages were still cumbrous. To move a heavy English
+cannon, even over good ground, it took 23 horses; a culverin needed
+nine beasts. Ammunition--mainly cast-iron round shot, the bomb (an
+iron shell filled with gunpowder), canister (a can filled with small
+projectiles), and grape shot (a cluster of iron balls)--was carried
+the primitive way, in wheelbarrows and carts or on a man's back. The
+gunner's pace was the measure of field artillery's speed: the gunner
+_walked_ beside his gun! Furthermore, some of these experts were
+getting along in years. During Elizabeth's reign several of the
+gunners at the Tower of London were over 90 years old.
+
+Lacking mobility, guns were captured and recaptured with every
+changing sweep of the battle; so for the artillerist generally, this
+was a difficult period. The actual commander of artillery was usually
+a soldier; but transport and drivers were still hired, and the drivers
+naturally had a layman's attitude toward battle. Even the gunners,
+those civilian artists who owed no special duty to the prince, were
+concerned mainly over the safety of their pieces--and their hides,
+since artillerists who stuck with their guns were apt to be picked off
+by an enemy musketeer. Fusilier companies were organized as artillery
+guards, but their job was as much to keep the gun crew from running
+away as to protect them from the enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5--FIFTEENTH-CENTURY BREECHLOADER.]
+
+So, during 400 years, cannon had changed from the little vases,
+valuable chiefly for making noise, into the largest caliber weapons
+ever built, and then from the bombards into smaller, more powerful
+cannon. The gun of 1600 could throw a shot almost as far as the gun of
+1850; not in fire power, but in mobility, organization, and tactics
+was artillery undeveloped. Because artillery lacked these things, the
+pike and musket were supreme on the battlefield.
+
+
+THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY AND GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS
+
+Under the Swedish warrior Gustavus Adolphus, artillery began to take
+its true position on the field of battle. Gustavus saw the need for
+mobility, so he divorced anything heavier than a 12-pounder from his
+field artillery. His famous "leatheren" gun was so light that it could
+be drawn and served by two men. This gun was a wrought-copper tube
+screwed into a chambered brass breech, bound with four iron hoops. The
+copper tube was covered with layers of mastic, wrapped firmly with
+cords, then coated with an equalizing layer of plaster. A cover of
+leather, boiled and varnished, completed the gun. Naturally, the piece
+could withstand only a small charge, but it was highly mobile.
+
+Gustavus abandoned the leather gun, however, in favor of a cast-iron
+4-pounder and a 9-pounder demiculverin produced by his bright young
+artillery chief, Lennart Torstensson. The demiculverin was classed as
+the "feildpeece" _par excellence_, while the 4-pounder was so light
+(about 500 pounds) that two horses could pull it in the field.
+
+These pieces could be served by three men. Combining the powder charge
+and projectile into a single cartridge did away with the old method
+of ladling the powder into the gun and increased the rapidity of
+fire. Whereas in the past one cannon for each thousand infantrymen had
+been standard, Gustavus brought the ratio up to six cannon, and
+attached a pair of light pieces to each regiment as "battalion guns."
+At the same time he knew the value of fire concentration, and he
+frequently massed guns in strong batteries. His plans called for
+smashing hostile infantry formations with artillery fire, while
+neutralizing the ponderous, immobile enemy guns with a whirlwind
+cavalry charge. The ideas were sound. Gustavus smashed the Spanish
+Squares at Breitenfeld in 1631.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6--LIGHT ARTILLERY OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (1630).]
+
+Following the Swedish lead, all nations modified their artillery.
+Leadership fell alternately to the Germans, the French, and the
+Austrians. The mystery of artillery began to disappear, and gunners
+became professional soldiers. Bronze came to be the favorite gunmetal.
+
+Louis XIV of France seems to have been the first to give permanent
+organization to the artillery. He raised a regiment of artillerymen in
+1671 and established schools of instruction. The "standing army"
+principle that began about 1500 was by now in general use, and small
+armies of highly trained professional soldiers formed a class distinct
+from the rest of the population. As artillery became an organized arm
+of the military, expensive personnel and equipment had to be
+maintained even in peacetime. Still, some necessary changes were slow
+in coming. French artillery officers did not receive military rank
+until 1732, and in some countries drivers were still civilians in the
+1790's. In 1716, Britain had organized artillery into two permanent
+companies, comprising the Royal Regiment of Artillery. Yet as late as
+the American Revolution there was a dispute about whether a general
+officer whose service had been in the Royal Artillery was entitled to
+command troops of all arms. There was no such question in England of
+the previous century: the artillery general was a personage having
+"alwayes a part of the charge, and when the chief generall is absent,
+he is to command all the army."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7--FRENCH GARRISON GUN (1650-1700). The gun is
+on a sloping wooden platform at the embrasure. Note the heavy bed on
+which the cheeks of the carriage rest and the built-in skid under the
+center of the rear axletree.]
+
+
+THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+During the early 1700's cannon were used to protect an army's
+deployment and to prepare for the advance of the troops by firing upon
+enemy formations. There was a tendency to regard heavy batteries,
+properly protected by field works or permanent fortifications, as the
+natural role for artillery. But if artillery was seldom decisive in
+battle, it nevertheless waxed more important through improved
+organization, training, and discipline. In the previous century,
+calibers had been reduced in number and more or less standardized;
+now, there were notable scientific and technical improvements. The
+English scientist Benjamin Robins wedded theory to practice; his _New
+Principles of Gunnery_ (1742) did much to bring about a more
+scientific attitude toward ballistics. One result of Robins' research
+was the introduction, in 1779, of carronades, those short, light
+pieces so useful in the confines of a ship's gun deck. Carronades
+usually ranged in caliber from 6- to 68-pounders.
+
+In North America, cannon were generally too cumbrous for Indian
+fighting. But from the time (1565) the French, in Florida, loosed the
+first bolt at the rival fleet of the Spaniard Menéndez, cannon were
+used on land and sea during intercolonial strife, or against corsairs.
+Over the vast distances of early America, transport of heavy guns was
+necessarily by water. Without ships, the guns were inexorably walled
+in by the forest. So it was when the Carolinian Moore besieged St.
+Augustine in 1702. When his ships burned, Moore had to leave his guns
+to the Spaniards.
+
+One of the first appearances of organized American field artillery on
+the battlefield was in the Northeast, where France's Louisburg fell to
+British and Colonial forces in 1745. Serving with the British Royal
+Artillery was the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Boston,
+which had originated in 1637. English field artillery of the day had
+"brigades" of four to six cannon, and each piece was supplied with 100
+rounds of solid shot and 30 rounds of grape. John Müller's _Treatise
+on Artillery_, the standard English authority, was republished in
+Philadelphia (1779), and British artillery was naturally a model for
+the arm in America.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8--AMERICAN 6-POUNDER FIELDPIECE (c. 1775).]
+
+At the outbreak of the War of Independence, American artillery was an
+accumulation of guns, mortars, and howitzers of every sort and some 13
+different calibers. Since the source of importation was cut off, the
+undeveloped casting industries of the Colonies undertook cannon
+founding, and by 1775 the foundries of Philadelphia were casting both
+bronze and iron guns. A number of bronze French guns were brought in
+later. The mobile guns of Washington's army ranged from 3- to
+24-pounders, with 5-1/2- and 8-inch howitzers. They were usually
+bronze. A few iron siege guns of 18-, 24-, and 32-pounder caliber were
+on hand. The guns used round shot, grape, and case shot; mortars and
+howitzers fired bombs and carcasses. "Side boxes" on each side of the
+carriage held 21 rounds of ammunition and were taken off when the
+piece was brought into battery. Horses or oxen, with hired civilian
+drivers, formed the transport. On the battlefield the cannoneers
+manned drag ropes to maneuver the guns into position.
+
+Sometimes, as at Guilford Courthouse, the ever-present forest
+diminished the effectiveness of artillery, but nevertheless the arm
+was often put to good use. The skill of the American gunners at
+Yorktown contributed no little toward the speedy advance of the siege
+trenches. Yorktown battlefield today has many examples of
+Revolutionary War cannon, including some fine ship guns recovered from
+British vessels sunk during the siege of 1781.
+
+In Europe, meanwhile, Frederick the Great of Prussia learned how to
+use cannon in the campaigns of the Seven Years' War (1756-63). The
+education was forced upon him as gradual destruction of his veteran
+infantry made him lean more heavily on artillery. To keep pace with
+cavalry movements, he developed a horse artillery that moved rapidly
+along with the cavalry. His field artillery had only light guns and
+howitzers. With these improvements he could establish small batteries
+at important points in the battle line, open the fight, and protect
+the deployment of his columns with light guns. What was equally
+significant, he could change the position of his batteries according
+to the course of the action.
+
+Frederick sent his 3- and 6-pounders ahead of the infantry. Gunners
+dismounted 500 paces from the enemy and advanced on foot, pushing
+their guns ahead of them, firing incessantly and using grape shot
+during the latter part of their advance. Up to closest range they
+went, until the infantry caught up, passed through the artillery line,
+and stormed the enemy position. Remember that battle was pretty
+formal, with musketeers standing or kneeling in ranks, often in full
+view of the enemy!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9--FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (c. 1780).]
+
+Perhaps the outstanding artilleryman of the 1700's was the Frenchman
+Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval, who brought home a number of ideas after
+serving with the capable Austrian artillery against Frederick. The
+great reform in French artillery began in 1765, although Gribeauval
+was not able to effect all of his changes until he became Inspector
+General of Artillery in 1776. He all but revolutionized French
+artillery, and vitally influenced other countries.
+
+Gribeauval's artillery came into action at a gallop and smothered
+enemy batteries with an overpowering volume of fire. He created a
+distinct matériel for field, siege, garrison, and coast artillery. He
+reduced the length and weight of the pieces, as well as the charge and
+the windage (the difference between the diameters of shot and bore);
+he built carriages so that many parts were interchangeable, and made
+soldiers out of the drivers. For siege and garrison he adopted 12- and
+16-pounder guns, an 8-inch howitzer and 8-, 10-, and 12-inch mortars.
+For coastal fortifications he used the traversing platform which,
+having rear wheels that ran upon a track, greatly simplified the
+training of a gun right or left upon a moving target (fig. 10).
+Gribeauval-type matériel was used with the greatest effect in the new
+tactics which Napoleon introduced.
+
+Napoleon owed much of his success to masterly use of artillery. Under
+this captain there was no preparation for infantry advance by slowly
+disintegrating the hostile force with artillery fire. Rather, his
+artillerymen went up fast into closest range, and by actually
+annihilating a portion of the enemy line with case-shot fire, covered
+the assault so effectively that columns of cavalry and infantry
+reached the gap without striking a blow!
+
+After Napoleon, the history of artillery largely becomes a record of
+its technical effectiveness, together with improvements or changes in
+putting well-established principles into action.
+
+
+UNITED STATES GUNS OF THE EARLY 1800's
+
+The United States adopted the Gribeauval system of artillery carriages
+in 1809, just about the time it was becoming obsolete (the French
+abandoned it in 1829). The change to this system, however, did not
+include adoption of the French gun calibers. Early in the century cast
+iron replaced bronze as a gunmetal, a move pushed by the growing
+United States iron industry; and not until 1836 was bronze readopted
+in this country for mobile cannon. In the meantime, U. S. Artillery in
+the War of 1812 did most of its fighting with iron 6-pounders. Fort
+McHenry, which is administered by the National Park Service as a
+national monument and historic shrine, has a few ordnance pieces of
+the period.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10--U. S. 32-POUNDER ON BARBETTE CARRIAGE
+(1860).]
+
+During the Mexican War, the artillery carried 6- and 12-pounder guns,
+the 12-pounder mountain howitzer (a light piece of 220 pounds which
+had been added for the Indian campaigns), a 12-pounder field howitzer
+(788 pounds), the 24- and 32-pounder howitzers, and 8- and 10-inch
+mortars. For siege, garrison, and seacoast there were pieces of 16
+types, ranging from a 1-pounder to the giant 10-inch Columbiad of
+7-1/2 tons. In 1857, the United States adopted the 12-pounder Napoleon
+gun-howitzer, a bronze smoothbore designed by Napoleon III, and this
+muzzle-loader remained standard in the army until the 1880's.
+
+The naval ironclads, which were usually armed with powerful 11- or
+15-inch smoothbores, were a revolutionary development in mid-century.
+They were low-hulled, armored, steam vessels, with one or two
+revolving turrets. Although most cannonballs bounced from the armor,
+lack of speed made the "cheese box on a raft" vulnerable, and poor
+visibility through the turret slots was a serious handicap in battle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11--U. S. NAVY 9-INCH SHELL-GUN ON MARSILLY
+CARRIAGE (1866).]
+
+While 20-, 30-, and 60-pounder Parrott rifles soon made an appearance
+in the Federal Navy, along with Dahlgren's 12- and 20-pounder rifled
+howitzers, the Navy relied mainly upon its "shell-guns": the 9-, 10-,
+11-, and 15-inch iron smoothbores. There were also 8-inch guns of 55
+and 63 "hundredweight" (the contemporary naval nomenclature), and four
+sizes of 32-pounders ranging from 27 to 57 hundredweight. The heavier
+guns took more powder and got slightly longer ranges. Many naval guns
+of the period are characterized by a hole in the cascabel, through
+which the breeching tackle was run to check recoil. The Navy also had
+a 13-inch mortar, mounted aboard ship on a revolving circular
+platform. Landing parties were equipped with 12- or 24-pounder
+howitzers either on boat carriages (a flat bed something like a mortar
+bed) or on three-wheeled "field" carriages.
+
+
+RIFLING
+
+Rifling, by imparting a spin to the projectile as it travels along the
+spiral grooves in the bore, permits the use of a long projectile and
+ensures its flight point first, with great increase in accuracy. The
+longer projectile, being both heavier and more streamlined than round
+shot of the same caliber, also has a greater striking energy.
+
+Though Benjamin Robins was probably the first to give sound reasons,
+the fact that rifling was helpful had been known a long time. A 1542
+barrel at Woolwich has six fine spiral grooves in the bore. Straight
+grooving had been applied to small arms as early as 1480, and during
+the 1500's straight grooving of musket bores was extensively
+practiced. Probably, rifling evolved from the early observation of the
+feathers on an arrow--and from the practical results of cutting
+channels in a musket, originally to reduce fouling, then because it
+was found to improve accuracy of the shot. Rifled small-arm efficiency
+was clearly shown at Kings Mountain during the American Revolution.
+
+In spite of earlier experiments, however, it was not until the 1840's
+that attempts to rifle cannon could be called successful. In 1846,
+Major Cavelli in Italy and Baron Wahrendorff in Germany independently
+produced rifled iron breech-loading cannon. The Cavelli gun had two
+spiral grooves into which fitted the 1/4-inch projecting lugs of a
+long projectile (fig. 12a). Other attempts at what might be called
+rifling were Lancaster's elliptical-bore gun and the later development
+of a spiraling hexagonal-bore by Joseph Whitworth (fig. 12b). The
+English Whitworth was used by Confederate artillery. It was an
+efficient piece, though subject to easy fouling that made it
+dangerous.
+
+Then, in 1855, England's Lord Armstrong designed a rifled breechloader
+that included so many improvements as to be revolutionary. This gun
+was rifled with a large number of grooves and fired lead-coated
+projectiles. Much of its success, however, was due to the built-up
+construction: hoops were shrunk on over the tube, with the fibers of
+the metal running in the directions most suitable for strength.
+Several United States muzzle-loading rifles of built-up construction
+were produced about the same time as the Armstrong and included the
+Chambers (1849), the Treadwell (1855), and the well-known Parrott of
+1861 (figs. 12e and 13).
+
+The German Krupp rifle had an especially successful breech mechanism.
+It was not a built-up gun, but depended on superior crucible steel for
+its strength. Cast steel had been tried as a gunmetal during the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but metallurgical knowledge of
+the early days could not produce sound castings. Steel was also used
+in other mid-nineteenth century rifles, such as the United States
+Wiard gun and the British Blakely, with its swollen, cast-iron breech
+hoop. Fort Pulaski National Monument, near Savannah, Ga., has a fine
+example of a 24-pounder Blakely used by the Confederates in the 1862
+defense of the fort.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12--DEVELOPMENT OF RIFLE PROJECTILES
+(1840-1900). a--Cavelli type, b--Whitworth, c--James, d--Hotchkiss,
+e--Parrott, f--Copper rotating band type. (Not to scale.)]
+
+The United States began intensive experimentation with rifled cannon
+late in the 1850's, and a few rifled pieces were made by the South
+Boston Iron Foundry and also by the West Point Foundry at Cold Spring,
+N. Y. The first appearance of rifles in any quantity, however, was
+near the outset of the 1861 hostilities, when the Federal artillery
+was equipped with 300 wrought-iron 3-inch guns (fig. 14e). This
+"12-pounder," which fired a 10-pound projectile, was made by wrapping
+sheets of boiler iron around a mandrel. The cylinder thus formed was
+heated and passed through the rolls for welding, then cooled, bored,
+turned, and rifled. It remained in service until about 1900. Another
+rifle giving good results was the cast-iron 4-1/2-inch siege gun. This
+piece was cast solid, then bored, turned, and rifled. Uncertainty of
+strength, a characteristic of cast iron, caused its later abandonment.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13--PARROTT 10-POUNDER RIFLE (1864).]
+
+The United States rifle that was most effective in siege work was the
+invention of Robert P. Parrott. His cast-iron guns (fig. 13), many of
+which are seen today in the battlefield parks, are easily recognized
+by the heavy wrought-iron jacket reinforcing the breech. The jacket
+was made by coiling a bar over the mandrel in a spiral, then hammering
+the coils into a welded cylinder. The cylinder was bored and shrunk on
+the gun. Parrotts were founded in 10-, 20-, 30-, 60-, 100-, 200-, and
+300-pounder calibers, one foundry making 1,700 of them during the
+Civil War.
+
+All nations, of course, had large stocks of smoothbores on hand, and
+various methods were devised to make rifles out of them. The U. S.
+Ordnance Board, for instance, believed the conversion simply involved
+cutting grooves in the bore, right at the forts or arsenals where the
+guns were. In 1860, half of the United States artillery was scheduled
+for conversion. As a result, a number of old smoothbores were rebored
+to fire rifle projectiles of the various patents which preceded the
+modern copper rotating band (fig. 12c, d, f). Under the James patent
+(fig. 12c) the weight of metal thrown by a cannon was virtually
+doubled; converted 24-, 32- and 42-pounders fired elongated shot
+classed respectively as 48-, 64-, and 84-pound projectiles. After the
+siege of Fort Pulaski, Federal Gen. Q. A. Gillmore praised the
+84-pounder and declared "no better piece for breaching can be
+desired," but experience soon proved the heavier projectiles caused
+increased pressures which converted guns could not withstand for long.
+
+The early United States rifles had a muzzle velocity about the same as
+the smoothbore, but whereas the round shot of the smoothbore lost
+speed so rapidly that at 2,000 yards its striking velocity was only
+about a third of the muzzle velocity, the more streamlined rifle
+projectile lost speed very slowly. But the rifle had to be served more
+carefully than the smoothbore. Rifling grooves were cleaned with a
+moist sponge, and sometimes oiled with another sponge. Lead-coated
+projectiles like the James, which tended to foul the grooves of the
+piece, made it necessary to scrape the rifle grooves after every half
+dozen shots, although guns using brass-banded projectiles did not
+require the extra operation. With all muzzle-loading rifles, the
+projectile had to be pushed close home to the powder charge;
+otherwise, the blast would not fully expand its rotating band, the
+projectile would not take the grooves, and would "tumble" after
+leaving the gun, to the utter loss of range and accuracy.
+Incidentally, gunners had to "run out" (push the gun into firing
+position) both smoothbore and rifled muzzle-loaders carefully. A
+sudden stop might make the shot start forward as much as 2 feet.
+
+When the U. S. Ordnance Board recommended the conversion to rifles, it
+also recommended that all large caliber iron guns be manufactured on
+the method perfected by Capt. T. J. Rodman, which involved casting the
+gun around a water-cooled core. The inner walls of the gun thus
+solidified first, were compressed by the contraction of the outer
+metal as it cooled down more slowly, and had much greater strength to
+resist explosion of the charge. The Rodman smoothbore, founded in 8-,
+10-, 15-, and 20-inch calibers, was the best cast-iron ordnance of its
+time (fig. 14f). The 20-inch gun, produced in 1864, fired a
+1,080-pound shot. The 15-incher was retained in service through the
+rest of the century, and these monsters are still to be seen at Fort
+McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine or on the ramparts of
+Fort Jefferson, in the national monument of that name, in the Dry
+Tortugas Islands. In later years, a number of 10-inch Rodmans were
+converted into 8-inch rifles by enlarging the bore and inserting a
+grooved steel tube.
+
+
+THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES
+
+At the opening of this civil conflict most of the matériel for both
+armies was of the same type--smoothbore. The various guns included
+weapons in the great masonry fortifications built on the long United
+States coast line since the 1820's--weapons such as the Columbiad, a
+heavy, long-chambered American muzzle-loader of iron, developed from
+its bronze forerunner of 1810. The Columbiad (fig. 14d) was made in
+8-, 10-, and 12-inch calibers and could throw shot and shell well over
+5,000 yards. "New" Columbiads came out of the foundries at the start
+of the 1860's, minus the powder chamber and with smoother lines.
+Behind the parapets or in fort gunrooms were 32- and 42-pounder iron
+seacoast guns (fig. 10); 24-pounder bronze howitzers lay in the
+bastions to flank the long reaches of the fort walls. There were
+8-inch seacoast howitzers for heavier work. The largest caliber piece
+was the ponderous 13-inch seacoast mortar.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14--U. S. ARTILLERY TYPES (1861-1865). a--Siege
+mortar, b--8-inch siege howitzer, c--24-pounder siege gun, d--8-inch
+Columbiad, e--3-inch wrought-iron rifle, f--10-inch Rodman.]
+
+Siege and garrison cannon included 24-pounder and 8-inch bronze
+howitzers (fig. 14b), a 10-inch bronze mortar (fig. 14a), 12-, 18-,
+and 24-pounder iron guns (fig. 14c) and later the 4-1/2-inch cast-iron
+rifle. With the exception of the new 3-inch wrought-iron rifle (fig.
+14e), field artillery cannon were bronze: 6- and 12-pounder guns, the
+12-pounder Napoleon gun-howitzer, 12-pounder mountain howitzer, 12-,
+24-, and 32-pounder field howitzers, and the little Coehorn mortar
+(fig. 39). A machine gun invented by Dr. Richard J. Gatling became
+part of the artillery equipment during the war, but was not much used.
+Reminiscent of the ancient ribaudequin, a repeating cannon of several
+barrels, the Gatling gun could fire about 350 shots a minute from its
+10 barrels, which were rotated and fired by turning a crank. In Europe
+it became more popular than the French mitrailleuse.
+
+The smaller smoothbores were _effective_ with case shot up to about
+600 or 700 yards, and _maximum_ range of field pieces went from
+something less than the 1,566-yard solid-shot trajectory of the
+Napoleon to about 2,600 yards (a mile and a half) for a 6-inch
+howitzer. At Chancellorsville, one of Stonewall Jackson's guns fired a
+shot which bounded down the center of a roadway and came to rest a
+mile away. The performance verified the drill-book tables. Maximum
+ranges of the larger pieces, however, ran all the way from the average
+1,600 yards of an 18-pounder garrison gun to the well over 3-mile
+range of a 12-inch Columbiad firing a 180-pound shell at high
+elevation. A 13-inch seacoast mortar would lob a 200-pound shell 4,325
+yards, or almost 2-1/2 miles. The shell from an 8-inch howitzer
+carried 2,280 yards, but at such extreme ranges the guns could hardly
+be called accurate.
+
+On the battlefield, Napoleon's artillery tactics were no longer
+practical. The infantry, armed with its own comparatively long-range
+firearm, was usually able to keep artillery beyond case-shot range,
+and cannon had to stand off at such long distances that their
+primitive ammunition was relatively ineffective. The result was that
+when attacking infantry moved in, the defending infantry and artillery
+were still fresh and unshaken, ready to pour a devastating point-blank
+fire into the assaulting lines. Thus, in spite of an intensive 2-hour
+bombardment by 138 Confederate guns at the crisis of Gettysburg, as
+the gray-clad troops advanced across the field to close range, double
+canister and concentrated infantry volleys cut them down in masses.
+
+Field artillery smoothbores, under conditions prevailing during the
+war, generally gave better results than the smaller-caliber rifle. A
+3-inch rifle, for instance, had twice the range of a Napoleon; but in
+the broken, heavily wooded country where so much of the fighting took
+place, the superior range of the rifle could not be used to full
+advantage. Neither was its relatively small and sometimes defective
+projectile as damaging to personnel as case or grape from a larger
+caliber smoothbore. At the first battle of Manassas (July 1861) more
+than half the 49 Federal cannon were rifled; but by 1863, even though
+many more rifles were in service, the majority of the pieces in the
+field were still the old reliable 6- and 12-pounder smoothbores.
+
+It was in siege operations that the rifles forced a new era. As the
+smoke cleared after the historic bombardment of Fort Sumter in 1861,
+military men were already speculating on the possibilities of the
+newfangled weapon. A Confederate 12-pounder Blakely had pecked away at
+Sumter with amazing accuracy. But the first really effective use of
+the rifles in siege operations was at Fort Pulaski (1862). Using 10
+rifles and 26 smoothbores, General Gillmore breached the
+7-1/2-foot-thick brick walls in little more than 24 hours. Yet his
+batteries were a mile away from the target! The heavier rifles were
+converted smoothbores, firing 48-, 64-, and 84-pound James projectiles
+that drove into the fort wall from 19 to 26 inches at each fair shot.
+The smoothbore Columbiads could penetrate only 13 inches, while from
+this range the ponderous mortars could hardly hit the fort. A year
+later, Gillmore used 100-, 200-, and 300-pounder Parrott rifles
+against Fort Sumter. The big guns, firing from positions some 2 miles
+away and far beyond the range of the fort guns, reduced Sumter to a
+smoking mass of rubble.
+
+The range and accuracy of the rifles startled the world. A 30-pounder
+(4.2-inch) Parrott had an amazing carry of 8,453 yards with 80-pound
+hollow shot; the notorious "Swamp Angel" that fired on Charleston in
+1863 was a 200-pounder Parrott mounted in the marsh 7,000 yards from
+the city. But strangely enough, neither rifles nor smoothbores could
+destroy earthworks. As was proven several times during the war, the
+defenders of a well-built earthwork were able to repair the trifling
+damage done by enemy fire almost as soon as there was a lull in the
+shooting. Learning this lesson, the determined Confederate defenders
+of Fort Sumter in 1863-64 refused to surrender, but under the most
+difficult conditions converted their ruined masonry into an earthwork
+almost impervious to further bombardment.
+
+
+THE CHANGE INTO MODERN ARTILLERY
+
+With Rodman's gun, the muzzle-loading smoothbore was at the apex of
+its development. Through the years great progress had been made in
+mobility, organization, and tactics. Now a new era was beginning,
+wherein artillery surpassed even the decisive role it had under
+Gustavus Adolphus and Napoleon. In spite of new infantry weapons that
+forced cannon ever farther to the rear, artillery was to become so
+deadly that its fire caused over 75 percent of the battlefield
+casualties in World War I.
+
+Many of the vital changes took place during the latter years of the
+1800's, as rifles replaced the smoothbores. Steel came into universal
+use for gun founding; breech and recoil mechanisms were perfected;
+smokeless powder and high explosives came into the picture. Hardly
+less important was the invention of more efficient sighting and laying
+mechanisms.
+
+The changes did not come overnight. In Britain, after breechloaders
+had been in use almost a decade, the ordnance men went back to
+muzzle-loading rifles; faulty breech mechanisms caused too many
+accidents. Not until one of H.M.S. _Thunderer's_ guns was
+inadvertently double-loaded did the English return to an improved
+breechloader.
+
+The steel breechloaders of the Prussians, firing two rounds a minute
+with a percussion shell that broke into about 30 fragments, did much
+to defeat the French (1870-71). At Sedan, the greatest artillery
+battle fought prior to 1914, the Prussians used 600 guns to smother
+the French army. So thoroughly did these guns do their work that the
+Germans annihilated the enemy at the cost of only 5 percent
+casualties. It was a demonstration of using great masses of guns,
+bringing them quickly into action to destroy the hostile artillery,
+then thoroughly "softening up" enemy resistance in preparation for the
+infantry attack. While the technical progress of the Prussian
+artillery was considerable, it was offset in large degree by the
+counter-development of field entrenchment.
+
+As the technique of forging large masses of steel improved, most
+nations adopted built-up (reinforcing hoops over a steel tube) or
+wire-wrapped steel construction for their cannon. With the advent of
+the metal cartridge case and smokeless powder, rapid-fire guns came
+into use. The new powder, first used in the Russo-Turkish War
+(1877-78), did away with the thick white curtain of smoke that plagued
+the gunner's aim, and thus opened the way for production of mechanisms
+to absorb recoil and return the gun automatically to firing position.
+Now, gunners did not have to lay the piece after every shot, and the
+rate of fire increased. Shields appeared on the gun--protection that
+would have been of little value in the days when gunners had to stand
+clear of a back-moving carriage.
+
+During the early 1880's the United States began work on a modern
+system of seacoast armament. An 8-inch breech-loading rifle was built
+in 1883, and the disappearing carriage, giving more protection to both
+gun and crew, was adopted in 1886. Only a few of the weapons were
+installed by 1898; but fortunately the overwhelming naval superiority
+of the United States helped bring the War with Spain to a quick close.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15--Ranges.]
+
+During this war, United States forces were equipped with a number of
+British 2.95-inch mountain rifles, which, incidentally, served as late
+as World War II in the pack artillery of the Philippine Scouts.
+Within the next few years the antiquated pieces such as the 3-inch
+wrought-iron rifle, the 4.2-inch Parrott siege gun, converted Rodmans,
+and the 15-inch Rodman smoothbore were finally pushed out of the
+picture by new steel guns. There were small-caliber rapid-fire guns of
+different types, a Hotchkiss 1.65-inch mountain rifle, and Hotchkiss
+and Gatling machine guns. The basic pieces in field artillery were
+3.2- and 3.6-inch guns and a 3.6-inch mortar. Siege artillery included
+a 5-inch gun, 7-inch howitzers, and mortars. In seacoast batteries
+were 8-, 10-, 12-, 14-, and 16-inch guns and 12-inch mortars of the
+primary armament; intermediate rapid-fire guns of 4-, 4.72-, 5-, and
+6-inch calibers; and 6- and 15-pounder rapid-fire guns in the
+secondary armament.
+
+The Japanese showed the value of the French system of indirect laying
+(aiming at a target not visible to the gunner) during the
+Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). Meanwhile, the French 75-mm. gun of
+1897, firing 6,000 yards, made all other field artillery cannon
+obsolete. In essence, artillery had assumed the modern form. The next
+changes were wrought by startling advances in motor transport, signal
+communications, chemical warfare, tanks, aviation, and mass
+production.
+
+
+
+
+GUNPOWDER
+
+
+Black powder was used in all firearms until smokeless and other type
+propellants were invented in the latter 1800's. "Black" powder (which
+was sometimes brown) is a mixture of about 75 parts saltpeter
+(potassium nitrate), 15 parts charcoal, and 10 parts sulphur by
+weight. It will explode because the mixture contains the necessary
+amount of oxygen for its own combustion. When it burns, it liberates
+smoky gases (mainly nitrogen and carbon dioxide) that occupy some 300
+times as much space as the powder itself.
+
+Early European powder "recipes" called for equal parts of the three
+ingredients, but gradually the amount of saltpeter was increased until
+Tartaglia reported the proportions to be 4-1-1. By the late 1700's
+"common war powder" was made 6-1-1, and not until the next century was
+the formula refined to the 75-15-10 composition in majority use when
+the newer propellants arrived on the scene.
+
+As the name suggests, this explosive was originally in the form of
+powder or dust. The primitive formula burned slowly and gave low
+pressures--fortunate characteristics in view of the barrel-stave
+construction of the early cannon. About 1450, however, powder makers
+began to "corn" the powder. That is, they formed it into larger
+grains, with a resulting increase in the velocity of the shot. It was
+"corned" in fine grains for small arms and coarse for cannon.
+
+Making corned powder was fairly simple. The three ingredients were
+pulverized and mixed, then compressed into cakes which were cut into
+"corns" or grains. Rolling the grains in a barrel polished off the
+corners; removing the dust essentially completed the manufacture. It
+has always been difficult, however, to make powder twice alike and
+keep it in condition, two factors which helped greatly to make gunnery
+an "art" in the old days. Powder residue in the gun was especially
+troublesome, and a disk-like tool (fig. 44) was designed to scrape the
+bore. Artillerymen at Castillo de San Marcos complained that the
+"heavy" powder from Mexico was especially bad, for after a gun was
+fired a few times, the bore was so fouled that cannonballs would no
+longer fit. The gunners called loudly for better grade powder from
+Spain itself.
+
+How much powder to use in a gun has been a moot question through the
+centuries. According to the Spaniard Collado in 1592, the proper
+yardstick was the amount of metal in the gun. A legitimate culverin,
+for instance, was "rich" enough in metal to take as much powder as the
+ball weighed. Thus, a 30-pounder culverin would get 30 pounds of
+powder. Since a 60-pounder battering cannon, however, had in
+proportion a third less metal than the culverin, the charge must also
+be reduced by a third--to 40 pounds!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16--GUNPOWDER. Black powder (above) is a
+mechanical mixture; modern propellants are chemical compounds.]
+
+Other factors had to be taken into account, such as whether the powder
+was coarse-or fine-grained; and a short gun got less powder than a
+long one. The bore length of a legitimate culverin, said Collado, was
+30 calibers (30 times the bore diameter), so its powder charge was the
+same as the weight of the ball. If the gunner came across a culverin
+only 24 calibers long, he must load this piece with only 24/30 of the
+ball's weight. Collado's _pasavolante_ had a tremendous length of some
+40 calibers and fired a 6- or 7-pound lead ball. Because it had plenty
+of metal "to resist, and the length to burn" the powder, it was
+charged with the full weight of the ball in fine powder, or
+three-fourths as much with cannon powder. The lightest charge seems to
+have been for the pedrero, which fired a stone ball. Its charge was a
+third of the stone's weight.
+
+In later years, powder charges lessened for all guns. English velocity
+tables of the 1750's show that a 9-pounder charged with 2-1/4 pounds
+of powder might produce its ball at a rate of 1,052 feet per second.
+By almost tripling the charge, the velocity would increase about half.
+But the increase did not mean the shot hit the target 50 percent
+harder, for the higher the velocity, the greater was the air
+resistance; or as Müller phrased it: "a great quantity of Powder does
+not always produce a greater effect." Thus, from two-thirds the ball's
+weight, standard charges dropped to one-third or even a quarter; and
+by the 1800's they became even smaller. The United States manual of
+1861 specified 6 to 8 pounds for a 24-pounder siege gun, depending on
+the range; a Columbiad firing 172-pound shot used only 20 pounds of
+powder. At Fort Sumter, Gillmore's rifles firing 80-pound shells used
+10 pounds of powder. The rotating band on the rifle shell, of course,
+stopped the gases that had slipped by the loose-fitting cannonball.
+
+Black powder was, and is, both dangerous and unstable. Not only is it
+sensitive to flame or spark, but it absorbs moisture from the air. In
+other words, it was no easy matter to "keep your powder dry." During
+the middle 1700's, Spaniards on a Florida river outpost kept powder in
+glass bottles; earlier soldiers, fleeing into the humid forest before
+Sir Francis Drake, carried powder in _peruleras_--stoppered,
+narrow-necked pitchers.
+
+As for magazines, a dry magazine was just about as important as a
+shell-proof one. Charcoal and chloride of lime, hung in containers
+near the ceiling, were early used as dehydrators, and in the
+eighteenth century standard English practice was to build the floor 2
+feet off the ground and lay stone chips or "dry sea coals" under the
+flooring. Side walls had air holes for ventilation, but screened to
+prevent the enemy from letting in some small animal with fire tied to
+his tail. Powder casks were laid on their sides and periodically
+rolled to a different position; "otherwise," explains a contemporary
+expert, "the salt petre, being the heaviest ingredient, will descend
+into the lower part of the barrel, and the powder above will lose much
+of its goodness."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 17--SPANISH POWDER BUCKET (c. 1750).]
+
+In the dawn of artillery, loose powder was brought to the gun in a
+covered bucket, usually made of leather. The loader scooped up the
+proper amount with a ladle (fig. 44), and inserted it into the gun. He
+could, by using his experienced judgment, put in just enough powder to
+give him the range he wanted, much as our modern artillerymen
+sometimes use only a portion of their charge. After Gustavus Adolphus
+in the 1630's, however, powder bags came into wide use, although
+English gunners long preferred to ladle their powder. The powder
+bucket or "passing box" of course remained on the scene. It was
+usually large enough to hold a pair of cartridge bags.
+
+The root of the word cartridge seems to be "carta," meaning paper. But
+paper was only one of many materials such as canvas, linen, parchment,
+flannel, the "woolen stuff" of the 1860's, and even wood. Until the
+advent of the silk cartridge, nothing was entirely satisfactory. The
+materials did not burn completely, and after several rounds it was
+mandatory to withdraw the unburnt bag ends with a wormer (fig. 44),
+else they accumulated to the point where they blocked the vent or
+"touch hole" by which the piece was fired. Parchment bags shriveled up
+and stuck in the vent, purpling many a good gunner's face.
+
+
+PRIMERS
+
+When the powder bag came into use, the gunner had to prick the bag
+open so the priming fire from the vent could reach the charge. The
+operation was accomplished simply enough by plunging the gunner's pick
+into the vent far enough to pierce the bag. Then the vent was primed
+with loose powder from the gunner's flask. The vent prime, which was
+not much improved until the nineteenth century, was a trick learned
+from the fourteenth century Venetians. There were numerous tries for
+improvement, such as the powder-filled tin tube of the 1700's, the
+point of which pierced the powder bag. But for all of them, the slow
+match had to be used to start the fire train.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 18--LINSTOCKS.]
+
+Before 1800, the slow match was in universal use for setting off the
+charge. The match was usually a 3-strand cotton rope, soaked in a
+solution of saltpeter and otherwise chemically treated with lead
+acetate and lye to burn very slowly--about 4 or 5 inches an hour. It
+was attached to a linstock (fig. 18), a forked stick long enough to
+keep the cannoneer out of the way of the recoil.
+
+Chemistry advances, like the isolation of mercury fulminate in 1800,
+led to the invention of the percussion cap and other primers. On many
+a battleground you may have picked up a scrap of twisted wire--the
+loop of a friction primer. The device was a copper tube (fig. 19)
+filled with powder. The tube went into the vent of the cannon and
+buried its tip in the powder charge. Near the top of this tube was
+soldered a "spur"--a short tube containing a friction composition
+(antimony sulphide and potassium chlorate). Lying in the composition
+was the roughened end of a wire "slider." The other end of the slider
+was twisted into a loop for hooking to the gunner's lanyard. It was
+like striking a match: a smart pull on the lanyard, and the rough
+slider ignited the composition. Then the powder in the long tube began
+to burn and fired the charge in the cannon. Needless to say, it
+happened faster than we can tell it!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 19--FRICTION PRIMER.]
+
+The percussion primer was even more simple: a "quill tube," filled
+with fine powder, fitted into the vent. A fulminate cap was glued to
+the top of the tube. A pull of the lanyard caused the hammer of the
+cannon to strike the cap (just like a little boy's cap pistol) and
+start the train of explosions.
+
+Because the early methods of priming left the vent open when the
+cannon fired, the little hole tended to enlarge. Many cannon during
+the 1800's were made with two vents, side by side. When the first one
+wore out, it was plugged, and the second vent opened. Then, to stop
+this "erosion," the obturating (sealing) primer came into use. It was
+like the common friction primer, but screwed into and sealed the vent.
+Early electric primers, by the way, were no great departure from the
+friction primer; the wires fired a bit of guncotton, which in turn
+ignited the powder in the primer tube.
+
+
+MODERN USE OF BLACK POWDER
+
+Aside from gradual improvement in the formula, no great change in
+powder making came until 1860, when Gen. Thomas J. Rodman of the U. S.
+Ordnance Department began to tailor the powder to the caliber of the
+gun. The action of ordinary cannon powder was too sudden. The whole
+charge was consumed before the projectile had fairly started on its
+way, and the strain on the gun was terrific. Rodman compressed powder
+into disks that fitted the bore of the gun. The disks were an inch or
+two thick, and pierced with holes. With this arrangement, a minimum of
+powder surface was exposed at the beginning of combustion, but as the
+fire ate the holes larger (compare fig. 20f), the burning area
+actually increased, producing a greater volume of gas as the
+projectile moved forward. Rodman thus laid the foundation for the
+"progressive burning" pellets of modern powders (fig. 20).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 20--MODERN GANNON POWDER. A powder grain has the
+characteristics of an explosive only when it is confined. Modern
+_propellants_ are low explosives (that is, relatively slow burning),
+but _projectiles_ may be loaded with high explosive, a--Flake,
+b--Strip, c--Pellet, d--Single perforation, e--Standard,
+7-perforation, f--Burning grain of 7-perforation type. Ideally, the
+powder grain should burn progressively, with continuously increasing
+surface, the grain being completely consumed by the time the
+projectile leaves the bore, g--Walsh grain.]
+
+For a number of reasons General Rodman did not take his "perforated
+cake cartridge" beyond the experimental stage, and his "Mammoth"
+powder, such a familiar item in the powder magazines of the latter
+1800's, was a compromise. As a block of wood burns steadier and longer
+than a quick-blazing pile of twigs, so the 3/4-inch grains of mammoth
+powder gave a "softer" explosion, but one with more "push" and more
+uniform pressure along the bore of the gun.
+
+It was in the second year of the Civil War that Alfred Nobel started
+the manufacture of nitroglycerin explosives in Europe. Smokeless
+powders came into use, the explosive properties of picric acid were
+discovered, and melanite, ballistite, and cordite appeared in the last
+quarter of the century, so that by 1890 nitrocellulose and
+nitroglycerin-base powders had generally replaced black powder as a
+propellant.
+
+Still, black powder had many important uses. Its sensitivity to flame,
+high rate of combustion, and high temperature of explosion made it a
+very suitable igniter or "booster," to insure the complete ignition of
+the propellant. Further, it was the main element in such modern
+projectile fuzes as the ring fuze of the U. S. Field Artillery, which
+was long standard for bursts shorter than 25 seconds. This fuze was in
+the nose of the shell and consisted essentially of a plunger, primer,
+and rings grooved to hold a 9-inch train of compressed black powder.
+To set the fuze, the fuze man merely turned a movable ring to the
+proper time mark. Turning the zero mark toward the channel leading to
+the shell's bursting charge shortened the burning distance of the
+train, while turning zero away from the channel, of course, did the
+opposite. When the projectile left the gun, the shock made the plunger
+ignite the primer (compare fig. 42e) and fire the powder train, which
+then burned for the set time before reaching the shell charge. It was
+a technical improvement over the tubular sheet-iron fuze of the
+Venetians, but the principle was about the same.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 21--MODERN POWDER TRAIN FUZE.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CANNON
+
+
+THE EARLY SMOOTHBORE CANNON
+
+Soon after he found he could hurl a rock with his good right arm, man
+learned about trajectory--the curved path taken by a missile through
+the air. A baseball describes a "flat" trajectory every time the
+pitcher throws a hard, fast one. Youngsters tossing the ball to each
+other over a tall fence use "curved" or "high" trajectory. In
+artillery, where trajectory is equally important, there are three main
+types of cannon: (1) the flat trajectory gun, throwing shot at the
+target in relatively level flight; (2) the high trajectory mortar,
+whose shell will clear high obstacles and descend upon the target from
+above; and (3) the howitzer, an in-between piece of medium-high
+trajectory, combining the mobility of the fieldpiece with the large
+caliber of the mortar.
+
+The Spaniard, Luis Collado, mathematician, historian, native of
+Lebrija in Andalusia, and, in 1592, royal engineer of His Catholic
+Majesty's Army in Lombardy and Piedmont, defined artillery broadly as
+"a machine of infinite importance." Ordnance he divided into three
+classes, admittedly following the rules of the "German masters, who
+were admired above any other nation for their founding and handling of
+artillery." Culverins and sakers (Fig. 23a) were guns of the first
+class, designed to strike the enemy from long range. The battering
+cannon (fig. 23b) were second class pieces; they were to destroy forts
+and walls and dismount the enemy's machines. Third class guns fired
+stone balls to break and sink ships and defend batteries from assault;
+such guns included the pedrero, mortar, and bombard (fig. 23c, d).
+
+Collado's explanation of how the various guns were invented is perhaps
+naive, but nevertheless interesting: "Although the main intent of the
+inventors of this machine [artillery] was to fire and offend the enemy
+from both near and afar, since this offense must be in diverse ways it
+so happened that they formed various classes in this manner: they came
+to realize that men were not satisfied with the _espingardas_ [small
+Moorish cannon], and for this reason the musket was made; and likewise
+the _esmeril_ and the falconet. And although these fired longer shots,
+they made the demisaker. To remedy a defect of that, the sakers were
+made, and the demiculverins and culverins. While they were deemed
+sufficient for making a long shot and striking the enemy from afar,
+they were of little use as battering guns because they fire a small
+ball. So they determined to found a second kind of piece, wherewith,
+firing balls of much greater weight, they might realize their
+intention. But discovering likewise that this second kind of piece was
+too powerful, heavy and costly for batteries and for defense against
+assaults or ships and galleys, they made a third class of piece,
+lighter in metal and taking less powder, to fire balls of stone. These
+are the commonly called _cañones de pedreros_. All the classes of
+pieces are different in range, manufacture and design. Even the method
+of charging them is different."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 22--TRAJECTORIES. Maximum range of eighteenth
+century guns was about 1 mile.
+
+_Guns could:_ Batter heavy construction with solid shot at long or
+short range; destroy fort parapets and, by ricochet fire, dismount
+cannon; shoot grape, canister, or bombs against massed personnel.
+
+_Mortars could:_ Reach targets behind obstructions; use high angle
+fire to shoot bombs, destroying construction and personnel.
+
+_Howitzers could:_ Move more easily in the field than mortars; reach
+targets behind obstructions by high angle fire; shoot larger
+projectiles than could field guns of similar weight.]
+
+It was most important for the artillerist to understand the different
+classes of guns. As Collado quaintly phrased it, "he who ignores the
+present lecture on this _arte_ will, I assert, never do a good thing."
+Cannon burst in the batteries every day because gunners were ignorant
+of how the gun was made and what it was meant to do. Nor was such
+ignorance confined to gunners alone. The will and whim of the prince
+who ordered the ordnance or "the simple opinion of the unexpert
+founder himself," were the guiding principles in gun founding. "I am
+forced," wrote Collado, "to persuade the princes and advise the
+founders that the making of artillery should always take into account
+the purpose each piece must serve." This persuasion he undertook in
+considerable detail.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 23--SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ARTILLERY. Taken
+from a 1592 manuscript, these drawings illustrate the three main
+classes of artillery used by Spain during the early colonial period in
+the New World, a--Culverin (Class 1). b--Cannon (Class 2). c--Pedrero
+(Class 3). d--Mortar (Class 3).]
+
+The first class of guns were the long-range pieces, comparatively
+"rich" in metal. In the following table from Collado, the calibers and
+ranges for most Spanish guns of this class are given, although as the
+second column shows, at this period calibers were standardized only in
+a general way. For translation where possible, and to list those
+which became the most popular calibers, we have added a final column.
+Most of the guns were probably of culverin length: 30- to 32-caliber.
+
+_Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the first class_
+
+  Name of       Weight of    Length      Range in yards    Popular
+    gun          ball        of gun      Point-  Maximum   caliber
+                (pounds)  (in calibers)  blank
+
+  Esmeril          1/2                    208      750  1/2-pounder
+                                                            esmeril.
+  Falconete      1 to  2                                  1-pounder
+                                                            falconet.
+  Falcón         3 to  4                  417    2,500    3-pounder
+                                                            falcon.
+  Pasavolante    1 to 15    40 to 44      500    4,166    6-pounder
+                                                            pasavolante.
+  Media sacre    5 to  7                  417    3,750    6-pounder
+                                                            demisaker.
+  Sacre          7 to 10                                  9-pounder
+                                                            saker.
+  Moyana         8 to 10   shorter than                   9-pounder
+                              saker                         moyenne.
+  Media
+    culebrina   10 to 18                  833    5,000   12-pounder
+                                                            demiculverin.
+  Tercio de
+    culebrina   14 to 22                                 18-pounder
+                                                           third-culverin.
+  Culebrina   20, 24, 25,   30 to 32    1,742    6,666   24-pounder
+                                                            culverin.
+              30, 40, 50
+  Culebrina
+    real        24 to 40    30 to 32                     32-pounder
+                                                           culverin royal.
+  Doble
+    culebrina   40 and up   30 to 32                     48-pounder
+                                                            culverin.
+
+In view of the range Collado ascribes to the culverin, some remarks on
+gun performances are in order. "Greatest random" was what the old-time
+gunner called his maximum range, and random it was. Beyond point-blank
+range, the gunner was never sure of hitting his target. So with
+smoothbores, long range was never of great importance. Culverins, with
+their thick walls, long bores, and heavy powder charges, achieved
+distance; but second class guns like field "cannon," with less metal
+and smaller charges, ranged about 1,600 yards at a maximum, while the
+effective range was hardly more than 500. Heavier pieces, such as the
+French 33-pounder battering cannon, might have a point-blank range of
+720 yards; at 200-yard range its ball would penetrate from 12 to 24
+feet of earthwork, depending on how "poor and hungry" the earth was.
+At 130 yards a Dutch 48-pounder cannon put a ball 20 feet into a
+strong earth rampart, while from 100 yards a 24-pounder siege cannon
+would bury the ball 12 feet.
+
+But generalizations on early cannon are difficult, for it is not easy
+to find two "mathematicians" of the old days whose ordnance lists
+agree. Spanish guns of the late 1500's do, however, appear to be
+larger in caliber than pieces of similar name in other countries, as
+is shown by comparing the culverins: the smallest Spanish _culebrina_
+was a 20-pounder, but the French great _coulevrine_ of 1551 was a
+15-pounder and the typical English culverin of that century was an
+18-pounder. Furthermore, midway of the 1500's, Henry II greatly
+simplified French ordnance by holding his artillery down to the
+33-pounder cannon, 15-pounder great culverin, 7-1/2-pounder bastard
+culverin, 2-pounder small culverin, a 1-pounder falcon, and a
+1/2-pounder falconet. Therefore, any list like the one following must
+have its faults:
+
+_Principal English guns of the sixteenth century_
+
+                       Caliber   Length     Weight   Weight    Powder
+                       (inches)             of gun   of shot   charge
+                                Ft.  In.   (pounds)  (pounds)  (pounds)
+
+  Rabinet               1.0                   300       0.3       0.18
+  Serpentine            1.5                   400        .5        .3
+  Falconet              2.0      3    9       500       1.0        .4
+  Falcon                2.5      6    0       680       2.0       1.2
+  Minion                3.5      6    6     1,050       5.2       3
+  Saker                 3.65     6   11     1,400       6         4
+  Culverin bastard      4.56     8    6     3,000      11         5.7
+  Demiculverin          4.0                 3,400       8         6
+  Basilisk              5.0                 4,000      14         9
+  Culverin              5.2     10   11     4,840      18        12
+  Pedrero               6.0                 3,800      26        14
+  Demicannon            6.4     11    0     4,000      32        18
+  Bastard cannon        7.0                 4,500      42        20
+  Cannon serpentine     7.0                 5,500      42        25
+  Cannon                8.0                 6,000      60        27
+  Cannon royal          8.54     8    6     8,000      74        30
+
+Like many gun names, the word "culverin" has a metaphorical meaning.
+It derives from the Latin _colubra_ (snake). Similarly, the light gun
+called _áspide_ or aspic, meaning "asp-like," was named after the
+venomous asp. But these digressions should not obscure the fact that
+both culverins and demiculverins were highly esteemed on account of
+their range and the effectiveness of fire. They were used for
+precision shooting such as building demolition, and an expert gunner
+could cut out a section of stone wall with these guns in short order.
+
+As the fierce falcon hawk gave its name to the falcon and falconet, so
+the saker was named for the saker hawk; rabinet, meaning "rooster,"
+was therefore a suitable name for the falcon's small-bore cousin. The
+9-pounder saker served well in any military enterprise, and the
+_moyana_ (or the French _moyenne_, "middle-sized"), being a shorter
+gun of saker caliber, was a good naval piece. The most powerful of the
+smaller pieces, however, was the _pasavolante_, distinguishable by its
+great length. It was between 40 and 44 calibers long! In addition, it
+had thicker walls than any other small caliber gun, and the
+combination of length and weight permitted an unusually heavy
+charge--as much powder as the ball weighed. A 6-pound lead ball was
+what the typical _pasavolante_ fired; another gun of the same caliber
+firing an iron ball would be a 4-pounder. The point-blank range of
+this Spanish gun was a football field's length farther than either the
+falcon or demisaker.
+
+In today's Spanish, _pasavolante_ means "fast action," a phrase
+suggestive of the vicious impetuosity to be expected from such a small
+but powerful cannon. Sometimes it was termed a _drajón_, the English
+equivalent of which may be the drake, meaning "dragon"; but perhaps
+its most popular name in the early days was _cerbatana_, from Cerebus,
+the fierce three-headed dog of mythology. Strange things happen to
+words: a _cerbatana_ in modern Spanish is a pea shooter.
+
+_Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the second class_
+
+  Spanish name             Weight of ball      Translation
+                              (pounds)
+
+  Quarto cañon                9 to 12          Quarter-cannon.
+  Tercio cañon                16               Third-cannon.
+  Medio cañon                 24               Demicannon.
+  Cañon de abatir             32               Siege cannon.
+  Doble cañon                 48               Double cannon.
+  Cañon de batería            60               Battering cannon.
+  Serpentino                                   Serpentine.
+  Quebrantamuro or lombarda   70 to 90         Wallbreaker or lombard.
+  Basilisco                   80 and up        Basilisk.
+
+The second class of guns were the only ones properly called "cannon"
+in this early period. They were siege and battering pieces, and in
+some few respects were similar to the howitzers of later years. A
+typical Spanish cannon was only about two-thirds as long as a
+culverin, and the bore walls were thinner. Naturally, the powder
+charge was also reduced (half the ball's weight for a common cannon,
+while a culverin took double that amount).
+
+The Germans made their light cannon 18 calibers long. Most Spanish
+siege and battering guns had this same proportion, for a shorter gun
+would not burn all the powder efficiently, "which," said Collado, "is
+a most grievous fault." However, small cannon of 18-caliber length
+were too short; the muzzle blast tended to destroy the embrasure of
+the parapet. For this reason, Spanish demicannon were as long as 24
+calibers and the quarter-cannon ran up to 28. The 12-pounder
+quarter-cannon, incidentally, was "culverined" or reinforced so that
+it actually served in the field as a demiculverin.
+
+The great weight of its projectile gave the double cannon its name.
+The warden of the Castillo at Milan had some 130-pounders made, but
+such huge pieces were of little use, except in permanent
+fortifications. It took a huge crew to move them, their carriages
+broke under the concentrated weight, and they consumed mountains of
+munitions. The lombard, which apparently originated in Lombardy, and
+the basilisk had the same disadvantages. The fabled basilisk was a
+serpent whose very look was fatal. Its namesake in bronze was
+tremendously heavy, with walls up to 4 calibers thick and a bore up to
+30 calibers long. It was seldom used by the Europeans, but the Turkish
+General Mustafa had a pair of basilisks at the siege of Malta, in
+1565, that fired 150- and 200-pound balls. The 200-pounder gun broke
+loose as it was being transferred to a homeward bound galley and sank
+permanently to the bottom of the sea. Its mate was left on the island,
+where it became an object of great curiosity.
+
+The third class of ordnance included the guns firing stone
+projectiles, such as the pedrero (or perrier, petrary, cannon petro,
+etc.), the mortars, and the old bombards like Edinburgh Castle's
+famous Mons Meg. Bars of wrought iron were welded together to form
+Meg's tube, and iron rings were clamped around the outside of the
+piece. In spite of many accidents, this coopering technique persisted
+through the fifteenth century. Mons Meg was made in two sections that
+screwed together, forming a piece 13 feet long and 5 tons in weight.
+
+Pedreros (fig. 23c) were comparatively light. The foundryman used only
+half the metal he would put into a culverin, for the stone projectile
+weighed only a third as much as an iron ball of the same size, and the
+bore walls could therefore be comparatively thin. They were made in
+calibers up to 50-pounders. There was a chamber for the powder charge
+and little danger of the gun's bursting, unless a foolhardy fellow
+loaded it with an iron ball. The wall thicknesses of this gun are
+shown in Figure 24, where the inner circle represents the diameter of
+the chamber, the next arc the bore caliber, and the outer lines the
+respective diameters at chase, trunnions, and vent.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 24--HOW MUCH METAL WAS IN EARLY GUNS? The charts
+compare the wall diameters of sixteenth-seventeenth century types. The
+center circle represents the bore, while the three outer arcs show the
+relative thickness of the bore wall at (1) the smallest diameter of
+the chase, (2) at the trunnions, and (3) at the vent. The small arc
+inside the bore indicates the powder chamber found in the pedrero and
+mortar.]
+
+Mortars (fig. 23d) were excellent for "putting great fear and terror
+in the souls of the besieged." Every night the mortars would play upon
+the town: "it keeps them in constant turmoil, due to the thought that
+some ball will fall upon their house." Mortars were designed like
+pedreros, except much shorter. The convenient way to charge them was
+with _saquillos_ (small bags) of powder. "They require," said Collado,
+"a larger mouthful than any other pieces."
+
+Just as children range from slight to stocky in the same family, there
+are light, medium, or heavy guns--all bearing the same family name.
+The difference lies in how the piece was "fortified"; that is, how
+thick the founder cast the bore walls. The English language has
+inelegantly descriptive terms for the three degrees of
+"fortification": (1) bastard, (2) legitimate, and (3)
+double-fortified. The thicker-walled guns used more powder. Spanish
+double-fortified culverins were charged with the full weight of the
+ball in powder; four-fifths that amount went into the legitimate, and
+only two-thirds for the bastard culverin. In a short culverin (say, 24
+calibers long instead of 30), the gunner used 24/30 of a standard
+charge.
+
+The yardstick for fortifying a gun was its caliber. In a legitimate
+culverin of 6-inch caliber, for instance, the bore wall at the vent
+might be one caliber (16/16 of the bore diameter) or 6 inches thick;
+at the trunnions it would be 10/16 or 4-1/8 inches, and at the
+smallest diameter of the chase, 7/16 or 2-5/8 inches. This table
+compares the three degrees of fortification used in Spanish culverins:
+
+                                            Wall thickness
+                                           in 8ths of caliber
+                                         Vent   Trunnion  Chase
+
+  Bastard culverin                         7     5        3
+  Legitimate culverin                      8     5-1/2    3-1/2
+  Double-fortified culverin                9     6-1/2    4
+
+As with culverins, so with cannon. This is Collado's table showing the
+fortification for Spanish cannon:
+
+                                            Wall thickness
+                                           in 8ths of caliber
+                                         Vent   Trunnion  Chase
+  Cañon sencillo (light cannon)           6       4-1/2   2-1/2
+  Cañon común (common cannon)             7       5       3-1/2
+  Cañon reforzado (reinforced cannon)     8       5-1/2   3-1/2
+
+Since cast iron was weaker than bronze, the walls of cast-iron pieces
+were even thicker than the culverins. Spanish iron guns were founded
+with 300 pounds of metal for each pound of the ball, and in lengths
+from 18 to 20 calibers. English, Irish, and Swedish iron guns of the
+period, Collado noted, had slightly more metal in them than even the
+Spaniards recommended.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 25--SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHAMBERED CANNON.
+a--"Bell-chambered" demicannon, b--Chambered demicannon.]
+
+Another way the designers tried to gain strength without loading the
+gun with metal was by using a powder chamber. A chambered cannon (fig.
+25b) might be fortified like either the light or the common cannon,
+but it would have a cylindrical chamber about two-thirds of a caliber
+in diameter and four calibers long. It was not always easy, however,
+to get the powder into the chamber. Collado reported that many a good
+artillerist dumped the powder almost in the middle of the gun. When
+his ladle hit the mouth of the chamber, he thought he was at the
+bottom of the bore! The cylindrical chamber was somewhat improved by a
+cone-shaped taper, which the Spaniards called _encampanado_ or
+"bell-chambered." A _cañon encampanado_ (fig. 25a) was a good
+long-range gun, strong, yet light. But it was hard to cut a ladle for
+the long, tapered chamber.
+
+Of all these guns, the reinforced cannon was one of the best. Since it
+had almost as much metal as a culverin, it lacked the defects of the
+chambered pieces. A 60-pounder reinforced cannon fired a convenient
+55-pound ball, was easy to move, load, and clean, and held up well
+under any kind of service. It cooled quickly. Either cannon powder or
+fine powder (up to two-thirds the ball's weight) could be used in it.
+Reinforced cannon were an important factor in any enterprise, as King
+Philip's famed "Twelve Apostles" proved during the Flanders wars.
+
+            _Fortification of sixteenth and seventeenth century guns_
+
+  ------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------
+                          ¦  Thickness of bore wall ¦
+                          ¦  in 8ths of the caliber ¦
+        Spanish Guns      +-------+---------+-------+   English guns
+                          ¦ Vent  ¦Trunnions¦ Chase ¦
+  ------------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------------------
+                          ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦
+  Light cannon;           ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦
+    bell-chambered cannon ¦  6    ¦  4-1/2  ¦ 2-1/2 ¦      Bastard cannon.
+  Demicannon              ¦  6    ¦    5    ¦ 3     ¦
+  Common cannon; common   ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦
+    siege cannon          ¦  7    ¦    5    ¦ 3-1/2 ¦
+  Light culverin; common  ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦
+    battering cannon      ¦  7    ¦    5    ¦ 3     ¦    Bastard culverin;
+                          ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦   legitimate cannon.
+  Common culverin;        ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦
+  reinforced cannon       ¦  8    ¦  5-1/2  ¦ 3-1/2 ¦ Legitimate culverin;
+                          ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦     double-fortified
+                          ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦              cannon.
+  Legitimate culverin     ¦  9    ¦  6-1/2  ¦ 4     ¦     Double-fortified
+                          ¦       ¦         ¦       ¦            culverin.
+  Cast-iron cannon        ¦ 10    ¦  8      ¦ 5     ¦
+  Pasavolante             ¦ 11-1/2¦  8-1/2  ¦ 5-1/2 ¦
+  ------------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------------------
+
+While there was little real progress in mobility until the days of
+Gustavus Adolphus, the wheeled artillery carriage seems to have been
+invented by the Venetians in the fifteenth century. The essential
+parts of the design were early established: two large, heavy cheeks or
+side pieces set on an axle and connected by transoms. The gun was
+cradled between the cheeks, the rear ends of which formed a "trail"
+for stabilizing and maneuvering the piece.
+
+Wheels were perhaps the greatest problem. As early as the 1500's
+carpenters and wheelwrights were debating whether dished wheels were
+best. "They say," reported Collado, "that the [dished] wheel will
+never twist when the artillery is on the march. Others say that a
+wheel with spokes angled beyond the cask cannot carry the weight of
+the piece without twisting the spoke, so the wheel does not last long.
+I am of the same opinion, for it is certain that a perpendicular wheel
+will suffer more weight than the other. The defect of twisting under
+the pieces when on the march will be remedied by making the cart a
+little wider than usual." However, advocates of the dished wheel
+finally won.
+
+
+SMOOTHBORES OF THE LATER PERIOD
+
+From the guns of Queen Elizabeth's time came the 6-, 9-, 12-, 18-,
+24-, 32-, and 42-pounder classifications adopted by Cromwell's
+government and used by the English well through the eighteenth
+century. On the Continent, during much of this period, the French were
+acknowledged leaders. Louis XIV (1643-1715) brought several foreign
+guns into his ordnance, standardizing a set of calibers (4-, 8-, 12-,
+16-, 24-, 32-, and 48-pounders) quite different from Henry II's in the
+previous century.
+
+The cannon of the late 1600's was an ornate masterpiece of the
+foundryman's art, covered with escutcheons, floral relief, scrolls,
+and heavy moldings, the most characteristic of which was perhaps the
+banded muzzle (figs. 23b-c, 25, 26a-b), that bulbous bit of
+ornamentation which had been popular with designers since the days of
+the bombards. The flared or bell-shaped muzzle (figs. 23a, 26c, 27),
+did not supplant the banded muzzle until the eighteenth century, and,
+while the flaring bell is a usual characteristic of ordnance founded
+between 1730 and 1830, some banded-muzzle guns were made as late as
+1746 (fig. 26a).
+
+By 1750; however, design and construction were fairly well
+standardized in a gun of much cleaner line than the cannon of 1650.
+Although as yet there had been no sharp break with the older
+traditions, the shape and weight of the cannon in relation to the
+stresses of firing were becoming increasingly important to the men who
+did the designing.
+
+Conditions in eighteenth century England were more or less typical: in
+the 1730's Surveyor-General Armstrong's formulae for gun design were
+hardly more than continuations of the earlier ways. His guns were
+about 20 calibers long, with these outside proportions:
+
+  1st reinforce = 2/7 of the gun's length.
+   2d reinforce = 1/7 plus 1 caliber.
+  chase         = 4/7 less 1 caliber.
+
+The trunnions, about a caliber in size, were located well forward
+(3/7 of the gun's length) "to prevent the piece from kicking up
+behind" when it was fired. Gunners blamed this bucking tendency on the
+practice of centering the trunnions on the _lower_ line of the bore.
+"But what will not people do to support an old custom let it be ever
+so absurd?" asked John Müller, the master gunner of Woolwich. In 1756,
+Müller raised the trunnions to the _center_ of the bore, an
+improvement that greatly lessened the strain on the gun carriage.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 26--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CANNON, a--Spanish
+bronze 24-pounder of 1746. b--French bronze 24-pounder of the early
+1700's. c--English iron 6-pounder of the middle 1700's. The 6-pounder
+is part of the armament at Castillo de San Marcos.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 27--SPANISH 24-POUNDER CAST-IRON GUN (1693).
+Note the modern lines of this cannon, with its flat breech and slight
+muzzle swell.]
+
+The caliber of the gun continued to be the yardstick for "fortification"
+of the bore walls:
+
+  Vent                                  16       parts
+  End of 1st reinforce                  14-1/2    do
+  Beginning of second reinforce         13-1/2    do
+  End of second reinforce               12-1/2    do
+  Beginning of chase                    11-1/2    do
+  End of chase                           8        do
+
+For both bronze and iron guns, the above figures were the same, but
+for bronze, Armstrong divided the caliber into 16 parts; for iron it
+was only 14 parts. The walls of an iron gun thus were slightly thicker
+than those of a bronze one.
+
+This eighteenth century cannon was a cast gun, but hoops and rings
+gave it the built-up look of the barrel-stave bombard, when hoops were
+really functional parts of the cannon. Reinforces made the gun look
+like "three frustums of cones joined together, so as the lesser base
+of the former is always greater than the greatest of the succeeding
+one." Ornamental fillets, astragals, and moldings, borrowed from
+architecture, increased the illusion of a sectional piece. Tests with
+24-pounders of different lengths showed guns from 18 to 21 calibers
+long gave generally the best performance, but what was true for the
+24-pounder was not necessarily true for other pieces. Why was the
+32-pounder "brass battering piece" 6 inches longer than its 42-pounder
+brother? John Müller wondered about such inconsistencies and set out
+to devise a new system of ordnance for England.
+
+Like many men before him, Müller sought to increase the caliber of
+cannon without increasing weight. He managed it in two ways: he
+modified exterior design to save on metal, and he lessened the powder
+charge to permit shortening and lightening the gun. Müller's guns had
+no heavy reinforces; the metal was distributed along the bore in a
+taper from powder chamber to muzzle swell. But realizing man's
+reluctance to accept new things, he carefully specified the location
+and size for each molding on his gun, protesting all the while the
+futility of such ornaments. Not until the last half of the next
+century were the experts well enough versed in metallurgy and interior
+ballistics to slough off all the useless metal.
+
+So, using powder charges about one-third the weight of the projectile,
+Müller designed 14-caliber light field pieces and 15-caliber ship
+guns. His garrison and battering cannon, where weight was no great
+disadvantage, were 18 calibers long. The figures in the table
+following represent the principal dimensions for the four types of
+cannon--all cast-iron except for the bronze siege guns. The first line
+in the table shows the length of the cannon. To proportion the rest of
+the piece, Müller divided the shot diameter into 24 parts and used it
+as a yardstick. The caliber of the gun, for instance, was 25 parts, or
+25/24th of the shot diameter. The few other dimensions--thickness of
+the breech, length of the gun before the barrel began its taper,
+fortification at vent and chase--were expressed the same way.
+
+  -----------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+---------
+                                     | Field | Ship   | Siege | Garrison
+  -----------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+---------
+  Length in calibers                 |  14   | 15     | 18    | 18
+            (Other proportions in 24ths of the shot diameter) |
+  Caliber                            |  25   | 25     | 25    | 25
+  Thickness of breech                |  14   | 24     | 16    | 24
+  Length from breech to taper        |  39   | 49     | 40    | 49
+  Thickness at vent                  |  16   | 25     | 18    | 25
+  Thickness at muzzle                |   8   | 12-1/2 |  9    | 12-1/2
+  -----------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+---------
+
+The heaviest of Müller's garrison guns averaged some 172 pounds of
+iron for every pound of the shot, while a ship gun weighed only 146,
+less than half the iron that went into the sixteenth century cannon.
+And for a seafaring nation such as England, these were important
+things. Perhaps the opposite table will give a fair idea of the
+changes in English ordnance during the eighteenth century. It is based
+upon John Müller's lists of 1756; the "old" ordnance includes cannon
+still in use during Müller's time, while the "new" ordnance is
+Müller's own.
+
+Windage in the English gun of 1750 was about 20 percent greater than
+in French pieces. The English ratio of shot to caliber was 20:21;
+across the channel it was 26:27. Thus, an English 9-pounder fired a
+4.00-inch ball from a 4.20-inch bore; the French 9-pounder ball was
+4.18 inches and the bore 4.34.
+
+The English figured greater windage was both convenient and
+economical: windage, said they, ought to be just as thick as the metal
+in the gunner's ladle; standing shot stuck in the bore and unless it
+could be loosened with the ladle, had to be fired away and lost. John
+Müller brushed aside such arguments impatiently. With a proper wad
+over the shot, no dust or dirt could get in; and when the muzzle was
+lowered, said Müller, the shot "will roll out of course." Besides,
+compared with increased accuracy, the loss of a shot was trifling.
+Furthermore, with less room for the shot to bounce around the bore,
+the cannon would "not be spoiled so soon." Müller set the ratio of
+shot to caliber as 24:25.
+
+_Calibers and lengths of principal eighteenth century English cannon_
+
+  ---------+-----------+---------------------+-----------+----------+
+  Caliber  |    Field  |        Ship         |   Siege   | Garrison |
+           +-----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+           |    Iron   |  Bronze  |   Iron   |   Bronze  |   Iron   |
+           +-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+
+  (pounder)| Old | New | Old| New | Old | New| Old | New | Old| New |
+  ---------+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+
+   1-1/2   |     |     |    |     |     |    | 6'0"|     |    |     |
+   3       |3'6" |3'3" |    |3'6" | 4'6"|3'6"| 7'0"|     |4'6"| 4'2"|
+   4       |     |     |    |     | 6'0"|    |     |     |    |     |
+   6       |4'6" |4'1" |8'0"|4'4" | 7'0"|4'4"| 8'0"|     |6'6"| 5'3"|
+   9       |     |4'8" |    |5'0" | 7'0"|5'0"| 9'0"|     |7'0"| 6'0"|
+  12       |5'0" |5'1" |9'0"|5'6" | 9'0"|5'6"| 9'0"| 6'7"|8'0"| 6'7"|
+  18       |     |5'10"|    |6'4" | 9'0"|6'4"| 9'6"| 8'4"|9'0"| 7'6"|
+  24       |5'6" |6'5" |9'6"|7'0" | 9'0"|7'0"| 9'6"| 8'4"|9'0"| 8'4"|
+  32       |     |     |    |7'6" | 9'6"|7'6"|10'0"| 9'2"|9'6"| 9'2"|
+  36       |     |     |    |7'10"|     |    |     | 9'6"|    |     |
+  42       |     |     |9'6"|8'4" |10'0"|8'4"| 9'6"|10'0"|    |10'0"|
+  48       |     |     |    |8'6" |     |8'6"|     |10'6"|    |     |
+  ---------+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+
+
+In the 1700's cast-iron guns became the principal artillery afloat and
+ashore, yet cast bronze was superior in withstanding the stresses of
+firing. Because of its toughness, less metal was needed in a bronze
+gun than in a cast-iron one, so in spite of the fact that bronze is
+about 20 percent heavier than iron, the bronze piece was usually the
+lighter of the two. For "position" guns in permanent fortifications
+where weight was no disadvantage, iron reigned supreme until the
+advent of steel guns. But non-rusting bronze was always preferable
+aboard ship or in seacoast forts.
+
+Müller strongly advocated bronze for ship guns. "Notwithstanding all
+the precautions that can be taken to make iron Guns of a sufficient
+strength," he said, "yet accidents will sometimes happen, either by
+the mismanagement of the sailors, or by frosty weather, which renders
+iron very brittle." A bronze 24-pounder cost £156, compared with £75
+for the iron piece, but the initial saving was offset when the gun
+wore out. The iron gun was then good for nothing except scrap at a
+farthing per pound, while the bronze cannon could be recast "as often
+as you please."
+
+In 1740, Maritz of Switzerland made an outstanding contribution to the
+technique of ordnance manufacture. Instead of hollow casting (that is,
+forming the bore by casting the gun around a core), Maritz cast the
+gun solid, then drilled the bore, thus improving its uniformity. But
+although the bore might be drilled quite smooth, the outside of a
+cast-iron gun was always rough. Bronze cannon, however, could be put
+in the lathes to true up even the exterior. While after 1750 the
+foundries seldom turned out bronze pieces as ornate as the Renaissance
+culverins, a few decorations remained and many guns were still
+personalized with names in raised letters on the gun. Castillo de San
+Marcos has a 4-pounder "San Marcos," and, indeed, saints' names were
+not uncommon on Spanish ordnance. Other typical names were _El
+Espanto_ (The Terror), _El Destrozo_ (The Destroyer), _Generoso_
+(Generous), _El Toro_ (The Bull), and _El Belicoso_ (The Quarrelsome
+One).
+
+In some instances, decoration was useful. The French, for instance, at
+one time used different shapes of cascabels to denote certain
+calibers; and even a fancy cascabel shaped like a lion's head was
+always a handy place for anchoring breeching tackle or maneuvering
+lines. The dolphins or handles atop bronze guns were never merely
+ornaments. Usually they were at the balance point of the gun; tackle
+run through them and hooked to the big tripod or "gin" lifted the
+cannon from its carriage.
+
+
+GARRISON AND SHIP GUNS
+
+Cannon for permanent fortifications were of various sizes and
+calibers, depending upon the terrain that had to be defended. At
+Castillo de San Marcos, for instance, the strongest armament was on
+the water front; lighter guns were on the land sector, an area
+naturally protected by the difficult terrain existing in the colonial
+period.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 28--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH GARRISON GUN.]
+
+Before the Castillo was completed, guns were mounted only in the
+bastions or projecting corners of the fort. A 1683 inventory clearly
+shows that heaviest guns were in the San Agustín, or southeastern
+bastion, commanding not only the harbor and its entrance but the town
+of St. Augustine as well San Pablo, the northwestern bastion,
+overlooked the land approach to the Castillo and the town gate; and,
+though its armament was lighter, it was almost as numerous as that in
+San Agustín. Bastion San Pedro to the southwest was within the town
+limits, and its few light guns were a reserve for San Pablo. The
+watchtower bastion of San Carlos overlooked the northern marshland and
+the harbor; its armament was likewise small. The following list
+details the variety and location of the ordnance:
+
+_Cannon mounted at Castillo de San Marcos in 1683_
+
+  Location   No.   Caliber   Class   Metal   Remarks
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Agustín
+     1   40-pounder   Cannon   Bronze   Carriage battered.
+     1   18-pounder      do      do          New carriage.
+     2   16-pounder      do    Iron         Old carriages,
+                                               wheels bad.
+     1   12-pounder      do    Bronze        New carriage.
+     1   12-pounder      do    Iron                    do.
+     1    8-pounder      do    Bronze        Old carriage.
+     1    7-pounder      do    Iron          Carriage bad.
+     1    4-pounder      do      do          New carriage.
+     1    3-pounder      do    Bronze                  do.
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Pablo
+     1   16-pounder   Demicannon      Iron       Old carriage.
+     1   10-pounder   Demiculverin    Bronze               do.
+     2    9-pounder   Cannon          Iron                 do.
+     1    7-pounder   Demiculverin    Bronze               do.
+     1    7-pounder   Cannon          Iron       Carriage bad.
+     1    5-pounder      do             do       New carriage.
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Pedro
+     1    9-pounder   Cannon         Iron        Old carriage.
+     2    7-pounder      do            do        Carriage bad.
+     2    5-pounder      do            do                  do.
+     1    4-pounder      do          Bronze      Old carriage.
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Carlos
+     1   10-pounder   Cannon    Iron      Old carriage.
+     1    5-pounder      do         do      New carriage.
+     1    5-pounder      do       Bronze   Good carriage.
+     1    2-pounder      do       Iron      New carriage.
+
+The total number of Castillo guns in service at this date was 27, but
+there were close to a dozen unmounted pieces on hand, including a pair
+of pedreros. The armament was gradually increased to 70-odd guns as
+construction work on the fort made additional space available, and as
+other factors warranted more ordnance. Below is a summary of Castillo
+armament through the years:
+
+_Armament of Castillo de San Marcos, 1683-1834_
+
+   Kind         1683    1706    1740    1763    1765    1812    1834
+  of gun      Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron
+                Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze
+
+   2-pounder   1  ..  ..  **  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   3-pounder  ..   1  ..  **   2   3  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   4-pounder   1   1   *  **   5   1  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..
+   5-pounder   4   1   *  **  15   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   6-pounder  ..  ..   *  **   5  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..   3  ..
+   7-pounder   4   1   *  **   5   2  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   8-pounder  ..   1   *  **  11   1   5  11  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..
+   3-1/2 in.
+    carronade ..  ..   *  **  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   4  ..  ..  ..
+   9-pounder   3  ..   *  **  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  10-pounder   1   1   *  **  ..  ..   6  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  12-pounder   1   1   *  **  ..  ..  13  ..   7  ..   2  ..  ..  ..
+  15-pounder  ..  ..  ..  **   6  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  16-pounder   3  ..  ..  **  ..  ..   2   1  ..  ..   8  ..  ..  ..
+  18-pounder  ..   1  ..  ..   4   1   7  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   4  ..
+  24-pounder  ..  ..  ..  ..   2  ..   7  ..  32  ..  10  ..   5  ..
+  33-pounder  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  36-pounder  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  40-pounder  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  24-pounder
+    field
+    howitzer  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   2   2
+   6-in.
+     howitzer ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   2  ..   2
+   8-in.
+    howitzer  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   2  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   Small
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  18  ..  20  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   6-in.
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..   1
+  10-in.
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   1
+   Large
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   6  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   Stone
+    mortar     2  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   3  ..  ..
+
+  Total       20   9  26   9  55  10  40  37  39  24  26   8  14   6
+
+  Grand total   29      35      65      77      63      34      20
+
+* 26 guns from 4- to 10-pounders
+
+** 8 guns from 2- to 16-pounders
+
+This tabulation reflects contemporary conditions quite clearly. The
+most serious invasions of Spanish Florida took place during the first
+half of the eighteenth century, precisely the time when the Castillo
+armament was strongest. While most of the guns were in battery
+condition, the table does have some pieces rated only fair and may
+also include a few unserviceables. Colonial isolation meant that
+ordnance often served longer than the normal 1,200-round life of an
+iron piece. A usual failure was the development of cracks around the
+vent or in the bore. Sometimes a muzzle blew off. The worst casualties
+of the 1702 siege came from the bursting of an iron 16-pounder which
+killed four and seriously wounded six men. At that period,
+incidentally, culverins were the only guns with the range to reach the
+harbor bar some 3,000 yards away.
+
+Although when the Spanish left Florida to Britain in 1763 they took
+serviceable cannon with them, two guns at Castillo de San Marcos
+National Monument today appear to be seventeenth century Spanish
+pieces. Most of the 24- and 32-pounder garrison cannon, however, are
+English-founded, after the Armstrong specifications of the 1730's, and
+were part of the British armament during the 1760's. Amidst the
+general confusion and shipping troubles that attended the British
+evacuation in 1784, some ordnance seems to have been left behind, to
+remain part of the defenses until the cession to the United States in
+1821.
+
+The Castillo also has some interesting United States guns, including a
+pair of early 24-pounder iron field howitzers (c. 1777-1812). During
+the 1840's the United States modernized Castillo defenses by
+constructing a water battery in the moat behind the sea wall. Many of
+the guns for that battery are extant, including 8-inch Columbiads,
+32-pounder cannon, 8-inch seacoast and garrison howitzers. St.
+Augustine's Plaza even boasts a converted 32-pounder rifle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 29--VAUBAN'S MARINE CARRIAGE (c. 1700).]
+
+Garrison and ship carriages were far different from field, siege, and
+howitzer mounts, while mortar beds were in a separate class entirely.
+Basic proportions for the carriage were obtained by measuring (1) the
+distance from trunnion to base ring of the gun, (2) the diameter of
+the base ring, and (3) the diameter of the second reinforce ring. The
+result was a quadrilateral figure that served as a key in laying out
+the carriage to fit the gun. Cheeks, or side pieces, of the carriage
+were a caliber in thickness, so the bigger the gun, the more massive
+the mount.
+
+A 24-pounder cheek would be made of timber about 6 inches thick. The
+Spaniards often used mahogany. At Jamestown, in the early 1600's,
+Capt. John Smith reported the mounting of seven "great pieces of
+ordnance upon new carriages of cedar," and the French colonials also
+used this material. British specifications in the mid-eighteenth
+century called for cheeks and transoms of dry elm, which was very
+pliable and not likely to split; but some carriages were made of young
+oak, and oak was standard for United States garrison carriages until
+it was replaced by wrought-iron after the Civil War.
+
+For a four-wheeled English carriage of 1750, height of the cheek was
+4-2/3 diameters of the shot, unless some change in height had to be
+made to fit a gun port or embrasure. To prevent cannon from pushing
+shutters open when the ship rolled in a storm, lower tier carriages
+let the muzzle of the gun, when fully elevated, butt against the sill
+over the gun port.
+
+On the eighteenth century Spanish garrison carriage (fig. 28), no
+bolts were threaded; all were held either by a key run through a slot
+in the foot of the bolt, or by bradding the foot over a decorative
+washer. Compared with American mounts of the same type (figs. 30 and
+31), the Spanish carriage was considerably more complicated, due
+partly to the greater amount of decorative ironwork and partly to the
+design of the wooden parts which, with their carefully worked
+mortises, required a craftsman's skill. The cheek of the Spanish
+carriage was a single great plank. English and American construction
+called for a built-up cheek of several planks, cleverly jogged or
+mortised together to prevent starting under the strain of firing.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 30--ENGLISH GARRISON CARRIAGE (1756). By
+substituting wooden wheels for the cast-iron ones, this carriage
+became a standard naval gun carriage.]
+
+Müller furnished specifications for building truck (four-wheeled)
+carriages for 3- to 42-pounders. Aboard ship, of course, the truck
+carriage was standard for almost everything except the little swivel
+guns and the mortars.
+
+Carriage trucks (wheels), unless they were made of cast iron, had iron
+thimbles or bushings driven into the hole of the hub, and to save the
+wood of the axletree, the spindle on which the wheel revolved was
+partly protected by metal. The British put copper on the _bottom_ of
+the spindle; Spanish and French designers put copper on the _top_,
+then set iron "axletree bars" into the bottom. These bars strengthened
+the axletree and resisted wear at the spindle.
+
+A 24-pounder fore truck was 18 inches in diameter. Rear trucks were 16
+inches. The difference in size compensated for the slope in the gun
+platform or deck--a slope which helped to check recoil. Aboard ship,
+where recoil space was limited, the "kick" of the gun was checked by a
+heavy rope called a breeching, shackled to the side of the vessel
+(see fig. 11). Ship carriages of the two-or four-wheel type (fig. 31),
+were used through the War between the States, and there was no great
+change until the advent of automatic recoil mechanisms made a
+stationary mount possible.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 31--U. S. NAVAL TRUCK CARRIAGE (1866).]
+
+With garrison carriages, however, changes came much earlier. In 1743,
+Fort William on the Georgia coast had a pair of 18-pounders mounted
+upon "curious moving Platforms" which were probably similar to the
+traversing platforms standardized by Gribeauval in the latter part of
+the century. United States forts of the early 1800's used casemate and
+barbette carriages (fig. 10) of the Gribeauval type, and the
+traversing platforms of these mounts made training (aiming the gun
+right or left) comparatively easy.
+
+Training the old truck carriage had been heavy work for the
+handspikemen, who also helped to elevate or depress the gun. Maximum
+elevation or depression was about 15° each way--about the same as
+naval guns used during the Civil War. If one quoin was not enough to
+secure proper depression, a block or a second quoin was placed below
+the first. But before the gunner depressed a smoothbore below zero
+elevation, he had to put either a wad or a grommet over the ball to
+keep it from rolling out.
+
+Ship and garrison cannon were not moved around on their carriages. If
+the gun had to be taken any distance, it was dismounted and chained
+under a sling wagon or on a "block carriage," the big wheels of which
+easily rolled over difficult terrain. It was not hard to dismount a
+gun: the keys locking the cap squares were removed, and then the gin
+was rigged and the gun hoisted clear of the carriage.
+
+A typical garrison or ship cannon could fire any kind of projectile,
+but solid shot, hot shot, bombs, grape, and canister were in widest
+use. These guns were flat trajectory weapons, with a point-blank range
+of about 300 yards. They were effective--that is, fairly accurate--up
+to about half a mile, although the maximum range of guns like the
+Columbiad of the nineteenth century, when elevation was not restricted
+by gun port confines, approached the 4-mile range claimed by the
+Spanish for the sixteenth century culverin. The following ranges of
+United States ordnance in the 1800's are not far different from
+comparable guns of earlier date.
+
+_Ranges of United States smoothbore garrison guns of 1861_
+
+           Caliber                    Elevation    Range in yards
+
+  18-pounder siege and garrison        5° 0"          1,592
+  24-pounder siege and garrison        5° 0"          1,901
+  32-pounder seacoast                  5° 0"          1,922
+  42-pounder seacoast                  5° 0"          1,955
+  8-inch Columbiad                    27°30"          4,812
+  10-inch Columbiad                   39°15"          5,654
+  12-inch Columbiad                   39° 0"          5,506
+
+_Ranges of United States naval smoothbores of 1866_
+
+  Caliber                 Point-blank range    Elevation   Range in yards
+                              in yards
+  32-pounder of 42 cwt         313                 5°         1,756
+  8-inch of 63 cwt             330                 5°         1,770
+  IX-inch shell gun            350                15°         3,450
+  X-inch shell gun             340                11°         3,000
+  XI-inch shell gun            295                15°         2,650
+  XV-inch shell gun            300                 7°         2,100
+
+_Ranges of United States naval rifles in 1866_
+
+  Caliber                      Elevation          Range in yards
+
+  20-pounder Parrott              15°                4,400
+  30-pounder Parrott              25°                6,700
+  100-pounder Parrott             25°                7,180
+
+In accuracy and range the rifle of the 1860's far surpassed the
+smoothbores, but such tremendous advances were made in the next few
+decades with the introduction of new propellants and steel guns that
+the performances of the old rifles no longer seem remarkable. In the
+eighteenth century, a 24-pounder smoothbore could develop a muzzle
+velocity of about 1,700 feet per second. The 12-inch rifled cannon of
+the late 1800's had a muzzle velocity of 2,300 foot-seconds. In 1900,
+the Secretary of the Navy proudly reported that the new 12-inch guns
+for _Maine_-class battleships produced a muzzle velocity of 2,854
+foot-seconds, using an 850-pound projectile and a charge of 360 pounds
+of smokeless powder. Such statistics elicit a chuckle from today's
+artilleryman.
+
+
+SIEGE CANNON
+
+Field counterpart of the garrison cannon was the siege gun--the
+"battering cannon" of the old days, mounted upon a two-wheeled siege
+or "traveling" carriage that could be moved about in field terrain.
+Whereas the purpose of the garrison cannon was to destroy the attacker
+and his matériel, the siege cannon was intended to destroy the fort.
+Calibers ranged from 3- to 42-pounders in eighteenth century English
+tables, but the 18- and 24-pounders seem to have been the most widely
+used for siege operations.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 32--SPANISH EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SIEGE CARRIAGE.]
+
+The siege carriage closely resembled the field gun carriage, but was
+much more massive, as may be seen from these comparative figures drawn
+from eighteenth century English specifications:
+
+    24-pounder                                      24-pounder
+  field carriage                                siege carriage
+
+    9 feet long         Length of cheek               13 feet.
+    4.5 inches          Thickness of cheek         5.8 inches.
+    50 inches           Wheel diameter              58 inches.
+    6x8x68 inches       Axletree                7x9x81 inches.
+
+Heavy siege guns were elevated with quoins, and elevation was
+restricted to 12° or less, which was about the same as United States
+siege carriages permitted in 1861. It was considered ample for these
+flat trajectory pieces.
+
+Both field and siege carriages were pulled over long distances by
+lifting the trail to a horse-or ox-drawn limber; a hole in the trail
+transom seated on an iron bolt or pintle on the two-wheeled limber.
+Some late eighteenth century field and siege carriages had a second
+pair of trunnion holes a couple of feet back from the regular holes,
+and the cannon was shifted to the rear holes where the weight was
+better distributed for traveling. The United States siege carriage of
+the 1860's had no extra trunnion holes, but a "traveling bed" was
+provided where the gun was cradled in position 2 or 3 feet back of its
+firing position. A well-drilled gun crew could make the shift very
+rapidly, using a lifting jack, a few rollers, blocks, and chocks. When
+there was danger of straining or breaking the gun carriage, however,
+massive block carriages, sling carts, or wagons were used to carry the
+guns.
+
+Sling wagons were of necessity used for transport in siege operations
+when the guns were to be mounted on barbette (traversing platform)
+carriages (fig. 10). Emplacing the barbette carriage called for
+construction of a massive, level subplatform, but it also eliminated
+the old need for the gunner to chalk the location of his wheels in
+order to return his gun to the proper firing position after each shot.
+
+The Federal sieges of Forts Pulaski and Sumter were highly complicated
+engineering operations that involved landing tremendously heavy
+ordnance (the 300-pounder Parrott weighed 13 tons) through the surf,
+moving the big guns over very difficult terrain and, in some cases,
+building roads over the marshes and driving foundation piles for the
+gun emplacements.
+
+The heavy caliber Parrotts trained on Fort Sumter were in batteries
+from 1,750 to 4,290 yards distant from their target. They were very
+accurate, but their endurance was an uncertain factor. The notorious
+"Swamp Angel," for instance, burst after 36 rounds.
+
+
+FIELD CANNON
+
+[Illustration: Figure 33--SPANISH 4-POUNDER FIELD CARRIAGE (c. 1788).
+This carriage, designed on the "new method," employed a handscrew
+instead of a wedge for elevating the piece, a--The handspike was
+inserted through eyebolts in the trail, b--The ammunition locker held
+the cartridges.]
+
+The field guns were the mobile pieces that could travel with the army
+and be brought quickly into firing position. They were lighter in
+weight than any other type of flat trajectory weapon. To achieve this
+lightness the designers had not only shortened the guns, but thinned
+down the bore walls. In the eighteenth century, calibers ran from the
+3- to the 24-pounder, mounted on comparatively light, two-wheeled
+carriages. In addition, there was the 1-1/2-pounder (and sometimes the
+light 3- or 6-pounder) on a "galloper" carriage--a vehicle with its
+trail shaped into shafts for the horse. The elevating-screw mechanism
+was early developed for field guns, although the heavier pieces like
+the 18- and 24-pounders were still elevated by quoins as late as the
+early 1800's.
+
+In the Castillo collection are parts of early United States field
+carriages little different from Spanish carriages that held a score of
+4-pounders in the long, continuous earthwork parapet surrounding St.
+Augustine in the eighteenth century. The Spanish mounts were a little
+more complicated in construction than English or American carriages,
+but not much. Spanish pyramid-headed nails for securing ironwork were
+not far different from the diamond-and rose-headed nails of the
+English artificer.
+
+Each piece of hardware on the carriage had its purpose. Gunner's tools
+were laid in hooks on the cheeks. There were bolts and rings for the
+lines when the gun had to be moved by manpower in the field. On the
+trail transom, pintle plates rimmed the hole that went over the pintle
+on the limber. Iron reinforced the carriage at weak points or where
+the wood was subject to wear. Iron axletrees were common by the late
+1700's.
+
+For training the field gun, the crew used a special handspike quite
+different from the garrison handspike. It was a long, round staff,
+with an iron handle bolted to its head (fig. 33a). The trail transom
+of the carriage held two eyebolts, into which the foot of the spike
+was inserted. A lug fitted into an offset in the larger eyebolt so
+that the spike could not twist. With the handspike socketed in the
+eyebolts, lifting the trail and laying the gun was easy.
+
+The single-trail carriage (fig. 13) used so much during the middle
+1800's was a remarkable simplification of carriage design. It was also
+essential for guns like the Parrott rifles, since the thick reinforce
+on the breech of an otherwise slender barrel would not fit the older
+twin-trail carriage. The single, solid "stock" or trail eliminated
+transoms, for to the sides of the stock itself were bolted short, high
+cheeks, humped like a camel to cradle the gun so high that great
+latitude in elevation was possible. The elevating screw was threaded
+through a nut in the stock, right under the big reinforce of the gun.
+
+While the larger bore siege Parrotts were not noted for long
+serviceability, Parrott field rifles had very high endurance. As for
+performance, see the following table:
+
+_Ranges of Parrott field rifles (1863)_
+
+  Caliber Weight   Type of     Projectile  Elevation  Range  Smoothbore
+          of gun   projectile  weight                        of same
+          (pounds)             (pounds)                      caliber
+
+  10-pounder 890   Shell       9.75        5°         2,000  3-pounder.
+                    do         9.75       20°         5,000
+  20-pounder 1,750  do        18.75        5°         2,100  6-pounder.
+                    do        18.75       15°         4,400
+  30-pounder 4,200  do        29.00       15°         4,800  9-pounder.
+                    do        29.00       25°         6,700
+                  Long shell 101.00       15°         4,790
+                    do       101.00       25°         6,820
+                  Hollow shot 80.00       25°         7,180
+                    do        80.00       35°         8,453
+
+Amazingly enough, these ranges were obtained with about the same
+amount of powder used for the smoothbores of similar caliber: the
+10-pounder Parrott used only a pound of powder; the 20-pounder used a
+two-pound charge; and the 30-pounder, 3-1/4 pounds!
+
+
+HOWITZERS
+
+The howitzer was invented by the Dutch in the seventeenth century to
+throw larger projectiles (usually bombs) than could the field pieces,
+in a high trajectory similar to the mortar, but from a lighter and
+more mobile weapon. The wide-purpose efficiency of the howitzer was
+appreciated almost at once, and it was soon adopted by all European
+armies. The weapon owed its mobility to a rugged, two-wheeled carriage
+like a field carriage, but with a relatively short trail that
+permitted the wide arc of elevation needed for this weapon.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 34--SPANISH 6-INCH HOWITZER (1759-88). This
+bronze piece was founded during the reign of Charles III and bears his
+shield. a--Dolphin, or handle, b--Bore, c--Powder chamber.]
+
+English howitzers of the 1750's were of three calibers: 5.8-, 8-, and
+10-inch, but the 10-incher was so heavy (some 50 inches long and over
+3,500 pounds) that it was quickly discarded. Müller deplored the
+superfluous weight of these pieces and developed 6-, 8-, 10, and
+13-inch howitzers in which, by a more calculated distribution of the
+metal, he achieved much lighter weapons. Müller's howitzers survived
+in the early 6- to 10-inch pieces of United States artillery and one
+fine little 24-pounder of the late eighteenth century happens to be
+among the armament of Castillo de San Marcos, along with some early
+nineteenth century howitzers. The British, incidentally, were the
+first to bring this type gun to Florida. None appeared on the Castillo
+inventory until the 1760's.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 35--ENGLISH 8-INCH "HOWITZ" CARRIAGE (1756). The
+short trail enabled greater latitude in elevating the howitzer.]
+
+In addition to the very light and therefore easily portable mountain
+howitzer used for Indian warfare, United States artillery of 1850
+included 12-, 24-, and 32-pounder field, 24-pounder and 8-inch siege
+and garrison, and the 10-inch seacoast howitzer. The Navy had a
+12-pounder heavy and a 24-pounder, to which were added the 12- and
+24-pounder Dahlgren rifled howitzers of the Civil War period. Such
+guns were often used in landing operations. The following table gives
+some typical ranges:
+
+_Ranges of U. S. Howitzers in the 1860's_
+
+  Caliber                      Elevation               Range in yards
+
+  10-inch seacoast                   5°                   1,650
+  8-inch siege                      12°30'                2,280
+  24-pounder naval                   5°                   1,270
+  12-pounder heavy naval             5°                   1,085
+  20-pounder Dahlgren rifled         5°                   1,960
+  12-pounder Dahlgren rifled         5°                   1,770
+
+[Illustration: Figure 36--ENGLISH MORTAR ON ELEVATING BED (1740).]
+
+From earliest times the usefulness of the mortar as an arm of the
+artillery has been clearly recognized. Up until the 1800's the weapon
+was usually made of bronze, and many mortars had a fixed elevation of
+45°, which in the sixteenth century was thought to be the proper
+elevation for maximum range of any cannon. In the 1750's Müller
+complained of the stupidity of English artillerists in continuing to
+use fixed-elevation mortars, and the Spanish made a _mortero de
+plancha_, or "plate" mortar (fig. 37), as late as 1788. Range for such
+a fixed-elevation weapon was varied by using more or less powder, as
+the case required. But the most useful mortar, of course, had
+trunnions and adjustable elevation by means of quoins.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 37--SPANISH 5-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1788).]
+
+The mortar was mounted on a "bed"--a pair of wooden cheeks held
+together by transoms. Since a bed had no wheels, the piece was
+transported on a mortar wagon or sling cart. In the battery, the
+mortar was generally bedded upon a level wooden platform; aboard ship,
+it was a revolving platform, so that the piece could be quickly aimed
+right or left. The mortar's weight, plus the high angle of elevation,
+kept it pretty well in place when it was fired, although English
+artillerists took the additional precaution of lashing it down.
+
+The mortar did not use a wad, because a wad prevented the fuze of the
+shell from igniting. To the layman, it may seem strange that the shell
+was never loaded with the fuze toward the powder charge of the gun.
+But the fuze was always toward the muzzle and away from the blast, a
+practice which dated from the early days when mortars were discharged
+by "double firing": the gunner lit the fuze of the shell with one hand
+and the priming of the mortar with the other. Not until the late
+1600's did the method of letting the powder blast ignite the fuze
+become general. It was a change that greatly simplified the use of the
+arm and, no doubt, caused the mortarman to heave a sigh of relief.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 38--SPANISH 10-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1759-88).
+a--Dolphin, or handle, b--Bore, c--Powder chamber.]
+
+Most mortars were equipped with dolphins, either singly or in pairs,
+which were used for lifting the weapon onto its bed. Often there was a
+little bracketed cup--a priming pan--under the vent, a handy gadget
+that saved spilling a lot of powder at the almost vertical breech. As
+with other bronze cannon, mortars were embellished with shields,
+scrolls, names, and other decoration.
+
+About 1750, the French mortar had a bore length 1-1/2 diameters of the
+shell; in England, the bore was 2 diameters for the smaller calibers
+and 3 for the 10- and 13-inchers. The extra length added a great deal
+of weight to the English mortars: the 13-inch weighed 25
+hundredweight, while the French equivalent weighed only about half
+that much. Müller complained that mortar designers slavishly copied
+what they saw in other guns. For instance, he said, the reinforce was
+unnecessary; it "... overloads the Mortar with a heap of useless
+metal, and that in a place where the least strength is required, yet
+as if this unnecessary metal was not sufficient, they add a great
+projection at the mouth, which serves to no other purpose than to make
+the Mortar top-heavy. The mouldings are likewise jumbled together,
+without any taste or method, tho' they are taken from architecture."
+Field mortars in use during Müller's time included 4.6-, 5.8-, 8-,
+10-, and 13-inch "land" mortars and 10- and 13-inch "sea" mortars.
+Müller, of course, redesigned them.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 39--COEHORN MORTAR. The British General
+Oglethorpe used 20 coehorns in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine.
+These small mortars were also used extensively during the War Between
+the States.]
+
+The small mortars called coehorns (fig. 39) were invented by the famed
+Dutch military engineer, Baron van Menno Coehoorn, and used by him in
+1673 to the great discomfit of French garrisons. Oglethorpe had many
+of them in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine when the Spanish,
+trying to translate coehorn into their own tongue, called them
+_cuernos de vaca_--"cow horns." They continued in use through the U.
+S. Civil War, and some of them may still be seen in the battlefield
+parks today.
+
+Bombs and carcasses were usual for mortar firing, but stone
+projectiles remained in use as late as 1800 for the pedrero class
+(fig. 43). Mortar projectiles were quite formidable; even in the
+sixteenth century missiles weighing 100 or more pounds were not
+uncommon, and the 13-inch mortar of 1860 fired a 200-pound shell. The
+larger projectiles had to be whipped up to the muzzle with block and
+tackle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 40--THE "DICTATOR." This huge 13-inch mortar was
+used by the Federal artillery in the bombardment of Petersburg, Va.,
+1864-65.]
+
+In the last century, the bronze mortars metamorphosed into the great
+cast-iron mortars, such as "The Dictator," that mammoth Federal piece
+used against Petersburg, Va. Wrought-iron beds with a pair of rollers
+were built for them. In spite of their high trajectory, mortars could
+range well over a mile, as witness these figures for United States
+mortars of the 1860's, firing at 45° elevation:
+
+_Ranges of U. S. Mortars in 1861_
+
+  Caliber              Projectile       Range
+                     weight (pounds)  (yards)
+
+  8-inch siege           45            1,837
+  10-inch siege          90            2,100
+  12-inch seacoast      200            4,625
+  13-inch seacoast      200            4,325
+
+At the siege of Fort Pulaski in 1862, however, General Gillmore
+complained that the mortars were highly inaccurate at mile-long range.
+On this point, John Müller would have nodded his head emphatically. A
+hundred years before Gillmore's complaint, Müller had argued that a
+range of something less than 1,500 yards was ample for mortars or, for
+that matter, all guns. "When the ranges are greater," said Müller,
+"they are so uncertain, and it is so difficult to judge how far the
+shell falls short, or exceeds the distance of the object, that it
+serves to no other purpose than to throw away the Powder and shell,
+without being able to do any execution."
+
+
+PETARDS
+
+"Hoist with his own petard," an ancient phrase signifying that one's
+carefully laid scheme has exploded, had truly graphic meaning in the
+old days when everybody knew what a petard was. Since the petard fired
+no projectile, it was hardly a gun. Roughly speaking, it was nothing
+but an iron bucket full of gunpowder. The petardier would hang it on a
+gate, something like hanging your hat on a nail, and blast the gate
+open by firing the charge.
+
+Small petards weighed about 50 pounds; the large ones, around 70
+pounds. They had to be heavy enough to be effective, yet light enough
+for a couple of men to lift up handily and hang on the target. The
+bucket part was packed full of the powder mixture, then a
+2-1/2-inch-thick board was bolted to the rim in order to keep the
+powder in and the air out. An iron tube fuze was screwed into a small
+hole in the back or side of the weapon. When all was ready, the
+petardiers seized the two handles of the petard and carried it to the
+troublesome door. Here they set a screw, hung the explosive instrument
+upon it, lit the fuze, and "retired."
+
+Petards were used frequently in King William's War of the 1680's to
+force the gates of small German towns. But on a well-barred, double
+gate the small petard was useless, and the great petard would break
+only the fore part of such a gate. Furthermore, as one would guess,
+hanging a petard was a hazardous occupation; it went out of style in
+the early 1700's.
+
+
+
+
+PROJECTILES
+
+
+There are four different types of artillery projectiles which, in one
+form or another, have been used since very early times:
+
+  (1) Battering projectiles (solid shot).
+  (2) Exploding shells.
+  (3) Scatter shot (case or canister, grape, shrapnel).
+  (4) Incendiary and chemical projectiles.
+
+
+SOLID SHOT
+
+At Havana, Cuba, in the early days, there was an abundance of round
+stones lying around, put there by Mother Nature. Artillerists at
+Havana never lacked projectiles. Stone balls, cheap to manufacture,
+relatively light and therefore well suited to the feeble construction
+of early ordnance, were in general use for large caliber cannon in the
+fourteenth century. There were experiments along other lines such as
+those at Tournay in the 1330's with long, pointed projectiles.
+Lead-coated stones were fairly popular, and solid lead balls were used
+in some small pieces, but the stone ball was more or less standard.
+
+Cast-iron shot had been introduced by 1400, and, with the improvement
+of cannon during that century, iron shot gradually replaced stone. By
+the end of the 1500's stone survived for use only in the pedreros,
+murtherers, and other relics of the earlier period. Iron shot for the
+smoothbore was a solid, round shot, cast in fairly accurate molds; the
+mold marks that invariably show on all cannonballs were of small
+importance, for the ball did not fit the bore tightly. After casting,
+shot were checked with a ring gauge (fig. 41)--a hoop through which
+each ball had to pass. The Spanish term for this tool is very
+descriptive: _pasabala_, "ball-passer."
+
+Shot was used mainly in the flat-trajectory cannon. The small caliber
+guns fired nothing but shot, for small sizes of the other type
+projectiles were not effective. Shot was the prescription when the
+situation called for "great accuracy, at very long range," and
+penetration. Fired at ships, a shot was capable of breaching the
+planks (at 100-yard range a 24-pounder shot would penetrate 4-1/2 feet
+of "sound and hard" oak). With a fair aim at the waterline, a gunner
+could sink or seriously damage a vessel with a few rounds. On ironclad
+targets like the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_, however, round shot did
+little more than bounce; it took the long, armor-piercing rifle
+projectile to force the development of the tremendously thick plate of
+modern times.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 41--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILES. (Not to
+scale.)]
+
+Round shot was very useful for knocking out enemy batteries. The
+gunner put his cannon on the flank of the hostile guns and used
+ricochet firing so that the ball, just clearing the defense wall,
+would bounce among the enemy guns, wound the crews, and break the gun
+carriages. In the destruction of fort walls, shot was essential. After
+dismounting the enemy pieces, the siege guns moved close enough to
+batter down the walls. The procedure was not as haphazard as it
+sounds. Cannon were brought as close as possible to the target, and
+the gunner literally cut out a low section with gunfire so that the
+wall above tumbled down into the moat and made a ramp right up to the
+breach. Firing at the upper part of the wall defeated its own purpose,
+for the rubble brought down only protected the foundation area, and
+the breach was so high that assault troops had to use ladders.
+
+The most effective bombardment of Castillo de San Marcos occurred
+during the 1740 siege, and shot did the most damage. The heaviest
+English siege cannon were 18-pounders, over 1,000 yards from the fort.
+Spanish Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano reported that the balls did not
+penetrate the massive main walls more than a foot and a half, but the
+parapets, being only 3 feet thick, suffered considerable damage. Some
+of the old parapets, Engineer Ruiz said, "have been demolished, and
+the new ones have suffered very much owing to their recent
+construction." (He meant that the new mortar had not sufficiently
+hardened.) Ruiz was not deceived about what would happen if hostile
+batteries were able to get closer; in such case, he thought, the enemy
+"will no doubt succeed in destroying the parapets and dismounting the
+guns."
+
+Variations of round shot were bar shot and chain shot (fig. 41), two
+or more projectiles linked together for simultaneous firing. Bar shot
+appears in a Castillo inventory of 1706, and like chain shot, was for
+specialized work like cutting a ship's rigging. There is one
+apocryphal tale, however, about an experiment with chain shot as
+anti-personnel missiles: instead of charging a single cannon with the
+two balls, two guns were used, side by side. The ball in one gun was
+chained to the ball in the other. The projectiles were to fly forth,
+stretching the long chain between them, mowing down a sizeable segment
+of the enemy. Instead, the chain wrapped the gun crews in a murderous
+embrace; one gun had fired late.
+
+
+EXPLOSIVE SHELLS
+
+The word "bomb" comes to us from the French, who derived it from the
+Latin. But the Romans got it originally from the Greek _bombos_,
+meaning a deep, hollow sound. "Bombard" is a derivation. Today bomb is
+pronounced "balm," but in the early days it was commonly pronounced
+"bum." The modern equivalent of the "bum" is an HE shell.
+
+The first recorded use of explosive shells was by the Venetians in
+1376. Their bombs were hemispheres of stone or bronze, joined together
+with hoops and exploded by means of a primitive powder fuze. Shells
+filled with explosive or incendiary mixtures were standard for
+mortars, after 1550, but they did not come into general use for
+flat-trajectory weapons until early in the nineteenth century,
+whereafter the term "shell" gradually won out over "bomb."
+
+In any event, this projectile was one of the most effective ever used
+in the smoothbore against earthworks, buildings, and for general
+bombardment. A delayed action shell, diabolically timed to roll
+amongst the ranks with its fuze burning, was calculated to "disorder
+the stoutest men," since they could not know at what awful instant the
+bomb would burst.
+
+A bombshell was simply a hollow, cast-iron sphere. It had a single
+hole where the powder was funneled in--full, but not enough to pack
+too tightly when the fuze was driven in. Until the 1800's, the larger
+bombs were not always smooth spheres, but had either a projecting
+neck, or collar, for the fuze hole or a pair of rings at each side of
+the hole for easier handling (fig. 41). In later years, however, such
+projections were replaced by two "ears," little recesses beside the
+fuze hole. A pair of tongs (something like ice tongs) seized the shell
+by the ears and lifted it up to the gun bore.
+
+During most of the eighteenth century, shells were cast thicker at the
+base than at the fuze hole on the theory that they were (1) better
+able to resist the shock of firing from the cannon and (2) more likely
+to fall with the heavy part underneath, leaving the fuze uppermost and
+less liable to extinguishment. Müller scoffed at the idea of
+"choaking" a fuze, which, he said, burnt as well in water as in any
+other element. Furthermore, he preferred to use shells "everywhere
+equally thick, because they would then burst into a greater number of
+pieces." In later years, the shells were scored on the interior to
+ensure their breaking into many fragments.
+
+
+FUZES
+
+[Illustration: Figure 42--NINETEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILE FUZES.
+a--Cross-section of Bormann fuze, b--Top of Bormann fuze, c--Wooden
+fuze for spherical shell, d--Wood-and-paper fuze for spherical shell,
+e--Percussion fuze.]
+
+The eighteenth century fuze was a wooden tube several inches long,
+with a powder composition tamped into its hole much like the
+nineteenth century fuze (fig. 42c). The hole was only a quarter of an
+inch in diameter, but the head of the fuze was hollowed out like a
+cup, and "mealed" (fine) powder, moistened with "spirits of wine"
+(alcohol), was pressed into the hollow to make a larger igniting
+surface. To time the fuze, a cannoneer cut the cylinder at the proper
+length with his fuze-saw, or drilled a small hole (G) where the fire
+could flash out at the right time. Some English fuzes at this period
+were also made by drawing two strands of a quick match into the hole,
+instead of filling it with powder composition. The ends of the match
+were crossed into a sort of rosette at the head of the fuze. Paper
+caps to protect the powder composition covered the heads of these
+fuzes and had to be removed before the shell was put into the gun.
+
+Bombs were not filled with powder very long before use, and fuzes were
+not put into the projectiles until the time of firing. To force the
+fuze into the hole of the shell, the cannoneer covered the fuze head
+with tow, put a fuze-setter on it, and hammered the setter with a
+mallet, "drifting" the fuze until the head stuck out of the shell only
+2/10 of an inch. If the fuze had to be withdrawn, there was a fuze
+extractor for the job. This tool gripped the fuze head tightly, and
+turning a screw slowly pulled out the fuze.
+
+Wooden tube fuzes were used almost as long as the spherical shell. A
+United States 12-inch mortar fuze (fig. 42c), 7 inches long and
+burning 49 seconds, was much like the earlier fuze. During the 1800's,
+however, other types came into wide use.
+
+The conical paper-case fuze (fig. 42d), inserted in a metal or wooden
+plug that fitted the fuze hole, contained composition whose rate of
+burning was shown by the color of the paper. A black fuze burned an
+inch every 2 seconds. Red burned 3 seconds, green 4, and yellow 5
+seconds per inch. Paper fuzes were 2 inches long, and could be cut
+shorter if necessary. Since firing a shell from a 24-pounder to burst
+at 2,000 yards meant a time flight of 6 seconds, a red fuze would
+serve without cutting, or a green fuze could be cut to 1-1/2 inches.
+Sea-coast fuzes of similar type were used in the 15-inch Rodmans until
+these big smoothbores were finally discarded sometime after 1900.
+
+The Bormann fuze (fig. 42a), the quickest of the oldtimers to set, was
+used for many years by the U. S. Field Artillery in spherical shell
+and shrapnel. Its pewter case, which screwed into the shell, contained
+a time ring of powder composition (A). Over this ring the top of the
+fuze case was marked in seconds. To set the fuze, the gunner merely
+had to cut the case at the proper mark--at four for 4 seconds, three
+for 3 seconds, and so on--to expose the ring of powder to the powder
+blast of the gun. The ring burned until it reached the zero end and
+set off the fine powder in the center of the case; the powder flash
+then blew out a tin plate in the bottom of the fuze and ignited the
+shell charge. Its short burning time (about 6 seconds) made the
+Bormann fuze obsolete as field gun ranges increased. The main trouble
+with this fuze, however, was that it did not always ignite!
+
+The percussion fuze was an extremely important development of the
+nineteenth century, particularly for the long-range rifles. The shock
+of impact caused this fuze to explode the shell at almost the instant
+of striking. Percussion fuzes were made in two general types: the
+front fuze, for the nose of an elongated projectile; and the base
+fuze, at the center of the projectile base. The base fuze was used
+with armor-piercing projectiles where it was desirable to have the
+shell penetrate the target for some distance before bursting. Both
+types were built on the same principles.
+
+A Hotchkiss front percussion fuze (fig. 42e) had a brass case which
+screwed into the shell. Inside the case was a plunger (A) containing a
+priming charge of powder, topped with a cap of fulminate. A brass wire
+at the base of the plunger was a safety device to keep the cap away
+from a sharp point at the top of the fuze until the shell struck the
+target. When the gun was fired, the shock of discharge dropped a lead
+plug (B) from the base of the fuze into the projectile cavity,
+permitting the plunger to drop to the bottom of the fuze and rest
+there, held by the spread wire, while the shell was in flight. Upon
+impact, the plunger was thrown forward, the cap struck the point and
+ignited the priming charge, which in turn fired the bursting charge of
+the shell.
+
+
+SCATTER PROJECTILES
+
+When one of our progenitors wrathfully seized a handful of pebbles and
+flung them at the flock of birds in his garden, he discovered the
+principle of the scatter projectile. Perhaps its simplest application
+was in the stone mortar (fig. 43). For this weapon, round stones about
+the size of a man's fist (and, by 1750, hand grenades) were dumped
+into a two-handled basket and let down into the bore. This primitive
+charge was used at close range against personnel in a fortification,
+where the effect of the descending projectiles would be uncommonly
+like a short but severe barrage of over-sized hailstones. There were
+6,000 stones in the ammunition inventory for Castillo de San Marcos in
+1707.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 43--SPANISH 16-INCH PEDRERO (1788). This mortar
+fired baskets of stones.]
+
+One of the earliest kinds of scatter projectiles was case shot, or
+canister, used at Constantinople in 1453. The name comes from its
+case, or can, usually metal, which was filled with scrap, musket
+balls, or slugs (fig. 41). Somewhat similar, but with larger iron
+balls and no metal case, was grape shot, so-called from the grape-like
+appearance of the clustered balls. A stand of grape in the 1700's
+consisted of a wooden disk at the base of a short wooden rod that
+served as the core around which the balls stood (fig. 41). The whole
+assembly was bagged in cloth and reinforced with a net of heavy cord.
+In later years grape was made by bagging two or three tiers of balls,
+each tier separated by an iron disk. Grape could disable men at almost
+900 yards and was much used during the 1700's. Eventually, it was
+almost replaced by case shot, which was more effective at shorter
+ranges (400 to 700 yards). Incidentally, there were 2,000 sacks of
+grape at the Castillo in 1740, more than any other type projectile.
+
+Spherical case shot (fig. 41) was an attempt to carry the
+effectiveness of grape and canister beyond its previous range, by
+means of a bursting shell. It was the forerunner of the shrapnel used
+so much in World War I and was invented by Lt. Henry Shrapnel, of the
+British Army, in 1784. There had been previous attempts to produce a
+projectile of this kind, such as the German Zimmerman's "hail shot" of
+1573--case shot with a bursting charge and a primitive time fuze--but
+Shrapnel's invention was the first air-bursting case shot which, in
+technical words, "imparted directional velocity" to the bullets it
+contained. Shrapnel's new shell was first used against the French in
+1808, but was not called by its inventor's name until 1852.
+
+
+INCENDIARIES AND CHEMICAL PROJECTILES
+
+Incendiary missiles, such as buckets or barrels filled with a fiercely
+burning composition, had been used from earliest times, long before
+cannon. These crude incendiaries survived through the 1700's as, for
+instance, the flaming cargoes of fire ships that were sent amidst the
+enemy fleet. But in the year 1672 there appeared an iron shell called
+a carcass (fig. 41), filled with pitch and other materials that burned
+at intense heat for about 8 minutes. The flame escaped through vents,
+three to five in number, around the fuze hole of the shell. The
+carcass was standard ammunition until smoothbores went out of use. The
+United States ordnance manual of 1861 lists carcasses for 12-, 18-,
+24-, 32-, and 42-pounder guns as well as 8-, 10-, and 13-inch mortars.
+
+During the late 1500's, the heating of iron cannon balls to serve as
+incendiaries was suggested, but not for another 200 years was the idea
+successfully carried out. Hot shot was nothing but round shot, heated
+to a red glow over a grate or in a furnace. It was fired from cannon
+at such inflammable targets as wooden ships or powder magazines.
+During the siege of Gibraltar in 1782, the English fired and destroyed
+a part of Spain's fleet with hot shot; and in United States seacoast
+forts shot furnaces were standard equipment during the first half of
+the 1800's. The little shot furnace at Castillo de San Marcos National
+Monument was built during the 1840's; a giant furnace of 1862 still
+remains at Fort Jefferson National Monument. Few other examples are
+left.
+
+Loading hot shot was not particularly dangerous. After the powder
+charge was in the gun with a dry wad in front of it, another wad of
+wet straw, or clay, was put into the barrel. When the cherry-red shot
+was rammed home, the wet wad prevented a premature explosion of the
+charge. According to the _Ordnance Manual_, the shot could cool in the
+gun without setting off the charge! Hot shot was superseded, about
+1850, by Martin's shell, filled with molten iron.
+
+The smoke shell appeared in 1681, but was never extensively used.
+Similarly, a form of gas projectile, called a "stink shell," was
+invented by a Confederate officer during the Civil War. Because of its
+"inhumanity," and probably because it was not thought valuable enough
+to offset its propaganda value to the enemy, it was not popular. These
+were the beginnings of the modern chemical shells.
+
+In connection with chemical warfare, it is of interest to review the
+Hussite siege of Castle Karlstein, near Prague, in the first quarter
+of the fifteenth century. The Hussites emplaced 46 small cannon, 5
+large cannon, and 5 catapults. The big guns would shoot once or twice
+a day, and the little ones from six to a dozen rounds.
+
+Marble pillars from Prague churches furnished the cannonballs. Many
+projectiles for the catapults, however, were rotting carcasses and
+other filth, hurled over the castle walls to cause disease and break
+the morale of the besieged. But the intrepid defenders neutralized
+these "chemical bursts" with lime and arsenic. After firing 10,930
+cannonballs, 932 stone fragments, 13 fire barrels, and 1,822 tons of
+filth, the Hussites gave up.
+
+
+FIXED AMMUNITION
+
+In early days, due partly to the roughly made balls, wads were very
+important as a means of confining the powder and increasing its
+efficiency. Wads could be made of almost any suitable material at
+hand, but perhaps straw or hay ones were most common. The hay was
+first twisted into a 1-inch rope, then a length of the rope was folded
+together several times and finally rolled up into a short cylinder, a
+little larger than the bore. After the handier sabots came into use,
+however, wads were needed only to keep the ball from rolling out when
+the muzzle was down, or for hot shot firing.
+
+Gunners early began to consolidate ammunition for easier and quicker
+loading. For instance, after the powder charge was placed in a bag,
+the next logical step was to attach the wad and the cannonball to it,
+so that loading could be made in one simple operation--pushing the
+single round into the bore (fig. 48). Toward that end, the sabot or
+"shoe" (fig. 41) took the place of the wad. The sabot was a wooden
+disk about the same diameter as the shot. It was secured to the ball
+with a pair of metal straps to make "semi-fixed" ammunition; then, if
+the neck of the powder bag were tied around the sabot, the result was
+one cartridge, containing powder, sabot, and ball, called "fixed"
+ammunition. Fixed ammunition was usual for the lighter field pieces by
+the end of the 1700's, while the bigger guns used "semi-fixed."
+
+In transportation, cartridges were protected by cylinders and caps of
+strong paper. Sabots were sometimes made of paper, too, or of
+compressed wood chips, to eliminate the danger of a heavy, unbroken
+sabot falling amongst friendly troops. A big mortar sabot was a lethal
+projectile in itself!
+
+
+ROCKETS
+
+Today's rocket projectiles are not exactly new inventions. About the
+time of artillery's beginning, the military fireworker came into the
+business of providing pyrotechnic engines of war; later, his job
+included the spectacular fireworks that were set off in celebration of
+victory or peace.
+
+Artillery manuals of very early date include chapters on the
+manufacture and use of fireworks. But in making war rockets there was
+no marked progress until the late eighteenth century. About 1780, the
+British Army in India watched the Orientals use them; and within the
+next quarter century William Congreve, who set about the task of
+producing a rocket that would carry an incendiary or explosive charge
+as far as 2 miles, had achieved such promising results that English
+boats fired rocket salvos against Boulogne in 1806, The British Field
+Rocket Brigade used rockets effectively at Leipsic in 1812--the first
+time they appeared in European land warfare. They were used again 2
+years later at Waterloo. The warheads of such rockets were cast iron,
+filled with black powder and fitted with percussion fuzes. They were
+fired from trough-like launching stands, which were adjustable for
+elevation.
+
+Rockets seem to have had a demoralizing effect upon untrained troops,
+and perhaps their use by the English against raw American levies at
+Bladenburg, in 1814, contributed to the rout of the United States
+forces and the capture of Washington. They also helped to inspire
+Francis Scott Key. Whether or not he understands the technical
+characteristics of the rocket, every schoolboy remembers the "rocket's
+red glare" of the National Anthem, wherein Key recorded his eyewitness
+account of the bombardment of Fort McHenry. The U. S. Army in Mexico
+(1847) included a rocket battery, and, indeed, war rockets were an
+important part of artillery resources until the rapid progress of
+gunnery in the latter 1800's made them obsolescent.
+
+
+
+
+TOOLS
+
+
+Gunner's equipment was numerous. There were the tompion (a lid that
+fitted over the muzzle of the gun to keep wind and weather out of the
+bore) and the lead cover for the vent; water buckets for the sponges
+and passing boxes for the powder; scrapers and tools for "searching"
+the bore to find dangerous cracks or holes; chocks for the wheels;
+blocks and rollers, lifting jacks, and gins for moving guns; and
+drills and augers for clearing the vent (figs. 17, 44). But among the
+most important tools for everyday firing were the following:
+
+_The sponge_ was a wooden cylinder about a foot long, the same
+diameter as the shot, and covered with lambskin. Like all bore tools,
+it was mounted on a long staff; after being dampened with water, it
+was used for cleaning the bore of the piece after firing. Essentially,
+sponging made sure there were no sparks in the bore when the new
+charge was put in. Often the sponge was on the opposite end of the
+rammer, and sometimes, instead of being lambskin-covered, the sponge
+was a bristle brush.
+
+_The wormer_ was a double screw, something like a pair of intertwined
+corkscrews, fixed to a long handle. Inserted in the gun bore and
+twisted, it seized and drew out wads or the remains of cartridge bags
+stuck in the gun after firing. Worm screws were sometimes mounted in
+the head of the sponge, so that the piece could be sponged and wormed
+at the same time.
+
+_The ladle_ was the most important of all the gunner's tools in the
+early years, since it was not only the measure for the powder but the
+only way to dump the powder in the bore at the proper place. It was
+generally made of copper, the same gauge as the windage of the gun;
+that is, the copper was just thick enough to fit between ball and
+bore.
+
+Essentially, the ladle is merely a scoop, a metal cylinder secured to
+a wooden disk on a long staff. But before the introduction of the
+powder cartridge, cutting a ladle to the right size was one of the
+most important accomplishments a gunner had to learn. Collado, that
+Spanish mathematician of the sixteenth century, used the culverin
+ladle as the master pattern (fig. 45). It was 4-1/2 calibers long and
+would carry exactly the weight of the ball in powder. Ladles for
+lesser guns could be proportioned (that is, shortened) from the master
+pattern.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 44--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S EQUIPMENT. (Not
+to scale.)]
+
+The ladle full of powder was pushed home in the bore. Turning the
+handle dumped the charge, which then had to be packed with the rammer.
+As powder charges were lessened in later years, the ladle was
+shortened; by 1750, it was only three shot diameters long. With
+cartridges, the ladle was no longer needed for loading the gun, but it
+was still handy for withdrawing the round.
+
+_The rammer_ was a wooden cylinder about the same diameter and length
+as the shot. It pushed home the powder charge, the wad, and the shot.
+As a precaution against faulty or double loading, marks on the rammer
+handle showed the loaders when the different parts of the charge were
+properly seated.
+
+_The gunner's pick or priming wire_ was a sharp pointed tool
+resembling a common ice pick blade. It was used to clear the vent of
+the gun and to pierce the powder bag so that flame from the primer
+could ignite the charge.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 45--SIXTEENTH CENTURY PATTERN FOR GUNNER'S
+LADLE.]
+
+_Handspikes_ were big pinch bars to manhandle cannon. They were used
+to move the carriage and to lift the breech of the gun so that the
+elevating quoin or screw might be adjusted. They were of different
+types (figs. 33a, 44), but were essentially 6-foot-long wooden poles,
+shod with iron. Some of them, like the Marsilly handspike (fig. 11),
+had rollers at the toe so that the wheelless rear of the carriage
+could be lifted with the handspike and rolled with comparative ease.
+
+_The gunner's quadrant_ (fig. 46), invented by Tartaglia about 1545,
+was an aiming device so basic that its principle is still in use
+today. The instrument looked like a carpenter's square, with a
+quarter-circle connecting the two arms. From the angle of the square
+dangled a plumb bob. The gunner laid the long arm of the quadrant in
+the bore of the gun, and the line of the bob against the graduated
+quarter-circle showed the gun's angle of elevation.
+
+The addition of the quadrant to the art of artillery opened a whole
+new field for the mathematicians, who set about compiling long,
+complicated, and jealously guarded tables for the gunner's guidance.
+But the theory was simple: since a cannon at 45° elevation would fire
+_ten_ times farther than it would when the barrel was level (at zero°
+elevation), the quadrant should be marked into _ten_ equal parts; the
+range of the gun would therefore increase by _one-tenth_ each time the
+gun was elevated to the next mark on the quadrant. In other words, the
+gunner could get the range he wanted simply by raising his piece to
+the proper mark on the instrument.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 46--SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S QUADRANT. The
+long end of the quadrant was laid in the bore of the cannon. The plumb
+bob indicated the degree of elevation on the scale.]
+
+Collado explained how it worked in the 1590's. "We experimented with a
+culverin that fired a 20-pound iron ball. At point-blank the first
+shot ranged 200 paces. At 45-degree elevation it shot ten times
+farther, or 2,000 paces.... If the point-blank range is 200 paces,
+then elevating to the _first_ position, or a tenth part of the
+quadrant, will gain 180 paces more, and advancing another point will
+gain so much again. It is the same with the other points up to the
+elevation of 45 degrees; each one gains the same 180 paces." Collado
+admitted that results were not always consistent with theory, but it
+was many years before the physicists understood the effect of air
+resistance on the trajectory of the projectile.
+
+_Sights_ on cannon were usually conspicuous by their absence in the
+early days. A dispart sight (an instrument similar to the modern
+infantry rifle sight), which compensated for the difference in
+diameter between the breech and the muzzle, was used in 1610, but the
+average artilleryman still aimed by sighting over the barrel. The
+Spanish gunner, however, performed an operation that put the bore
+parallel to the gunner's line of sight, and called it "killing the
+_vivo_" (_matar el vivo_). How _vivo_ affected aiming is easily seen:
+with its bore level, a 4-pounder falconet ranged 250 paces. But when
+the _top of the gun_ was level, the bore was slightly elevated and the
+range almost doubled to 440 paces.
+
+To "kill the _vivo_," you first had to find it. The gunner stuck his
+pick into the vent down to the bottom of the bore and marked the pick
+to show the depth. Next he took the pick to the muzzle, stood it up in
+the bore, and marked the height of the muzzle. The difference between
+the two marks, with an adjustment for the base ring (which was higher
+than the vent), was the _vivo_. A little wedge of the proper size,
+placed under the breech, would then eliminate the troublesome _vivo_.
+
+During the first half of the 1700's Spanish cannon of the "new
+invention" were made with a notch at the top of the base ring and a
+sighting button on the muzzle, and these features were also adopted by
+the French. But they soon went out of use. There was some argument, as
+late as the 1750's, about the desirability of casting the muzzle the
+same size as the base ring, so that the sighting line over the gun
+would always be parallel to the bore; but, since the gun usually had
+to be aimed higher than the objective, gunners claimed that a fat
+muzzle hid their target!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 47--SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S LEVEL. This
+tool was useful in many ways, but principally for finding the line of
+sight on the barrel of the gun.]
+
+Common practice for sighting, as late as the 1850's, was to find the
+center line at the top of the piece, mark it with chalk or filed
+notches, and use it as a sighting line. To find this center line, the
+gunner laid his level (fig. 47) first on the base ring, then on the
+muzzle. When the instrument was level atop these rings, the plumb bob
+was theoretically over the center line of the cannon. But guns were
+crudely made, and such a line on the outside of the piece was not
+likely to coincide exactly with the center line of the bore, so there
+was still ample opportunity for the gunner to exercise his "art."
+Nonetheless the marked lines did help, for the gunner learned by
+experiment how to compensate for errors.
+
+Fixed rear sights came into use early in the 1800's, and tangent
+sights (graduated rear sights) were in use during the War Between the
+States. The trunnion sight, a graduated sight attached to the
+trunnion, could be used when the muzzle had to be elevated so high
+that it blocked the gunner's view of the target.
+
+Naval gunnery officers would occasionally order all their guns trained
+at the same angle and elevated to the same degree. The gunner might
+not even see his target. While with the crude traversing mechanism of
+the early 1800's the gunners may not have laid their pieces too
+accurately, at least it was a step toward the indirect firing
+technique of later years which was to take full advantage of the
+longer ranges possible with modern cannon. Use of tangent and trunnion
+sights brought gunnery further into the realm of mathematical science;
+the telescopic sight came about the middle of the nineteenth century;
+gunners were developing into technicians whose job was merely to load
+the piece and set the instruments as instructed by officers in fire
+control posts some distance away from the gun.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRACTICE OF GUNNERY
+
+
+The old-time gunner was not only an artist, vastly superior to the
+average soldier, but, when circumstances permitted, he performed his
+wizardry with all due ceremony. Diego Ufano, Governor of Antwerp,
+watched a gun crew at work about 1500:
+
+"The piece having arrived at the battery and being provided with all
+needful materials, the gunner and his assistants take their places,
+and the drummer is to beat a roll. The gunner cleans the piece
+carefully with a dry rammer, and in pulling out the said rammer gives
+a dab or two to the mouth of the piece to remove any dirt adhering."
+(At this point it was customary to make the sign of the cross and
+invoke the intercession of St. Barbara.)
+
+"Then he has his assistant hold the sack, valise, or box of powder,
+and filling the charger level full, gives a slight movement with the
+other hand to remove any surplus, and then puts it into the gun as far
+as it will go. Which being done, he turns the charger so that the
+powder fills the breech and does not trail out on the ground, for when
+it takes fire there it is very annoying to the gunner." (And probably
+to the gentleman holding the sack.)
+
+"After this he will take the rammer, and, putting it into the gun,
+gives two or three good punches to ram the powder well in to the
+chamber, while his assistant holds a finger in the vent so that the
+powder does not leap forth. This done, he takes a second charge of
+powder and deposits it like the first; then puts in a wad of straw or
+rags which will be well packed to gather up all the loose powder. This
+having been well seated with strong blows of the rammer, he sponges
+out the piece.
+
+"Then the ball, well cleaned by his assistant, since there is danger
+to the gunner in balls to which sand or dirt adhere, is placed in the
+piece without forcing it till it touches gently on the wad, the gunner
+being careful not to hold himself in front of the gun, for it is silly
+to run danger without reason. Finally he will put in one more wad, and
+at another roll of drums the piece is ready to fire."
+
+Maximum firing rate for field pieces in the early days was eight
+rounds an hour. It increased later to 100 rounds a day for light guns
+and 30 for heavy pieces. (Modern non-automatic guns can fire 15
+rounds per minute.) After about 40 rounds the gun became so hot it was
+unsafe to load, whereupon it was "refreshed" with an hour's rest.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 48--LOADING A CANNON. Muzzle-loading smoothbore
+cannon were used for almost 700 years.]
+
+Approved aiming procedure was to make the first shot surely short, in
+order to have a measurement of the error. The second shot would be at
+greater elevation, but also cautiously short. After the third round,
+the gunner could hope to get hits. Beginners were cautioned against
+the desire to hit the target at the first shot, for, said a celebrated
+artillerist, "... you will get overs and cannot estimate how much
+over."
+
+As gunners gradually became professional soldiers, gun drills took on
+a more military aspect, as these seventeenth century commands show:
+
+  1. Put back your piece.
+  2. Order your piece to load.
+  3. Search your piece.
+  4. Sponge your piece.
+  5. Fill your ladle.
+  6. Put in your powder.
+  7. Empty your ladle.
+  8. Put up your powder.
+  9. Thrust home your wad.
+  10. Regard your shot.
+  11. Put home your shot gently.
+  12. Thrust home your wad with
+  three strokes.
+  13. Gauge your piece.
+
+Gunners had no trouble finding work, as is singularly illustrated by
+the case of Andrew Ransom, a stray Englishman captured near St.
+Augustine in the late 1600's. He was condemned to death. The
+executional device failed, however, and the padres in attendance took
+it as an act of God and led Ransom to sanctuary at the friary.
+Meanwhile, the Spanish governor learned this man was an artillerist
+and a maker of "artificial fires." The governor offered to "protect"
+him if he would live at the Castillo and put his talents to use.
+Ransom did.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 49--A SIEGE BOMBARD OF THE 1500's.]
+
+By 1800, although guns could be served with as few as three men,
+efficient drill usually called for a much larger force. The smallest
+crew listed in the United States Navy manual of 1866 was seven: first
+and second gun captains, two loaders, two spongers, and a "powder
+monkey" (powder boy). An 11-inch pivot-gun on its revolving carriage
+was served by 24 crewmen and a powderman. In the field, transportation
+for a 24-pounder siege gun took 10 horses and 5 drivers.
+
+Twelve rounds an hour was good practice for heavy guns during the
+Civil War period, although the figure could be upped to 20 rounds. By
+this date, of course, although the principles of muzzle loading had
+not changed, actual loading of the gun was greatly simplified by using
+fixed and semi-fixed ammunition. Loading technique varied with the
+gun, but the following summary of drill from the United States _Heavy
+Ordnance Manual_ of 1861 gives a fair idea of how the crew handled a
+siege gun:
+
+In the first place, consider that the equipment is all in its proper
+place. The gun is on a two-wheeled siege carriage, and is "in
+battery," or pushed forward on the platform until the muzzle is in the
+earthwork embrasure. On each side of the gun are three handspikes,
+leaning against the parapet. On the right of the gun a sponge and a
+rammer are laid on a prop, about 6 feet away from the carriage. Near
+the left muzzle of the gun is a stack of cannonballs, wads, and a
+"passbox" or powder bucket. Hanging from the cascabel are two pouches:
+the tube-pouch containing friction "tubes" (primers for the vent) and
+the lanyard; and the gunner's pouch with the gunner's level,
+breech-sight, pick, gimlet, vent-punch, chalk, and fingerstall (a
+leather cover for the gunner's second left finger when the gun gets
+hot). Under the wheels are two chocks; the vent-cover is on the vent,
+a tompion in the muzzle; a broom leans against the parapet beyond the
+stack of cannonballs. A wormer, ladle, and wrench were also part of
+the battery equipment.
+
+The crew consisted of a gunner and six cannoneers. At the command
+_Take implements_ the gunner stepped to the cascabel and handed the
+vent-cover to No. 2; the tube-pouch he gave to No. 3; he put on his
+fingerstall, leveled the gun with the elevating screw, applied his
+level to base ring and muzzle to find the highest points of the
+barrel, and marked these points with chalk for a line of sight. His
+six crewmen took their positions about a yard apart, three men on each
+side of the gun, with handspikes ready.
+
+_From battery_ was the first command of the drill. The gunner stepped
+from behind the gun, while the handspikemen embarred their spikes.
+Cannoneers Nos. 1, 3, and 5 were on the right side of the gun, and the
+even-numbered men were on the left. Nos. 1 and 2 put their spikes
+under the front of the wheels; Nos. 3 and 4 embarred under the
+carriage cheeks to bear down on the rear spokes of the wheel; Nos. 5
+and 6 had their spikes under the maneuvering bolts of the trail for
+guiding the piece away from the parapet. With the gunner's word
+_Heave_, the men at the wheels put on the pressure, and with
+successive _heaves_ the gun was moved backward until the muzzle was
+clear of the embrasure by a yard. The crew then unbarred, and Nos. 1
+and 2 chocked the wheels.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 50--GUN DRILL IN THE 1850's.]
+
+_Load_ was the second command. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 laid down their
+spikes; No. 2 took out the tompion; No. 1 took up the sponge and put
+its wooly head into the muzzle; No. 2 stepped up to the muzzle and
+seized the sponge staff to help No. 1. In five counts they pushed the
+sponge to the bottom of the bore. Meanwhile, No. 4 took the passbox
+and went to the magazine for a cartridge.
+
+The gunner put his finger over the vent, and with his right hand
+turned the elevating screw to adjust the piece conveniently for
+loading. No. 3 picked up the rammer.
+
+At the command _Sponge_, the men at the sponge pressed the tool
+against the bottom of the bore and gave it three turns from right to
+left, then three turns from left to right. Next the sponge was drawn,
+and while No. 1 exchanged it for No. 3's rammer, the No. 2 man took
+the cartridge from No. 4, and put it in the bore. He helped No. 1 push
+it home with the rammer, while No. 4 went for a ball and, if
+necessary, a wad.
+
+_Ram!_ The men on the rammer drew it out an arm's length and rammed
+the cartridge with a single stroke. No. 2 took the ball from No. 4,
+while No. 1 threw out the rammer. With the ball in the bore, both men
+again manned the rammer to force the shot home and delivered a final
+single-stroke ram. No. 1 put the rammer back on its prop. The gunner
+stuck his pick into the vent to prick open the powder bag.
+
+The command _In battery_ was the signal for the cannoneers to man the
+handspikes again, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 working at the wheels and Nos. 5
+and 6 guiding the trail as before. After successive _heaves_, the
+gunner halted the piece with the wheels touching the hurter--the
+timber laid at the foot of the parapet to stop the wheels.
+
+_Point_ was the next order. No. 3, the man with the tube-pouch, got
+out his lanyard and hooked it to a primer. Nos. 5 and 6 put their
+handspikes under the trail, ready to move the gun right or left. The
+gunner went to the breech of the gun, removed his pick from the vent,
+and, sighting down the barrel, directed the spikemen: he would tap the
+right side of the breech, and No. 5 would heave on his handspike to
+inch the trail toward the left. A tap on the left side would move No.
+6 in the opposite direction. Next, the gunner put the breech-sight (if
+he needed it) carefully on the chalk line of the base ring and ran the
+elevating screw to the proper elevation.
+
+As soon as the gun was properly laid, the gunner said _Ready_ and
+signaled with both hands. He took the breech-sight off the gun and
+walked over to windward, where he could watch the effect of the shot.
+Nos. 1 and 2 had the chocks, ready to block the wheels at the end of
+the recoil. No. 3 put the primer in the vent, uncoiled the lanyard and
+broke a full pace to the rear with his left foot. He stretched the
+lanyard, holding it in his right hand.
+
+At _Fire!_ No. 3 gave a smart pull on the lanyard. The gun fired, the
+carriage recoiled, and Nos. 1 and 2 chocked the wheels. No. 3 rewound
+his lanyard, and the gunner, having watched the shot, returned to his
+post.
+
+_The development of heavy ordnance through the ages is a subject with
+many fascinating ramifications, but this survey has of necessity been
+brief._ _It has only been possible to indicate the general pattern.
+Most of the interesting details must await the publication of much
+larger volumes. It is hoped, however, that enough information has been
+included herein to enhance the enjoyment that comes from inspecting
+the great variety of cannon and projectiles that are to be seen
+throughout the National Park System._
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+
+Most technical phrases are explained in the text and illustrations
+(see fig. 51). For convenient reference, however, some important words
+are defined below:
+
+*Ballistics*--the science dealing with the motion of projectiles.
+
+*Barbette carriage*--as used here, a traverse carriage on which a gun
+is mounted to fire over a parapet.
+
+*Bomb, bombshell*--see projectiles.
+
+Breechblock--a movable piece which closes the breech of a cannon.
+
+*Caliber*--diameter of the bore; also used to express bore length. A
+30-caliber gun has a bore length 30 times the diameter of the bore.
+
+*Cartridge*--a bag or case holding a complete powder charge for the
+cannon, and in some instances also containing the projectile.
+
+*Casemate carriage*--as used here, a traverse carriage in a fort
+gunroom (casemate). The gun fired through an embrasure or loophole in
+the wall of the room.
+
+*Chamber*--the part of the bore which holds the propelling charge,
+especially when of different diameter than the rest of the bore; in
+chambered muzzle-loaders, the chamber diameter was smaller than that
+of the bore.
+
+*Elevation*--the angle between the axis of a piece and the horizontal
+plane.
+
+*Fuze*--a device to ignite the charge of a shell or other projectile.
+
+*Grommet*--a rope ring used as a wad to hold a cannonball in place in
+the bore.
+
+*Gun*--any firearm; in the limited sense, a long cannon with high
+muzzle velocity and flat trajectory.
+
+*Howitzer*--a short cannon, intermediate between the gun and mortar.
+
+*Lay*--to aim a gun.
+
+*Limber*--a two-wheeled vehicle to which the gun trail is attached for
+transport.
+
+*Mandrel*--a metal bar, used as a core around which metal may be
+forged or otherwise shaped.
+
+*Mortar*--a very short cannon used for high or curved trajectory
+firing.
+
+*Point-blank*--as used here, the point where the projectile, when
+fired from a level bore, first strikes the horizontal ground in front
+of the cannon.
+
+*Projectiles*--_canister or case shot_: a can filled with small
+missiles that scatter after firing from the gun. _Grape shot_: a
+cluster of small iron balls, which scatter upon firing. _Shell_:
+explosive missile; a hollow cast-iron ball, filled with gunpowder,
+with a fuze to produce detonation; a long, hollow projectile, filled
+with explosive and fitted with a fuze. _Shot_: a solid projectile,
+non-explosive.
+
+*Quoin*--a wedge placed under the breech of a gun to fix its
+elevation.
+
+*Range*--The horizontal distance from a gun to its target or to the
+point where the projectile first strikes the ground. _Effective range_
+is the distance at which effective results may be expected, and is
+usually not the same as _maximum range_, which means the extreme limit
+of range.
+
+*Rotating band*--a band of soft metal, such as copper, which encircles
+the projectile near its base. By engaging the lands of the spiral
+rifling in the bore, the band causes rotation of the projectile.
+Rotating bands for muzzle-loading cannon were expansion rings, and the
+powder blast expanded the ring into the rifling grooves.
+
+*Train*--to aim a gun.
+
+*Trajectory*--curved path taken by a projectile in its flight through
+the air.
+
+*Transom*--horizontal beam between the cheeks of a gun carriage.
+
+*Traverse carriage*--as used here, a stationary gun mount, consisting
+of a gun carriage on a wheeled platform which can be moved about a
+pivot for aiming the gun to right or left.
+
+*Windage*--as used here, the difference between the diameter of the
+shot and the diameter of the bore.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 51--THE PARTS OF A CANNON.]
+
+
+
+
+SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+The following is a listing of the more important sources dealing with
+the development of artillery which have been consulted in the
+production of this booklet. None of the German or Italian sources have
+been included, since practically no German or Italian guns were used
+in this country.
+
+*SPANISH ORDNANCE.* Luis Collado, "Platica Manual de la Artillería"
+ms., Milan 1592, and Diego Ufano, _Artillerie_, n. p., 1621, have
+detailed information on sixteenth century guns, and Tomás de Morla,
+_Láminas pertenecientes al Tratado de Artillería_, Madrid, 1803,
+illustrates eighteenth century material. Thor Borresen, "Spanish Guns
+and Carriages, 1686-1800" ms., Yorktown, 1938, summarizes eighteenth
+century changes in Spanish and French artillery. Information on
+colonial use of cannon can be found in mss. of the Archivo General de
+Indias as follows: Inventories of Castillo de San Marcos armament in
+1683 (58-2-2,32/2), 1706 (58-1-27,89/2), 1740 (58-1-32), 1763
+(86-7-11,19), Zuñiga's report on the 1702 siege of St. Augustine
+(58-2-8,B3), and Arredondo's "Plan de la Ciudad de Sn. Agustín de la
+Florida" (87-1-1/2, ms. map); and other works, including [Andres
+Gonzales de Barcía,] _Ensayo Cronológico para la Historia General de
+la Florida_, Madrid, 1723; J. T. Connor, editor, _Colonial Records of
+Spanish Florida_, Deland, 1930, Vol. II., Manuel de Montiano, _Letters
+of Montiano_ (Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, v. VII,
+pt. I), Savannah 1909; Albert Manucy, "Ordnance used at Castillo de
+San Marcos, 1672-1834," St. Augustine, 1939.
+
+*ENGLISH ORDNANCE.* For detailed information John Müller, _Treatise of
+Artillery_, London, 1756, has been the basic source for eighteenth
+century material. William Bourne, _The Arte of Shooting in Great
+Ordnance_, London, 1587, discusses sixteenth century artillery; and
+the anonymous _New Method of Fortification_, London, 1748, contains
+much seventeenth century information. For colonial artillery data
+there is John Smith, _The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-Englande,
+and the Summer Isles_, Richmond, 1819; [Edward Kimber] _Late
+Expedition to the Gates of St. Augustine_, Boston, 1935; and C. L.
+Mowat, _East Florida as a British Province_, 1763-1784, Los Angeles,
+1939. Charles J. Foulkes, _The Gun-Founders of England_, Cambridge,
+1937, discusses the construction of early cannon in England.
+
+*FRENCH ORDNANCE.* M. Surirey de Saint-Remy, _Mémoires d'Artillerie_,
+3rd edition Paris, 1745, is the standard source for French artillery
+material in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Col. Favé,
+_Études sur le Passé et l'Avenir de L'Artillerie_, Paris, 1863, is a
+good general history. Louis Figurier, _Armes de Guerre_, Paris, 1870,
+is also useful.
+
+*UNITED STATES ORDNANCE.* Of first importance is Louis de Tousard,
+_American Artillerist's Companion_, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1809-13.
+For performance and use of artillery during the 1860's the following
+sources are useful: John Gibbon, _The Artillerist's Manual_, New York,
+1863; Q. A. Gillmore, _Engineer and Artillery Operations against the
+Defences of Charleston Harbor in 1863_, New York, 1865; his _Official
+Report ... of the Siege and Reduction of Fort Pulaski, Georgia_, New
+York, 1862; and the _Official Records of Union and Confederate Armies
+and Navies_. Ordnance manuals of the period include: _Instruction for
+Heavy Artillery_, U. S., Charleston, 1861; _Ordnance Instructions for
+the United States Navy_, Washington, 1866; J. Gorgas, _The Ordnance
+Manual for the Use of the Officers of the Confederate States Army_,
+Richmond, 1863. For United States developments after 1860: L. L.
+Bruff, _A Text-book of Ordnance and Gunnery_, New York, 1903; F. T.
+Hines and F. W. Ward, _The Service of Coast Artillery_, New York,
+1910; the U. S. Field Artillery School's _Construction of Field
+Artillery Matériel_ and _General Characteristics of Field Artillery
+Ammunition_, Fort Sill, 1941.
+
+*GENERAL.* For the history of artillery, as well as additional
+biographical and technical details, there is the Field Artillery
+School's excellent booklet, _History of the Development of Field
+Artillery Matériel_, Fort Sill, 1941. Henry W. L. Hime, _The Origin of
+Artillery_, New York, 1915, is most useful, as is that standard work,
+the _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 1894 edition: Arms and Armour,
+Artillery, Gunmaking, Gunnery, Gunpowder; 1938 edition: Artillery,
+Coehoorn, Engines of War, Fireworks, Gribeauval, Gun, Gunnery,
+Gunpowder, Musket, Ordnance, Rocket, Small arms, and Tartaglia.
+
+
+
+
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+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Artillery through the Ages - A. Manucy</title>
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Artillery Through the Ages, by Albert Manucy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Artillery Through the Ages
+       A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America
+
+Author: Albert Manucy
+
+Release Date: January 30, 2007 [EBook #20483]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARTILLERY THROUGH THE AGES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Christine P. Travers and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h1>ARTILLERY<br>
+
+THROUGH THE AGES</h1>
+
+<a id="imgx001a" name="imgx001a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="decoration" title="decoration">
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>A Short Illustrated History of Cannon,<br>
+Emphasizing Types Used in America</h2>
+
+<a id="imgx001b" name="imgx001b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgx001b.jpg" width="400" height="222" alt="French 12-pounder Field Gun" title="French 12-pounder Field Gun">
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h4>UNITED STATES<br>
+DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR</h4>
+
+<h6>Fred A. Seaton, <i>Secretary</i></h6>
+
+<a id="imgx002" name="imgx002"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgx002.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="Department of Interior" title="Department of Interior">
+</div>
+
+<h4>NATIONAL PARK SERVICE</h4>
+
+<h6>Conrad L. Wirth, <i>Director</i></h6>
+
+
+<h6>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents<br>
+U. S. Government Printing Office<br>
+Washington 25, D. C. · Price 35 cents</h6>
+
+
+<h6>(<i>Cover</i>) FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (1700-1750)</h6>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>ARTILLERY<br>
+
+THROUGH THE AGES</h1>
+
+
+<h2>A Short Illustrated History of Cannon,<br>
+Emphasizing Types Used in America</h2>
+
+<h5><i>by</i></h5>
+
+<h4><i>ALBERT MANUCY</i></h4>
+
+<h4><i>Historian<br>
+Southeastern National Monuments</i></h4>
+
+
+<h6>Drawings by Author</h6>
+
+<h6>Technical Review by Harold L. Peterson</h6>
+
+
+<h6><i>National Park Service Interpretive Series<br>
+History No. 3</i></h6>
+
+<p class="p2"> </p>
+
+<h4>UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE</h4>
+
+<h6><i>WASHINGTON: 1949</i><br>
+(Reprint 1956)</h6>
+
+
+<p class="p4">Many of the types of cannon described in this booklet may be seen in
+areas of the National Park System throughout the country. Some parks
+with especially fine collections are:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Castillo de San Marcos National Monument</span>, seventeenth and eighteenth
+century field and garrison guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park</span>, Civil War field
+and siege guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colonial National Historical Park</span>, seventeenth and eighteenth century
+field and siege guns, eighteenth century naval guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine</span>, early nineteenth
+century field guns and Civil War garrison guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fort Pulaski National Monument</span>, Civil War garrison guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gettysburg National Military Park</span>, Civil War field guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Petersburg National Military Park</span>, Civil War field and siege guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shiloh National Military Park</span>, Civil War field guns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vicksburg National Military Park</span>, Civil War field and siege guns.</p>
+
+<a id="imgx003" name="imgx003"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgx003.jpg" width="100" height="113" alt="Department of Interior" title="Department of Interior">
+</div>
+
+<p class="box">The National Park System is dedicated to conserving the scenic,
+scientific, and historic heritage of the United States for the benefit
+and enjoyment of its people.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">Contents</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#page001"><span class="col05">THE ERA OF ARTILLERY</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page001"><span class="col10">The Ancient Engines of War</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page003"><span class="col10">Gunpowder Comes to Europe</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page003"><span class="col10">The Bombards</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page005"><span class="col10">Sixteenth Century Cannon</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page007"><span class="col10">The Seventeenth Century and Gustavus Adolphus</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page009"><span class="col10">The Eighteenth Century</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page012"><span class="col10">United States Guns of the Early 1800's</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page013"><span class="col10">Rifling</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page017"><span class="col10">The War Between the States</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page020"><span class="col10">The Change into Modern Artillery</span></a></p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#page023"><span class="col05">GUNPOWDER</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page026"><span class="col10">Primers</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page027"><span class="col10">Modern Use of Black Powder</span></a></p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#page031"><span class="col05">THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CANNON</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page031"><span class="col10">The Early Smoothbore Cannon</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page041"><span class="col10">Smoothbores of the Later Period</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page046"><span class="col10">Garrison and Ship Guns</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page052"><span class="col10">Siege Cannon</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page054"><span class="col10">Field Cannon</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page056"><span class="col10">Howitzers</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page058"><span class="col10">Mortars</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page061"><span class="col10">Petards</span></a></p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#page063"><span class="col05">PROJECTILES</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page063"><span class="col10">Solid Shot</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page065"><span class="col10">Explosive Shells</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page066"><span class="col10">Fuzes</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page068"><span class="col10">Scatter Projectiles</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page069"><span class="col10">Incendiaries and Chemical Projectiles</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page070"><span class="col10">Fixed Ammunition</span></a><br>
+<a href="#page071"><span class="col10">Rockets</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#page073"><span class="col05">TOOLS</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#page079"><span class="col05">THE PRACTICE OF GUNNERY</span></a></p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#page087"><span class="col05">GLOSSARY</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#page091"><span class="col05">SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></a></p>
+
+
+<a id="imgx004" name="imgx004"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgx004.jpg" width="400" height="529" alt="PIERRIERS VULGARLY CALLED PATTEREROS,
+from Francis Grose, Military Antiquities, 1796." title="PIERRIERS VULGARLY CALLED PATTEREROS,
+from Francis Grose, Military Antiquities, 1796.">
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">The Era of Artillery</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page001" name="page001"></a>(p. 001)</span>
+
+<p><i>Looking at an old-time cannon, most people are sure of just one
+thing: the shot came out of the front end. For that reason these pages
+are written; people are curious about the fascinating weapon that so
+prodigiously and powerfully lengthened the warrior's arm. And theirs
+is a justifiable curiosity, because the gunner and his "art" played a
+significant role in our history.</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>THE ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR</h4>
+
+
+<p>To compare a Roman catapult with a modern trench mortar seems absurd.
+Yet the only basic difference is the kind of energy that sends the
+projectile on its way.</p>
+
+<p>In the dawn of history, war engines were performing the function of
+artillery (which may be loosely defined as a means of hurling missiles
+too heavy to be thrown by hand), and with these crude weapons the
+basic principles of artillery were laid down. The Scriptures record
+the use of ingenious machines on the walls of Jerusalem eight
+centuries B.C.&mdash;machines that were probably predecessors of the
+catapult and ballista, getting power from twisted ropes made of hair,
+hide or sinew. The ballista had horizontal arms like a bow. The arms
+were set in rope; a cord, fastened to the arms like a bowstring, fired
+arrows, darts, and stones. Like a modern field gun, the ballista shot
+low and directly toward the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The catapult was the howitzer, or mortar, of its day and could throw a
+hundred-pound stone 600 yards in a high arc to strike the enemy behind
+his wall or batter down his defenses. "In the middle of the ropes a
+wooden arm rises like a chariot pole," wrote the historian
+Marcellinus. "At the top of the arm hangs a sling. When battle is
+commenced, a round stone is set in the sling. Four soldiers on each
+side of the engine wind the arm down until it is almost level with the
+ground. When the arm is set free, it springs up and hurls the stone
+forth from its sling." In early times the weapon was called a
+"scorpion," for like this dreaded insect it bore its "sting" erect.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page002" name="page002"></a>(p. 002)</span>
+
+<a id="img001" name="img001"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="200" height="143" alt="Figure 1&mdash;BALLISTA." title="Figure 1&mdash;BALLISTA.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 1&mdash;BALLISTA.</span> Caesar covered his landing in
+Britain with fire from catapults and ballistas.</p>
+
+
+<p>The trebuchet was another war machine used extensively during the
+Middle Ages. Essentially, it was a seesaw. Weights on the short arm
+swung the long throwing arm.</p>
+
+<a id="img002" name="img002"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img002.jpg" width="200" height="139" alt="Figure 2&mdash;CATAPULT." title="Figure 2&mdash;CATAPULT.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 2&mdash;CATAPULT.</p>
+
+<a id="img003" name="img003"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img003.jpg" width="350" height="130" alt="Figure 3&mdash;TREBUCHET." title="Figure 3&mdash;TREBUCHET.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 3&mdash;TREBUCHET.</span>
+A heavy trebuchet could throw a 300-pound stone 300 yards.</p>
+
+
+<p>These weapons could be used with telling effect, as the Romans learned
+from Archimedes in the siege of Syracuse (214-212 B.C.). As Plutarch
+relates, "Archimedes soon began to play his engines upon the Romans
+and their ships, and shot stones of such an enormous size and with so
+incredible a noise and velocity that nothing could stand before them.
+At length the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page003" name="page003"></a>(p. 003)</span>
+Romans were so terrified that, if they saw but
+a rope or a beam projecting over the walls of Syracuse, they cried out
+that Archimedes was leveling some machine at them, and turned their
+backs and fled."</p>
+
+<p>Long after the introduction of gunpowder, the old engines of war
+continued in use. Often they were side by side with cannon.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GUNPOWDER COMES TO EUROPE</h4>
+
+<p>Chinese "thunder of the earth" (an effect produced by filling a large
+bombshell with a gunpowder mixture) sounded faint reverberations
+amongst the philosophers of the western world as early as A.D. 300.
+Though the Chinese were first instructed in the scientific casting of
+cannon by missionaries during the 1600's, crude cannon seem to have
+existed in China during the twelfth century and even earlier.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe, a ninth century Latin manuscript contains a formula for
+gunpowder. But the first show of firearms in western Europe may have
+been by the Moors, at Saragossa, in A.D. 1118. In later years the
+Spaniards turned the new weapon against their Moorish enemies at the
+siege of Cordova (1280) and the capture of Gibraltar (1306).</p>
+
+<p>It therefore follows that the Arabian <i>madfaa</i>, which in turn had
+doubtless descended from an eastern predecessor, was the original
+cannon brought to western civilization. This strange weapon seems to
+have been a small, mortar-like instrument of wood. Like an egg in an
+egg cup, the ball rested on the muzzle end until firing of the charge
+tossed it in the general direction of the enemy. Another primitive
+cannon, with narrow neck and flared mouth, fired an iron dart. The
+shaft of the dart was wrapped with leather to fit tightly into the
+neck of the piece. A red-hot bar thrust through a vent ignited the
+charge. The range was about 700 yards. The bottle shape of the weapon
+perhaps suggested the name <i>pot de fer</i> (iron jug) given early cannon,
+and in the course of evolution the narrow neck probably enlarged until
+the bottle became a straight tube.</p>
+
+<p>During the Hundred Years' War (1339-1453) cannon came into general
+use. Those early pieces were very small, made of iron or cast bronze,
+and fired lead or iron balls. They were laid directly on the ground,
+with muzzles elevated by mounding up the earth. Being cumbrous and
+inefficient, they played little part in battle, but were quite useful
+in a siege.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BOMBARDS</h4>
+
+<p>By the middle 1400's the little popguns that tossed one-or two-pound
+pellets had grown into enormous bombards. Dulle Griete, the giant
+bombard of Ghent, had a 25-inch caliber and fired a 700-pound granite
+ball. It was built in 1382. Edinburgh Castle's famous Mons Meg threw a
+19-1/2-inch iron ball some 1,400 yards (a mile is 1,760 yards), or a
+stone ball twice that far.</p>
+
+<p>The
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page004" name="page004"></a>(p. 004)</span>
+Scottish kings used Meg between 1455 and 1513 to reduce
+the castles of rebellious nobles. A baron's castle was easily knocked
+to pieces by the prince who owned, or could borrow, a few pieces of
+heavy ordnance. The towering walls of the old-time strongholds slowly
+gave way to the earthwork-protected Renaissance fortification, which
+is typified in the United States by Castillo de San Marcos, in
+Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, St. Augustine, Fla.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most formidable bombards were those of the Turks, who used
+exceptionally large cast-bronze guns at the siege of Constantinople in
+1453. One of these monsters weighed 19 tons and hurled a 600-pound
+stone seven times a day. It took some 60 oxen and 200 men to move this
+piece, and the difficulty of transporting such heavy ordnance greatly
+reduced its usefulness. The largest caliber gun on record is the Great
+Mortar of Moscow. Built about 1525, it had a bore of 36 inches, was 18
+feet long, and fired a stone projectile weighing a ton. But by this
+time the big guns were obsolete, although some of the old Turkish
+ordnance survived the centuries to defend Constantinople against a
+British squadron in 1807. In that defense a great stone cut the
+mainmast of the British flagship, and another crushed through the
+English ranks to kill or wound 60 men.</p>
+
+<a id="img004" name="img004"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="250" height="161" alt="Figure 4&mdash;EARLY SMALL BOMBARD (1330)" title="Figure 4&mdash;EARLY SMALL BOMBARD (1330)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 4&mdash;EARLY SMALL BOMBARD (1330).</span> It was made of
+wrought-iron bars, bound with hoops.</p>
+
+<p>The ponderosity of the large bombards held them to level land, where
+they were laid on rugged mounts of the heaviest wood, anchored by
+stakes driven into the ground. A gunner would try to put his bombard
+100 yards from the wall he wanted to batter down. One would surmise
+that the gunner, being so close to a castle wall manned by expert
+Genoese cross-bowmen, was in a precarious position. He was; but
+earthworks or a massive wooden shield arranged like a seesaw over his
+gun gave him fair protection. Lowering the front end of the shield
+made a barricade behind which he could charge his muzzle loader (see
+fig. <a href="#img049">49</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In those days, and for many decades thereafter, neither gun crews nor
+transport were permanent. They had to be hired as they were needed.
+Master gunners were usually civilian "artists," not professional
+soldiers, and many of them had cannon built for rental to customers.
+Artillerists obtained the right to captured metals such as tools and
+town bells, and this loot would be cast into guns or ransomed for
+cash. The making of guns
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page005" name="page005"></a>(p. 005)</span>
+and gunpowder, the loading of
+bombs, and even the serving of cannon were jealously guarded trade
+secrets. Gunnery was a closed corporation, and the gunner himself a
+guildsman. The public looked upon him as something of a sorcerer in
+league with the devil, and a captured artilleryman was apt to be
+tortured and mutilated. At one time the Pope saw fit to excommunicate
+all gunners. Also since these specialists kept to themselves and did
+not drink or plunder, their behavior was ample proof to the good
+soldier of the old days that artillerists were hardly human.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SIXTEENTH CENTURY CANNON</h4>
+
+<p>After 1470 the art of casting greatly improved in Europe. Lighter
+cannon began to replace the bombards. Throughout the 1500's
+improvement was mainly toward lightening the enormous weights of guns
+and projectiles, as well as finding better ways to move the artillery.
+Thus, by 1556 Emperor Ferdinand was able to march against the Turks
+with 57 heavy and 127 light pieces of ordnance.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the 1400's cast-iron balls had made an appearance.
+The greater efficiency of the iron ball, together with an improvement
+in gunpowder, further encouraged the building of smaller and stronger
+guns. Before 1500 the siege gun had been the predominant piece. Now
+forged-iron cannon for field, garrison, and naval service&mdash;and later,
+cast-iron pieces&mdash;were steadily developed along with cast-bronze guns,
+some of which were beautifully ornamented with Renaissance
+workmanship. The casting of trunnions on the gun made elevation and
+transportation easier, and the cumbrous beds of the early days gave
+way to crude artillery carriages with trails and wheels. The French
+invented the limber and about 1550 took a sizable forward step by
+standardizing the calibers of their artillery.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the first cannon had come to the New World with Columbus.
+As the <i>Pinta's</i> lookout sighted land on the early morn of October 12,
+1492, the firing of a lombard carried the news over the moonlit waters
+to the flagship <i>Santa María</i>. Within the next century, not only the
+galleons, but numerous fortifications on the Spanish Main were armed
+with guns, thundering at the freebooters who disputed Spain's
+ownership of American treasure. Sometimes the adventurers seized
+cannon as prizes, as did Drake in 1586 when he made off with 14 bronze
+guns from St. Augustine's little wooden fort of San Juan de Pinos.
+Drake's loot no doubt included the ordnance of a 1578 list, which
+gives a fair idea of the armament for an important frontier
+fortification: three reinforced cannon, three demiculverins, two
+sakers (one broken), a demisaker and a falcon, all properly mounted on
+elevated platforms in the fort to cover every approach. Most of them
+were highly ornamented pieces founded between 1546 and 1555. The
+reinforced cannon, for instance, which seem to have been cast from the
+same mold, each bore the figure of a savage hefting a club in one hand
+and grasping a coin in the other. On a demiculverin, a bronze
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page006" name="page006"></a>(p. 006)</span>
+mermaid held a turtle, and the other guns were decorated with
+arms, escutcheons, the founder's name, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>In the English colonies during the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, lighter pieces seem to have been the more prevalent; there
+is no record of any "cannon." (In those days, "cannon" were a special
+class.) Culverins are mentioned occasionally and demiculverins rather
+frequently, but most common were the falconets, falcons, minions, and
+sakers. At Fort Raleigh, Jamestown, Plymouth, and some other
+settlements the breech-loading half-pounder perrier or "Patterero"
+mounted on a swivel was also in use. (See <a href="#imgx001b">frontispiece</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>It was during the sixteenth century that the science of ballistics had
+its beginning. In 1537, Niccolo Tartaglia published the first
+scientific treatise on gunnery. Principles of construction were tried
+and sometimes abandoned, only to reappear for successful application
+in later centuries. Breech-loading guns, for instance, had already
+been invented. They were unsatisfactory because the breech could not
+be sealed against escape of the powder gases, and the crude, chambered
+breechblocks, jammed against the bore with a wedge, often cracked
+under the shock of firing. Neither is spiral rifling new. It appeared
+in a few guns during the 1500's.</p>
+
+<p>Mobile artillery came on the field with the cart guns of John Zizka
+during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1419-24). Using light guns, hauled
+by the best of horses instead of the usual oxen, the French further
+improved field artillery, and maneuverable French guns proved to be an
+excellent means for breaking up heavy masses of pikemen in the Italian
+campaigns of the early 1500's. The Germans under Maximilian I,
+however, took the armament leadership away from the French with guns
+that ranged 1,500 yards and with men who had earned the reputation of
+being the best gunners in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Then about 1525 the famous Spanish Square of heavily armed pikemen and
+musketeers began to dominate the battlefield. In the face of musketry,
+field artillery declined. Although artillery had achieved some
+mobility, carriages were still cumbrous. To move a heavy English
+cannon, even over good ground, it took 23 horses; a culverin needed
+nine beasts. Ammunition&mdash;mainly cast-iron round shot, the bomb (an
+iron shell filled with gunpowder), canister (a can filled with small
+projectiles), and grape shot (a cluster of iron balls)&mdash;was carried
+the primitive way, in wheelbarrows and carts or on a man's back. The
+gunner's pace was the measure of field artillery's speed: the gunner
+<i>walked</i> beside his gun! Furthermore, some of these experts were
+getting along in years. During Elizabeth's reign several of the
+gunners at the Tower of London were over 90 years old.</p>
+
+<p>Lacking mobility, guns were captured and recaptured with every
+changing sweep of the battle; so for the artillerist generally, this
+was a difficult period. The actual commander of artillery was usually
+a soldier; but transport and drivers were still hired, and the drivers
+naturally had a layman's attitude toward battle. Even the gunners,
+those civilian artists who owed no
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page007" name="page007"></a>(p. 007)</span>
+special duty to the
+prince, were concerned mainly over the safety of their pieces&mdash;and
+their hides, since artillerists who stuck with their guns were apt to
+be picked off by an enemy musketeer. Fusilier companies were organized
+as artillery guards, but their job was as much to keep the gun crew
+from running away as to protect them from the enemy.</p>
+
+<a id="img005" name="img005"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="300" height="167" alt="Figure 5&mdash;FIFTEENTH-CENTURY BREECHLOADER" title="Figure 5&mdash;FIFTEENTH-CENTURY BREECHLOADER">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 5&mdash;FIFTEENTH-CENTURY BREECHLOADER.</p>
+
+
+<p>So, during 400 years, cannon had changed from the little vases,
+valuable chiefly for making noise, into the largest caliber weapons
+ever built, and then from the bombards into smaller, more powerful
+cannon. The gun of 1600 could throw a shot almost as far as the gun of
+1850; not in fire power, but in mobility, organization, and tactics
+was artillery undeveloped. Because artillery lacked these things, the
+pike and musket were supreme on the battlefield.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY AND GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS</h4>
+
+<p>Under the Swedish warrior Gustavus Adolphus, artillery began to take
+its true position on the field of battle. Gustavus saw the need for
+mobility, so he divorced anything heavier than a 12-pounder from his
+field artillery. His famous "leatheren" gun was so light that it could
+be drawn and served by two men. This gun was a wrought-copper tube
+screwed into a chambered brass breech, bound with four iron hoops. The
+copper tube was covered with layers of mastic, wrapped firmly with
+cords, then coated with an equalizing layer of plaster. A cover of
+leather, boiled and varnished, completed the gun. Naturally, the piece
+could withstand only a small charge, but it was highly mobile.</p>
+
+<p>Gustavus abandoned the leather gun, however, in favor of a cast-iron
+4-pounder and a 9-pounder demiculverin produced by his bright young
+artillery chief, Lennart Torstensson. The demiculverin was classed as
+the "feildpeece" <i>par excellence</i>, while the 4-pounder was so light
+(about 500 pounds) that two horses could pull it in the field.</p>
+
+<p>These pieces could be served by three men. Combining the powder charge
+and projectile into a single cartridge did away with the old method
+of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page008" name="page008"></a>(p. 008)</span>
+ladling the powder into the gun and increased the
+rapidity of fire. Whereas in the past one cannon for each thousand
+infantrymen had been standard, Gustavus brought the ratio up to six
+cannon, and attached a pair of light pieces to each regiment as
+"battalion guns." At the same time he knew the value of fire
+concentration, and he frequently massed guns in strong batteries. His
+plans called for smashing hostile infantry formations with artillery
+fire, while neutralizing the ponderous, immobile enemy guns with a
+whirlwind cavalry charge. The ideas were sound. Gustavus smashed the
+Spanish Squares at Breitenfeld in 1631.</p>
+
+<a id="img006" name="img006"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img006.jpg" width="400" height="186" alt="Figure 6&mdash;LIGHT ARTILLERY OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (1630)" title="Figure 6&mdash;LIGHT ARTILLERY OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (1630)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 6&mdash;LIGHT ARTILLERY OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (1630).</p>
+
+
+<p>Following the Swedish lead, all nations modified their artillery.
+Leadership fell alternately to the Germans, the French, and the
+Austrians. The mystery of artillery began to disappear, and gunners
+became professional soldiers. Bronze came to be the favorite gunmetal.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XIV of France seems to have been the first to give permanent
+organization to the artillery. He raised a regiment of artillerymen in
+1671 and established schools of instruction. The "standing army"
+principle that began about 1500 was by now in general use, and small
+armies of highly trained professional soldiers formed a class distinct
+from the rest of the population. As artillery became an organized arm
+of the military, expensive personnel and equipment had to be
+maintained even in peacetime. Still, some necessary changes were slow
+in coming. French artillery officers did not receive military rank
+until 1732, and in some countries drivers were still civilians in the
+1790's. In 1716, Britain had organized artillery into two permanent
+companies, comprising the Royal Regiment of Artillery. Yet as late as
+the American Revolution there was a dispute about whether a general
+officer whose service had been in the Royal Artillery was entitled to
+command troops of all arms. There was no such question in England of
+the previous century: the artillery general was a personage having
+"alwayes a part of the charge, and when the chief generall is absent,
+he is to command all the army."</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page009" name="page009"></a>(p. 009)</span>
+
+<a id="img007" name="img007"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img007.jpg" width="400" height="235" alt="Figure 7&mdash;FRENCH GARRISON GUN (1650-1700)" title="Figure 7&mdash;FRENCH GARRISON GUN (1650-1700)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 7&mdash;FRENCH GARRISON GUN (1650-1700).</span> The
+gun is on a sloping wooden platform at the embrasure. Note the heavy
+bed on which the cheeks of the carriage rest and the built-in skid
+under the center of the rear axletree.</p>
+
+
+
+<h4>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</h4>
+
+<p>During the early 1700's cannon were used to protect an army's
+deployment and to prepare for the advance of the troops by firing upon
+enemy formations. There was a tendency to regard heavy batteries,
+properly protected by field works or permanent fortifications, as the
+natural role for artillery. But if artillery was seldom decisive in
+battle, it nevertheless waxed more important through improved
+organization, training, and discipline. In the previous century,
+calibers had been reduced in number and more or less standardized;
+now, there were notable scientific and technical improvements. The
+English scientist Benjamin Robins wedded theory to practice; his <i>New
+Principles of Gunnery</i> (1742) did much to bring about a more
+scientific attitude toward ballistics. One result of Robins' research
+was the introduction, in 1779, of carronades, those short, light
+pieces so useful in the confines of a ship's gun deck. Carronades
+usually ranged in caliber from 6- to 68-pounders.</p>
+
+<p>In North America, cannon were generally too cumbrous for Indian
+fighting. But from the time (1565) the French, in Florida, loosed the
+first bolt at the rival fleet of the Spaniard Menéndez, cannon were
+used on land and sea during intercolonial strife, or against corsairs.
+Over the vast distances of early America, transport of heavy guns was
+necessarily by water. Without ships, the guns were inexorably walled
+in by the forest. So it was when the Carolinian Moore besieged St.
+Augustine in 1702. When his ships burned, Moore had to leave his guns
+to the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first appearances of organized American field artillery on
+the battlefield was in the Northeast, where France's Louisburg fell to
+British and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page010" name="page010"></a>(p. 010)</span>
+Colonial forces in 1745. Serving with the
+British Royal Artillery was the Ancient and Honorable Artillery
+Company of Boston, which had originated in 1637. English field
+artillery of the day had "brigades" of four to six cannon, and each
+piece was supplied with 100 rounds of solid shot and 30 rounds of
+grape. John Müller's <i>Treatise on Artillery</i>, the standard English
+authority, was republished in Philadelphia (1779), and British
+artillery was naturally a model for the arm in America.</p>
+
+<a id="img008" name="img008"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img008.jpg" width="400" height="133" alt="Figure 8&mdash;AMERICAN 6-POUNDER FIELDPIECE (c. 1775)" title="Figure 8&mdash;AMERICAN 6-POUNDER FIELDPIECE (c. 1775)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 8&mdash;AMERICAN 6-POUNDER FIELDPIECE (c. 1775).</p>
+
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the War of Independence, American artillery was an
+accumulation of guns, mortars, and howitzers of every sort and some 13
+different calibers. Since the source of importation was cut off, the
+undeveloped casting industries of the Colonies undertook cannon
+founding, and by 1775 the foundries of Philadelphia were casting both
+bronze and iron guns. A number of bronze French guns were brought in
+later. The mobile guns of Washington's army ranged from 3- to
+24-pounders, with 5-1/2- and 8-inch howitzers. They were usually
+bronze. A few iron siege guns of 18-, 24-, and 32-pounder caliber were
+on hand. The guns used round shot, grape, and case shot; mortars and
+howitzers fired bombs and carcasses. "Side boxes" on each side of the
+carriage held 21 rounds of ammunition and were taken off when the
+piece was brought into battery. Horses or oxen, with hired civilian
+drivers, formed the transport. On the battlefield the cannoneers
+manned drag ropes to maneuver the guns into position.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, as at Guilford Courthouse, the ever-present forest
+diminished the effectiveness of artillery, but nevertheless the arm
+was often put to good use. The skill of the American gunners at
+Yorktown contributed no little toward the speedy advance of the siege
+trenches. Yorktown battlefield today has many examples of
+Revolutionary War cannon, including some fine ship guns recovered from
+British vessels sunk during the siege of 1781.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe, meanwhile, Frederick the Great of Prussia learned how to
+use cannon in the campaigns of the Seven Years' War (1756-63). The
+education was forced upon him as gradual destruction of his veteran
+infantry made
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page011" name="page011"></a>(p. 011)</span>
+him lean more heavily on artillery. To keep
+pace with cavalry movements, he developed a horse artillery that moved
+rapidly along with the cavalry. His field artillery had only light
+guns and howitzers. With these improvements he could establish small
+batteries at important points in the battle line, open the fight, and
+protect the deployment of his columns with light guns. What was
+equally significant, he could change the position of his batteries
+according to the course of the action.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick sent his 3- and 6-pounders ahead of the infantry. Gunners
+dismounted 500 paces from the enemy and advanced on foot, pushing
+their guns ahead of them, firing incessantly and using grape shot
+during the latter part of their advance. Up to closest range they
+went, until the infantry caught up, passed through the artillery line,
+and stormed the enemy position. Remember that battle was pretty
+formal, with musketeers standing or kneeling in ranks, often in full
+view of the enemy!</p>
+
+<a id="img009" name="img009"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img009.jpg" width="400" height="158" alt="Figure 9&mdash;FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (c. 1780)" title="Figure 9&mdash;FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (c. 1780)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 9&mdash;FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (c. 1780).</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the outstanding artilleryman of the 1700's was the Frenchman
+Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval, who brought home a number of ideas after
+serving with the capable Austrian artillery against Frederick. The
+great reform in French artillery began in 1765, although Gribeauval
+was not able to effect all of his changes until he became Inspector
+General of Artillery in 1776. He all but revolutionized French
+artillery, and vitally influenced other countries.</p>
+
+<p>Gribeauval's artillery came into action at a gallop and smothered
+enemy batteries with an overpowering volume of fire. He created a
+distinct matériel for field, siege, garrison, and coast artillery. He
+reduced the length and weight of the pieces, as well as the charge and
+the windage (the difference between the diameters of shot and bore);
+he built carriages so that many parts were interchangeable, and made
+soldiers out of the drivers. For siege and garrison he adopted 12- and
+16-pounder guns, an 8-inch howitzer and 8-, 10-, and 12-inch mortars.
+For coastal fortifications he used the traversing platform which,
+having rear wheels that ran upon a track, greatly simplified the
+training of a gun right or left upon a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page012" name="page012"></a>(p. 012)</span>
+moving target (fig. <a href="#img010">10</a>). Gribeauval-type matériel
+was used with the greatest effect in the
+new tactics which Napoleon introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon owed much of his success to masterly use of artillery. Under
+this captain there was no preparation for infantry advance by slowly
+disintegrating the hostile force with artillery fire. Rather, his
+artillerymen went up fast into closest range, and by actually
+annihilating a portion of the enemy line with case-shot fire, covered
+the assault so effectively that columns of cavalry and infantry
+reached the gap without striking a blow!</p>
+
+<p>After Napoleon, the history of artillery largely becomes a record of
+its technical effectiveness, together with improvements or changes in
+putting well-established principles into action.</p>
+
+
+<h4>UNITED STATES GUNS OF THE EARLY 1800's</h4>
+
+<p>The United States adopted the Gribeauval system of artillery carriages
+in 1809, just about the time it was becoming obsolete (the French
+abandoned it in 1829). The change to this system, however, did not
+include adoption of the French gun calibers. Early in the century cast
+iron replaced bronze as a gunmetal, a move pushed by the growing
+United States iron industry; and not until 1836 was bronze readopted
+in this country for mobile cannon. In the meantime, U. S. Artillery in
+the War of 1812 did most of its fighting with iron 6-pounders. Fort
+McHenry, which is administered by the National Park Service as a
+national monument and historic shrine, has a few ordnance pieces of
+the period.</p>
+
+<a id="img010" name="img010"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img010.jpg" width="400" height="156" alt="Figure 10&mdash;U. S. 32-POUNDER ON BARBETTE CARRIAGE
+(1860)" title="Figure 10&mdash;U. S. 32-POUNDER ON BARBETTE CARRIAGE
+(1860)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 10&mdash;U. S. 32-POUNDER ON BARBETTE CARRIAGE
+(1860).</p>
+
+<p>During the Mexican War, the artillery carried 6- and 12-pounder guns,
+the 12-pounder mountain howitzer (a light piece of 220 pounds which
+had been added for the Indian campaigns), a 12-pounder field howitzer
+(788 pounds), the 24- and 32-pounder howitzers, and 8- and 10-inch
+mortars. For siege, garrison, and seacoast there were pieces of 16
+types, ranging from a 1-pounder to the giant 10-inch Columbiad of
+7-1/2 tons. In 1857, the United States adopted the 12-pounder Napoleon
+gun-howitzer, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page013" name="page013"></a>(p. 013)</span>
+bronze smoothbore designed by Napoleon III,
+and this muzzle-loader remained standard in the army until the 1880's.</p>
+
+<p>The naval ironclads, which were usually armed with powerful 11- or
+15-inch smoothbores, were a revolutionary development in mid-century.
+They were low-hulled, armored, steam vessels, with one or two
+revolving turrets. Although most cannonballs bounced from the armor,
+lack of speed made the "cheese box on a raft" vulnerable, and poor
+visibility through the turret slots was a serious handicap in battle.</p>
+
+<a id="img011" name="img011"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img011.jpg" width="400" height="205" alt="Figure 11&mdash;U. S. NAVY 9-INCH SHELL-GUN ON MARSILLY
+CARRIAGE (1866)" title="Figure 11&mdash;U. S. NAVY 9-INCH SHELL-GUN ON MARSILLY
+CARRIAGE (1866)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 11&mdash;U. S. NAVY 9-INCH SHELL-GUN ON MARSILLY
+CARRIAGE (1866).</p>
+
+<p>While 20-, 30-, and 60-pounder Parrott rifles soon made an appearance
+in the Federal Navy, along with Dahlgren's 12- and 20-pounder rifled
+howitzers, the Navy relied mainly upon its "shell-guns": the 9-, 10-,
+11-, and 15-inch iron smoothbores. There were also 8-inch guns of 55
+and 63 "hundredweight" (the contemporary naval nomenclature), and four
+sizes of 32-pounders ranging from 27 to 57 hundredweight. The heavier
+guns took more powder and got slightly longer ranges. Many naval guns
+of the period are characterized by a hole in the cascabel, through
+which the breeching tackle was run to check recoil. The Navy also had
+a 13-inch mortar, mounted aboard ship on a revolving circular
+platform. Landing parties were equipped with 12- or 24-pounder
+howitzers either on boat carriages (a flat bed something like a mortar
+bed) or on three-wheeled "field" carriages.</p>
+
+
+<h4>RIFLING</h4>
+
+<p>Rifling, by imparting a spin to the projectile as it travels along the
+spiral grooves in the bore, permits the use of a long projectile and
+ensures its flight point first, with great increase in accuracy. The
+longer projectile, being both heavier and more streamlined than round
+shot of the same caliber, also has a greater striking energy.</p>
+
+<p>Though
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page014" name="page014"></a>(p. 014)</span>
+Benjamin Robins was probably the first to give sound
+reasons, the fact that rifling was helpful had been known a long time.
+A 1542 barrel at Woolwich has six fine spiral grooves in the bore.
+Straight grooving had been applied to small arms as early as 1480, and
+during the 1500's straight grooving of musket bores was extensively
+practiced. Probably, rifling evolved from the early observation of the
+feathers on an arrow&mdash;and from the practical results of cutting
+channels in a musket, originally to reduce fouling, then because it
+was found to improve accuracy of the shot. Rifled small-arm efficiency
+was clearly shown at Kings Mountain during the American Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of earlier experiments, however, it was not until the 1840's
+that attempts to rifle cannon could be called successful. In 1846,
+Major Cavelli in Italy and Baron Wahrendorff in Germany independently
+produced rifled iron breech-loading cannon. The Cavelli gun had two
+spiral grooves into which fitted the 1/4-inch projecting lugs of a
+long projectile (fig. <a href="#img012">12a</a>). Other attempts at what might be called
+rifling were Lancaster's elliptical-bore gun and the later development
+of a spiraling hexagonal-bore by Joseph Whitworth (fig. <a href="#img012">12b</a>). The
+English Whitworth was used by Confederate artillery. It was an
+efficient piece, though subject to easy fouling that made it
+dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>Then, in 1855, England's Lord Armstrong designed a rifled breechloader
+that included so many improvements as to be revolutionary. This gun
+was rifled with a large number of grooves and fired lead-coated
+projectiles. Much of its success, however, was due to the built-up
+construction: hoops were shrunk on over the tube, with the fibers of
+the metal running in the directions most suitable for strength.
+Several United States muzzle-loading rifles of built-up construction
+were produced about the same time as the Armstrong and included the
+Chambers (1849), the Treadwell (1855), and the well-known Parrott of
+1861 (figs. <a href="#img012">12e</a> and <a href="#img013">13</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The German Krupp rifle had an especially successful breech mechanism.
+It was not a built-up gun, but depended on superior crucible steel for
+its strength. Cast steel had been tried as a gunmetal during the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but metallurgical knowledge of
+the early days could not produce sound castings. Steel was also used
+in other mid-nineteenth century rifles, such as the United States
+Wiard gun and the British Blakely, with its swollen, cast-iron breech
+hoop. Fort Pulaski National Monument, near Savannah, Ga., has a fine
+example of a 24-pounder Blakely used by the Confederates in the 1862
+defense of the fort.</p>
+
+<a id="img012" name="img012"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img012.jpg" width="400" height="586" alt="Figure 12&mdash;DEVELOPMENT OF RIFLE PROJECTILES
+(1840-1900)" title="Figure 12&mdash;DEVELOPMENT OF RIFLE PROJECTILES
+(1840-1900)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 12&mdash;DEVELOPMENT OF RIFLE PROJECTILES
+(1840-1900).</span> a&mdash;Cavelli type, b&mdash;Whitworth, c&mdash;James, d&mdash;Hotchkiss,
+e&mdash;Parrott, f&mdash;Copper rotating band type. (Not to scale.)</p>
+
+<p>The United States began intensive experimentation with rifled cannon
+late in the 1850's, and a few rifled pieces were made by the South
+Boston Iron Foundry and also by the West Point Foundry at Cold Spring,
+N. Y. The first appearance of rifles in any quantity, however, was
+near the outset of the 1861 hostilities, when the Federal artillery
+was equipped with 300 wrought-iron 3-inch guns (fig. <a href="#img014">14e</a>). This
+"12-pounder," which fired a 10-pound projectile, was made by wrapping
+sheets of boiler iron around a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page016" name="page016"></a>(p. 016)</span>
+mandrel. The cylinder thus
+formed was heated and passed through the rolls for welding, then
+cooled, bored, turned, and rifled. It remained in service until about
+1900. Another rifle giving good results was the cast-iron 4-1/2-inch
+siege gun. This piece was cast solid, then bored, turned, and rifled.
+Uncertainty of strength, a characteristic of cast iron, caused its
+later abandonment.</p>
+
+<a id="img013" name="img013"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="400" height="148" alt="Figure 13&mdash;PARROTT 10-POUNDER RIFLE (1864)" title="Figure 13&mdash;PARROTT 10-POUNDER RIFLE (1864)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 13&mdash;PARROTT 10-POUNDER RIFLE (1864).</p>
+
+<p>The United States rifle that was most effective in siege work was the
+invention of Robert P. Parrott. His cast-iron guns (fig. <a href="#img013">13</a>), many of
+which are seen today in the battlefield parks, are easily recognized
+by the heavy wrought-iron jacket reinforcing the breech. The jacket
+was made by coiling a bar over the mandrel in a spiral, then hammering
+the coils into a welded cylinder. The cylinder was bored and shrunk on
+the gun. Parrotts were founded in 10-, 20-, 30-, 60-, 100-, 200-, and
+300-pounder calibers, one foundry making 1,700 of them during the
+Civil War.</p>
+
+<p>All nations, of course, had large stocks of smoothbores on hand, and
+various methods were devised to make rifles out of them. The U. S.
+Ordnance Board, for instance, believed the conversion simply involved
+cutting grooves in the bore, right at the forts or arsenals where the
+guns were. In 1860, half of the United States artillery was scheduled
+for conversion. As a result, a number of old smoothbores were rebored
+to fire rifle projectiles of the various patents which preceded the
+modern copper rotating band (fig. <a href="#img012">12c, d, f</a>). Under the James patent
+(fig. <a href="#img012">12c</a>) the weight of metal thrown by a cannon was virtually
+doubled; converted 24-, 32- and 42-pounders fired elongated shot
+classed respectively as 48-, 64-, and 84-pound projectiles. After the
+siege of Fort Pulaski, Federal Gen. Q. A. Gillmore praised the
+84-pounder and declared "no better piece for breaching can be
+desired," but experience soon proved the heavier projectiles caused
+increased pressures which converted guns could not withstand for long.</p>
+
+<p>The early United States rifles had a muzzle velocity about the same as
+the smoothbore, but whereas the round shot of the smoothbore lost
+speed so rapidly that at 2,000 yards its striking velocity was only
+about a third of the muzzle velocity, the more streamlined rifle
+projectile lost speed very slowly. But the rifle had to be served more
+carefully than the smoothbore. Rifling
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page017" name="page017"></a>(p. 017)</span>
+grooves were cleaned
+with a moist sponge, and sometimes oiled with another sponge.
+Lead-coated projectiles like the James, which tended to foul the
+grooves of the piece, made it necessary to scrape the rifle grooves
+after every half dozen shots, although guns using brass-banded
+projectiles did not require the extra operation. With all
+muzzle-loading rifles, the projectile had to be pushed close home to
+the powder charge; otherwise, the blast would not fully expand its
+rotating band, the projectile would not take the grooves, and would
+"tumble" after leaving the gun, to the utter loss of range and
+accuracy. Incidentally, gunners had to "run out" (push the gun into
+firing position) both smoothbore and rifled muzzle-loaders carefully.
+A sudden stop might make the shot start forward as much as 2 feet.</p>
+
+<p>When the U. S. Ordnance Board recommended the conversion to rifles, it
+also recommended that all large caliber iron guns be manufactured on
+the method perfected by Capt. T. J. Rodman, which involved casting the
+gun around a water-cooled core. The inner walls of the gun thus
+solidified first, were compressed by the contraction of the outer
+metal as it cooled down more slowly, and had much greater strength to
+resist explosion of the charge. The Rodman smoothbore, founded in 8-,
+10-, 15-, and 20-inch calibers, was the best cast-iron ordnance of its
+time (fig. <a href="#img014">14f</a>). The 20-inch gun, produced in 1864, fired a
+1,080-pound shot. The 15-incher was retained in service through the
+rest of the century, and these monsters are still to be seen at Fort
+McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine or on the ramparts of
+Fort Jefferson, in the national monument of that name, in the Dry
+Tortugas Islands. In later years, a number of 10-inch Rodmans were
+converted into 8-inch rifles by enlarging the bore and inserting a
+grooved steel tube.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES</h4>
+
+<p>At the opening of this civil conflict most of the matériel for both
+armies was of the same type&mdash;smoothbore. The various guns included
+weapons in the great masonry fortifications built on the long United
+States coast line since the 1820's&mdash;weapons such as the Columbiad, a
+heavy, long-chambered American muzzle-loader of iron, developed from
+its bronze forerunner of 1810. The Columbiad (fig. <a href="#img014">14d</a>) was made in
+8-, 10-, and 12-inch calibers and could throw shot and shell well over
+5,000 yards. "New" Columbiads came out of the foundries at the start
+of the 1860's, minus the powder chamber and with smoother lines.
+Behind the parapets or in fort gunrooms were 32- and 42-pounder iron
+seacoast guns (fig. <a href="#img010">10</a>); 24-pounder bronze howitzers lay in the
+bastions to flank the long reaches of the fort walls. There were
+8-inch seacoast howitzers for heavier work. The largest caliber piece
+was the ponderous 13-inch seacoast mortar.</p>
+
+<a id="img014" name="img014"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img014.jpg" width="400" height="584" alt="Figure 14&mdash;U. S. ARTILLERY TYPES (1861-1865)." title="Figure 14&mdash;U. S. ARTILLERY TYPES (1861-1865).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 14&mdash;U. S. ARTILLERY TYPES (1861-1865).</span> a&mdash;Siege
+mortar, b&mdash;8-inch siege howitzer, c&mdash;24-pounder siege gun, d&mdash;8-inch
+Columbiad, e&mdash;3-inch wrought-iron rifle, f&mdash;10-inch Rodman.</p>
+
+<p>Siege and garrison cannon included 24-pounder and 8-inch bronze
+howitzers (fig. <a href="#img014">14b</a>), a 10-inch bronze mortar (fig. <a href="#img014">14a</a>), 12-, 18-,
+and 24-pounder iron guns (fig. <a href="#img014">14c</a>) and later the 4-1/2-inch cast-iron
+rifle. With the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page018" name="page018"></a>(p. 018)</span>
+exception of the new 3-inch wrought-iron
+rifle (fig. <a href="#img014">14e</a>), field artillery cannon were bronze: 6- and
+12-pounder guns, the 12-pounder Napoleon gun-howitzer,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page019" name="page019"></a>(p. 019)</span>
+12-pounder mountain howitzer, 12-, 24-, and 32-pounder field
+howitzers, and the little Coehorn mortar (fig. <a href="#img039">39</a>). A machine gun
+invented by Dr. Richard J. Gatling became part of the artillery
+equipment during the war, but was not much used. Reminiscent of the
+ancient ribaudequin, a repeating cannon of several barrels, the
+Gatling gun could fire about 350 shots a minute from its 10 barrels,
+which were rotated and fired by turning a crank. In Europe it became
+more popular than the French mitrailleuse.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller smoothbores were <i>effective</i> with case shot up to about
+600 or 700 yards, and <i>maximum</i> range of field pieces went from
+something less than the 1,566-yard solid-shot trajectory of the
+Napoleon to about 2,600 yards (a mile and a half) for a 6-inch
+howitzer. At Chancellorsville, one of Stonewall Jackson's guns fired a
+shot which bounded down the center of a roadway and came to rest a
+mile away. The performance verified the drill-book tables. Maximum
+ranges of the larger pieces, however, ran all the way from the average
+1,600 yards of an 18-pounder garrison gun to the well over 3-mile
+range of a 12-inch Columbiad firing a 180-pound shell at high
+elevation. A 13-inch seacoast mortar would lob a 200-pound shell 4,325
+yards, or almost 2-1/2 miles. The shell from an 8-inch howitzer
+carried 2,280 yards, but at such extreme ranges the guns could hardly
+be called accurate.</p>
+
+<p>On the battlefield, Napoleon's artillery tactics were no longer
+practical. The infantry, armed with its own comparatively long-range
+firearm, was usually able to keep artillery beyond case-shot range,
+and cannon had to stand off at such long distances that their
+primitive ammunition was relatively ineffective. The result was that
+when attacking infantry moved in, the defending infantry and artillery
+were still fresh and unshaken, ready to pour a devastating point-blank
+fire into the assaulting lines. Thus, in spite of an intensive 2-hour
+bombardment by 138 Confederate guns at the crisis of Gettysburg, as
+the gray-clad troops advanced across the field to close range, double
+canister and concentrated infantry volleys cut them down in masses.</p>
+
+<p>Field artillery smoothbores, under conditions prevailing during the
+war, generally gave better results than the smaller-caliber rifle. A
+3-inch rifle, for instance, had twice the range of a Napoleon; but in
+the broken, heavily wooded country where so much of the fighting took
+place, the superior range of the rifle could not be used to full
+advantage. Neither was its relatively small and sometimes defective
+projectile as damaging to personnel as case or grape from a larger
+caliber smoothbore. At the first battle of Manassas (July 1861) more
+than half the 49 Federal cannon were rifled; but by 1863, even though
+many more rifles were in service, the majority of the pieces in the
+field were still the old reliable 6- and 12-pounder smoothbores.</p>
+
+<p>It was in siege operations that the rifles forced a new era. As the
+smoke cleared after the historic bombardment of Fort Sumter in 1861,
+military men
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page020" name="page020"></a>(p. 020)</span>
+were already speculating on the possibilities
+of the newfangled weapon. A Confederate 12-pounder Blakely had pecked
+away at Sumter with amazing accuracy. But the first really effective
+use of the rifles in siege operations was at Fort Pulaski (1862).
+Using 10 rifles and 26 smoothbores, General Gillmore breached the
+7-1/2-foot-thick brick walls in little more than 24 hours. Yet his
+batteries were a mile away from the target! The heavier rifles were
+converted smoothbores, firing 48-, 64-, and 84-pound James projectiles
+that drove into the fort wall from 19 to 26 inches at each fair shot.
+The smoothbore Columbiads could penetrate only 13 inches, while from
+this range the ponderous mortars could hardly hit the fort. A year
+later, Gillmore used 100-, 200-, and 300-pounder Parrott rifles
+against Fort Sumter. The big guns, firing from positions some 2 miles
+away and far beyond the range of the fort guns, reduced Sumter to a
+smoking mass of rubble.</p>
+
+<p>The range and accuracy of the rifles startled the world. A 30-pounder
+(4.2-inch) Parrott had an amazing carry of 8,453 yards with 80-pound
+hollow shot; the notorious "Swamp Angel" that fired on Charleston in
+1863 was a 200-pounder Parrott mounted in the marsh 7,000 yards from
+the city. But strangely enough, neither rifles nor smoothbores could
+destroy earthworks. As was proven several times during the war, the
+defenders of a well-built earthwork were able to repair the trifling
+damage done by enemy fire almost as soon as there was a lull in the
+shooting. Learning this lesson, the determined Confederate defenders
+of Fort Sumter in 1863-64 refused to surrender, but under the most
+difficult conditions converted their ruined masonry into an earthwork
+almost impervious to further bombardment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE CHANGE INTO MODERN ARTILLERY</h4>
+
+<p>With Rodman's gun, the muzzle-loading smoothbore was at the apex of
+its development. Through the years great progress had been made in
+mobility, organization, and tactics. Now a new era was beginning,
+wherein artillery surpassed even the decisive role it had under
+Gustavus Adolphus and Napoleon. In spite of new infantry weapons that
+forced cannon ever farther to the rear, artillery was to become so
+deadly that its fire caused over 75 percent of the battlefield
+casualties in World War I.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the vital changes took place during the latter years of the
+1800's, as rifles replaced the smoothbores. Steel came into universal
+use for gun founding; breech and recoil mechanisms were perfected;
+smokeless powder and high explosives came into the picture. Hardly
+less important was the invention of more efficient sighting and laying
+mechanisms.</p>
+
+<p>The changes did not come overnight. In Britain, after breechloaders
+had been in use almost a decade, the ordnance men went back to
+muzzle-loading rifles; faulty breech mechanisms caused too many
+accidents. Not until one of H.M.S. <i>Thunderer's</i> guns was
+inadvertently double-loaded did the English return to an improved
+breechloader.</p>
+
+<p>The
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page021" name="page021"></a>(p. 021)</span>
+steel breechloaders of the Prussians, firing two rounds a
+minute with a percussion shell that broke into about 30 fragments, did
+much to defeat the French (1870-71). At Sedan, the greatest artillery
+battle fought prior to 1914, the Prussians used 600 guns to smother
+the French army. So thoroughly did these guns do their work that the
+Germans annihilated the enemy at the cost of only 5 percent
+casualties. It was a demonstration of using great masses of guns,
+bringing them quickly into action to destroy the hostile artillery,
+then thoroughly "softening up" enemy resistance in preparation for the
+infantry attack. While the technical progress of the Prussian
+artillery was considerable, it was offset in large degree by the
+counter-development of field entrenchment.</p>
+
+<p>As the technique of forging large masses of steel improved, most
+nations adopted built-up (reinforcing hoops over a steel tube) or
+wire-wrapped steel construction for their cannon. With the advent of
+the metal cartridge case and smokeless powder, rapid-fire guns came
+into use. The new powder, first used in the Russo-Turkish War
+(1877-78), did away with the thick white curtain of smoke that plagued
+the gunner's aim, and thus opened the way for production of mechanisms
+to absorb recoil and return the gun automatically to firing position.
+Now, gunners did not have to lay the piece after every shot, and the
+rate of fire increased. Shields appeared on the gun&mdash;protection that
+would have been of little value in the days when gunners had to stand
+clear of a back-moving carriage.</p>
+
+<p>During the early 1880's the United States began work on a modern
+system of seacoast armament. An 8-inch breech-loading rifle was built
+in 1883, and the disappearing carriage, giving more protection to both
+gun and crew, was adopted in 1886. Only a few of the weapons were
+installed by 1898; but fortunately the overwhelming naval superiority
+of the United States helped bring the War with Spain to a quick close.</p>
+
+<a id="img015" name="img015"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img015.jpg" width="400" height="200" alt="Figure 15&mdash;Ranges" title="">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure</span> 15&mdash;Ranges.</p>
+
+<p>During this war, United States forces were equipped with a number of
+British 2.95-inch mountain rifles, which, incidentally, served as late
+as World
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page022" name="page022"></a>(p. 022)</span>
+War II in the pack artillery of the Philippine
+Scouts. Within the next few years the antiquated pieces such as the
+3-inch wrought-iron rifle, the 4.2-inch Parrott siege gun, converted
+Rodmans, and the 15-inch Rodman smoothbore were finally pushed out of
+the picture by new steel guns. There were small-caliber rapid-fire
+guns of different types, a Hotchkiss 1.65-inch mountain rifle, and
+Hotchkiss and Gatling machine guns. The basic pieces in field
+artillery were 3.2- and 3.6-inch guns and a 3.6-inch mortar. Siege
+artillery included a 5-inch gun, 7-inch howitzers, and mortars. In
+seacoast batteries were 8-, 10-, 12-, 14-, and 16-inch guns and
+12-inch mortars of the primary armament; intermediate rapid-fire guns
+of 4-, 4.72-, 5-, and 6-inch calibers; and 6- and 15-pounder
+rapid-fire guns in the secondary armament.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese showed the value of the French system of indirect laying
+(aiming at a target not visible to the gunner) during the
+Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). Meanwhile, the French 75-mm. gun of
+1897, firing 6,000 yards, made all other field artillery cannon
+obsolete. In essence, artillery had assumed the modern form. The next
+changes were wrought by startling advances in motor transport, signal
+communications, chemical warfare, tanks, aviation, and mass
+production.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">Gunpowder</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title="Illustration"></span>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page023" name="page023"></a>(p. 023)</span>
+
+
+<p>Black powder was used in all firearms until smokeless and other type
+propellants were invented in the latter 1800's. "Black" powder (which
+was sometimes brown) is a mixture of about 75 parts saltpeter
+(potassium nitrate), 15 parts charcoal, and 10 parts sulphur by
+weight. It will explode because the mixture contains the necessary
+amount of oxygen for its own combustion. When it burns, it liberates
+smoky gases (mainly nitrogen and carbon dioxide) that occupy some 300
+times as much space as the powder itself.</p>
+
+<p>Early European powder "recipes" called for equal parts of the three
+ingredients, but gradually the amount of saltpeter was increased until
+Tartaglia reported the proportions to be 4-1-1. By the late 1700's
+"common war powder" was made 6-1-1, and not until the next century was
+the formula refined to the 75-15-10 composition in majority use when
+the newer propellants arrived on the scene.</p>
+
+<p>As the name suggests, this explosive was originally in the form of
+powder or dust. The primitive formula burned slowly and gave low
+pressures&mdash;fortunate characteristics in view of the barrel-stave
+construction of the early cannon. About 1450, however, powder makers
+began to "corn" the powder. That is, they formed it into larger
+grains, with a resulting increase in the velocity of the shot. It was
+"corned" in fine grains for small arms and coarse for cannon.</p>
+
+<p>Making corned powder was fairly simple. The three ingredients were
+pulverized and mixed, then compressed into cakes which were cut into
+"corns" or grains. Rolling the grains in a barrel polished off the
+corners; removing the dust essentially completed the manufacture. It
+has always been difficult, however, to make powder twice alike and
+keep it in condition, two factors which helped greatly to make gunnery
+an "art" in the old days. Powder residue in the gun was especially
+troublesome, and a disk-like tool (fig. <a href="#img044">44</a>) was designed to scrape the
+bore. Artillerymen at Castillo de San Marcos complained that the
+"heavy" powder from Mexico was especially bad, for after a gun was
+fired a few times, the bore was so fouled that cannonballs would no
+longer fit. The gunners called loudly for better grade powder from
+Spain itself.</p>
+
+<p>How
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page024" name="page024"></a>(p. 024)</span>
+much powder to use in a gun has been a moot question
+through the centuries. According to the Spaniard Collado in 1592, the
+proper yardstick was the amount of metal in the gun. A legitimate
+culverin, for instance, was "rich" enough in metal to take as much
+powder as the ball weighed. Thus, a 30-pounder culverin would get 30
+pounds of powder. Since a 60-pounder battering cannon, however, had in
+proportion a third less metal than the culverin, the charge must also
+be reduced by a third&mdash;to 40 pounds!</p>
+
+<a id="img016" name="img016"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img016.jpg" width="150" height="149" alt="Figure 16&mdash;GUNPOWDER. Black powder (above) is a
+mechanical mixture; modern propellants are chemical compounds" title="Figure 16&mdash;GUNPOWDER. Black powder (above) is a
+mechanical mixture; modern propellants are chemical compounds">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 16&mdash;GUNPOWDER.</span> Black powder (above) is a
+mechanical mixture; modern propellants are chemical compounds.</p>
+
+<p>Other factors had to be taken into account, such as whether the powder
+was coarse-or fine-grained; and a short gun got less powder than a
+long one. The bore length of a legitimate culverin, said Collado, was
+30 calibers (30 times the bore diameter), so its powder charge was the
+same as the weight of the ball. If the gunner came across a culverin
+only 24 calibers long, he must load this piece with only 24/30 of the
+ball's weight. Collado's <i>pasavolante</i> had a tremendous length of some
+40 calibers and fired a 6- or 7-pound lead ball. Because it had plenty
+of metal "to resist, and the length to burn" the powder, it was
+charged with the full weight of the ball in fine powder, or
+three-fourths as much with cannon powder. The lightest charge seems to
+have been for the pedrero, which fired a stone ball. Its charge was a
+third of the stone's weight.</p>
+
+<p>In later years, powder charges lessened for all guns. English velocity
+tables of the 1750's show that a 9-pounder charged with 2-1/4 pounds
+of powder might produce its ball at a rate of 1,052 feet per second.
+By almost tripling the charge, the velocity would increase about half.
+But the increase did not mean the shot hit the target 50 percent
+harder, for the higher the velocity, the greater was the air
+resistance; or as Müller phrased it: "a great quantity of Powder does
+not always produce a greater effect." Thus, from two-thirds the ball's
+weight, standard charges dropped to one-third or even a quarter; and
+by the 1800's they became even smaller. The United States manual of
+1861 specified 6 to 8 pounds for a 24-pounder siege gun, depending on
+the range; a Columbiad firing 172-pound shot used only 20 pounds of
+powder. At Fort Sumter, Gillmore's rifles firing 80-pound shells used
+10 pounds of powder. The rotating band on the rifle shell, of course,
+stopped the gases that had slipped by the loose-fitting cannonball.</p>
+
+<p>Black
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page025" name="page025"></a>(p. 025)</span>
+powder was, and is, both dangerous and unstable. Not
+only is it sensitive to flame or spark, but it absorbs moisture from
+the air. In other words, it was no easy matter to "keep your powder
+dry." During the middle 1700's, Spaniards on a Florida river outpost
+kept powder in glass bottles; earlier soldiers, fleeing into the humid
+forest before Sir Francis Drake, carried powder in
+<i>peruleras</i>&mdash;stoppered, narrow-necked pitchers.</p>
+
+<p>As for magazines, a dry magazine was just about as important as a
+shell-proof one. Charcoal and chloride of lime, hung in containers
+near the ceiling, were early used as dehydrators, and in the
+eighteenth century standard English practice was to build the floor 2
+feet off the ground and lay stone chips or "dry sea coals" under the
+flooring. Side walls had air holes for ventilation, but screened to
+prevent the enemy from letting in some small animal with fire tied to
+his tail. Powder casks were laid on their sides and periodically
+rolled to a different position; "otherwise," explains a contemporary
+expert, "the salt petre, being the heaviest ingredient, will descend
+into the lower part of the barrel, and the powder above will lose much
+of its goodness."</p>
+
+<a id="img017" name="img017"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img017.jpg" width="150" height="120" alt="Figure 17&mdash;SPANISH POWDER BUCKET (c. 1750)" title="Figure 17&mdash;SPANISH POWDER BUCKET (c. 1750)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 17&mdash;SPANISH POWDER BUCKET (c. 1750).</p>
+
+<p>In the dawn of artillery, loose powder was brought to the gun in a
+covered bucket, usually made of leather. The loader scooped up the
+proper amount with a ladle (fig. <a href="#img044">44</a>), and inserted it into the gun. He
+could, by using his experienced judgment, put in just enough powder to
+give him the range he wanted, much as our modern artillerymen
+sometimes use only a portion of their charge. After Gustavus Adolphus
+in the 1630's, however, powder bags came into wide use, although
+English gunners long preferred to ladle their powder. The powder
+bucket or "passing box" of course remained on the scene. It was
+usually large enough to hold a pair of cartridge bags.</p>
+
+<p>The root of the word cartridge seems to be "carta," meaning paper. But
+paper was only one of many materials such as canvas, linen, parchment,
+flannel, the "woolen stuff" of the 1860's, and even wood. Until the
+advent of the silk cartridge, nothing was entirely satisfactory. The
+materials did not burn completely, and after several rounds it was
+mandatory to withdraw the unburnt bag ends with a wormer (fig. <a href="#img044">44</a>),
+else they accumulated to the point where they blocked the vent or
+"touch hole" by which the piece was fired. Parchment bags shriveled up
+and stuck in the vent, purpling many a good gunner's face.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRIMERS
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page026" name="page026"></a>(p. 026)</span>
+</h4>
+
+<p>When the powder bag came into use, the gunner had to prick the bag
+open so the priming fire from the vent could reach the charge. The
+operation was accomplished simply enough by plunging the gunner's pick
+into the vent far enough to pierce the bag. Then the vent was primed
+with loose powder from the gunner's flask. The vent prime, which was
+not much improved until the nineteenth century, was a trick learned
+from the fourteenth century Venetians. There were numerous tries for
+improvement, such as the powder-filled tin tube of the 1700's, the
+point of which pierced the powder bag. But for all of them, the slow
+match had to be used to start the fire train.</p>
+
+<a id="img018" name="img018"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img018.jpg" width="150" height="378" alt="Figure 18&mdash;LINSTOCKS" title="Figure 18&mdash;LINSTOCKS">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 18&mdash;SPANISH POWDER BUCKET (c. 1750).</p>
+
+<p>Before 1800, the slow match was in universal use for setting off the
+charge. The match was usually a 3-strand cotton rope, soaked in a
+solution of saltpeter and otherwise chemically treated with lead
+acetate and lye to burn very slowly&mdash;about 4 or 5 inches an hour. It
+was attached to a linstock (fig. <a href="#img018">18</a>), a forked stick long enough to
+keep the cannoneer out of the way of the recoil.</p>
+
+<p>Chemistry advances, like the isolation of mercury fulminate in 1800,
+led to the invention of the percussion cap and other primers. On many
+a battleground you may have picked up a scrap of twisted wire&mdash;the
+loop of a friction primer. The device was a copper tube (fig. <a href="#img019">19</a>)
+filled with powder. The tube went into the vent of the cannon and
+buried its tip in the powder charge. Near the top of this tube was
+soldered a "spur"&mdash;a short
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page027" name="page027"></a>(p. 027)</span>
+tube containing a friction
+composition (antimony sulphide and potassium chlorate). Lying in the
+composition was the roughened end of a wire "slider." The other end of
+the slider was twisted into a loop for hooking to the gunner's
+lanyard. It was like striking a match: a smart pull on the lanyard,
+and the rough slider ignited the composition. Then the powder in the
+long tube began to burn and fired the charge in the cannon. Needless
+to say, it happened faster than we can tell it!</p>
+
+<a id="img019" name="img019"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="150" height="213" alt="Figure 19&mdash;FRICTION PRIMER" title="Figure 19&mdash;FRICTION PRIMER">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 19&mdash;FRICTION PRIMER.</p>
+
+<p>The percussion primer was even more simple: a "quill tube," filled
+with fine powder, fitted into the vent. A fulminate cap was glued to
+the top of the tube. A pull of the lanyard caused the hammer of the
+cannon to strike the cap (just like a little boy's cap pistol) and
+start the train of explosions.</p>
+
+<p>Because the early methods of priming left the vent open when the
+cannon fired, the little hole tended to enlarge. Many cannon during
+the 1800's were made with two vents, side by side. When the first one
+wore out, it was plugged, and the second vent opened. Then, to stop
+this "erosion," the obturating (sealing) primer came into use. It was
+like the common friction primer, but screwed into and sealed the vent.
+Early electric primers, by the way, were no great departure from the
+friction primer; the wires fired a bit of guncotton, which in turn
+ignited the powder in the primer tube.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MODERN USE OF BLACK POWDER</h4>
+
+<p>Aside from gradual improvement in the formula, no great change in
+powder making came until 1860, when Gen. Thomas J. Rodman of the U. S.
+Ordnance Department began to tailor the powder to the caliber of the
+gun. The action of ordinary cannon powder was too sudden. The whole
+charge was consumed before the projectile had fairly started on its
+way, and the strain on the gun was terrific. Rodman compressed powder
+into disks that fitted the bore of the gun. The disks were an inch or
+two thick, and pierced with holes. With this arrangement, a minimum of
+powder surface was exposed at the beginning of combustion, but as the
+fire ate the holes larger (compare fig. <a href="#img020">20f</a>), the burning area
+actually increased, producing
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page028" name="page028"></a>(p. 028)</span>
+a greater volume of gas as the
+projectile moved forward. Rodman thus laid the foundation for the
+"progressive burning" pellets of modern powders (fig. <a href="#img020">20</a>).</p>
+
+<a id="img020" name="img020"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="400" height="254" alt="Figure 20&mdash;MODERN GANNON POWDER." title="Figure 20&mdash;MODERN GANNON POWDER.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 20&mdash;MODERN GANNON POWDER.</span> A powder grain has the
+characteristics of an explosive only when it is confined. Modern
+<i>propellants</i> are low explosives (that is, relatively slow burning),
+but <i>projectiles</i> may be loaded with high explosive, a&mdash;Flake,
+b&mdash;Strip, c&mdash;Pellet, d&mdash;Single perforation, e&mdash;Standard,
+7-perforation, f&mdash;Burning grain of 7-perforation type. Ideally, the
+powder grain should burn progressively, with continuously increasing
+surface, the grain being completely consumed by the time the
+projectile leaves the bore, g&mdash;Walsh grain.</p>
+
+<p>For a number of reasons General Rodman did not take his "perforated
+cake cartridge" beyond the experimental stage, and his "Mammoth"
+powder, such a familiar item in the powder magazines of the latter
+1800's, was a compromise. As a block of wood burns steadier and longer
+than a quick-blazing pile of twigs, so the 3/4-inch grains of mammoth
+powder gave a "softer" explosion, but one with more "push" and more
+uniform pressure along the bore of the gun.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the second year of the Civil War that Alfred Nobel started
+the manufacture of nitroglycerin explosives in Europe. Smokeless
+powders came into use, the explosive properties of picric acid were
+discovered, and melanite, ballistite, and cordite appeared in the last
+quarter of the century, so that by 1890 nitrocellulose and
+nitroglycerin-base powders had generally replaced black powder as a
+propellant.</p>
+
+<p>Still, black powder had many important uses. Its sensitivity to flame,
+high rate of combustion, and high temperature of explosion made it a
+very suitable igniter or "booster," to insure the complete ignition of
+the propellant.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page029" name="page029"></a>(p. 029)</span>
+Further, it was the main element in such
+modern projectile fuzes as the ring fuze of the U. S. Field Artillery,
+which was long standard for bursts shorter than 25 seconds. This fuze
+was in the nose of the shell and consisted essentially of a plunger,
+primer, and rings grooved to hold a 9-inch train of compressed black
+powder. To set the fuze, the fuze man merely turned a movable ring to
+the proper time mark. Turning the zero mark toward the channel leading
+to the shell's bursting charge shortened the burning distance of the
+train, while turning zero away from the channel, of course, did the
+opposite. When the projectile left the gun, the shock made the plunger
+ignite the primer (compare fig. <a href="#img042">42e</a>) and fire the powder train, which
+then burned for the set time before reaching the shell charge. It was
+a technical improvement over the tubular sheet-iron fuze of the
+Venetians, but the principle was about the same.</p>
+
+<a id="img021" name="img021"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="400" height="193" alt="Figure 21&mdash;MODERN POWDER TRAIN FUZE" title="Figure 21&mdash;MODERN POWDER TRAIN FUZE">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 21&mdash;MODERN POWDER TRAIN FUZE.</p>
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page031" name="page031"></a>(p. 031)</span>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">The Characteristics of Cannon</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<h5>THE EARLY SMOOTHBORE CANNON</h5>
+
+
+<p>Soon after he found he could hurl a rock with his good right arm, man
+learned about trajectory&mdash;the curved path taken by a missile through
+the air. A baseball describes a "flat" trajectory every time the
+pitcher throws a hard, fast one. Youngsters tossing the ball to each
+other over a tall fence use "curved" or "high" trajectory. In
+artillery, where trajectory is equally important, there are three main
+types of cannon: (1) the flat trajectory gun, throwing shot at the
+target in relatively level flight; (2) the high trajectory mortar,
+whose shell will clear high obstacles and descend upon the target from
+above; and (3) the howitzer, an in-between piece of medium-high
+trajectory, combining the mobility of the fieldpiece with the large
+caliber of the mortar.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniard, Luis Collado, mathematician, historian, native of
+Lebrija in Andalusia, and, in 1592, royal engineer of His Catholic
+Majesty's Army in Lombardy and Piedmont, defined artillery broadly as
+"a machine of infinite importance." Ordnance he divided into three
+classes, admittedly following the rules of the "German masters, who
+were admired above any other nation for their founding and handling of
+artillery." Culverins and sakers (Fig. <a href="#img023">23a</a>) were guns of the first
+class, designed to strike the enemy from long range. The battering
+cannon (fig. <a href="#img023">23b</a>) were second class pieces; they were to destroy forts
+and walls and dismount the enemy's machines. Third class guns fired
+stone balls to break and sink ships and defend batteries from assault;
+such guns included the pedrero, mortar, and bombard (fig. <a href="#img023">23c, d</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Collado's explanation of how the various guns were invented is perhaps
+naive, but nevertheless interesting: "Although the main intent of the
+inventors of this machine [artillery] was to fire and offend the enemy
+from both near and afar, since this offense must be in diverse ways it
+so happened that they formed various classes in this manner: they came
+to realize that men were not satisfied with the <i>espingardas</i> [small
+Moorish cannon], and for this reason the musket was made; and likewise
+the <i>esmeril</i> and the falconet. And although these fired longer shots,
+they made
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page032" name="page032"></a>(p. 032)</span>
+the demisaker. To remedy a defect of that, the
+sakers were made, and the demiculverins and culverins. While they were
+deemed sufficient for making a long shot and striking the enemy from
+afar, they were of little use as battering guns because they fire a
+small ball. So they determined to found a second kind of piece,
+wherewith, firing balls of much greater weight, they might realize
+their intention. But discovering likewise that this second kind of
+piece was too powerful, heavy and costly for batteries and for defense
+against assaults or ships and galleys, they made a third class of
+piece, lighter in metal and taking less powder, to fire balls of
+stone. These are the commonly called <i>cañones de pedreros</i>. All the
+classes of pieces are different in range, manufacture and design. Even
+the method of charging them is different."</p>
+
+<a id="img022" name="img022"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="400" height="124" alt="Figure 22&mdash;TRAJECTORIES." title="Figure 22&mdash;TRAJECTORIES.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 22&mdash;TRAJECTORIES.</span> Maximum range of eighteenth
+century guns was about 1 mile.</p>
+
+<p class="col10b">
+<i>Guns could:</i> Batter heavy construction with solid shot at long or
+short range; destroy fort parapets and, by ricochet fire, dismount
+cannon; shoot grape, canister, or bombs against massed personnel.<br>
+
+<i>Mortars could:</i> Reach targets behind obstructions; use high angle
+fire to shoot bombs, destroying construction and personnel.<br>
+
+<i>Howitzers could:</i> Move more easily in the field than mortars; reach
+targets behind obstructions by high angle fire; shoot larger
+projectiles than could field guns of similar weight.</p>
+
+<p>It was most important for the artillerist to understand the different
+classes of guns. As Collado quaintly phrased it, "he who ignores the
+present lecture on this <i>arte</i> will, I assert, never do a good thing."
+Cannon burst in the batteries every day because gunners were ignorant
+of how the gun was made and what it was meant to do. Nor was such
+ignorance confined to gunners alone. The will and whim of the prince
+who ordered the ordnance or "the simple opinion of the unexpert
+founder himself," were the guiding principles in gun founding. "I am
+forced," wrote Collado, "to persuade the princes and advise the
+founders that the making of artillery should always take into account
+the purpose each piece must serve." This persuasion he undertook in
+considerable detail.</p>
+
+<a id="img023" name="img023"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="400" height="574" alt="Figure 23&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ARTILLERY." title="Figure 23&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ARTILLERY.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 23&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ARTILLERY.</span> Taken
+from a 1592 manuscript, these drawings illustrate the three main
+classes of artillery used by Spain during the early colonial period in
+the New World, a&mdash;Culverin (Class 1). b&mdash;Cannon (Class 2). c&mdash;Pedrero
+(Class 3). d&mdash;Mortar (Class 3).</p>
+
+<p>The first class of guns were the long-range pieces, comparatively
+"rich" in metal. In the following table from Collado, the calibers and
+ranges for most Spanish guns of this class are given, although as the
+second column shows, at this period calibers were standardized only in
+a general way. For
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page034" name="page034"></a>(p. 034)</span>
+translation where possible, and to list
+those which became the most popular calibers, we have added a final
+column. Most of the guns were probably of culverin length: 30- to
+32-caliber.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the first class</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the first class">
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Name of gun</th>
+<th>Weight of ball (pounds)</th>
+<th>Length of gun (in calibers)</th>
+<th colspan="2">Range in yards</th>
+<th>Popular caliber</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Point-blank</th>
+<th>Maximum</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Esmeril
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    208
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    750
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    1/2-pounder esmeril.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Falconete
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1 to 2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    1-pounder falconet.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Falcón
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3 to 4
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    417
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    2,500
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    3-pounder falcon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Pasavolante
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1 to 15
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    40 to 44
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    500
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    4,166
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    6-pounder pasavolante.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Media sacre
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5 to 7
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    417
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    3,750
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    6-pounder demisaker.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Sacre
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7 to 10
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    9-pounder saker.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Moyana
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8 to 10
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    shorter than saker
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    9-pounder moyenne.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Media culebrina
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10 to 18
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    833
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    5,000
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    12-pounder demiculverin.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Tercio de culebrina
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    14 to 22
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    18-pounder third-culverin.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Culebrina
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    20, 24, 25, 30, 40, 50
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    30 to 32
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    1,742
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    6,666
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    24-pounder culverin.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Culebrina real
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    24 to 40
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    30 to 32
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    32-pounder culverin royal.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Doble culebrina
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    40 and up
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    30 to 32
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    48-pounder culverin.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>In view of the range Collado ascribes to the culverin, some remarks on
+gun performances are in order. "Greatest random" was what the old-time
+gunner called his maximum range, and random it was. Beyond point-blank
+range, the gunner was never sure of hitting his target. So with
+smoothbores, long range was never of great importance. Culverins, with
+their thick walls, long bores, and heavy powder charges, achieved
+distance; but second class guns like field "cannon," with less metal
+and smaller charges, ranged about 1,600 yards at a maximum, while the
+effective range was hardly more than 500. Heavier pieces, such as the
+French 33-pounder battering cannon, might have a point-blank range of
+720 yards; at 200-yard range its ball would penetrate from 12 to 24
+feet of earthwork, depending on how "poor and hungry" the earth was.
+At 130 yards a Dutch 48-pounder cannon put a ball 20 feet into a
+strong earth rampart, while from 100 yards a 24-pounder siege cannon
+would bury the ball 12 feet.</p>
+
+<p>But generalizations on early cannon are difficult, for it is not easy
+to find two "mathematicians" of the old days whose ordnance lists
+agree. Spanish guns of the late 1500's do, however, appear to be
+larger in caliber than pieces of similar name in other countries, as
+is shown by comparing the culverins: the smallest Spanish <i>culebrina</i>
+was a 20-pounder, but the French great <i>coulevrine</i> of 1551 was a
+15-pounder and the typical English culverin
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page035" name="page035"></a>(p. 035)</span>
+of that century
+was an 18-pounder. Furthermore, midway of the 1500's, Henry II greatly
+simplified French ordnance by holding his artillery down to the
+33-pounder cannon, 15-pounder great culverin, 7-1/2-pounder bastard
+culverin, 2-pounder small culverin, a 1-pounder falcon, and a
+1/2-pounder falconet. Therefore, any list like the one following must
+have its faults:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Principal English guns of the sixteenth century</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Principal English guns of the sixteenth century">
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Caliber (inches)</th>
+<th colspan="2">Length</th>
+<th>Weight of gun (pounds)</th>
+<th>Weight of shot (pounds)</th>
+<th>Powder charge (pounds)</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Ft.</th>
+<th>In.</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Rabinet
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    300
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    0.3
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    0.18
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Serpentine
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1.5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    400
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    .5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    .3
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Falconet
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    500
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    .4
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Falcon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2.5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    680
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1.2
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Minion
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3.5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1,050
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5.2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Saker
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3.65
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    11
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1,400
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Culverin bastard
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4.56
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3,000
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    11
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5.7
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Demiculverin
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3,400
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Basilisk
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4,000
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    14
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Culverin
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5.2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    11
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4,840
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    18
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    12
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Pedrero
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3,800
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    26
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    14
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Demicannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6.4
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    11
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4,000
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    32
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    18
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Bastard cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4,500
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    42
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    20
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cannon serpentine
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5,500
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    42
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    25
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8.0
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6,000
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    60
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    27
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cannon royal
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8.54
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8,000
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    74
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    30
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Like many gun names, the word "culverin" has a metaphorical meaning.
+It derives from the Latin <i>colubra</i> (snake). Similarly, the light gun
+called <i>áspide</i> or aspic, meaning "asp-like," was named after the
+venomous asp. But these digressions should not obscure the fact that
+both culverins and demiculverins were highly esteemed on account of
+their range and the effectiveness of fire. They were used for
+precision shooting such as building demolition, and an expert gunner
+could cut out a section of stone wall with these guns in short order.</p>
+
+<p>As the fierce falcon hawk gave its name to the falcon and falconet, so
+the saker was named for the saker hawk; rabinet, meaning "rooster,"
+was therefore a suitable name for the falcon's small-bore cousin. The
+9-pounder saker served well in any military enterprise, and the
+<i>moyana</i> (or the French <i>moyenne</i>, "middle-sized"), being a shorter
+gun of saker caliber, was a good naval piece. The most powerful of the
+smaller pieces, however, was the <i>pasavolante</i>, distinguishable by its
+great length. It was between 40 and 44 calibers long! In addition, it
+had thicker walls than any other small caliber gun, and the
+combination of length and weight permitted an unusually heavy
+charge&mdash;as much powder as the ball weighed. A 6-pound lead ball was
+what the typical <i>pasavolante</i> fired; another gun of the same caliber
+firing an iron ball would be a 4-pounder. The point-blank range of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page036" name="page036"></a>(p. 036)</span>
+this Spanish gun was a football field's length farther than
+either the falcon or demisaker.</p>
+
+<p>In today's Spanish, <i>pasavolante</i> means "fast action," a phrase
+suggestive of the vicious impetuosity to be expected from such a small
+but powerful cannon. Sometimes it was termed a <i>drajón</i>, the English
+equivalent of which may be the drake, meaning "dragon"; but perhaps
+its most popular name in the early days was <i>cerbatana</i>, from Cerebus,
+the fierce three-headed dog of mythology. Strange things happen to
+words: a <i>cerbatana</i> in modern Spanish is a pea shooter.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the second class</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the second class">
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Spanish name</th>
+<th>Weight of ball (pounds)</th>
+<th>Translation</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Quarto cañon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9 to 12
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Quarter-cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Tercio cañon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    16
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Third-cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Medio cañon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    24
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Demicannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cañon de abatir
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    32
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Siege cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Doble cañon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    48
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Double cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cañon de batería
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    60
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Battering cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Serpentino
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Serpentine.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Quebrantamuro or lombarda
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    70 to 90
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Wallbreaker or lombard.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Basilisco
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    80 and up
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    Basilisk.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The second class of guns were the only ones properly called "cannon"
+in this early period. They were siege and battering pieces, and in
+some few respects were similar to the howitzers of later years. A
+typical Spanish cannon was only about two-thirds as long as a
+culverin, and the bore walls were thinner. Naturally, the powder
+charge was also reduced (half the ball's weight for a common cannon,
+while a culverin took double that amount).</p>
+
+<p>The Germans made their light cannon 18 calibers long. Most Spanish
+siege and battering guns had this same proportion, for a shorter gun
+would not burn all the powder efficiently, "which," said Collado, "is
+a most grievous fault." However, small cannon of 18-caliber length
+were too short; the muzzle blast tended to destroy the embrasure of
+the parapet. For this reason, Spanish demicannon were as long as 24
+calibers and the quarter-cannon ran up to 28. The 12-pounder
+quarter-cannon, incidentally, was "culverined" or reinforced so that
+it actually served in the field as a demiculverin.</p>
+
+<p>The great weight of its projectile gave the double cannon its name.
+The warden of the Castillo at Milan had some 130-pounders made, but
+such huge pieces were of little use, except in permanent
+fortifications. It took a huge crew to move them, their carriages
+broke under the concentrated weight, and they consumed mountains of
+munitions. The lombard, which apparently originated in Lombardy, and
+the basilisk had the same disadvantages. The fabled basilisk was a
+serpent whose very look was fatal. Its
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page037" name="page037"></a>(p. 037)</span>
+namesake in bronze
+was tremendously heavy, with walls up to 4 calibers thick and a bore
+up to 30 calibers long. It was seldom used by the Europeans, but the
+Turkish General Mustafa had a pair of basilisks at the siege of Malta,
+in 1565, that fired 150- and 200-pound balls. The 200-pounder gun
+broke loose as it was being transferred to a homeward bound galley and
+sank permanently to the bottom of the sea. Its mate was left on the
+island, where it became an object of great curiosity.</p>
+
+<p>The third class of ordnance included the guns firing stone
+projectiles, such as the pedrero (or perrier, petrary, cannon petro,
+etc.), the mortars, and the old bombards like Edinburgh Castle's
+famous Mons Meg. Bars of wrought iron were welded together to form
+Meg's tube, and iron rings were clamped around the outside of the
+piece. In spite of many accidents, this coopering technique persisted
+through the fifteenth century. Mons Meg was made in two sections that
+screwed together, forming a piece 13 feet long and 5 tons in weight.</p>
+
+<p>Pedreros (fig. <a href="#img023">23c</a>) were comparatively light. The foundryman used only
+half the metal he would put into a culverin, for the stone projectile
+weighed only a third as much as an iron ball of the same size, and the
+bore walls could therefore be comparatively thin. They were made in
+calibers up to 50-pounders. There was a chamber for the powder charge
+and little danger of the gun's bursting, unless a foolhardy fellow
+loaded it with an iron ball. The wall thicknesses of this gun are
+shown in Figure <a href="#img024">24</a>, where the inner circle represents the diameter of
+the chamber, the next arc the bore caliber, and the outer lines the
+respective diameters at chase, trunnions, and vent.</p>
+
+<a id="img024" name="img024"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="400" height="209" alt="Figure 24&mdash;HOW MUCH METAL WAS IN EARLY GUNS?" title="Figure 24&mdash;HOW MUCH METAL WAS IN EARLY GUNS?">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 24&mdash;HOW MUCH METAL WAS IN EARLY GUNS?</span> The charts
+compare the wall diameters of sixteenth-seventeenth century types. The
+center circle represents the bore, while the three outer arcs show the
+relative thickness of the bore wall at (1) the smallest diameter of
+the chase, (2) at the trunnions, and (3) at the vent. The small arc
+inside the bore indicates the powder chamber found in the pedrero and
+mortar.</p>
+
+<p>Mortars (fig. <a href="#img023">23d</a>)
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page038" name="page038"></a>(p. 038)</span>
+were excellent for "putting great fear and
+terror in the souls of the besieged." Every night the mortars would
+play upon the town: "it keeps them in constant turmoil, due to the
+thought that some ball will fall upon their house." Mortars were
+designed like pedreros, except much shorter. The convenient way to
+charge them was with <i>saquillos</i> (small bags) of powder. "They
+require," said Collado, "a larger mouthful than any other pieces."</p>
+
+<p>Just as children range from slight to stocky in the same family, there
+are light, medium, or heavy guns&mdash;all bearing the same family name.
+The difference lies in how the piece was "fortified"; that is, how
+thick the founder cast the bore walls. The English language has
+inelegantly descriptive terms for the three degrees of
+"fortification": (1) bastard, (2) legitimate, and (3)
+double-fortified. The thicker-walled guns used more powder. Spanish
+double-fortified culverins were charged with the full weight of the
+ball in powder; four-fifths that amount went into the legitimate, and
+only two-thirds for the bastard culverin. In a short culverin (say, 24
+calibers long instead of 30), the gunner used 24/30 of a standard
+charge.</p>
+
+<p>The yardstick for fortifying a gun was its caliber. In a legitimate
+culverin of 6-inch caliber, for instance, the bore wall at the vent
+might be one caliber (16/16 of the bore diameter) or 6 inches thick;
+at the trunnions it would be 10/16 or 4-1/8 inches, and at the
+smallest diameter of the chase, 7/16 or 2-5/8 inches. This table
+compares the three degrees of fortification used in Spanish culverins:</p>
+
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Degrees of fortification in Spanish culverins">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="55">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th colspan="3">Wall thickness in 8ths of caliber</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Vent</th>
+<th>Trunnion</th>
+<th>Chase</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Bastard culverin
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Legitimate culverin
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3-1/2
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Double-fortified
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>As with culverins, so with cannon. This is Collado's table showing the
+fortification for Spanish cannon:</p>
+
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Degrees of fortification in Spanish cannons">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="55">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th colspan="3">Wall thickness in 8ths of caliber</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Vent</th>
+<th>Trunnion</th>
+<th>Chase</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cañon sencillo (light cannon)
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2-1/2
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cañon común (common cannon)
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3-1/2
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cañon reforzado (reinforced cannon)
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3-1/2
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Since cast iron was weaker than bronze, the walls of cast-iron pieces
+were even thicker than the culverins. Spanish iron guns were founded
+with 300 pounds of metal for each pound of the ball, and in lengths
+from 18 to 20 calibers. English, Irish, and Swedish iron guns of the
+period, Collado noted, had slightly more metal in them than even the
+Spaniards recommended.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page039" name="page039"></a>(p. 039)</span>
+
+<a id="img025" name="img025"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="300" height="650" alt="Figure 25&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHAMBERED CANNON." title="Figure 25&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHAMBERED CANNON.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 25&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHAMBERED CANNON.</span>
+a&mdash;"Bell-chambered" demicannon, b&mdash;Chambered demicannon.</p>
+
+<p>Another
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page040" name="page040"></a>(p. 040)</span>
+way the designers tried to gain strength without
+loading the gun with metal was by using a powder chamber. A chambered
+cannon (fig. <a href="#img025">25b</a>) might be fortified like either the light or the
+common cannon, but it would have a cylindrical chamber about
+two-thirds of a caliber in diameter and four calibers long. It was not
+always easy, however, to get the powder into the chamber. Collado
+reported that many a good artillerist dumped the powder almost in the
+middle of the gun. When his ladle hit the mouth of the chamber, he
+thought he was at the bottom of the bore! The cylindrical chamber was
+somewhat improved by a cone-shaped taper, which the Spaniards called
+<i>encampanado</i> or "bell-chambered." A <i>cañon encampanado</i> (fig. <a href="#img025">25a</a>)
+was a good long-range gun, strong, yet light. But it was hard to cut a
+ladle for the long, tapered chamber.</p>
+
+<p>Of all these guns, the reinforced cannon was one of the best. Since it
+had almost as much metal as a culverin, it lacked the defects of the
+chambered pieces. A 60-pounder reinforced cannon fired a convenient
+55-pound ball, was easy to move, load, and clean, and held up well
+under any kind of service. It cooled quickly. Either cannon powder or
+fine powder (up to two-thirds the ball's weight) could be used in it.
+Reinforced cannon were an important factor in any enterprise, as King
+Philip's famed "Twelve Apostles" proved during the Flanders wars.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Fortification of sixteenth and seventeenth century guns</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Fortification of sixteenth and seventeenth century guns">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="30">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="25">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Spanish Guns</th>
+<th colspan="3">Thickness of bore wall in 8ths of the caliber</th>
+<th>English guns</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Vent</th>
+<th>Trunnions</th>
+<th>Chase</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Light cannon; bell-chambered cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Bastard cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Demicannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Common cannon; common siege cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Light culverin; common battering cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Bastard culverin; legitimate cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Common culverin; reinforced cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Legitimate culverin; double-fortified cannon.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Legitimate culverin
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Double-fortified culverin.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Cast-iron cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Pasavolante
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    11-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>While there was little real progress in mobility until the days of
+Gustavus Adolphus, the wheeled artillery carriage seems to have been
+invented by the Venetians in the fifteenth century. The essential
+parts of the design were early established: two large, heavy cheeks or
+side pieces set on an axle and connected by transoms. The gun was
+cradled between the cheeks, the rear ends of which formed a "trail"
+for stabilizing and maneuvering the piece.</p>
+
+<p>Wheels were perhaps the greatest problem. As early as the 1500's
+carpenters and wheelwrights were debating whether dished wheels were
+best.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page041" name="page041"></a>(p. 041)</span>
+"They say," reported Collado, "that the [dished] wheel
+will never twist when the artillery is on the march. Others say that a
+wheel with spokes angled beyond the cask cannot carry the weight of
+the piece without twisting the spoke, so the wheel does not last long.
+I am of the same opinion, for it is certain that a perpendicular wheel
+will suffer more weight than the other. The defect of twisting under
+the pieces when on the march will be remedied by making the cart a
+little wider than usual." However, advocates of the dished wheel
+finally won.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SMOOTHBORES OF THE LATER PERIOD</h4>
+
+<p>From the guns of Queen Elizabeth's time came the 6-, 9-, 12-, 18-,
+24-, 32-, and 42-pounder classifications adopted by Cromwell's
+government and used by the English well through the eighteenth
+century. On the Continent, during much of this period, the French were
+acknowledged leaders. Louis XIV (1643-1715) brought several foreign
+guns into his ordnance, standardizing a set of calibers (4-, 8-, 12-,
+16-, 24-, 32-, and 48-pounders) quite different from Henry II's in the
+previous century.</p>
+
+<p>The cannon of the late 1600's was an ornate masterpiece of the
+foundryman's art, covered with escutcheons, floral relief, scrolls,
+and heavy moldings, the most characteristic of which was perhaps the
+banded muzzle (figs. <a href="#img023">23b-c</a>, <a href="#img025">25</a>,
+<a href="#img026">26a-b</a>), that bulbous bit of
+ornamentation which had been popular with designers since the days of
+the bombards. The flared or bell-shaped muzzle (figs. <a href="#img023">23a</a>,
+<a href="#img026">26c</a>, <a href="#img027">27</a>),
+did not supplant the banded muzzle until the eighteenth century, and,
+while the flaring bell is a usual characteristic of ordnance founded
+between 1730 and 1830, some banded-muzzle guns were made as late as
+1746 (fig. <a href="#img026">26a</a>).</p>
+
+<p>By 1750; however, design and construction were fairly well
+standardized in a gun of much cleaner line than the cannon of 1650.
+Although as yet there had been no sharp break with the older
+traditions, the shape and weight of the cannon in relation to the
+stresses of firing were becoming increasingly important to the men who
+did the designing.</p>
+
+<p>Conditions in eighteenth century England were more or less typical: in
+the 1730's Surveyor-General Armstrong's formulae for gun design were
+hardly more than continuations of the earlier ways. His guns were
+about 20 calibers long, with these outside proportions:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" summary="Outside proportions">
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td class="widthem">
+    1st reinforce
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    = 2/7 of the gun's length.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="widthem">
+    2d reinforce
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    = 1/7 plus 1 caliber.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="widthem">
+    chase
+  </td>
+  <td>
+    = 4/7 less 1 caliber.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The trunnions, about a caliber in size, were located well forward (3/7
+of the gun's length) "to prevent the piece from kicking up behind" when
+it was fired. Gunners blamed this bucking tendency on the practice of
+centering the trunnions on the <i>lower</i> line of the bore. "But what will not
+people do to support an old custom let it be ever so absurd?" asked John
+Müller, the master gunner of Woolwich. In 1756, Müller raised the trunnions
+to the <i>center</i> of the bore, an improvement that greatly lessened the
+strain on the gun carriage.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page042" name="page042"></a>(p. 042)</span>
+
+<a id="img026" name="img026"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="400" height="538" alt="Figure 26&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CANNON." title="Figure 26&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CANNON.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 26&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CANNON,</span> a&mdash;Spanish bronze 24-pounder
+of 1746. b&mdash;French bronze 24-pounder of the early 1700's. c&mdash;English
+iron 6-pounder of the middle 1700's. The 6-pounder is part of the armament at
+Castillo de San Marcos.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page043" name="page043"></a>(p. 043)</span>
+
+<a id="img027" name="img027"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img027.jpg" width="400" height="106" alt="Figure 27&mdash;SPANISH 24-POUNDER CAST-IRON GUN (1693)." title="Figure 27&mdash;SPANISH 24-POUNDER CAST-IRON GUN (1693).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 27&mdash;SPANISH 24-POUNDER CAST-IRON GUN (1693).</span> Note the
+modern lines of this cannon, with its flat breech and slight muzzle swell.</p>
+
+<p>The caliber of the gun continued to be the yardstick for "fortification"
+of the bore walls:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" summary="Caliber">
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Vent
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    16
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    parts
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    End of 1st reinforce
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    14-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Beginning of second reinforce
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    13-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    End of second reinforce
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    12-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Beginning of chase
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    11-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    End of chase
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>For both bronze and iron guns, the above figures were the same, but
+for bronze, Armstrong divided the caliber into 16 parts; for iron it
+was only 14 parts. The walls of an iron gun thus were slightly thicker
+than those of a bronze one.</p>
+
+<p>This eighteenth century cannon was a cast gun, but hoops and rings
+gave it the built-up look of the barrel-stave bombard, when hoops were
+really functional parts of the cannon. Reinforces made the gun look
+like "three frustums of cones joined together, so as the lesser base
+of the former is always greater than the greatest of the succeeding
+one." Ornamental fillets, astragals, and moldings, borrowed from
+architecture, increased the illusion of a sectional piece. Tests with
+24-pounders of different lengths showed guns from 18 to 21 calibers
+long gave generally the best performance, but what was true for the
+24-pounder was not necessarily true for other pieces. Why was the
+32-pounder "brass battering piece" 6 inches longer than its 42-pounder
+brother? John Müller wondered about such inconsistencies and set out
+to devise a new system of ordnance for England.</p>
+
+<p>Like many men before him, Müller sought to increase the caliber of
+cannon without increasing weight. He managed it in two ways: he
+modified exterior design to save on metal, and he lessened the powder
+charge to permit shortening and lightening the gun. Müller's guns had
+no heavy reinforces; the metal was distributed along the bore in a
+taper from powder chamber to muzzle swell. But realizing man's
+reluctance to accept new things, he carefully specified the location
+and size for each molding on his gun, protesting all the while the
+futility of such ornaments. Not until the last half of the next
+century were the experts well enough versed in metallurgy and interior
+ballistics to slough off all the useless metal.</p>
+
+<p>So, using powder charges about one-third the weight of the projectile,
+Müller designed 14-caliber light field pieces and 15-caliber ship
+guns. His garrison and battering cannon, where weight was no great
+disadvantage, were
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page044" name="page044"></a>(p. 044)</span>
+18 calibers long. The figures in the
+table following represent the principal dimensions for the four types
+of cannon&mdash;all cast-iron except for the bronze siege guns. The first
+line in the table shows the length of the cannon. To proportion the
+rest of the piece, Müller divided the shot diameter into 24 parts and
+used it as a yardstick. The caliber of the gun, for instance, was 25
+parts, or 25/24th of the shot diameter. The few other
+dimensions&mdash;thickness of the breech, length of the gun before the
+barrel began its taper, fortification at vent and chase&mdash;were
+expressed the same way.</p>
+
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Dimensions">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="40">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Field</th>
+<th>Ship</th>
+<th>Siege</th>
+<th>Garrison</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Length in calibers (Other proportions in 24ths of the shot diameter)
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    14
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    15
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    18
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    18
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Caliber
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    25
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    25
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    25
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    25
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Thickness of breech
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    14
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    24
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    16
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    24
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Length from breech to taper
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    39
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    49
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    40
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    49
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Thickness at vent
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    16
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    25
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    18
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    25
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    Thickness at muzzle
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    12-1/2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    12-1/2
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The heaviest of Müller's garrison guns averaged some 172 pounds of
+iron for every pound of the shot, while a ship gun weighed only 146,
+less than half the iron that went into the sixteenth century cannon.
+And for a seafaring nation such as England, these were important
+things. Perhaps the opposite table will give a fair idea of the
+changes in English ordnance during the eighteenth century. It is based
+upon John Müller's lists of 1756; the "old" ordnance includes cannon
+still in use during Müller's time, while the "new" ordnance is
+Müller's own.</p>
+
+<p>Windage in the English gun of 1750 was about 20 percent greater than
+in French pieces. The English ratio of shot to caliber was 20:21;
+across the channel it was 26:27. Thus, an English 9-pounder fired a
+4.00-inch ball from a 4.20-inch bore; the French 9-pounder ball was
+4.18 inches and the bore 4.34.</p>
+
+<p>The English figured greater windage was both convenient and
+economical: windage, said they, ought to be just as thick as the metal
+in the gunner's ladle; standing shot stuck in the bore and unless it
+could be loosened with the ladle, had to be fired away and lost. John
+Müller brushed aside such arguments impatiently. With a proper wad
+over the shot, no dust or dirt could get in; and when the muzzle was
+lowered, said Müller, the shot "will roll out of course." Besides,
+compared with increased accuracy, the loss of a shot was trifling.
+Furthermore, with less room for the shot to bounce around the bore,
+the cannon would "not be spoiled so soon." Müller set the ratio of
+shot to caliber as 24:25.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Calibers and lengths of principal eighteenth century English cannon</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Dimensions">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="20">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="8">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th colspan="2">Field</th>
+<th colspan="4">Ship</th>
+<th colspan="2">Siege</th>
+<th colspan="2">Garrison</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th colspan="2">Iron</th>
+<th colspan="2">Bronze</th>
+<th colspan="2">Iron</th>
+<th colspan="2">Bronze</th>
+<th colspan="2">Iron</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>Old</th>
+<th>New</th>
+<th>Old</th>
+<th>New</th>
+<th>Old</th>
+<th>New</th>
+<th>Old</th>
+<th>New</th>
+<th>Old</th>
+<th>New</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    1-1/2-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    3-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3'3"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    3'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'2"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    4-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    6-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'1"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'3"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    9-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    4'8"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'0"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    12-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'1"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'7"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'7"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    18-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'10"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'6"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    24-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    5'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    6'5"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'4"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    32-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'2"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'2"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    36-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    7'10"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    42-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'4"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    9'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10'0"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10'0"
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>
+    48-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    8'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    10'6"
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    &nbsp;
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the 1700's cast-iron guns became the principal artillery afloat and
+ashore, yet cast bronze was superior in withstanding the stresses of
+firing. Because of its toughness, less metal was needed in a bronze
+gun than in a cast-iron one, so in spite of the fact that bronze is
+about 20 percent heavier than
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page046" name="page046"></a>(p. 046)</span>
+iron, the bronze piece was
+usually the lighter of the two. For "position" guns in permanent
+fortifications where weight was no disadvantage, iron reigned supreme
+until the advent of steel guns. But non-rusting bronze was always
+preferable aboard ship or in seacoast forts.</p>
+
+<p>Müller strongly advocated bronze for ship guns. "Notwithstanding all
+the precautions that can be taken to make iron Guns of a sufficient
+strength," he said, "yet accidents will sometimes happen, either by
+the mismanagement of the sailors, or by frosty weather, which renders
+iron very brittle." A bronze 24-pounder cost £156, compared with £75
+for the iron piece, but the initial saving was offset when the gun
+wore out. The iron gun was then good for nothing except scrap at a
+farthing per pound, while the bronze cannon could be recast "as often
+as you please."</p>
+
+<p>In 1740, Maritz of Switzerland made an outstanding contribution to the
+technique of ordnance manufacture. Instead of hollow casting (that is,
+forming the bore by casting the gun around a core), Maritz cast the
+gun solid, then drilled the bore, thus improving its uniformity. But
+although the bore might be drilled quite smooth, the outside of a
+cast-iron gun was always rough. Bronze cannon, however, could be put
+in the lathes to true up even the exterior. While after 1750 the
+foundries seldom turned out bronze pieces as ornate as the Renaissance
+culverins, a few decorations remained and many guns were still
+personalized with names in raised letters on the gun. Castillo de San
+Marcos has a 4-pounder "San Marcos," and, indeed, saints' names were
+not uncommon on Spanish ordnance. Other typical names were <i>El
+Espanto</i> (The Terror), <i>El Destrozo</i> (The Destroyer), <i>Generoso</i>
+(Generous), <i>El Toro</i> (The Bull), and <i>El Belicoso</i> (The Quarrelsome
+One).</p>
+
+<p>In some instances, decoration was useful. The French, for instance, at
+one time used different shapes of cascabels to denote certain
+calibers; and even a fancy cascabel shaped like a lion's head was
+always a handy place for anchoring breeching tackle or maneuvering
+lines. The dolphins or handles atop bronze guns were never merely
+ornaments. Usually they were at the balance point of the gun; tackle
+run through them and hooked to the big tripod or "gin" lifted the
+cannon from its carriage.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GARRISON AND SHIP GUNS</h4>
+
+<p>Cannon for permanent fortifications were of various sizes and
+calibers, depending upon the terrain that had to be defended. At
+Castillo de San Marcos, for instance, the strongest armament was on
+the water front; lighter guns were on the land sector, an area
+naturally protected by the difficult terrain existing in the colonial
+period.</p>
+
+<a id="img028" name="img028"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img028.jpg" width="400" height="206" alt="Figure 28&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH GARRISON GUN" title="Figure 28&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH GARRISON GUN">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 28&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH GARRISON GUN.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Castillo was completed, guns were mounted only in the
+bastions or projecting corners of the fort. A 1683 inventory clearly
+shows that heaviest guns were in the San Agustín, or southeastern
+bastion, commanding not only the harbor and its entrance but the town
+of St. Augustine as well San Pablo, the northwestern bastion,
+overlooked the land approach to
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page047" name="page047"></a>(p. 047)</span>
+the Castillo and the town
+gate; and, though its armament was lighter, it was almost as numerous
+as that in San Agustín. Bastion San Pedro to the southwest was within
+the town limits, and its few light guns were a reserve for San Pablo.
+The watchtower bastion of San Carlos overlooked the northern marshland
+and the harbor; its armament was likewise small. The following list
+details the variety and location of the ordnance:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Cannon mounted at Castillo de San Marcos in 1683</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Cannon mounted at Castillo de San Marcos in 1683">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="20">
+<col width="5">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="20">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="25">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Location</th>
+<th>No.</th>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th>Class</th>
+<th>Metal</th>
+<th>Remarks</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td rowspan="9" class="td-center">
+    In the bastion of San Agustín
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    40-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Carriage battered.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    18-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    New carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    16-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Old carriages, wheels bad.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    12-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    New carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    12-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    do.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    8-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Old carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    7-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Carriage bad.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    4-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    New carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    3-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    do.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td rowspan="6" class="td-center">
+    In the bastion of San Pablo
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    16-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Demicannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Old carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    10-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Demiculverin
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    do.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    9-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    do.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    7-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Demiculverin
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    do.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    7-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Carriage bad.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    5-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    New carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td rowspan="4" class="td-center">
+    In the bastion of San Pedro
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    9-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Old carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    7-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Carriage bad.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    2
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    5-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    do.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    4-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Old carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td rowspan="4" class="td-center">
+    In the bastion of San Carlos
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    10-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Cannon
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Old carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    5-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    New carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    5-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Bronze
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    Good carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    1
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    2-pounder
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    do
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-center">
+    Iron
+  </td>
+  <td class="td-right">
+    New carriage.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page048" name="page048"></a>(p. 048)</span>
+total number of Castillo guns in service at this date was
+27, but there were close to a dozen unmounted pieces on hand,
+including a pair of pedreros. The armament was gradually increased to
+70-odd guns as construction work on the fort made additional space
+available, and as other factors warranted more ordnance. Below is a
+summary of Castillo armament through the years:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Armament of Castillo de San Marcos, 1683-1834</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Armament of Castillo de San Marcos, 1683-1834">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="13">
+<col width="5">
+<col width="7">
+<col width="7">
+<col width="8">
+<col width="5">
+<col width="7">
+<col width="5">
+<col width="7">
+<col width="5">
+<col width="7">
+<col width="5">
+<col width="7">
+<col width="5">
+<col width="7">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th rowspan="2">Kind of gun</th>
+<th colspan="2">1683</th>
+<th colspan="2">1706</th>
+<th colspan="2">1740</th>
+<th colspan="2">1763</th>
+<th colspan="2">1765</th>
+<th colspan="2">1812</th>
+<th colspan="2">1834</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>Iron</th>
+<th>Bronze</th>
+<th>Iron</th>
+<th>Bronze</th>
+<th>Iron</th>
+<th>Bronze</th>
+<th>Iron</th>
+<th>Bronze</th>
+<th>Iron</th>
+<th>Bronze</th>
+<th>Iron</th>
+<th>Bronze</th>
+<th>Iron</th>
+<th>Bronze</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>2-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td rowspan="13" class="td-center">8 guns from 2- to 16- pounders</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>3-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">3</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>4-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td rowspan="8" class="td-center">26 guns from 4- to 10- pounders</td>
+  <td class="td-center">5</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>5-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">4</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">15</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>6-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">5</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">3</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>7-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">4</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">5</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>8-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">11</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">5</td>
+  <td class="td-center">11</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>3-1/2 in. carronade</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">4</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>9-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">3</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>10-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">6</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>12-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">13</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">7</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>15-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">6</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>16-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">3</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">8</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>18-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">4</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">7</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">4</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>24-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">7</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">32</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">10</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">5</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>33-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>36-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>40-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>24-pounder field howitzer</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>6-in. howitzer</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>8-in. howitzer</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>Small mortar</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">18</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">20</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>6-in. mortar</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>10-in. mortar</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>Large mortar</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">6</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">1</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>Large mortar</td>
+  <td class="td-center">2</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">3</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+  <td class="td-center">..</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+  <td>Total</td>
+  <td class="td-center">20</td>
+  <td class="td-center">9</td>
+  <td class="td-center">26</td>
+  <td class="td-center">9</td>
+  <td class="td-center">55</td>
+  <td class="td-center">10</td>
+  <td class="td-center">40</td>
+  <td class="td-center">37</td>
+  <td class="td-center">39</td>
+  <td class="td-center">24</td>
+  <td class="td-center">26</td>
+  <td class="td-center">8</td>
+  <td class="td-center">14</td>
+  <td class="td-center">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>Grand total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="td-center">29</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="td-center">35</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="td-center">65</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="td-center">77</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="td-center">63</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="td-center">34</td>
+  <td colspan="2" class="td-center">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>This tabulation reflects contemporary conditions quite clearly. The
+most serious invasions of Spanish Florida took place during the first
+half of the eighteenth century, precisely the time when the Castillo
+armament was strongest. While most of the guns were in battery
+condition, the table does have some pieces rated only fair and may
+also include a few unserviceables. Colonial isolation meant that
+ordnance often served longer than the normal 1,200-round life of an
+iron piece. A usual failure was the development of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page049" name="page049"></a>(p. 049)</span>
+cracks
+around the vent or in the bore. Sometimes a muzzle blew off. The worst
+casualties of the 1702 siege came from the bursting of an iron
+16-pounder which killed four and seriously wounded six men. At that
+period, incidentally, culverins were the only guns with the range to
+reach the harbor bar some 3,000 yards away.</p>
+
+<p>Although when the Spanish left Florida to Britain in 1763 they took
+serviceable cannon with them, two guns at Castillo de San Marcos
+National Monument today appear to be seventeenth century Spanish
+pieces. Most of the 24- and 32-pounder garrison cannon, however, are
+English-founded, after the Armstrong specifications of the 1730's, and
+were part of the British armament during the 1760's. Amidst the
+general confusion and shipping troubles that attended the British
+evacuation in 1784, some ordnance seems to have been left behind, to
+remain part of the defenses until the cession to the United States in
+1821.</p>
+
+<p>The Castillo also has some interesting United States guns, including a
+pair of early 24-pounder iron field howitzers (c. 1777-1812). During
+the 1840's the United States modernized Castillo defenses by
+constructing a water battery in the moat behind the sea wall. Many of
+the guns for that battery are extant, including 8-inch Columbiads,
+32-pounder cannon, 8-inch seacoast and garrison howitzers. St.
+Augustine's Plaza even boasts a converted 32-pounder rifle.</p>
+
+<a id="img029" name="img029"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img029.jpg" width="250" height="111" alt="Figure 29&mdash;VAUBAN'S MARINE CARRIAGE (c. 1700)" title="Figure 29&mdash;VAUBAN'S MARINE CARRIAGE (c. 1700)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 29&mdash;VAUBAN'S MARINE CARRIAGE (c. 1700).</p>
+
+<p>Garrison and ship carriages were far different from field, siege, and
+howitzer mounts, while mortar beds were in a separate class entirely.
+Basic proportions for the carriage were obtained by measuring (1) the
+distance from trunnion to base ring of the gun, (2) the diameter of
+the base ring, and (3) the diameter of the second reinforce ring. The
+result was a quadrilateral figure that served as a key in laying out
+the carriage to fit the gun. Cheeks, or side pieces, of the carriage
+were a caliber in thickness, so the bigger the gun, the more massive
+the mount.</p>
+
+<p>A 24-pounder cheek would be made of timber about 6 inches thick. The
+Spaniards often used mahogany. At Jamestown, in the early 1600's,
+Capt. John Smith reported the mounting of seven "great pieces of
+ordnance upon new carriages of cedar," and the French colonials also
+used this material. British specifications in the mid-eighteenth
+century called for cheeks and transoms of dry elm, which was very
+pliable and not likely to split; but some carriages were made of young
+oak, and oak was standard for
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page050" name="page050"></a>(p. 050)</span>
+United States garrison
+carriages until it was replaced by wrought-iron after the Civil War.</p>
+
+<p>For a four-wheeled English carriage of 1750, height of the cheek was
+4-2/3 diameters of the shot, unless some change in height had to be
+made to fit a gun port or embrasure. To prevent cannon from pushing
+shutters open when the ship rolled in a storm, lower tier carriages
+let the muzzle of the gun, when fully elevated, butt against the sill
+over the gun port.</p>
+
+<p>On the eighteenth century Spanish garrison carriage (fig. <a href="#img028">28</a>), no
+bolts were threaded; all were held either by a key run through a slot
+in the foot of the bolt, or by bradding the foot over a decorative
+washer. Compared with American mounts of the same type (figs. <a href="#img030">30</a> and
+<a href="#img031">31</a>), the Spanish carriage was considerably more complicated, due
+partly to the greater amount of decorative ironwork and partly to the
+design of the wooden parts which, with their carefully worked
+mortises, required a craftsman's skill. The cheek of the Spanish
+carriage was a single great plank. English and American construction
+called for a built-up cheek of several planks, cleverly jogged or
+mortised together to prevent starting under the strain of firing.</p>
+
+<a id="img030" name="img030"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="250" height="154" alt="Figure 30&mdash;ENGLISH GARRISON CARRIAGE (1756)." title="Figure 30&mdash;ENGLISH GARRISON CARRIAGE (1756).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 30&mdash;ENGLISH GARRISON CARRIAGE (1756).</span> By
+substituting wooden wheels for the cast-iron ones, this carriage
+became a standard naval gun carriage.</p>
+
+<p>Müller furnished specifications for building truck (four-wheeled)
+carriages for 3- to 42-pounders. Aboard ship, of course, the truck
+carriage was standard for almost everything except the little swivel
+guns and the mortars.</p>
+
+<p>Carriage trucks (wheels), unless they were made of cast iron, had iron
+thimbles or bushings driven into the hole of the hub, and to save the
+wood of the axletree, the spindle on which the wheel revolved was
+partly protected by metal. The British put copper on the <i>bottom</i> of
+the spindle; Spanish and French designers put copper on the <i>top</i>,
+then set iron "axletree bars" into the bottom. These bars strengthened
+the axletree and resisted wear at the spindle.</p>
+
+<p>A 24-pounder fore truck was 18 inches in diameter. Rear trucks were 16
+inches. The difference in size compensated for the slope in the gun
+platform or deck&mdash;a slope which helped to check recoil. Aboard ship,
+where recoil space was limited, the "kick" of the gun was checked by a
+heavy
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page051" name="page051"></a>(p. 051)</span>
+rope called a breeching, shackled to the side of the
+vessel (see fig. <a href="#img011">11</a>). Ship carriages of the two-or four-wheel type
+(fig. <a href="#img031">31</a>), were used through the War between the States, and there was
+no great change until the advent of automatic recoil mechanisms made a
+stationary mount possible.</p>
+
+<a id="img031" name="img031"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="250" height="173" alt="Figure 31&mdash;U. S. NAVAL TRUCK CARRIAGE (1866)" title="Figure 31&mdash;U. S. NAVAL TRUCK CARRIAGE (1866)">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 31&mdash;U. S. NAVAL TRUCK CARRIAGE (1866).</p>
+
+<p>With garrison carriages, however, changes came much earlier. In 1743,
+Fort William on the Georgia coast had a pair of 18-pounders mounted
+upon "curious moving Platforms" which were probably similar to the
+traversing platforms standardized by Gribeauval in the latter part of
+the century. United States forts of the early 1800's used casemate and
+barbette carriages (fig. <a href="#img010">10</a>) of the Gribeauval type, and the
+traversing platforms of these mounts made training (aiming the gun
+right or left) comparatively easy.</p>
+
+<p>Training the old truck carriage had been heavy work for the
+handspikemen, who also helped to elevate or depress the gun. Maximum
+elevation or depression was about 15° each way&mdash;about the same as
+naval guns used during the Civil War. If one quoin was not enough to
+secure proper depression, a block or a second quoin was placed below
+the first. But before the gunner depressed a smoothbore below zero
+elevation, he had to put either a wad or a grommet over the ball to
+keep it from rolling out.</p>
+
+<p>Ship and garrison cannon were not moved around on their carriages. If
+the gun had to be taken any distance, it was dismounted and chained
+under a sling wagon or on a "block carriage," the big wheels of which
+easily rolled over difficult terrain. It was not hard to dismount a
+gun: the keys locking the cap squares were removed, and then the gin
+was rigged and the gun hoisted clear of the carriage.</p>
+
+<p>A typical garrison or ship cannon could fire any kind of projectile,
+but solid shot, hot shot, bombs, grape, and canister were in widest
+use. These guns were flat trajectory weapons, with a point-blank range
+of about 300 yards. They were effective&mdash;that is, fairly accurate&mdash;up
+to about half a mile, although the maximum range of guns like the
+Columbiad of the nineteenth century, when elevation was not restricted
+by gun port confines, approached the 4-mile range claimed by the
+Spanish for the sixteenth century
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page052" name="page052"></a>(p. 052)</span>
+culverin. The following
+ranges of United States ordnance in the 1800's are not far different
+from comparable guns of earlier date.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Ranges of United States smoothbore garrison guns of 1861</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Ranges of United States smoothbore garrison guns of 1861">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="60">
+<col width="20">
+<col width="20">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th>Elevation</th>
+<th>Range in yards</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>18-pounder siege and garrison</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5° 0"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,592</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>24-pounder siege and garrison</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5° 0"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,901</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>32-pounder seacoast</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5° 0"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,922</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>42-pounder seacoast</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5° 0"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,955</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>8-inch Columbiad</td>
+  <td class="td-right">27° 30"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,812</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>10-inch Columbiad</td>
+  <td class="td-right">39° 15"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5,654</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td>12-inch Columbiad</td>
+  <td class="td-right">39° 0"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5,506</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Ranges of United States naval smoothbores of 1866</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Ranges of United States naval smoothbores of 1866">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="55">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+<col width="15">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th>Point-blank range in yards</th>
+<th>Elevation</th>
+<th>Range in yards</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>32-pounder of 42 cwt</td>
+  <td class="td-right">313"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,756</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>8-inch of 63 cwt</td>
+  <td class="td-right">330"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,770</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>IX-inch shell gun</td>
+  <td class="td-right">350"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">15°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">3,450</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>X-inch shell gun</td>
+  <td class="td-right">340"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">11°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">3,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>XI-inch shell gun</td>
+  <td class="td-right">295"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">15°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">2,650</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>XV-inch shell gun</td>
+  <td class="td-right">300"</td>
+  <td class="td-right">7°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">2,100</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Ranges of United States naval rifles in 1866</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Ranges of United States naval rifles in 1866">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="60">
+<col width="20">
+<col width="20">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th>Elevation</th>
+<th>Range in yards</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>20-pounder Parrott</td>
+  <td class="td-right">15°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,400</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>30-pounder Parrott</td>
+  <td class="td-right">25°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">6,700</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>100-pounder Parrott</td>
+  <td class="td-right">25°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">7,180</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>In accuracy and range the rifle of the 1860's far surpassed the
+smoothbores, but such tremendous advances were made in the next few
+decades with the introduction of new propellants and steel guns that
+the performances of the old rifles no longer seem remarkable. In the
+eighteenth century, a 24-pounder smoothbore could develop a muzzle
+velocity of about 1,700 feet per second. The 12-inch rifled cannon of
+the late 1800's had a muzzle velocity of 2,300 foot-seconds. In 1900,
+the Secretary of the Navy proudly reported that the new 12-inch guns
+for <i>Maine</i>-class battleships produced a muzzle velocity of 2,854
+foot-seconds, using an 850-pound projectile and a charge of 360 pounds
+of smokeless powder. Such statistics elicit a chuckle from today's
+artilleryman.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SIEGE CANNON</h4>
+
+<p>Field counterpart of the garrison cannon was the siege gun&mdash;the
+"battering cannon" of the old days, mounted upon a two-wheeled siege
+or "traveling"
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page053" name="page053"></a>(p. 053)</span>
+carriage that could be moved about in field
+terrain. Whereas the purpose of the garrison cannon was to destroy the
+attacker and his matériel, the siege cannon was intended to destroy
+the fort. Calibers ranged from 3- to 42-pounders in eighteenth century
+English tables, but the 18- and 24-pounders seem to have been the most
+widely used for siege operations.</p>
+
+<a id="img032" name="img032"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="400" height="165" alt="Figure 32&mdash;SPANISH EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SIEGE CARRIAGE" title="Figure 32&mdash;SPANISH EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SIEGE CARRIAGE">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 32&mdash;SPANISH EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SIEGE CARRIAGE.</p>
+
+<p>The siege carriage closely resembled the field gun carriage, but was
+much more massive, as may be seen from these comparative figures drawn
+from eighteenth century English specifications:</p>
+
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Ranges of United States naval rifles in 1866">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="35">
+<col width="35">
+<col width="30">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>24-pounder field carriage</th>
+<th>&nbsp;</th>
+<th>24-pounder siege carriage</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>9 feet long</td>
+  <td>Length of cheek</td>
+  <td class="td-right">13 feet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>4.5 inches</td>
+  <td>Thickness of cheek</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5.8 inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>50 inches</td>
+  <td>Wheel diameter</td>
+  <td class="td-right">58 inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>6x8x68 inches</td>
+  <td>Axletree</td>
+  <td class="td-right">7x9x81 inches.</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Heavy siege guns were elevated with quoins, and elevation was
+restricted to 12° or less, which was about the same as United States
+siege carriages permitted in 1861. It was considered ample for these
+flat trajectory pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Both field and siege carriages were pulled over long distances by
+lifting the trail to a horse-or ox-drawn limber; a hole in the trail
+transom seated on an iron bolt or pintle on the two-wheeled limber.
+Some late eighteenth century field and siege carriages had a second
+pair of trunnion holes a couple of feet back from the regular holes,
+and the cannon was shifted to the rear holes where the weight was
+better distributed for traveling. The United States siege carriage of
+the 1860's had no extra trunnion holes, but a "traveling bed" was
+provided where the gun was cradled in position 2 or 3 feet back of its
+firing position. A well-drilled gun crew could make the shift very
+rapidly, using a lifting jack, a few rollers, blocks, and chocks. When
+there was danger of straining or breaking the gun carriage, however,
+massive block carriages, sling carts, or wagons were used to carry the
+guns.</p>
+
+<p>Sling
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page054" name="page054"></a>(p. 054)</span>
+wagons were of necessity used for transport in siege
+operations when the guns were to be mounted on barbette (traversing
+platform) carriages (fig. <a href="#img010">10</a>). Emplacing the barbette carriage called
+for construction of a massive, level subplatform, but it also
+eliminated the old need for the gunner to chalk the location of his
+wheels in order to return his gun to the proper firing position after
+each shot.</p>
+
+<p>The Federal sieges of Forts Pulaski and Sumter were highly complicated
+engineering operations that involved landing tremendously heavy
+ordnance (the 300-pounder Parrott weighed 13 tons) through the surf,
+moving the big guns over very difficult terrain and, in some cases,
+building roads over the marshes and driving foundation piles for the
+gun emplacements.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy caliber Parrotts trained on Fort Sumter were in batteries
+from 1,750 to 4,290 yards distant from their target. They were very
+accurate, but their endurance was an uncertain factor. The notorious
+"Swamp Angel," for instance, burst after 36 rounds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIELD CANNON</h4>
+
+<a id="img033" name="img033"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="400" height="312" alt="Figure 33&mdash;SPANISH 4-POUNDER FIELD CARRIAGE (c. 1788)." title="Figure 33&mdash;SPANISH 4-POUNDER FIELD CARRIAGE (c. 1788).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 33&mdash;SPANISH 4-POUNDER FIELD CARRIAGE (c. 1788).</span>
+This carriage, designed on the "new method," employed a handscrew
+instead of a wedge for elevating the piece, a&mdash;The handspike was
+inserted through eyebolts in the trail, b&mdash;The ammunition locker held
+the cartridges.</p>
+
+<p>The field guns were the mobile pieces that could travel with the army
+and be brought quickly into firing position. They were lighter in
+weight than
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page055" name="page055"></a>(p. 055)</span>
+any other type of flat trajectory weapon. To
+achieve this lightness the designers had not only shortened the guns,
+but thinned down the bore walls. In the eighteenth century, calibers
+ran from the 3- to the 24-pounder, mounted on comparatively light,
+two-wheeled carriages. In addition, there was the 1-1/2-pounder (and
+sometimes the light 3- or 6-pounder) on a "galloper" carriage&mdash;a
+vehicle with its trail shaped into shafts for the horse. The
+elevating-screw mechanism was early developed for field guns, although
+the heavier pieces like the 18- and 24-pounders were still elevated by
+quoins as late as the early 1800's.</p>
+
+<p>In the Castillo collection are parts of early United States field
+carriages little different from Spanish carriages that held a score of
+4-pounders in the long, continuous earthwork parapet surrounding St.
+Augustine in the eighteenth century. The Spanish mounts were a little
+more complicated in construction than English or American carriages,
+but not much. Spanish pyramid-headed nails for securing ironwork were
+not far different from the diamond-and rose-headed nails of the
+English artificer.</p>
+
+<p>Each piece of hardware on the carriage had its purpose. Gunner's tools
+were laid in hooks on the cheeks. There were bolts and rings for the
+lines when the gun had to be moved by manpower in the field. On the
+trail transom, pintle plates rimmed the hole that went over the pintle
+on the limber. Iron reinforced the carriage at weak points or where
+the wood was subject to wear. Iron axletrees were common by the late
+1700's.</p>
+
+<p>For training the field gun, the crew used a special handspike quite
+different from the garrison handspike. It was a long, round staff,
+with an iron handle bolted to its head (fig. <a href="#img033">33a</a>). The trail transom
+of the carriage held two eyebolts, into which the foot of the spike
+was inserted. A lug fitted into an offset in the larger eyebolt so
+that the spike could not twist. With the handspike socketed in the
+eyebolts, lifting the trail and laying the gun was easy.</p>
+
+<p>The single-trail carriage (fig. <a href="#img013">13</a>) used so much during the middle
+1800's was a remarkable simplification of carriage design. It was also
+essential for guns like the Parrott rifles, since the thick reinforce
+on the breech of an otherwise slender barrel would not fit the older
+twin-trail carriage. The single, solid "stock" or trail eliminated
+transoms, for to the sides of the stock itself were bolted short, high
+cheeks, humped like a camel to cradle the gun so high that great
+latitude in elevation was possible. The elevating screw was threaded
+through a nut in the stock, right under the big reinforce of the gun.</p>
+
+<p>While the larger bore siege Parrotts were not noted for long
+serviceability, Parrott field rifles had very high endurance. As for
+performance, see the following table:</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page056" name="page056"></a>(p. 056)</span>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Ranges of Parrott field rifles (1863)</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Ranges of Parrott field rifles (1863)">
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th>Weight of gun (pounds)</th>
+<th>Type of projectile</th>
+<th>Projectile weight (pounds)</th>
+<th>Elevation</th>
+<th>Range</th>
+<th>Smoothbore of same caliber</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>10-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-right">890</td>
+  <td class="td-center">Shell</td>
+  <td class="td-right">9.75</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">2,000</td>
+  <td class="td-center">3-pounder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-center">do</td>
+  <td class="td-right">9.75</td>
+  <td class="td-right">20°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5,000</td>
+  <td class="td-center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>20-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,750</td>
+  <td class="td-center">do</td>
+  <td class="td-right">18.75</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">2,100</td>
+  <td class="td-center">6-pounder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-center">do</td>
+  <td class="td-right">18.75</td>
+  <td class="td-right">15°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,400</td>
+  <td class="td-center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>30-pounder</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,200</td>
+  <td class="td-center">do</td>
+  <td class="td-right">29.00</td>
+  <td class="td-right">15°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,800</td>
+  <td class="td-center">9-pounder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-center">do</td>
+  <td class="td-right">29.00</td>
+  <td class="td-right">25°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">6,700</td>
+  <td class="td-center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-center">Long shell</td>
+  <td class="td-right">101.00</td>
+  <td class="td-right">15°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,790</td>
+  <td class="td-center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-center">do</td>
+  <td class="td-right">101.00</td>
+  <td class="td-right">25°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">6,820</td>
+  <td class="td-center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-center">Hollow shot</td>
+  <td class="td-right">80.00</td>
+  <td class="td-right">25°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">7,180</td>
+  <td class="td-center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-right">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="td-center">do</td>
+  <td class="td-right">80.00</td>
+  <td class="td-right">35°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">8,453</td>
+  <td class="td-center">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Amazingly enough, these ranges were obtained with about the same
+amount of powder used for the smoothbores of similar caliber: the
+10-pounder Parrott used only a pound of powder; the 20-pounder used a
+two-pound charge; and the 30-pounder, 3-1/4 pounds!</p>
+
+
+<h4>HOWITZERS</h4>
+
+<p>The howitzer was invented by the Dutch in the seventeenth century to
+throw larger projectiles (usually bombs) than could the field pieces,
+in a high trajectory similar to the mortar, but from a lighter and
+more mobile weapon. The wide-purpose efficiency of the howitzer was
+appreciated almost at once, and it was soon adopted by all European
+armies. The weapon owed its mobility to a rugged, two-wheeled carriage
+like a field carriage, but with a relatively short trail that
+permitted the wide arc of elevation needed for this weapon.</p>
+
+<a id="img034" name="img034"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img034.jpg" width="100" height="176" alt="Figure 34&mdash;SPANISH 6-INCH HOWITZER (1759-88)." title="Figure 34&mdash;SPANISH 6-INCH HOWITZER (1759-88).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 34&mdash;SPANISH 6-INCH HOWITZER (1759-88).</span> This
+bronze piece was founded during the reign of Charles III and bears his
+shield. a&mdash;Dolphin, or handle, b&mdash;Bore, c&mdash;Powder chamber.</p>
+
+<p>English howitzers of the 1750's were of three calibers: 5.8-, 8-, and
+10-inch, but the 10-incher was so heavy (some 50 inches long and over
+3,500 pounds)
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page057" name="page057"></a>(p. 057)</span>
+that it was quickly discarded. Müller deplored
+the superfluous weight of these pieces and developed 6-, 8-, 10, and
+13-inch howitzers in which, by a more calculated distribution of the
+metal, he achieved much lighter weapons. Müller's howitzers survived
+in the early 6- to 10-inch pieces of United States artillery and one
+fine little 24-pounder of the late eighteenth century happens to be
+among the armament of Castillo de San Marcos, along with some early
+nineteenth century howitzers. The British, incidentally, were the
+first to bring this type gun to Florida. None appeared on the Castillo
+inventory until the 1760's.</p>
+
+<a id="img035" name="img035"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img035.jpg" width="400" height="218" alt="Figure 35&mdash;ENGLISH 8-INCH &quot;HOWITZ&quot; CARRIAGE (1756)." title="Figure 35&mdash;ENGLISH 8-INCH &quot;HOWITZ&quot; CARRIAGE (1756).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 35&mdash;ENGLISH 8-INCH "HOWITZ" CARRIAGE (1756).</span> The
+short trail enabled greater latitude in elevating the howitzer.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the very light and therefore easily portable mountain
+howitzer used for Indian warfare, United States artillery of 1850
+included 12-, 24-, and 32-pounder field, 24-pounder and 8-inch siege
+and garrison, and the 10-inch seacoast howitzer. The Navy had a
+12-pounder heavy and a 24-pounder, to which were added the 12- and
+24-pounder Dahlgren rifled howitzers of the Civil War period. Such
+guns were often used in landing operations. The following table gives
+some typical ranges:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Ranges of U. S. Howitzers in the 1860's</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Ranges of U. S. Howitzers in the 1860's">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="60">
+<col width="20">
+<col width="20">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th>Elevation</th>
+<th>Range in yards</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>10-inch seacoast</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,650</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>8-inch siege</td>
+  <td class="td-right">12°30'</td>
+  <td class="td-right">2,280</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>24-pounder naval</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,270</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>12-pounder heavy naval</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,085</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>20-pounder Dahlgren rifled</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,960</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>12-pounder Dahlgren rifled</td>
+  <td class="td-right">5°</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,770</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page058" name="page058"></a>(p. 058)</span>
+
+<a id="img036" name="img036"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img036.jpg" width="200" height="80" alt="Figure 36&mdash;ENGLISH MORTAR ON ELEVATING BED
+(1740)." title="Figure 36&mdash;ENGLISH MORTAR ON ELEVATING BED
+(1740).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 36&mdash;ENGLISH MORTAR ON ELEVATING BED
+(1740).</p>
+
+<p>From earliest times the usefulness of the mortar as an arm of the
+artillery has been clearly recognized. Up until the 1800's the weapon
+was usually made of bronze, and many mortars had a fixed elevation of
+45°, which in the sixteenth century was thought to be the proper
+elevation for maximum range of any cannon. In the 1750's Müller
+complained of the stupidity of English artillerists in continuing to
+use fixed-elevation mortars, and the Spanish made a <i>mortero de
+plancha</i>, or "plate" mortar (fig. <a href="#img037">37</a>), as late as 1788. Range for such
+a fixed-elevation weapon was varied by using more or less powder, as
+the case required. But the most useful mortar, of course, had
+trunnions and adjustable elevation by means of quoins.</p>
+
+<a id="img037" name="img037"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="400" height="320" alt="Figure 37&mdash;SPANISH 5-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1788)." title="Figure 37&mdash;SPANISH 5-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1788).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 37&mdash;SPANISH 5-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1788).</p>
+
+<p>The mortar was mounted on a "bed"&mdash;a pair of wooden cheeks held
+together by transoms. Since a bed had no wheels, the piece was
+transported on
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page059" name="page059"></a>(p. 059)</span>
+a mortar wagon or sling cart. In the battery,
+the mortar was generally bedded upon a level wooden platform; aboard
+ship, it was a revolving platform, so that the piece could be quickly
+aimed right or left. The mortar's weight, plus the high angle of
+elevation, kept it pretty well in place when it was fired, although
+English artillerists took the additional precaution of lashing it
+down.</p>
+
+<p>The mortar did not use a wad, because a wad prevented the fuze of the
+shell from igniting. To the layman, it may seem strange that the shell
+was never loaded with the fuze toward the powder charge of the gun.
+But the fuze was always toward the muzzle and away from the blast, a
+practice which dated from the early days when mortars were discharged
+by "double firing": the gunner lit the fuze of the shell with one hand
+and the priming of the mortar with the other. Not until the late
+1600's did the method of letting the powder blast ignite the fuze
+become general. It was a change that greatly simplified the use of the
+arm and, no doubt, caused the mortarman to heave a sigh of relief.</p>
+
+<a id="img038" name="img038"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img038.jpg" width="100" height="107" alt="Figure 38&mdash;SPANISH 10-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1759-88)." title="Figure 38&mdash;SPANISH 10-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1759-88).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 38&mdash;SPANISH 10-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1759-88).</span>
+a&mdash;Dolphin, or handle, b&mdash;Bore, c&mdash;Powder chamber.]
+
+<p>Most mortars were equipped with dolphins, either singly or in pairs,
+which were used for lifting the weapon onto its bed. Often there was a
+little bracketed cup&mdash;a priming pan&mdash;under the vent, a handy gadget
+that saved spilling a lot of powder at the almost vertical breech. As
+with other bronze cannon, mortars were embellished with shields,
+scrolls, names, and other decoration.</p>
+
+<p>About 1750, the French mortar had a bore length 1-1/2 diameters of the
+shell; in England, the bore was 2 diameters for the smaller calibers
+and 3 for the 10- and 13-inchers. The extra length added a great deal
+of weight to the English mortars: the 13-inch weighed 25
+hundredweight, while the French equivalent weighed only about half
+that much. Müller complained that mortar designers slavishly copied
+what they saw in other guns. For instance, he said, the reinforce was
+unnecessary; it "... overloads the Mortar with a heap of useless
+metal, and that in a place where the least strength is required, yet
+as if this unnecessary metal was not sufficient, they add a great
+projection at the mouth, which serves to no other purpose than to make
+the Mortar top-heavy. The mouldings are likewise jumbled together,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page060" name="page060"></a>(p. 060)</span>
+without any taste or method, tho' they are taken from
+architecture." Field mortars in use during Müller's time included
+4.6-, 5.8-, 8-, 10-, and 13-inch "land" mortars and 10- and 13-inch
+"sea" mortars. Müller, of course, redesigned them.</p>
+
+<a id="img039" name="img039"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="100" height="129" alt="Figure 39&mdash;COEHORN MORTAR." title="Figure 39&mdash;COEHORN MORTAR.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 39&mdash;COEHORN MORTAR.</span> The British General
+Oglethorpe used 20 coehorns in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine.
+These small mortars were also used extensively during the War Between
+the States.</p>
+
+<p>The small mortars called coehorns (fig. <a href="#img039">39</a>) were invented by the famed
+Dutch military engineer, Baron van Menno Coehoorn, and used by him in
+1673 to the great discomfit of French garrisons. Oglethorpe had many
+of them in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine when the Spanish,
+trying to translate coehorn into their own tongue, called them
+<i>cuernos de vaca</i>&mdash;"cow horns." They continued in use through the U.
+S. Civil War, and some of them may still be seen in the battlefield
+parks today.</p>
+
+<p>Bombs and carcasses were usual for mortar firing, but stone
+projectiles remained in use as late as 1800 for the pedrero class
+(fig. <a href="#img043">43</a>). Mortar projectiles were quite formidable; even in the
+sixteenth century missiles weighing 100 or more pounds were not
+uncommon, and the 13-inch mortar of 1860 fired a 200-pound shell. The
+larger projectiles had to be whipped up to the muzzle with block and
+tackle.</p>
+
+<a id="img040" name="img040"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="200" height="211" alt="Figure 40&mdash;THE &quot;DICTATOR.&quot;" title="Figure 40&mdash;THE &quot;DICTATOR.&quot;">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 40&mdash;THE "DICTATOR."</span> This huge 13-inch mortar was
+used by the Federal artillery in the bombardment of Petersburg, Va.,
+1864-65.</p>
+
+<p>In
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page061" name="page061"></a>(p. 061)</span>
+the last century, the bronze mortars metamorphosed into
+the great cast-iron mortars, such as "The Dictator," that mammoth
+Federal piece used against Petersburg, Va. Wrought-iron beds with a
+pair of rollers were built for them. In spite of their high
+trajectory, mortars could range well over a mile, as witness these
+figures for United States mortars of the 1860's, firing at 45°
+elevation:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><i>Ranges of U. S. Mortars in 1861</i></p>
+<table border="2" cellpadding="1" summary="Ranges of U. S. Mortars in 1861">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="60">
+<col width="20">
+<col width="20">
+</colgroup>
+
+<thead>
+<tr>
+<th>Caliber</th>
+<th>Projectile weight (pounds)</th>
+<th>Range (yards)</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>8-inch siege</td>
+  <td class="td-right">45</td>
+  <td class="td-right">1,837</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>10-inch siege</td>
+  <td class="td-right">90</td>
+  <td class="td-right">2,100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>12-inch seacoast</td>
+  <td class="td-right">200</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,625</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>13-inch seacoast</td>
+  <td class="td-right">200</td>
+  <td class="td-right">4,325</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>At the siege of Fort Pulaski in 1862, however, General Gillmore
+complained that the mortars were highly inaccurate at mile-long range.
+On this point, John Müller would have nodded his head emphatically. A
+hundred years before Gillmore's complaint, Müller had argued that a
+range of something less than 1,500 yards was ample for mortars or, for
+that matter, all guns. "When the ranges are greater," said Müller,
+"they are so uncertain, and it is so difficult to judge how far the
+shell falls short, or exceeds the distance of the object, that it
+serves to no other purpose than to throw away the Powder and shell,
+without being able to do any execution."</p>
+
+
+<h4>PETARDS</h4>
+
+<p>"Hoist with his own petard," an ancient phrase signifying that one's
+carefully laid scheme has exploded, had truly graphic meaning in the
+old days when everybody knew what a petard was. Since the petard fired
+no projectile, it was hardly a gun. Roughly speaking, it was nothing
+but an iron bucket full of gunpowder. The petardier would hang it on a
+gate, something like hanging your hat on a nail, and blast the gate
+open by firing the charge.</p>
+
+<p>Small petards weighed about 50 pounds; the large ones, around 70
+pounds. They had to be heavy enough to be effective, yet light enough
+for a couple of men to lift up handily and hang on the target. The
+bucket part was packed full of the powder mixture, then a
+2-1/2-inch-thick board was bolted to the rim in order to keep the
+powder in and the air out. An iron tube fuze was screwed into a small
+hole in the back or side of the weapon. When all was ready, the
+petardiers seized the two handles of the petard and carried it to the
+troublesome door. Here they set a screw, hung the explosive instrument
+upon it, lit the fuze, and "retired."</p>
+
+<p>Petards
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page062" name="page062"></a>(p. 062)</span>
+were used frequently in King William's War of the
+1680's to force the gates of small German towns. But on a well-barred,
+double gate the small petard was useless, and the great petard would
+break only the fore part of such a gate. Furthermore, as one would
+guess, hanging a petard was a hazardous occupation; it went out of
+style in the early 1700's.</p>
+
+<a id="projectiles" name="projectiles"></a>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">Projectiles</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page063" name="page063"></a>(p. 063)</span>
+
+<p>There are four different types of artillery projectiles which, in one
+form or another, have been used since very early times:</p>
+
+<p class="col10b">
+  (1) Battering projectiles (solid shot).<br>
+  (2) Exploding shells.<br>
+  (3) Scatter shot (case or canister, grape, shrapnel).<br>
+  (4) Incendiary and chemical projectiles.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SOLID SHOT</h4>
+
+<p>At Havana, Cuba, in the early days, there was an abundance of round
+stones lying around, put there by Mother Nature. Artillerists at
+Havana never lacked projectiles. Stone balls, cheap to manufacture,
+relatively light and therefore well suited to the feeble construction
+of early ordnance, were in general use for large caliber cannon in the
+fourteenth century. There were experiments along other lines such as
+those at Tournay in the 1330's with long, pointed projectiles.
+Lead-coated stones were fairly popular, and solid lead balls were used
+in some small pieces, but the stone ball was more or less standard.</p>
+
+<p>Cast-iron shot had been introduced by 1400, and, with the improvement
+of cannon during that century, iron shot gradually replaced stone. By
+the end of the 1500's stone survived for use only in the pedreros,
+murtherers, and other relics of the earlier period. Iron shot for the
+smoothbore was a solid, round shot, cast in fairly accurate molds; the
+mold marks that invariably show on all cannonballs were of small
+importance, for the ball did not fit the bore tightly. After casting,
+shot were checked with a ring gauge (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>)&mdash;a hoop through which
+each ball had to pass. The Spanish term for this tool is very
+descriptive: <i>pasabala</i>, "ball-passer."</p>
+
+<p>Shot was used mainly in the flat-trajectory cannon. The small caliber
+guns fired nothing but shot, for small sizes of the other type
+projectiles were not effective. Shot was the prescription when the
+situation called for "great accuracy, at very long range," and
+penetration. Fired at ships, a shot was capable of breaching the
+planks (at 100-yard range a 24-pounder shot would penetrate 4-1/2 feet
+of "sound and hard" oak). With a fair aim at
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page064" name="page064"></a>(p. 064)</span>
+the waterline,
+a gunner could sink or seriously damage a vessel with a few rounds. On
+ironclad targets like the <i>Monitor</i> and <i>Merrimac</i>, however, round
+shot did little more than bounce; it took the long, armor-piercing
+rifle projectile to force the development of the tremendously thick
+plate of modern times.</p>
+
+<a id="img041" name="img041"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="500" height="592" alt="Figure 41&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILES." title="Figure 41&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILES.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 41&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILES.</span> (Not to
+scale.)</p>
+
+<p>Round shot was very useful for knocking out enemy batteries. The
+gunner put his cannon on the flank of the hostile guns and used
+ricochet firing so that the ball, just clearing the defense wall,
+would bounce among the enemy guns, wound the crews, and break the gun
+carriages. In the destruction of fort walls, shot was essential. After
+dismounting the enemy pieces, the siege guns moved close enough to
+batter down the walls. The procedure
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page065" name="page065"></a>(p. 065)</span>
+was not as haphazard as
+it sounds. Cannon were brought as close as possible to the target, and
+the gunner literally cut out a low section with gunfire so that the
+wall above tumbled down into the moat and made a ramp right up to the
+breach. Firing at the upper part of the wall defeated its own purpose,
+for the rubble brought down only protected the foundation area, and
+the breach was so high that assault troops had to use ladders.</p>
+
+<p>The most effective bombardment of Castillo de San Marcos occurred
+during the 1740 siege, and shot did the most damage. The heaviest
+English siege cannon were 18-pounders, over 1,000 yards from the fort.
+Spanish Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano reported that the balls did not
+penetrate the massive main walls more than a foot and a half, but the
+parapets, being only 3 feet thick, suffered considerable damage. Some
+of the old parapets, Engineer Ruiz said, "have been demolished, and
+the new ones have suffered very much owing to their recent
+construction." (He meant that the new mortar had not sufficiently
+hardened.) Ruiz was not deceived about what would happen if hostile
+batteries were able to get closer; in such case, he thought, the enemy
+"will no doubt succeed in destroying the parapets and dismounting the
+guns."</p>
+
+<p>Variations of round shot were bar shot and chain shot (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>), two
+or more projectiles linked together for simultaneous firing. Bar shot
+appears in a Castillo inventory of 1706, and like chain shot, was for
+specialized work like cutting a ship's rigging. There is one
+apocryphal tale, however, about an experiment with chain shot as
+anti-personnel missiles: instead of charging a single cannon with the
+two balls, two guns were used, side by side. The ball in one gun was
+chained to the ball in the other. The projectiles were to fly forth,
+stretching the long chain between them, mowing down a sizeable segment
+of the enemy. Instead, the chain wrapped the gun crews in a murderous
+embrace; one gun had fired late.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EXPLOSIVE SHELLS</h4>
+
+<p>The word "bomb" comes to us from the French, who derived it from the
+Latin. But the Romans got it originally from the Greek <i>bombos</i>,
+meaning a deep, hollow sound. "Bombard" is a derivation. Today bomb is
+pronounced "balm," but in the early days it was commonly pronounced
+"bum." The modern equivalent of the "bum" is an HE shell.</p>
+
+<p>The first recorded use of explosive shells was by the Venetians in
+1376. Their bombs were hemispheres of stone or bronze, joined together
+with hoops and exploded by means of a primitive powder fuze. Shells
+filled with explosive or incendiary mixtures were standard for
+mortars, after 1550, but they did not come into general use for
+flat-trajectory weapons until early in the nineteenth century,
+whereafter the term "shell" gradually won out over "bomb."</p>
+
+<p>In any event, this projectile was one of the most effective ever used
+in the smoothbore against earthworks, buildings, and for general
+bombardment. A
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page066" name="page066"></a>(p. 066)</span>
+delayed action shell, diabolically timed to
+roll amongst the ranks with its fuze burning, was calculated to
+"disorder the stoutest men," since they could not know at what awful
+instant the bomb would burst.</p>
+
+<p>A bombshell was simply a hollow, cast-iron sphere. It had a single
+hole where the powder was funneled in&mdash;full, but not enough to pack
+too tightly when the fuze was driven in. Until the 1800's, the larger
+bombs were not always smooth spheres, but had either a projecting
+neck, or collar, for the fuze hole or a pair of rings at each side of
+the hole for easier handling (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>). In later years, however, such
+projections were replaced by two "ears," little recesses beside the
+fuze hole. A pair of tongs (something like ice tongs) seized the shell
+by the ears and lifted it up to the gun bore.</p>
+
+<p>During most of the eighteenth century, shells were cast thicker at the
+base than at the fuze hole on the theory that they were (1) better
+able to resist the shock of firing from the cannon and (2) more likely
+to fall with the heavy part underneath, leaving the fuze uppermost and
+less liable to extinguishment. Müller scoffed at the idea of
+"choaking" a fuze, which, he said, burnt as well in water as in any
+other element. Furthermore, he preferred to use shells "everywhere
+equally thick, because they would then burst into a greater number of
+pieces." In later years, the shells were scored on the interior to
+ensure their breaking into many fragments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FUZES</h4>
+
+<a id="img042" name="img042"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img042.jpg" width="300" height="294" alt="Figure 42&mdash;NINETEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILE FUZES." title="Figure 42&mdash;NINETEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILE FUZES.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 42&mdash;NINETEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILE FUZES.</span>
+a&mdash;Cross-section of Bormann fuze, b&mdash;Top of Bormann fuze, c&mdash;Wooden
+fuze for spherical shell, d&mdash;Wood-and-paper fuze for spherical shell,
+e&mdash;Percussion fuze.]
+
+<p>The eighteenth century fuze was a wooden tube several inches long,
+with a powder composition tamped into its hole much like the
+nineteenth century fuze (fig. <a href="#img042">42c</a>). The hole was only a quarter of an
+inch in diameter, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page067" name="page067"></a>(p. 067)</span>
+the head of the fuze was hollowed out
+like a cup, and "mealed" (fine) powder, moistened with "spirits of
+wine" (alcohol), was pressed into the hollow to make a larger igniting
+surface. To time the fuze, a cannoneer cut the cylinder at the proper
+length with his fuze-saw, or drilled a small hole (G) where the fire
+could flash out at the right time. Some English fuzes at this period
+were also made by drawing two strands of a quick match into the hole,
+instead of filling it with powder composition. The ends of the match
+were crossed into a sort of rosette at the head of the fuze. Paper
+caps to protect the powder composition covered the heads of these
+fuzes and had to be removed before the shell was put into the gun.</p>
+
+<p>Bombs were not filled with powder very long before use, and fuzes were
+not put into the projectiles until the time of firing. To force the
+fuze into the hole of the shell, the cannoneer covered the fuze head
+with tow, put a fuze-setter on it, and hammered the setter with a
+mallet, "drifting" the fuze until the head stuck out of the shell only
+2/10 of an inch. If the fuze had to be withdrawn, there was a fuze
+extractor for the job. This tool gripped the fuze head tightly, and
+turning a screw slowly pulled out the fuze.</p>
+
+<p>Wooden tube fuzes were used almost as long as the spherical shell. A
+United States 12-inch mortar fuze (fig. <a href="#img042">42c</a>), 7 inches long and
+burning 49 seconds, was much like the earlier fuze. During the 1800's,
+however, other types came into wide use.</p>
+
+<p>The conical paper-case fuze (fig. <a href="#img042">42d</a>), inserted in a metal or wooden
+plug that fitted the fuze hole, contained composition whose rate of
+burning was shown by the color of the paper. A black fuze burned an
+inch every 2 seconds. Red burned 3 seconds, green 4, and yellow 5
+seconds per inch. Paper fuzes were 2 inches long, and could be cut
+shorter if necessary. Since firing a shell from a 24-pounder to burst
+at 2,000 yards meant a time flight of 6 seconds, a red fuze would
+serve without cutting, or a green fuze could be cut to 1-1/2 inches.
+Sea-coast fuzes of similar type were used in the 15-inch Rodmans until
+these big smoothbores were finally discarded sometime after 1900.</p>
+
+<p>The Bormann fuze (fig. <a href="#img042">42a</a>), the quickest of the oldtimers to set, was
+used for many years by the U. S. Field Artillery in spherical shell
+and shrapnel. Its pewter case, which screwed into the shell, contained
+a time ring of powder composition (A). Over this ring the top of the
+fuze case was marked in seconds. To set the fuze, the gunner merely
+had to cut the case at the proper mark&mdash;at four for 4 seconds, three
+for 3 seconds, and so on&mdash;to expose the ring of powder to the powder
+blast of the gun. The ring burned until it reached the zero end and
+set off the fine powder in the center of the case; the powder flash
+then blew out a tin plate in the bottom of the fuze and ignited the
+shell charge. Its short burning time (about 6 seconds) made the
+Bormann fuze obsolete as field gun ranges increased. The main trouble
+with this fuze, however, was that it did not always ignite!</p>
+
+<p>The
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page068" name="page068"></a>(p. 068)</span>
+percussion fuze was an extremely important development of
+the nineteenth century, particularly for the long-range rifles. The
+shock of impact caused this fuze to explode the shell at almost the
+instant of striking. Percussion fuzes were made in two general types:
+the front fuze, for the nose of an elongated projectile; and the base
+fuze, at the center of the projectile base. The base fuze was used
+with armor-piercing projectiles where it was desirable to have the
+shell penetrate the target for some distance before bursting. Both
+types were built on the same principles.</p>
+
+<p>A Hotchkiss front percussion fuze (fig. <a href="#img042">42e</a>) had a brass case which
+screwed into the shell. Inside the case was a plunger (A) containing a
+priming charge of powder, topped with a cap of fulminate. A brass wire
+at the base of the plunger was a safety device to keep the cap away
+from a sharp point at the top of the fuze until the shell struck the
+target. When the gun was fired, the shock of discharge dropped a lead
+plug (B) from the base of the fuze into the projectile cavity,
+permitting the plunger to drop to the bottom of the fuze and rest
+there, held by the spread wire, while the shell was in flight. Upon
+impact, the plunger was thrown forward, the cap struck the point and
+ignited the priming charge, which in turn fired the bursting charge of
+the shell.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SCATTER PROJECTILES</h4>
+
+<p>When one of our progenitors wrathfully seized a handful of pebbles and
+flung them at the flock of birds in his garden, he discovered the
+principle of the scatter projectile. Perhaps its simplest application
+was in the stone mortar (fig. <a href="#img043">43</a>). For this weapon, round stones about
+the size of a man's fist (and, by 1750, hand grenades) were dumped
+into a two-handled basket and let down into the bore. This primitive
+charge was used at close range against personnel in a fortification,
+where the effect of the descending projectiles would be uncommonly
+like a short but severe barrage of over-sized hailstones. There were
+6,000 stones in the ammunition inventory for Castillo de San Marcos in
+1707.</p>
+
+<a id="img043" name="img043"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="100" height="114" alt="Figure 43&mdash;SPANISH 16-INCH PEDRERO (1788)." title="Figure 43&mdash;SPANISH 16-INCH PEDRERO (1788).">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 43&mdash;SPANISH 16-INCH PEDRERO (1788).</span> This mortar
+fired baskets of stones.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest kinds of scatter projectiles was case shot, or
+canister, used at Constantinople in 1453. The name comes from its
+case, or can, usually
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page069" name="page069"></a>(p. 069)</span>
+metal, which was filled with scrap,
+musket balls, or slugs (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>). Somewhat similar, but with larger
+iron balls and no metal case, was grape shot, so-called from the
+grape-like appearance of the clustered balls. A stand of grape in the
+1700's consisted of a wooden disk at the base of a short wooden rod
+that served as the core around which the balls stood (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>). The
+whole assembly was bagged in cloth and reinforced with a net of heavy
+cord. In later years grape was made by bagging two or three tiers of
+balls, each tier separated by an iron disk. Grape could disable men at
+almost 900 yards and was much used during the 1700's. Eventually, it
+was almost replaced by case shot, which was more effective at shorter
+ranges (400 to 700 yards). Incidentally, there were 2,000 sacks of
+grape at the Castillo in 1740, more than any other type projectile.</p>
+
+<p>Spherical case shot (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>) was an attempt to carry the
+effectiveness of grape and canister beyond its previous range, by
+means of a bursting shell. It was the forerunner of the shrapnel used
+so much in World War I and was invented by Lt. Henry Shrapnel, of the
+British Army, in 1784. There had been previous attempts to produce a
+projectile of this kind, such as the German Zimmerman's "hail shot" of
+1573&mdash;case shot with a bursting charge and a primitive time fuze&mdash;but
+Shrapnel's invention was the first air-bursting case shot which, in
+technical words, "imparted directional velocity" to the bullets it
+contained. Shrapnel's new shell was first used against the French in
+1808, but was not called by its inventor's name until 1852.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INCENDIARIES AND CHEMICAL PROJECTILES</h4>
+
+<p>Incendiary missiles, such as buckets or barrels filled with a fiercely
+burning composition, had been used from earliest times, long before
+cannon. These crude incendiaries survived through the 1700's as, for
+instance, the flaming cargoes of fire ships that were sent amidst the
+enemy fleet. But in the year 1672 there appeared an iron shell called
+a carcass (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>), filled with pitch and other materials that burned
+at intense heat for about 8 minutes. The flame escaped through vents,
+three to five in number, around the fuze hole of the shell. The
+carcass was standard ammunition until smoothbores went out of use. The
+United States ordnance manual of 1861 lists carcasses for 12-, 18-,
+24-, 32-, and 42-pounder guns as well as 8-, 10-, and 13-inch mortars.</p>
+
+<p>During the late 1500's, the heating of iron cannon balls to serve as
+incendiaries was suggested, but not for another 200 years was the idea
+successfully carried out. Hot shot was nothing but round shot, heated
+to a red glow over a grate or in a furnace. It was fired from cannon
+at such inflammable targets as wooden ships or powder magazines.
+During the siege of Gibraltar in 1782, the English fired and destroyed
+a part of Spain's fleet with hot shot; and in United States seacoast
+forts shot furnaces were standard equipment during the first half of
+the 1800's. The little shot furnace at Castillo de San Marcos National
+Monument was built during the 1840's; a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page070" name="page070"></a>(p. 070)</span>
+giant furnace of
+1862 still remains at Fort Jefferson National Monument. Few other
+examples are left.</p>
+
+<p>Loading hot shot was not particularly dangerous. After the powder
+charge was in the gun with a dry wad in front of it, another wad of
+wet straw, or clay, was put into the barrel. When the cherry-red shot
+was rammed home, the wet wad prevented a premature explosion of the
+charge. According to the <i>Ordnance Manual</i>, the shot could cool in the
+gun without setting off the charge! Hot shot was superseded, about
+1850, by Martin's shell, filled with molten iron.</p>
+
+<p>The smoke shell appeared in 1681, but was never extensively used.
+Similarly, a form of gas projectile, called a "stink shell," was
+invented by a Confederate officer during the Civil War. Because of its
+"inhumanity," and probably because it was not thought valuable enough
+to offset its propaganda value to the enemy, it was not popular. These
+were the beginnings of the modern chemical shells.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with chemical warfare, it is of interest to review the
+Hussite siege of Castle Karlstein, near Prague, in the first quarter
+of the fifteenth century. The Hussites emplaced 46 small cannon, 5
+large cannon, and 5 catapults. The big guns would shoot once or twice
+a day, and the little ones from six to a dozen rounds.</p>
+
+<p>Marble pillars from Prague churches furnished the cannonballs. Many
+projectiles for the catapults, however, were rotting carcasses and
+other filth, hurled over the castle walls to cause disease and break
+the morale of the besieged. But the intrepid defenders neutralized
+these "chemical bursts" with lime and arsenic. After firing 10,930
+cannonballs, 932 stone fragments, 13 fire barrels, and 1,822 tons of
+filth, the Hussites gave up.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FIXED AMMUNITION</h4>
+
+<p>In early days, due partly to the roughly made balls, wads were very
+important as a means of confining the powder and increasing its
+efficiency. Wads could be made of almost any suitable material at
+hand, but perhaps straw or hay ones were most common. The hay was
+first twisted into a 1-inch rope, then a length of the rope was folded
+together several times and finally rolled up into a short cylinder, a
+little larger than the bore. After the handier sabots came into use,
+however, wads were needed only to keep the ball from rolling out when
+the muzzle was down, or for hot shot firing.</p>
+
+<p>Gunners early began to consolidate ammunition for easier and quicker
+loading. For instance, after the powder charge was placed in a bag,
+the next logical step was to attach the wad and the cannonball to it,
+so that loading could be made in one simple operation&mdash;pushing the
+single round into the bore (fig. <a href="#img048">48</a>). Toward that end, the sabot or
+"shoe" (fig. <a href="#img041">41</a>) took the place of the wad. The sabot was a wooden
+disk about the same diameter as the shot. It was secured to the ball
+with a pair of metal straps to make "semi-fixed" ammunition; then, if
+the neck of the powder bag were
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page071" name="page071"></a>(p. 071)</span>
+tied around the sabot, the
+result was one cartridge, containing powder, sabot, and ball, called
+"fixed" ammunition. Fixed ammunition was usual for the lighter field
+pieces by the end of the 1700's, while the bigger guns used
+"semi-fixed."</p>
+
+<p>In transportation, cartridges were protected by cylinders and caps of
+strong paper. Sabots were sometimes made of paper, too, or of
+compressed wood chips, to eliminate the danger of a heavy, unbroken
+sabot falling amongst friendly troops. A big mortar sabot was a lethal
+projectile in itself!</p>
+
+
+<h4>ROCKETS</h4>
+
+<p>Today's rocket projectiles are not exactly new inventions. About the
+time of artillery's beginning, the military fireworker came into the
+business of providing pyrotechnic engines of war; later, his job
+included the spectacular fireworks that were set off in celebration of
+victory or peace.</p>
+
+<p>Artillery manuals of very early date include chapters on the
+manufacture and use of fireworks. But in making war rockets there was
+no marked progress until the late eighteenth century. About 1780, the
+British Army in India watched the Orientals use them; and within the
+next quarter century William Congreve, who set about the task of
+producing a rocket that would carry an incendiary or explosive charge
+as far as 2 miles, had achieved such promising results that English
+boats fired rocket salvos against Boulogne in 1806, The British Field
+Rocket Brigade used rockets effectively at Leipsic in 1812&mdash;the first
+time they appeared in European land warfare. They were used again 2
+years later at Waterloo. The warheads of such rockets were cast iron,
+filled with black powder and fitted with percussion fuzes. They were
+fired from trough-like launching stands, which were adjustable for
+elevation.</p>
+
+<p>Rockets seem to have had a demoralizing effect upon untrained troops,
+and perhaps their use by the English against raw American levies at
+Bladenburg, in 1814, contributed to the rout of the United States
+forces and the capture of Washington. They also helped to inspire
+Francis Scott Key. Whether or not he understands the technical
+characteristics of the rocket, every schoolboy remembers the "rocket's
+red glare" of the National Anthem, wherein Key recorded his eyewitness
+account of the bombardment of Fort McHenry. The U. S. Army in Mexico
+(1847) included a rocket battery, and, indeed, war rockets were an
+important part of artillery resources until the rapid progress of
+gunnery in the latter 1800's made them obsolescent.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">Tools</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page073" name="page073"></a>(p. 073)</span>
+
+
+<p>Gunner's equipment was numerous. There were the tompion (a lid that
+fitted over the muzzle of the gun to keep wind and weather out of the
+bore) and the lead cover for the vent; water buckets for the sponges
+and passing boxes for the powder; scrapers and tools for "searching"
+the bore to find dangerous cracks or holes; chocks for the wheels;
+blocks and rollers, lifting jacks, and gins for moving guns; and
+drills and augers for clearing the vent (figs. <a href="#img017">17</a>,
+<a href="#img044">44</a>). But among the
+most important tools for everyday firing were the following:</p>
+
+<p><i>The sponge</i> was a wooden cylinder about a foot long, the same
+diameter as the shot, and covered with lambskin. Like all bore tools,
+it was mounted on a long staff; after being dampened with water, it
+was used for cleaning the bore of the piece after firing. Essentially,
+sponging made sure there were no sparks in the bore when the new
+charge was put in. Often the sponge was on the opposite end of the
+rammer, and sometimes, instead of being lambskin-covered, the sponge
+was a bristle brush.</p>
+
+<p><i>The wormer</i> was a double screw, something like a pair of intertwined
+corkscrews, fixed to a long handle. Inserted in the gun bore and
+twisted, it seized and drew out wads or the remains of cartridge bags
+stuck in the gun after firing. Worm screws were sometimes mounted in
+the head of the sponge, so that the piece could be sponged and wormed
+at the same time.</p>
+
+<p><i>The ladle</i> was the most important of all the gunner's tools in the
+early years, since it was not only the measure for the powder but the
+only way to dump the powder in the bore at the proper place. It was
+generally made of copper, the same gauge as the windage of the gun;
+that is, the copper was just thick enough to fit between ball and
+bore.</p>
+
+<p>Essentially, the ladle is merely a scoop, a metal cylinder secured to
+a wooden disk on a long staff. But before the introduction of the
+powder cartridge, cutting a ladle to the right size was one of the
+most important accomplishments a gunner had to learn. Collado, that
+Spanish mathematician of the sixteenth century, used the culverin
+ladle as the master pattern (fig. <a href="#img045">45</a>). It was 4-1/2 calibers long and
+would carry exactly the weight of the ball in powder. Ladles for
+lesser guns could be proportioned (that is, shortened) from the master
+pattern.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page074" name="page074"></a>(p. 074)</span>
+
+<a id="img044" name="img044"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img044.jpg" width="500" height="544" alt="Figure 44&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S EQUIPMENT." title="Figure 44&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S EQUIPMENT.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 44&mdash;EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S
+EQUIPMENT.</span> (Not to scale.)</p>
+
+<p>The ladle full of powder was pushed home in the bore. Turning the
+handle dumped the charge, which then had to be packed with the rammer.
+As powder charges were lessened in later years, the ladle was
+shortened; by 1750, it was only three shot diameters long. With
+cartridges, the ladle was no longer needed for loading the gun, but it
+was still handy for withdrawing the round.</p>
+
+<p><i>The rammer</i> was a wooden cylinder about the same diameter and length
+as the shot. It pushed home the powder charge, the wad, and the shot.
+As a precaution against faulty or double loading, marks on the rammer
+handle showed the loaders when the different parts of the charge were
+properly seated.</p>
+
+<p><i>The
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page075" name="page075"></a>(p. 075)</span>
+gunner's pick or priming wire</i> was a sharp pointed tool
+resembling a common ice pick blade. It was used to clear the vent of
+the gun and to pierce the powder bag so that flame from the primer
+could ignite the charge.</p>
+
+<a id="img045" name="img045"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img045.jpg" width="250" height="340" alt="Figure 45&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY PATTERN FOR GUNNER'S
+LADLE." title="Figure 45&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY PATTERN FOR GUNNER'S
+LADLE.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 45&mdash;SIXTEENTH CENTURY PATTERN FOR GUNNER'S
+LADLE.</p>
+
+<p><i>Handspikes</i> were big pinch bars to manhandle cannon. They were used
+to move the carriage and to lift the breech of the gun so that the
+elevating quoin or screw might be adjusted. They were of different
+types (figs. <a href="#img033">33a</a>, <a href="#img044">44</a>), but were essentially 6-foot-long wooden poles,
+shod with iron. Some of them, like the Marsilly handspike (fig. <a href="#img011">11</a>),
+had rollers at the toe so that the wheelless rear of the carriage
+could be lifted with the handspike and rolled with comparative ease.</p>
+
+<p><i>The gunner's quadrant</i> (fig. <a href="#img046">46</a>), invented by Tartaglia about 1545,
+was an aiming device so basic that its principle is still in use
+today. The instrument looked like a carpenter's square, with a
+quarter-circle connecting the two arms. From the angle of the square
+dangled a plumb bob. The gunner laid the long arm of the quadrant in
+the bore of the gun, and the line of the bob against the graduated
+quarter-circle showed the gun's angle of elevation.</p>
+
+<p>The addition of the quadrant to the art of artillery opened a whole
+new field for the mathematicians, who set about compiling long,
+complicated, and jealously guarded tables for the gunner's guidance.
+But the theory was simple:
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page076" name="page076"></a>(p. 076)</span>
+since a cannon at 45° elevation
+would fire <i>ten</i> times farther than it would when the barrel was level
+(at zero° elevation), the quadrant should be marked into <i>ten</i> equal
+parts; the range of the gun would therefore increase by <i>one-tenth</i>
+each time the gun was elevated to the next mark on the quadrant. In
+other words, the gunner could get the range he wanted simply by
+raising his piece to the proper mark on the instrument.</p>
+
+<a id="img046" name="img046"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img046.jpg" width="400" height="156" alt="Figure 46&mdash;SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S QUADRANT." title="Figure 46&mdash;SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S QUADRANT.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 46&mdash;SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S QUADRANT.</span> The
+long end of the quadrant was laid in the bore of the cannon. The plumb
+bob indicated the degree of elevation on the scale.</p>
+
+<p>Collado explained how it worked in the 1590's. "We experimented with a
+culverin that fired a 20-pound iron ball. At point-blank the first
+shot ranged 200 paces. At 45-degree elevation it shot ten times
+farther, or 2,000 paces.... If the point-blank range is 200 paces,
+then elevating to the <i>first</i> position, or a tenth part of the
+quadrant, will gain 180 paces more, and advancing another point will
+gain so much again. It is the same with the other points up to the
+elevation of 45 degrees; each one gains the same 180 paces." Collado
+admitted that results were not always consistent with theory, but it
+was many years before the physicists understood the effect of air
+resistance on the trajectory of the projectile.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sights</i> on cannon were usually conspicuous by their absence in the
+early days. A dispart sight (an instrument similar to the modern
+infantry rifle sight), which compensated for the difference in
+diameter between the breech and the muzzle, was used in 1610, but the
+average artilleryman still aimed by sighting over the barrel. The
+Spanish gunner, however, performed an operation that put the bore
+parallel to the gunner's line of sight, and called it "killing the
+<i>vivo</i>" (<i>matar el vivo</i>). How <i>vivo</i> affected aiming is easily seen:
+with its bore level, a 4-pounder falconet ranged 250 paces. But when
+the <i>top of the gun</i> was level, the bore was slightly elevated and the
+range almost doubled to 440 paces.</p>
+
+<p>To "kill the <i>vivo</i>," you first had to find it. The gunner stuck his
+pick into the vent down to the bottom of the bore and marked the pick
+to show the depth. Next he took the pick to the muzzle, stood it up in
+the bore, and marked the height of the muzzle. The difference between
+the two marks,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page077" name="page077"></a>(p. 077)</span>
+with an adjustment for the base ring (which
+was higher than the vent), was the <i>vivo</i>. A little wedge of the
+proper size, placed under the breech, would then eliminate the
+troublesome <i>vivo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>During the first half of the 1700's Spanish cannon of the "new
+invention" were made with a notch at the top of the base ring and a
+sighting button on the muzzle, and these features were also adopted by
+the French. But they soon went out of use. There was some argument, as
+late as the 1750's, about the desirability of casting the muzzle the
+same size as the base ring, so that the sighting line over the gun
+would always be parallel to the bore; but, since the gun usually had
+to be aimed higher than the objective, gunners claimed that a fat
+muzzle hid their target!</p>
+
+<a id="img047" name="img047"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img047.jpg" width="400" height="181" alt="Figure 47&mdash;SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S LEVEL." title="Figure 47&mdash;SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S LEVEL.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 47&mdash;SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S LEVEL.</span> This
+tool was useful in many ways, but principally for finding the line of
+sight on the barrel of the gun.</p>
+
+<p>Common practice for sighting, as late as the 1850's, was to find the
+center line at the top of the piece, mark it with chalk or filed
+notches, and use it as a sighting line. To find this center line, the
+gunner laid his level (fig. <a href="#img047">47</a>) first on the base ring, then on the
+muzzle. When the instrument was level atop these rings, the plumb bob
+was theoretically over the center line of the cannon. But guns were
+crudely made, and such a line on the outside of the piece was not
+likely to coincide exactly with the center line of the bore, so there
+was still ample opportunity for the gunner to exercise his "art."
+Nonetheless the marked lines did help, for the gunner learned by
+experiment how to compensate for errors.</p>
+
+<p>Fixed rear sights came into use early in the 1800's, and tangent
+sights (graduated rear sights) were in use during the War Between the
+States. The trunnion sight, a graduated sight attached to the
+trunnion, could be used when the muzzle had to be elevated so high
+that it blocked the gunner's view of the target.</p>
+
+<p>Naval gunnery officers would occasionally order all their guns trained
+at the same angle and elevated to the same degree. The gunner might
+not even see his target. While with the crude traversing mechanism of
+the early
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page078" name="page078"></a>(p. 078)</span>
+1800's the gunners may not have laid their pieces
+too accurately, at least it was a step toward the indirect firing
+technique of later years which was to take full advantage of the
+longer ranges possible with modern cannon. Use of tangent and trunnion
+sights brought gunnery further into the realm of mathematical science;
+the telescopic sight came about the middle of the nineteenth century;
+gunners were developing into technicians whose job was merely to load
+the piece and set the instruments as instructed by officers in fire
+control posts some distance away from the gun.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">The Practice of Gunnery</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page079" name="page079"></a>(p. 079)</span>
+
+
+<p>The old-time gunner was not only an artist, vastly superior to the
+average soldier, but, when circumstances permitted, he performed his
+wizardry with all due ceremony. Diego Ufano, Governor of Antwerp,
+watched a gun crew at work about 1500:</p>
+
+<p>"The piece having arrived at the battery and being provided with all
+needful materials, the gunner and his assistants take their places,
+and the drummer is to beat a roll. The gunner cleans the piece
+carefully with a dry rammer, and in pulling out the said rammer gives
+a dab or two to the mouth of the piece to remove any dirt adhering."
+(At this point it was customary to make the sign of the cross and
+invoke the intercession of St. Barbara.)</p>
+
+<p>"Then he has his assistant hold the sack, valise, or box of powder,
+and filling the charger level full, gives a slight movement with the
+other hand to remove any surplus, and then puts it into the gun as far
+as it will go. Which being done, he turns the charger so that the
+powder fills the breech and does not trail out on the ground, for when
+it takes fire there it is very annoying to the gunner." (And probably
+to the gentleman holding the sack.)</p>
+
+<p>"After this he will take the rammer, and, putting it into the gun,
+gives two or three good punches to ram the powder well in to the
+chamber, while his assistant holds a finger in the vent so that the
+powder does not leap forth. This done, he takes a second charge of
+powder and deposits it like the first; then puts in a wad of straw or
+rags which will be well packed to gather up all the loose powder. This
+having been well seated with strong blows of the rammer, he sponges
+out the piece.</p>
+
+<p>"Then the ball, well cleaned by his assistant, since there is danger
+to the gunner in balls to which sand or dirt adhere, is placed in the
+piece without forcing it till it touches gently on the wad, the gunner
+being careful not to hold himself in front of the gun, for it is silly
+to run danger without reason. Finally he will put in one more wad, and
+at another roll of drums the piece is ready to fire."</p>
+
+<p>Maximum firing rate for field pieces in the early days was eight
+rounds an hour. It increased later to 100 rounds a day for light guns
+and 30 for heavy
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page080" name="page080"></a>(p. 080)</span>
+pieces. (Modern non-automatic guns can fire
+15 rounds per minute.) After about 40 rounds the gun became so hot it
+was unsafe to load, whereupon it was "refreshed" with an hour's rest.</p>
+
+<a id="img048" name="img048"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="400" height="336" alt="Figure 48&mdash;LOADING A CANNON." title="Figure 48&mdash;LOADING A CANNON.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><span class="smcap">Figure 48&mdash;LOADING A CANNON.</span> Muzzle-loading smoothbore
+cannon were used for almost 700 years.</p>
+
+<p>Approved aiming procedure was to make the first shot surely short, in
+order to have a measurement of the error. The second shot would be at
+greater elevation, but also cautiously short. After the third round,
+the gunner could hope to get hits. Beginners were cautioned against
+the desire to hit the target at the first shot, for, said a celebrated
+artillerist, "... you will get overs and cannot estimate how much
+over."</p>
+
+<p>As gunners gradually became professional soldiers, gun drills took on
+a more military aspect, as these seventeenth century commands show:</p>
+
+<p class="left05">
+  1. Put back your piece.<br>
+  2. Order your piece to load.<br>
+  3. Search your piece.<br>
+  4. Sponge your piece.<br>
+  5. Fill your ladle.<br>
+  6. Put in your powder.<br>
+  7. Empty your ladle.<br>
+  8. Put up your powder.<br>
+  9. Thrust home your wad.<br>
+  10. Regard your shot.<br>
+  11. Put home your shot gently.<br>
+  12. Thrust home your wad with
+  three strokes.<br>
+  13. Gauge your piece.
+</p>
+
+<p>Gunners had no trouble finding work, as is singularly illustrated by
+the case of Andrew Ransom, a stray Englishman captured near St.
+Augustine in the late 1600's. He was condemned to death. The
+executional device failed,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page081" name="page081"></a>(p. 081)</span>
+however, and the padres in
+attendance took it as an act of God and led Ransom to sanctuary at the
+friary. Meanwhile, the Spanish governor learned this man was an
+artillerist and a maker of "artificial fires." The governor offered to
+"protect" him if he would live at the Castillo and put his talents to
+use. Ransom did.</p>
+
+<a id="img049" name="img049"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="400" height="545" alt="Figure 49&mdash;A SIEGE BOMBARD OF THE 1500's." title="Figure 49&mdash;A SIEGE BOMBARD OF THE 1500's.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 49&mdash;A SIEGE BOMBARD OF THE 1500's.</p>
+
+<p>By 1800, although guns could be served with as few as three men,
+efficient drill usually called for a much larger force. The smallest
+crew listed in the United States Navy manual of 1866 was seven: first
+and second gun
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page082" name="page082"></a>(p. 082)</span>
+captains, two loaders, two spongers, and a
+"powder monkey" (powder boy). An 11-inch pivot-gun on its revolving
+carriage was served by 24 crewmen and a powderman. In the field,
+transportation for a 24-pounder siege gun took 10 horses and 5
+drivers.</p>
+
+<p>Twelve rounds an hour was good practice for heavy guns during the
+Civil War period, although the figure could be upped to 20 rounds. By
+this date, of course, although the principles of muzzle loading had
+not changed, actual loading of the gun was greatly simplified by using
+fixed and semi-fixed ammunition. Loading technique varied with the
+gun, but the following summary of drill from the United States <i>Heavy
+Ordnance Manual</i> of 1861 gives a fair idea of how the crew handled a
+siege gun:</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, consider that the equipment is all in its proper
+place. The gun is on a two-wheeled siege carriage, and is "in
+battery," or pushed forward on the platform until the muzzle is in the
+earthwork embrasure. On each side of the gun are three handspikes,
+leaning against the parapet. On the right of the gun a sponge and a
+rammer are laid on a prop, about 6 feet away from the carriage. Near
+the left muzzle of the gun is a stack of cannonballs, wads, and a
+"passbox" or powder bucket. Hanging from the cascabel are two pouches:
+the tube-pouch containing friction "tubes" (primers for the vent) and
+the lanyard; and the gunner's pouch with the gunner's level,
+breech-sight, pick, gimlet, vent-punch, chalk, and fingerstall (a
+leather cover for the gunner's second left finger when the gun gets
+hot). Under the wheels are two chocks; the vent-cover is on the vent,
+a tompion in the muzzle; a broom leans against the parapet beyond the
+stack of cannonballs. A wormer, ladle, and wrench were also part of
+the battery equipment.</p>
+
+<p>The crew consisted of a gunner and six cannoneers. At the command
+<i>Take implements</i> the gunner stepped to the cascabel and handed the
+vent-cover to No. 2; the tube-pouch he gave to No. 3; he put on his
+fingerstall, leveled the gun with the elevating screw, applied his
+level to base ring and muzzle to find the highest points of the
+barrel, and marked these points with chalk for a line of sight. His
+six crewmen took their positions about a yard apart, three men on each
+side of the gun, with handspikes ready.</p>
+
+<p><i>From battery</i> was the first command of the drill. The gunner stepped
+from behind the gun, while the handspikemen embarred their spikes.
+Cannoneers Nos. 1, 3, and 5 were on the right side of the gun, and the
+even-numbered men were on the left. Nos. 1 and 2 put their spikes
+under the front of the wheels; Nos. 3 and 4 embarred under the
+carriage cheeks to bear down on the rear spokes of the wheel; Nos. 5
+and 6 had their spikes under the maneuvering bolts of the trail for
+guiding the piece away from the parapet. With the gunner's word
+<i>Heave</i>, the men at the wheels put on the pressure, and with
+successive <i>heaves</i> the gun was moved backward until the muzzle was
+clear of the embrasure by a yard. The crew then unbarred, and Nos. 1
+and 2 chocked the wheels.</p>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page083" name="page083"></a>(p. 083)</span>
+
+<a id="img050" name="img050"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="400" height="683" alt="Figure 50&mdash;GUN DRILL IN THE 1850's." title="Figure 50&mdash;GUN DRILL IN THE 1850's.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 50&mdash;GUN DRILL IN THE 1850's.</p>
+
+<p><i>Load</i> was the second command. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 laid down their
+spikes; No. 2 took out the tompion; No. 1 took up the sponge and put
+its wooly head into the muzzle; No. 2 stepped up to the muzzle and
+seized the sponge
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page084" name="page084"></a>(p. 084)</span>
+staff to help No. 1. In five counts they
+pushed the sponge to the bottom of the bore. Meanwhile, No. 4 took the
+passbox and went to the magazine for a cartridge.</p>
+
+<p>The gunner put his finger over the vent, and with his right hand
+turned the elevating screw to adjust the piece conveniently for
+loading. No. 3 picked up the rammer.</p>
+
+<p>At the command <i>Sponge</i>, the men at the sponge pressed the tool
+against the bottom of the bore and gave it three turns from right to
+left, then three turns from left to right. Next the sponge was drawn,
+and while No. 1 exchanged it for No. 3's rammer, the No. 2 man took
+the cartridge from No. 4, and put it in the bore. He helped No. 1 push
+it home with the rammer, while No. 4 went for a ball and, if
+necessary, a wad.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ram!</i> The men on the rammer drew it out an arm's length and rammed
+the cartridge with a single stroke. No. 2 took the ball from No. 4,
+while No. 1 threw out the rammer. With the ball in the bore, both men
+again manned the rammer to force the shot home and delivered a final
+single-stroke ram. No. 1 put the rammer back on its prop. The gunner
+stuck his pick into the vent to prick open the powder bag.</p>
+
+<p>The command <i>In battery</i> was the signal for the cannoneers to man the
+handspikes again, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 working at the wheels and Nos. 5
+and 6 guiding the trail as before. After successive <i>heaves</i>, the
+gunner halted the piece with the wheels touching the hurter&mdash;the
+timber laid at the foot of the parapet to stop the wheels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Point</i> was the next order. No. 3, the man with the tube-pouch, got
+out his lanyard and hooked it to a primer. Nos. 5 and 6 put their
+handspikes under the trail, ready to move the gun right or left. The
+gunner went to the breech of the gun, removed his pick from the vent,
+and, sighting down the barrel, directed the spikemen: he would tap the
+right side of the breech, and No. 5 would heave on his handspike to
+inch the trail toward the left. A tap on the left side would move No.
+6 in the opposite direction. Next, the gunner put the breech-sight (if
+he needed it) carefully on the chalk line of the base ring and ran the
+elevating screw to the proper elevation.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the gun was properly laid, the gunner said <i>Ready</i> and
+signaled with both hands. He took the breech-sight off the gun and
+walked over to windward, where he could watch the effect of the shot.
+Nos. 1 and 2 had the chocks, ready to block the wheels at the end of
+the recoil. No. 3 put the primer in the vent, uncoiled the lanyard and
+broke a full pace to the rear with his left foot. He stretched the
+lanyard, holding it in his right hand.</p>
+
+<p>At <i>Fire!</i> No. 3 gave a smart pull on the lanyard. The gun fired, the
+carriage recoiled, and Nos. 1 and 2 chocked the wheels. No. 3 rewound
+his lanyard, and the gunner, having watched the shot, returned to his
+post.</p>
+
+<p><i>The development of heavy ordnance through the ages is a subject with
+many fascinating ramifications, but this survey has of necessity been
+brief.</i> <i>It
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page085" name="page085"></a>(p. 085)</span>
+has only been possible to indicate the general
+pattern. Most of the interesting details must await the publication of
+much larger volumes. It is hoped, however, that enough information has
+been included herein to enhance the enjoyment that comes from
+inspecting the great variety of cannon and projectiles that are to be
+seen throughout the National Park System.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">Glossary</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page087" name="page087"></a>(p. 087)</span>
+
+
+<p>Most technical phrases are explained in the text and illustrations
+(see fig. <a href="#img051">51</a>). For convenient reference, however, some important words
+are defined below:</p>
+
+<p><b>Ballistics</b>&mdash;the science dealing with the motion of projectiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Barbette carriage</b>&mdash;as used here, a traverse carriage on which a gun is
+mounted to fire over a parapet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bomb, bombshell</b>&mdash;see <a href="#projectiles">projectiles</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Breechblock&mdash;a movable piece which closes the breech of a cannon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Caliber</b>&mdash;diameter of the bore; also used to express bore length. A
+30-caliber gun has a bore length 30 times the diameter of the bore.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cartridge</b>&mdash;a bag or case holding a complete powder charge for the
+cannon, and in some instances also containing the projectile.</p>
+
+<p><b>Casemate carriage</b>&mdash;as used here, a traverse carriage in a fort gunroom
+(casemate). The gun fired through an embrasure or loophole in the wall
+of the room.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chamber</b>&mdash;the part of the bore which holds the propelling charge,
+especially when of different diameter than the rest of the bore; in
+chambered muzzle-loaders, the chamber diameter was smaller than that
+of the bore.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elevation</b>&mdash;the angle between the axis of a piece and the horizontal
+plane.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fuze</b>&mdash;a device to ignite the charge of a shell or other projectile.</p>
+
+<p><b>Grommet</b>&mdash;a rope ring used as a wad to hold a cannonball in place in
+the bore.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gun</b>&mdash;any firearm; in the limited sense, a long cannon with high muzzle
+velocity and flat trajectory.</p>
+
+<p><b>Howitzer</b>&mdash;a short cannon, intermediate between the gun and mortar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lay</b>&mdash;to aim a gun.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limber</b>&mdash;a two-wheeled vehicle to which the gun trail is attached for
+transport.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mandrel</b>&mdash;a metal bar, used as a core around which metal may be forged
+or otherwise shaped.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mortar</b>&mdash;a very short cannon used for high or curved trajectory firing.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Point-blank</b>&mdash;as
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page088" name="page088"></a>(p. 088)</span>
+used here, the point where the projectile,
+when fired from a level bore, first strikes the horizontal ground in
+front of the cannon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Projectiles</b>&mdash;<i>canister or case shot</i>: a can filled with small missiles
+that scatter after firing from the gun. <i>Grape shot</i>: a cluster of
+small iron balls, which scatter upon firing. <i>Shell</i>: explosive
+missile; a hollow cast-iron ball, filled with gunpowder, with a fuze
+to produce detonation; a long, hollow projectile, filled with
+explosive and fitted with a fuze. <i>Shot</i>: a solid projectile,
+non-explosive.</p>
+
+<p><b>Quoin</b>&mdash;a wedge placed under the breech of a gun to fix its elevation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Range</b>&mdash;The horizontal distance from a gun to its target or to the
+point where the projectile first strikes the ground. <i>Effective range</i>
+is the distance at which effective results may be expected, and is
+usually not the same as <i>maximum range</i>, which means the extreme limit
+of range.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rotating band</b>&mdash;a band of soft metal, such as copper, which encircles
+the projectile near its base. By engaging the lands of the spiral
+rifling in the bore, the band causes rotation of the projectile.
+Rotating bands for muzzle-loading cannon were expansion rings, and the
+powder blast expanded the ring into the rifling grooves.</p>
+
+<p><b>Train</b>&mdash;to aim a gun.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trajectory</b>&mdash;curved path taken by a projectile in its flight through
+the air.</p>
+
+<p><b>Transom</b>&mdash;horizontal beam between the cheeks of a gun carriage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Traverse carriage</b>&mdash;as used here, a stationary gun mount, consisting of
+a gun carriage on a wheeled platform which can be moved about a pivot
+for aiming the gun to right or left.</p>
+
+<p><b>Windage</b>&mdash;as used here, the difference between the diameter of the shot
+and the diameter of the bore.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page089" name="page089"></a>(p. 089)</span>
+
+<a id="img051" name="img051"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="400" height="727" alt="Figure 51&mdash;THE PARTS OF A CANNON." title="Figure 51&mdash;THE PARTS OF A CANNON.">
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter smcap">Figure 51&mdash;THE PARTS OF A CANNON.</p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="td-right-0">Selected Bibliography</p>
+<span style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/imgx001a.jpg" width="50" height="47" alt="Illustration" title=""></span>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page091" name="page091"></a>(p. 091)</span>
+
+
+<p>The following is a listing of the more important sources dealing with
+the development of artillery which have been consulted in the
+production of this booklet. None of the German or Italian sources have
+been included, since practically no German or Italian guns were used
+in this country.</p>
+
+<p><b>SPANISH ORDNANCE.</b> Luis Collado, "Platica Manual de la Artillería" ms.,
+Milan 1592, and Diego Ufano, <i>Artillerie</i>, n. p., 1621, have detailed
+information on sixteenth century guns, and Tomás de Morla, <i>Láminas
+pertenecientes al Tratado de Artillería</i>, Madrid, 1803, illustrates
+eighteenth century material. Thor Borresen, "Spanish Guns and
+Carriages, 1686-1800" ms., Yorktown, 1938, summarizes eighteenth
+century changes in Spanish and French artillery. Information on
+colonial use of cannon can be found in mss. of the Archivo General de
+Indias as follows: Inventories of Castillo de San Marcos armament in
+1683 (58-2-2,32/2), 1706 (58-1-27,89/2), 1740 (58-1-32), 1763
+(86-7-11,19), Zuñiga's report on the 1702 siege of St. Augustine
+(58-2-8,B3), and Arredondo's "Plan de la Ciudad de Sn. Agustín de la
+Florida" (87-1-1/2, ms. map); and other works, including [Andres
+Gonzales de Barcía,] <i>Ensayo Cronológico para la Historia General de
+la Florida</i>, Madrid, 1723; J. T. Connor, editor, <i>Colonial Records of
+Spanish Florida</i>, Deland, 1930, Vol. II., Manuel de Montiano, <i>Letters
+of Montiano</i> (Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, v. VII,
+pt. I), Savannah 1909; Albert Manucy, "Ordnance used at Castillo de
+San Marcos, 1672-1834," St. Augustine, 1939.</p>
+
+<p><b>ENGLISH ORDNANCE.</b> For detailed information John Müller, <i>Treatise of
+Artillery</i>, London, 1756, has been the basic source for eighteenth
+century material. William Bourne, <i>The Arte of Shooting in Great
+Ordnance</i>, London, 1587, discusses sixteenth century artillery; and
+the anonymous <i>New Method of Fortification</i>, London, 1748, contains
+much seventeenth century information. For colonial artillery data
+there is John Smith, <i>The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-Englande,
+and the Summer Isles</i>, Richmond, 1819; [Edward Kimber] <i>Late
+Expedition to the Gates of St. Augustine</i>, Boston, 1935; and C. L.
+Mowat, <i>East Florida as a British Province</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page092" name="page092"></a>(p. 092)</span>
+1763-1784, Los
+Angeles, 1939. Charles J. Foulkes, <i>The Gun-Founders of England</i>,
+Cambridge, 1937, discusses the construction of early cannon in
+England.</p>
+
+<p><b>FRENCH ORDNANCE.</b> M. Surirey de Saint-Remy, <i>Mémoires d'Artillerie</i>,
+3rd edition Paris, 1745, is the standard source for French artillery
+material in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Col. Favé,
+<i>Études sur le Passé et l'Avenir de L'Artillerie</i>, Paris, 1863, is a
+good general history. Louis Figurier, <i>Armes de Guerre</i>, Paris, 1870,
+is also useful.</p>
+
+<p><b>UNITED STATES ORDNANCE.</b> Of first importance is Louis de Tousard,
+<i>American Artillerist's Companion</i>, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1809-13.
+For performance and use of artillery during the 1860's the following
+sources are useful: John Gibbon, <i>The Artillerist's Manual</i>, New York,
+1863; Q. A. Gillmore, <i>Engineer and Artillery Operations against the
+Defences of Charleston Harbor in 1863</i>, New York, 1865; his <i>Official
+Report ... of the Siege and Reduction of Fort Pulaski, Georgia</i>, New
+York, 1862; and the <i>Official Records of Union and Confederate Armies
+and Navies</i>. Ordnance manuals of the period include: <i>Instruction for
+Heavy Artillery</i>, U. S., Charleston, 1861; <i>Ordnance Instructions for
+the United States Navy</i>, Washington, 1866; J. Gorgas, <i>The Ordnance
+Manual for the Use of the Officers of the Confederate States Army</i>,
+Richmond, 1863. For United States developments after 1860: L. L.
+Bruff, <i>A Text-book of Ordnance and Gunnery</i>, New York, 1903; F. T.
+Hines and F. W. Ward, <i>The Service of Coast Artillery</i>, New York,
+1910; the U. S. Field Artillery School's <i>Construction of Field
+Artillery Matériel</i> and <i>General Characteristics of Field Artillery
+Ammunition</i>, Fort Sill, 1941.</p>
+
+<p><b>GENERAL.</b> For the history of artillery, as well as additional
+biographical and technical details, there is the Field Artillery
+School's excellent booklet, <i>History of the Development of Field
+Artillery Matériel</i>, Fort Sill, 1941. Henry W. L. Hime, <i>The Origin of
+Artillery</i>, New York, 1915, is most useful, as is that standard work,
+the <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, 1894 edition: Arms and Armour,
+Artillery, Gunmaking, Gunnery, Gunpowder; 1938 edition: Artillery,
+Coehoorn, Engines of War, Fireworks, Gribeauval, Gun, Gunnery,
+Gunpowder, Musket, Ordnance, Rocket, Small arms, and Tartaglia.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page093" name="page093"></a>(p. 093)</span>
+HISTORICAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE</h4>
+
+
+<p>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing
+Office Washington 25, D. C.</p>
+
+
+<p>INTERPRETIVE SERIES:</p>
+
+<p>America's Oldest Legislative Assembly and Its Jamestown Statehouses
+(25 cents).<br>
+
+Artillery Through the Ages (35 cents).<br>
+
+The Building of Castillo de San Marcos (20 cents).</p>
+
+
+<p>POPULAR STUDY SERIES:</p>
+
+<p>Robert E. Lee and Fort Pulaski (15 cents).<br>
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+
+
+<p>SOURCE BOOK SERIES:</p>
+
+<p>Abraham Lincoln: From His Own Words and Contemporary Accounts (35
+cents).<br>
+
+The History of Castillo de San Marcos and Fort Matanzas From
+Contemporary Narratives and Letters (20 cents).<br>
+
+"James Towne" in the Words of Contemporaries (20 cents).<br>
+Yorktown: Climax of the Revolution (20 cents).</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Artillery Through the Ages, by Albert Manucy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Artillery Through the Ages
+       A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America
+
+Author: Albert Manucy
+
+Release Date: January 30, 2007 [EBook #20483]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARTILLERY THROUGH THE AGES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Christine P. Travers and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                              ARTILLERY
+
+                           THROUGH THE AGES
+
+
+                A Short Illustrated History of Cannon,
+                  Emphasizing Types Used in America
+
+
+
+
+                             UNITED STATES
+                       DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
+
+                       Fred A. Seaton, _Secretary_
+
+
+
+                          NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
+
+                       Conrad L. Wirth, _Director_
+
+
+
+
+              For sale by the Superintendent of Documents
+                   U. S. Government Printing Office
+                 Washington 25, D. C. -- Price 35 cents
+
+
+
+
+           (_Cover_) FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (1700-1750)
+
+
+
+
+                              ARTILLERY
+
+                           THROUGH THE AGES
+
+
+                A Short Illustrated History of Cannon,
+                  Emphasizing Types Used in America
+
+                                 _by_
+
+                            _ALBERT MANUCY_
+
+                              _Historian
+                    Southeastern National Monuments_
+
+
+
+                           Drawings by Author
+
+                 Technical Review by Harold L. Peterson
+
+
+
+
+              _National Park Service Interpretive Series
+                            History No. 3_
+
+
+               UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+                          _WASHINGTON: 1949_
+                            (Reprint 1956)
+
+
+
+
+Many of the types of cannon described in this booklet may be seen in
+areas of the National Park System throughout the country. Some parks
+with especially fine collections are:
+
+CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS NATIONAL MONUMENT, seventeenth and eighteenth
+century field and garrison guns.
+
+CHICKAMAUGA AND CHATTANOOGA NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field
+and siege guns.
+
+COLONIAL NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK, seventeenth and eighteenth century
+field and siege guns, eighteenth century naval guns.
+
+FORT MCHENRY NATIONAL MONUMENT AND HISTORIC SHRINE, early nineteenth
+century field guns and Civil War garrison guns.
+
+FORT PULASKI NATIONAL MONUMENT, Civil War garrison guns.
+
+GETTYSBURG NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field guns.
+
+PETERSBURG NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field and siege guns.
+
+SHILOH NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field guns.
+
+VICKSBURG NATIONAL MILITARY PARK, Civil War field and siege guns.
+
+
+     The National Park System is dedicated to conserving the scenic,
+     scientific, and historic heritage of the United States for the
+     benefit and enjoyment of its people.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  THE ERA OF ARTILLERY
+    The Ancient Engines of War
+    Gunpowder Comes to Europe
+    The Bombards
+    Sixteenth Century Cannon
+    The Seventeenth Century and Gustavus Adolphus
+    The Eighteenth Century
+    United States Guns of the Early 1800's
+    Rifling
+    The War Between the States
+    The Change into Modern Artillery
+
+  GUNPOWDER
+    Primers
+    Modern Use of Black Powder
+
+  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CANNON
+    The Early Smoothbore Cannon
+    Smoothbores of the Later Period
+    Garrison and Ship Guns
+    Siege Cannon
+    Field Cannon
+    Howitzers
+    Mortars
+    Petards
+
+  PROJECTILES
+    Solid Shot
+    Explosive Shells
+    Fuzes
+    Scatter Projectiles
+    Incendiaries and Chemical Projectiles
+    Fixed Ammunition
+    Rockets
+
+  TOOLS
+
+  THE PRACTICE OF GUNNERY
+
+  GLOSSARY
+
+  SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+[Illustration: "PIERRIERS VULGARLY CALLED PATTEREROS,"
+from Francis Grose, Military Antiquities, 1796.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ERA OF ARTILLERY
+
+
+     _Looking at an old-time cannon, most people are sure of just one
+     thing: the shot came out of the front end. For that reason these
+     pages are written; people are curious about the fascinating
+     weapon that so prodigiously and powerfully lengthened the
+     warrior's arm. And theirs is a justifiable curiosity, because the
+     gunner and his "art" played a significant role in our history._
+
+
+THE ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR
+
+To compare a Roman catapult with a modern trench mortar seems absurd.
+Yet the only basic difference is the kind of energy that sends the
+projectile on its way.
+
+In the dawn of history, war engines were performing the function of
+artillery (which may be loosely defined as a means of hurling missiles
+too heavy to be thrown by hand), and with these crude weapons the
+basic principles of artillery were laid down. The Scriptures record
+the use of ingenious machines on the walls of Jerusalem eight
+centuries B.C.--machines that were probably predecessors of the
+catapult and ballista, getting power from twisted ropes made of hair,
+hide or sinew. The ballista had horizontal arms like a bow. The arms
+were set in rope; a cord, fastened to the arms like a bowstring, fired
+arrows, darts, and stones. Like a modern field gun, the ballista shot
+low and directly toward the enemy.
+
+The catapult was the howitzer, or mortar, of its day and could throw
+a hundred-pound stone 600 yards in a high arc to strike the enemy
+behind his wall or batter down his defenses. "In the middle of the
+ropes a wooden arm rises like a chariot pole," wrote the historian
+Marcellinus. "At the top of the arm hangs a sling. When battle is
+commenced, a round stone is set in the sling. Four soldiers on each
+side of the engine wind the arm down until it is almost level with the
+ground. When the arm is set free, it springs up and hurls the stone
+forth from its sling." In early times the weapon was called a
+"scorpion," for like this dreaded insect it bore its "sting" erect.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1--BALLISTA. Caesar covered his landing in
+Britain with fire from catapults and ballistas.]
+
+The trebuchet was another war machine used extensively during the
+Middle Ages. Essentially, it was a seesaw. Weights on the short arm
+swung the long throwing arm.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2--CATAPULT.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3--TREBUCHET. A heavy trebuchet could throw a
+300-pound stone 300 yards.]
+
+These weapons could be used with telling effect, as the Romans learned
+from Archimedes in the siege of Syracuse (214-212 B.C.). As Plutarch
+relates, "Archimedes soon began to play his engines upon the Romans
+and their ships, and shot stones of such an enormous size and with so
+incredible a noise and velocity that nothing could stand before them.
+At length the Romans were so terrified that, if they saw but a rope
+or a beam projecting over the walls of Syracuse, they cried out that
+Archimedes was leveling some machine at them, and turned their backs
+and fled."
+
+Long after the introduction of gunpowder, the old engines of war
+continued in use. Often they were side by side with cannon.
+
+
+GUNPOWDER COMES TO EUROPE
+
+Chinese "thunder of the earth" (an effect produced by filling a large
+bombshell with a gunpowder mixture) sounded faint reverberations
+amongst the philosophers of the western world as early as A.D. 300.
+Though the Chinese were first instructed in the scientific casting of
+cannon by missionaries during the 1600's, crude cannon seem to have
+existed in China during the twelfth century and even earlier.
+
+In Europe, a ninth century Latin manuscript contains a formula for
+gunpowder. But the first show of firearms in western Europe may have
+been by the Moors, at Saragossa, in A.D. 1118. In later years the
+Spaniards turned the new weapon against their Moorish enemies at the
+siege of Cordova (1280) and the capture of Gibraltar (1306).
+
+It therefore follows that the Arabian _madfaa_, which in turn had
+doubtless descended from an eastern predecessor, was the original
+cannon brought to western civilization. This strange weapon seems to
+have been a small, mortar-like instrument of wood. Like an egg in an
+egg cup, the ball rested on the muzzle end until firing of the charge
+tossed it in the general direction of the enemy. Another primitive
+cannon, with narrow neck and flared mouth, fired an iron dart. The
+shaft of the dart was wrapped with leather to fit tightly into the
+neck of the piece. A red-hot bar thrust through a vent ignited the
+charge. The range was about 700 yards. The bottle shape of the weapon
+perhaps suggested the name _pot de fer_ (iron jug) given early cannon,
+and in the course of evolution the narrow neck probably enlarged until
+the bottle became a straight tube.
+
+During the Hundred Years' War (1339-1453) cannon came into general
+use. Those early pieces were very small, made of iron or cast bronze,
+and fired lead or iron balls. They were laid directly on the ground,
+with muzzles elevated by mounding up the earth. Being cumbrous and
+inefficient, they played little part in battle, but were quite useful
+in a siege.
+
+
+THE BOMBARDS
+
+By the middle 1400's the little popguns that tossed one-or two-pound
+pellets had grown into enormous bombards. Dulle Griete, the giant
+bombard of Ghent, had a 25-inch caliber and fired a 700-pound granite
+ball. It was built in 1382. Edinburgh Castle's famous Mons Meg threw a
+19-1/2-inch iron ball some 1,400 yards (a mile is 1,760 yards), or a
+stone ball twice that far.
+
+The Scottish kings used Meg between 1455 and 1513 to reduce the
+castles of rebellious nobles. A baron's castle was easily knocked to
+pieces by the prince who owned, or could borrow, a few pieces of heavy
+ordnance. The towering walls of the old-time strongholds slowly gave
+way to the earthwork-protected Renaissance fortification, which is
+typified in the United States by Castillo de San Marcos, in Castillo
+de San Marcos National Monument, St. Augustine, Fla.
+
+Some of the most formidable bombards were those of the Turks, who used
+exceptionally large cast-bronze guns at the siege of Constantinople in
+1453. One of these monsters weighed 19 tons and hurled a 600-pound
+stone seven times a day. It took some 60 oxen and 200 men to move this
+piece, and the difficulty of transporting such heavy ordnance greatly
+reduced its usefulness. The largest caliber gun on record is the Great
+Mortar of Moscow. Built about 1525, it had a bore of 36 inches, was 18
+feet long, and fired a stone projectile weighing a ton. But by this
+time the big guns were obsolete, although some of the old Turkish
+ordnance survived the centuries to defend Constantinople against a
+British squadron in 1807. In that defense a great stone cut the
+mainmast of the British flagship, and another crushed through the
+English ranks to kill or wound 60 men.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4--EARLY SMALL BOMBARD (1330). It was made of
+wrought-iron bars, bound with hoops.]
+
+The ponderosity of the large bombards held them to level land, where
+they were laid on rugged mounts of the heaviest wood, anchored by
+stakes driven into the ground. A gunner would try to put his bombard
+100 yards from the wall he wanted to batter down. One would surmise
+that the gunner, being so close to a castle wall manned by expert
+Genoese cross-bowmen, was in a precarious position. He was; but
+earthworks or a massive wooden shield arranged like a seesaw over his
+gun gave him fair protection. Lowering the front end of the shield
+made a barricade behind which he could charge his muzzle loader (see
+fig. 49).
+
+In those days, and for many decades thereafter, neither gun crews nor
+transport were permanent. They had to be hired as they were needed.
+Master gunners were usually civilian "artists," not professional
+soldiers, and many of them had cannon built for rental to customers.
+Artillerists obtained the right to captured metals such as tools and
+town bells, and this loot would be cast into guns or ransomed for
+cash. The making of guns and gunpowder, the loading of bombs, and
+even the serving of cannon were jealously guarded trade secrets.
+Gunnery was a closed corporation, and the gunner himself a guildsman.
+The public looked upon him as something of a sorcerer in league with
+the devil, and a captured artilleryman was apt to be tortured and
+mutilated. At one time the Pope saw fit to excommunicate all gunners.
+Also since these specialists kept to themselves and did not drink or
+plunder, their behavior was ample proof to the good soldier of the old
+days that artillerists were hardly human.
+
+
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY CANNON
+
+After 1470 the art of casting greatly improved in Europe. Lighter
+cannon began to replace the bombards. Throughout the 1500's
+improvement was mainly toward lightening the enormous weights of guns
+and projectiles, as well as finding better ways to move the artillery.
+Thus, by 1556 Emperor Ferdinand was able to march against the Turks
+with 57 heavy and 127 light pieces of ordnance.
+
+At the beginning of the 1400's cast-iron balls had made an appearance.
+The greater efficiency of the iron ball, together with an improvement
+in gunpowder, further encouraged the building of smaller and stronger
+guns. Before 1500 the siege gun had been the predominant piece. Now
+forged-iron cannon for field, garrison, and naval service--and later,
+cast-iron pieces--were steadily developed along with cast-bronze guns,
+some of which were beautifully ornamented with Renaissance
+workmanship. The casting of trunnions on the gun made elevation and
+transportation easier, and the cumbrous beds of the early days gave
+way to crude artillery carriages with trails and wheels. The French
+invented the limber and about 1550 took a sizable forward step by
+standardizing the calibers of their artillery.
+
+Meanwhile, the first cannon had come to the New World with Columbus.
+As the _Pinta's_ lookout sighted land on the early morn of October 12,
+1492, the firing of a lombard carried the news over the moonlit waters
+to the flagship _Santa Maria_. Within the next century, not only the
+galleons, but numerous fortifications on the Spanish Main were armed
+with guns, thundering at the freebooters who disputed Spain's
+ownership of American treasure. Sometimes the adventurers seized
+cannon as prizes, as did Drake in 1586 when he made off with 14 bronze
+guns from St. Augustine's little wooden fort of San Juan de Pinos.
+Drake's loot no doubt included the ordnance of a 1578 list, which
+gives a fair idea of the armament for an important frontier
+fortification: three reinforced cannon, three demiculverins, two
+sakers (one broken), a demisaker and a falcon, all properly mounted on
+elevated platforms in the fort to cover every approach. Most of them
+were highly ornamented pieces founded between 1546 and 1555. The
+reinforced cannon, for instance, which seem to have been cast from the
+same mold, each bore the figure of a savage hefting a club in one hand
+and grasping a coin in the other. On a demiculverin, a bronze mermaid
+held a turtle, and the other guns were decorated with arms,
+escutcheons, the founder's name, and so on.
+
+In the English colonies during the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, lighter pieces seem to have been the more prevalent; there
+is no record of any "cannon." (In those days, "cannon" were a special
+class.) Culverins are mentioned occasionally and demiculverins rather
+frequently, but most common were the falconets, falcons, minions, and
+sakers. At Fort Raleigh, Jamestown, Plymouth, and some other
+settlements the breech-loading half-pounder perrier or "Patterero"
+mounted on a swivel was also in use. (See frontispiece.)
+
+It was during the sixteenth century that the science of ballistics had
+its beginning. In 1537, Niccolo Tartaglia published the first
+scientific treatise on gunnery. Principles of construction were tried
+and sometimes abandoned, only to reappear for successful application
+in later centuries. Breech-loading guns, for instance, had already
+been invented. They were unsatisfactory because the breech could not
+be sealed against escape of the powder gases, and the crude, chambered
+breechblocks, jammed against the bore with a wedge, often cracked
+under the shock of firing. Neither is spiral rifling new. It appeared
+in a few guns during the 1500's.
+
+Mobile artillery came on the field with the cart guns of John Zizka
+during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1419-24). Using light guns, hauled
+by the best of horses instead of the usual oxen, the French further
+improved field artillery, and maneuverable French guns proved to be an
+excellent means for breaking up heavy masses of pikemen in the Italian
+campaigns of the early 1500's. The Germans under Maximilian I,
+however, took the armament leadership away from the French with guns
+that ranged 1,500 yards and with men who had earned the reputation of
+being the best gunners in Europe.
+
+Then about 1525 the famous Spanish Square of heavily armed pikemen and
+musketeers began to dominate the battlefield. In the face of musketry,
+field artillery declined. Although artillery had achieved some
+mobility, carriages were still cumbrous. To move a heavy English
+cannon, even over good ground, it took 23 horses; a culverin needed
+nine beasts. Ammunition--mainly cast-iron round shot, the bomb (an
+iron shell filled with gunpowder), canister (a can filled with small
+projectiles), and grape shot (a cluster of iron balls)--was carried
+the primitive way, in wheelbarrows and carts or on a man's back. The
+gunner's pace was the measure of field artillery's speed: the gunner
+_walked_ beside his gun! Furthermore, some of these experts were
+getting along in years. During Elizabeth's reign several of the
+gunners at the Tower of London were over 90 years old.
+
+Lacking mobility, guns were captured and recaptured with every
+changing sweep of the battle; so for the artillerist generally, this
+was a difficult period. The actual commander of artillery was usually
+a soldier; but transport and drivers were still hired, and the drivers
+naturally had a layman's attitude toward battle. Even the gunners,
+those civilian artists who owed no special duty to the prince, were
+concerned mainly over the safety of their pieces--and their hides,
+since artillerists who stuck with their guns were apt to be picked off
+by an enemy musketeer. Fusilier companies were organized as artillery
+guards, but their job was as much to keep the gun crew from running
+away as to protect them from the enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5--FIFTEENTH-CENTURY BREECHLOADER.]
+
+So, during 400 years, cannon had changed from the little vases,
+valuable chiefly for making noise, into the largest caliber weapons
+ever built, and then from the bombards into smaller, more powerful
+cannon. The gun of 1600 could throw a shot almost as far as the gun of
+1850; not in fire power, but in mobility, organization, and tactics
+was artillery undeveloped. Because artillery lacked these things, the
+pike and musket were supreme on the battlefield.
+
+
+THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY AND GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS
+
+Under the Swedish warrior Gustavus Adolphus, artillery began to take
+its true position on the field of battle. Gustavus saw the need for
+mobility, so he divorced anything heavier than a 12-pounder from his
+field artillery. His famous "leatheren" gun was so light that it could
+be drawn and served by two men. This gun was a wrought-copper tube
+screwed into a chambered brass breech, bound with four iron hoops. The
+copper tube was covered with layers of mastic, wrapped firmly with
+cords, then coated with an equalizing layer of plaster. A cover of
+leather, boiled and varnished, completed the gun. Naturally, the piece
+could withstand only a small charge, but it was highly mobile.
+
+Gustavus abandoned the leather gun, however, in favor of a cast-iron
+4-pounder and a 9-pounder demiculverin produced by his bright young
+artillery chief, Lennart Torstensson. The demiculverin was classed as
+the "feildpeece" _par excellence_, while the 4-pounder was so light
+(about 500 pounds) that two horses could pull it in the field.
+
+These pieces could be served by three men. Combining the powder charge
+and projectile into a single cartridge did away with the old method
+of ladling the powder into the gun and increased the rapidity of
+fire. Whereas in the past one cannon for each thousand infantrymen had
+been standard, Gustavus brought the ratio up to six cannon, and
+attached a pair of light pieces to each regiment as "battalion guns."
+At the same time he knew the value of fire concentration, and he
+frequently massed guns in strong batteries. His plans called for
+smashing hostile infantry formations with artillery fire, while
+neutralizing the ponderous, immobile enemy guns with a whirlwind
+cavalry charge. The ideas were sound. Gustavus smashed the Spanish
+Squares at Breitenfeld in 1631.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6--LIGHT ARTILLERY OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (1630).]
+
+Following the Swedish lead, all nations modified their artillery.
+Leadership fell alternately to the Germans, the French, and the
+Austrians. The mystery of artillery began to disappear, and gunners
+became professional soldiers. Bronze came to be the favorite gunmetal.
+
+Louis XIV of France seems to have been the first to give permanent
+organization to the artillery. He raised a regiment of artillerymen in
+1671 and established schools of instruction. The "standing army"
+principle that began about 1500 was by now in general use, and small
+armies of highly trained professional soldiers formed a class distinct
+from the rest of the population. As artillery became an organized arm
+of the military, expensive personnel and equipment had to be
+maintained even in peacetime. Still, some necessary changes were slow
+in coming. French artillery officers did not receive military rank
+until 1732, and in some countries drivers were still civilians in the
+1790's. In 1716, Britain had organized artillery into two permanent
+companies, comprising the Royal Regiment of Artillery. Yet as late as
+the American Revolution there was a dispute about whether a general
+officer whose service had been in the Royal Artillery was entitled to
+command troops of all arms. There was no such question in England of
+the previous century: the artillery general was a personage having
+"alwayes a part of the charge, and when the chief generall is absent,
+he is to command all the army."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7--FRENCH GARRISON GUN (1650-1700). The gun is
+on a sloping wooden platform at the embrasure. Note the heavy bed on
+which the cheeks of the carriage rest and the built-in skid under the
+center of the rear axletree.]
+
+
+THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+During the early 1700's cannon were used to protect an army's
+deployment and to prepare for the advance of the troops by firing upon
+enemy formations. There was a tendency to regard heavy batteries,
+properly protected by field works or permanent fortifications, as the
+natural role for artillery. But if artillery was seldom decisive in
+battle, it nevertheless waxed more important through improved
+organization, training, and discipline. In the previous century,
+calibers had been reduced in number and more or less standardized;
+now, there were notable scientific and technical improvements. The
+English scientist Benjamin Robins wedded theory to practice; his _New
+Principles of Gunnery_ (1742) did much to bring about a more
+scientific attitude toward ballistics. One result of Robins' research
+was the introduction, in 1779, of carronades, those short, light
+pieces so useful in the confines of a ship's gun deck. Carronades
+usually ranged in caliber from 6- to 68-pounders.
+
+In North America, cannon were generally too cumbrous for Indian
+fighting. But from the time (1565) the French, in Florida, loosed the
+first bolt at the rival fleet of the Spaniard Menendez, cannon were
+used on land and sea during intercolonial strife, or against corsairs.
+Over the vast distances of early America, transport of heavy guns was
+necessarily by water. Without ships, the guns were inexorably walled
+in by the forest. So it was when the Carolinian Moore besieged St.
+Augustine in 1702. When his ships burned, Moore had to leave his guns
+to the Spaniards.
+
+One of the first appearances of organized American field artillery on
+the battlefield was in the Northeast, where France's Louisburg fell to
+British and Colonial forces in 1745. Serving with the British Royal
+Artillery was the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Boston,
+which had originated in 1637. English field artillery of the day had
+"brigades" of four to six cannon, and each piece was supplied with 100
+rounds of solid shot and 30 rounds of grape. John Mueller's _Treatise
+on Artillery_, the standard English authority, was republished in
+Philadelphia (1779), and British artillery was naturally a model for
+the arm in America.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8--AMERICAN 6-POUNDER FIELDPIECE (c. 1775).]
+
+At the outbreak of the War of Independence, American artillery was an
+accumulation of guns, mortars, and howitzers of every sort and some 13
+different calibers. Since the source of importation was cut off, the
+undeveloped casting industries of the Colonies undertook cannon
+founding, and by 1775 the foundries of Philadelphia were casting both
+bronze and iron guns. A number of bronze French guns were brought in
+later. The mobile guns of Washington's army ranged from 3- to
+24-pounders, with 5-1/2- and 8-inch howitzers. They were usually
+bronze. A few iron siege guns of 18-, 24-, and 32-pounder caliber were
+on hand. The guns used round shot, grape, and case shot; mortars and
+howitzers fired bombs and carcasses. "Side boxes" on each side of the
+carriage held 21 rounds of ammunition and were taken off when the
+piece was brought into battery. Horses or oxen, with hired civilian
+drivers, formed the transport. On the battlefield the cannoneers
+manned drag ropes to maneuver the guns into position.
+
+Sometimes, as at Guilford Courthouse, the ever-present forest
+diminished the effectiveness of artillery, but nevertheless the arm
+was often put to good use. The skill of the American gunners at
+Yorktown contributed no little toward the speedy advance of the siege
+trenches. Yorktown battlefield today has many examples of
+Revolutionary War cannon, including some fine ship guns recovered from
+British vessels sunk during the siege of 1781.
+
+In Europe, meanwhile, Frederick the Great of Prussia learned how to
+use cannon in the campaigns of the Seven Years' War (1756-63). The
+education was forced upon him as gradual destruction of his veteran
+infantry made him lean more heavily on artillery. To keep pace with
+cavalry movements, he developed a horse artillery that moved rapidly
+along with the cavalry. His field artillery had only light guns and
+howitzers. With these improvements he could establish small batteries
+at important points in the battle line, open the fight, and protect
+the deployment of his columns with light guns. What was equally
+significant, he could change the position of his batteries according
+to the course of the action.
+
+Frederick sent his 3- and 6-pounders ahead of the infantry. Gunners
+dismounted 500 paces from the enemy and advanced on foot, pushing
+their guns ahead of them, firing incessantly and using grape shot
+during the latter part of their advance. Up to closest range they
+went, until the infantry caught up, passed through the artillery line,
+and stormed the enemy position. Remember that battle was pretty
+formal, with musketeers standing or kneeling in ranks, often in full
+view of the enemy!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9--FRENCH 12-POUNDER FIELD GUN (c. 1780).]
+
+Perhaps the outstanding artilleryman of the 1700's was the Frenchman
+Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval, who brought home a number of ideas after
+serving with the capable Austrian artillery against Frederick. The
+great reform in French artillery began in 1765, although Gribeauval
+was not able to effect all of his changes until he became Inspector
+General of Artillery in 1776. He all but revolutionized French
+artillery, and vitally influenced other countries.
+
+Gribeauval's artillery came into action at a gallop and smothered
+enemy batteries with an overpowering volume of fire. He created a
+distinct materiel for field, siege, garrison, and coast artillery. He
+reduced the length and weight of the pieces, as well as the charge and
+the windage (the difference between the diameters of shot and bore);
+he built carriages so that many parts were interchangeable, and made
+soldiers out of the drivers. For siege and garrison he adopted 12- and
+16-pounder guns, an 8-inch howitzer and 8-, 10-, and 12-inch mortars.
+For coastal fortifications he used the traversing platform which,
+having rear wheels that ran upon a track, greatly simplified the
+training of a gun right or left upon a moving target (fig. 10).
+Gribeauval-type materiel was used with the greatest effect in the new
+tactics which Napoleon introduced.
+
+Napoleon owed much of his success to masterly use of artillery. Under
+this captain there was no preparation for infantry advance by slowly
+disintegrating the hostile force with artillery fire. Rather, his
+artillerymen went up fast into closest range, and by actually
+annihilating a portion of the enemy line with case-shot fire, covered
+the assault so effectively that columns of cavalry and infantry
+reached the gap without striking a blow!
+
+After Napoleon, the history of artillery largely becomes a record of
+its technical effectiveness, together with improvements or changes in
+putting well-established principles into action.
+
+
+UNITED STATES GUNS OF THE EARLY 1800's
+
+The United States adopted the Gribeauval system of artillery carriages
+in 1809, just about the time it was becoming obsolete (the French
+abandoned it in 1829). The change to this system, however, did not
+include adoption of the French gun calibers. Early in the century cast
+iron replaced bronze as a gunmetal, a move pushed by the growing
+United States iron industry; and not until 1836 was bronze readopted
+in this country for mobile cannon. In the meantime, U. S. Artillery in
+the War of 1812 did most of its fighting with iron 6-pounders. Fort
+McHenry, which is administered by the National Park Service as a
+national monument and historic shrine, has a few ordnance pieces of
+the period.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10--U. S. 32-POUNDER ON BARBETTE CARRIAGE
+(1860).]
+
+During the Mexican War, the artillery carried 6- and 12-pounder guns,
+the 12-pounder mountain howitzer (a light piece of 220 pounds which
+had been added for the Indian campaigns), a 12-pounder field howitzer
+(788 pounds), the 24- and 32-pounder howitzers, and 8- and 10-inch
+mortars. For siege, garrison, and seacoast there were pieces of 16
+types, ranging from a 1-pounder to the giant 10-inch Columbiad of
+7-1/2 tons. In 1857, the United States adopted the 12-pounder Napoleon
+gun-howitzer, a bronze smoothbore designed by Napoleon III, and this
+muzzle-loader remained standard in the army until the 1880's.
+
+The naval ironclads, which were usually armed with powerful 11- or
+15-inch smoothbores, were a revolutionary development in mid-century.
+They were low-hulled, armored, steam vessels, with one or two
+revolving turrets. Although most cannonballs bounced from the armor,
+lack of speed made the "cheese box on a raft" vulnerable, and poor
+visibility through the turret slots was a serious handicap in battle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11--U. S. NAVY 9-INCH SHELL-GUN ON MARSILLY
+CARRIAGE (1866).]
+
+While 20-, 30-, and 60-pounder Parrott rifles soon made an appearance
+in the Federal Navy, along with Dahlgren's 12- and 20-pounder rifled
+howitzers, the Navy relied mainly upon its "shell-guns": the 9-, 10-,
+11-, and 15-inch iron smoothbores. There were also 8-inch guns of 55
+and 63 "hundredweight" (the contemporary naval nomenclature), and four
+sizes of 32-pounders ranging from 27 to 57 hundredweight. The heavier
+guns took more powder and got slightly longer ranges. Many naval guns
+of the period are characterized by a hole in the cascabel, through
+which the breeching tackle was run to check recoil. The Navy also had
+a 13-inch mortar, mounted aboard ship on a revolving circular
+platform. Landing parties were equipped with 12- or 24-pounder
+howitzers either on boat carriages (a flat bed something like a mortar
+bed) or on three-wheeled "field" carriages.
+
+
+RIFLING
+
+Rifling, by imparting a spin to the projectile as it travels along the
+spiral grooves in the bore, permits the use of a long projectile and
+ensures its flight point first, with great increase in accuracy. The
+longer projectile, being both heavier and more streamlined than round
+shot of the same caliber, also has a greater striking energy.
+
+Though Benjamin Robins was probably the first to give sound reasons,
+the fact that rifling was helpful had been known a long time. A 1542
+barrel at Woolwich has six fine spiral grooves in the bore. Straight
+grooving had been applied to small arms as early as 1480, and during
+the 1500's straight grooving of musket bores was extensively
+practiced. Probably, rifling evolved from the early observation of the
+feathers on an arrow--and from the practical results of cutting
+channels in a musket, originally to reduce fouling, then because it
+was found to improve accuracy of the shot. Rifled small-arm efficiency
+was clearly shown at Kings Mountain during the American Revolution.
+
+In spite of earlier experiments, however, it was not until the 1840's
+that attempts to rifle cannon could be called successful. In 1846,
+Major Cavelli in Italy and Baron Wahrendorff in Germany independently
+produced rifled iron breech-loading cannon. The Cavelli gun had two
+spiral grooves into which fitted the 1/4-inch projecting lugs of a
+long projectile (fig. 12a). Other attempts at what might be called
+rifling were Lancaster's elliptical-bore gun and the later development
+of a spiraling hexagonal-bore by Joseph Whitworth (fig. 12b). The
+English Whitworth was used by Confederate artillery. It was an
+efficient piece, though subject to easy fouling that made it
+dangerous.
+
+Then, in 1855, England's Lord Armstrong designed a rifled breechloader
+that included so many improvements as to be revolutionary. This gun
+was rifled with a large number of grooves and fired lead-coated
+projectiles. Much of its success, however, was due to the built-up
+construction: hoops were shrunk on over the tube, with the fibers of
+the metal running in the directions most suitable for strength.
+Several United States muzzle-loading rifles of built-up construction
+were produced about the same time as the Armstrong and included the
+Chambers (1849), the Treadwell (1855), and the well-known Parrott of
+1861 (figs. 12e and 13).
+
+The German Krupp rifle had an especially successful breech mechanism.
+It was not a built-up gun, but depended on superior crucible steel for
+its strength. Cast steel had been tried as a gunmetal during the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but metallurgical knowledge of
+the early days could not produce sound castings. Steel was also used
+in other mid-nineteenth century rifles, such as the United States
+Wiard gun and the British Blakely, with its swollen, cast-iron breech
+hoop. Fort Pulaski National Monument, near Savannah, Ga., has a fine
+example of a 24-pounder Blakely used by the Confederates in the 1862
+defense of the fort.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12--DEVELOPMENT OF RIFLE PROJECTILES
+(1840-1900). a--Cavelli type, b--Whitworth, c--James, d--Hotchkiss,
+e--Parrott, f--Copper rotating band type. (Not to scale.)]
+
+The United States began intensive experimentation with rifled cannon
+late in the 1850's, and a few rifled pieces were made by the South
+Boston Iron Foundry and also by the West Point Foundry at Cold Spring,
+N. Y. The first appearance of rifles in any quantity, however, was
+near the outset of the 1861 hostilities, when the Federal artillery
+was equipped with 300 wrought-iron 3-inch guns (fig. 14e). This
+"12-pounder," which fired a 10-pound projectile, was made by wrapping
+sheets of boiler iron around a mandrel. The cylinder thus formed was
+heated and passed through the rolls for welding, then cooled, bored,
+turned, and rifled. It remained in service until about 1900. Another
+rifle giving good results was the cast-iron 4-1/2-inch siege gun. This
+piece was cast solid, then bored, turned, and rifled. Uncertainty of
+strength, a characteristic of cast iron, caused its later abandonment.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13--PARROTT 10-POUNDER RIFLE (1864).]
+
+The United States rifle that was most effective in siege work was the
+invention of Robert P. Parrott. His cast-iron guns (fig. 13), many of
+which are seen today in the battlefield parks, are easily recognized
+by the heavy wrought-iron jacket reinforcing the breech. The jacket
+was made by coiling a bar over the mandrel in a spiral, then hammering
+the coils into a welded cylinder. The cylinder was bored and shrunk on
+the gun. Parrotts were founded in 10-, 20-, 30-, 60-, 100-, 200-, and
+300-pounder calibers, one foundry making 1,700 of them during the
+Civil War.
+
+All nations, of course, had large stocks of smoothbores on hand, and
+various methods were devised to make rifles out of them. The U. S.
+Ordnance Board, for instance, believed the conversion simply involved
+cutting grooves in the bore, right at the forts or arsenals where the
+guns were. In 1860, half of the United States artillery was scheduled
+for conversion. As a result, a number of old smoothbores were rebored
+to fire rifle projectiles of the various patents which preceded the
+modern copper rotating band (fig. 12c, d, f). Under the James patent
+(fig. 12c) the weight of metal thrown by a cannon was virtually
+doubled; converted 24-, 32- and 42-pounders fired elongated shot
+classed respectively as 48-, 64-, and 84-pound projectiles. After the
+siege of Fort Pulaski, Federal Gen. Q. A. Gillmore praised the
+84-pounder and declared "no better piece for breaching can be
+desired," but experience soon proved the heavier projectiles caused
+increased pressures which converted guns could not withstand for long.
+
+The early United States rifles had a muzzle velocity about the same as
+the smoothbore, but whereas the round shot of the smoothbore lost
+speed so rapidly that at 2,000 yards its striking velocity was only
+about a third of the muzzle velocity, the more streamlined rifle
+projectile lost speed very slowly. But the rifle had to be served more
+carefully than the smoothbore. Rifling grooves were cleaned with a
+moist sponge, and sometimes oiled with another sponge. Lead-coated
+projectiles like the James, which tended to foul the grooves of the
+piece, made it necessary to scrape the rifle grooves after every half
+dozen shots, although guns using brass-banded projectiles did not
+require the extra operation. With all muzzle-loading rifles, the
+projectile had to be pushed close home to the powder charge;
+otherwise, the blast would not fully expand its rotating band, the
+projectile would not take the grooves, and would "tumble" after
+leaving the gun, to the utter loss of range and accuracy.
+Incidentally, gunners had to "run out" (push the gun into firing
+position) both smoothbore and rifled muzzle-loaders carefully. A
+sudden stop might make the shot start forward as much as 2 feet.
+
+When the U. S. Ordnance Board recommended the conversion to rifles, it
+also recommended that all large caliber iron guns be manufactured on
+the method perfected by Capt. T. J. Rodman, which involved casting the
+gun around a water-cooled core. The inner walls of the gun thus
+solidified first, were compressed by the contraction of the outer
+metal as it cooled down more slowly, and had much greater strength to
+resist explosion of the charge. The Rodman smoothbore, founded in 8-,
+10-, 15-, and 20-inch calibers, was the best cast-iron ordnance of its
+time (fig. 14f). The 20-inch gun, produced in 1864, fired a
+1,080-pound shot. The 15-incher was retained in service through the
+rest of the century, and these monsters are still to be seen at Fort
+McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine or on the ramparts of
+Fort Jefferson, in the national monument of that name, in the Dry
+Tortugas Islands. In later years, a number of 10-inch Rodmans were
+converted into 8-inch rifles by enlarging the bore and inserting a
+grooved steel tube.
+
+
+THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES
+
+At the opening of this civil conflict most of the materiel for both
+armies was of the same type--smoothbore. The various guns included
+weapons in the great masonry fortifications built on the long United
+States coast line since the 1820's--weapons such as the Columbiad, a
+heavy, long-chambered American muzzle-loader of iron, developed from
+its bronze forerunner of 1810. The Columbiad (fig. 14d) was made in
+8-, 10-, and 12-inch calibers and could throw shot and shell well over
+5,000 yards. "New" Columbiads came out of the foundries at the start
+of the 1860's, minus the powder chamber and with smoother lines.
+Behind the parapets or in fort gunrooms were 32- and 42-pounder iron
+seacoast guns (fig. 10); 24-pounder bronze howitzers lay in the
+bastions to flank the long reaches of the fort walls. There were
+8-inch seacoast howitzers for heavier work. The largest caliber piece
+was the ponderous 13-inch seacoast mortar.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14--U. S. ARTILLERY TYPES (1861-1865). a--Siege
+mortar, b--8-inch siege howitzer, c--24-pounder siege gun, d--8-inch
+Columbiad, e--3-inch wrought-iron rifle, f--10-inch Rodman.]
+
+Siege and garrison cannon included 24-pounder and 8-inch bronze
+howitzers (fig. 14b), a 10-inch bronze mortar (fig. 14a), 12-, 18-,
+and 24-pounder iron guns (fig. 14c) and later the 4-1/2-inch cast-iron
+rifle. With the exception of the new 3-inch wrought-iron rifle (fig.
+14e), field artillery cannon were bronze: 6- and 12-pounder guns, the
+12-pounder Napoleon gun-howitzer, 12-pounder mountain howitzer, 12-,
+24-, and 32-pounder field howitzers, and the little Coehorn mortar
+(fig. 39). A machine gun invented by Dr. Richard J. Gatling became
+part of the artillery equipment during the war, but was not much used.
+Reminiscent of the ancient ribaudequin, a repeating cannon of several
+barrels, the Gatling gun could fire about 350 shots a minute from its
+10 barrels, which were rotated and fired by turning a crank. In Europe
+it became more popular than the French mitrailleuse.
+
+The smaller smoothbores were _effective_ with case shot up to about
+600 or 700 yards, and _maximum_ range of field pieces went from
+something less than the 1,566-yard solid-shot trajectory of the
+Napoleon to about 2,600 yards (a mile and a half) for a 6-inch
+howitzer. At Chancellorsville, one of Stonewall Jackson's guns fired a
+shot which bounded down the center of a roadway and came to rest a
+mile away. The performance verified the drill-book tables. Maximum
+ranges of the larger pieces, however, ran all the way from the average
+1,600 yards of an 18-pounder garrison gun to the well over 3-mile
+range of a 12-inch Columbiad firing a 180-pound shell at high
+elevation. A 13-inch seacoast mortar would lob a 200-pound shell 4,325
+yards, or almost 2-1/2 miles. The shell from an 8-inch howitzer
+carried 2,280 yards, but at such extreme ranges the guns could hardly
+be called accurate.
+
+On the battlefield, Napoleon's artillery tactics were no longer
+practical. The infantry, armed with its own comparatively long-range
+firearm, was usually able to keep artillery beyond case-shot range,
+and cannon had to stand off at such long distances that their
+primitive ammunition was relatively ineffective. The result was that
+when attacking infantry moved in, the defending infantry and artillery
+were still fresh and unshaken, ready to pour a devastating point-blank
+fire into the assaulting lines. Thus, in spite of an intensive 2-hour
+bombardment by 138 Confederate guns at the crisis of Gettysburg, as
+the gray-clad troops advanced across the field to close range, double
+canister and concentrated infantry volleys cut them down in masses.
+
+Field artillery smoothbores, under conditions prevailing during the
+war, generally gave better results than the smaller-caliber rifle. A
+3-inch rifle, for instance, had twice the range of a Napoleon; but in
+the broken, heavily wooded country where so much of the fighting took
+place, the superior range of the rifle could not be used to full
+advantage. Neither was its relatively small and sometimes defective
+projectile as damaging to personnel as case or grape from a larger
+caliber smoothbore. At the first battle of Manassas (July 1861) more
+than half the 49 Federal cannon were rifled; but by 1863, even though
+many more rifles were in service, the majority of the pieces in the
+field were still the old reliable 6- and 12-pounder smoothbores.
+
+It was in siege operations that the rifles forced a new era. As the
+smoke cleared after the historic bombardment of Fort Sumter in 1861,
+military men were already speculating on the possibilities of the
+newfangled weapon. A Confederate 12-pounder Blakely had pecked away at
+Sumter with amazing accuracy. But the first really effective use of
+the rifles in siege operations was at Fort Pulaski (1862). Using 10
+rifles and 26 smoothbores, General Gillmore breached the
+7-1/2-foot-thick brick walls in little more than 24 hours. Yet his
+batteries were a mile away from the target! The heavier rifles were
+converted smoothbores, firing 48-, 64-, and 84-pound James projectiles
+that drove into the fort wall from 19 to 26 inches at each fair shot.
+The smoothbore Columbiads could penetrate only 13 inches, while from
+this range the ponderous mortars could hardly hit the fort. A year
+later, Gillmore used 100-, 200-, and 300-pounder Parrott rifles
+against Fort Sumter. The big guns, firing from positions some 2 miles
+away and far beyond the range of the fort guns, reduced Sumter to a
+smoking mass of rubble.
+
+The range and accuracy of the rifles startled the world. A 30-pounder
+(4.2-inch) Parrott had an amazing carry of 8,453 yards with 80-pound
+hollow shot; the notorious "Swamp Angel" that fired on Charleston in
+1863 was a 200-pounder Parrott mounted in the marsh 7,000 yards from
+the city. But strangely enough, neither rifles nor smoothbores could
+destroy earthworks. As was proven several times during the war, the
+defenders of a well-built earthwork were able to repair the trifling
+damage done by enemy fire almost as soon as there was a lull in the
+shooting. Learning this lesson, the determined Confederate defenders
+of Fort Sumter in 1863-64 refused to surrender, but under the most
+difficult conditions converted their ruined masonry into an earthwork
+almost impervious to further bombardment.
+
+
+THE CHANGE INTO MODERN ARTILLERY
+
+With Rodman's gun, the muzzle-loading smoothbore was at the apex of
+its development. Through the years great progress had been made in
+mobility, organization, and tactics. Now a new era was beginning,
+wherein artillery surpassed even the decisive role it had under
+Gustavus Adolphus and Napoleon. In spite of new infantry weapons that
+forced cannon ever farther to the rear, artillery was to become so
+deadly that its fire caused over 75 percent of the battlefield
+casualties in World War I.
+
+Many of the vital changes took place during the latter years of the
+1800's, as rifles replaced the smoothbores. Steel came into universal
+use for gun founding; breech and recoil mechanisms were perfected;
+smokeless powder and high explosives came into the picture. Hardly
+less important was the invention of more efficient sighting and laying
+mechanisms.
+
+The changes did not come overnight. In Britain, after breechloaders
+had been in use almost a decade, the ordnance men went back to
+muzzle-loading rifles; faulty breech mechanisms caused too many
+accidents. Not until one of H.M.S. _Thunderer's_ guns was
+inadvertently double-loaded did the English return to an improved
+breechloader.
+
+The steel breechloaders of the Prussians, firing two rounds a minute
+with a percussion shell that broke into about 30 fragments, did much
+to defeat the French (1870-71). At Sedan, the greatest artillery
+battle fought prior to 1914, the Prussians used 600 guns to smother
+the French army. So thoroughly did these guns do their work that the
+Germans annihilated the enemy at the cost of only 5 percent
+casualties. It was a demonstration of using great masses of guns,
+bringing them quickly into action to destroy the hostile artillery,
+then thoroughly "softening up" enemy resistance in preparation for the
+infantry attack. While the technical progress of the Prussian
+artillery was considerable, it was offset in large degree by the
+counter-development of field entrenchment.
+
+As the technique of forging large masses of steel improved, most
+nations adopted built-up (reinforcing hoops over a steel tube) or
+wire-wrapped steel construction for their cannon. With the advent of
+the metal cartridge case and smokeless powder, rapid-fire guns came
+into use. The new powder, first used in the Russo-Turkish War
+(1877-78), did away with the thick white curtain of smoke that plagued
+the gunner's aim, and thus opened the way for production of mechanisms
+to absorb recoil and return the gun automatically to firing position.
+Now, gunners did not have to lay the piece after every shot, and the
+rate of fire increased. Shields appeared on the gun--protection that
+would have been of little value in the days when gunners had to stand
+clear of a back-moving carriage.
+
+During the early 1880's the United States began work on a modern
+system of seacoast armament. An 8-inch breech-loading rifle was built
+in 1883, and the disappearing carriage, giving more protection to both
+gun and crew, was adopted in 1886. Only a few of the weapons were
+installed by 1898; but fortunately the overwhelming naval superiority
+of the United States helped bring the War with Spain to a quick close.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15--Ranges.]
+
+During this war, United States forces were equipped with a number of
+British 2.95-inch mountain rifles, which, incidentally, served as late
+as World War II in the pack artillery of the Philippine Scouts.
+Within the next few years the antiquated pieces such as the 3-inch
+wrought-iron rifle, the 4.2-inch Parrott siege gun, converted Rodmans,
+and the 15-inch Rodman smoothbore were finally pushed out of the
+picture by new steel guns. There were small-caliber rapid-fire guns of
+different types, a Hotchkiss 1.65-inch mountain rifle, and Hotchkiss
+and Gatling machine guns. The basic pieces in field artillery were
+3.2- and 3.6-inch guns and a 3.6-inch mortar. Siege artillery included
+a 5-inch gun, 7-inch howitzers, and mortars. In seacoast batteries
+were 8-, 10-, 12-, 14-, and 16-inch guns and 12-inch mortars of the
+primary armament; intermediate rapid-fire guns of 4-, 4.72-, 5-, and
+6-inch calibers; and 6- and 15-pounder rapid-fire guns in the
+secondary armament.
+
+The Japanese showed the value of the French system of indirect laying
+(aiming at a target not visible to the gunner) during the
+Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). Meanwhile, the French 75-mm. gun of
+1897, firing 6,000 yards, made all other field artillery cannon
+obsolete. In essence, artillery had assumed the modern form. The next
+changes were wrought by startling advances in motor transport, signal
+communications, chemical warfare, tanks, aviation, and mass
+production.
+
+
+
+
+GUNPOWDER
+
+
+Black powder was used in all firearms until smokeless and other type
+propellants were invented in the latter 1800's. "Black" powder (which
+was sometimes brown) is a mixture of about 75 parts saltpeter
+(potassium nitrate), 15 parts charcoal, and 10 parts sulphur by
+weight. It will explode because the mixture contains the necessary
+amount of oxygen for its own combustion. When it burns, it liberates
+smoky gases (mainly nitrogen and carbon dioxide) that occupy some 300
+times as much space as the powder itself.
+
+Early European powder "recipes" called for equal parts of the three
+ingredients, but gradually the amount of saltpeter was increased until
+Tartaglia reported the proportions to be 4-1-1. By the late 1700's
+"common war powder" was made 6-1-1, and not until the next century was
+the formula refined to the 75-15-10 composition in majority use when
+the newer propellants arrived on the scene.
+
+As the name suggests, this explosive was originally in the form of
+powder or dust. The primitive formula burned slowly and gave low
+pressures--fortunate characteristics in view of the barrel-stave
+construction of the early cannon. About 1450, however, powder makers
+began to "corn" the powder. That is, they formed it into larger
+grains, with a resulting increase in the velocity of the shot. It was
+"corned" in fine grains for small arms and coarse for cannon.
+
+Making corned powder was fairly simple. The three ingredients were
+pulverized and mixed, then compressed into cakes which were cut into
+"corns" or grains. Rolling the grains in a barrel polished off the
+corners; removing the dust essentially completed the manufacture. It
+has always been difficult, however, to make powder twice alike and
+keep it in condition, two factors which helped greatly to make gunnery
+an "art" in the old days. Powder residue in the gun was especially
+troublesome, and a disk-like tool (fig. 44) was designed to scrape the
+bore. Artillerymen at Castillo de San Marcos complained that the
+"heavy" powder from Mexico was especially bad, for after a gun was
+fired a few times, the bore was so fouled that cannonballs would no
+longer fit. The gunners called loudly for better grade powder from
+Spain itself.
+
+How much powder to use in a gun has been a moot question through the
+centuries. According to the Spaniard Collado in 1592, the proper
+yardstick was the amount of metal in the gun. A legitimate culverin,
+for instance, was "rich" enough in metal to take as much powder as the
+ball weighed. Thus, a 30-pounder culverin would get 30 pounds of
+powder. Since a 60-pounder battering cannon, however, had in
+proportion a third less metal than the culverin, the charge must also
+be reduced by a third--to 40 pounds!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16--GUNPOWDER. Black powder (above) is a
+mechanical mixture; modern propellants are chemical compounds.]
+
+Other factors had to be taken into account, such as whether the powder
+was coarse-or fine-grained; and a short gun got less powder than a
+long one. The bore length of a legitimate culverin, said Collado, was
+30 calibers (30 times the bore diameter), so its powder charge was the
+same as the weight of the ball. If the gunner came across a culverin
+only 24 calibers long, he must load this piece with only 24/30 of the
+ball's weight. Collado's _pasavolante_ had a tremendous length of some
+40 calibers and fired a 6- or 7-pound lead ball. Because it had plenty
+of metal "to resist, and the length to burn" the powder, it was
+charged with the full weight of the ball in fine powder, or
+three-fourths as much with cannon powder. The lightest charge seems to
+have been for the pedrero, which fired a stone ball. Its charge was a
+third of the stone's weight.
+
+In later years, powder charges lessened for all guns. English velocity
+tables of the 1750's show that a 9-pounder charged with 2-1/4 pounds
+of powder might produce its ball at a rate of 1,052 feet per second.
+By almost tripling the charge, the velocity would increase about half.
+But the increase did not mean the shot hit the target 50 percent
+harder, for the higher the velocity, the greater was the air
+resistance; or as Mueller phrased it: "a great quantity of Powder does
+not always produce a greater effect." Thus, from two-thirds the ball's
+weight, standard charges dropped to one-third or even a quarter; and
+by the 1800's they became even smaller. The United States manual of
+1861 specified 6 to 8 pounds for a 24-pounder siege gun, depending on
+the range; a Columbiad firing 172-pound shot used only 20 pounds of
+powder. At Fort Sumter, Gillmore's rifles firing 80-pound shells used
+10 pounds of powder. The rotating band on the rifle shell, of course,
+stopped the gases that had slipped by the loose-fitting cannonball.
+
+Black powder was, and is, both dangerous and unstable. Not only is it
+sensitive to flame or spark, but it absorbs moisture from the air. In
+other words, it was no easy matter to "keep your powder dry." During
+the middle 1700's, Spaniards on a Florida river outpost kept powder in
+glass bottles; earlier soldiers, fleeing into the humid forest before
+Sir Francis Drake, carried powder in _peruleras_--stoppered,
+narrow-necked pitchers.
+
+As for magazines, a dry magazine was just about as important as a
+shell-proof one. Charcoal and chloride of lime, hung in containers
+near the ceiling, were early used as dehydrators, and in the
+eighteenth century standard English practice was to build the floor 2
+feet off the ground and lay stone chips or "dry sea coals" under the
+flooring. Side walls had air holes for ventilation, but screened to
+prevent the enemy from letting in some small animal with fire tied to
+his tail. Powder casks were laid on their sides and periodically
+rolled to a different position; "otherwise," explains a contemporary
+expert, "the salt petre, being the heaviest ingredient, will descend
+into the lower part of the barrel, and the powder above will lose much
+of its goodness."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 17--SPANISH POWDER BUCKET (c. 1750).]
+
+In the dawn of artillery, loose powder was brought to the gun in a
+covered bucket, usually made of leather. The loader scooped up the
+proper amount with a ladle (fig. 44), and inserted it into the gun. He
+could, by using his experienced judgment, put in just enough powder to
+give him the range he wanted, much as our modern artillerymen
+sometimes use only a portion of their charge. After Gustavus Adolphus
+in the 1630's, however, powder bags came into wide use, although
+English gunners long preferred to ladle their powder. The powder
+bucket or "passing box" of course remained on the scene. It was
+usually large enough to hold a pair of cartridge bags.
+
+The root of the word cartridge seems to be "carta," meaning paper. But
+paper was only one of many materials such as canvas, linen, parchment,
+flannel, the "woolen stuff" of the 1860's, and even wood. Until the
+advent of the silk cartridge, nothing was entirely satisfactory. The
+materials did not burn completely, and after several rounds it was
+mandatory to withdraw the unburnt bag ends with a wormer (fig. 44),
+else they accumulated to the point where they blocked the vent or
+"touch hole" by which the piece was fired. Parchment bags shriveled up
+and stuck in the vent, purpling many a good gunner's face.
+
+
+PRIMERS
+
+When the powder bag came into use, the gunner had to prick the bag
+open so the priming fire from the vent could reach the charge. The
+operation was accomplished simply enough by plunging the gunner's pick
+into the vent far enough to pierce the bag. Then the vent was primed
+with loose powder from the gunner's flask. The vent prime, which was
+not much improved until the nineteenth century, was a trick learned
+from the fourteenth century Venetians. There were numerous tries for
+improvement, such as the powder-filled tin tube of the 1700's, the
+point of which pierced the powder bag. But for all of them, the slow
+match had to be used to start the fire train.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 18--LINSTOCKS.]
+
+Before 1800, the slow match was in universal use for setting off the
+charge. The match was usually a 3-strand cotton rope, soaked in a
+solution of saltpeter and otherwise chemically treated with lead
+acetate and lye to burn very slowly--about 4 or 5 inches an hour. It
+was attached to a linstock (fig. 18), a forked stick long enough to
+keep the cannoneer out of the way of the recoil.
+
+Chemistry advances, like the isolation of mercury fulminate in 1800,
+led to the invention of the percussion cap and other primers. On many
+a battleground you may have picked up a scrap of twisted wire--the
+loop of a friction primer. The device was a copper tube (fig. 19)
+filled with powder. The tube went into the vent of the cannon and
+buried its tip in the powder charge. Near the top of this tube was
+soldered a "spur"--a short tube containing a friction composition
+(antimony sulphide and potassium chlorate). Lying in the composition
+was the roughened end of a wire "slider." The other end of the slider
+was twisted into a loop for hooking to the gunner's lanyard. It was
+like striking a match: a smart pull on the lanyard, and the rough
+slider ignited the composition. Then the powder in the long tube began
+to burn and fired the charge in the cannon. Needless to say, it
+happened faster than we can tell it!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 19--FRICTION PRIMER.]
+
+The percussion primer was even more simple: a "quill tube," filled
+with fine powder, fitted into the vent. A fulminate cap was glued to
+the top of the tube. A pull of the lanyard caused the hammer of the
+cannon to strike the cap (just like a little boy's cap pistol) and
+start the train of explosions.
+
+Because the early methods of priming left the vent open when the
+cannon fired, the little hole tended to enlarge. Many cannon during
+the 1800's were made with two vents, side by side. When the first one
+wore out, it was plugged, and the second vent opened. Then, to stop
+this "erosion," the obturating (sealing) primer came into use. It was
+like the common friction primer, but screwed into and sealed the vent.
+Early electric primers, by the way, were no great departure from the
+friction primer; the wires fired a bit of guncotton, which in turn
+ignited the powder in the primer tube.
+
+
+MODERN USE OF BLACK POWDER
+
+Aside from gradual improvement in the formula, no great change in
+powder making came until 1860, when Gen. Thomas J. Rodman of the U. S.
+Ordnance Department began to tailor the powder to the caliber of the
+gun. The action of ordinary cannon powder was too sudden. The whole
+charge was consumed before the projectile had fairly started on its
+way, and the strain on the gun was terrific. Rodman compressed powder
+into disks that fitted the bore of the gun. The disks were an inch or
+two thick, and pierced with holes. With this arrangement, a minimum of
+powder surface was exposed at the beginning of combustion, but as the
+fire ate the holes larger (compare fig. 20f), the burning area
+actually increased, producing a greater volume of gas as the
+projectile moved forward. Rodman thus laid the foundation for the
+"progressive burning" pellets of modern powders (fig. 20).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 20--MODERN GANNON POWDER. A powder grain has the
+characteristics of an explosive only when it is confined. Modern
+_propellants_ are low explosives (that is, relatively slow burning),
+but _projectiles_ may be loaded with high explosive, a--Flake,
+b--Strip, c--Pellet, d--Single perforation, e--Standard,
+7-perforation, f--Burning grain of 7-perforation type. Ideally, the
+powder grain should burn progressively, with continuously increasing
+surface, the grain being completely consumed by the time the
+projectile leaves the bore, g--Walsh grain.]
+
+For a number of reasons General Rodman did not take his "perforated
+cake cartridge" beyond the experimental stage, and his "Mammoth"
+powder, such a familiar item in the powder magazines of the latter
+1800's, was a compromise. As a block of wood burns steadier and longer
+than a quick-blazing pile of twigs, so the 3/4-inch grains of mammoth
+powder gave a "softer" explosion, but one with more "push" and more
+uniform pressure along the bore of the gun.
+
+It was in the second year of the Civil War that Alfred Nobel started
+the manufacture of nitroglycerin explosives in Europe. Smokeless
+powders came into use, the explosive properties of picric acid were
+discovered, and melanite, ballistite, and cordite appeared in the last
+quarter of the century, so that by 1890 nitrocellulose and
+nitroglycerin-base powders had generally replaced black powder as a
+propellant.
+
+Still, black powder had many important uses. Its sensitivity to flame,
+high rate of combustion, and high temperature of explosion made it a
+very suitable igniter or "booster," to insure the complete ignition of
+the propellant. Further, it was the main element in such modern
+projectile fuzes as the ring fuze of the U. S. Field Artillery, which
+was long standard for bursts shorter than 25 seconds. This fuze was in
+the nose of the shell and consisted essentially of a plunger, primer,
+and rings grooved to hold a 9-inch train of compressed black powder.
+To set the fuze, the fuze man merely turned a movable ring to the
+proper time mark. Turning the zero mark toward the channel leading to
+the shell's bursting charge shortened the burning distance of the
+train, while turning zero away from the channel, of course, did the
+opposite. When the projectile left the gun, the shock made the plunger
+ignite the primer (compare fig. 42e) and fire the powder train, which
+then burned for the set time before reaching the shell charge. It was
+a technical improvement over the tubular sheet-iron fuze of the
+Venetians, but the principle was about the same.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 21--MODERN POWDER TRAIN FUZE.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CANNON
+
+
+THE EARLY SMOOTHBORE CANNON
+
+Soon after he found he could hurl a rock with his good right arm, man
+learned about trajectory--the curved path taken by a missile through
+the air. A baseball describes a "flat" trajectory every time the
+pitcher throws a hard, fast one. Youngsters tossing the ball to each
+other over a tall fence use "curved" or "high" trajectory. In
+artillery, where trajectory is equally important, there are three main
+types of cannon: (1) the flat trajectory gun, throwing shot at the
+target in relatively level flight; (2) the high trajectory mortar,
+whose shell will clear high obstacles and descend upon the target from
+above; and (3) the howitzer, an in-between piece of medium-high
+trajectory, combining the mobility of the fieldpiece with the large
+caliber of the mortar.
+
+The Spaniard, Luis Collado, mathematician, historian, native of
+Lebrija in Andalusia, and, in 1592, royal engineer of His Catholic
+Majesty's Army in Lombardy and Piedmont, defined artillery broadly as
+"a machine of infinite importance." Ordnance he divided into three
+classes, admittedly following the rules of the "German masters, who
+were admired above any other nation for their founding and handling of
+artillery." Culverins and sakers (Fig. 23a) were guns of the first
+class, designed to strike the enemy from long range. The battering
+cannon (fig. 23b) were second class pieces; they were to destroy forts
+and walls and dismount the enemy's machines. Third class guns fired
+stone balls to break and sink ships and defend batteries from assault;
+such guns included the pedrero, mortar, and bombard (fig. 23c, d).
+
+Collado's explanation of how the various guns were invented is perhaps
+naive, but nevertheless interesting: "Although the main intent of the
+inventors of this machine [artillery] was to fire and offend the enemy
+from both near and afar, since this offense must be in diverse ways it
+so happened that they formed various classes in this manner: they came
+to realize that men were not satisfied with the _espingardas_ [small
+Moorish cannon], and for this reason the musket was made; and likewise
+the _esmeril_ and the falconet. And although these fired longer shots,
+they made the demisaker. To remedy a defect of that, the sakers were
+made, and the demiculverins and culverins. While they were deemed
+sufficient for making a long shot and striking the enemy from afar,
+they were of little use as battering guns because they fire a small
+ball. So they determined to found a second kind of piece, wherewith,
+firing balls of much greater weight, they might realize their
+intention. But discovering likewise that this second kind of piece was
+too powerful, heavy and costly for batteries and for defense against
+assaults or ships and galleys, they made a third class of piece,
+lighter in metal and taking less powder, to fire balls of stone. These
+are the commonly called _canones de pedreros_. All the classes of
+pieces are different in range, manufacture and design. Even the method
+of charging them is different."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 22--TRAJECTORIES. Maximum range of eighteenth
+century guns was about 1 mile.
+
+_Guns could:_ Batter heavy construction with solid shot at long or
+short range; destroy fort parapets and, by ricochet fire, dismount
+cannon; shoot grape, canister, or bombs against massed personnel.
+
+_Mortars could:_ Reach targets behind obstructions; use high angle
+fire to shoot bombs, destroying construction and personnel.
+
+_Howitzers could:_ Move more easily in the field than mortars; reach
+targets behind obstructions by high angle fire; shoot larger
+projectiles than could field guns of similar weight.]
+
+It was most important for the artillerist to understand the different
+classes of guns. As Collado quaintly phrased it, "he who ignores the
+present lecture on this _arte_ will, I assert, never do a good thing."
+Cannon burst in the batteries every day because gunners were ignorant
+of how the gun was made and what it was meant to do. Nor was such
+ignorance confined to gunners alone. The will and whim of the prince
+who ordered the ordnance or "the simple opinion of the unexpert
+founder himself," were the guiding principles in gun founding. "I am
+forced," wrote Collado, "to persuade the princes and advise the
+founders that the making of artillery should always take into account
+the purpose each piece must serve." This persuasion he undertook in
+considerable detail.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 23--SIXTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH ARTILLERY. Taken
+from a 1592 manuscript, these drawings illustrate the three main
+classes of artillery used by Spain during the early colonial period in
+the New World, a--Culverin (Class 1). b--Cannon (Class 2). c--Pedrero
+(Class 3). d--Mortar (Class 3).]
+
+The first class of guns were the long-range pieces, comparatively
+"rich" in metal. In the following table from Collado, the calibers and
+ranges for most Spanish guns of this class are given, although as the
+second column shows, at this period calibers were standardized only in
+a general way. For translation where possible, and to list those
+which became the most popular calibers, we have added a final column.
+Most of the guns were probably of culverin length: 30- to 32-caliber.
+
+_Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the first class_
+
+  Name of       Weight of    Length      Range in yards    Popular
+    gun          ball        of gun      Point-  Maximum   caliber
+                (pounds)  (in calibers)  blank
+
+  Esmeril          1/2                    208      750  1/2-pounder
+                                                            esmeril.
+  Falconete      1 to  2                                  1-pounder
+                                                            falconet.
+  Falcon         3 to  4                  417    2,500    3-pounder
+                                                            falcon.
+  Pasavolante    1 to 15    40 to 44      500    4,166    6-pounder
+                                                            pasavolante.
+  Media sacre    5 to  7                  417    3,750    6-pounder
+                                                            demisaker.
+  Sacre          7 to 10                                  9-pounder
+                                                            saker.
+  Moyana         8 to 10   shorter than                   9-pounder
+                              saker                         moyenne.
+  Media
+    culebrina   10 to 18                  833    5,000   12-pounder
+                                                            demiculverin.
+  Tercio de
+    culebrina   14 to 22                                 18-pounder
+                                                           third-culverin.
+  Culebrina   20, 24, 25,   30 to 32    1,742    6,666   24-pounder
+                                                            culverin.
+              30, 40, 50
+  Culebrina
+    real        24 to 40    30 to 32                     32-pounder
+                                                           culverin royal.
+  Doble
+    culebrina   40 and up   30 to 32                     48-pounder
+                                                            culverin.
+
+In view of the range Collado ascribes to the culverin, some remarks on
+gun performances are in order. "Greatest random" was what the old-time
+gunner called his maximum range, and random it was. Beyond point-blank
+range, the gunner was never sure of hitting his target. So with
+smoothbores, long range was never of great importance. Culverins, with
+their thick walls, long bores, and heavy powder charges, achieved
+distance; but second class guns like field "cannon," with less metal
+and smaller charges, ranged about 1,600 yards at a maximum, while the
+effective range was hardly more than 500. Heavier pieces, such as the
+French 33-pounder battering cannon, might have a point-blank range of
+720 yards; at 200-yard range its ball would penetrate from 12 to 24
+feet of earthwork, depending on how "poor and hungry" the earth was.
+At 130 yards a Dutch 48-pounder cannon put a ball 20 feet into a
+strong earth rampart, while from 100 yards a 24-pounder siege cannon
+would bury the ball 12 feet.
+
+But generalizations on early cannon are difficult, for it is not easy
+to find two "mathematicians" of the old days whose ordnance lists
+agree. Spanish guns of the late 1500's do, however, appear to be
+larger in caliber than pieces of similar name in other countries, as
+is shown by comparing the culverins: the smallest Spanish _culebrina_
+was a 20-pounder, but the French great _coulevrine_ of 1551 was a
+15-pounder and the typical English culverin of that century was an
+18-pounder. Furthermore, midway of the 1500's, Henry II greatly
+simplified French ordnance by holding his artillery down to the
+33-pounder cannon, 15-pounder great culverin, 7-1/2-pounder bastard
+culverin, 2-pounder small culverin, a 1-pounder falcon, and a
+1/2-pounder falconet. Therefore, any list like the one following must
+have its faults:
+
+_Principal English guns of the sixteenth century_
+
+                       Caliber   Length     Weight   Weight    Powder
+                       (inches)             of gun   of shot   charge
+                                Ft.  In.   (pounds)  (pounds)  (pounds)
+
+  Rabinet               1.0                   300       0.3       0.18
+  Serpentine            1.5                   400        .5        .3
+  Falconet              2.0      3    9       500       1.0        .4
+  Falcon                2.5      6    0       680       2.0       1.2
+  Minion                3.5      6    6     1,050       5.2       3
+  Saker                 3.65     6   11     1,400       6         4
+  Culverin bastard      4.56     8    6     3,000      11         5.7
+  Demiculverin          4.0                 3,400       8         6
+  Basilisk              5.0                 4,000      14         9
+  Culverin              5.2     10   11     4,840      18        12
+  Pedrero               6.0                 3,800      26        14
+  Demicannon            6.4     11    0     4,000      32        18
+  Bastard cannon        7.0                 4,500      42        20
+  Cannon serpentine     7.0                 5,500      42        25
+  Cannon                8.0                 6,000      60        27
+  Cannon royal          8.54     8    6     8,000      74        30
+
+Like many gun names, the word "culverin" has a metaphorical meaning.
+It derives from the Latin _colubra_ (snake). Similarly, the light gun
+called _aspide_ or aspic, meaning "asp-like," was named after the
+venomous asp. But these digressions should not obscure the fact that
+both culverins and demiculverins were highly esteemed on account of
+their range and the effectiveness of fire. They were used for
+precision shooting such as building demolition, and an expert gunner
+could cut out a section of stone wall with these guns in short order.
+
+As the fierce falcon hawk gave its name to the falcon and falconet, so
+the saker was named for the saker hawk; rabinet, meaning "rooster,"
+was therefore a suitable name for the falcon's small-bore cousin. The
+9-pounder saker served well in any military enterprise, and the
+_moyana_ (or the French _moyenne_, "middle-sized"), being a shorter
+gun of saker caliber, was a good naval piece. The most powerful of the
+smaller pieces, however, was the _pasavolante_, distinguishable by its
+great length. It was between 40 and 44 calibers long! In addition, it
+had thicker walls than any other small caliber gun, and the
+combination of length and weight permitted an unusually heavy
+charge--as much powder as the ball weighed. A 6-pound lead ball was
+what the typical _pasavolante_ fired; another gun of the same caliber
+firing an iron ball would be a 4-pounder. The point-blank range of
+this Spanish gun was a football field's length farther than either the
+falcon or demisaker.
+
+In today's Spanish, _pasavolante_ means "fast action," a phrase
+suggestive of the vicious impetuosity to be expected from such a small
+but powerful cannon. Sometimes it was termed a _drajon_, the English
+equivalent of which may be the drake, meaning "dragon"; but perhaps
+its most popular name in the early days was _cerbatana_, from Cerebus,
+the fierce three-headed dog of mythology. Strange things happen to
+words: a _cerbatana_ in modern Spanish is a pea shooter.
+
+_Sixteenth century Spanish cannon of the second class_
+
+  Spanish name             Weight of ball      Translation
+                              (pounds)
+
+  Quarto canon                9 to 12          Quarter-cannon.
+  Tercio canon                16               Third-cannon.
+  Medio canon                 24               Demicannon.
+  Canon de abatir             32               Siege cannon.
+  Doble canon                 48               Double cannon.
+  Canon de bateria            60               Battering cannon.
+  Serpentino                                   Serpentine.
+  Quebrantamuro or lombarda   70 to 90         Wallbreaker or lombard.
+  Basilisco                   80 and up        Basilisk.
+
+The second class of guns were the only ones properly called "cannon"
+in this early period. They were siege and battering pieces, and in
+some few respects were similar to the howitzers of later years. A
+typical Spanish cannon was only about two-thirds as long as a
+culverin, and the bore walls were thinner. Naturally, the powder
+charge was also reduced (half the ball's weight for a common cannon,
+while a culverin took double that amount).
+
+The Germans made their light cannon 18 calibers long. Most Spanish
+siege and battering guns had this same proportion, for a shorter gun
+would not burn all the powder efficiently, "which," said Collado, "is
+a most grievous fault." However, small cannon of 18-caliber length
+were too short; the muzzle blast tended to destroy the embrasure of
+the parapet. For this reason, Spanish demicannon were as long as 24
+calibers and the quarter-cannon ran up to 28. The 12-pounder
+quarter-cannon, incidentally, was "culverined" or reinforced so that
+it actually served in the field as a demiculverin.
+
+The great weight of its projectile gave the double cannon its name.
+The warden of the Castillo at Milan had some 130-pounders made, but
+such huge pieces were of little use, except in permanent
+fortifications. It took a huge crew to move them, their carriages
+broke under the concentrated weight, and they consumed mountains of
+munitions. The lombard, which apparently originated in Lombardy, and
+the basilisk had the same disadvantages. The fabled basilisk was a
+serpent whose very look was fatal. Its namesake in bronze was
+tremendously heavy, with walls up to 4 calibers thick and a bore up to
+30 calibers long. It was seldom used by the Europeans, but the Turkish
+General Mustafa had a pair of basilisks at the siege of Malta, in
+1565, that fired 150- and 200-pound balls. The 200-pounder gun broke
+loose as it was being transferred to a homeward bound galley and sank
+permanently to the bottom of the sea. Its mate was left on the island,
+where it became an object of great curiosity.
+
+The third class of ordnance included the guns firing stone
+projectiles, such as the pedrero (or perrier, petrary, cannon petro,
+etc.), the mortars, and the old bombards like Edinburgh Castle's
+famous Mons Meg. Bars of wrought iron were welded together to form
+Meg's tube, and iron rings were clamped around the outside of the
+piece. In spite of many accidents, this coopering technique persisted
+through the fifteenth century. Mons Meg was made in two sections that
+screwed together, forming a piece 13 feet long and 5 tons in weight.
+
+Pedreros (fig. 23c) were comparatively light. The foundryman used only
+half the metal he would put into a culverin, for the stone projectile
+weighed only a third as much as an iron ball of the same size, and the
+bore walls could therefore be comparatively thin. They were made in
+calibers up to 50-pounders. There was a chamber for the powder charge
+and little danger of the gun's bursting, unless a foolhardy fellow
+loaded it with an iron ball. The wall thicknesses of this gun are
+shown in Figure 24, where the inner circle represents the diameter of
+the chamber, the next arc the bore caliber, and the outer lines the
+respective diameters at chase, trunnions, and vent.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 24--HOW MUCH METAL WAS IN EARLY GUNS? The charts
+compare the wall diameters of sixteenth-seventeenth century types. The
+center circle represents the bore, while the three outer arcs show the
+relative thickness of the bore wall at (1) the smallest diameter of
+the chase, (2) at the trunnions, and (3) at the vent. The small arc
+inside the bore indicates the powder chamber found in the pedrero and
+mortar.]
+
+Mortars (fig. 23d) were excellent for "putting great fear and terror
+in the souls of the besieged." Every night the mortars would play upon
+the town: "it keeps them in constant turmoil, due to the thought that
+some ball will fall upon their house." Mortars were designed like
+pedreros, except much shorter. The convenient way to charge them was
+with _saquillos_ (small bags) of powder. "They require," said Collado,
+"a larger mouthful than any other pieces."
+
+Just as children range from slight to stocky in the same family, there
+are light, medium, or heavy guns--all bearing the same family name.
+The difference lies in how the piece was "fortified"; that is, how
+thick the founder cast the bore walls. The English language has
+inelegantly descriptive terms for the three degrees of
+"fortification": (1) bastard, (2) legitimate, and (3)
+double-fortified. The thicker-walled guns used more powder. Spanish
+double-fortified culverins were charged with the full weight of the
+ball in powder; four-fifths that amount went into the legitimate, and
+only two-thirds for the bastard culverin. In a short culverin (say, 24
+calibers long instead of 30), the gunner used 24/30 of a standard
+charge.
+
+The yardstick for fortifying a gun was its caliber. In a legitimate
+culverin of 6-inch caliber, for instance, the bore wall at the vent
+might be one caliber (16/16 of the bore diameter) or 6 inches thick;
+at the trunnions it would be 10/16 or 4-1/8 inches, and at the
+smallest diameter of the chase, 7/16 or 2-5/8 inches. This table
+compares the three degrees of fortification used in Spanish culverins:
+
+                                            Wall thickness
+                                           in 8ths of caliber
+                                         Vent   Trunnion  Chase
+
+  Bastard culverin                         7     5        3
+  Legitimate culverin                      8     5-1/2    3-1/2
+  Double-fortified culverin                9     6-1/2    4
+
+As with culverins, so with cannon. This is Collado's table showing the
+fortification for Spanish cannon:
+
+                                            Wall thickness
+                                           in 8ths of caliber
+                                         Vent   Trunnion  Chase
+  Canon sencillo (light cannon)           6       4-1/2   2-1/2
+  Canon comun (common cannon)             7       5       3-1/2
+  Canon reforzado (reinforced cannon)     8       5-1/2   3-1/2
+
+Since cast iron was weaker than bronze, the walls of cast-iron pieces
+were even thicker than the culverins. Spanish iron guns were founded
+with 300 pounds of metal for each pound of the ball, and in lengths
+from 18 to 20 calibers. English, Irish, and Swedish iron guns of the
+period, Collado noted, had slightly more metal in them than even the
+Spaniards recommended.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 25--SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHAMBERED CANNON.
+a--"Bell-chambered" demicannon, b--Chambered demicannon.]
+
+Another way the designers tried to gain strength without loading the
+gun with metal was by using a powder chamber. A chambered cannon (fig.
+25b) might be fortified like either the light or the common cannon,
+but it would have a cylindrical chamber about two-thirds of a caliber
+in diameter and four calibers long. It was not always easy, however,
+to get the powder into the chamber. Collado reported that many a good
+artillerist dumped the powder almost in the middle of the gun. When
+his ladle hit the mouth of the chamber, he thought he was at the
+bottom of the bore! The cylindrical chamber was somewhat improved by a
+cone-shaped taper, which the Spaniards called _encampanado_ or
+"bell-chambered." A _canon encampanado_ (fig. 25a) was a good
+long-range gun, strong, yet light. But it was hard to cut a ladle for
+the long, tapered chamber.
+
+Of all these guns, the reinforced cannon was one of the best. Since it
+had almost as much metal as a culverin, it lacked the defects of the
+chambered pieces. A 60-pounder reinforced cannon fired a convenient
+55-pound ball, was easy to move, load, and clean, and held up well
+under any kind of service. It cooled quickly. Either cannon powder or
+fine powder (up to two-thirds the ball's weight) could be used in it.
+Reinforced cannon were an important factor in any enterprise, as King
+Philip's famed "Twelve Apostles" proved during the Flanders wars.
+
+            _Fortification of sixteenth and seventeenth century guns_
+
+  ------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------
+                          |  Thickness of bore wall |
+                          |  in 8ths of the caliber |
+        Spanish Guns      +-------+---------+-------+   English guns
+                          | Vent  |Trunnions| Chase |
+  ------------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------------------
+                          |       |         |       |
+  Light cannon;           |       |         |       |
+    bell-chambered cannon |  6    |  4-1/2  | 2-1/2 |      Bastard cannon.
+  Demicannon              |  6    |    5    | 3     |
+  Common cannon; common   |       |         |       |
+    siege cannon          |  7    |    5    | 3-1/2 |
+  Light culverin; common  |       |         |       |
+    battering cannon      |  7    |    5    | 3     |    Bastard culverin;
+                          |       |         |       |   legitimate cannon.
+  Common culverin;        |       |         |       |
+  reinforced cannon       |  8    |  5-1/2  | 3-1/2 | Legitimate culverin;
+                          |       |         |       |     double-fortified
+                          |       |         |       |              cannon.
+  Legitimate culverin     |  9    |  6-1/2  | 4     |     Double-fortified
+                          |       |         |       |            culverin.
+  Cast-iron cannon        | 10    |  8      | 5     |
+  Pasavolante             | 11-1/2|  8-1/2  | 5-1/2 |
+  ------------------------+-------+---------+-------+---------------------
+
+While there was little real progress in mobility until the days of
+Gustavus Adolphus, the wheeled artillery carriage seems to have been
+invented by the Venetians in the fifteenth century. The essential
+parts of the design were early established: two large, heavy cheeks or
+side pieces set on an axle and connected by transoms. The gun was
+cradled between the cheeks, the rear ends of which formed a "trail"
+for stabilizing and maneuvering the piece.
+
+Wheels were perhaps the greatest problem. As early as the 1500's
+carpenters and wheelwrights were debating whether dished wheels were
+best. "They say," reported Collado, "that the [dished] wheel will
+never twist when the artillery is on the march. Others say that a
+wheel with spokes angled beyond the cask cannot carry the weight of
+the piece without twisting the spoke, so the wheel does not last long.
+I am of the same opinion, for it is certain that a perpendicular wheel
+will suffer more weight than the other. The defect of twisting under
+the pieces when on the march will be remedied by making the cart a
+little wider than usual." However, advocates of the dished wheel
+finally won.
+
+
+SMOOTHBORES OF THE LATER PERIOD
+
+From the guns of Queen Elizabeth's time came the 6-, 9-, 12-, 18-,
+24-, 32-, and 42-pounder classifications adopted by Cromwell's
+government and used by the English well through the eighteenth
+century. On the Continent, during much of this period, the French were
+acknowledged leaders. Louis XIV (1643-1715) brought several foreign
+guns into his ordnance, standardizing a set of calibers (4-, 8-, 12-,
+16-, 24-, 32-, and 48-pounders) quite different from Henry II's in the
+previous century.
+
+The cannon of the late 1600's was an ornate masterpiece of the
+foundryman's art, covered with escutcheons, floral relief, scrolls,
+and heavy moldings, the most characteristic of which was perhaps the
+banded muzzle (figs. 23b-c, 25, 26a-b), that bulbous bit of
+ornamentation which had been popular with designers since the days of
+the bombards. The flared or bell-shaped muzzle (figs. 23a, 26c, 27),
+did not supplant the banded muzzle until the eighteenth century, and,
+while the flaring bell is a usual characteristic of ordnance founded
+between 1730 and 1830, some banded-muzzle guns were made as late as
+1746 (fig. 26a).
+
+By 1750; however, design and construction were fairly well
+standardized in a gun of much cleaner line than the cannon of 1650.
+Although as yet there had been no sharp break with the older
+traditions, the shape and weight of the cannon in relation to the
+stresses of firing were becoming increasingly important to the men who
+did the designing.
+
+Conditions in eighteenth century England were more or less typical: in
+the 1730's Surveyor-General Armstrong's formulae for gun design were
+hardly more than continuations of the earlier ways. His guns were
+about 20 calibers long, with these outside proportions:
+
+  1st reinforce = 2/7 of the gun's length.
+   2d reinforce = 1/7 plus 1 caliber.
+  chase         = 4/7 less 1 caliber.
+
+The trunnions, about a caliber in size, were located well forward
+(3/7 of the gun's length) "to prevent the piece from kicking up
+behind" when it was fired. Gunners blamed this bucking tendency on the
+practice of centering the trunnions on the _lower_ line of the bore.
+"But what will not people do to support an old custom let it be ever
+so absurd?" asked John Mueller, the master gunner of Woolwich. In 1756,
+Mueller raised the trunnions to the _center_ of the bore, an
+improvement that greatly lessened the strain on the gun carriage.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 26--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CANNON, a--Spanish
+bronze 24-pounder of 1746. b--French bronze 24-pounder of the early
+1700's. c--English iron 6-pounder of the middle 1700's. The 6-pounder
+is part of the armament at Castillo de San Marcos.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 27--SPANISH 24-POUNDER CAST-IRON GUN (1693).
+Note the modern lines of this cannon, with its flat breech and slight
+muzzle swell.]
+
+The caliber of the gun continued to be the yardstick for "fortification"
+of the bore walls:
+
+  Vent                                  16       parts
+  End of 1st reinforce                  14-1/2    do
+  Beginning of second reinforce         13-1/2    do
+  End of second reinforce               12-1/2    do
+  Beginning of chase                    11-1/2    do
+  End of chase                           8        do
+
+For both bronze and iron guns, the above figures were the same, but
+for bronze, Armstrong divided the caliber into 16 parts; for iron it
+was only 14 parts. The walls of an iron gun thus were slightly thicker
+than those of a bronze one.
+
+This eighteenth century cannon was a cast gun, but hoops and rings
+gave it the built-up look of the barrel-stave bombard, when hoops were
+really functional parts of the cannon. Reinforces made the gun look
+like "three frustums of cones joined together, so as the lesser base
+of the former is always greater than the greatest of the succeeding
+one." Ornamental fillets, astragals, and moldings, borrowed from
+architecture, increased the illusion of a sectional piece. Tests with
+24-pounders of different lengths showed guns from 18 to 21 calibers
+long gave generally the best performance, but what was true for the
+24-pounder was not necessarily true for other pieces. Why was the
+32-pounder "brass battering piece" 6 inches longer than its 42-pounder
+brother? John Mueller wondered about such inconsistencies and set out
+to devise a new system of ordnance for England.
+
+Like many men before him, Mueller sought to increase the caliber of
+cannon without increasing weight. He managed it in two ways: he
+modified exterior design to save on metal, and he lessened the powder
+charge to permit shortening and lightening the gun. Mueller's guns had
+no heavy reinforces; the metal was distributed along the bore in a
+taper from powder chamber to muzzle swell. But realizing man's
+reluctance to accept new things, he carefully specified the location
+and size for each molding on his gun, protesting all the while the
+futility of such ornaments. Not until the last half of the next
+century were the experts well enough versed in metallurgy and interior
+ballistics to slough off all the useless metal.
+
+So, using powder charges about one-third the weight of the projectile,
+Mueller designed 14-caliber light field pieces and 15-caliber ship
+guns. His garrison and battering cannon, where weight was no great
+disadvantage, were 18 calibers long. The figures in the table
+following represent the principal dimensions for the four types of
+cannon--all cast-iron except for the bronze siege guns. The first line
+in the table shows the length of the cannon. To proportion the rest of
+the piece, Mueller divided the shot diameter into 24 parts and used it
+as a yardstick. The caliber of the gun, for instance, was 25 parts, or
+25/24th of the shot diameter. The few other dimensions--thickness of
+the breech, length of the gun before the barrel began its taper,
+fortification at vent and chase--were expressed the same way.
+
+  -----------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+---------
+                                     | Field | Ship   | Siege | Garrison
+  -----------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+---------
+  Length in calibers                 |  14   | 15     | 18    | 18
+            (Other proportions in 24ths of the shot diameter) |
+  Caliber                            |  25   | 25     | 25    | 25
+  Thickness of breech                |  14   | 24     | 16    | 24
+  Length from breech to taper        |  39   | 49     | 40    | 49
+  Thickness at vent                  |  16   | 25     | 18    | 25
+  Thickness at muzzle                |   8   | 12-1/2 |  9    | 12-1/2
+  -----------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+---------
+
+The heaviest of Mueller's garrison guns averaged some 172 pounds of
+iron for every pound of the shot, while a ship gun weighed only 146,
+less than half the iron that went into the sixteenth century cannon.
+And for a seafaring nation such as England, these were important
+things. Perhaps the opposite table will give a fair idea of the
+changes in English ordnance during the eighteenth century. It is based
+upon John Mueller's lists of 1756; the "old" ordnance includes cannon
+still in use during Mueller's time, while the "new" ordnance is
+Mueller's own.
+
+Windage in the English gun of 1750 was about 20 percent greater than
+in French pieces. The English ratio of shot to caliber was 20:21;
+across the channel it was 26:27. Thus, an English 9-pounder fired a
+4.00-inch ball from a 4.20-inch bore; the French 9-pounder ball was
+4.18 inches and the bore 4.34.
+
+The English figured greater windage was both convenient and
+economical: windage, said they, ought to be just as thick as the metal
+in the gunner's ladle; standing shot stuck in the bore and unless it
+could be loosened with the ladle, had to be fired away and lost. John
+Mueller brushed aside such arguments impatiently. With a proper wad
+over the shot, no dust or dirt could get in; and when the muzzle was
+lowered, said Mueller, the shot "will roll out of course." Besides,
+compared with increased accuracy, the loss of a shot was trifling.
+Furthermore, with less room for the shot to bounce around the bore,
+the cannon would "not be spoiled so soon." Mueller set the ratio of
+shot to caliber as 24:25.
+
+_Calibers and lengths of principal eighteenth century English cannon_
+
+  ---------+-----------+---------------------+-----------+----------+
+  Caliber  |    Field  |        Ship         |   Siege   | Garrison |
+           +-----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+           |    Iron   |  Bronze  |   Iron   |   Bronze  |   Iron   |
+           +-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+
+  (pounder)| Old | New | Old| New | Old | New| Old | New | Old| New |
+  ---------+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+
+   1-1/2   |     |     |    |     |     |    | 6'0"|     |    |     |
+   3       |3'6" |3'3" |    |3'6" | 4'6"|3'6"| 7'0"|     |4'6"| 4'2"|
+   4       |     |     |    |     | 6'0"|    |     |     |    |     |
+   6       |4'6" |4'1" |8'0"|4'4" | 7'0"|4'4"| 8'0"|     |6'6"| 5'3"|
+   9       |     |4'8" |    |5'0" | 7'0"|5'0"| 9'0"|     |7'0"| 6'0"|
+  12       |5'0" |5'1" |9'0"|5'6" | 9'0"|5'6"| 9'0"| 6'7"|8'0"| 6'7"|
+  18       |     |5'10"|    |6'4" | 9'0"|6'4"| 9'6"| 8'4"|9'0"| 7'6"|
+  24       |5'6" |6'5" |9'6"|7'0" | 9'0"|7'0"| 9'6"| 8'4"|9'0"| 8'4"|
+  32       |     |     |    |7'6" | 9'6"|7'6"|10'0"| 9'2"|9'6"| 9'2"|
+  36       |     |     |    |7'10"|     |    |     | 9'6"|    |     |
+  42       |     |     |9'6"|8'4" |10'0"|8'4"| 9'6"|10'0"|    |10'0"|
+  48       |     |     |    |8'6" |     |8'6"|     |10'6"|    |     |
+  ---------+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+
+
+In the 1700's cast-iron guns became the principal artillery afloat and
+ashore, yet cast bronze was superior in withstanding the stresses of
+firing. Because of its toughness, less metal was needed in a bronze
+gun than in a cast-iron one, so in spite of the fact that bronze is
+about 20 percent heavier than iron, the bronze piece was usually the
+lighter of the two. For "position" guns in permanent fortifications
+where weight was no disadvantage, iron reigned supreme until the
+advent of steel guns. But non-rusting bronze was always preferable
+aboard ship or in seacoast forts.
+
+Mueller strongly advocated bronze for ship guns. "Notwithstanding all
+the precautions that can be taken to make iron Guns of a sufficient
+strength," he said, "yet accidents will sometimes happen, either by
+the mismanagement of the sailors, or by frosty weather, which renders
+iron very brittle." A bronze 24-pounder cost L156, compared with L75
+for the iron piece, but the initial saving was offset when the gun
+wore out. The iron gun was then good for nothing except scrap at a
+farthing per pound, while the bronze cannon could be recast "as often
+as you please."
+
+In 1740, Maritz of Switzerland made an outstanding contribution to the
+technique of ordnance manufacture. Instead of hollow casting (that is,
+forming the bore by casting the gun around a core), Maritz cast the
+gun solid, then drilled the bore, thus improving its uniformity. But
+although the bore might be drilled quite smooth, the outside of a
+cast-iron gun was always rough. Bronze cannon, however, could be put
+in the lathes to true up even the exterior. While after 1750 the
+foundries seldom turned out bronze pieces as ornate as the Renaissance
+culverins, a few decorations remained and many guns were still
+personalized with names in raised letters on the gun. Castillo de San
+Marcos has a 4-pounder "San Marcos," and, indeed, saints' names were
+not uncommon on Spanish ordnance. Other typical names were _El
+Espanto_ (The Terror), _El Destrozo_ (The Destroyer), _Generoso_
+(Generous), _El Toro_ (The Bull), and _El Belicoso_ (The Quarrelsome
+One).
+
+In some instances, decoration was useful. The French, for instance, at
+one time used different shapes of cascabels to denote certain
+calibers; and even a fancy cascabel shaped like a lion's head was
+always a handy place for anchoring breeching tackle or maneuvering
+lines. The dolphins or handles atop bronze guns were never merely
+ornaments. Usually they were at the balance point of the gun; tackle
+run through them and hooked to the big tripod or "gin" lifted the
+cannon from its carriage.
+
+
+GARRISON AND SHIP GUNS
+
+Cannon for permanent fortifications were of various sizes and
+calibers, depending upon the terrain that had to be defended. At
+Castillo de San Marcos, for instance, the strongest armament was on
+the water front; lighter guns were on the land sector, an area
+naturally protected by the difficult terrain existing in the colonial
+period.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 28--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH GARRISON GUN.]
+
+Before the Castillo was completed, guns were mounted only in the
+bastions or projecting corners of the fort. A 1683 inventory clearly
+shows that heaviest guns were in the San Agustin, or southeastern
+bastion, commanding not only the harbor and its entrance but the town
+of St. Augustine as well San Pablo, the northwestern bastion,
+overlooked the land approach to the Castillo and the town gate; and,
+though its armament was lighter, it was almost as numerous as that in
+San Agustin. Bastion San Pedro to the southwest was within the town
+limits, and its few light guns were a reserve for San Pablo. The
+watchtower bastion of San Carlos overlooked the northern marshland and
+the harbor; its armament was likewise small. The following list
+details the variety and location of the ordnance:
+
+_Cannon mounted at Castillo de San Marcos in 1683_
+
+  Location   No.   Caliber   Class   Metal   Remarks
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Agustin
+     1   40-pounder   Cannon   Bronze   Carriage battered.
+     1   18-pounder      do      do          New carriage.
+     2   16-pounder      do    Iron         Old carriages,
+                                               wheels bad.
+     1   12-pounder      do    Bronze        New carriage.
+     1   12-pounder      do    Iron                    do.
+     1    8-pounder      do    Bronze        Old carriage.
+     1    7-pounder      do    Iron          Carriage bad.
+     1    4-pounder      do      do          New carriage.
+     1    3-pounder      do    Bronze                  do.
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Pablo
+     1   16-pounder   Demicannon      Iron       Old carriage.
+     1   10-pounder   Demiculverin    Bronze               do.
+     2    9-pounder   Cannon          Iron                 do.
+     1    7-pounder   Demiculverin    Bronze               do.
+     1    7-pounder   Cannon          Iron       Carriage bad.
+     1    5-pounder      do             do       New carriage.
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Pedro
+     1    9-pounder   Cannon         Iron        Old carriage.
+     2    7-pounder      do            do        Carriage bad.
+     2    5-pounder      do            do                  do.
+     1    4-pounder      do          Bronze      Old carriage.
+
+  In the bastion
+    of San Carlos
+     1   10-pounder   Cannon    Iron      Old carriage.
+     1    5-pounder      do         do      New carriage.
+     1    5-pounder      do       Bronze   Good carriage.
+     1    2-pounder      do       Iron      New carriage.
+
+The total number of Castillo guns in service at this date was 27, but
+there were close to a dozen unmounted pieces on hand, including a pair
+of pedreros. The armament was gradually increased to 70-odd guns as
+construction work on the fort made additional space available, and as
+other factors warranted more ordnance. Below is a summary of Castillo
+armament through the years:
+
+_Armament of Castillo de San Marcos, 1683-1834_
+
+   Kind         1683    1706    1740    1763    1765    1812    1834
+  of gun      Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron    Iron
+                Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze  Bronze
+
+   2-pounder   1  ..  ..  **  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   3-pounder  ..   1  ..  **   2   3  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   4-pounder   1   1   *  **   5   1  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..
+   5-pounder   4   1   *  **  15   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   6-pounder  ..  ..   *  **   5  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..   3  ..
+   7-pounder   4   1   *  **   5   2  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   8-pounder  ..   1   *  **  11   1   5  11  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..
+   3-1/2 in.
+    carronade ..  ..   *  **  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   4  ..  ..  ..
+   9-pounder   3  ..   *  **  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  10-pounder   1   1   *  **  ..  ..   6  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  12-pounder   1   1   *  **  ..  ..  13  ..   7  ..   2  ..  ..  ..
+  15-pounder  ..  ..  ..  **   6  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  16-pounder   3  ..  ..  **  ..  ..   2   1  ..  ..   8  ..  ..  ..
+  18-pounder  ..   1  ..  ..   4   1   7  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   4  ..
+  24-pounder  ..  ..  ..  ..   2  ..   7  ..  32  ..  10  ..   5  ..
+  33-pounder  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  36-pounder  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  40-pounder  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..
+  24-pounder
+    field
+    howitzer  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   2   2
+   6-in.
+     howitzer ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   2  ..   2
+   8-in.
+    howitzer  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   2  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   Small
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  18  ..  20  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   6-in.
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   1  ..   1
+  10-in.
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   1
+   Large
+    mortar    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   6  ..   1  ..  ..  ..  ..
+   Stone
+    mortar     2  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..   3  ..  ..
+
+  Total       20   9  26   9  55  10  40  37  39  24  26   8  14   6
+
+  Grand total   29      35      65      77      63      34      20
+
+* 26 guns from 4- to 10-pounders
+
+** 8 guns from 2- to 16-pounders
+
+This tabulation reflects contemporary conditions quite clearly. The
+most serious invasions of Spanish Florida took place during the first
+half of the eighteenth century, precisely the time when the Castillo
+armament was strongest. While most of the guns were in battery
+condition, the table does have some pieces rated only fair and may
+also include a few unserviceables. Colonial isolation meant that
+ordnance often served longer than the normal 1,200-round life of an
+iron piece. A usual failure was the development of cracks around the
+vent or in the bore. Sometimes a muzzle blew off. The worst casualties
+of the 1702 siege came from the bursting of an iron 16-pounder which
+killed four and seriously wounded six men. At that period,
+incidentally, culverins were the only guns with the range to reach the
+harbor bar some 3,000 yards away.
+
+Although when the Spanish left Florida to Britain in 1763 they took
+serviceable cannon with them, two guns at Castillo de San Marcos
+National Monument today appear to be seventeenth century Spanish
+pieces. Most of the 24- and 32-pounder garrison cannon, however, are
+English-founded, after the Armstrong specifications of the 1730's, and
+were part of the British armament during the 1760's. Amidst the
+general confusion and shipping troubles that attended the British
+evacuation in 1784, some ordnance seems to have been left behind, to
+remain part of the defenses until the cession to the United States in
+1821.
+
+The Castillo also has some interesting United States guns, including a
+pair of early 24-pounder iron field howitzers (c. 1777-1812). During
+the 1840's the United States modernized Castillo defenses by
+constructing a water battery in the moat behind the sea wall. Many of
+the guns for that battery are extant, including 8-inch Columbiads,
+32-pounder cannon, 8-inch seacoast and garrison howitzers. St.
+Augustine's Plaza even boasts a converted 32-pounder rifle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 29--VAUBAN'S MARINE CARRIAGE (c. 1700).]
+
+Garrison and ship carriages were far different from field, siege, and
+howitzer mounts, while mortar beds were in a separate class entirely.
+Basic proportions for the carriage were obtained by measuring (1) the
+distance from trunnion to base ring of the gun, (2) the diameter of
+the base ring, and (3) the diameter of the second reinforce ring. The
+result was a quadrilateral figure that served as a key in laying out
+the carriage to fit the gun. Cheeks, or side pieces, of the carriage
+were a caliber in thickness, so the bigger the gun, the more massive
+the mount.
+
+A 24-pounder cheek would be made of timber about 6 inches thick. The
+Spaniards often used mahogany. At Jamestown, in the early 1600's,
+Capt. John Smith reported the mounting of seven "great pieces of
+ordnance upon new carriages of cedar," and the French colonials also
+used this material. British specifications in the mid-eighteenth
+century called for cheeks and transoms of dry elm, which was very
+pliable and not likely to split; but some carriages were made of young
+oak, and oak was standard for United States garrison carriages until
+it was replaced by wrought-iron after the Civil War.
+
+For a four-wheeled English carriage of 1750, height of the cheek was
+4-2/3 diameters of the shot, unless some change in height had to be
+made to fit a gun port or embrasure. To prevent cannon from pushing
+shutters open when the ship rolled in a storm, lower tier carriages
+let the muzzle of the gun, when fully elevated, butt against the sill
+over the gun port.
+
+On the eighteenth century Spanish garrison carriage (fig. 28), no
+bolts were threaded; all were held either by a key run through a slot
+in the foot of the bolt, or by bradding the foot over a decorative
+washer. Compared with American mounts of the same type (figs. 30 and
+31), the Spanish carriage was considerably more complicated, due
+partly to the greater amount of decorative ironwork and partly to the
+design of the wooden parts which, with their carefully worked
+mortises, required a craftsman's skill. The cheek of the Spanish
+carriage was a single great plank. English and American construction
+called for a built-up cheek of several planks, cleverly jogged or
+mortised together to prevent starting under the strain of firing.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 30--ENGLISH GARRISON CARRIAGE (1756). By
+substituting wooden wheels for the cast-iron ones, this carriage
+became a standard naval gun carriage.]
+
+Mueller furnished specifications for building truck (four-wheeled)
+carriages for 3- to 42-pounders. Aboard ship, of course, the truck
+carriage was standard for almost everything except the little swivel
+guns and the mortars.
+
+Carriage trucks (wheels), unless they were made of cast iron, had iron
+thimbles or bushings driven into the hole of the hub, and to save the
+wood of the axletree, the spindle on which the wheel revolved was
+partly protected by metal. The British put copper on the _bottom_ of
+the spindle; Spanish and French designers put copper on the _top_,
+then set iron "axletree bars" into the bottom. These bars strengthened
+the axletree and resisted wear at the spindle.
+
+A 24-pounder fore truck was 18 inches in diameter. Rear trucks were 16
+inches. The difference in size compensated for the slope in the gun
+platform or deck--a slope which helped to check recoil. Aboard ship,
+where recoil space was limited, the "kick" of the gun was checked by a
+heavy rope called a breeching, shackled to the side of the vessel
+(see fig. 11). Ship carriages of the two-or four-wheel type (fig. 31),
+were used through the War between the States, and there was no great
+change until the advent of automatic recoil mechanisms made a
+stationary mount possible.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 31--U. S. NAVAL TRUCK CARRIAGE (1866).]
+
+With garrison carriages, however, changes came much earlier. In 1743,
+Fort William on the Georgia coast had a pair of 18-pounders mounted
+upon "curious moving Platforms" which were probably similar to the
+traversing platforms standardized by Gribeauval in the latter part of
+the century. United States forts of the early 1800's used casemate and
+barbette carriages (fig. 10) of the Gribeauval type, and the
+traversing platforms of these mounts made training (aiming the gun
+right or left) comparatively easy.
+
+Training the old truck carriage had been heavy work for the
+handspikemen, who also helped to elevate or depress the gun. Maximum
+elevation or depression was about 15 deg. each way--about the same as
+naval guns used during the Civil War. If one quoin was not enough to
+secure proper depression, a block or a second quoin was placed below
+the first. But before the gunner depressed a smoothbore below zero
+elevation, he had to put either a wad or a grommet over the ball to
+keep it from rolling out.
+
+Ship and garrison cannon were not moved around on their carriages. If
+the gun had to be taken any distance, it was dismounted and chained
+under a sling wagon or on a "block carriage," the big wheels of which
+easily rolled over difficult terrain. It was not hard to dismount a
+gun: the keys locking the cap squares were removed, and then the gin
+was rigged and the gun hoisted clear of the carriage.
+
+A typical garrison or ship cannon could fire any kind of projectile,
+but solid shot, hot shot, bombs, grape, and canister were in widest
+use. These guns were flat trajectory weapons, with a point-blank range
+of about 300 yards. They were effective--that is, fairly accurate--up
+to about half a mile, although the maximum range of guns like the
+Columbiad of the nineteenth century, when elevation was not restricted
+by gun port confines, approached the 4-mile range claimed by the
+Spanish for the sixteenth century culverin. The following ranges of
+United States ordnance in the 1800's are not far different from
+comparable guns of earlier date.
+
+_Ranges of United States smoothbore garrison guns of 1861_
+
+           Caliber                    Elevation    Range in yards
+
+  18-pounder siege and garrison        5 deg. 0"          1,592
+  24-pounder siege and garrison        5 deg. 0"          1,901
+  32-pounder seacoast                  5 deg. 0"          1,922
+  42-pounder seacoast                  5 deg. 0"          1,955
+  8-inch Columbiad                    27 deg.30"          4,812
+  10-inch Columbiad                   39 deg.15"          5,654
+  12-inch Columbiad                   39 deg. 0"          5,506
+
+_Ranges of United States naval smoothbores of 1866_
+
+  Caliber                 Point-blank range    Elevation   Range in yards
+                              in yards
+  32-pounder of 42 cwt         313                 5 deg.         1,756
+  8-inch of 63 cwt             330                 5 deg.         1,770
+  IX-inch shell gun            350                15 deg.         3,450
+  X-inch shell gun             340                11 deg.         3,000
+  XI-inch shell gun            295                15 deg.         2,650
+  XV-inch shell gun            300                 7 deg.         2,100
+
+_Ranges of United States naval rifles in 1866_
+
+  Caliber                      Elevation          Range in yards
+
+  20-pounder Parrott              15 deg.                4,400
+  30-pounder Parrott              25 deg.                6,700
+  100-pounder Parrott             25 deg.                7,180
+
+In accuracy and range the rifle of the 1860's far surpassed the
+smoothbores, but such tremendous advances were made in the next few
+decades with the introduction of new propellants and steel guns that
+the performances of the old rifles no longer seem remarkable. In the
+eighteenth century, a 24-pounder smoothbore could develop a muzzle
+velocity of about 1,700 feet per second. The 12-inch rifled cannon of
+the late 1800's had a muzzle velocity of 2,300 foot-seconds. In 1900,
+the Secretary of the Navy proudly reported that the new 12-inch guns
+for _Maine_-class battleships produced a muzzle velocity of 2,854
+foot-seconds, using an 850-pound projectile and a charge of 360 pounds
+of smokeless powder. Such statistics elicit a chuckle from today's
+artilleryman.
+
+
+SIEGE CANNON
+
+Field counterpart of the garrison cannon was the siege gun--the
+"battering cannon" of the old days, mounted upon a two-wheeled siege
+or "traveling" carriage that could be moved about in field terrain.
+Whereas the purpose of the garrison cannon was to destroy the attacker
+and his materiel, the siege cannon was intended to destroy the fort.
+Calibers ranged from 3- to 42-pounders in eighteenth century English
+tables, but the 18- and 24-pounders seem to have been the most widely
+used for siege operations.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 32--SPANISH EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SIEGE CARRIAGE.]
+
+The siege carriage closely resembled the field gun carriage, but was
+much more massive, as may be seen from these comparative figures drawn
+from eighteenth century English specifications:
+
+    24-pounder                                      24-pounder
+  field carriage                                siege carriage
+
+    9 feet long         Length of cheek               13 feet.
+    4.5 inches          Thickness of cheek         5.8 inches.
+    50 inches           Wheel diameter              58 inches.
+    6x8x68 inches       Axletree                7x9x81 inches.
+
+Heavy siege guns were elevated with quoins, and elevation was
+restricted to 12 deg. or less, which was about the same as United States
+siege carriages permitted in 1861. It was considered ample for these
+flat trajectory pieces.
+
+Both field and siege carriages were pulled over long distances by
+lifting the trail to a horse-or ox-drawn limber; a hole in the trail
+transom seated on an iron bolt or pintle on the two-wheeled limber.
+Some late eighteenth century field and siege carriages had a second
+pair of trunnion holes a couple of feet back from the regular holes,
+and the cannon was shifted to the rear holes where the weight was
+better distributed for traveling. The United States siege carriage of
+the 1860's had no extra trunnion holes, but a "traveling bed" was
+provided where the gun was cradled in position 2 or 3 feet back of its
+firing position. A well-drilled gun crew could make the shift very
+rapidly, using a lifting jack, a few rollers, blocks, and chocks. When
+there was danger of straining or breaking the gun carriage, however,
+massive block carriages, sling carts, or wagons were used to carry the
+guns.
+
+Sling wagons were of necessity used for transport in siege operations
+when the guns were to be mounted on barbette (traversing platform)
+carriages (fig. 10). Emplacing the barbette carriage called for
+construction of a massive, level subplatform, but it also eliminated
+the old need for the gunner to chalk the location of his wheels in
+order to return his gun to the proper firing position after each shot.
+
+The Federal sieges of Forts Pulaski and Sumter were highly complicated
+engineering operations that involved landing tremendously heavy
+ordnance (the 300-pounder Parrott weighed 13 tons) through the surf,
+moving the big guns over very difficult terrain and, in some cases,
+building roads over the marshes and driving foundation piles for the
+gun emplacements.
+
+The heavy caliber Parrotts trained on Fort Sumter were in batteries
+from 1,750 to 4,290 yards distant from their target. They were very
+accurate, but their endurance was an uncertain factor. The notorious
+"Swamp Angel," for instance, burst after 36 rounds.
+
+
+FIELD CANNON
+
+[Illustration: Figure 33--SPANISH 4-POUNDER FIELD CARRIAGE (c. 1788).
+This carriage, designed on the "new method," employed a handscrew
+instead of a wedge for elevating the piece, a--The handspike was
+inserted through eyebolts in the trail, b--The ammunition locker held
+the cartridges.]
+
+The field guns were the mobile pieces that could travel with the army
+and be brought quickly into firing position. They were lighter in
+weight than any other type of flat trajectory weapon. To achieve this
+lightness the designers had not only shortened the guns, but thinned
+down the bore walls. In the eighteenth century, calibers ran from the
+3- to the 24-pounder, mounted on comparatively light, two-wheeled
+carriages. In addition, there was the 1-1/2-pounder (and sometimes the
+light 3- or 6-pounder) on a "galloper" carriage--a vehicle with its
+trail shaped into shafts for the horse. The elevating-screw mechanism
+was early developed for field guns, although the heavier pieces like
+the 18- and 24-pounders were still elevated by quoins as late as the
+early 1800's.
+
+In the Castillo collection are parts of early United States field
+carriages little different from Spanish carriages that held a score of
+4-pounders in the long, continuous earthwork parapet surrounding St.
+Augustine in the eighteenth century. The Spanish mounts were a little
+more complicated in construction than English or American carriages,
+but not much. Spanish pyramid-headed nails for securing ironwork were
+not far different from the diamond-and rose-headed nails of the
+English artificer.
+
+Each piece of hardware on the carriage had its purpose. Gunner's tools
+were laid in hooks on the cheeks. There were bolts and rings for the
+lines when the gun had to be moved by manpower in the field. On the
+trail transom, pintle plates rimmed the hole that went over the pintle
+on the limber. Iron reinforced the carriage at weak points or where
+the wood was subject to wear. Iron axletrees were common by the late
+1700's.
+
+For training the field gun, the crew used a special handspike quite
+different from the garrison handspike. It was a long, round staff,
+with an iron handle bolted to its head (fig. 33a). The trail transom
+of the carriage held two eyebolts, into which the foot of the spike
+was inserted. A lug fitted into an offset in the larger eyebolt so
+that the spike could not twist. With the handspike socketed in the
+eyebolts, lifting the trail and laying the gun was easy.
+
+The single-trail carriage (fig. 13) used so much during the middle
+1800's was a remarkable simplification of carriage design. It was also
+essential for guns like the Parrott rifles, since the thick reinforce
+on the breech of an otherwise slender barrel would not fit the older
+twin-trail carriage. The single, solid "stock" or trail eliminated
+transoms, for to the sides of the stock itself were bolted short, high
+cheeks, humped like a camel to cradle the gun so high that great
+latitude in elevation was possible. The elevating screw was threaded
+through a nut in the stock, right under the big reinforce of the gun.
+
+While the larger bore siege Parrotts were not noted for long
+serviceability, Parrott field rifles had very high endurance. As for
+performance, see the following table:
+
+_Ranges of Parrott field rifles (1863)_
+
+  Caliber Weight   Type of     Projectile  Elevation  Range  Smoothbore
+          of gun   projectile  weight                        of same
+          (pounds)             (pounds)                      caliber
+
+  10-pounder 890   Shell       9.75        5 deg.         2,000  3-pounder.
+                    do         9.75       20 deg.         5,000
+  20-pounder 1,750  do        18.75        5 deg.         2,100  6-pounder.
+                    do        18.75       15 deg.         4,400
+  30-pounder 4,200  do        29.00       15 deg.         4,800  9-pounder.
+                    do        29.00       25 deg.         6,700
+                  Long shell 101.00       15 deg.         4,790
+                    do       101.00       25 deg.         6,820
+                  Hollow shot 80.00       25 deg.         7,180
+                    do        80.00       35 deg.         8,453
+
+Amazingly enough, these ranges were obtained with about the same
+amount of powder used for the smoothbores of similar caliber: the
+10-pounder Parrott used only a pound of powder; the 20-pounder used a
+two-pound charge; and the 30-pounder, 3-1/4 pounds!
+
+
+HOWITZERS
+
+The howitzer was invented by the Dutch in the seventeenth century to
+throw larger projectiles (usually bombs) than could the field pieces,
+in a high trajectory similar to the mortar, but from a lighter and
+more mobile weapon. The wide-purpose efficiency of the howitzer was
+appreciated almost at once, and it was soon adopted by all European
+armies. The weapon owed its mobility to a rugged, two-wheeled carriage
+like a field carriage, but with a relatively short trail that
+permitted the wide arc of elevation needed for this weapon.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 34--SPANISH 6-INCH HOWITZER (1759-88). This
+bronze piece was founded during the reign of Charles III and bears his
+shield. a--Dolphin, or handle, b--Bore, c--Powder chamber.]
+
+English howitzers of the 1750's were of three calibers: 5.8-, 8-, and
+10-inch, but the 10-incher was so heavy (some 50 inches long and over
+3,500 pounds) that it was quickly discarded. Mueller deplored the
+superfluous weight of these pieces and developed 6-, 8-, 10, and
+13-inch howitzers in which, by a more calculated distribution of the
+metal, he achieved much lighter weapons. Mueller's howitzers survived
+in the early 6- to 10-inch pieces of United States artillery and one
+fine little 24-pounder of the late eighteenth century happens to be
+among the armament of Castillo de San Marcos, along with some early
+nineteenth century howitzers. The British, incidentally, were the
+first to bring this type gun to Florida. None appeared on the Castillo
+inventory until the 1760's.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 35--ENGLISH 8-INCH "HOWITZ" CARRIAGE (1756). The
+short trail enabled greater latitude in elevating the howitzer.]
+
+In addition to the very light and therefore easily portable mountain
+howitzer used for Indian warfare, United States artillery of 1850
+included 12-, 24-, and 32-pounder field, 24-pounder and 8-inch siege
+and garrison, and the 10-inch seacoast howitzer. The Navy had a
+12-pounder heavy and a 24-pounder, to which were added the 12- and
+24-pounder Dahlgren rifled howitzers of the Civil War period. Such
+guns were often used in landing operations. The following table gives
+some typical ranges:
+
+_Ranges of U. S. Howitzers in the 1860's_
+
+  Caliber                      Elevation               Range in yards
+
+  10-inch seacoast                   5 deg.                   1,650
+  8-inch siege                      12 deg.30'                2,280
+  24-pounder naval                   5 deg.                   1,270
+  12-pounder heavy naval             5 deg.                   1,085
+  20-pounder Dahlgren rifled         5 deg.                   1,960
+  12-pounder Dahlgren rifled         5 deg.                   1,770
+
+[Illustration: Figure 36--ENGLISH MORTAR ON ELEVATING BED (1740).]
+
+From earliest times the usefulness of the mortar as an arm of the
+artillery has been clearly recognized. Up until the 1800's the weapon
+was usually made of bronze, and many mortars had a fixed elevation of
+45 deg., which in the sixteenth century was thought to be the proper
+elevation for maximum range of any cannon. In the 1750's Mueller
+complained of the stupidity of English artillerists in continuing to
+use fixed-elevation mortars, and the Spanish made a _mortero de
+plancha_, or "plate" mortar (fig. 37), as late as 1788. Range for such
+a fixed-elevation weapon was varied by using more or less powder, as
+the case required. But the most useful mortar, of course, had
+trunnions and adjustable elevation by means of quoins.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 37--SPANISH 5-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1788).]
+
+The mortar was mounted on a "bed"--a pair of wooden cheeks held
+together by transoms. Since a bed had no wheels, the piece was
+transported on a mortar wagon or sling cart. In the battery, the
+mortar was generally bedded upon a level wooden platform; aboard ship,
+it was a revolving platform, so that the piece could be quickly aimed
+right or left. The mortar's weight, plus the high angle of elevation,
+kept it pretty well in place when it was fired, although English
+artillerists took the additional precaution of lashing it down.
+
+The mortar did not use a wad, because a wad prevented the fuze of the
+shell from igniting. To the layman, it may seem strange that the shell
+was never loaded with the fuze toward the powder charge of the gun.
+But the fuze was always toward the muzzle and away from the blast, a
+practice which dated from the early days when mortars were discharged
+by "double firing": the gunner lit the fuze of the shell with one hand
+and the priming of the mortar with the other. Not until the late
+1600's did the method of letting the powder blast ignite the fuze
+become general. It was a change that greatly simplified the use of the
+arm and, no doubt, caused the mortarman to heave a sigh of relief.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 38--SPANISH 10-INCH BRONZE MORTAR (1759-88).
+a--Dolphin, or handle, b--Bore, c--Powder chamber.]
+
+Most mortars were equipped with dolphins, either singly or in pairs,
+which were used for lifting the weapon onto its bed. Often there was a
+little bracketed cup--a priming pan--under the vent, a handy gadget
+that saved spilling a lot of powder at the almost vertical breech. As
+with other bronze cannon, mortars were embellished with shields,
+scrolls, names, and other decoration.
+
+About 1750, the French mortar had a bore length 1-1/2 diameters of the
+shell; in England, the bore was 2 diameters for the smaller calibers
+and 3 for the 10- and 13-inchers. The extra length added a great deal
+of weight to the English mortars: the 13-inch weighed 25
+hundredweight, while the French equivalent weighed only about half
+that much. Mueller complained that mortar designers slavishly copied
+what they saw in other guns. For instance, he said, the reinforce was
+unnecessary; it "... overloads the Mortar with a heap of useless
+metal, and that in a place where the least strength is required, yet
+as if this unnecessary metal was not sufficient, they add a great
+projection at the mouth, which serves to no other purpose than to make
+the Mortar top-heavy. The mouldings are likewise jumbled together,
+without any taste or method, tho' they are taken from architecture."
+Field mortars in use during Mueller's time included 4.6-, 5.8-, 8-,
+10-, and 13-inch "land" mortars and 10- and 13-inch "sea" mortars.
+Mueller, of course, redesigned them.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 39--COEHORN MORTAR. The British General
+Oglethorpe used 20 coehorns in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine.
+These small mortars were also used extensively during the War Between
+the States.]
+
+The small mortars called coehorns (fig. 39) were invented by the famed
+Dutch military engineer, Baron van Menno Coehoorn, and used by him in
+1673 to the great discomfit of French garrisons. Oglethorpe had many
+of them in his 1740 bombardment of St. Augustine when the Spanish,
+trying to translate coehorn into their own tongue, called them
+_cuernos de vaca_--"cow horns." They continued in use through the U.
+S. Civil War, and some of them may still be seen in the battlefield
+parks today.
+
+Bombs and carcasses were usual for mortar firing, but stone
+projectiles remained in use as late as 1800 for the pedrero class
+(fig. 43). Mortar projectiles were quite formidable; even in the
+sixteenth century missiles weighing 100 or more pounds were not
+uncommon, and the 13-inch mortar of 1860 fired a 200-pound shell. The
+larger projectiles had to be whipped up to the muzzle with block and
+tackle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 40--THE "DICTATOR." This huge 13-inch mortar was
+used by the Federal artillery in the bombardment of Petersburg, Va.,
+1864-65.]
+
+In the last century, the bronze mortars metamorphosed into the great
+cast-iron mortars, such as "The Dictator," that mammoth Federal piece
+used against Petersburg, Va. Wrought-iron beds with a pair of rollers
+were built for them. In spite of their high trajectory, mortars could
+range well over a mile, as witness these figures for United States
+mortars of the 1860's, firing at 45 deg. elevation:
+
+_Ranges of U. S. Mortars in 1861_
+
+  Caliber              Projectile       Range
+                     weight (pounds)  (yards)
+
+  8-inch siege           45            1,837
+  10-inch siege          90            2,100
+  12-inch seacoast      200            4,625
+  13-inch seacoast      200            4,325
+
+At the siege of Fort Pulaski in 1862, however, General Gillmore
+complained that the mortars were highly inaccurate at mile-long range.
+On this point, John Mueller would have nodded his head emphatically. A
+hundred years before Gillmore's complaint, Mueller had argued that a
+range of something less than 1,500 yards was ample for mortars or, for
+that matter, all guns. "When the ranges are greater," said Mueller,
+"they are so uncertain, and it is so difficult to judge how far the
+shell falls short, or exceeds the distance of the object, that it
+serves to no other purpose than to throw away the Powder and shell,
+without being able to do any execution."
+
+
+PETARDS
+
+"Hoist with his own petard," an ancient phrase signifying that one's
+carefully laid scheme has exploded, had truly graphic meaning in the
+old days when everybody knew what a petard was. Since the petard fired
+no projectile, it was hardly a gun. Roughly speaking, it was nothing
+but an iron bucket full of gunpowder. The petardier would hang it on a
+gate, something like hanging your hat on a nail, and blast the gate
+open by firing the charge.
+
+Small petards weighed about 50 pounds; the large ones, around 70
+pounds. They had to be heavy enough to be effective, yet light enough
+for a couple of men to lift up handily and hang on the target. The
+bucket part was packed full of the powder mixture, then a
+2-1/2-inch-thick board was bolted to the rim in order to keep the
+powder in and the air out. An iron tube fuze was screwed into a small
+hole in the back or side of the weapon. When all was ready, the
+petardiers seized the two handles of the petard and carried it to the
+troublesome door. Here they set a screw, hung the explosive instrument
+upon it, lit the fuze, and "retired."
+
+Petards were used frequently in King William's War of the 1680's to
+force the gates of small German towns. But on a well-barred, double
+gate the small petard was useless, and the great petard would break
+only the fore part of such a gate. Furthermore, as one would guess,
+hanging a petard was a hazardous occupation; it went out of style in
+the early 1700's.
+
+
+
+
+PROJECTILES
+
+
+There are four different types of artillery projectiles which, in one
+form or another, have been used since very early times:
+
+  (1) Battering projectiles (solid shot).
+  (2) Exploding shells.
+  (3) Scatter shot (case or canister, grape, shrapnel).
+  (4) Incendiary and chemical projectiles.
+
+
+SOLID SHOT
+
+At Havana, Cuba, in the early days, there was an abundance of round
+stones lying around, put there by Mother Nature. Artillerists at
+Havana never lacked projectiles. Stone balls, cheap to manufacture,
+relatively light and therefore well suited to the feeble construction
+of early ordnance, were in general use for large caliber cannon in the
+fourteenth century. There were experiments along other lines such as
+those at Tournay in the 1330's with long, pointed projectiles.
+Lead-coated stones were fairly popular, and solid lead balls were used
+in some small pieces, but the stone ball was more or less standard.
+
+Cast-iron shot had been introduced by 1400, and, with the improvement
+of cannon during that century, iron shot gradually replaced stone. By
+the end of the 1500's stone survived for use only in the pedreros,
+murtherers, and other relics of the earlier period. Iron shot for the
+smoothbore was a solid, round shot, cast in fairly accurate molds; the
+mold marks that invariably show on all cannonballs were of small
+importance, for the ball did not fit the bore tightly. After casting,
+shot were checked with a ring gauge (fig. 41)--a hoop through which
+each ball had to pass. The Spanish term for this tool is very
+descriptive: _pasabala_, "ball-passer."
+
+Shot was used mainly in the flat-trajectory cannon. The small caliber
+guns fired nothing but shot, for small sizes of the other type
+projectiles were not effective. Shot was the prescription when the
+situation called for "great accuracy, at very long range," and
+penetration. Fired at ships, a shot was capable of breaching the
+planks (at 100-yard range a 24-pounder shot would penetrate 4-1/2 feet
+of "sound and hard" oak). With a fair aim at the waterline, a gunner
+could sink or seriously damage a vessel with a few rounds. On ironclad
+targets like the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_, however, round shot did
+little more than bounce; it took the long, armor-piercing rifle
+projectile to force the development of the tremendously thick plate of
+modern times.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 41--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILES. (Not to
+scale.)]
+
+Round shot was very useful for knocking out enemy batteries. The
+gunner put his cannon on the flank of the hostile guns and used
+ricochet firing so that the ball, just clearing the defense wall,
+would bounce among the enemy guns, wound the crews, and break the gun
+carriages. In the destruction of fort walls, shot was essential. After
+dismounting the enemy pieces, the siege guns moved close enough to
+batter down the walls. The procedure was not as haphazard as it
+sounds. Cannon were brought as close as possible to the target, and
+the gunner literally cut out a low section with gunfire so that the
+wall above tumbled down into the moat and made a ramp right up to the
+breach. Firing at the upper part of the wall defeated its own purpose,
+for the rubble brought down only protected the foundation area, and
+the breach was so high that assault troops had to use ladders.
+
+The most effective bombardment of Castillo de San Marcos occurred
+during the 1740 siege, and shot did the most damage. The heaviest
+English siege cannon were 18-pounders, over 1,000 yards from the fort.
+Spanish Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano reported that the balls did not
+penetrate the massive main walls more than a foot and a half, but the
+parapets, being only 3 feet thick, suffered considerable damage. Some
+of the old parapets, Engineer Ruiz said, "have been demolished, and
+the new ones have suffered very much owing to their recent
+construction." (He meant that the new mortar had not sufficiently
+hardened.) Ruiz was not deceived about what would happen if hostile
+batteries were able to get closer; in such case, he thought, the enemy
+"will no doubt succeed in destroying the parapets and dismounting the
+guns."
+
+Variations of round shot were bar shot and chain shot (fig. 41), two
+or more projectiles linked together for simultaneous firing. Bar shot
+appears in a Castillo inventory of 1706, and like chain shot, was for
+specialized work like cutting a ship's rigging. There is one
+apocryphal tale, however, about an experiment with chain shot as
+anti-personnel missiles: instead of charging a single cannon with the
+two balls, two guns were used, side by side. The ball in one gun was
+chained to the ball in the other. The projectiles were to fly forth,
+stretching the long chain between them, mowing down a sizeable segment
+of the enemy. Instead, the chain wrapped the gun crews in a murderous
+embrace; one gun had fired late.
+
+
+EXPLOSIVE SHELLS
+
+The word "bomb" comes to us from the French, who derived it from the
+Latin. But the Romans got it originally from the Greek _bombos_,
+meaning a deep, hollow sound. "Bombard" is a derivation. Today bomb is
+pronounced "balm," but in the early days it was commonly pronounced
+"bum." The modern equivalent of the "bum" is an HE shell.
+
+The first recorded use of explosive shells was by the Venetians in
+1376. Their bombs were hemispheres of stone or bronze, joined together
+with hoops and exploded by means of a primitive powder fuze. Shells
+filled with explosive or incendiary mixtures were standard for
+mortars, after 1550, but they did not come into general use for
+flat-trajectory weapons until early in the nineteenth century,
+whereafter the term "shell" gradually won out over "bomb."
+
+In any event, this projectile was one of the most effective ever used
+in the smoothbore against earthworks, buildings, and for general
+bombardment. A delayed action shell, diabolically timed to roll
+amongst the ranks with its fuze burning, was calculated to "disorder
+the stoutest men," since they could not know at what awful instant the
+bomb would burst.
+
+A bombshell was simply a hollow, cast-iron sphere. It had a single
+hole where the powder was funneled in--full, but not enough to pack
+too tightly when the fuze was driven in. Until the 1800's, the larger
+bombs were not always smooth spheres, but had either a projecting
+neck, or collar, for the fuze hole or a pair of rings at each side of
+the hole for easier handling (fig. 41). In later years, however, such
+projections were replaced by two "ears," little recesses beside the
+fuze hole. A pair of tongs (something like ice tongs) seized the shell
+by the ears and lifted it up to the gun bore.
+
+During most of the eighteenth century, shells were cast thicker at the
+base than at the fuze hole on the theory that they were (1) better
+able to resist the shock of firing from the cannon and (2) more likely
+to fall with the heavy part underneath, leaving the fuze uppermost and
+less liable to extinguishment. Mueller scoffed at the idea of
+"choaking" a fuze, which, he said, burnt as well in water as in any
+other element. Furthermore, he preferred to use shells "everywhere
+equally thick, because they would then burst into a greater number of
+pieces." In later years, the shells were scored on the interior to
+ensure their breaking into many fragments.
+
+
+FUZES
+
+[Illustration: Figure 42--NINETEENTH CENTURY PROJECTILE FUZES.
+a--Cross-section of Bormann fuze, b--Top of Bormann fuze, c--Wooden
+fuze for spherical shell, d--Wood-and-paper fuze for spherical shell,
+e--Percussion fuze.]
+
+The eighteenth century fuze was a wooden tube several inches long,
+with a powder composition tamped into its hole much like the
+nineteenth century fuze (fig. 42c). The hole was only a quarter of an
+inch in diameter, but the head of the fuze was hollowed out like a
+cup, and "mealed" (fine) powder, moistened with "spirits of wine"
+(alcohol), was pressed into the hollow to make a larger igniting
+surface. To time the fuze, a cannoneer cut the cylinder at the proper
+length with his fuze-saw, or drilled a small hole (G) where the fire
+could flash out at the right time. Some English fuzes at this period
+were also made by drawing two strands of a quick match into the hole,
+instead of filling it with powder composition. The ends of the match
+were crossed into a sort of rosette at the head of the fuze. Paper
+caps to protect the powder composition covered the heads of these
+fuzes and had to be removed before the shell was put into the gun.
+
+Bombs were not filled with powder very long before use, and fuzes were
+not put into the projectiles until the time of firing. To force the
+fuze into the hole of the shell, the cannoneer covered the fuze head
+with tow, put a fuze-setter on it, and hammered the setter with a
+mallet, "drifting" the fuze until the head stuck out of the shell only
+2/10 of an inch. If the fuze had to be withdrawn, there was a fuze
+extractor for the job. This tool gripped the fuze head tightly, and
+turning a screw slowly pulled out the fuze.
+
+Wooden tube fuzes were used almost as long as the spherical shell. A
+United States 12-inch mortar fuze (fig. 42c), 7 inches long and
+burning 49 seconds, was much like the earlier fuze. During the 1800's,
+however, other types came into wide use.
+
+The conical paper-case fuze (fig. 42d), inserted in a metal or wooden
+plug that fitted the fuze hole, contained composition whose rate of
+burning was shown by the color of the paper. A black fuze burned an
+inch every 2 seconds. Red burned 3 seconds, green 4, and yellow 5
+seconds per inch. Paper fuzes were 2 inches long, and could be cut
+shorter if necessary. Since firing a shell from a 24-pounder to burst
+at 2,000 yards meant a time flight of 6 seconds, a red fuze would
+serve without cutting, or a green fuze could be cut to 1-1/2 inches.
+Sea-coast fuzes of similar type were used in the 15-inch Rodmans until
+these big smoothbores were finally discarded sometime after 1900.
+
+The Bormann fuze (fig. 42a), the quickest of the oldtimers to set, was
+used for many years by the U. S. Field Artillery in spherical shell
+and shrapnel. Its pewter case, which screwed into the shell, contained
+a time ring of powder composition (A). Over this ring the top of the
+fuze case was marked in seconds. To set the fuze, the gunner merely
+had to cut the case at the proper mark--at four for 4 seconds, three
+for 3 seconds, and so on--to expose the ring of powder to the powder
+blast of the gun. The ring burned until it reached the zero end and
+set off the fine powder in the center of the case; the powder flash
+then blew out a tin plate in the bottom of the fuze and ignited the
+shell charge. Its short burning time (about 6 seconds) made the
+Bormann fuze obsolete as field gun ranges increased. The main trouble
+with this fuze, however, was that it did not always ignite!
+
+The percussion fuze was an extremely important development of the
+nineteenth century, particularly for the long-range rifles. The shock
+of impact caused this fuze to explode the shell at almost the instant
+of striking. Percussion fuzes were made in two general types: the
+front fuze, for the nose of an elongated projectile; and the base
+fuze, at the center of the projectile base. The base fuze was used
+with armor-piercing projectiles where it was desirable to have the
+shell penetrate the target for some distance before bursting. Both
+types were built on the same principles.
+
+A Hotchkiss front percussion fuze (fig. 42e) had a brass case which
+screwed into the shell. Inside the case was a plunger (A) containing a
+priming charge of powder, topped with a cap of fulminate. A brass wire
+at the base of the plunger was a safety device to keep the cap away
+from a sharp point at the top of the fuze until the shell struck the
+target. When the gun was fired, the shock of discharge dropped a lead
+plug (B) from the base of the fuze into the projectile cavity,
+permitting the plunger to drop to the bottom of the fuze and rest
+there, held by the spread wire, while the shell was in flight. Upon
+impact, the plunger was thrown forward, the cap struck the point and
+ignited the priming charge, which in turn fired the bursting charge of
+the shell.
+
+
+SCATTER PROJECTILES
+
+When one of our progenitors wrathfully seized a handful of pebbles and
+flung them at the flock of birds in his garden, he discovered the
+principle of the scatter projectile. Perhaps its simplest application
+was in the stone mortar (fig. 43). For this weapon, round stones about
+the size of a man's fist (and, by 1750, hand grenades) were dumped
+into a two-handled basket and let down into the bore. This primitive
+charge was used at close range against personnel in a fortification,
+where the effect of the descending projectiles would be uncommonly
+like a short but severe barrage of over-sized hailstones. There were
+6,000 stones in the ammunition inventory for Castillo de San Marcos in
+1707.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 43--SPANISH 16-INCH PEDRERO (1788). This mortar
+fired baskets of stones.]
+
+One of the earliest kinds of scatter projectiles was case shot, or
+canister, used at Constantinople in 1453. The name comes from its
+case, or can, usually metal, which was filled with scrap, musket
+balls, or slugs (fig. 41). Somewhat similar, but with larger iron
+balls and no metal case, was grape shot, so-called from the grape-like
+appearance of the clustered balls. A stand of grape in the 1700's
+consisted of a wooden disk at the base of a short wooden rod that
+served as the core around which the balls stood (fig. 41). The whole
+assembly was bagged in cloth and reinforced with a net of heavy cord.
+In later years grape was made by bagging two or three tiers of balls,
+each tier separated by an iron disk. Grape could disable men at almost
+900 yards and was much used during the 1700's. Eventually, it was
+almost replaced by case shot, which was more effective at shorter
+ranges (400 to 700 yards). Incidentally, there were 2,000 sacks of
+grape at the Castillo in 1740, more than any other type projectile.
+
+Spherical case shot (fig. 41) was an attempt to carry the
+effectiveness of grape and canister beyond its previous range, by
+means of a bursting shell. It was the forerunner of the shrapnel used
+so much in World War I and was invented by Lt. Henry Shrapnel, of the
+British Army, in 1784. There had been previous attempts to produce a
+projectile of this kind, such as the German Zimmerman's "hail shot" of
+1573--case shot with a bursting charge and a primitive time fuze--but
+Shrapnel's invention was the first air-bursting case shot which, in
+technical words, "imparted directional velocity" to the bullets it
+contained. Shrapnel's new shell was first used against the French in
+1808, but was not called by its inventor's name until 1852.
+
+
+INCENDIARIES AND CHEMICAL PROJECTILES
+
+Incendiary missiles, such as buckets or barrels filled with a fiercely
+burning composition, had been used from earliest times, long before
+cannon. These crude incendiaries survived through the 1700's as, for
+instance, the flaming cargoes of fire ships that were sent amidst the
+enemy fleet. But in the year 1672 there appeared an iron shell called
+a carcass (fig. 41), filled with pitch and other materials that burned
+at intense heat for about 8 minutes. The flame escaped through vents,
+three to five in number, around the fuze hole of the shell. The
+carcass was standard ammunition until smoothbores went out of use. The
+United States ordnance manual of 1861 lists carcasses for 12-, 18-,
+24-, 32-, and 42-pounder guns as well as 8-, 10-, and 13-inch mortars.
+
+During the late 1500's, the heating of iron cannon balls to serve as
+incendiaries was suggested, but not for another 200 years was the idea
+successfully carried out. Hot shot was nothing but round shot, heated
+to a red glow over a grate or in a furnace. It was fired from cannon
+at such inflammable targets as wooden ships or powder magazines.
+During the siege of Gibraltar in 1782, the English fired and destroyed
+a part of Spain's fleet with hot shot; and in United States seacoast
+forts shot furnaces were standard equipment during the first half of
+the 1800's. The little shot furnace at Castillo de San Marcos National
+Monument was built during the 1840's; a giant furnace of 1862 still
+remains at Fort Jefferson National Monument. Few other examples are
+left.
+
+Loading hot shot was not particularly dangerous. After the powder
+charge was in the gun with a dry wad in front of it, another wad of
+wet straw, or clay, was put into the barrel. When the cherry-red shot
+was rammed home, the wet wad prevented a premature explosion of the
+charge. According to the _Ordnance Manual_, the shot could cool in the
+gun without setting off the charge! Hot shot was superseded, about
+1850, by Martin's shell, filled with molten iron.
+
+The smoke shell appeared in 1681, but was never extensively used.
+Similarly, a form of gas projectile, called a "stink shell," was
+invented by a Confederate officer during the Civil War. Because of its
+"inhumanity," and probably because it was not thought valuable enough
+to offset its propaganda value to the enemy, it was not popular. These
+were the beginnings of the modern chemical shells.
+
+In connection with chemical warfare, it is of interest to review the
+Hussite siege of Castle Karlstein, near Prague, in the first quarter
+of the fifteenth century. The Hussites emplaced 46 small cannon, 5
+large cannon, and 5 catapults. The big guns would shoot once or twice
+a day, and the little ones from six to a dozen rounds.
+
+Marble pillars from Prague churches furnished the cannonballs. Many
+projectiles for the catapults, however, were rotting carcasses and
+other filth, hurled over the castle walls to cause disease and break
+the morale of the besieged. But the intrepid defenders neutralized
+these "chemical bursts" with lime and arsenic. After firing 10,930
+cannonballs, 932 stone fragments, 13 fire barrels, and 1,822 tons of
+filth, the Hussites gave up.
+
+
+FIXED AMMUNITION
+
+In early days, due partly to the roughly made balls, wads were very
+important as a means of confining the powder and increasing its
+efficiency. Wads could be made of almost any suitable material at
+hand, but perhaps straw or hay ones were most common. The hay was
+first twisted into a 1-inch rope, then a length of the rope was folded
+together several times and finally rolled up into a short cylinder, a
+little larger than the bore. After the handier sabots came into use,
+however, wads were needed only to keep the ball from rolling out when
+the muzzle was down, or for hot shot firing.
+
+Gunners early began to consolidate ammunition for easier and quicker
+loading. For instance, after the powder charge was placed in a bag,
+the next logical step was to attach the wad and the cannonball to it,
+so that loading could be made in one simple operation--pushing the
+single round into the bore (fig. 48). Toward that end, the sabot or
+"shoe" (fig. 41) took the place of the wad. The sabot was a wooden
+disk about the same diameter as the shot. It was secured to the ball
+with a pair of metal straps to make "semi-fixed" ammunition; then, if
+the neck of the powder bag were tied around the sabot, the result was
+one cartridge, containing powder, sabot, and ball, called "fixed"
+ammunition. Fixed ammunition was usual for the lighter field pieces by
+the end of the 1700's, while the bigger guns used "semi-fixed."
+
+In transportation, cartridges were protected by cylinders and caps of
+strong paper. Sabots were sometimes made of paper, too, or of
+compressed wood chips, to eliminate the danger of a heavy, unbroken
+sabot falling amongst friendly troops. A big mortar sabot was a lethal
+projectile in itself!
+
+
+ROCKETS
+
+Today's rocket projectiles are not exactly new inventions. About the
+time of artillery's beginning, the military fireworker came into the
+business of providing pyrotechnic engines of war; later, his job
+included the spectacular fireworks that were set off in celebration of
+victory or peace.
+
+Artillery manuals of very early date include chapters on the
+manufacture and use of fireworks. But in making war rockets there was
+no marked progress until the late eighteenth century. About 1780, the
+British Army in India watched the Orientals use them; and within the
+next quarter century William Congreve, who set about the task of
+producing a rocket that would carry an incendiary or explosive charge
+as far as 2 miles, had achieved such promising results that English
+boats fired rocket salvos against Boulogne in 1806, The British Field
+Rocket Brigade used rockets effectively at Leipsic in 1812--the first
+time they appeared in European land warfare. They were used again 2
+years later at Waterloo. The warheads of such rockets were cast iron,
+filled with black powder and fitted with percussion fuzes. They were
+fired from trough-like launching stands, which were adjustable for
+elevation.
+
+Rockets seem to have had a demoralizing effect upon untrained troops,
+and perhaps their use by the English against raw American levies at
+Bladenburg, in 1814, contributed to the rout of the United States
+forces and the capture of Washington. They also helped to inspire
+Francis Scott Key. Whether or not he understands the technical
+characteristics of the rocket, every schoolboy remembers the "rocket's
+red glare" of the National Anthem, wherein Key recorded his eyewitness
+account of the bombardment of Fort McHenry. The U. S. Army in Mexico
+(1847) included a rocket battery, and, indeed, war rockets were an
+important part of artillery resources until the rapid progress of
+gunnery in the latter 1800's made them obsolescent.
+
+
+
+
+TOOLS
+
+
+Gunner's equipment was numerous. There were the tompion (a lid that
+fitted over the muzzle of the gun to keep wind and weather out of the
+bore) and the lead cover for the vent; water buckets for the sponges
+and passing boxes for the powder; scrapers and tools for "searching"
+the bore to find dangerous cracks or holes; chocks for the wheels;
+blocks and rollers, lifting jacks, and gins for moving guns; and
+drills and augers for clearing the vent (figs. 17, 44). But among the
+most important tools for everyday firing were the following:
+
+_The sponge_ was a wooden cylinder about a foot long, the same
+diameter as the shot, and covered with lambskin. Like all bore tools,
+it was mounted on a long staff; after being dampened with water, it
+was used for cleaning the bore of the piece after firing. Essentially,
+sponging made sure there were no sparks in the bore when the new
+charge was put in. Often the sponge was on the opposite end of the
+rammer, and sometimes, instead of being lambskin-covered, the sponge
+was a bristle brush.
+
+_The wormer_ was a double screw, something like a pair of intertwined
+corkscrews, fixed to a long handle. Inserted in the gun bore and
+twisted, it seized and drew out wads or the remains of cartridge bags
+stuck in the gun after firing. Worm screws were sometimes mounted in
+the head of the sponge, so that the piece could be sponged and wormed
+at the same time.
+
+_The ladle_ was the most important of all the gunner's tools in the
+early years, since it was not only the measure for the powder but the
+only way to dump the powder in the bore at the proper place. It was
+generally made of copper, the same gauge as the windage of the gun;
+that is, the copper was just thick enough to fit between ball and
+bore.
+
+Essentially, the ladle is merely a scoop, a metal cylinder secured to
+a wooden disk on a long staff. But before the introduction of the
+powder cartridge, cutting a ladle to the right size was one of the
+most important accomplishments a gunner had to learn. Collado, that
+Spanish mathematician of the sixteenth century, used the culverin
+ladle as the master pattern (fig. 45). It was 4-1/2 calibers long and
+would carry exactly the weight of the ball in powder. Ladles for
+lesser guns could be proportioned (that is, shortened) from the master
+pattern.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 44--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S EQUIPMENT. (Not
+to scale.)]
+
+The ladle full of powder was pushed home in the bore. Turning the
+handle dumped the charge, which then had to be packed with the rammer.
+As powder charges were lessened in later years, the ladle was
+shortened; by 1750, it was only three shot diameters long. With
+cartridges, the ladle was no longer needed for loading the gun, but it
+was still handy for withdrawing the round.
+
+_The rammer_ was a wooden cylinder about the same diameter and length
+as the shot. It pushed home the powder charge, the wad, and the shot.
+As a precaution against faulty or double loading, marks on the rammer
+handle showed the loaders when the different parts of the charge were
+properly seated.
+
+_The gunner's pick or priming wire_ was a sharp pointed tool
+resembling a common ice pick blade. It was used to clear the vent of
+the gun and to pierce the powder bag so that flame from the primer
+could ignite the charge.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 45--SIXTEENTH CENTURY PATTERN FOR GUNNER'S
+LADLE.]
+
+_Handspikes_ were big pinch bars to manhandle cannon. They were used
+to move the carriage and to lift the breech of the gun so that the
+elevating quoin or screw might be adjusted. They were of different
+types (figs. 33a, 44), but were essentially 6-foot-long wooden poles,
+shod with iron. Some of them, like the Marsilly handspike (fig. 11),
+had rollers at the toe so that the wheelless rear of the carriage
+could be lifted with the handspike and rolled with comparative ease.
+
+_The gunner's quadrant_ (fig. 46), invented by Tartaglia about 1545,
+was an aiming device so basic that its principle is still in use
+today. The instrument looked like a carpenter's square, with a
+quarter-circle connecting the two arms. From the angle of the square
+dangled a plumb bob. The gunner laid the long arm of the quadrant in
+the bore of the gun, and the line of the bob against the graduated
+quarter-circle showed the gun's angle of elevation.
+
+The addition of the quadrant to the art of artillery opened a whole
+new field for the mathematicians, who set about compiling long,
+complicated, and jealously guarded tables for the gunner's guidance.
+But the theory was simple: since a cannon at 45 deg. elevation would fire
+_ten_ times farther than it would when the barrel was level (at zero deg.
+elevation), the quadrant should be marked into _ten_ equal parts; the
+range of the gun would therefore increase by _one-tenth_ each time the
+gun was elevated to the next mark on the quadrant. In other words, the
+gunner could get the range he wanted simply by raising his piece to
+the proper mark on the instrument.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 46--SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S QUADRANT. The
+long end of the quadrant was laid in the bore of the cannon. The plumb
+bob indicated the degree of elevation on the scale.]
+
+Collado explained how it worked in the 1590's. "We experimented with a
+culverin that fired a 20-pound iron ball. At point-blank the first
+shot ranged 200 paces. At 45-degree elevation it shot ten times
+farther, or 2,000 paces.... If the point-blank range is 200 paces,
+then elevating to the _first_ position, or a tenth part of the
+quadrant, will gain 180 paces more, and advancing another point will
+gain so much again. It is the same with the other points up to the
+elevation of 45 degrees; each one gains the same 180 paces." Collado
+admitted that results were not always consistent with theory, but it
+was many years before the physicists understood the effect of air
+resistance on the trajectory of the projectile.
+
+_Sights_ on cannon were usually conspicuous by their absence in the
+early days. A dispart sight (an instrument similar to the modern
+infantry rifle sight), which compensated for the difference in
+diameter between the breech and the muzzle, was used in 1610, but the
+average artilleryman still aimed by sighting over the barrel. The
+Spanish gunner, however, performed an operation that put the bore
+parallel to the gunner's line of sight, and called it "killing the
+_vivo_" (_matar el vivo_). How _vivo_ affected aiming is easily seen:
+with its bore level, a 4-pounder falconet ranged 250 paces. But when
+the _top of the gun_ was level, the bore was slightly elevated and the
+range almost doubled to 440 paces.
+
+To "kill the _vivo_," you first had to find it. The gunner stuck his
+pick into the vent down to the bottom of the bore and marked the pick
+to show the depth. Next he took the pick to the muzzle, stood it up in
+the bore, and marked the height of the muzzle. The difference between
+the two marks, with an adjustment for the base ring (which was higher
+than the vent), was the _vivo_. A little wedge of the proper size,
+placed under the breech, would then eliminate the troublesome _vivo_.
+
+During the first half of the 1700's Spanish cannon of the "new
+invention" were made with a notch at the top of the base ring and a
+sighting button on the muzzle, and these features were also adopted by
+the French. But they soon went out of use. There was some argument, as
+late as the 1750's, about the desirability of casting the muzzle the
+same size as the base ring, so that the sighting line over the gun
+would always be parallel to the bore; but, since the gun usually had
+to be aimed higher than the objective, gunners claimed that a fat
+muzzle hid their target!
+
+[Illustration: Figure 47--SEVENTEENTH CENTURY GUNNER'S LEVEL. This
+tool was useful in many ways, but principally for finding the line of
+sight on the barrel of the gun.]
+
+Common practice for sighting, as late as the 1850's, was to find the
+center line at the top of the piece, mark it with chalk or filed
+notches, and use it as a sighting line. To find this center line, the
+gunner laid his level (fig. 47) first on the base ring, then on the
+muzzle. When the instrument was level atop these rings, the plumb bob
+was theoretically over the center line of the cannon. But guns were
+crudely made, and such a line on the outside of the piece was not
+likely to coincide exactly with the center line of the bore, so there
+was still ample opportunity for the gunner to exercise his "art."
+Nonetheless the marked lines did help, for the gunner learned by
+experiment how to compensate for errors.
+
+Fixed rear sights came into use early in the 1800's, and tangent
+sights (graduated rear sights) were in use during the War Between the
+States. The trunnion sight, a graduated sight attached to the
+trunnion, could be used when the muzzle had to be elevated so high
+that it blocked the gunner's view of the target.
+
+Naval gunnery officers would occasionally order all their guns trained
+at the same angle and elevated to the same degree. The gunner might
+not even see his target. While with the crude traversing mechanism of
+the early 1800's the gunners may not have laid their pieces too
+accurately, at least it was a step toward the indirect firing
+technique of later years which was to take full advantage of the
+longer ranges possible with modern cannon. Use of tangent and trunnion
+sights brought gunnery further into the realm of mathematical science;
+the telescopic sight came about the middle of the nineteenth century;
+gunners were developing into technicians whose job was merely to load
+the piece and set the instruments as instructed by officers in fire
+control posts some distance away from the gun.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRACTICE OF GUNNERY
+
+
+The old-time gunner was not only an artist, vastly superior to the
+average soldier, but, when circumstances permitted, he performed his
+wizardry with all due ceremony. Diego Ufano, Governor of Antwerp,
+watched a gun crew at work about 1500:
+
+"The piece having arrived at the battery and being provided with all
+needful materials, the gunner and his assistants take their places,
+and the drummer is to beat a roll. The gunner cleans the piece
+carefully with a dry rammer, and in pulling out the said rammer gives
+a dab or two to the mouth of the piece to remove any dirt adhering."
+(At this point it was customary to make the sign of the cross and
+invoke the intercession of St. Barbara.)
+
+"Then he has his assistant hold the sack, valise, or box of powder,
+and filling the charger level full, gives a slight movement with the
+other hand to remove any surplus, and then puts it into the gun as far
+as it will go. Which being done, he turns the charger so that the
+powder fills the breech and does not trail out on the ground, for when
+it takes fire there it is very annoying to the gunner." (And probably
+to the gentleman holding the sack.)
+
+"After this he will take the rammer, and, putting it into the gun,
+gives two or three good punches to ram the powder well in to the
+chamber, while his assistant holds a finger in the vent so that the
+powder does not leap forth. This done, he takes a second charge of
+powder and deposits it like the first; then puts in a wad of straw or
+rags which will be well packed to gather up all the loose powder. This
+having been well seated with strong blows of the rammer, he sponges
+out the piece.
+
+"Then the ball, well cleaned by his assistant, since there is danger
+to the gunner in balls to which sand or dirt adhere, is placed in the
+piece without forcing it till it touches gently on the wad, the gunner
+being careful not to hold himself in front of the gun, for it is silly
+to run danger without reason. Finally he will put in one more wad, and
+at another roll of drums the piece is ready to fire."
+
+Maximum firing rate for field pieces in the early days was eight
+rounds an hour. It increased later to 100 rounds a day for light guns
+and 30 for heavy pieces. (Modern non-automatic guns can fire 15
+rounds per minute.) After about 40 rounds the gun became so hot it was
+unsafe to load, whereupon it was "refreshed" with an hour's rest.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 48--LOADING A CANNON. Muzzle-loading smoothbore
+cannon were used for almost 700 years.]
+
+Approved aiming procedure was to make the first shot surely short, in
+order to have a measurement of the error. The second shot would be at
+greater elevation, but also cautiously short. After the third round,
+the gunner could hope to get hits. Beginners were cautioned against
+the desire to hit the target at the first shot, for, said a celebrated
+artillerist, "... you will get overs and cannot estimate how much
+over."
+
+As gunners gradually became professional soldiers, gun drills took on
+a more military aspect, as these seventeenth century commands show:
+
+  1. Put back your piece.
+  2. Order your piece to load.
+  3. Search your piece.
+  4. Sponge your piece.
+  5. Fill your ladle.
+  6. Put in your powder.
+  7. Empty your ladle.
+  8. Put up your powder.
+  9. Thrust home your wad.
+  10. Regard your shot.
+  11. Put home your shot gently.
+  12. Thrust home your wad with
+  three strokes.
+  13. Gauge your piece.
+
+Gunners had no trouble finding work, as is singularly illustrated by
+the case of Andrew Ransom, a stray Englishman captured near St.
+Augustine in the late 1600's. He was condemned to death. The
+executional device failed, however, and the padres in attendance took
+it as an act of God and led Ransom to sanctuary at the friary.
+Meanwhile, the Spanish governor learned this man was an artillerist
+and a maker of "artificial fires." The governor offered to "protect"
+him if he would live at the Castillo and put his talents to use.
+Ransom did.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 49--A SIEGE BOMBARD OF THE 1500's.]
+
+By 1800, although guns could be served with as few as three men,
+efficient drill usually called for a much larger force. The smallest
+crew listed in the United States Navy manual of 1866 was seven: first
+and second gun captains, two loaders, two spongers, and a "powder
+monkey" (powder boy). An 11-inch pivot-gun on its revolving carriage
+was served by 24 crewmen and a powderman. In the field, transportation
+for a 24-pounder siege gun took 10 horses and 5 drivers.
+
+Twelve rounds an hour was good practice for heavy guns during the
+Civil War period, although the figure could be upped to 20 rounds. By
+this date, of course, although the principles of muzzle loading had
+not changed, actual loading of the gun was greatly simplified by using
+fixed and semi-fixed ammunition. Loading technique varied with the
+gun, but the following summary of drill from the United States _Heavy
+Ordnance Manual_ of 1861 gives a fair idea of how the crew handled a
+siege gun:
+
+In the first place, consider that the equipment is all in its proper
+place. The gun is on a two-wheeled siege carriage, and is "in
+battery," or pushed forward on the platform until the muzzle is in the
+earthwork embrasure. On each side of the gun are three handspikes,
+leaning against the parapet. On the right of the gun a sponge and a
+rammer are laid on a prop, about 6 feet away from the carriage. Near
+the left muzzle of the gun is a stack of cannonballs, wads, and a
+"passbox" or powder bucket. Hanging from the cascabel are two pouches:
+the tube-pouch containing friction "tubes" (primers for the vent) and
+the lanyard; and the gunner's pouch with the gunner's level,
+breech-sight, pick, gimlet, vent-punch, chalk, and fingerstall (a
+leather cover for the gunner's second left finger when the gun gets
+hot). Under the wheels are two chocks; the vent-cover is on the vent,
+a tompion in the muzzle; a broom leans against the parapet beyond the
+stack of cannonballs. A wormer, ladle, and wrench were also part of
+the battery equipment.
+
+The crew consisted of a gunner and six cannoneers. At the command
+_Take implements_ the gunner stepped to the cascabel and handed the
+vent-cover to No. 2; the tube-pouch he gave to No. 3; he put on his
+fingerstall, leveled the gun with the elevating screw, applied his
+level to base ring and muzzle to find the highest points of the
+barrel, and marked these points with chalk for a line of sight. His
+six crewmen took their positions about a yard apart, three men on each
+side of the gun, with handspikes ready.
+
+_From battery_ was the first command of the drill. The gunner stepped
+from behind the gun, while the handspikemen embarred their spikes.
+Cannoneers Nos. 1, 3, and 5 were on the right side of the gun, and the
+even-numbered men were on the left. Nos. 1 and 2 put their spikes
+under the front of the wheels; Nos. 3 and 4 embarred under the
+carriage cheeks to bear down on the rear spokes of the wheel; Nos. 5
+and 6 had their spikes under the maneuvering bolts of the trail for
+guiding the piece away from the parapet. With the gunner's word
+_Heave_, the men at the wheels put on the pressure, and with
+successive _heaves_ the gun was moved backward until the muzzle was
+clear of the embrasure by a yard. The crew then unbarred, and Nos. 1
+and 2 chocked the wheels.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 50--GUN DRILL IN THE 1850's.]
+
+_Load_ was the second command. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 laid down their
+spikes; No. 2 took out the tompion; No. 1 took up the sponge and put
+its wooly head into the muzzle; No. 2 stepped up to the muzzle and
+seized the sponge staff to help No. 1. In five counts they pushed the
+sponge to the bottom of the bore. Meanwhile, No. 4 took the passbox
+and went to the magazine for a cartridge.
+
+The gunner put his finger over the vent, and with his right hand
+turned the elevating screw to adjust the piece conveniently for
+loading. No. 3 picked up the rammer.
+
+At the command _Sponge_, the men at the sponge pressed the tool
+against the bottom of the bore and gave it three turns from right to
+left, then three turns from left to right. Next the sponge was drawn,
+and while No. 1 exchanged it for No. 3's rammer, the No. 2 man took
+the cartridge from No. 4, and put it in the bore. He helped No. 1 push
+it home with the rammer, while No. 4 went for a ball and, if
+necessary, a wad.
+
+_Ram!_ The men on the rammer drew it out an arm's length and rammed
+the cartridge with a single stroke. No. 2 took the ball from No. 4,
+while No. 1 threw out the rammer. With the ball in the bore, both men
+again manned the rammer to force the shot home and delivered a final
+single-stroke ram. No. 1 put the rammer back on its prop. The gunner
+stuck his pick into the vent to prick open the powder bag.
+
+The command _In battery_ was the signal for the cannoneers to man the
+handspikes again, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 working at the wheels and Nos. 5
+and 6 guiding the trail as before. After successive _heaves_, the
+gunner halted the piece with the wheels touching the hurter--the
+timber laid at the foot of the parapet to stop the wheels.
+
+_Point_ was the next order. No. 3, the man with the tube-pouch, got
+out his lanyard and hooked it to a primer. Nos. 5 and 6 put their
+handspikes under the trail, ready to move the gun right or left. The
+gunner went to the breech of the gun, removed his pick from the vent,
+and, sighting down the barrel, directed the spikemen: he would tap the
+right side of the breech, and No. 5 would heave on his handspike to
+inch the trail toward the left. A tap on the left side would move No.
+6 in the opposite direction. Next, the gunner put the breech-sight (if
+he needed it) carefully on the chalk line of the base ring and ran the
+elevating screw to the proper elevation.
+
+As soon as the gun was properly laid, the gunner said _Ready_ and
+signaled with both hands. He took the breech-sight off the gun and
+walked over to windward, where he could watch the effect of the shot.
+Nos. 1 and 2 had the chocks, ready to block the wheels at the end of
+the recoil. No. 3 put the primer in the vent, uncoiled the lanyard and
+broke a full pace to the rear with his left foot. He stretched the
+lanyard, holding it in his right hand.
+
+At _Fire!_ No. 3 gave a smart pull on the lanyard. The gun fired, the
+carriage recoiled, and Nos. 1 and 2 chocked the wheels. No. 3 rewound
+his lanyard, and the gunner, having watched the shot, returned to his
+post.
+
+_The development of heavy ordnance through the ages is a subject with
+many fascinating ramifications, but this survey has of necessity been
+brief._ _It has only been possible to indicate the general pattern.
+Most of the interesting details must await the publication of much
+larger volumes. It is hoped, however, that enough information has been
+included herein to enhance the enjoyment that comes from inspecting
+the great variety of cannon and projectiles that are to be seen
+throughout the National Park System._
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+
+Most technical phrases are explained in the text and illustrations
+(see fig. 51). For convenient reference, however, some important words
+are defined below:
+
+*Ballistics*--the science dealing with the motion of projectiles.
+
+*Barbette carriage*--as used here, a traverse carriage on which a gun
+is mounted to fire over a parapet.
+
+*Bomb, bombshell*--see projectiles.
+
+Breechblock--a movable piece which closes the breech of a cannon.
+
+*Caliber*--diameter of the bore; also used to express bore length. A
+30-caliber gun has a bore length 30 times the diameter of the bore.
+
+*Cartridge*--a bag or case holding a complete powder charge for the
+cannon, and in some instances also containing the projectile.
+
+*Casemate carriage*--as used here, a traverse carriage in a fort
+gunroom (casemate). The gun fired through an embrasure or loophole in
+the wall of the room.
+
+*Chamber*--the part of the bore which holds the propelling charge,
+especially when of different diameter than the rest of the bore; in
+chambered muzzle-loaders, the chamber diameter was smaller than that
+of the bore.
+
+*Elevation*--the angle between the axis of a piece and the horizontal
+plane.
+
+*Fuze*--a device to ignite the charge of a shell or other projectile.
+
+*Grommet*--a rope ring used as a wad to hold a cannonball in place in
+the bore.
+
+*Gun*--any firearm; in the limited sense, a long cannon with high
+muzzle velocity and flat trajectory.
+
+*Howitzer*--a short cannon, intermediate between the gun and mortar.
+
+*Lay*--to aim a gun.
+
+*Limber*--a two-wheeled vehicle to which the gun trail is attached for
+transport.
+
+*Mandrel*--a metal bar, used as a core around which metal may be
+forged or otherwise shaped.
+
+*Mortar*--a very short cannon used for high or curved trajectory
+firing.
+
+*Point-blank*--as used here, the point where the projectile, when
+fired from a level bore, first strikes the horizontal ground in front
+of the cannon.
+
+*Projectiles*--_canister or case shot_: a can filled with small
+missiles that scatter after firing from the gun. _Grape shot_: a
+cluster of small iron balls, which scatter upon firing. _Shell_:
+explosive missile; a hollow cast-iron ball, filled with gunpowder,
+with a fuze to produce detonation; a long, hollow projectile, filled
+with explosive and fitted with a fuze. _Shot_: a solid projectile,
+non-explosive.
+
+*Quoin*--a wedge placed under the breech of a gun to fix its
+elevation.
+
+*Range*--The horizontal distance from a gun to its target or to the
+point where the projectile first strikes the ground. _Effective range_
+is the distance at which effective results may be expected, and is
+usually not the same as _maximum range_, which means the extreme limit
+of range.
+
+*Rotating band*--a band of soft metal, such as copper, which encircles
+the projectile near its base. By engaging the lands of the spiral
+rifling in the bore, the band causes rotation of the projectile.
+Rotating bands for muzzle-loading cannon were expansion rings, and the
+powder blast expanded the ring into the rifling grooves.
+
+*Train*--to aim a gun.
+
+*Trajectory*--curved path taken by a projectile in its flight through
+the air.
+
+*Transom*--horizontal beam between the cheeks of a gun carriage.
+
+*Traverse carriage*--as used here, a stationary gun mount, consisting
+of a gun carriage on a wheeled platform which can be moved about a
+pivot for aiming the gun to right or left.
+
+*Windage*--as used here, the difference between the diameter of the
+shot and the diameter of the bore.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 51--THE PARTS OF A CANNON.]
+
+
+
+
+SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+The following is a listing of the more important sources dealing with
+the development of artillery which have been consulted in the
+production of this booklet. None of the German or Italian sources have
+been included, since practically no German or Italian guns were used
+in this country.
+
+*SPANISH ORDNANCE.* Luis Collado, "Platica Manual de la Artilleria"
+ms., Milan 1592, and Diego Ufano, _Artillerie_, n. p., 1621, have
+detailed information on sixteenth century guns, and Tomas de Morla,
+_Laminas pertenecientes al Tratado de Artilleria_, Madrid, 1803,
+illustrates eighteenth century material. Thor Borresen, "Spanish Guns
+and Carriages, 1686-1800" ms., Yorktown, 1938, summarizes eighteenth
+century changes in Spanish and French artillery. Information on
+colonial use of cannon can be found in mss. of the Archivo General de
+Indias as follows: Inventories of Castillo de San Marcos armament in
+1683 (58-2-2,32/2), 1706 (58-1-27,89/2), 1740 (58-1-32), 1763
+(86-7-11,19), Zuniga's report on the 1702 siege of St. Augustine
+(58-2-8,B3), and Arredondo's "Plan de la Ciudad de Sn. Agustin de la
+Florida" (87-1-1/2, ms. map); and other works, including [Andres
+Gonzales de Barcia,] _Ensayo Cronologico para la Historia General de
+la Florida_, Madrid, 1723; J. T. Connor, editor, _Colonial Records of
+Spanish Florida_, Deland, 1930, Vol. II., Manuel de Montiano, _Letters
+of Montiano_ (Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, v. VII,
+pt. I), Savannah 1909; Albert Manucy, "Ordnance used at Castillo de
+San Marcos, 1672-1834," St. Augustine, 1939.
+
+*ENGLISH ORDNANCE.* For detailed information John Mueller, _Treatise of
+Artillery_, London, 1756, has been the basic source for eighteenth
+century material. William Bourne, _The Arte of Shooting in Great
+Ordnance_, London, 1587, discusses sixteenth century artillery; and
+the anonymous _New Method of Fortification_, London, 1748, contains
+much seventeenth century information. For colonial artillery data
+there is John Smith, _The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-Englande,
+and the Summer Isles_, Richmond, 1819; [Edward Kimber] _Late
+Expedition to the Gates of St. Augustine_, Boston, 1935; and C. L.
+Mowat, _East Florida as a British Province_, 1763-1784, Los Angeles,
+1939. Charles J. Foulkes, _The Gun-Founders of England_, Cambridge,
+1937, discusses the construction of early cannon in England.
+
+*FRENCH ORDNANCE.* M. Surirey de Saint-Remy, _Memoires d'Artillerie_,
+3rd edition Paris, 1745, is the standard source for French artillery
+material in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Col. Fave,
+_Etudes sur le Passe et l'Avenir de L'Artillerie_, Paris, 1863, is a
+good general history. Louis Figurier, _Armes de Guerre_, Paris, 1870,
+is also useful.
+
+*UNITED STATES ORDNANCE.* Of first importance is Louis de Tousard,
+_American Artillerist's Companion_, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1809-13.
+For performance and use of artillery during the 1860's the following
+sources are useful: John Gibbon, _The Artillerist's Manual_, New York,
+1863; Q. A. Gillmore, _Engineer and Artillery Operations against the
+Defences of Charleston Harbor in 1863_, New York, 1865; his _Official
+Report ... of the Siege and Reduction of Fort Pulaski, Georgia_, New
+York, 1862; and the _Official Records of Union and Confederate Armies
+and Navies_. Ordnance manuals of the period include: _Instruction for
+Heavy Artillery_, U. S., Charleston, 1861; _Ordnance Instructions for
+the United States Navy_, Washington, 1866; J. Gorgas, _The Ordnance
+Manual for the Use of the Officers of the Confederate States Army_,
+Richmond, 1863. For United States developments after 1860: L. L.
+Bruff, _A Text-book of Ordnance and Gunnery_, New York, 1903; F. T.
+Hines and F. W. Ward, _The Service of Coast Artillery_, New York,
+1910; the U. S. Field Artillery School's _Construction of Field
+Artillery Materiel_ and _General Characteristics of Field Artillery
+Ammunition_, Fort Sill, 1941.
+
+*GENERAL.* For the history of artillery, as well as additional
+biographical and technical details, there is the Field Artillery
+School's excellent booklet, _History of the Development of Field
+Artillery Materiel_, Fort Sill, 1941. Henry W. L. Hime, _The Origin of
+Artillery_, New York, 1915, is most useful, as is that standard work,
+the _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 1894 edition: Arms and Armour,
+Artillery, Gunmaking, Gunnery, Gunpowder; 1938 edition: Artillery,
+Coehoorn, Engines of War, Fireworks, Gribeauval, Gun, Gunnery,
+Gunpowder, Musket, Ordnance, Rocket, Small arms, and Tartaglia.
+
+
+
+
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